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215473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Shenandoah | USS Shenandoah | Four United States Navy ships, including one rigid airship, and one ship of the Confederate States of America, have been named Shenandoah, after the Shenandoah River of western Virginia and West Virginia.
, a screw sloop commissioned in 1863, active in the American Civil War and in use until 1886
, the first rigid airship built by the Navy, christened 1923; destroyed in a storm in 1925
, a destroyer tender in service from 1945 to 1980
, a destroyer tender, commissioned 1983 and decommissioned 1996
USNS Shenandoah (T-AO-181), an oiler laid down in 1964, renamed prior to completion
See also
CSS Shenandoah, a screw steamer
, tugboats
United States Navy ship names
United States Navy West Virginia-related ships | [
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|
215478 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singulative%20number | Singulative number | In linguistics, singulative number and collective number (abbreviated and ) are terms used when the grammatical number for multiple items is the unmarked form of a noun, and the noun is specially marked to indicate a single item.
This is the opposite of the more common singular–plural pattern, where a noun is unmarked when
it represents one item, and is marked to represent more than one item.
In some cases, a further distinction is made between the collective and what is known in some terminologies as the plurative, the former referencing multiple items as a class, the latter referencing them as individual units.
Greenberg's linguistic universal #35 states that no language is purely singulative-collective in the sense that plural is always the null morpheme and singular is not.
Examples
Welsh
Welsh has two systems of grammatical number, singular–plural and collective–singulative. Since the loss of the noun inflection system of earlier Celtic, plurals have become unpredictable and can be formed in several ways: by adding a suffix to the end of the word (most commonly ), as in "father" and "fathers", through vowel mutation, as in "boy" and "boys", or through a combination of the two, as in "sister" and "sisters". Other nouns take the singulative suffixes (for masculine nouns) or (for feminine nouns). Most nouns which inflect according to this system designate objects that are frequently found in groups, for example "birds/flock of birds", "bird"; "a bed of strawberries", "a strawberry"; "children", "a child"; and "forest", "a tree". Still other nouns use suffixes for both singular and plural forms (e.g. "a pony", "ponies", the unsuffixed * does not exist); these are similar to nouns formed from other categories of words (e.g. "charity" gives rise to "a beggar" and "beggars").
Other languages
Singulatives are featured in some Semitic and Slavic languages.
In Arabic grammar, the singulative is called , "noun of unity". It is formed by the suffixes -a(t) and -ī. The former applies to animals, plants, and inanimate objects, e.g. qamḥ "wheat", qamḥa(t) "a grain of wheat"; shajar 'trees', shajara(t) 'a tree'; baqar 'cattle'; baqara(t) 'a cow'. The latter suffix applies to sentient beings, e.g. jinn (collective), jinnī (singulative); zinj 'black African people', zinjī 'a black African person'. In some cases, the singulative has a further plural indicating a collection of the singular units, which may be broken (e.g. e.g., jund 'army', jundī 'a soldier', junūd 'soldiers') or regular (e.g. `askar 'army, military', `askarī 'a soldier, private, or enlisted man', `askarīyūn 'soldiers, privates, enlisted men').
In East Slavic languages, which are basically of singular–plural system, the singular suffix -ин- ('-in-', Russian, '-yn-', Ukrainian), resp. '-ін-' ('-in-', Belarusian) performs the singulative function for collective nouns. Russian: gorokh (peas in mass) vs. goroshina (a single pea). Ukrainian: /pisok (sand) vs. /pischyna (grain of sand). Belarusian: (potatoes in mass, e.g. as a crop or as a species) vs. (one potato tuber). Notice the affix '-a' in all these examples, which indicates the feminine form. Notice also that plural forms may be derived from these singulatives in a regular way: goroshina->goroshiny (several peas), etc.
In both East Slavic and Arabic, the singulative form always takes on the feminine gender.
Singulative markers are found throughout the Nilo-Saharan languages. Majang, for example, has collective ŋɛɛti 'lice', singulative ŋɛɛti-n 'louse'. (Bender 1983:124).
In Dutch, singulative forms of collective nouns are occasionally made by diminutives: snoep "sweets, candy" → snoepje "sweet, piece of candy". These singulatives can be pluralized like most other nouns: snoepjes "several sweets, pieces of candy".
Comparison with mass nouns
A collective form such as the Welsh , "pigs", is more basic than the singular form , "a pig". It is generally the collective form which is used as an adjectival modifier, e.g. ("pig meat", "pork"). The collective form is therefore similar in many respects to an English mass noun such as "rice", which in fact refers to a collection of items which are logically countable. However, English has no productive process of forming singulative nouns (just phrases such as "a grain of rice"). Therefore, English cannot be said to have singulative number.
Plurative
In some cases, in addition to the collective and singulative forms, a third form, called the "plurative" in the terminology of some scholars, is distinguished from the collective. The collective form, in these cases, denotes multiple items as a class while the plurative denotes them as individuals. Compare, for example, "people" in "People are funny" with "people" in "the people in this room", though in English the same plural form is used for both purposes.
Example: In Arabic, for samak, "fish":
samak, collective form, fish in general
samak-at, singulative, a single fish
ʔasmaak, plurative, as in "many fish" or "three fish"
See also
Grammatical number
Plural
References
Bibliography
Bender, M. Lionel. 1983. "Majang phonology and morphology". In Nilo-Saharan Language Studies, 114–147. East Lansing: Michigan State University.
Corbett, Greville G. 2000. Number. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
Tiersma, Peter Meijes. 1982. "Local and General Markedness." Language 58.4: 832-849
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|
215481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdul-Muhsin%20Al-Saadoun | Abdul-Muhsin Al-Saadoun | ʻAbd al-Muḥsin Saʻdūn or Abd al-Muhsin Al-Saadoon, KCMG () (1879 – November 13, 1929) was an Iraqi politician who served as the prime minister of Iraq on four occasions between 1922 and 1929.
Origins Prior to the Monarchy
Abd al-Muhsin as-Sa'dun hailed from a family descended from the most powerful tribe within the Muntafiq Confederation (the Sa'duns). In the mid-nineteenth century the Ottoman fostered rivalries between the dominant Sa'dun chiefs by offering enticing land deals to the highest bidders among them, pursuant to a policy of tribal weakening and division. In 1871 Midhat Pasha finally rent the family in two between "Ottomanizers" and their opponents by offering some chiefs permanent ownership of once communal tribal lands (previously they could only exact tribute from cultivators therein). The chiefs then grew very wealthy by converting the rest of the tribe into mere tenants for their exploitation.
Great Britain took Iraq from the Ottomans following World War I, and pursued a policy whereby they lavished political and economic favors on tribal leaders in order to encourage them to exert their influence in ways conducive to British economic designs in the country. as-Sa'dun was one of many to consistently obtain seats in Parliament in exchange for this service. Notably, however, while many tribal leaders at the time were provincial in outlook, as-Sa'dun was distinguished both on account of being a sayyid (is a descent from the Prophet Muhammad), and, having broadened his horizons at the Military Academy in Istanbul. As-Sa'dun served as a military officer during Ottoman control of the country, as an aide-de-camp to Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II, and as a ten-year member of the Ottoman Parliament. Afterward he returned to Iraq and embarked on a career in politics as a formidable politician.
Time in Parliament
as-Sa'dun was a shrewd politician with many tribal and British connections (as evinced by his control of the Parliament alliance the Progressives). This made him one of Faisal I of Iraq's bitterest rivals, as he frequently acted as an instrument of British supremacy over the Iraqi interests Faisal was trying to pursue. As premier in 1923 he cracked down on a movement calling for a boycott of elections for the Constituent Assembly. He was president of the Constituent Assembly in 1924. Then in 1926 he assured the smooth passage of the Second Ango-Iraqi Treaty despite its inclusion of an unequal twenty-five year Financial and Military Agreement between Iraq and Britain.
He was elected as the president of the Chamber of Deputies from 1926 to 1928 and in 1929.
During this, his third term as prime minister, As-Sa'dun also negotiated the Turkey-Iraqi Treaty in which Iraq promised to pay Turkey 10 percent of its revenues from the Mosul oil fields in return for Turkish recognition of Iraqi control of the area. In this way he contributed immensely to Iraq's diplomatic efforts. Nonetheless, by December 1928 popular protest over British domination of Iraq had become so fervid (or, perhaps, as-Sa'dun himself had taken such issue with Britain's refusal to grant Iraq control of its armed forces) that he began to support Faisal I in demanding more autonomy. He resigned in protest in January 1929.
Death
During his fourth term in office, Al-Sa'dun died. He died of a self-inflicted wound from a gunshot on November 13, 1929—a consequence of the opprobrium he had elicited from both the Iraqi population and, subsequently, the British and international community for his "disloyalty." He left behind a suicide note to his son stating "I have suffered with forbearance all possible insults and contempt."
References
1879 births
1929 deaths
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq
Finance ministers of Iraq
Place of birth unknown
Place of death missing
Heads of state who committed suicide
Suicides by firearm in Iraq | [
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215485 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiawatha | Hiawatha | Hiawatha ( , also : ), also known as Ayenwathaaa or Aiionwatha, was a precolonial Native American leader and co-founder of the Iroquois Confederacy. He was a leader of the Onondaga people, the Mohawk people, or both. According to some accounts, he was born an Onondaga but adopted into the Mohawks.
Although Hiawatha was a real man, he was mostly known for his legend. In the stories of Hiawatha, we learn that he was born in the Onondaga tribe. His mother was an Onondagan and loved her son. She believed he would be a strong and great hunter. Hiawatha soon became a husband, and became a father to many daughters. His wife and daughters were killed by an opposing enemy (Tadodaho) leaving Hiawatha grief-stricken. Hiawatha is noted for his speaking skills and message of peace. He was a follower of the Great Peacemaker (Dekanawidah), a Huron prophet and spiritual leader who proposed the unification of the Iroquois peoples, who shared common ancestry and similar languages, but he suffered from a severe speech impediment which hindered him from spreading his proposal. Hiawatha was a skilled orator, and he was instrumental in persuading the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas, Oneidas, and Mohawks to accept the Great Peacemaker's vision and band together to become the Five Nations of the Iroquois confederacy. The Tuscarora people joined the Confederacy in 1722 to become the Sixth Nation. Little else is known of Hiawatha. The reason and time of his death is unknown. However his legacy is still passed on from generation to generation through oral stories, songs, and books.
The 1855 epic poem The Song of Hiawatha by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow tells the story of a hero of the same name but has little to do with the historical Hiawatha.
The Iroquois Confederacy
Within the Iroquois Confederacy, which originally included five tribes (Mohawk, Onondaga, Oneida, Cayugaa, and Seneca), Hiawatha was a leader from the Mohawk tribe. There he was well-known, and highly thought of by all of the tribes. He was a great speaker, and would eventually become the representative for the Great Peacemaker. The Great Peacemaker was a man who hoped to spread peace throughout all of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Territory. Due to the fact that he had a severe speech impediment, the Great Peacemaker needed a spokesperson. Hiawatha was willing to speak on behalf of Dekanawidah because violence had been developing throughout the Iroquois Territory. During these times of chaos, a leader named Tadodaho, who had despised the idea of peace, targeted and killed Hiawatha's wife and daughters. Thereafter, Hiawatha became the Peacemaker's speaker, so he could stop the violence. Dewanawisah and Hiawatha eventually obtained peace throughout the Iroqouis by promising Tadodaho that Onondaga would become the capital of the Grand Council. The Grand Council was the main governing body of the Iroquois. Hiawatha and Dekanawidah created the Great Law of Peace in Wampum belts, to solidify the bond between the original five nations of the Iroquois.
Wampum belt
Hiawatha belts are a type of Wampum belt that symbolize peace between the five tribes of the Iroquois. They depict the tribes in a certain order. The five tribes are in an order from left to right. The Seneca are furthest to the left, representing them being the Keepers of the Western Door. Next is the Cayuga Tribe, and in the center of the belt, depicted with a different symbol, is the Onondaga Tribe, also known as the Keepers of the Central Fire. Next is the Oneida Tribe. Finally, shown farthest to the right is the Mohawk Tribe, depicted as the Keepers of the Eastern Door. The white line connecting all of the symbols for each tribe together represents the unity of the Iroquois. It also represents the gathering from the Great Law of Peace and the Iroquois Confederacy as a whole.
The wampum belt consists of black or purple-like and white beads that are made up of shells. Found in the Northeast of America, there are quahog clam shells that are often time used for the black and sometimes the white beads of these belts. Most often the Iroquois used various types of whelk spiral shells for the white beads.
These were very important in the story of Hiawatha. Hiawatha was very full of grief because his daughters were murdered in the fight. The Great Peacemaker gifted Hiawatha with the whelk shells and told him to put them on his eyes and ears and throat. These shells were a sign of healing and purity. Hiawatha used these shells to create unity. The Wampum beads are the most significant part of the story of Hiawatha. The Iroquois Nation believes that the Peacemaker was the one who gifted them the first wampum belt, which later was titled the Hiawatha belt.
The Song of Hiawatha
Written by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, the 1855 epic poem The Song of Hiawatha tells of the adventures of Hiawatha and his heroic deeds. This poem however has little to do with the actual Hiawatha. Henry Longfellow most likely took the name of Hiawatha and nothing more. This poem talks about a legendary heroic Iroquois man starting from his birth and ending on his ascension to the clouds. It talks of many battles, losses, and moral lessons. Henry Longfellow along with another writer Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, hoped to combine stories of Native Americans and create a sense of pride and remembrance for the Native Americans during the 1820s and later.
In the legend of the real Hiawatha, the five tribes had been fighting for years until he united all except one tribe, the Onondaga tribe. This tribe was ruled by the man who had killed his family, Tadodaho. Tadodaho was full of hate and violence. Jigonhsasee was a member of the Iroquois and was also believed to be the first clan mother. She helped the two men in their pursuit for peace in all tribes. Due to her influence, Tadodaho was transformed and gave up war for peace. The legend ends with Tadodaho becoming the leader of the Iroqouis Confederacy.
Hiawatha's people
The Iroquois, also known as the Haudenosaunee, had conflict within their communities. Different tribes waged wars on each other, and many people died. Once the Great Peacemaker showed up, he promised "transcommunality." This basically meant that he promised peace and compromise between all people, regardless of character. He addressed his intentions at the communal longhouse, to show people what he was all about for the community. The Iroquois people were for peace, and they eventually overrode their quarrels to strive for, and obtain, peace.
The Iroquois were organized as clans, each led by a clan member. The clans extend through and follow mothers' descent, so children are sorted into clans through their mothers' heritage and backgrounds. These clans are named after animals. Before the separation due to European colonization, these clans, including all members of the family—aunts, uncles, cousins, and grandparents—all lived under a single roof in a longhouse. Even couples who married had the husband move into the wife's family's longhouse.
Hiawatha also partook of games in that all the other members of his tribes played. The main sports they played were the original version of lacrosse, and the lesser known snowsnake. Snowsnake involved throwing spear-headed sticks (snowsnakes) along a track of packed snow. The team who could throw the spears the farthest would be the winners.
The Haudenosaunee were also very in tune with nature. Their calendars were based on the lunar cycle, and throughout the year, they balanced their diets so they would be in the best condition to meet the demands of each season. They wasted nothing from the animals they hunted. The Iroquois had three main crops on which they survived: corn, beans, and squash. The Three Sisters (as they referred to these crops) contained all the nutrients required in their diets.
The politics within the Iroquois community and leadership were not overly complicated. The main law or constitution of the tribe was the Great Law of Peace, which maintained understanding and peace in the community for a long time.
Legacy
Hiawatha, an 1872-1874 sculpture by Augustus Saint-Gaudens.
Hiawatha Council, former name of the Longhouse Council, BSA in Onondaga County (succeeded by Hiawatha-Seaway Council after merger with Seaway Valley Council)
Hiawatha Boulevard is a street in Syracuse, New York, in Onondaga County.
Hiawatha Road is a street in Toronto, Ontario.
Hiawatha Lake, in Onondaga Park in Syracuse, New York
The Song of Hiawatha, Op. 30, is a trilogy of cantatas written by Samuel Coleridge-Taylor between 1898 and 1900, based on Longfellow's poem. The first part, "Hiawatha's Wedding Feast", was particularly famous for many years and made the composer's name known throughout the world.
The town of Lake Hiawatha, New Jersey, its lake, its fire department, and several of its parks are named to honor the chief.
"Hiawatha's Lullaby" is a 1933 song by vocalist Al Bowlly and bandleader Ray Noble, recorded in London. Its lyrics reference a body of water. However, there are multiple lakes named for Hiawatha, so the specific geographical reference is unknown.
The 1937 Disney cartoon Little Hiawatha was loosely inspired by the 1855 Longfellow poem and tells the simple story of a kindergarten-age Hiawatha first hunting, then befriending animals. Numerous later Disney comics were spun off from this film; into the 2010s, hundreds of stories were based around this fictionalized child-Hiawatha and his village.
In the 1941 Merrie Melodies cartoon Hiawatha's Rabbit Hunt, Bugs Bunny recites The Song of Hiawatha as he encounters a cartoon version of Hiawatha.
In 1950, plans for a film about the historical Hiawatha by Monogram Pictures were scrapped. The reason given was that Hiawatha's peacemaker role could be seen as communist propaganda.
A film was released in 1997 based on the 1855 Longfellow poem. It was a joint production between the U.S. and Canada, filmed in Ontario, Canada.
The Hiawatha bike trail in northern Idaho and Montana is over a former railroad right-of-way on old bridges and through old tunnels.
A tall, fiberglass statue of Hiawatha was built in 1964 and stands in Ironwood, Michigan. It is billed as the "World's Tallest and Largest Indian".
Hiawatha National Forest is a national forest in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
Amtrak, a railroad serving the continental United States and parts of Canada, has a train called "Hiawatha Service," which runs several times daily between Chicago, Illinois and Milwaukee, Wisconsin. It was named for a series of trains formerly operated by the Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad.
The Metro Blue Line in Hennepin County, Minnesota was formerly known as the Hiawatha Line. The line runs largely along its namesake Hiawatha Avenue in Minneapolis.
Laurie Anderson used parts of the poem's third section at the beginning and end of the final piece of her Strange Angels album from 1989.
The Island of Hiawatha is the former name of the Toronto Islands.
Hiawatha is a town in northeast Kansas. It is the county seat of Brown county.
Hiawatha is a town in Iowa adjacent to Cedar Rapids.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Essex Jct. VT.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Minneapolis MN.
Hiawatha Elementary School in Okemos, MI.
Hiawatha Park, Chicago Park District park, northwest City of Chicago
Hiawatha Beach neighborhood was established in 1926. These homes surround Buck Lake and line the Huron River in Hamburg Township, MI.
The species name of the chasmataspidid Hoplitaspis hiawathai honors Hiawatha.
The USS Hiawatha is the name of several ships of the United States Navy.
See also
List of peace activists
References
Further reading
Bonvillain, Nancy (2005). Hiawatha: founder of the Iroquois Confederacy.
Hale, Horatio (1881). Hiawatha and the Iroquois confederation: a study in anthropology.
Hatzan, A. Leon (1925). The true story of Hiawatha, and history of the Six Nations Indians.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (1856). The Myth of Hiawatha, and Other Oral Legends, Mythologic and Allegoric, of the North American Indians.
Laing, Mary E. (1920). The hero of the longhouse.
Saraydarian, Torkom and Joann L Alesch (1984). Hiawatha and the great peace.
Siles, William H. (1986). Studies in local history: tall tales, folklore and legend of upstate New York.
Juvenile audience
Bonvillain, Nancy (1992). Hiawatha: founder of the Iroquois Confederacy.
Fradin, Dennis B. (1992). Hiawatha: messenger of peace.
McClard, Megan, George Ypsilantis and Frank Riccio (1989). Hiawatha and the Iroquois league.
Malkus, Alida (1963). There really was a Hiawatha.
St. John, Natalie and Mildred Mellor Bateson (1928). Romans of the West: untold but true story of Hiawatha.
Taylor, C. J. (2004). Peace walker: the legend of Hiawatha and Tekanawita.
External links
Historica's Heritage Minute Peacemaker, a mini-docudrama about the co founders of the Iroquois Confederacy.
Chapter V, The Iroquois Confederacy
History of the Mohawk Valley: Dekanawida and Hiawatha, Schenectady Digital History Archive
Google Books overview of Ancient Society
The Great Peacemaker Deganawidah and his follower Hiawatha, theater play by Living Wisdom School
Iroquois mythology
Iroquois people
Legendary American people
Native American leaders
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
1525 births
1595 deaths | [
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|
215488 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre%20P%C3%A9tion | Alexandre Pétion | Alexandre Sabès Pétion (; April 2, 1770 – March 29, 1818) was the first president of the Republic of Haiti from 1807 until his death in 1818. He is acknowledged as one of Haiti's founding fathers; a member of the revolutionary quartet that also includes Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and his later rival Henri Christophe. Regarded as an excellent artilleryman in his early adulthood, Pétion would distinguish himself as an esteemed military commander with experience leading both French and Haitian troops. The 1802 coalition formed by him and Dessalines against French forces led by Charles Leclerc would prove to be a watershed moment in the decade-long conflict, eventually culminating in the decisive Haitian victory at the Battle of Vertières in 1803.
Early life
Pétion was born "Anne Alexandre Sabès" in Port-au-Prince to Pascal Sabès, a wealthy French father and Ursula, a free mulatto woman, which made him a quadroon (a quarter African ancestry). Like other gens de couleur libres (free people of color) with wealthy fathers, Pétion was sent to France in 1788 to be educated and study at the Military Academy in Paris.
In Saint-Domingue, as in other French colonies such as Louisiane, the free people of color constituted a third caste between the whites and enslaved Africans. While restricted in political rights, many received social capital from their fathers and became educated and wealthy landowners, resented by the petits blancs, who were mostly minor tradesmen. Following the French Revolution of 1789, the gens de couleur led a rebellion to gain the voting and political rights which they believed were due them as French citizens; this was before the slave uprising of 1791. At that time, most free people of color did not support freedom or political rights for enslaved Africans.
Years of Haitian Revolution
Pétion returned to Saint-Domingue as a young man to take part in the Haitian Revolution, participating in skirmishes with the British force in Northern Haiti. Henry Dundas, 1st Viscount Melville, who was the Secretary of State for War to prime minister William Pitt the Younger, instructed Sir Adam Williamson, the lieutenant-governor of Jamaica, to sign an agreement with representatives of the French colonists that promised to restore the ancien regime, slavery and discrimination against mixed-race colonists, a move that drew criticism from abolitionists William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson.
There had long been racial and class tensions between the gens de couleur and enslaved and free Blacks in Saint-Domingue, where the enslaved Black population outnumbered the white and gens de couleur by ten to one. During the years of warfare against French planters (commonly referred to as grand blancs), racial tensions in Saint-Domingue were exacerbated in competition for power and political alliances.
When tensions arose between full Blacks and mulattoes, Pétion frequently supported the mulatto faction. He allied with General André Rigaud and Jean-Pierre Boyer against Toussaint L'Ouverture in a failed rebellion, the so-called "War of Knives", in the South of Saint-Domingue, which began in June 1799. By November the rebels were pushed back to the strategic southern port of Jacmel; the defence was commanded by Pétion. The town fell in March 1800 and the rebellion was effectively over. Pétion and other mulatto leaders went into exile in France.
In February 1802, General Charles Leclerc arrived with tens of warships and 82,000 French troops to bring Saint-Domingue under more control. Gens de couleur Petion, Boyer, and Rigaud returned with him in the hope of securing power in the colony.
Following the French deportation of Toussaint Louverture and the renewed struggle, Pétion joined the nationalist force in October 1802. This followed a secret conference at Arcahaie, where Pétion supported Jean-Jacques Dessalines, the general who had captured Jacmel. The rebels took the capital of Port-au-Prince on October 17, 1803. Dessalines proclaimed independence on January 1, 1804, naming the nation Haiti. On October 6, 1804, Dessalines declared himself ruler for life and was crowned Emperor of Haiti as Jacques I.
Post-revolution
Disaffected members of Emperor Dessalines's administration, including Pétion and Henri Christophe, began a conspiracy to overthrow Dessalines. Following the assassination of Dessalines on October 17, 1806, Pétion championed the ideals of democracy and clashed with Henri Christophe who wanted absolute rule. Christophe was elected president, but he did not believe the position had sufficient power, as Pétion kept powers for himself. Christophe went to the north with his followers and established an autocracy, declaring the State of Haiti. The loyalties of the country divided between them, and the tensions between the blacks and mulattoes of the North and South, respectively, were reignited.
Pétion was elected President in 1807 of the southern Republic of Haiti. After the inconclusive struggle dragged on until 1810, a peace treaty was agreed to, and the country was split in two. In 1811 Christophe made himself king of the northern Kingdom of Haiti.
On June 2, 1816 Pétion modified the terms of the presidency in the constitution, making himself President for Life. Initially a supporter of democracy, Pétion found the constraints imposed on him by the senate onerous and suspended the legislature in 1818.
Pétion seized commercial plantations from the rich gentry. He had the land redistributed to his supporters and the peasantry, earning him the nickname Papa Bon-Cœur ("good-hearted father"). The land seizures and changes in agriculture reduced the production of commodities for the export economy. Most of the population became full subsistence farmers, and exports and state revenue declined sharply, making survival difficult for the new state.
Believing in the importance of education, Pétion started the Lycée Pétion in Port-au-Prince. Petion's virtues and ideals of freedom and democracy for the world (and especially slaves) were strong, and he often showed support for the oppressed. He gave sanctuary to the independence leader Simón Bolívar in 1815 and provided him with material and infantry support. This vital aid played a defining role in Bolivar's success in liberating the countries of what would make up Gran Colombia. Petion was reported to be influenced by his (and his successor's) lover, Marie-Madeleine Lachenais, who acted as his political adviser.
Pétion named the general Boyer as his successor; he took control in 1818 following the death of Pétion from yellow fever. After Henry I of the Kingdom of Haiti and his son died in 1820, Boyer reunited the nation under his rule.
References
External links
Works by Pétion in the Internet Archive
1770 births
1818 deaths
Deaths from yellow fever
Infectious disease deaths in Haiti
Haitian people of French descent
Haitian people of Mulatto descent
Haitian revolutionaries
Haitian Roman Catholics
Haitian generals
Haitian independence activists
People of Saint-Domingue
Presidents of Haiti
Presidents for life
People from Port-au-Prince
19th-century Haitian politicians | [
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|
215490 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Law%20%28cartoonist%29 | David Law (cartoonist) | David "Davey" Law (1908 – April 1971) was a Scottish cartoonist best known for creating Dennis the Menace and Beryl the Peril for Dundee publishers D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd .
Life
Law was born and raised in Edinburgh and educated at Edinburgh College of Art. He first worked for Odhams Press as an illustrator, before moving to D. C. Thomson in the early 1930s. He drew cartoons for Thomsons newspapers like the Evening Telegraph, including a strip called The Wee Fella.
His most famous creation, Dennis the Menace, first appeared in The Beano issue 452, dated 17 March 1951. Due to British comics being printed several days before distribution to newsagents (bearing the date of the following week to give them a longer shelf life), it seems beyond dispute that the UK Dennis saw print before Hank Ketcham's identically named Dennis the Menace, which began syndication in the USA on 12 March 1951. It is possible that - at the very latest - the British version could have made his public debut on the same day as his Stateside counterpart, although it seems likely that he preceded him even in that. However, it is still unknown which character was actually created first. Law's Dennis was a juvenile anti-hero, uncontrollable and destructive, drawn in spontaneous, edgy lines, and was an immediate hit; the strip eventually displaced Biffo the Bear on the comic's full colour front cover in 1974. Law went on to create Beryl the Peril, a similarly anarchic female character, for the Topper in 1953, and the accident-prone soldier Corporal Clott for The Dandy in 1960.
He was taken ill in 1970, and his strips were taken over by other artists, including David Sutherland on Dennis the Menace and John Dallas on Beryl the Peril. Law returned briefly to The Beano in 1971, but died in April that year, aged 63.
References
David Law at Paul Morris' Beano website
Comic creator: David Law at Lambiek Comiclopedia
Don Markstein's Toonopedia: Dennis the Menace
External links
A Dennis the Menace strip drawn by David Law at BBC.co.uk
Lambiek Comiclopedia article.
1908 births
1971 deaths
Alumni of the Edinburgh College of Art
Artists from Edinburgh
The Beano people
British comic strip cartoonists
British illustrators
The Dandy people
People associated with Dundee
Scottish cartoonists
Scottish comics artists
Scottish illustrators
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher | [
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|
215492 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peashooter | Peashooter | Peashooter or pea shooter may refer to:
Peashooter (toy), consisting of a tube through which peas or other small objects are blown
Boeing P-26 Peashooter, an American fighter aircraft
Peashooter, a plant from the video game Plants vs. Zombies
See also
Pea (disambiguation)
Shooter (disambiguation) | [
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|
215493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasher%20%28comics%29 | Rasher (comics) | Rasher is a British comic strip published in the comics magazine The Beano, featuring Dennis the Menace's pet pig Rasher. It was initially drawn by David Sutherland and published five years after the character's first appearance. Due to The Beano 2012 continuity, Rasher's daughter (also named Rasher) has succeeded the role, particularly in Dennis And Gnasher: Unleashed!.
Character background
Rasher is a pig obsessed with food, either seen eating it (usually by stealing the food from an unsuspecting human) or daydreaming about it. A method of attack to get the food is by either butting humans or racing past them quick enough so they fail to notice their food has disappeared.
Publication history
Introduction to The Beano
Rasher made his first appearance in The Beano in issue 1920 in Dennis the Menace and Gnasher. Dennis and Gnasher walk by a farm and notice the farmer's pig used its trough to prank him. Dennis is intrigued and successfully takes the pig off the relieved farmer's hands, naming it Rasher.
Rasher comic strip
Rasher received his eponymous comic strip in issue 2201, illustrated by Dave Sutherland. It is notable of being the last comic strip published with Harold Cramond as Beano chief-editor. Early stories also featured Rasher's family, such his brother Hamlet, his sister Virginia Ham, Uncle Crackling and Little Piglet, who were all introduced in the first episode. The series ran for over a decade in over 500 issues, and ended in 1995.
From issue 3480, older Rasher strips were reprinted in full colour in The Beano. Lew Stringer helmed the reboot from issue 3660, which was a part of the Funsize Funnies section. This new series has appeared infrequently throughout the 2010s.
Subsequent appearances
Rasher has appeared in Dennis' comic strips sporadically, unlike Dennis' other pet, Gnasher, who stars in every issue (apart from a few issues in 1986). Rasher is absent in the Dennis the Menace cartoon adaptations, notably not appearing in 2009's Dennis and Gnasher, despite the cartoon featuring Dennis' grandmother having a pet pig named Harley. Eventually, Rasher returned in Beano 3601, featuring in Dennis and Gnasher alongside Harley.
Issue 3649 shifted Beano continuity as Gok Wan gave Dennis' parents a makeover, which was later revealed that Dennis' father turned into the original Dennis who had grown up, married and had his own children. Stringer's Rasher reboot implies this change does not affect Rasher, but in the franchise retooling for Dennis and Gnasher: Unleashed!, the Rasher who appears in the cartoon is black and white like a cow, and revealed as the daughter of the Rasher the original Dennis owned. Unlike her father, she prefers eating turnips.
As of September 2021, Rasher's last appearance in The Beano was in issue 4048.
In Beano media
Rasher appears in other parts of Beano franchise. In The Beano Annuals, Rasher's stories have appeared from 1986 to 1989's editions, but Rasher actually appeared a few annuals earlier in Rasher-themed puzzle games in 1984's and 1985's. The Rasher series mostly appeared in 1983's, 1985's and 1987's Beano Summer Specials.
The new Rasher appeared in the 2014 annual, where she was drawn by David Sutherland.
References
Notes
Citations
External links
of Rasher's first appearance on the Beano website
from Dennis & Gnasher: Unleashed! fact file on Beano.com
Beano strips
Comics characters introduced in 1979
1984 comics debuts
1988 comics endings
Comics spin-offs
Gag-a-day comics
Comics about animals
Comics about pigs
British comics characters
Fictional pigs
Male characters in comics
Dennis the Menace and Gnasher | [
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|
215504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RCP | RCP | RCP may refer to:
Architecture
Reinforced concrete pipe
Reflected ceiling plan
Computer technology
RCP (chip), a co-processor chip designed by Silicon Graphics for use in the Nintendo 64 gaming system
rcp (Unix), a command on the Unix operating systems that is used to remote copy a file
Rapid control prototyping, a process that lets engineers quickly test and iterate their control strategies
Restore Cursor Position (ANSI), an ANSI X3.64 escape sequence
Rich Client Platform, a software development platform helping software developers to rapidly build new applications
Remote Control Protocol, a protocol that allows CEC enabled TVs to control MHL compatible devices
Medicine
Respiratory Care Practitioner
Retrograde cholangiopancreatography
Royal College of Physicians, located in London, Edinburgh, and Ireland
Organizations
Radio Club Paraguayo, an amateur radio organization in Paraguay
Radio Club Peruano, an amateur radio organization in Peru
Radio Corporation of the Philippines, the oldest radio network in the Philippines
Rochester Community Players, a theatrical company in Rochester, NY
Businesses
RCP Design Global, a French design agency
RIT Capital Partners, a large UK investment trust
Political groups
Revolutionary Communist Party (disambiguation), the name of several revolutionary communist parties worldwide
Romanian Communist Party
Russian Communist Party, the second of four names used at different times by the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Science
Reactor Coolant Pumps in International Reactor Innovative and Secure nuclear reactors
Representative Concentration Pathways, scenarios of greenhouse gas trajectories
Right circular polarization, in radio communications/radio astronomy
Rapid crack propagation, in testing of plastic pipes
Radiochemical purity, % radiodetected peak area of the intact radiolabeled peptide vs all radio peaks measured during the same analyses
Other uses
Radio College Park, a Persian podcast
Random close pack, packing method for objects
RealClearPolitics, a political website
Retention Control Point, high year tenure in the United States Army
Royal Commonwealth Pool in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK | [
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|
215506 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20kangaroo | Red kangaroo | The red kangaroo (Osphranter rufus) is the largest of all kangaroos, the largest terrestrial mammal native to Australia, and the largest extant marsupial. It is found across mainland Australia, except for the more fertile areas, such as southern Western Australia, the eastern and southeastern coasts, and the rainforests along the northern coast.
Taxonomy
The initial description of the species by A.G. Desmarest was published in 1822. The type location was given as an unknown location west of the Blue Mountains.
The author assigned the new species to the genus Kangurus. In 1842, Gould reassigned the species to the genus Osphranter,
a taxon later submerged as a subgenus of Macropus. A taxonomic restructure in 2015 in Taxonomy of Australian Mammals by Jackson and Groves
promoted Osphranter back to genus level, redefining the red kangaroo, among others, as species within the genus Osphranter. This was further supported by genetic analysis in 2019.
Description
This species is a very large kangaroo with long, pointed ears and a square shaped muzzle [snout/nose]. They are sexually dimorphic as the males have short, red-brown fur, fading to pale buff below and on the limbs. Females are smaller than males and are blue-grey with a brown tinge, pale grey below, although arid zone females are coloured more like males. It has two forelimbs with small claws, two muscular hind-limbs, which are used for jumping, and a strong tail which is often used to create a tripod when standing upright.
The red kangaroo's legs work much like a rubber band, with the Achilles tendon stretching as the animal comes down, then releasing its energy to propel the animal up and forward, enabling the characteristic bouncing locomotion. The males can cover in one leap while reaching heights of , though the average is .
Males grow up to a head-and-body length of with a tail that adds a further to the total length and are referred to by Australians as "Big Reds". Females are considerably smaller, with a head-and-body length of and tail length of . Females can weigh from , while males typically weigh about twice as much at . The average red kangaroo stands approximately tall to the top of the head in upright posture. Large mature males can stand more than tall, with the largest confirmed one having been around tall and weighed .
The red kangaroo maintains its internal temperature at a point of homeostasis about using a variety of physical, physiological, and behavioural adaptations. These include having an insulating layer of fur, being less active and staying in the shade when temperatures are high, panting, sweating, and licking its forelimbs.
The red kangaroo's range of vision is approximately 300° (324° with about 25° overlap), due to the position of its eyes.
Ecology and habitat
The red kangaroo ranges throughout western and central Australia. Its range encompasses scrubland, grassland, and desert habitats. It typically inhabits open habitats with some trees for shade. Red kangaroos are capable of conserving enough water and selecting enough fresh vegetation to survive in an arid environment. The kangaroo's kidneys efficiently concentrate urine, particularly during summer. Red kangaroo primarily eat green vegetation, particularly fresh grasses and forbs, and can get enough even when most plants look brown and dry. One study of kangaroos in Central Australia found that green grass makes up 75–95% of the diet, with Eragrostis setifolia dominating at 54%. This grass continues to be green into the dry season. Kangaroos also primarily consumed this species, along with Enneapogon avanaceus, in western New South Wales where they comprised much as 21–69% of its diet according to a study. During dry times, kangaroos search for green plants by staying on open grassland and near watercourses. While grasses and forbs are preferred, red kangaroos will also eat certain species of chenopods, like Bassia diacantha and Maireana pyramidata, and will even browse shrubs when its favoured foods are scarce. However, some perennial chenopods, such as round-leaf chenopod Kochia are avoided even when abundant.
At times, red kangaroos congregate in large numbers; in areas with much forage, these groups can number as much as 1,500 individuals. Red kangaroos are mostly crepuscular and nocturnal, resting in the shade during the day. However, they sometimes move about during the day. Red kangaroos rely on small saltbushes or mulga bushes for shelter in extreme heat rather than rocky outcrops or caves. Grazing takes up most of their daily activities. Like most kangaroo species, they are mostly sedentary, staying within a relatively well-defined home range. However, great environmental changes can cause them to travel great distances. Kangaroos in New South Wales have weekly home ranges of 258–560 ha, with the larger areas belonging to adult males. When forage is poor and rainfall patchy, kangaroos will travel 25–30 km to more favourable feeding grounds. Another study of kangaroos in central Australia found that most of them stay close to remaining vegetation but disperse to find fresh plants after it rains. The red kangaroo is too big to be subject to significant non-human predation. They can use their robust legs and clawed feet to defend themselves from attackers with kicks and blows. However, dingoes and eagles can kill and eat joeys. Joeys are thus protected in their mother's pouch. The red kangaroo does have some major predators, like crocodiles. Extinct predators include the marsupial lion, the thylacine, Megalania, and the wonambi. Kangaroos are adept swimmers, and often flee into waterways if threatened by a predator. If pursued into the water, a kangaroo may use its forepaws to hold the predator underwater so as to drown it.
Behaviour
Red kangaroos live in groups of 2–4 members. The most common groups are females and their young. Larger groups can be found in densely populated areas and females are usually with a male. Membership of these groups is very flexible, and males (boomers) are not territorial, fighting only over females (flyers) that come into heat. Males develop proportionately much larger shoulders and arms than females. Most agonistic interactions occur between young males, which engage in ritualised fighting known as boxing. They usually stand up on their hind limbs and attempt to push their opponent off balance by jabbing him or locking forearms. If the fight escalates, they will begin to kick each other. Using their tail to support their weight, they deliver kicks with their powerful hind legs. Compared to other kangaroo species, fights between red kangaroo males tend to involve more wrestling. Fights establish dominance relationships among males, and determine who gets access to estrous females. Alpha males make agonistic behaviours and more sexual behaviours until they are overthrown. Displaced males live alone and avoid close contact with others.
Reproduction
The red kangaroo breeds all year round. The females have the unusual ability to delay the birth of their baby until their previous joey has left the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause. Copulation may last 25 minutes. The red kangaroo has the typical reproductive system of a kangaroo. The neonate emerges after only 33 days. Usually only one young is born at a time. It is blind, hairless, and only a few centimetres long. Its hind legs are mere stumps; it instead uses its more developed forelegs to climb its way through the thick fur on its mother's abdomen into the pouch, which takes about three to five minutes. Once in the pouch, it fastens onto one of the two teats and starts to feed. Almost immediately, the mother's sexual cycle starts again. Another egg descends into the uterus and she becomes sexually receptive. Then, if she mates and a second egg is fertilised, its development is temporarily halted. Meanwhile, the neonate in the pouch grows rapidly. After approximately 190 days, the baby (called a joey) is sufficiently large and developed to make its full emergence out of the pouch, after sticking its head out for a few weeks until it eventually feels safe enough to fully emerge. From then on, it spends increasing time in the outside world and eventually, after around 235 days, it leaves the pouch for the last time. While the young joey will permanently leave the pouch at around 235 days old, it will continue to suckle until it reaches about 12 months of age. A doe may first reproduce as early as 18 months of age and as late as five years during drought, but normally she is two and a half years old before she begins to breed.
The female red kangaroo is usually permanently pregnant except on the day she gives birth; however, she has the ability to freeze the development of an embryo until the previous joey is able to leave the pouch. This is known as embryonic diapause, and will occur in times of drought and in areas with poor food sources. The composition of the milk produced by the mother varies according to the needs of the joey. In addition, red kangaroo mothers may "have up to three generations of offspring simultaneously; a young-at-foot suckling from an elongated teat, a young in the pouch attached to a second teat and a blastula in arrested development in the uterus".
The red kangaroo has also been observed to engage in alloparental care, a behaviour in which a female may adopt another female's joey. This is a common parenting behaviour seen in many other animal species like wolves, elephants and fathead minnows.
History
Relationship with humans
The red kangaroo is an abundant species and has even benefited from the spread of agriculture and creation of man-made waterholes. However, competition with livestock and rabbits poses a threat. It is also sometimes shot by farmers as a pest, although a "destruction permit" is required from the relevant state government.
Kangaroos dazzled by headlights or startled by engine noise often leap in front of vehicles, severely damaging or destroying smaller or unprotected vehicles. The risk of harm to vehicle occupants is greatly increased if the windscreen is the point of impact. As a result, "kangaroo crossing" signs are commonplace in Australia.
Peak times for kangaroo/vehicle crashes are between 5:00 PM and 10:00 PM, in winter, and after extended dry-weather spells.
Commercial use
Like all Australian wildlife, the red kangaroo is protected by legislation, but it is so numerous that there is regulated harvest of its hide and meat. Hunting permits and commercial harvesting are controlled under nationally approved management plans, which aim to maintain red kangaroo populations and manage them as a renewable resource. Harvesting of kangaroos is controversial, particularly due to the animal's popularity.
In the year 2000, 1,173,242 animals were killed. In 2009 the government put a limit of 1,611,216 for the number of red kangaroos available for commercial use. The kangaroo industry is worth about A$270 million each year, and employs over 4000 people.
The kangaroos provide meat for both humans and pet food. Kangaroo meat is very lean with only about 2% fat. Their skins are used for leather.
See also
Roo bar
References
External links
Macropods
Mammals of Western Australia
Mammals of South Australia
Mammals of the Northern Territory
Mammals of New South Wales
Mammals of Queensland
Mammals of Victoria (Australia)
Marsupials of Australia
Mammals described in 1822
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215509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic%20diet | Paleolithic diet | The Paleolithic diet, Paleo diet, caveman diet, or stone-age diet is a modern fad diet consisting of foods thought by its proponents to mirror those eaten by humans during the Paleolithic era.
The diet avoids processed food and typically includes vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, and meat and excludes dairy products, grains, sugar, legumes, processed oils, salt, alcohol, and coffee. Historians can trace the ideas behind the diet to "primitive" diets advocated in 19th century. In the 1970s Walter L. Voegtlin popularized a meat-centric "Stone Age" diet; in the 21st century the best-selling books of Loren Cordain popularized the Paleo diet. the paleo-diet industry was worth approximately million.
In the 21st century, the sequencing of the human genome and DNA analysis of the remains of early humans have found evidence that humans evolved rapidly in response to changing diet. This evidence undermines a core premise of the paleolithic diet - that human digestion has remained essentially unchanged over time. Anthropological science has found that human diets in paleolithic times were more varied and less meat-centric than had previously been assumed.
Advocates promote the paleolithic diet as a way of improving health. There is some evidence that following it may lead to improvements in body composition and metabolism compared with the typical Western diet or compared with diets recommended by some European nutritional guidelines. On the other hand, following the diet can lead to nutritional deficiencies such as an inadequate calcium intake, and side effects can include weakness, diarrhea, and headaches.
History and terminology
Adrienne Rose Johnson writes that the idea that the primitive diet was superior to current dietary habits dates back to the 1890s with such writers as Emmet Densmore and John Harvey Kellogg. Densmore proclaimed that "bread is the staff of death", while Kellogg supported a diet of starchy and grain-based foods in accord with "the ways and likings of our primitive ancestors". Arnold DeVries advocated an early version of the Paleolithic diet in his 1952 book, Primitive Man and His Food. In 1958, Richard Mackarness authored Eat Fat and Grow Slim, which proposed a low-carbohydrate "Stone Age" diet.
In his 1975 book The Stone Age Diet, gastroenterologist Walter L. Voegtlin advocated a meat-based diet, with low proportions of vegetables and starchy foods, based on his declaration that humans were "exclusively flesh-eaters" until 10,000 years ago.
In 1985 Stanley Boyd Eaton and Melvin Konner published a controversial article in the New England Journal of Medicine proposing that modern humans were biologically very similar their primitive ancestors and so "genetically programmed" to consume pre-agricultural foods. Eaton and Konner proposed a "discordance hypothesis" by which the mismatch between modern diet and human biology gave rise to lifestyle diseases, such as obesity and diabetes.
The diet started to become popular in the 21st century, where it attracted a largely internet-based following using web sites, forums and social media.
These diet's ideas were further popularized by Loren Cordain, a health scientist with a Ph.D. in physical education, who trademarked the words "The Paleo Diet" and who wrote a 2002 book of that title.
In 2012 the paleolithic diet was described as being one of the "latest trends" in diets, based on the popularity of diet books about it; in 2013 and 2014 the Paleolithic diet was Google's most searched weight-loss method.
The paleolithic or paleo diet is also sometimes referred to as the caveman or stone-age diet.
Foodstuffs
The basis of the diet is a re-imagining of what paleolithic people ate, and different proponents recommend different diet compositions. Eaton and Konner, for example, wrote a 1988 book The Paleolithic Prescription with Marjorie Shostak, and it described a diet which is 65% plant-based. This is not typical of more recently devised paleo diets; Loren Cordain's – probably the most popular – instead emphasizes animal products and an avoidance of processed food. Diet advocates concede the modern paleolithic diet cannot be a faithful recreation of what paleolithic people ate, and instead aim to "translate" that into a modern context, avoiding such likely historical practices as cannibalism.
Foodstuffs that have been described as permissible include:
"vegetables, fruits, nuts, roots, meat, and organ meats";
"vegetables (including root vegetables), fruit (including fruit oils, e.g., olive oil, coconut oil, and palm oil), nuts, fish, meat, and eggs, and it excluded dairy, grain-based foods, legumes, extra sugar, and nutritional products of industry (including refined fats and refined carbohydrates)"; and
"avoids processed foods, and emphasizes eating vegetables, fruits, nuts and seeds, eggs, and lean meats".
The diet forbids the consumption of all dairy products. This is because milking did not exist until animals were domesticated after the Paleolithic era.
Ancestral diet
Adoption of the Paleolithic diet assumes that modern humans can reproduce the hunter-gatherer diet. Molecular biologist Marion Nestle argues that "knowledge of the relative proportions of animal and plant foods in the diets of early humans is circumstantial, incomplete, and debatable and that there are insufficient data to identify the composition of a genetically determined optimal diet. The evidence related to Paleolithic diets is best interpreted as supporting the idea that diets based largely on plant foods promote health and longevity, at least under conditions of food abundance and physical activity." Ideas about Paleolithic diet and nutrition are at best hypothetical.
The data for Cordain's book only came from six contemporary hunter-gatherer groups, mainly living in marginal habitats. One of the studies was on the !Kung, whose diet was recorded for a single month, and one was on the Inuit. Due to these limitations, the book has been criticized as painting an incomplete picture of the diets of Paleolithic humans. It has been noted that the rationale for the diet does not adequately account for the fact that, due to the pressures of artificial selection, most modern domesticated plants and animals differ drastically from their Paleolithic ancestors; likewise, their nutritional profiles are very different from their ancient counterparts. For example, wild almonds produce potentially fatal levels of cyanide, but this trait has been bred out of domesticated varieties using artificial selection. Many vegetables, such as broccoli, did not exist in the Paleolithic period; broccoli, cabbage, cauliflower, and kale are modern cultivars of the ancient species Brassica oleracea.
Trying to devise an ideal diet by studying contemporary hunter-gatherers is difficult because of the great disparities that exist; for example, the animal-derived calorie percentage ranges from 25% for the Gwi people of southern Africa to 99% for the Alaskan Nunamiut. Descendants of populations with different diets have different genetic adaptations to those diets, such as the ability to digest sugars from starchy foods. Modern hunter-gatherers tend to exercise considerably more than modern office workers, protecting them from heart disease and diabetes, though highly processed modern foods also contribute to diabetes when those populations move into cities.
A 2018 review of the diet of hunter-gatherer populations found that the dietary provisions of the palelothic diet had been based on questionable research, and were "difficult to reconcile with more detailed ethnographic and nutritional studies of hunter-gatherer diet".
Researchers have proposed that cooked starches met the energy demands of an increasing brain size, based on variations in the copy number of genes encoding amylase.
Health effects
The paleolithic diet is controversial in part because of the exaggerated health claims made for it by its supporters. In general, methodological quality of research into the diet has been poor to moderate.
The aspects of the paleolithic diet that result in eating fewer processed foods and less sugar and salt are consistent with mainstream advice about diet. Diets with a paleolithic nutrition pattern have some similarities to traditional ethnic diets such as the Mediterranean diet that have been found to be healthier than the Western diet. Following the paleolithic diet, however, can lead to nutritional deficiencies such as those of vitaminD and calcium, which in turn could lead to compromised bone health; it can also lead to an increased risk of ingesting toxins from high fish consumption.
There is some evidence the diet helps achieve weight loss, possibly because of the increased satiety from the foods typically eaten. One trial of obese postmenopausal women found improvements in weight and fat loss after six months, but the benefits had ceased by 24 months; side effects among participants included "weakness, diarrhea, and headaches". As with any other diet regime, the paleolithic diet leads to weight loss because of overall decreased caloric intake, rather than a special feature of the diet itself.
There is no good evidence that following a paleolithic diet lessens the risk of cardiovascular disease or metabolic syndrome. As of 2014 there was no evidence the paleolithic diet is effective in treating inflammatory bowel disease.
The paleolithic diet similar to the Atkins diet encourages the consumption of large amounts of red meat, especially meats high in saturated fat. This has a negative effect on health in the long run as medical studies have shown that it can lead to increased incidence of cardiovascular disease.
Genetics
The stated rationale for the paleolithic diet is that human genes of modern times are unchanged from those of 10,000 years ago, and that the diet of that time is therefore the best fit with humans today. Loren Cordain has described the paleo diet as "the one and only diet that ideally fits our genetic makeup".
The argument is that modern humans have not been able to adapt to the new circumstances. According to Cordain, before the agricultural revolution, hunter-gatherer diets rarely included grains, and obtaining milk from wild animals would have been "nearly impossible". Advocates of the diet argue that the increase in diseases of affluence after the dawn of agriculture was caused by these changes in diet, but others have countered that it may be that pre-agricultural hunter-gatherers did not suffer from the diseases of affluence because they did not live long enough to develop them.
According to the model from the evolutionary discordance hypothesis, "many chronic diseases and degenerative conditions evident in modern Western populations have arisen because of a mismatch between Stone Age genes and modern lifestyles." Advocates of the modern paleo diet have formed their dietary recommendations based on this hypothesis. They argue that modern humans should follow a diet that is nutritionally closer to that of their Paleolithic ancestors.
The evolutionary discordance is incomplete, since it is based mainly on the genetic understanding of the human diet and a unique model of human ancestral diets, without taking into account the flexibility and variability of the human dietary behaviors over time. Studies of a variety of populations around the world show that humans can live healthily with a wide variety of diets and that humans have evolved to be flexible eaters. Lactase persistence, which confers Lactose tolerance into adulthood, is an example of how some humans have adapted to the introduction of dairy into their diet. While the introduction of grains, dairy, and legumes during the Neolithic revolution may have had some adverse effects on modern humans, if humans had not been nutritionally adaptable, these technological developments would have been dropped.
Since the publication of Eaton and Konner's paper in 1985, analysis of the DNA of primitive human remains has provided evidence that evolving humans were continually adapting to new diets, thus challenging the hypothesis underlying the paleothic diet. Evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk writes that the idea that our genetic makeup today matches that of our ancestors is misconceived, and that in debate Cordain was "taken aback" when told that 10,000 years was "plenty of time" for an evolutionary change in human digestive abilities to have taken place. On this basis Zuk dismisses Cordain's claim that the paleo diet is "the one and only diet that fits our genetic makeup".
Paleoanthropologist Peter Ungar has written that the paleo diet is a "myth", on account both of its invocation of a single suitable diet when in reality humans have always been a "work in progress", and because diet has always been varied because humans were spread widely over the planet.
Anthropological geneticist Anne C. Stone has said that humans have adapted in the last 10,000 years in response to radical changes in diet. In 2016 she was quoted as saying "It drives me crazy when Paleo-diet people say that we've stopped evolving — we haven't".
Melvin Konner has said the challenge to the hypothesis is not greatly significant since the real challenges to human non-adaptation have occurred with the rise of ever-more refined foodstuffs in the last 300 years.
Environmental impact
A 2019 analysis of diets in the United States ranked consumption of a paleolithic diet as more environmentally harmful than consumption of an omnivorous diet, though not so harmful as a ketogenic diet.
Elizabeth Kolbert has written the paleolithic's emphasis on meat consumption is a "disaster" on account of meat's comparatively high energy production costs.
Popularity
A lifestyle and ideology have developed around the diet. "Paleolithic" products include clothing, smartphone apps, and cookware. Many paleolithic cookery books have been bestsellers.
the market for products with the word "Paleo" in their name was worth approximately $US500 million, with strong growth prospects despite pushback from the scientific community. Some products were taking advantage of the trend by touting themselves as "paleo-approved" despite having no apparent link to the movement's tenets.
Like many other diets, the paleolithic diet is promoted by some by an appeal to nature and a narrative of conspiracy theories about how nutritional research, which does not support the supposed benefits of the paleolithic diet, is controlled by a malign food industry. Paleolithic diet advocate John Durant has blamed suppression of the truth about diet in the United States on "the vegetarian lobby".
Politically, the paleolithic diet has found favour with the alt-right as a point of opposition to what is seen as more left-wing veganism.
See also
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
Human Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
Fad diets
Meat-based diets
Raw foodism
Pseudoscience | [
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|
215510 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20VI | Henry VI | Henry VI may refer to:
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (1165–1197)
Henry VI, Count Palatine of the Rhine (ruled 1212–1214)
Henry VI, Count of Luxembourg (crowned 1281, died 1288)
Henry VI the Older (before 1345 – 1393)
Henry VI, Count of Gorizia (1376–1454)
Henry VI of England (1421–1471)
Henry VI (play), a series of three plays by William Shakespeare
Henry VI, Burgrave of Plauen (1536–1572)
Henri, Count of Paris (1908–1999), Orleanist claimant, numbered as King Henry VI of France | [
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215511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Shenandoah%20%281862%29 | USS Shenandoah (1862) | The first USS Shenandoah was a wooden screw sloop of the United States Navy.
Shenandoah was built by the Philadelphia Navy Yard and launched on 8 December 1862. She was sponsored by Miss Selina Pascoe; and was commissioned on 20 June 1863, Captain Daniel B. Ridgeley in command.
Civil War duty, 1863–1865
Shenandoah departed Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 25th, keeping a sharp lookout for Confederate raider, , as she made her trial run to Boston to fill out her complement. On 11 July, she sailed in search of Confederate raider, Florida, cruised off George's and Nantucket shoals, thence preceded toward Block Island and Cape Sable. She returned to Boston on 27 July and spent from 4 August to 8 September in the Philadelphia Navy Yard. On 12 September, she arrived off New Inlet, North Carolina, to join the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron.
Shenandoah spent the greater part of the next fifteen months patrolling off Wilmington, North Carolina and searching on the blockade runner routes between Nassau and Wilmington. This cruising took her as far as Key West, Florida, and to the Bahamas and Bermuda. During a four-hour chase on 30 July 1864, she fired heavily into Confederate blockade runner, Lilian, which escaped in the darkness to the safety of Cape Lookout shoals. At daylight of 7 August, blockade runner, Falcon, narrowly escaped Shenandoah and by throwing cotton overboard to lighten load and then outsailing her pursuers in the direction of Cuba.
The Battle of Fort Fisher
Shenandoah reached Green Bay in the Bahamas on 13 December 1864 to investigate reports that Confederate privateers were being fitted out there to prey on Union commerce. Finding no trace of such activity, she hurried north to join the great Federal Fleet poised on the coast of North Carolina for the attack on Fort Fisher which protected Wilmington, North Carolina. On Christmas Eve, she closed to within 1,500 yards of the shore to bombard the works of Fort Fisher with all guns that could be brought to bear. In little more than an hour, the Confederate fort had been silenced, two of its magazines had been blown up, and the fort set afire in several places. The bombardment was kept up with good effect until after nightfall.
One shot from the Confederates carried away Shenandoah's stern ladder. She renewed the action with other ships of the fleet on Christmas morning to cover the landing of about 3,000 Army troops. Her deliberate and well directed fire silenced a four-gun battery to the west of Fort Fisher. She then turned her attention to a two-gun casemated battery. One shell from this battery fell a few yards short, and another passed over Shenandoah which retaliated by exploding a 150-pounder rifle shell near the top of the mound.
Nevertheless, the amphibious assault failed to capture the fort and the Union troops re-embarked during the night, save for about 1,000 soldiers who found themselves stranded on the beach by heavy surf. These were safely returned to their transports during the following two days as Shenandoah patrolled off New Inlet.
The amphibious assault on Fort Fisher was renewed on 13 January 1865. Shenandoah's boats assisted in the landing of about 8,000 Army troops under cover of a severe bombardment. The next day, she joined the fleet in a quick fire on the face of the works which lasted from 1300 till well after dark. That day, 1,600 sailors and 400 marines were detached from various ships to join the Army troops in the assault. Fifty-four sailors and fourteen marines under Lieutenant Smith W. Nichols, armed with cutlasses and revolvers, were landed from Shenandoah. The furious bombardment support continued until 1500 on 15 January 1865. By this time, the sailors and marines were entrenched within 200 yards of the fort and ready for the final assault. The ships now shifted their fire to the upper batteries as troops and sailors dashed toward the top of the parapet.
The advancing sailors and marines were swept by concentrated Confederate gunfire; but Army troops, who had gained the highest parapet to the rear, opened with a volley of musketry to save them. Now the fighting progressed through seventeen immense bomb-proof traverses until the Confederates were finally forced to the end of Federal Point. Finding themselves hopelessly surrounded, the Confederate remnants surrendered, and Fort Fisher fell to the largest amphibious operation in American history prior to World War II.
Shenandoah's landing force returned with six wounded and five missing in action. Lt. Nichols reported: "Each and all deserve the highest commendation for their coolness and courage under the most trying circumstances, and fully sustained the hard earned reputation of the American sailor..."
After Fort Fisher was captured, Shenandoah spent a few days carrying wounded men from transports to shore hospitals. She then joined in the final days of the Union siege of Charleston which fell on 17 February. She returned to the Philadelphia Navy Yard on 15 March and was decommissioned there on 15 April.
Officers of Shenandoah, Civil War
Captain, Daniel B. Ridgely
Lieutenant, Smith W. Nichols
Surgeon, James McMaster
Acting Assistant Paymaster, C. M. Guild
Acting Master, John S. Watson
Acting Master, W. H. Brice
Acting Master, Joseph A. Bullard
Ensign, Yates Sterling
Ensign, J. H. Sands
Acting Master's Mate, L. H. White
Acting Master's Mate, Thomas H. Wheeler
Acting Master's Mate, T. D. Wendell
Engineers: Acting Chief; Nelson Winans
Second Assistant, E. A. Magee
Acting Second Assistant, James S. Kelleper
Third Assistant, D. M. Fulmer
Third Assistant, F. W. Towner
Third Assistant, Wm. Bond
Boatswain, James H. Polly
Gunner, George Edmond
Service in South America and Asia 1865–1869
Shenandoah recommissioned at Philadelphia on 20 November 1865, Captain John R. Goldsborough in command. She put to sea on 8 December for the Azores. Thence, she sailed to Bahia and Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, for service with the South American Squadron. On 28 April 1866, she departed Rio de Janeiro to join the Asiatic Squadron. After rounding the Cape of Good Hope, she visited Bombay and Calcutta; then touched at Penang before arriving at Singapore on 31 December 1866. She next proceeded to Bangkok where she received a friendly greeting from the King of Siam and his ministers before sailing via Saigon for Japan. She arrived at Yokohama on 5 April 1867.
There, on the 27th, Shenandoah embarked General Robert B. Van Valkenburgh, U.S. Minister to Japan, for transport to Osaka where he landed on 1 May for an interview with the Tycoon. There he learned that the Japanese government proposed to open additional ports to foreign trade. His mission was completed by 20 May when he returned on board Shenandoah to return to Yokohama. The ship was then placed at General Van Valkenburgh's disposal, to assist him in examining the different ports most suitable for commercial purposes. She left Yokohama on 25 June and reached Hakodate on the 28th. The first salute that was ever fired there in honor of a foreign minister marked the occasion. The minister and officers of Shenandoah were received by the governor with cordial politeness.
On 12 July, Shenandoah entered the port of Niigata where similar courtesies were extended. Nahon was reached the following day. No American ship had ever before entered that harbor. On the 17th, Shenandoah visited Mikuni and also Tsurunga, where no foreign warship had ever previously anchored. On 20 July, she arrived at Miyadsu, the most beautiful of the bays visited. Commodore Goldsborough and officers under his command made surveys of most of these new harbors, and prepared sailing directions for their entrance.
Shenandoah was part of the naval force before the ports of Osaka and Hyōgo which were quietly opened to foreigners on 1 January 1868. The event was celebrated by American and British ships, their mastheads being dressed with the respective national flags and the Tycoon's flag at the main. Each ship simultaneously fired a salute of twenty-one guns, which the Japanese promptly returned.
On the morning of 11 January, Shenandoah sent her boats to assist in the search for Rear Admiral Henry H. Bell, Commander-in-Chief of the Asiatic Squadron, whose boat had capsized while attempting to cross the bar on the way into Osaka from flagship . The admiral was drowned along with his flag-lieutenant and ten of the boat's thirteen crewmen. Command of the Asiatic Squadron now devolved upon Commodore John R. Goldsborough, as senior officer, until the arrival of Rear Admiral Stephen C. Rowan. Commodore Goldsborough transferred his pennant from Shenandoah to Hartford on 31 January 1868.
Korea
Lieutenant Commander Chester Hartford took temporary command of Shenandoah until 22 February 1868 when Cdr. John C. Febinger assumed command at Shanghai. From there Shenandoah proceeded to Chefoo, China, where she received orders to sail for Korea to attempt to rescue the crew of the American schooner, General Sherman, which had been destroyed in the Ping Yang River some eighteen months previously. It had been rumored that some of the crew or passengers were alive and in captivity. Korea, at that time, sought to exclude all strangers or foreigners.
Shenandoah departed Chefoo on 7 April 1868 and arrived off Chodo Island, Korea, on 9 April. After proceeding around to the southeast side, she arrived at the mouth of the Ping Yang River on the 16th. Commodore Goldsborough concluded from the information gathered that none of the passengers and crew of General Sherman had survived. He succeeded, however, in making a survey of the Ping Yang River and its approaches and in securing other useful data on that part of the Korean coast where no previous surveys had been made.
On 18 May, Shenandoah departed the mouth of the Ping Yang River to join the Asiatic Squadron in visiting the principal commercial ports of China and Japan to counter difficulties that arose out of opposition to contact with foreigners. Certain ships of the squadron stationed themselves in areas where roving Chinese pirates had attacked the American merchantmen. They protected foreign settlements in Yokohama as well as in the newly opened ports of Osaka and Hyōgo. They continued their service until local authorities assured the American officers that foreigners would receive respectful and peaceful treatment. The Chinese Viceroy at Canton promised Commodore Goldsborough that he would issue a proclamation prohibiting fishing junks from carrying extra men, or arms, or munitions of war which might be used to prey upon American commerce.
After calling at Chefoo, Shanghai, Yokohama, and Hong Kong, Shenandoah departed the latter port on 10 November. She visited Batavia, Java (1 to 8 December); thence proceeded, via the Cape of Good Hope and the island of St. Helena, to Boston where she arrived on 25 April 1869. She decommissioned there on 2 May 1869.
The European station 1870–1874
Shenandoah was recommissioned at Boston on 15 August 1870, and sailed on 4 September for service on the European Station. After a call at Lisbon and station duty at Le Havre, she touched Southampton on her way to the Mediterranean to show the flag at such ports as Ville Franche, Toulon, Marseille, Genoa, Alexandria, and Naples. While at Ville Franche on 15 December 1871, Seaman Isaac Sapp jumped overboard and rescued a shipmate from drowning, for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor. On 1 June 1872, she set course north for Lisbon, Queenstown, Plymouth, and Southampton; thence proceeded to Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, Tunis, Malta, and Piraeus. In the last named port, Christmas Day of 1872, she was host to the King and Queen of Greece. The following months found her at such ports as Smyrna, Turkey; Syracuse, Sicily; Ville Franche, France; and Barcelona, Spain. She departed the Mediterranean on 12 December 1873 for Tangiers; thence proceeded, via Funchal, Madeira, and St. Thomas in the West Indies, to Florida. She arrived in Key West on 22 January 1874 and sailed on 4 April for New York where she decommissioned on 23 April 1874.
The South Atlantic 1879–1882
Shenandoah was recommissioned in the New York Navy Yard on 8 September 1879. On 4 October, she sailed for Brazil, and arrived at Rio de Janeiro on 1 December 1879 to serve as flagship of Rear Admiral Andrew Bryson who commanded the South Atlantic Squadron. She watched over American interests in that quarter while cruising between Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; Montevideo, Uruguay; and Buenos Aires, Argentina. While at Rio de Janeiro on 19 September 1880, Seamen William Morse and John Smith rescued a fellow sailor from drowning, for which they were later awarded the Medal of Honor. This duty terminated on 4 February 1882 when Shenandoah departed Montevideo on a homeward-bound cruise that included calls at Barbados in the West Indies, Cartagena, Colombia and Havana, Cuba. She arrived at New York on 29 April and was decommissioned in the New York Navy Yard on 27 May 1882.
Final days 1883–1887
Her last cruise took Shenandoah to the Pacific coasts of South and Central America. She was recommissioned at Boston on 5 November 1883 and sailed on 29 December for the Cape Verde Islands. Thence, she steamed via Montevideo and around Cape Horn to Valparaíso, Chile, where she arrived on 5 May 1884 – one day after the Treaty of Valparaíso marked Chile's victory in her war with Peru and Bolivia.
Shenandoah cruised among parts of Peru, Chile, and Ecuador protecting American interests until 6 April 1885 when she arrived off Panama as part of the Panama crisis of 1885. Her landing party protected American property there during revolt against the Colombian Government that resulted in insurgent occupation of Panama. Aspinwall, on the Atlantic side, was attacked by insurgents who also occupied the greater portion of the isthmus, blocking the transit of the railroad. Obliged by the treaty of 1846 to guarantee the neutrality of the isthmus as well as rights of sovereignty by Colombia, the United States took immediate action. A naval force of eight ships and 2,648 sailors and marines under Rear Admiral James Edward Jouett arrived at Aspinwall and protected that town while a landing expedition proceeded across the isthmus to reestablish free passage for trains.
On 24 May 1885, Shenandoah departed Panama for Callao, Peru. She continued to cruise for protection of the American mercantile marine and other interests for the next seventeen months. Besides showing the flag at the principal ports of Chile and Peru, she called from time to time at San Jose, Guatemala; Corinto, Nicaragua; Panama, and Acapulco, Mexico. She arrived in Santa Barbara, California, from the Mexican coast on 30 September 1886. After a visit to Monterey, she was decommissioned in the Mare Island Navy Yard on 23 October 1886. She was sold on 30 July 1887 to W. T. Garratt & Company, San Francisco, California.
See also
American Civil War
Union Navy
List of United States Navy ships
List of sloops of war of the United States Navy
Bibliography of early American naval history
References
Bibliography
Sloops of the United States Navy
United States Navy Virginia-related ships
Ships built in Philadelphia
Ships of the Union Navy
American Civil War patrol vessels of the United States
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|
215515 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longclaw | Longclaw | The longclaws are a genus, Macronyx, of small African passerine birds in the family Motacillidae.
Longclaws are slender, often colorful, ground-feeding insectivores of open country. They are ground nesters, laying up to four speckled eggs. They are named for their unusually long hind claws, which are thought to help in walking on grass. There are only between 10,000 and 19,000 Sharpe's longclaw left in Kenya.
The genus Macronyx was introduced by the English naturalist William John Swainson in 1827 with the Cape longclaw as the type species. The name combines the Classical Greek words "long" or "great" and "claw".
Species list
The genus contains eight species:
References
External links
Longclaw videos on the Internet Bird Collection
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|
215522 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Age%20d%27Or | L'Age d'Or | L'Age d'Or (, ), commonly translated as The Golden Age or Age of Gold, is a 1930 French surrealist satirical comedy film directed by Luis Buñuel about the insanities of modern life, the hypocrisy of the sexual mores of bourgeois society, and the value system of the Catholic Church. Much of the story is told with title cards like a predominantly silent film. The screenplay is by Buñuel and Salvador Dalí. L'Age d'Or was one of the first sound films made in France, along with Miss Europe and Under the Roofs of Paris.
Synopsis
The first scene of the film is a documentary about scorpions. After that, the film is a series of vignettes, wherein a couple's attempts at consummating their romantic relationship are continually thwarted by the bourgeois values and sexual mores of family, church, and society.
The couple are first seen creating a disturbance by making love in the mud during a religious ceremony. The man is apprehended and led away by two men who struggle to control their captive's sudden impulses. He momentarily breaks free long enough to kick a small dog. Later he struggles free to aggressively crush a beetle with his shoe. As he is escorted through city streets, he sees an advertisement that inspires him to fantasize a woman's hand rubbing herself, and becomes transfixed by another advertisement showing a woman's legs in silk stockings. He eventually escapes his handlers, inexplicably assaults a blind man standing at a curb, and gets into a taxi.
Meanwhile, the woman is at home, where she tells her mother she hurt her finger, which is wrapped in a bandage that disappears and reappears from scene to scene. The woman and her parents attend a party where the guests seem oblivious to alarming or incongruous events in their midst: a maid screams and falls to the floor after emerging from a doorway where flames are visible; a horse-drawn cart filled with rowdy men drinking from large bottles passes through the elegant company in the ballroom; the father converses with guests while ignoring several flies on his face; a small boy is shot and killed for a minor prank.
The man arrives at the party and sees his lover from across the room. He behaves brusquely toward the other guests while looking ardently in the woman's direction, and she looks longingly at him. The woman's mother hands the man a drink, but spills a drop on his hand. He becomes enraged and slaps her, which seems to excite the daughter. Seeking sexual release and satisfaction, the couple go into the garden and make love next to a marble statue, while the rest of the party guests assemble outdoors for an orchestral performance of Liebestod. When the man is called away to answer a telephone call, the woman sublimates her sexual passion by fellating the toe of the statue until the man returns.
The Liebestod music stops abruptly when the conductor, his hands gripping his head, walks away, and wanders into the garden where the couple are. The woman runs to comfort the elderly conductor before finally French kissing him. The man stands up, bumping his head on a hanging flower pot, and grasps his head in pain as he leaves the garden. He stumbles away to her bedroom where he throws a burning tree, a bishop, a plow, the bishop's staff, a giraffe statue and handfuls of pillow feathers out the window.
The final vignette is an allusion to the Marquis de Sade's 1785 novel (first published in 1904) The 120 Days of Sodom—the intertitle reads: 120 Days of Depraved Acts—and is about an orgy in a castle, wherein the surviving orgiasts are ready to emerge to the light of mainstream society. From the castle door emerges the bearded and berobed Duc de Blangis (a character from de Sade's novel) who greatly resembles Jesus, the Christ, who comforts a young woman who has run out from the castle, before he takes her back inside. Afterwards, a woman's scream is heard, and only the Duc re-emerges; and he is beardless. The concluding image is a Christian cross festooned with the scalps of women; to the accompaniment of jovial music, the scalps sway in the wind.
Cast
Gaston Modot as The Man
Lya Lys as the Young Girl
Caridad de Laberdesque as a Chambermaid and Little Girl
Max Ernst as the Leader of men in cottage
Josep Llorens Artigas as Governor
Lionel Salem as Duke of Blangis
Germaine Noizet as Marquise
Duchange as Conductor
Valentine Penrose as a Spirit
Production
L'Age d'Or began as the second artistic collaboration between Luis Buñuel and Salvador Dalí, who had fallen out by the time of the film's production. A neophyte cinéast, Buñuel overcame his ignorance of cinematic production technique by sequentially filming most of the screenplay; the 63-minute movie is composed of almost every meter of film exposed and dramatic sequence photographed.
The production budget was a million francs, and was financed and produced by the Vicomte Charles de Noailles (1891–1981), a nobleman who, beginning in 1928, yearly commissioned a film as a birthday gift to his wife, the Vicomtesse Marie-Laure de Noailles (1902–1970), who was a renowned patroness of the arts and of artists, such as Dalí and Buñuel, Balthus, Jean Cocteau, Man Ray, Francis Poulenc, Jean Hugo, Jean-Michel Frank and others.
L'Age d'Or included actors who were famous artists, such as Max Ernst and Josep Llorens Artigas.
Reception
Upon receiving a cinematic exhibition permit from the Board of Censors, L'Age d'Or had its premiere presentation at Studio 28, Paris, on 29 November 1930. Later, on 3 December 1930, the great popular success of the film provoked attacks by the right-wing Ligue des Patriotes (League of Patriots), whose angry viewers took umbrage at the visual statements made by Buñuel and Dalí. The reactionary French Patriots interrupted the screening by throwing ink at the cinema screen and assaulting viewers who opposed them. They then went to the lobby and destroyed art works by Dalí, Joan Miró, Man Ray, Yves Tanguy, and others. On 10 December 1930, the Prefect of Police of Paris, Jean Chiappe, arranged to have the film banned from further public exhibition after the Board of Censors re-reviewed the film.
A contemporary right-wing Spanish newspaper published a condemnation of the film and of Buñuel and Dalí, which described the content of the film as "...the most repulsive corruption of our age ... the new poison which Judaism, Masonry, and rabid, revolutionary sectarianism want to use in order to corrupt the people". In response, the de Noailles family withdrew L'Age d'Or from commercial distribution and public exhibition for more than forty years; nonetheless, three years later, in 1933, the film was privately exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art, in New York City. Forty-nine years later, from 1–15 November 1979, the film had its legal U.S. premiere at the Roxie Cinema in San Francisco.
The film critic Robert Short said that the scalp-decorated crucifix and the scenes of socially repressive violence, wherein the love-struck protagonist is manhandled by two men, indicate that the social and psychological repression of the libido and of romantic passion and emotion, by the sexual mores of bourgeois society and by the value system of the Roman Catholic Church, breed violence in the relations among people, and violence by men against women.
Legacy
Today, L'Age d'Or is widely regarded as one of the key works of surrealist cinema. British critic Philip French noted that the film, alongside Buñuel's Un Chien Andalou (1929), featured "bizarre sequences that assault bourgeois values and sexual oppression while making no logical sense, and they were acclaimed by the leading arbiters of surrealism as the first authentic surrealist films." In the British Film Institute's 2012 Sight & Sound polls, 15 critics and six directors named L'Age d'Or one of their 10 favorite films in history. Ed Gonzalez of Slant analyzed the film's sound design in relation to his argument that Buñuel's overriding message is the ability of love to "conquer all sorts of moral restraints."
Rotten Tomatoes reports an average rating of 8.7/10 among 27 critics, with 89% approval overall. The aggregation site They Shoot Pictures, Don't They has since found L'Age d'Or to be the 120th most acclaimed film ever made.
In April 2019, a restored version of the film was selected to be shown in the Cannes Classics section at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival.
References
External links
1930 films
1930s avant-garde and experimental films
1930 comedy-drama films
Existentialist works
French black-and-white films
Films directed by Luis Buñuel
French films
French avant-garde and experimental films
French comedy-drama films
1930s French-language films
Salvador Dalí
Surrealist films
Non-narrative films
Art works that caused riots
Obscenity controversies in film
Religious controversies in film
Censored films
Controversies in Spain
Films based on works by the Marquis de Sade | [
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|
215524 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long%20Trail | Long Trail | The Long Trail is a hiking trail located in Vermont, running the length of the state. It is the oldest long-distance trail in the United States, constructed between 1910 and 1930 by the Green Mountain Club. The club remains the primary organization responsible for the trail, and is recognized by the state legislature as "the founder, sponsor, defender, and protector" of the Long Trail System.
History
The Long Trail was conceived in 1909 by James P. Taylor who was at the time the assistant headmaster of Vermont Academy in Saxtons River, Vermont. Taylor lobbied other Vermont residents who shared his dream of a mission to "make the Vermont mountains play a larger part in the life of the people by protecting and maintaining the Long Trail system and fostering, through education, the stewardship of Vermont's hiking trails and mountains". In 1910, work began on the construction of America's first long-distance hiking path. The GMC completed the Long Trail in 1930.
Geography
The Long Trail runs 273 miles (439 km) through the state of Vermont. It starts at the Massachusetts state line (at Clarksburg, Massachusetts), and runs north to the Canada–US border (in Jay, Vermont). It runs along the main ridge of the Green Mountains, coinciding with the Appalachian Trail (for which it served as the inspiration) for roughly in the southern third of the state. Additionally, over of side trails complete the Long Trail System.
The Long Trail passes through six of the eight wilderness areas in the Green Mountain National Forest, including (from south to north) Glastenbury Wilderness, Lye Brook Wilderness, Peru Peak Wilderness, Big Branch Wilderness, Joseph Battell Wilderness, and Breadloaf Wilderness. It traverses most of the major summits in the Green Mountains, including (from south to north) Glastenbury Mountain, Stratton Mountain, Killington Peak, Mount Abraham, Mount Ellen, Camel's Hump, Mount Mansfield, and Jay Peak.
Maintenance
The Long Trail is maintained primarily by the Green Mountain Club and its volunteers. Twelve club sections maintain assigned sections of the Long Trail – two other club sections maintain the trails in Vermont's Northeast Kingdom and the Appalachian Trail from Maine Junction in Killington to the Connecticut River. Although roughly 1,000 volunteers perform most of the club's trail work, the club also employs a staff to handle day-to-day operations and a seasonal staff of summit caretakers and the Long Trail Patrol which works on heavy duty projects on the trail. The Green Mountain Club also receives assistance from the Vermont Department of Forests, Parks and Recreation, U.S. Forest Service, National Park Service, Appalachian Trail Conservancy, and private landowners. During the mud season in late spring, some sections of the trail are closed to hikers, to protect the trail from both erosion and to protect nearby flora from being damaged (especially the higher peaks that possess fragile alpine tundra).
Historical curiosities
The section of the Long Trail between Woodford (on Vermont State Route 9 just east of Bennington, Vt) and Glastenbury Mountain some farther north has gained notoriety because six people vanished in that area between 1945 and 1950. Only one body was found and the fates of the other missing persons remain a mystery.
The case that perhaps gained the most media attention at the time was the disappearance of 18-year-old Bennington College sophomore Paula Jean Welden, of Stamford, Connecticut, (elder daughter of industrial designer William Archibald Welden of the Revere Copper and Brass Company). On the afternoon of Sunday, December 1, 1946, she set out on a hike by herself on the Long Trail from Woodford Hollow heading northbound in the direction of Glastenbury Mountain. Despite repeated and extensive searches of the area by local police, the National Guard and many volunteers, nothing was ever found. Foul play is suspected in her disappearance.
Crime novelist Hillary Waugh based his book Last Seen Wearing on the Welden case.
Gallery
See also
Long Trail State Forest
Long Path
References
External links
Journals and photographs from people hiking The Long Trail.
Hiking trails in Vermont
Long-distance trails in the United States
Vermont culture
National Recreation Trails in Vermont
Protected areas of Addison County, Vermont
Protected areas of Bennington County, Vermont
Protected areas of Orleans County, Vermont
Protected areas of Windham County, Vermont
Protected areas of Rutland County, Vermont
Protected areas of Chittenden County, Vermont | [
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|
215528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcosmodon | Microcosmodon | Microcosmodon is a mammal genus from the Paleocene of North America. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata, and lies within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Microcosmodontidae. The genus Microcosmodon was named by G.L. Jepsen in 1930.
Species
The species Microcosmodon arcuatus was named by P.A. Johnston and R.C. Fox in 1984. Fossil remains have been found in the Puercan (Paleocene)-age strata Rav W-1 of Saskatchewan, Canada. The holotype is in the University of Alberta collection. When alive, the creature weighed about the same as a well-fed mouse (about 30 g).
The type species Microcosmodon conus was named by G.L. Jepsen in 1930. Remains have been found in the Tiffanian (Paleocene)-age strata of the Polecat Bench Formation of Wyoming (United States) and Saskatchewan, Canada. This species would have weighed around 15 g.
The species Microcosmodon harleyi was named by A. Weil in 1998. Remains have been found in the Puercan (Paleocene)-age strata of the Tullock Formation in Montana (USA). "The presence of the new species suggests that microcosmodontine species richness in the Western Interior was as high at the beginning of the Paleocene as at its end," (Weil, 1998). The species would have weighed about 20 g.
The species Microcosmodon rosei was named by D.W. Krause in 1980. Remains have been found in the Clarforkian (Paleocene)-age strata of the Willwood Formation of Wyoming. This species weighed a fairly standard mouse-sized 25 g+.
The species Microcosmodon woodi was named by R.C. Holtzman and D.L. Wolberg in 1977. It is also known as Eucosmodontid woodi (Weil 1998). Remains have been found in the Middle Paleocene-age strata of Montana and North Dakota (USA) and Alberta, Canada. However, Weil A. (1998) found that this material "does not belong to this genus or subfamily."
References
Weil (1998), "A new species of Microcosmodon (Mammalia: Multituberculata) from the Paleocene Tullock Formation of Montana, and an argument for the Micrcosmodontinae". PaleoBios 18.
Krause (1980), "Multituberculates from the Clarkforkian Land-Mammal Age, late Paleocene-early Eocene, of western North America". J. Paleont. 54(6), p. 1163-1183.
Jepsen (1930), "Stratigraphy and paleontology of the Paleocene of northeastern Park County, Wyoming". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 69(1), p. 463-528.
Holtzman & Wolberg (1977), "The Microsmodontinae and Microcosmodon woodi, new Multituberculata taxa (Mammalia) from the Late Paleocene of North America". Sci. Publ. of the Sci. Mus. of Minnesota 4(1), p. 1-13.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Palaeontology 44, p. 389-429.
Johnston & Fox (1984), "Paleocene and Late Cretaceous mammals from Saskatchewan, Canada". Palaeontogr. Abt. A: Paläozool., Stratigr. 186, p. 163-222.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct mammals of North America
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215529 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice%20Age%20Trail | Ice Age Trail | The Ice Age Trail is a National Scenic Trail stretching in the state of Wisconsin in the United States. The trail is administered by the National Park Service, and is constructed and maintained by private and public agencies including the Ice Age Trail Alliance, a non-profit and member-volunteer based organization with local chapters.
Route
The trail roughly follows the location of the terminal moraine from the last Ice Age. As the route traverses the moraine, it sometimes meanders into areas west of the moraine, including the Driftless Area in southwestern Wisconsin. The trail passes through 30 of Wisconsin's 72 counties, from the northwestern part of the state to the Lake Michigan shoreline in the east. The western end of the trail is at Interstate State Park along the St. Croix River, which is the border between northwestern Wisconsin and eastern Minnesota. The eastern terminus of the Ice Age Trail lies at Potawatomi State Park, along Wisconsin's Door Peninsula off of Sturgeon Bay.
Along its route, the trail crosses numerous local parks, state parks and forests, state wildlife and natural areas, and the Chequamegon-Nicolet National Forest. The trail often coincides with other trails within various county and municipal parks. It passes through the land of various owners, including the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, the Ice Age Trail Alliance, and hundreds of private citizens.
As of 2014, the trail was long. At one point, the trail separates into two just north of Devil's Lake State Park. The western portion of trail, in length, is referred to as the Western Bifurcation. The Western Bifurcation consists mostly of proposed trail sections (though several miles of established trail do exist). The Western Bifurcation is rejoined by its 75-mile eastern counterpart near the town of Coloma. Though the eastern portion of the trail is more readily developed than its western counterpart, both are officially recognized portions of the Ice Age Trail. As of 2008, the trail consisted of of traditional hiking paths, of multi-use trails, and of connecting roads and sidewalks. As of October 2020, is completed with over connected by connecting routes (usually roads).
The Ice Age Trail has one of a few National Side Trails, the Timms Hill National Trail. National Side Trails are national trails established by the National Trails System Act. The ten-mile Timms Hill Trail connects the Ice Age Trail with Timms Hill, Wisconsin's highest point, which is located in Price County.
History
The Ice Age Trail began as conservationist Ray Zillmer's idea for having an "Ice Age National Park" of 500 miles starting at St. Croix Falls, going south through Madison, northeast through the Kettle Moraine areas ending near Sturgeon Bay. The park would travel through the terminal moraine of the most recent glacier to push through Wisconsin about 10,000 years ago. He envisioned that the park would protect features like kames, drumlins, and kettle moraines. In 1958, Zillmer founded the Ice Age Park & Trail Foundation (now the Ice Age Trail Alliance (IATA)). In a 1959 interview in Wisconsin Alumnus magazine, he was quoted "This land must be purchased soon, before the population explosion following the opening of the St. Lawrence waterways affects Wisconsin, before the hills are pre-empted by private homes and the land becomes too expensive." Zillmer died in December 1959 and the National Park Service decided in 1961 that a long park was not feasible. In 1964, Wisconsin congressman Henry S. Reuss sponsored the Ice Age National Scientific Reserve bill; the bill was signed to establish nine units which he hoped would be connected by a trail (six were utilized). In 1968, Wisconsin U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson co-sponsored the National Trails System Act which established the Appalachian Trail and Pacific Crest Trail.
It was established by Act of Congress in 1980, in large part as a result of the efforts of Reuss, who in 1976 authored the book On the Trail of the Ice Age. The first person to backpack the entire length of the Ice Age Trail was 20-year-old James J. Staudacher of Shorewood, Wisconsin during the summer of 1979. He started at Potawatomi State Park in May 1979. Staudacher received maps with the proposed route and supply packages from Reuss and completed the walk at St. Croix Falls in August. Portions of the trail used existing trails in the northern unit of Kettle Moraine State Forest.
Use
The trail is open primarily to hiking, although other activities are allowed where the trail follows other existing routes. The trail received an estimated annual usage of 2.3 million people from a 2019 survey. Although the trail is divided into shorter segments, there are numerous opportunities for longer-distance backpacking trips, with camping opportunities including shelters in both units of the Kettle Moraine State Forest. As of 2020, there are 19 local IATA chapters which are trying to turn connecting routes into permanent segments. The chapters' biggest obstacle is acquiring land from private owners and permanently protecting it. Several trail chapters offer awards for completing all segments within their jurisdiction, and the Alliance also has a "cold cache" program to encourage hikers to seek out glacial features along the trail using GPS receivers.
A study of trail users found that those who stay overnight are more likely to camp than use other forms of lodging.
Sights along the trail
Primary attractions include topography left by glaciation in the Last Ice Age. Glacial features along the trail include kettles, potholes, eskers, and glacial erratics. Many of the best examples of glacial features in Wisconsin are exhibited in units of the Ice Age National Scientific Reserve, most of which lie along the trail.
Numerous species of mammals can be seen along the trail, including red fox, American red squirrel, white-tailed deer, porcupine, black bear and grey wolf. Birds seen along the southern part of the trail include the Acadian flycatcher, Henslow's sparrow, red-headed woodpecker or hooded warbler, while further north white-throated sparrows, ruffed grouse and bald eagles become more common.
Gallery
See also
Geological Features of Wisconsin
List of hiking trails in Wisconsin
Thomas Chrowder Chamberlin, Geology of Wisconsin (1877)
Ahnapee State Trail, which coincides with the Ice Age Trail in the north
Stages
Quaternary glaciation
Illinoian Stage
Laurentide Ice Sheet
Pleistocene
Last glacial period
Driftless Area
Components
Interglacial (longer warm period during ice age, such as today)
Interstadial (brief warm period during ice age, weaker than interglacial)
Stadial (brief cooler period during interglacial, such as Older Dryas, Younger Dryas, Little Ice Age)
Little ice age
Post-glacial rebound
Timeline of glaciation
Canadian Shield
Glacial history of Minnesota
Lake Agassiz
Wisconsin glaciation
References
Further reading
Ice Age Trail Alliance. Ice Age Trail Atlas.
Ice Age Trail Alliance. Ice Age Trail Companion Guide 2011.
Mittlefehldt, Sarah. "The origins of Wisconsin's Ice Age Trail: Ray Zillner's path to protect the past," Wisconsin Magazine of History, vol. 90, no. 3 (Spring 2007)
(inspired the Ice Age Trail in Wisconsin).
External links
Ice Age Trail Alliance website
Ice Age National Scenic Trail, National Park Service website
Wisconsin DNR
Hiking Journals and Photos from the Ice Age Trail
Ice Age Trail Design Video produced by Wisconsin Public Television
1980 establishments in Wisconsin
Backpacking
Hiking
Hiking trails in Wisconsin
Long-distance trails in the United States
National Scenic Trails of the United States
Orienteering
Outdoor recreation
Protected areas established in 1980
Walking | [
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|
215530 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohos%20Trail | Cohos Trail | The Cohos Trail is a hiking trail running through northern New Hampshire in the United States, connecting the northern and southern ends of Coos County. It begins at Notchland, near Crawford Notch State Park, and follows a series of trails to the hamlet of Fabyans, then over Cherry Mountain to the town of Jefferson, over Mount Waumbek, along the Kilkenny Ridge Trail to Stark, through Nash Stream Forest to Dixville Notch, and north to the Connecticut Lakes and finally the Canada–US border at the southern edge of Quebec. There it connects with the Sentier Frontalier's trail to Mount Megantic and Mount Gosford in Canada.
The final section of the trail was completed in 2011, 33 years after it was first proposed by Kim Nilsen, then a newspaper reporter, who became the trail's chief architect.
References
Nilsen, Kim Robert (2000). The Cohos Trail: The Guidebook to New Hampshire's Great Unknown. North Hampton, NH: Nicolin Fields Publishing. . (Mr. Nilson is founder of the Cohos Trail. There is also a 2006 edition of the book.)
The Colebrook News & Sentinel, accessed 18 January 2007.
New Hampshire Public TV: Windows to the Wild: Discovering the Cohos Trail
Program description
Photo gallery
External links
Cohos Trail Association website
Journals and Photos from people hiking the Cohos Trail
Hiking trails in New Hampshire
Long-distance trails in the United States
Tourist attractions in Coös County, New Hampshire
Protected areas of Coös County, New Hampshire | [
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|
215538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acheronodon | Acheronodon | Acheronodon is a genus of herbivorous arboreal mammal which belongs to the family Microcosmodontidae and which was endemic to North America during the Early Paleocene subepoch (66—56.8 mya) and in existence for approximately .
It is a member of the extinct order Multituberculata and lies within the suborder Cimolodonta.
The species Acheronodon garbani is known from fossils found in the Puercan (Paleocene)-age formations of Tullock Formation in Montana (United States) and possible specimens from the Porcupine Hills in Alberta, Canada. The holotype was found in Montana.
References
Archibald (1982), "A study of Mammalia and geology across the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in Garfield County, Montana." Univ. Calif. Publ. Geol. Sci. 122, p. 1-286.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Paleocene mammals of North America
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|
215539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pascal%27s%20wager | Pascal's wager | Pascal's wager is a philosophical argument presented by the seventeenth-century French philosopher, theologian, mathematician, and physicist, Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). It posits that human beings wager with their lives that God either exists or does not.
Pascal argues that a rational person should live as though God exists and seek to believe in God. If God does not exist, such a person will have only a finite loss (some pleasures, luxury, etc.), whereas if God does exist, he stands to receive infinite gains (as represented by eternity in Heaven) and avoid infinite losses (an eternity in Hell).
The original wager was set out in Pascal's posthumously published Pensées ("Thoughts"), an assembly of previously unpublished notes. Pascal's wager charted new territory in probability theory, marked the first formal use of decision theory, existentialism, pragmatism, and voluntarism.
The wager is commonly criticized with counterarguments such as the failure to prove the existence of God, the argument from inconsistent revelations, and the argument from inauthentic belief.
The wager
The wager uses the following logic (excerpts from Pensées, part III, §233):
God is, or God is not. Reason cannot decide between the two alternatives
A Game is being played... where heads or tails will turn up
You must wager (it is not optional)
Let us weigh the gain and the loss in wagering that God is. Let us estimate these two chances. If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing
Wager, then, without hesitation that He is. (...) There is here an infinity of an infinitely happy life to gain, a chance of gain against a finite number of chances of loss, and what you stake is finite. And so our proposition is of infinite force when there is the finite to stake in a game where there are equal risks of gain and of loss, and the infinite to gain.
But some cannot believe. They should then 'at least learn your inability to believe...' and 'Endeavour then to convince' themselves.
Pascal asks the reader to analyze humankind's position, where our actions can be enormously consequential, but our understanding of those consequences is flawed. While we can discern a great deal through reason, we are ultimately forced to gamble. Pascal cites a number of distinct areas of uncertainty in human life:
Pascal describes humanity as a finite being trapped within an incomprehensible infinity, briefly thrust into being from non-being, with no explanation of "Why?" or "What?" or "How?" On Pascal's view, human finitude constrains our ability to achieve truth reliably.
Given that reason alone cannot determine whether God exists, Pascal concludes that this question functions as a coin toss. However, even if we do not know the outcome of this coin toss, we must base our actions on some expectation about the consequence. We must decide whether to live as though God exists, or whether to live as though God does not exist, even though we may be mistaken in either case.
In Pascal's assessment, participation in this wager is not optional. Merely by existing in a state of uncertainty, we are forced to choose between the available courses of action for practical purposes.
Pascal's description of the wager
The Pensées passage on Pascal's wager is as follows:
Pascal begins by painting a situation where both the existence and non-existence of God are impossible to prove by human reason. So, supposing that reason cannot determine the truth between the two options, one must "wager" by weighing the possible consequences. Pascal's assumption is that, when it comes to making the decision, no one can refuse to participate; withholding assent is impossible because we are already "embarked", effectively living out the choice.
We only have two things to stake, our "reason" and our "happiness". Pascal considers that if there is "equal risk of loss and gain" (i.e. a coin toss), then human reason is powerless to address the question of whether God exists. That being the case, then human reason can only decide the question according to possible resulting happiness of the decision, weighing the gain and loss in believing that God exists and likewise in believing that God does not exist.
He points out that if a wager were between the equal chance of gaining two lifetimes of happiness and gaining nothing, then a person would be a fool to bet on the latter. The same would go if it were three lifetimes of happiness versus nothing. He then argues that it is simply unconscionable by comparison to betting against an eternal life of happiness for the possibility of gaining nothing. The wise decision is to wager that God exists, since "If you gain, you gain all; if you lose, you lose nothing", meaning one can gain eternal life if God exists, but if not, one will be no worse off in death than if one had not believed. On the other hand, if you bet against God, win or lose, you either gain nothing or lose everything. You are either unavoidably annihilated (in which case, nothing matters one way or the other) or miss the opportunity of eternal happiness. In note 194, speaking about those who live apathetically betting against God, he sums up by remarking, "It is to the glory of religion to have for enemies men so unreasonable..."
Inability to believe
Pascal addressed the difficulty that 'reason' and 'rationality' pose to genuine belief by proposing that "acting as if [one] believed" could "cure [one] of unbelief":
Analysis with decision theory
The possibilities defined by Pascal's wager can be thought of as a decision under uncertainty with the values of the following decision matrix.
Given these values, the option of living as if God exists (B) dominates the option of living as if God does not exist (¬B), as long as one assumes a positive probability that God exists. In other words, the expected value gained by choosing B is greater than or equal to that of choosing ¬B.
In fact, according to decision theory, the only value that matters in the above matrix is the +∞ (infinitely positive). Any matrix of the following type (where f1, f2, and f3 are all negative or finite positive numbers) results in (B) as being the only rational decision.
Misunderstanding of the wager
Pascal's intent was not to provide an argument to convince atheists to believe, but (a) to show the fallacy of attempting to use logical arguments to prove or disprove God, and (b) to persuade atheists to sinlessness, as an aid to attaining faith ("it is this which will lessen the passions, which are your stumbling-blocks"). As Laurent Thirouin writes (note that the numbering of the items in the Pensees is not standardized; Thirouin's 418 is this article's 233):
To be put at the beginning of Pascal's planned book, the wager was meant to show that logical reasoning cannot support faith or lack thereof, Pascal's intended book was precisely to find other ways to establish the value of faith, an apology for the Christian faith.
Criticism
Criticism of Pascal's wager began in his own day, and came from atheists, who questioned the "benefits" of a deity whose "realm" is beyond reason and the religiously orthodox, who primarily took issue with the wager's deistic and agnostic language. It is criticized for not proving God's existence, the encouragement of false belief, and the problem of which religion and which God should be worshipped.
Laplace
The probabilist mathematician Pierre Simon de Laplace ridiculed the use of probability in theology. Even following Pascal's reasoning, it is not worth making a bet, for the hope of profit – equal to the product of the value of the testimonies (infinitely small) and the value of the happiness they promise (which is significant but finite) – must necessarily be infinitely small.
Failure to prove the existence of God
Voltaire (another prominent French writer of the Enlightenment), a generation after Pascal, rejected the idea that the wager was "proof of God" as "indecent and childish", adding, "the interest I have to believe a thing is no proof that such a thing exists". Pascal, however, did not advance the wager as a proof of God's existence but rather as a necessary pragmatic decision which is "impossible to avoid" for any living person. He argued that abstaining from making a wager is not an option and that "reason is incapable of divining the truth"; thus, a decision of whether to believe in the existence of God must be made by "considering the consequences of each possibility".
Voltaire's critique concerns not the nature of the Pascalian wager as proof of God's existence, but the contention that the very belief Pascal tried to promote is not convincing. Voltaire hints at the fact that Pascal, as a Jansenist, believed that only a small, and already predestined, portion of humanity would eventually be saved by God.
Voltaire explained that no matter how far someone is tempted with rewards to believe in Christian salvation, the result will be at best a faint belief. Pascal, in his Pensées, agrees with this, not stating that people can choose to believe (and therefore make a safe wager), but rather that some cannot believe.
As Étienne Souriau explained, in order to accept Pascal's argument, the bettor needs to be certain that God seriously intends to honour the bet; he says that the wager assumes that God also accepts the bet, which is not proved; Pascal's bettor is here like the fool who seeing a leaf floating on a river's waters and quivering at some point, for a few seconds, between the two sides of a stone, says: "I bet a million with Rothschild that it takes finally the left path." And, effectively, the leaf passed on the left side of the stone, but unfortunately for the fool Rothschild never said "I [will take that] bet".
Argument from inconsistent revelations
Since there have been many religions throughout history, and therefore many conceptions of God (or gods), some assert that all of them need to be factored into the wager, in an argumentation known as the argument from inconsistent revelations. This, its proponents argue, would lead to a high probability of believing in "the wrong god", which, they claim, eliminates the mathematical advantage Pascal claimed with his wager. Denis Diderot, a contemporary of Voltaire, concisely expressed this opinion when asked about the wager, saying "an Imam could reason the same way". J. L. Mackie notes that "the church within which alone salvation is to be found is not necessarily the Church of Rome, but perhaps that of the Anabaptists or the Mormons or the Muslim Sunnis or the worshipers of Kali or of Odin." As just stated, the counterargument is flawed, since most religions do not say that belief in their particular god (Kali or Odin, for example) is necessary for bliss, but that flaw is easily remediable by using appropriate religions (Anabaptists vs. Roman Catholics).
Another version of this objection argues that for every religion that promulgates rules, there exists another religion that has rules of the opposite kind, e.g., Christianity requires the adherent to worship Jesus as God, but Judaism requires the adherent not to worship Jesus as God. If a certain action leads one closer to salvation in the former religion, it leads one further away from it in the latter. Therefore, the expected value of following a certain religion could be negative. Or, one could also argue that there are an infinite number of mutually exclusive religions (which is a subset of the set of all possible religions), and that the probability of any one of them being true is zero; therefore, the expected value of following a certain religion is zero.
Pascal considers this type of objection briefly in the notes compiled into the Pensées, and dismisses it as obviously wrong and disingenuous:
This short but densely packed passage, which alludes to numerous themes discussed elsewhere in the Pensées, has given rise to many pages of scholarly analysis.
Pascal says that the skepticism of unbelievers who rest content with the many-religions objection has seduced them into a fatal "repose". If they were really bent on knowing the truth, they would be persuaded to examine "in detail" whether Christianity is like any other religion, but they just cannot be bothered. Their objection might be sufficient were the subject concerned merely some "question in philosophy", but not "here, where everything is at stake". In "a matter where they themselves, their eternity, their all are concerned", they can manage no better than "a superficial reflection" ("une reflexion légère") and, thinking they have scored a point by asking a leading question, they go off to amuse themselves.
As Pascal scholars observe, Pascal regarded the many-religions objection as a rhetorical ploy, a "trap" that he had no intention of falling into. If, however, any who raised it were sincere, they would want to examine the matter "in detail". In that case, they could get some pointers by turning to his chapter on "other religions".
David Wetsel notes that Pascal's treatment of the pagan religions is brisk: "As far as Pascal is concerned, the demise of the pagan religions of antiquity speaks for itself. Those pagan religions which still exist in the New World, in India, and in Africa are not even worth a second glance. They are obviously the work of superstition and ignorance and have nothing in them which might interest 'les gens habiles' ('clever men')". Islam warrants more attention, being distinguished from paganism (which for Pascal presumably includes all the other non-Christian religions) by its claim to be a revealed religion. Nevertheless, Pascal concludes that the religion founded by Mohammed can on several counts be shown to be devoid of divine authority, and that therefore, as a path to the knowledge of God, it is as much a dead end as paganism." Judaism, in view of its close links to Christianity, he deals with elsewhere.
The many-religions objection is taken more seriously by some later apologists of the wager, who argue that of the rival options only those awarding infinite happiness affect the wager's dominance. In the opinion of these apologists "finite, semi-blissful promises such as Kali's or Odin's" therefore drop out of consideration. Also, the infinite bliss that the rival conception of God offers has to be mutually exclusive. If Christ's promise of bliss can be attained concurrently with Jehovah's and Allah's (all three being identified as the God of Abraham), there is no conflict in the decision matrix in the case where the cost of believing in the wrong conception of God is neutral (limbo/purgatory/spiritual death), although this would be countered with an infinite cost in the case where not believing in the correct conception of God results in punishment (hell).
Ecumenical interpretations of the wager argues that it could even be suggested that believing in a generic God, or a god by the wrong name, is acceptable so long as that conception of God has similar essential characteristics of the conception of God considered in Pascal's wager (perhaps the God of Aristotle). Proponents of this line of reasoning suggest that either all of the conceptions of God or gods throughout history truly boil down to just a small set of "genuine options", or that if Pascal's wager can simply bring a person to believe in "generic theism", it has done its job. The wager fails as an argument for believing exclusively in ecumenical religions, or believing at all in universalist religions that do not believe only their adherents attain eternal bliss.
Pascal argues implicitly for the uniqueness of Christianity in the wager itself, writing: "If there is a God, He is infinitely incomprehensible...Who then can blame the Christians for not being able to give reasons for their beliefs, professing as they do a religion which they cannot explain by reason?"
Argument from inauthentic belief
Some critics argue that Pascal's wager, for those who cannot believe, suggests feigning belief to gain eternal reward. Richard Dawkins argues that this would be dishonest and immoral and that, in addition to this, it is absurd to think that God, being just and omniscient, would not see through this deceptive strategy on the part of the "believer", thus nullifying the benefits of the wager.
Since these criticisms are concerned not with the validity of the wager itself, but with its possible aftermath—namely that a person who has been convinced of the overwhelming odds in favor of belief might still find himself unable to sincerely believe—they are tangential to the thrust of the wager. What such critics are objecting to is Pascal's subsequent advice to an unbeliever who, having concluded that the only rational way to wager is in favor of God's existence, points out, reasonably enough, that this by no means makes him a believer. This hypothetical unbeliever complains, "I am so made that I cannot believe. What would you have me do?" Pascal, far from suggesting that God can be deceived by outward show, says that God does not regard it at all: "God looks only at what is inward." For a person who is already convinced of the odds of the wager but cannot seem to put his heart into the belief, he offers practical advice.
Explicitly addressing the question of inability to believe, Pascal argues that if the wager is valid, the inability to believe is irrational, and therefore must be caused by feelings: "your inability to believe, because reason compels you to [believe] and yet you cannot, [comes] from your passions." This inability, therefore, can be overcome by diminishing these irrational sentiments: "Learn from those who were bound like you. . . . Follow the way by which they began; by acting as if they believed, taking the holy water, having masses said, etc. Even this will naturally make you believe, and deaden your acuteness.—'But this is what I am afraid of.'—And why? What have you to lose?"
Some other critics have objected to Pascal's wager on the grounds that he wrongly assumes what type of epistemic character God would likely value in his rational creatures if he existed.
An uncontroversial doctrine in both Roman Catholic and Protestant theology is that mere belief in God is insufficient to attain salvation, the standard cite being James 2:19: "Thou believest that there is one God; thou doest well: the devils also believe, and tremble." Salvation requires "faith" not just in the sense of belief, but of trust and obedience. Pascal and his sister, a nun, were among the leaders of Roman Catholicism's Jansenist school of thought whose doctrine of salvation was close to Protestantism in emphasizing faith over works. Both Jansenists and Protestants followed St. Augustine in this emphasis (Martin Luther belonged to the Augustinian Order of monks). Augustine wrote
Thus, Pascal's position was that "saving" belief in God required more than logical assent, so accepting the wager could only be a first step.
Variations and other wager arguments
The sophist Protagoras had an agnostic position regarding the gods, but he nevertheless continued to worship the gods. This could be considered as an early version of the Wager.
In the famous tragedy of Euripides Bacchae, Kadmos states an early version of Pascal's wager. It is noteworthy that at the end of the tragedy Dionysos, the god to whom Kadmos referred, appears and punishes him for thinking in this way. Euripides, quite clearly, considered and dismissed the wager in this tragedy.
The stoic philosopher and Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius expressed a similar sentiment in the second book of Meditations, saying "Since it is possible that thou mayest depart from life this very moment, regulate every act and thought accordingly. But to go away from among men, if there are gods, is not a thing to be afraid of, for the gods will not involve thee in evil; but if indeed they do not exist, or if they have no concern about human affairs, what is it to me to live in a universe devoid of gods or devoid of Providence?"
In the Sanskrit classic Sārasamuccaya, Vararuci makes a similar argument to Pascal's wager.
Muslim Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq is recorded to have postulated variations of the wager on several occasions in different forms, including his famed 'Tradition of the Myrobalan Fruit.' In the Shi'i hadith book al-Kafi, al-Sadiq declares to an atheist "If what you say is correct – and it is not – then we will both succeed. But if what I say is correct – and it is – then I will succeed, and you will be destroyed."
An instantiation of this argument, within the Islamic kalam tradition, was discussed by Imam al-Haramayn al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085) in his Kitab al-irshad ila-qawati al-adilla fi usul al-i'tiqad, or A Guide to the Conclusive Proofs for the Principles of Belief.
The Christian apologist Arnobius of Sicca (d. 330) stated an early version of the argument in his book Against the Pagans, arguing "is it not more rational, of two things uncertain and hanging in doubtful suspense, rather to believe that which carries with it some hopes, than that which brings none at all?"
A close parallel just before Pascal's time occurred in the Jesuit Antoine Sirmond's On the Immortality of the Soul (1635), which explicitly compared the choice of religion to playing dice and argued "However long and happy the space of this life may be, while ever you place it in the other pan of the balance against a blessed and flourishing eternity, surely it will seem to you ... that the pan will rise on high."
The Atheist's Wager, popularised by the philosopher Michael Martin and published in his 1990 book Atheism: A Philosophical Justification, is an atheistic wager argument in response to Pascal's wager.
A 2008 philosophy book, How to Make Good Decisions and Be Right All the Time, presents a secular revision of Pascal's wager: “What does it hurt to pursue value and virtue? If there is value, then we have everything to gain, but if there is none, then we haven’t lost anything.... Thus, we should seek value.”
Roko's basilisk is a hypothetical future superintelligence that punishes everyone who failed to help bring it into existence.
In a 2014 article, philosopher Justin P. McBrayer argued we ought to remain agnostic about the existence of God but nonetheless believe because of the good that comes in the present life from believing in God. "The gist of the renewed wager is that theists do better than non-theists regardless of whether or not God exists."
Climate change
Since at least 1992, some scholars have analogized Pascal's wager to decisions about catastrophic climate change. Two differences from Pascal's wager are posited regarding climate change: first, climate change is more likely than Pascal's God to exist, as there is scientific evidence for one but not the other. Secondly, the calculated penalty for unchecked climate catastrophe would be large, but is not generally considered to be infinite. Magnate Warren Buffett has written that climate change "bears a similarity to Pascal's Wager on the Existence of God. Pascal, it may be recalled, argued that if there were only a tiny probability that God truly existed, it made sense to behave as if He did because the rewards could be infinite whereas the lack of belief risked eternal misery. Likewise, if there is only a 1% chance the planet is heading toward a truly major disaster and delay means passing a point of no return, inaction now is foolhardy."
See also
A Confession
Appeal to consequences
Argumentum ad baculum
Atheist's Wager
Christian existential apologetics
Ecclesiastes
Evil God Challenge
Lewis's trilemma
Four Assurances
Buddhist wager argument for rebirth
Pascal's mugging
Pensées
Notes
References
Armour, Leslie. Infini Rien: Pascal's Wager and the Human Paradox. The Journal of the History of Philosophy Monograph Series. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1993.
Cargile, James. "Pascal's Wager". Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, eds. Oxford University Press, 1992.
Dawkins, Richard. "Pascal's Wager". The God Delusion. Black Swan, 2007 ().
Holowecky, Elizabeth. "Taxes and God". KPMG Press, 2008. (Phone interview)
Jordan, Jeff, ed. Gambling on God. Lanham MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1994. (A collection of recent articles on the Wager with a bibliography.)
Jordan, Jeff. Pascal's Wager: Pragmatic Arguments and Belief in God. Oxford University Press, 2007.
Lycan, William G. and George N. Schlesinger, "You Bet Your Life: Pascal's Wager Defended". Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, eds. Oxford University Press, 1992.
Martin, Michael. Atheism. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1990. (Pp. 229–238 presents the argument about a god who punishes believers.)
Morris, Thomas V. "Pascalian Wagering". Contemporary Perspectives on Religious Epistemology. R. Douglas Geivett and Brendan Sweetman, eds. Oxford University Press, 1992.
Rescher, Nicholas. Pascal's Wager: A Study of Practical Reasoning in Philosophical Theology. University of Notre Dame Press, 1985. (The first book-length treatment of the Wager in English.)
Whyte, Jamie. Crimes against Logic. McGraw-Hill, 2004. (Section with argument about Wager)
External links
Pascal's Pensees Part III — "The Necessity of the Wager" (Trotter translation), at Classical Library (Wager found at #233)
Section III of Blaise Pascal's Pensées, Translated by W. F. Trotter (with foreword by T. S. Eliot), at Project Gutenburg (Wager found at #233)
Pascal's Wager in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Pascal's Wager in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Pascal's Wager: Pragmatic Arguments and Belief in God (2006) by Jeff Jordan, University of Delaware, 2006
Ambiguity, Pessimism, and Rational Religious Choice (2010) by Tigran Melkonyan and Mark Pingle, Theory and Decision, 2010, Volume 69, Number 3, Pages 417–438
The Rejection of Pascal's Wager by Paul Tobin
Pascal's Mugging by Nick Bostrom
Theistic Belief and Religious Uncertainty by Jeffrey Jordan
Arguments for the existence of God
Blaise Pascal
Christian apologetics
Christian philosophy
Philosophical arguments
Probability theory
Thought experiments
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|
215540 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentacosmodon | Pentacosmodon | Pentacosmodon is a mammal genus from the Paleocene of North America, so it lived somewhat after the "age of the dinosaurs". It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata. It's within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Microcosmodontidae.
The genus Pentacosmodon, named by Jepsen in 1940, is known from the species Pentacosmodon pronus. Fossil remains of this animal have been found in strata dating to the Upper Paleocene of Wyoming (United States) and the Porcupine Hills Formation near the Bow River of Alberta, Canada. This genus was previously placed within family Djadochtatherioidea.
References
Jepsen (1940), "Paleocene faunas of the Polecat Bench Formation, Park County, Wyoming." Proc. of the Am. Philos. Soc. 83, p. 217-341.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. & Hurum J.H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals." Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: Eucosmodontidae, Microcosmodontidae and Taeniolabidoidea, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Paleocene mammals
Paleocene genus extinctions
Extinct mammals of North America
Fossil taxa described in 1940
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|
215543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2081 | New Jersey Route 81 | Route 81 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. The route is a freeway connector between exit 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95) and U.S. Route 1/9 near Newark Liberty International Airport. It runs for 1.18 miles (1.90 km), entirely within the city of Elizabeth in Union County. A freeway called Route S100 was initially proposed on the current alignment of Route 81 in 1938; it, along with its parent Route 100, was never built. The current route was conceived in the 1960s as a freeway replacement for Route 164, which followed Humboldt Avenue, a surface road. It was to be designated Route 76, but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 76 was created in New Jersey.
It was legislated in 1966 to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from exit 13 until North Avenue, where it would turn northwest and intersect U.S. Route 1/9 near the airport. The routing was eventually shifted to begin from a new interchange along the New Jersey Turnpike. A total of $50 million in funding was allocated for the road and the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road. The state had wanted the port authority to pay for construction; however it was ruled that they could not build the road. Construction on Route 81 took place between 1979 and 1982.
Route description
Route 81 is a freeway for its entire length through Elizabeth in Union County. It southern terminus is at the toll plaza for exit 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike (Interstate 95), near The Mills at Jersey Gardens shopping mall and Elizabeth Center power center. The route heads north from this interchange as a four-lane a freeway maintained by the New Jersey Turnpike Authority. A short distance north of the toll plaza, the route comes to an interchange with County Route 624 (North Avenue), which serves the aforementioned shopping areas as well as the Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal.
Route 81 heads northwest, running in between the travel lanes of North Avenue for a distance, with industrial areas located to the southwest and Newark Liberty International Airport to the northeast. Upon splitting from North Avenue, Route 81 features a northbound ramp to Newark Liberty International Airport and has an interchange with Dowd Avenue. From here, the route continues along the airport property with three northbound lanes and two southbound lanes maintained by the New Jersey Department of Transportation before reaching its terminus at U.S. Routes 1 and 9 just south of the Elizabeth–Newark city line. South of the terminus, ramps allow Route 81 traffic to access either the local or express lanes of US 1/9 as well as Newark Liberty International Airport.
History
Predecessors to Route 81
Route S100 was originally proposed as a freeway on the rough alignment of present-day Route 81 in 1938, running between the proposed Route 100 freeway (now the New Jersey Turnpike) and U.S. Route 1/9 and Route 25. However, Route S100 was not built. The original plan in the early 1960s for what is now Route 81 was to connect Newark International Airport with Elizabeth Seaport, bypassing Humboldt Avenue, which at the time was designated Route 164; Humboldt Avenue is no longer a state highway. The planned route was initially numbered Route 76, but was renumbered to Route 81 when Interstate 80S in the southern part of the state became Interstate 76. In 1966, Route 81 was legislated to run parallel to the New Jersey Turnpike from Exit 13 near the Goethals Bridge north to the vicinity of North Avenue, and head west along the southern edge of the airport to U.S. 1 & 9. By the 1970s, it was decided by the state of New Jersey to have Route 81 start at a new interchange 13A of the New Jersey Turnpike. In 1975, Governor Brendan Byrne requested $882 million in bonds to construct several roads in New Jersey, including Route 81.
Construction begins and finishes
The state allocated a total of $50 million for construction of Route 81 in 1976, with $16.6 million to be used within the next year, and the design for the proposed road, which was to provide a direct link to Newark Airport, began. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey was responsible for designing the road and half of the $1.6 million cost was to be paid for by the port authority while the state and the New Jersey Turnpike Authority were to split the other half. In 1977, the state wanted the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to pay the $50 million to build Route 81 and filed suit. However, the State Court of Appeals ruled in 1978 that the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey could not help build the road as it needed permission from both the New Jersey and New York legislatures, who wanted the port authority to focus on mass transit construction to airports.
With the construction of the new interchange on the New Jersey Turnpike, a service area along the turnpike named after William Halsey was subsequently closed down. Exit 13A, in turn, revitalized the Port Newark-Elizabeth Marine Terminal area. A retail center has arisen on the east side of the New Jersey Turnpike in an Urban Enterprise Zone, accessible from the North Avenue exit off Route 81. With the construction of the Jersey Gardens outlet mall, Exit 13A was reconstructed by Schoor DePalma Inc and financed by mall owner Glimcher Realty Trust.
Exit list
See also
References
External links
NYC Roads: NJ 81
New Jersey Roads - NJ 81
Transportation in Union County, New Jersey
081
Limited-access roads in New Jersey | [
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|
215551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20129 | New Jersey Route 129 | Route 129 is a major arterial boulevard state highway in the capital city of Trenton, New Jersey. The highway runs along Canal Boulevard, a four-lane arterial through portions of Trenton, serving as an alternative highway to its parent, Route 29. The route begins at an intersection with Lamberton Road in Hamilton Township, heads northward along the River Line maintained by New Jersey Transit until terminating at an interchange with U.S. Route 1 (US 1; the Trenton Freeway).
The original use of Route 129 opened in 1961 on what is now Interstate 295 (I-295) from the Scudder Falls Bridge to Scotch Road in Trenton. The route was replaced in 1974 by I-95 (re-designated as I-295 in 2018), while the route's current incarnation opened in September 1993 along a former portion of the Delaware and Raritan Canal. The route has remained virtually untouched since its opening.
Route description
Route 129 begins at an intersection with Lamberton Road on the Delaware River in Hamilton Township. The highway proceeds northward, passing through small fields and tree patches until reaching railroad tracks, where the route turns to the northwest, paralleling its parent, the Route 29 freeway to the west. Route 129 then becomes a divided highway, intersecting with an onramp to Route 29 and passing to the east of a large factory. From there, the highway merges back together and comes upon a partial interchange with Route 29. Route 129 itself continues along the railroad tracks on Canal Boulevard, entering the city of Trenton, where it becomes a divided highway once again.
At an intersection with Mercer County Route 650 (Lalor Street), Route 129 develops a grassy median and heads along the industrial portion of the city. With NJ Transit's River Line paralleling the highway, the state road serves access to large factories, a large residential district and a train station between Lalor Road and Cass Street. Route 129 continues northward along Canal, crossing under US 206 (South Broad Street) with a southbound exit to that road. It crosses Hamilton Avenue before reaching an interchange with US 1, where Route 129 ends and Canal Boulevard's right of way merges into the Trenton Freeway.
History
Route 129 originates as the earliest designation on a freeway from the Scudder Falls Bridge on the Delaware River to the interchange with Scotch Road, which opened in 1961. At that point, the new freeway was proposed with an eastward extension to US 1. However, by 1974, Route 129 was re-designated as a portion of I-95, and is now designated as I-295. The current incarnation of Route 129 was constructed along a former portion of the Delaware and Raritan Canal as an alternate arterial boulevard to Route 29 that opened in September 1993 from Lamberton Road to US 1 at a cost of $24.185 million (1993 USD) by the George Harms Construction Company. The route has remained virtually untouched since.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
New Jersey Roads - NJ 129
New Jersey Highway Ends: 129
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 129
State highways in New Jersey
Trenton, New Jersey
Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey | [
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|
215552 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20H.%20Critchfield | James H. Critchfield | James Hardesty Critchfield (January 30, 1917 – April 22, 2003) was an officer of the US Central Intelligence Agency who rose to become the chief of its Near East and South Asia division. He also served as the CIA's national intelligence officer for energy in the 1970s and after he retired in 1974, he became an energy policy consultant in the Middle East, serving such clients as Sultan Qaboos of Oman. Critchfield served as the president of a Honeywell, Inc. subsidiary called Tetra Tech International.
Biography
Born in Hunter, North Dakota to a doctor and a schoolteacher, he attended North Dakota State University, participating in its ROTC program and graduating in 1939. His younger brother, Richard Critchfield, was a journalist and essayist who wrote primarily about villages in the developing world. James served in the United States Army in World War II, first in North Africa and up through Europe, where he was one of the youngest Colonels, leading the 2nd Battalion of 141st Infantry of the 36th Infantry Division. He won the Bronze Star twice, and the Silver Star for gallantry in resisting a German assault on December 12, 1944.
Critchfield joined the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1948. He was tasked with exploiting the fallen Third Reich's intelligence organizations - Reinhard Gehlen and his Gehlen Organization - to gather information about the Soviet Union. This work, which led to the creation of the post-war West German intelligence apparatus, came to include the use of Nazi war criminals.
Critchfield defended his actions when the Nazi War Crimes Disclosure Act made it public knowledge, disputing that Gehlen himself was a war criminal but admitting to a Washington Post reporter that "there's no doubt that the CIA got carried away with recruiting some pretty bad people".
As the CIA's Near East Division Chief from 1959 to 1969, Chritchfield was reported to have "kept tabs on" (in the words of The Washington Post) or even "helped arrange" (according to Timothy Naftali, writing in Foreign Policy) the February 1963 coup that overthrew Abd al-Karim Qasim and first brought the Ba'ath Party to power in Iraq. Qasim's expropriation of the concessionary holdings of the British- and American-owned Iraq Petroleum Company, as well as his threats to invade Kuwait, had caused many U.S. officials to regard his government as a threat to American interests in the Middle East. Chritchfield denied that the CIA had "actively support[ed]" the Ba'ath Party, but acknowledged that it was "better informed on the 1963 coup in Baghdad than on any other major event or change of government that took place in the whole region in those years", explaining that "we watched the Ba'ath's long, slow preparation to take control" and "we knew perhaps six months beforehand that it was going to happen." Archival evidence indicates that a high-ranking member of the Party had informed the CIA of an earlier Ba'athist coup plot in mid-July 1962. It is not proven that the CIA was told in advance of the exact timing of the successful February 1963 coup, but longtime CIA officer Harry Rositzke later claimed "the CIA's major source, in an ideal catbird seat, reported the exact time of the coup and provided a list of the new cabinet members." Another former CIA official has stated that he was working with Archie Roosevelt, Jr. on a separate plan to instigate a military coup against Qasim, which was rendered moot by the latter's assassination. This official "denied any involvement in the Ba'ath Party's actions."
His CIA work earned him a Distinguished Intelligence Medal and a Trailblazer Award.
His first wife, Constance Reich Critchfield, died in a traffic accident in 1948. A marriage to Louise Mithoff Critchfield ended in divorce, then in the 1970s he met and married fellow CIA officer Lois Matthews Critchfield.
James Critchfield died in Williamsburg, Virginia of pancreatic cancer, and is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His posthumous memoir Partners at the Creation was published by the Naval Institute Press in 2003.
Books
Critchfield, James H. Partners at Creation: The Men Behind Postwar Germany's Defense and Intelligence Establishments. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2003. x + 243 pp, .
References
1917 births
2003 deaths
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
United States Army officers
United States Army personnel of World War II
People of the Central Intelligence Agency
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Deaths from cancer in Virginia
Recipients of the Silver Star | [
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215554 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usher%20%28musician%29 | Usher (musician) | Usher Raymond IV (born October 14, 1978), known professionally as Usher, is an American singer, songwriter, businessman, and dancer. He was born in Dallas, Texas, but raised in Chattanooga, Tennessee, until moving to Atlanta, Georgia. At the age of 12, his mother put him in local singing competitions before catching the attention of a music A&R from LaFace Records. He released his self-titled debut album Usher (1994), and rose to fame in the late 1990s with the release of his second album My Way (1997). It spawned his first U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number-one single "Nice & Slow", and the top-two singles "You Make Me Wanna..." and "My Way". His third album, 8701 (2001), produced the number-one singles "U Remind Me" and "U Got It Bad", as well as the top-three single "U Don't Have to Call". It sold eight million copies worldwide and won his first two Grammy Awards as Best Male R&B Vocal Performance in 2002 and 2003.
Confessions (2004) established him as one of the best-selling musical artists of the 2000s decade, containing four consecutive Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles—"Yeah!" (featuring Lil Jon and Ludacris), "Burn", "Confessions Part II", and "My Boo" (with Alicia Keys)—and the top-ten "Caught Up". It sold over 20 million copies worldwide and was certified Diamond by the RIAA. After splitting from his manager and mother in 2007, he released the albums Here I Stand (2008) and Raymond v. Raymond (2010), both of which debuted atop of the Billboard 200 chart and respectively produced the number-one singles "Love in This Club" (featuring Young Jeezy) and "OMG" (featuring will.i.am). The EP Versus produced the top-five single "DJ Got Us Fallin' in Love" (featuring Pitbull) before the release of the top-fifteen single "More". Looking 4 Myself (2012) also debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart with the top-ten single "Scream". The R&B ballads "There Goes My Baby" and "Climax" received Grammy Awards in 2011 and 2013. "I Don't Mind" (featuring Juicy J) also reached the top-fifteen in 2014, while Hard II Love (2016) peaked at five on the Billboard 200 chart. In 2018, he released A, a collaborative album with record producer Zaytoven.
Usher has sold 23.8 million albums and 38.2 million digital songs in the United States. Internationally, he has sold 80 million records worldwide, making him one of the best-selling music artists of all time. At the end of 2009, Billboard named him the second most successful artist of the 2000s decade, the number-one Hot 100 artist of the 2000s decade, and ranked Confessions as the top solo album of the 2000s decade. In 2010, Billboard placed him at number 6 on their list of Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years. In 2019, Billboard also placed him at number 14 on their "Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Artists" list. Usher has earned 9 number-one singles. Considered an icon and sex symbol, he has had TV and film appearances and seen inductions into the Georgia Music Hall of Fame, the Black Music and Entertainment Walk of Fame, and the Hollywood Walk of Fame. Usher has won numerous awards and accolades including eight Grammy Awards, 34 ASCAP Awards, nine Soul Train Music Awards, and eight American Music Awards. With 18 awards, Usher is the fifth-most awarded artist at the Billboard Music Awards. He owns the record label Raymond-Braun Media Group (RBMG), a joint venture with talent manager Scooter Braun that includes Canadian singer Justin Bieber. Alongside a successful music career, Usher is also acclaimed for involvement in humanitarian causes and is the founder of Usher's New Look foundation.
Early life
Usher was born as Usher Raymond IV on October 14, 1978 in Dallas, Texas. His parents were Jonetta Patton (née O'Neal; from Tennessee) and Usher Raymond III. He spent the majority of his young life in Chattanooga, Tennessee. His father left the family when Usher was a year old. Usher grew up with his mother, then-stepfather, and half-brother James Lackey (born 1984). Directed by his mother, Usher joined the local church youth choir in Chattanooga when he was nine years old. There, his grandmother discovered his ability to sing, although it was not until Usher joined a singing group that she considered he could sing professionally. Believing that a bigger city would provide greater opportunities for showcasing his talent, Usher's family moved to Atlanta, Georgia, where there was a more conducive environment for beginning singers. While in Atlanta, he attended North Springs High School.
Career
Late 1980s–1996: Musical beginnings and Usher
At age ten, Usher joined an R&B local quintet called the NuBeginnings, which was organized by local music promoter Darryl Wheeler. Usher recorded ten songs with the group in 1991, and the ensuing album, Nubeginning Featuring Usher Raymond IV, was only made available regionally and by mail order. However, Patton took him out because, according to her, it was a "bad experience". The album was re-released nationally in April 2002 by Hip-O Records.
At age 13, Usher met A.J. Alexander at a local talent show in Atlanta. Alexander, who at the time was Bobby Brown's bodyguard, would take Usher around and have him perform in parking lots and talent shows. Alexander invited Bryant Reid, an A&R representative from LaFace Records to see Usher perform on the television talent show Star Search. Following the performance, he arranged an audition for Usher with L.A. Reid, the co-founder of LaFace; Reid signed Usher on the spot to a contract with the record company after Usher sang Boyz II Men hit record "End of the Road". Usher's mother left her job as a medical technician to manage his career. Usher was introduced to the public on "Call Me a Mack", a song he recorded for the soundtrack album to the 1993 drama-romance film Poetic Justice. During this time period, the young Usher first met Chilli of TLC, his label-mate whom he would later date.
Preparing for his debut album, Usher lost his voice. Usher was going through puberty and had a difficult time adjusting his voice. LA Reid became skeptical of Usher and put his album on hold; he thought about dropping him from the label. Usher pleaded with the label to keep him and they did. From this point Reid didn't know what to do with Usher so he sent him to New York in the spring of 1994 to live with record executive Puff Daddy to "attend" what Reid called "Flavor Camp". Usher quickly adapted to the lavish lifestyle of Puff Daddy although in an interview with Rolling Stone, he described this period as the "hardest days" of his life. "I had to knuckle up, figure shit out in New York" he said.
On August 30, 1994, LaFace released Usher's self-titled debut album behind the co-executive production of Sean "P Diddy" Combs. Usher peaked at number twenty-five on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart and was accompanied by three singles: "Can U Get wit It", "Think of You", and "The Many Ways". The album has sold over 500,000 copies, to date. The album received backlash because Usher was singing about sex, and him only being 15 years old, the public had a difficult time believing that this was so. Again LaFace had their reservations about signing Usher because the album wasn't as successful as they anticipated. At this time Usher's mother took control of his career and put him in more talent shows the summer of 1995 building Usher a larger fan base and ultimately giving L.A. Reid more confidence in Usher.
After graduating from high school, Usher continued to develop his skills as a stage performer and laid the groundwork for his second album. He also appeared on LaFace's version of "Let's Straighten It Out", a 1995 duet with fellow Atlanta teen recording artist Monica; and on "Dreamin'", from LaFace's 1996 Olympic Games benefit album Rhythm of the Games. He was also featured on "I Swear I'm In Love" off the soundtrack to the 1996 film Kazaam.
1997–2003: My Way and 8701
Usher developed a friendship with American record producer Jermaine Dupri, with whom he co-wrote and produced several tracks for his second album, My Way, released on September 16, 1997. The album's lead single, "You Make Me Wanna...", reached number one in the United Kingdom, becoming Usher's first record to be top single; this resulted in him increasing in popularity. It also became Usher's first gold- and platinum-certified single in the United States. The album's second single, "Nice & Slow", peaked in January 1998 at number one on the Billboard Hot 100, giving Usher his first US number-one single. In February of the same year, the single was certified platinum by the RIAA. My Way has been certified six-time platinum in the United States.
"You Make Me Wanna..." won the Best Male R&B/Soul Single at the 1999 Soul Train Music Awards. In the closing months of 1997, Usher embarked on a series of tour engagements including a spot on Puffy's No Way Out tour, dates with Mary J. Blige, and the opening spot on Janet Jackson's The Velvet Rope Tour. Usher's first concert album, Live, was released in 1999, which featured appearances by Lil' Kim, Jagged Edge, Trey Lorenz, Shanice, Twista and Manuel Seal; the album has been certified gold in the United States.
Usher made his acting debut on the UPN television series Moesha, which resulted in a recurring role on the series and subsequently his first film role in 1998's The Faculty. Usher's extracurricular activities outside of the recording industry gathered momentum over the following year, as he was cast in the soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful. He completed two more films, She's All That, and his first starring role in Light It Up. He also appeared in the Disney TV movie Geppetto.
Usher's third studio album, originally titled All About U, was stated to be released in early 2001. The first single, "Pop Ya Collar", was released in late 2000 and became a number two hit in the UK but underperformed in the United States. The album was subsequently pushed back and retooled after select tracks were later leaked to the radio and Internet. After having revised and renamed to 8701, the album was released on August 7, 2001 (8.7.01). The first two singles "U Remind Me" and "U Got It Bad" each topped the Billboard Hot 100 for four and six weeks, respectively. 8701 has been certified four-time platinum in the United States.
Usher appeared in the 2001 film Texas Rangers. In February 2002, Usher won a Grammy for Best Male R&B Vocal Performance for "U Remind Me". The next year, he won the same award for "U Don't Have to Call", making Usher the only artist aside from Luther Vandross and Stevie Wonder to win this award consecutively. In the summer of 2002, Usher contributed vocals to P. Diddy's "I Need a Girl, Part I". The year closed out with a trio of TV series appearances, all in November, on The Twilight Zone, 7th Heaven, Moesha, and American Dreams, the latter in which Usher portrayed Marvin Gaye.
2004–2009: Confessions and Here I Stand
Usher's fourth studio album, Confessions, was released on March 23, 2004—just as its first single, "Yeah!", was in its sixth week at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and fifth week on top of the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles Chart. The album's nearly 1.1 million unit debut sales was the highest first-week numbers ever scanned by a male R&B artist and the seventh best of the Nielsen SoundScan history. The album has since sold over 15 million copies worldwide, with over 10 million in the United States, earning the album a Diamond certification by the RIAA.
The album's second and third singles, "Burn" and "Confessions Part II", also topped the Billboard Hot 100, the former for eight weeks. Usher became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay with four consecutive number-one singles, In September 2004, "My Boo", a duet with American singer-songwriter Alicia Keys, also peaked at number one at the Billboard Hot 100, becoming the album's fourth number-one single. In December, the album's final single "Caught Up" peaked at number eight on the Hot 100.
Confessions earned Usher numerous awards, including four American Music Awards, two MTV Europe Music Awards, two MTV Video Music Awards, and three World Music Awards. At the 47th annual Grammy Awards ceremony in 2005, Usher won three awards, including: R&B Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals for "My Boo", which he shared with Keys; Rap/Sung Collaboration for "Yeah!"; and Contemporary R&B Album for Confessions. At the 2004 Billboard Music Awards, Usher was recognized Artist of the Year, in addition to receiving 10 other accolades.
Usher supported Confessions with "The Truth Tour". The tour set featured a small stage up on top of the main stage, where the band played with Usher and his supporting dancers left with enough room to perform. The smaller stage had a mini platform attached to it which lowered to the main stage and had two big staircases on both sides of it. To the left, a group of circular staircases climbed to the top, and to the right, there was a fire escape replete with steps and an elevator. Kanye West and Christina Milian were the opening acts for the tour. Usher at select dates would bring out a special guest, during his Atlanta show taping he brought out his artist at the time Rico Love to rap a verse on the song "Throwback". During a more intimate part of the show, Usher's dancers selected singer Monica from the crowd to be serenaded by Usher while he sang album favorites "Do it to Me" and "Superstar". Usher also performed the Confessions Pt. II remix, where Kanye West would appear from back of the stage. Then lastly Usher would also bring out artist Lil Jon and Ludacris where they would finish the show performing the hit "Yeah". This concert date was filmed to make the official tour DVD of Truth Tour: Behind the Truth "Live from Atlanta". It has been certified by the RIAA selling more than 7 Million copies.
In the spring of 2005, Usher scored a number three Hot 100 hit as a featured vocalist on Lil Jon's "Lovers & Friends". In 2007, Usher also collaborated with R. Kelly on the track "Same Girl", for Kelly's album Double Up. He was also featured in a remix version of Omarion's "Ice Box". Usher also appeared on the track "Shake Down" on American singer-songwriter Mary J. Blige's 2007 album Growing Pains. According to Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times, Usher was voted number-one on the executive voting based "Pop's Power List" and described as a "sure-fire property". In November 2005, Usher starred as a disc jockey named Darrell in the Lions Gate film In the Mix.
On August 22, 2006, Usher took over the role of Billy Flynn in the long-running Broadway revival of the musical Chicago. Usher's opening night brought out stars Penélope Cruz, Gabrielle Union, Clive Davis, and Rosie Perez among others. Usher played the role of Flynn for two months but a case of strep throat brought an abrupt ending to Usher's run in Chicago, which saw a spike in ticket sales after he joined the cast. The New York Post reports that Usher's absence cost the production an estimated $400,000 in refunds to disappointed ticket buyers. The producer of Chicago, Barry Weissler, issued a statement sending his "thoughts and best wishes to Usher for a quick and speedy recovery. Usher made a spectacular Broadway debut, bringing a great dedication, work ethic and his amazing talent to the show. We all hope that he might return at some point for the many fans that were unable to see his wonderful performance as Billy Flynn. Usher has found a new home on Broadway and is welcomed back anytime."
Here I Stand was released on May 26 in the United Kingdom and May 27, 2008 in the United States. The album debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 Chart with first-week sales of over 433,000 copies. To date Here I Stand has sold over 1.5 million copies in the United States, been certified platinum by the RIAA, and has sold over 5 million copies worldwide. While not approaching the success of his previous album, it received positive reviews from most music critics, who praised the maturity in the album's lyrics. To promote Usher's fifth studio album, the single "Love In This Club" was sent to radio in February 2008 and peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. It went on to spend three consecutive weeks at the top—becoming Usher's eighth number-one single and the fastest-rising song of his career. It also reached No. 1 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The single was another huge international success for Usher. It reached No. 1 on the New Zealand Singles Chart, No. 3 on the Irish Singles Chart, No. 3 on the Eurochart Hot 100, No. 4 on the UK Singles Chart, No. 5 on the Japan Hot 100, No. 5 on the German Singles Chart, No. 5 on the Belgian Singles Chart (Flanders), No. 6 on the Canadian Hot 100, No. 8 on the Swedish Singles Chart, No. 8 on the Australian Singles Chart, No. 9 on the French Singles Chart, No. 9 on the Swiss Singles Chart, No. 10 on the Norwegian Singles Chart, No. 12 on the Austrian Singles Chart, No. 13 on the Belgian Singles Chart (Wallonia), and No. 18 on the Finnish Singles Chart. The follow-up single "Love in This Club Part II", which features American singer Beyoncé and rapper Lil Wayne, peaked at No. 18 on the Billboard Hot 100 and No. 7 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. Its third single "Moving Mountains" peaked at No. 18 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and reached No. 6 on the New Zealand Singles Chart. The album's fifth single "Trading Places" peaked at No. 4 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. In September 2008, Usher announced he would embark on the 15-date tour One Night Stand, in which the audience is only females. On January 18, 2009, Usher performed with Stevie Wonder and Shakira at the We Are One: The Obama Inaugural Celebration at the Lincoln Memorial. He also sang "Gone Too Soon" at the memorial of Michael Jackson on July 7, 2009.
2010–2011: Raymond v. Raymond and Versus
Raymond v. Raymond was released on March 26, 2010 in Germany, on March 30, 2010 in the US, and on April 26, 2010 in the UK. The album was expected to follow in Usher's Confessions album's footsteps. Raymond v. Raymond was released only months after Usher's divorce from Tameka Foster. "Papers", a song about divorce, was released as the first single for the album in October 2009. It topped the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for two consecutive weeks, becoming his tenth number one single on that chart. It also peaked at number 31 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. Critics praised the song for its emotion. "Hey Daddy (Daddy's Home)" was released as the second single on December 8, 2009. The single peaked at number 24 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 2 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The song was released as the second international single in July 2010. "Lil Freak" was announced as the album's official second single in the United States. Usher and Nicki Minaj shot the music video for the song on March 9, 2010 in Los Angeles with director TAJ Stansberry. It reached number 8 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100. It became Usher's fourth Top 40 hit single from Raymond v. Raymond, when including the buzz single "Papers".
"OMG", which features will.i.am, is the third official US single and the first international single. The song received mixed reviews, complimenting the song's dance and club vibe but criticizing the Auto-Tune effect. It reached number-one in Ireland, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Australia and the United States. The song became his ninth number one in the United States, making him the first 2010s artist to collect number one singles in three consecutive decades, and only the fourth artist of all-time to achieve the feat. Usher also became the third artist to have at least one number one song from five consecutive studio albums. The song's choreography and dance-heavy accompanying music video has been compared to that of "Yeah!". "There Goes My Baby" was released to airplay as the album's fourth single in the United States on June 15, 2010. The song reached number 25 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number-one on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, becoming Usher's eleventh number-one hit on that chart. The song ended up tying with "You Make Me Wanna" for fourth longest stay on the chart with 71 weeks. All of the album's singles received very heavy air play. On April 7, 2010, Raymond v. Raymond debuted at number No. 1 on the US Billboard 200 chart, becoming his third consecutive No. 1 album and selling an impressive 329,107 copies in its first week of release, making him the first male artist since Eminem to have three consecutive albums debut at number one on the Billboard 200 chart. After one month of release the album was certified Gold by the RIAA. On June 17, 2010, the album was certified Platinum by the RIAA.
Raymond v. Raymond also dominated the International Charts, debuting inside the top 10 in Canada, the United Kingdom, Holland, Australia, Germany, Spain, and Italy. Due to the huge international success of Usher's single "OMG" and the good first week sales for Raymond v. Raymond, the album reached number two in Australia and has been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). The album debuted at number four in Canada and has been certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association (CRIA). Raymond v. Raymond debuted at number-two in the United Kingdom.
Usher announced on July 8, 2010,<ref
name="independent.co.uk"></ref> a follow-up extended play to his sixth studio album Raymond v. Raymond called Versus, and a deluxe edition of Raymond v. Raymond, both to be released on August 24, 2010. Usher described Versus as "the last chapter of Raymond v. Raymond", and that it would explore the subjects of being newly single and a father. The album included 9 tracks, including 7 new tracks, Raymond v. Raymond single "There Goes My Baby", and Justin Bieber single "Somebody to Love (Remix)". The tracks would be included on a deluxe edition of Raymond v. Raymond. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 chart and is preceded by the singles "DJ Got Us Fallin' In Love" featuring Pitbull, for mainstream audiences, and "Hot Tottie" featuring Jay-Z, for urban circuits.
The first single from the album, "DJ Got Us Fallin' In Love", was released to iTunes on July 13, 2010, and sent to radio on July 20, 2010. Due to strong digital sales the song debuted at number nineteen on the Billboard Hot 100. The song became the fourth highest debut on the Billboard Hot 100 of his career, behind 1997's "Nice & Slow" at number nine, 1998's "My Way" at eight, and 2010's "OMG" at number fourteen. Since its release, it has gained international success, peaking in the top 5 in the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. It reached the top 10 in Canada and Europe. It reached number-nine on the Billboard Hot 100 in its third week of release, and became the first time Usher has had two top-ten hits on the Billboard Hot 100 at the same time since his album Confessions. It also became Usher's sixteenth Billboard Hot 100 top-ten hit of his career. The second single, Hot Tottie, reached number nine on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and number twenty-one on the Billboard Hot 100.
Usher appeared at the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards on September 12, 2010. He then performed at the 2010 American Music Awards on November 21, 2010, and also won the awards for Male Soul/R&B artist and Favorite Soul/R&B album for his album Raymond v. Raymond. According to Rap-Up.com, Usher started working on his next studio album, again teaming up with long-time collaborator Rico Love. The OMG Tour began in November 2010 and ended on June 1, 2011.
On September 8, 2011, Usher appeared on Romeo Santos' second single "Promise" from his debut studio album Formula, Vol. 1. The song was his first number-one on the Billboard Latin Songs chart.
Usher also made an appearance in the Super Bowl XLV halftime show to sing his song "OMG" with The Black Eyed Peas' singer will.i.am.
2012–2014: Looking 4 Myself and The Voice
In November 2011, Usher revealed that for his next album he was working on a new type of music which he has depicted as "revolutionary pop", which combines different genres to form a new sound. His seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself was released on June 8, 2012 worldwide, and received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. American singer-songwriter and record producer Rico Love was interviewed by Billboard magazine, where he spoke about his relationships with artists and experiences. He commented on how Usher wanted to do things differently on the album compared to his previous efforts, saying: "What he wanted to do [on Looking 4 Myself] was explore himself musically. He stepped outside of what was safe and normal. He wanted to make an album that expressed where he was going sonically and not just where he's been for the past 12 to 15 years. He's growing, developing, moving, shaking, and being something that's new, cultural, and that's affecting people sonically. That's kind of forcing the people to grow and elevate". In an interview for MTV News, Usher stated that Looking 4 Myself is "the most artistic of an album" he has ever had in history. When questioned by Reuters during an interview regarding the latter quote, and how this project was different, Usher explained that he felt he was near a 'rebirth' and that prior to Looking 4 Myself, he felt restricted and conformed to a specific standard. He said to himself "I gotta go with what I feel and hopefully people will follow me".
The lead single from Usher's seventh studio album is titled "Climax". It impacted Urban radio on February 21, 2012, and was made available for purchase as a digital download on February 22, 2012. It impacted US mainstream radio on March 13, 2012. The second single released from the album was "Scream" and the third single "Lemme See" which features Rick Ross. "Scream" was premiered on April 26, 2012, while "Lemme See" was premiered on May 8, 2012. On Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Airplay, "Climax" enabled Usher to add a second song of his in the six longest stays at number one for 11 weeks after "You Make Me Wanna" with 12 weeks.
In 2013, Usher substituted for CeeLo Green as a coach for the fourth season of NBC's The Voice. His last act, Michelle Chamuel, lost the winning title to Danielle Bradbery, mentored by Blake Shelton. He returned for the sixth season and his last act, Josh Kaufman, won.
On March 19, 2013, Usher announced that his eighth studio album, titled UR, was in the works. Talking to The Fader, he described the album as "everything you can imagine", saying that it's "gonna be freaking out of here". Singer-songwriter Eric Bellinger told Rap-Up that he, along with Jermaine Dupri, Bryan-Michael Cox, and Brian Alexander Morgan, was working on Usher's next album. Bellinger compared the album's music to Usher's Confessions (2004), saying that it is "more R&B, more urban" than Usher's Looking 4 Myself. The latter declared that his next album would show that he is "still Usher". "Good Kisser", a dance-heavy throwback R&B track, was released as the first single allowing Usher to achieve his 13th no.1 on the Airplay chart, tying Drake for most leaders in the list's history. Produced by Pop & Oak, it was performed at The Voice. Since then, two other singles have been released from the album: "She Came to Give It to You" featuring Nicki Minaj and "I Don't Mind" featuring Juicy J. The latter allowed Usher to lead the Rhythmic charts with the most number ones (13).
On August 25, 2014, Usher announced his UR Experience Tour in support of his then-titled eighth studio album UR. The UR Experience started in Montreal, Quebec on November 1 and ended in Tampa, Florida on December 14. The 27 city North American leg was supported by opening acts DJ Cassidy and R&B newcomer August Alsina. The European leg of the tour visited 23 cities and the support would be Nico & Vinz. "With The UR Experience, I want to give my fans an ever-changing live show full of surprises and special guests," Usher says, via a press release. "I am really excited to be with my fans and give them an Usher experience like they've never seen or heard before." While on tour, with the collaboration of Honey Nut Cheerios, he released "Clueless", a new song that could be downloaded free using a code from specially-marked Honey Nut Cheerios boxes bought from Walmart.
2015–2017: Hard II Love and Hands of Stone
On October 16, 2015, Usher released an interactive music video exclusively on the music streaming platform Tidal called "Chains" featuring artists Nas and Bibi Bourelly. "Chains" literally forces the viewer to confront the issue of racial profiling and police brutality head-on: By utilizing the webcam on the viewer's computer as well as facial recognition technology, "Chains" paused mid-song whenever the viewer's eyes deviate from the video. Usher performed the song for the first time at the Tidal X:1020 concert on October 20, 2015 at Brooklyn's Barclays Arena. On January 14, 2016, after continual delays of his eighth album, Usher announced via Daniel Arsham Instagram post that he changed the title of the album from UR to Flawed. It was scheduled to be released in April 2016, but has been pushed back with no release date. On February 29, 2016, Yuna released "Crush" as the first single from her forthcoming album Chapters featuring Usher. On June 9, 2016, Usher released a new single from his expected forthcoming album Flawed on the music streaming platform Tidal titled "No Limit" featuring Young Thug, along with a second single titled "Crash" on June 10 for all digital platforms.
On June 12, 2016, it was reported that Raymond signed a management deal with business partner Scooter Braun. Braun already represented Justin Bieber and had a joint venture with Raymond and Bieber. This report was confirmed by Usher during a sit down interview with Ryan Seacrest at the 73rd annual Cannes Festival on June 21, 2016. Usher furthered his acting career, starring as American former professional boxer Sugar Ray Leonard in the 2016 American-Panamanian biographical sports film Hands of Stone about the career of Panamanian former professional boxer Roberto Durán. In it, he starred opposite of Édgar Ramírez, Robert De Niro and Ruben Blades. On August 26, 2016, Hands of Stone premiered worldwide. "Missin U" was also released as a third single by RCA Records for online streaming and digital download, along with "Champions (from the Motion Picture Hands of Stone)", both on Vevo. On August 30, "Rivals" featuring Future was released and debuted exclusively on Tidal with its accompanying video. It was released on Vevo on September 2, 2016. On September 13, 2016, both "Missin U" and "Rivals" were sent to radio as the album's third and fourth singles.
The album Hard II Love was released on September 16, 2016, and received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. It debuted at number 5 on the US Billboard 200, and sold 28,000 copies in the United States in its first week. It also became his seventh consecutive top ten album in the United States. The lead single, "No Limit" featuring rapper Young Thug initially was serviced to Urban radio on June 9, and eventually peaked at number 1 on the Mainstream R&B/Hip-Hop airplay chart, number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 9 on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs. On December 16, 2016, Chris Brown released "Party" as the second single from his forthcoming album Heartbreak on a Full Moon featuring Usher and Gucci Mane.
2018–present: A and Confessions 2
On October 12, 2018, Usher released his ninth studio album, titled simply A. The official tracklist contains 8 songs with features from Future and Gunna. The album was produced entirely by Zaytoven, who previously collaborated on Usher's Raymond v. Raymond album as a co-producer for the single "Papers".
Between November 9–17, 2018, Usher served as the headliner for the RNB Fridays Live concert series. The six date stadium tour in Australia and New Zealand sold over 150,000 tickets On November 14, 2018, Billboard reported that Usher signed a worldwide management deal with Luke Mitzman and 100 Management. It was also reported he is working on a follow up album that will be released in 2019. On December 2, 2018, Usher performed at the Global Citizen Festival: Mandela 100 in Johannesburg, South Africa, celebrating the legacy of Nelson Mandela. Usher and DJ Black Coffee performed a mash-up featuring the South African Indigenous Dance Academy (IDA).
Usher had a cameo in the crime film Hustlers, which was released on September 13, 2019, and stars Jennifer Lopez, Constance Wu, Keke Palmer, Cardi B, and Lili Reinhart. In September 2019, director Lorene Scafaria told Vulture magazine his cameo was written into the script in 2016, before the film went into development. Usher is featured on the film's soundtrack, with his single ”Love in This Club".
In March 2019, Usher posted a photo of himself in the studio next to a whiteboard with the title "Confessions 2" and a blurred out tracklisting. The following day producer Jermaine Dupri, who produced the original Confessions went live on Instagram and previewed new music.
On June 15, 2019, Usher, alongside Erykah Badu, headlined the second annual Smoking Grooves Festival at the Queen Mary Events Park in Long Beach, California.
On September 6, 2019, Usher returned for season seventeen of NBC's The Voice. He joined John Legend team as this season's battle advisor. On September 10, 2019, DJ Black Coffee released his single "Lalala" featuring Usher from his forthcoming album. It reached number one on the South Africa airplay charts. Usher appeared on Summer Walker's debut album Over It, which was released on October 4, 2019. They collaborated on "Come Thru", which samples "You Make Me Wanna...", his hit from his second album, My Way. Time, Entertainment Weekly, and Paper all named it one of the best songs of the week.
On December 13, 2019, Usher released the lead single, "Don't Waste My Time", featuring British singer-songwriter Ella Mai for his upcoming ninth studio album. It was co-produced by longtime collaborators Bryan-Michael Cox and Jermaine Dupri. Usher, Ella Mai, and Jermaine Dupri performed the song on BET's SOS: Saving Ourselves - A BET Covid 19 Relief Special, to benefit African American Communities Impacted By Coronavirus on April 22, 2020. It topped the Adult R&B Chart, becoming his fifth number one single on that chart.
Usher performed at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards on January 26, 2020. Usher and Shelia E. performed a special tribute honoring Prince. This performance was teaser for the Let's Go Crazy: The Grammy Salute to Prince concert at the Staples Center scheduled for January 28, 2020 on CBS featuring performances from, Alicia Keys, John Legend, Chris Martin, H.E.R., and more.
Usher had been set to host and perform at the 2020 iHeartRadio Music Awards, which had been set scheduled to broadcast live on Fox on Sunday, March 29. The event was postponed due to concerns over the spread of coronavirus.
Usher served as executive producer and judge on a dance competition series called The Sauce. The seven-episode series premiered on April 6, 2020, on the streaming service Quibi. On April 11, 2019, Usher released his second single, "SexBeat", featuring former collaborators Lil Jon and Ludacris. It was co-written by Jermaine Dupri and Antoine Harris. The release of "SexBeat" came days after Lil Jon premiered the track on April 5 during an online music battle called #VERZUZ hosted by Swizz Beatz and Timbaland. He appeared on NBC's Songland and released the song "California" featuring Tyga on June 15, 2020. On June 26, 2020, Usher released "I Cry".
On September 4, 2020 Usher announced he will be headlining a 12 show residency at the Colosseum at Caesars’ Palace in Las Vegas, Nevada. The show is scheduled to start on July 16, 2021 and is slated to run until January 1, 2022. Live Nation Las Vegas and Caesars Entertainment will be donating $1 from every ticket purchased to Usher's New Look foundation.
Usher released the single "Bad Habits" on September 10, 2020 as the second single off his forthcoming studio album. The music video directed by Chris Robinson accompanied the song. It topped the Adult R&B Chart, becoming his sixth number one single on that chart.
Artistry
Musical style and influences
Usher's music is generally R&B, but also incorporates pop among other genres. Elias Leight of Rolling Stone wrote that "catching pop's waves has always been one of Usher's greatest strengths, whether that means collaborating with Lil Jon when crunk was going mainstream or charging into EDM". Complex stated that Usher provided some of "the best of pop music in R&B". His narratives have an autobiographical nature of emphasis on lifestyle, relationships and love, resembling "an R&B Casanova". Usher was new jack swing oriented, while My Way contained influences of soul. 8701 "introduces touches of '80s rock guitar and the minimal rhythm of '80s hip hop" displaying versatility, according to NME's Lucy O'Brien. Confessions is viewed as a "top-of-the-line pop-soul showcase", with established critic Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times seeing lead single "Yeah!" as something Michael Jackson would have created "if he still had the old Thriller magic". Here I Stand was noted as more ballad-heavy by critics, where the title track's usage of jazz notably drew comparisons to Stevie Wonder. Raymond V Raymond was described as a "skillful fusion of R&B/hip-hop/pop" by Billboard. Looking 4 Myself further explored progressive R&B, hip hop ballads and synth pop, with its overall sound coined "hybrid pop" for its dynamic incorporation of EDM, dubstep, neo soul and funk. Hard II Love sees Rolling Stones Maura Johnston view it to "stretch the boundaries of R&B while winding toward the brooding atmospherics that have enveloped much of pop over the past 12 months".
On many occasions, Usher has named Michael Jackson as his biggest influence. Usher once told MTV, "He influenced me in so many ways, more than just music . ... . as a humanitarian, as a philanthropist, as an artist, as an individual who transcended culture. I wouldn't be who I am today without Michael Jackson". During the television special 'Michael Jackson: 30th Anniversary Special', Usher was able to dance with Jackson while performing "You Rock My World". Prince being another main influence, Usher said "every album I'd always do like one song that is very Prince-influenced, because he's a great influence on me musically, especially just kind of being expansive and creating music that represents many different genres." In Time magazine's "100 Most Influential People" issue, he explained "I was interested in music and trying to find a model. It was Michael, or it was Prince. He had an attitude, a rawness that Michael didn't have. He was not urban, but he was our version of what cool could be." Other musical influences are Marvin Gaye, Stevie Wonder, Luther Vandross, Janet Jackson, Maze featuring Frankie Beverly, Al Green, and Boyz II Men.
The boy band New Edition and its solo member Bobby Brown were childhood influences. Usher told ABC News, "I can remember as a kid attending a New Edition Concert", and called it "one of the greatest moments in my performance history" years later when he was invited on stage with the group to perform "N.E. Heartbreak" at a concert in Washington, D.C. On Bobby Brown, Usher told CNN, "the first record that I ever bought was Bobby Brown's Don't Be Cruel", and that he admired him "Just for being an edgy artist, being a true representative of R&B and rhythmic music". Usher's Live album would feature a medley performance of Brown's original singles - "Don't Be Cruel", "Every Little Step", "Rock Wit'cha", and "Roni". Usher was inspired by Frank Sinatra's My Way album released in 1969 so much that he decided to name his second album My Way. Prince would inspire "Nice & Slow" while giving him his first number-one single on the Hot 100 chart. Usher's third album 8701 would be inspired by love and heartache, containing influences from Donny Hathaway, Stevie Wonder, Marvin Gaye and Michael Jackson. His fourth album was inspired by rapper Eminem, who he credited for being transparent. Usher said in an interview with Sway Calloway; "the honesty of hip-hop and what Eminem was saying on his records it motivated me ... there'd been other story tellers but never quite as vivid as his".
Vocal style
Usher possesses a leggiero tenor vocal range of 3 octaves and 4 notes, and is considered to be "one of the most soothing in R&B". At the age of 13, he set the record for the longest note ever held by a child on Star Search, with 12 seconds. Usher's vocal coach since My Way, Jan Smith, cites him as "the single most gifted singer I've ever worked with in 26 years". On the dynamic 8701, Rolling Stone's Kathryn McGuire describes his vocals as "velvety" and "impressively adaptable" as it won him his first two Grammys as Best Male R&B Vocal Performance. With Confessions, Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker generally noted him as "long on control and short on texture". He received another Grammy Award nomination in 2006 through a cover of Luther Vandross's "Superstar" he performed on The Oprah Winfrey Show in 2005. Here I Stand displayed his vocals as "agile" and "balletic", as well as his ability to "easily drift from wavering tenor to fine-tuned falsetto" that create emotions of urgency and burning according to Clover Hope of The Village Voice. On his One Night Stand: Ladies Only Tour in 2008, Lee Hildebrand of San Francisco Chronicle assessed "Usher's chest tones have a ringing, Gaye-like quality, and his high head tones suggest Prince's falsetto, but his frequent use of syllable-splitting curlicues owes much to Wonder. Usher is a stronger, more assured singer than he was a decade ago, though the melismas in his lower range sometimes meander off pitch. His falsetto tonality is more on target." Looking For Myself exemplified his vocal craft earning him positive acclaim as Gawker's Rick Juzwiak states "his vocal range is even more impressive than his emotional one" with emphasis on his falsetto being "something that sounds as natural as a speaking voice ... he's the picture of grace against shrieking synths ... His emotional range is vast enough to sell tenderness, lechery and wistfulness within minutes of each other". On "Climax", his performance lauded as "blistering" by Maura Johnston, and "hair-raising" by Jody Rosen, as he won Best R&B Performance in 2013. "There Goes My Baby" and "Dive" are also commended as showcase standouts of his "superior R&B vocal range" by Consequence of Sound's Ryan Hadfield, and MadameNoire's Brande Victorian. For Hard II Love, Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented "a genuinely expressive voice that encompasses an ardent croon, a melting falsetto and quick, singsong declamation".
Performance
Usher's stage performances have been complimented by critics as "packed with high-octane choreography held together by sleek, masterful showmanship", and his presence "engaging enough to pull off a one-man show". Vibe magazine notes him as being Bobby Brown-esque for his displays of "brash sexuality and arrogance", leading to antics such as being "prone to dropping his pants", and a "tendency to shed his shirt on stage". On his 8701 Evolution Tour in 2002, Larry Nager of The Cincinnati Enquirer hailed his simultaneous ability, stating "the 23-year-old Atlantan proved you can sing and dance at the same time. Of course, that's how James Brown, Jackie Wilson and Usher's most obvious role model Michael Jackson did it, but in today's high-tech, gimmicky concerts, it's a lost art", claiming his show "ended the reign of 'Nsync, Britney and the rest of the lip-synching, teen-pop acts". Usher told People magazine "James Brown introduced me to soul. Because of him I was given a clear view of what a real performance is and should be. I learned showmanship from him", and has seen comparisons to his influences. At the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, he performed "Confessions Part II" and "Yeah!" under a rain machine, in which he eventually threw the mic stand at a mirror during the former. Rolling Stone placed it at number 13 of their "20 Best MTV VMAs Opening Performances".
Chad Batka for The New York Times said "He has established himself as one of R&B's supreme performers and craftsmen, following through on what he learned from Michael Jackson in particular: songs that alternate between choppy and smooth, vocals punctuated by exultant high whoops, a dance vocabulary." Capable of playing the piano, he also began to adopt playing on other instruments such as the drums and bass guitar, amid singles "Good Kisser" and "She Came to Give It to You" in 2014. The UR Experience Tour consisted of a nine-piece band and three backing vocalists according to Billboard, as The Guardian called him "a masterful all-rounder who surrounds himself with talent on stage". Maura Johnston of Rolling Stone labels him the "Award Show King", explaining "His dedication to choreography dates back to the days when Janet Jackson made videos that looked like they were shot in one take. He's an entertainer that would have been stunning at any point in the last 60 years of television."
Art and feminism
Usher is a supporter of feminism and a fan of art. In December 2014, he attended Art Basel Miami and participated in an art installation at JJ Brine's VECTOR Gallery at Select Fair by performance artist Lena Marquise "Body As Commodity" during which she offered collectors 10 minutes of energy for $100. The news of the participation became the #1 reported on event of Art Basel. Usher did not disclose of the reasons behind his participation: media speculations assumed it was related to art and feminism amid the release of single "I Don't Mind" featuring Juicy J which discusses the work of an exotic dancer thus making a reference to the new wave of feminism.
Usher is an art collector. In an interview with Vulture he said: "It's significant to where you are in your life," explaining his turn to art collecting. "As you get older and have children, your reflections on what matters begin to change." Raymond said: "I started slowing it down," he went on, "enjoying the places I went, going to museums, understanding the nature of what artists were trying to say." Raymond is good friends with graffiti and street-style-inspired artist RETNA, who did the cover art for Justin Bieber's studio album Purpose, as well as contemporary American artist Daniel Arsham, who directed his music video "Chains" and did the cover art for his singles "No Limit" and "Crash".
On Tuesday, June 2, 2015, Usher was honored alongside Robert De Niro by the Gordon Park Foundation Dinner and Auction in downtown Manhattan for his contributions to the arts at a charity gala in New York. Receiving the Gordon Parks Foundation Award, named in honor of the late photographer-turned-filmmaker Gordon Parks.
Public image
Usher has been regarded as "an international sex symbol" since a young age, predominantly for his stage persona. Fusion states "Usher—one of the greatest R&B sex symbols in the past 20 years, paving the way for Chris Brown, Trey Songz and Justin Bieber—used sex as a major part of his image", while VH1 considers him to be "the sexiest male performer ever to walk a stage". People magazine named Usher the "Sexiest R&B Star" in 1998, with singer Monica who said on stage sexiness was manifest in "his movements, his gestures, the way he expresses his lyrics". They included him in their 2004 "Sexiest Men Alive", and 2008 "Sexiest Man Alive" lists. The New York Times writer Kelefa Sanneh referred to him as "one of the country's most famous ex-boyfriends" after his break-up with Chilli of TLC. He was ranked number-one on BET's "All Shades of Fine: 25 Hottest Men of the Past 25 Years" special in 2005. Madame Tussauds New York also unveiled a wax figure of Usher during a competition to launch The Usher Interactive Experience, and for the opening of a VIP room in 2007. Rolling Stone magazine ranks "Confessions Part II" amongst its "30 Sexiest Music Videos of All Time".
After his marriage to Tameka Foster, his sexual appeal was expected to mature as The New Yorker writer Sasha Frere-Jones wrote "The challenge here is to convince us that he is a married and responsible man—grown and sexy, [...]—without sacrificing the louche, frictionless sense of play that made him famous." VH1 have listed Usher at number 9 of its 100 Sexiest Artists List. According to Glamour magazine, he was one of the "Sexiest Men" of 2010, and 2011. In 2012, Billboard reviewed his fashion evolution stating "The singer came onto the scene in the '90s rocking baggy jeans and suits that made us question his celebrity status, but over the years this R&B star has developed his own signature look, rendering him a modern day fashion icon". In 2013, Complex placed him in its "Most Stylish R&B Singers of the 90s" list. Men's Health magazine was covered by Usher on its 25th anniversary issue, with Lou Schuler calling him "the man with the best abs in the entertainment industry". In 2014 and 2015, his Calvin Klein Collection suits saw him listed as "Best Dressed Men" by outlets at the Golden Globe Awards and Grammy Awards. InStyle have rated him both in their "Hottest Celebrity Abs" collection, and "37 of the Most Stylish Dads" list.
Legacy
Usher was named the Hot 100 Artist of the 2000s by Billboard stating "Usher's sexy brand of R&B dominated the last decade with the top-selling album and more No. 1s than any other act", with Confessions selling 20 million copies worldwide as the top solo album. Considered by Bonsu Thompson of Vibe to be "the Thriller of our generation", J. Tinsley of Uproxx ranked it amongst "landmark albums in pop culture" because of its theme. Pop music critic Sasha Frere-Jones of The New Yorker remarks that "For a while, Confessions was pop music" and says it "may turn out to have been the last true blockbuster in pop". Clay Cane said in 2008 "We didn't see pop-R&B artists on pop radio, and Usher is one of those people in the 90s who was the catalyst for that; he was kind of the pioneer ... He's the greatest example of pure crossover success". Described as the best dancer in pop since Michael Jackson by writers of VH1, and The Guardian, Jody Rosen said in 2012 "He's the biggest male pop singer in the world; sometimes, it seems like he's the only one, in a marketplace still dominated by divas". Attaining 9 Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles to tie with the Bee Gees, Elton John, and Paul McCartney, Justin Charity of Complex referred to him as "the greatest male pop singer of the past couple decades" in 2015.
The Godfather of Soul, James Brown, performed a duet with Usher in 2005 at the 47th Grammy Awards in which he honorably dubbed him the Godson of Soul. Brown reiterated "The new godson; Usher, the new godson" following the performance. Usher was inducted into the 29th Annual Georgia Music Hall of Fame in 2007, and the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 2016 with a star located at 6201 Hollywood Boulevard.
Recognised as an icon, Billboard placed him at number 14 on their "Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Artists" list, 6 on their "Top 60 Male Artists of All-Time" list, and 31 on their "35 Greatest R&B Artists of All Time" list. Confessions is placed at number 16 on their "Greatest of All Time 200 Albums" list, and 10 on Vibe magazine's "Greatest 50 Albums since '93". "Yeah!" is placed at number 14 in their "Greatest of All Time Hot 100 Songs" list, and 15 on VH1's "Greatest Songs of the 2000s". Los Angeles Times critic Randall Roberts marks dance singles "Yeah!", "Caught Up" and "OMG" to have influenced contemporary dance-pop, stating the former two also "helped define the [20]00s". Time magazine's pop stardom ranking metric, ranked Usher 3rd in history, based on "all-time chart performance and contemporary significance".
Usher has been referred to as the "King of R&B", as well as "Mr. Entertainment", by media outlets. The BET Honors honored him for his contributions to music with a Musical Arts award in 2015, presented by Bobby Brown who said "You remain a game changer, for your discipline, for your perfectionism. You're just a god man". The BET Honors highlighted his influence on many contemporary artists such as Chris Brown, Trey Songz, Drake, Bryson Tiller,Jason Derulo, Justin Bieber, Miguel, Omarion, Ray J, August Alsina, and Eric Bellinger. Ne-Yo further cited Usher as an influence upon the honor saying "I feel that without Usher, there would be no me, there would be no Chris Brown, there would be no Trey Songz. He paved the way for us". Other artists who have also cited him as an influence are 6lack, Rico Love, Zayn Malik, Jeremih, Anderson Paak, Trevor Jackson, Sam Hunt, Leon Bridges, Sammie, B.Smyth, Jacob Latimore, Kevin Woo, Keke Palmer, Justine Skye, BJ The Chicago Kid, Liam Payne of One Direction and actor Tahj Mowry.
Achievements
Usher has received numerous awards throughout his career from having one Diamond certified album in Confessions, two multi-platinum albums in My Way and 8701, two platinum albums in Here I Stand and Raymond v. Raymond and more, collectively selling over 23 million albums in the US and 43 million albums worldwide. This includes 8 Grammy Awards, 18 Billboard Music Awards, 9 Soul Train Music Awards and 8 American Music Awards. In 2004, Usher became the top Billboard honoree by taking 11 awards. At The 26th annual ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards in 2013, he was honored with the Golden Note Award. Billboard's 2 most successful artist of the 2000s, he was placed at number 6 on their list of "Top 50 R&B/Hip-Hop Artists of the Past 25 Years". Yahoo Music classed him as the best R&B act of the decade behind Michael Jackson on album sales, while Fuse ranked him as the 10th most award-winning musician of all time. He has sold over a total of 100 million records.
On the Billboard Hot 100 chart, "Nice & Slow", "U Remind Me", "U Got It Bad", "Yeah!", "Burn", "Confessions Part II", "My Boo", "Love in This Club" and "OMG" have all reached number-one among his eighteen top-ten singles, and accumulated 47 weeks at the top, more than any other male artist. Usher spent 28 weeks at number-one in 2004 alone, marking an all-time record for most cumulative weeks spent atop in a calendar year on the Hot 100. He broke the record set by Glenn Miller and His Orchestra in 1940; their records spent 26 cumulative weeks atop on charts which preceded the Hot 100 era. "OMG" made him the first 2010s artist to collect number-one singles in three consecutive decades (1990s, 2000s, 2010s). He became the fifth artist of all-time to achieve that feat behind Stevie Wonder (1960s, 1970s, 1980s), Michael Jackson (1970s, 1980s, 1990s), Janet Jackson and Madonna (1980s, 1990s, 2000s), and became the third male soloist in history to have at least one number-one single from five consecutive studio albums. On the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, Usher has 13 number-one singles tied with Michael Jackson and Marvin Gaye, the most of the 2000s with 8 number-ones, and set a chart Guinness World Record in 2010. Usher also has 14 number-one singles on the Rhythmic chart, 16 number-one singles on the Mainstream R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, and 16 number-one singles on the Airplay chart, with "You Make Me Wanna" (12 weeks) and "Climax" (11 weeks) as two of the longest stays on the latter. Usher has topped several Billboard Year-End charts including seven in 1998, seventeen in 2004, and one in 2010. The Hot 100 Songs chart was topped by "Yeah!" while "Burn" held second place, making him the first act since The Beatles in 1964 to have two singles occupy the top two positions. On the 2000s Billboard Decade-End chart, "Yeah!" finished second, behind Mariah Carey's "We Belong Together". "Love in This Club" and "OMG" are also amongst the best-selling digital singles worldwide.
Business and other ventures
Music
Usher founded vanity record label US Records in 2002. The label is a subsidiary of Clive Davis's J Records, which is distributed by Sony BMG. The first album released by US Records was the soundtrack to In the Mix in late 2005, which was used to introduce the label's acts, such as rapper Rico Love, Canadian teen R&B artist Justin Bieber, an R&B vocal quartet composed of Jon A. Gordon, Michael A. Gordon, Courtney Vantrease, and Robert Brent called One Chance, and singer Rayan. Usher served as songwriter-producer in the project. The Raymond Braun Media Group, which Justin Bieber is signed up to, is a joint venture between Usher and Bieber's manager Scooter Braun. Usher served as the contestant mentor for the Top 10 Week of Season 9 of the television show American Idol. He appeared on the ITV1 show Britain's Got Talent on June 5, 2010. Usher joined as a new coach on the NBC American reality talent show The Voice, alongside Adam Levine, Blake Shelton and Shakira in season 4, which premiered on March 25, 2013. Usher reached the finale with contestant Michelle Chamuel on June 13, 2013. Usher returned with Shakira in season 6 of The Voice, which premiered on February 24, 2014. Usher reached the finale again, and won with contestant Josh Kaufman on May 20, 2014.
Acting
Usher made his television acting debut on the American sitcom Moesha in 1997 playing Jeremy Davis, the love interest and classmate of Moesha, played by Brandy Norwood. He has acted in feature films, debuting in 1998's The Faculty. In 1999, Usher appeared as a student disc jockey in the teen romantic comedy film She's All That. The same year he starred in his first leading role in the movie Light It Up with Rosario Dawson, Vanessa L. Williams and Forest Whitaker. The following year, he played in Gepetto and Texas Rangers. He starred in the 2002 Twilight Zone revival episode To Protect and Serve as a police officer. Usher continued to make appearances in various television shows, including the period drama American Dreams (2002) in the role of Marvin Gaye. He also appeared in Sabrina the Teenage Witch in Season 2, episode 6 playing the role of a love doctor. In 2005, he starred in the crime-comedy film In The Mix with Chazz Palminteri and Kevin Hart. He has acted on stage, making his debut on Broadway in 2006 in Chicago as lawyer Billy Flynn and joining the cast of the Off-Broadway play Fuerzabruta in 2012; the former performance was critiqued by theater critic Ben Brantley as unfitting for the character played stating "Usher was "cast so hard against type, you would think you would hear him cracking from the collision", despite commending his vocal and choreographic performance in the show. In 2013, he began filming his role as boxer Sugar Ray Leonard for the 2016 American biographical film Hands of Stone, which follows the life of Panamanian boxer Roberto Durán. In the film he stars alongside Édgar Ramírez, Robert De Niro, Ellen Barkin and Ana de Armas. The film debuted at the Cannes Film Festival in Cannes, France on May 16, 2016, and was released in the United States on August 26, 2016.
Products and services
Aside from recording music, Usher is involved in other businesses, including several restaurants. In 2007, Usher worked with Richard Herpin and Honoring Blanc for the fragrances Usher He and Usher She. The promotion of the fragrance featured Usher and Martha Stewart in the Macy's "The Magic of Macy's" commercial. In September 2008, Usher released the fragrances UR for Men and UR for Women. Usher's fifth fragrance, VIP, was launched in 2009.
On March 30, 2015, it was announced that Usher is a co-owner, with various other music artists, in the music streaming service Tidal. The service specialises in lossless audio and high definition music video with curated editorial. Jay Z acquired the parent company of Tidal, Aspiro, in the first quarter of 2015. The slogan "Turn the tide" and the hashtag "#TIDALforAll" was used by various artists on social media during the buildup to the press conference relaunching the service. Usher, along with sixteen artist stakeholders (such as Alicia Keys, Kanye West, Beyonce, Rihanna, Madonna, J.Cole, Nicki Minaj and more) co-own Tidal, with the majority owning a 3% equity stake. The idea of having an all artist owned streaming service was created by those involved to adapt to the increased demand for streaming within the current music industry, and to rival other streaming services such as Spotify, which have been criticised for their low payout of royalties."The challenge is to get everyone to respect music again, to recognize its value", stated Jay-Z on the release of Tidal.
On June 28, 2015, Usher became partners with Yoobi the fast-growing school supplies company called based out of Los Angeles. The company donates a portion of its products to schools and has brought in over $20 million in revenue between June 2014 and June 2015, Yoobi CEO Ido Leffler told Inc. The Usher line of supplies with Yoobi features a collaboration with Jonni Cheatwood, the artist who does the designing. The slogan is "Mixing street smarts with school smarts". The collection is available online and at Targets nationwide, and for every purchase, school supplies are donated to kids in need in US classrooms. When asked why he partnered with Yoobi, Usher said, "Preparing future leaders through my New Look Foundation has always been about having the proper tools to succeed in life. If they don't have the tools, young men and women from underserved communities can't even begin to understand the idea of having a new or different perspective. So that's where this collaboration came together giving young people the tools and supplying them with hope."
Investments
Usher is a part owner of the Cleveland Cavaliers professional basketball team. He is part of a group which bought the team with a reported total purchase price of $375 million in 2005. He became the third pop artist to own a large stake in an NBA team. During his tenure, the Cleveland Cavaliers have won five Central Division Championships, three Eastern Conference Champions and the 2016 NBA championship on June 19, 2016, which he won as a minority owner.
On March 6, 2017, it was announced that Usher, Universal Music Group, Steve Stoute, Evolution Media, Jon Jashni, Charles King, and others invested $6 Million in Mass Appeal Magazine. Mass Appeal, is a New York City based media and content company. In 1996, Mass Appeal was founded as a graffiti print magazine. In 2014, Mass Appeal relaunched I after CEO Peter Bittenbender partnered with American rapper Nas, who would serve as the publication's associate publisher.
On April 2, 2019, Usher, Jay-Z, Walter Robb, Seth Goldman, Ndamukong Suh, and others invested $8 Million in a catering startup called Hungry. Hungry is a service that connects local chefs with companies looking for business and event catering. The catering company partnered with J's Kitchen Culinary Incubator, a business owned by Usher's mother Jonetta Patton.
On July 23, 2019, it was announced Usher, Kevin Hart, Justin Bieber, Demi Lovato, DJ Khaled, Scooter Braun, and Kendall Jenner among others collectively invested $5 Million in Liquid I.V., a health-science and nutrition wellness company based out of El Segundo, California. The company was founded in 2012 by Brandin Cohen to help children in developing countries suffering from extreme dehydration caused by deadly diseases.
Endorsements
Usher has worked with MasterCard since 2004, together they launched the Usher Debit MasterCard. A sleek black card, which features the Usher's face, has that was passed out to concertgoers during his nationwide The Truth Tour." In 2009, Raymond partnered with Belvedere Vodka, launching the campaign Product (Red) that went to donate half of all profits from a new special-edition bottle to fight HIV/AIDS in Africa. MasterCard again teamed up with Usher in 2015 to surprise one cardholder. Usher was disguised as a street performer to surprise one of his biggest British fans, who was flown into Los Angeles as part of MasterCard's Priceless Surprises campaign in support of the 2015 BRIT Awards.
In 2012, Usher partnered with the number-one selling dance game Microsoft Dance Central 3. Exclusively made on Kinect for Xbox 360. His role in the game was to bring his iconic talent and lend out his authentic choreography of his dance routines to his hit songs "Scream" and "OMG". Usher himself provides voiceover instruction for players participating in the Dance Central 3 game. At the launch of the game Usher gave a surprise performance of his song "Scream".
In 2013, Usher partnered with Samsung shooting a 2:28 minute short film directed by Rich Lee that included his single "Looking 4 Myself" from his then new album. The video features two Ushers in a face-off, as "down-to-earth" Usher seeks revenge against his "celebrity" alter ego after fame destroys his relationship. According to superstar, Hancock and The Matrix inspired the choreographed fight scenes with himself. The short film featured him using a Samsung's smart TV using the new motion control features that allows users to swipe through the channels. The commercial generated twenty-two million views making it the second highest viewed Samsung commercial behind LeBron's Day with the Samsung Galaxy Note II.
In 2015, Usher teamed up with Pepsi for The New Pepsi Challenge along celebrities Serena Williams, Usain Bolt, and many others. Every month, Pepsi "ambassadors" will use social media to issue a new challenge, many of which blend social responsibility with popular culture that encourages consumers to "do something different." Usher's challenge invited fans to capture a single photo of an image that they feel inspires and amazes others to look at the world in a new way. The winners photo would be selected and used in an upcoming Pepsi film.
Philanthropy
Usher founded New Look, a non-profit charity organization which aims to "provide young people with a new look on life through education and real-world experience". Its flagship project, camp New Look, ran from July 11 to 23, 2005, in Clark Atlanta University. In 2006, the charity started an initiative called Our Block, for which it helped rebuild and revitalize city blocks in New Orleans. The project went on one street at a time, and the funding was helped through part of the proceeds of Usher's team-up with Armani Exchange in creating "Love 4 Life" dog tags, which were made available at the company's stores and Web site. Since then, Usher has launched chapters of New Look in such cities as Baltimore, Detroit, Los Angeles, Milwaukee, New York, and Washington, D.C. New Look has for basic pillars; Talent, Education, Service, and Career. New Look program begins in the 8th grade and progresses through a student's high school and post-secondary education. Education is the center focus, Usher and his program ensures this. Students who participate in Usher's New Look achieve 100% graduation rates and all of New Look participants go on to Higher Education or Job Placement.
In 1999, Usher participated in "Challenge for the Children", a benefit basketball game hosted by American boy band NSYNC. The event, which was held on the campus of Georgia State University, had raised an estimated $50,000 for several local charities. In 2005, Usher is one among the artists who signed on for a Hurricane Katrina relief concert. He has also performed a public service announcement to promote Do Something's campaign for civic engagement.
After the devastating events of Hurricane Katrina, Usher launched Project Restart that would go on to help more than 700 families with housing and keeping their lights on. Usher also while in New Orleans would meet with students from Dillard and Xavier to aid them with cleaning up the city. "I'm here to physically do something and hopefully motivate other people to do the same," said Usher in an interview. Usher, because of his efforts and dedication to helping the city of New Orleans rebuild was presented the key to the city of New Orleans in 2008 from former Mayor Ray Nagin. Also in this presentation, Usher in his honor was proclaimed his own day, Usher Day.
In 2011, Usher was honored with the Freedom Award by the National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis. The Freedom Awards honor individuals who work for justice, equality, philanthropy, civil and human rights and humanitarian causes. Raymond was awarded this honor for his philanthropic work done by his New Look Foundation. Others honored with this award in the past Usher included Oprah, Ruby Dee, Harry Belafonte, Cicely Tyson, Coretta Scott King and other great figures.
On February 12, 2015, Usher visited his former hometown Chattanooga making a surprise visit at Dalewood Middle School, the Orange Grove Center and the Center for the Creative Arts. Dalewood is the middle school he attended before moving to Atlanta and the school is not that far away from the road "Usher Raymond Parkway" that was presented to Usher in 2001. Usher spoke to students at the Center for the Creative arts explaining the importance of education. His effort of giving back was to honor the legacy of his grandmother who passed early in the year. Who he called Nanny expressed to singer at a young age "whatever you want to do, I promise you can do it. We're going to look back one day, your teachers and I, and be very proud of you". At CCC, a donation of an undisclosed amount was made by the singer that would pay for new surfaces for the floors of two dance studios, a new digital lighting board and LED lights for the performing arts school's auditorium. Usher's second stop was Orange Grove Center, a nonprofit that serves adults and children with intellectual disabilities. There, he took part in a groundbreaking for planned improvements to the facility's track, said development director Heidi Hoffecker. The track will be named the Nancy Lackey Memorial Track to honor his grandmother.
In 2015, Usher teamed up with Anthony Anderson, Kevin Hart, Big Sean, Chris Paul and more collectively donating more than $500,000 in scholarships that was given to 20 students attending historically black colleges and universities. This is following the partnership with the UNCF in 2014 creating the Usher Raymond Scholarship Program, where last year he gave a student $100,000 to attend the Tuskegee University.
In 2016, Usher, alongside Tyrese, Future, Ludacris, and Jeezy donated $25,000 each to the UNCF during the 33rd annual Atlanta's Mayors Ball.
On February 18, 2017, Morehouse College during the 29th annual "A Candle in the Dark Gala" honored Usher with the prestigious Candle Award for his philanthropy and contributions to music. The Candle Award honors recipients for excellence in athletics, business, education, entertainment, and other arenas. Past recipients honored at the "Candle in the Dark" include Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles, Quincy Jones, Berry Gordy, and Smokey Robinson.
On January 31, 2018, Usher helped former NFL quarterback Colin Kaepernick complete his pledge to donate $1 million to oppressed communities. To complete the final $100,000 of his goal, Kaepernick launched the #10for10 campaign He made 10 donations of $10,000 to 10 different charities with 10 celebrities matching him with $10,000. Usher selected the H.O.M.E. (Helping Oppressed Mothers Endure) charity in Lithonia, Georgia to receive a combined donation of $20,000.
Politics and activism
In 2007, Usher launched his campaign in "Change in the South" in Atlanta, Georgia on the campus of Georgia Tech in support of then presidential hopeful Barack Obama. Obama asked Usher to serve as National Co-Chair for his voter registration campaign "Vote for Change". Doing more groundwork for Obama the following year Usher and Kerry Washington would lead a rally on the campus of South Carolina State University in Orangeburg, S.C. In 2008, Usher supported the Service Nation campaign, serving as the Service Nation Youth Chair. Usher stated "As an artist, I am often recognized for the music I make and the performances I give. I'm blessed to have had the opportunity to be a part of many incredible moments. But this is the work that inspires me, empowering young people to become active in their communities". Usher also released an exclusive song "Hush" that was influenced by social issues and voting, In the video he features a motivational Barack Obama speech. Usher performed "Higher Ground" alongside Stevie Wonder and Shakira at the 2009 presidential inauguration at the Lincoln Memorial and the National Mall in Washington, D.C., on January 18, 2009. He continued to endorse Obama in 2012 and supported on the 2012 reelection campaign.
On September 13, 2014, Usher and Bill Clinton held a special campaign event for Georgia U.S. Senate candidate Michelle Nunn. Dunn was honored for her work with the Points of Light Foundation at a charity event in 2010 and has been a semiregular attendee at Clinton Foundation events since 2009. Usher's New Look Foundation also awarded Clinton its Service Legacy Award in 2010.
In October 2015, Usher partnered with the organization Sankofa which focuses on issues of social injustice that disproportionately affect the disenfranchised, the oppressed, and the underserved. On October 23, 2015, Usher and the founder of Sankofa, former Civil Rights Activist, Harry Belafonte led the conversation titled "Breaking the Chains of Social Injustice" at 92nd Street Y in Manhattan speaking about popular culture and activism. At this panel he introduced his music video "Chains" featuring Nas and Bibi Bourelly. The music video is geared towards facing the issues of social Injustice and features images of Trayvon Martin, Rekia Boyd, Sean Bell, Marlon Brown, Ramarley Graham, Amadou Diallo, Caesar Cruz and other recent victims of police violence.
In August 2015, he attended a major celebrity fundraiser at the Brentwood home of Scooter Braun held for presidential nominee Hillary Clinton. Kanye West, Kim Kardashian, and Tom Hanks were also among the crowd of 250 whose ticket prices were of $2,700 per person.
Usher was selected among a 33-member delegate for the Presidential Committee for Arts and Humanities of the United States of America to Cuba seeking to strengthen cultural ties between the two countries. Less than a month after the historic visit by President Barack Obama, a U.S. government cultural mission to Cuba that took place from April 18–21, 2016. The President described his trip as extending the hand of friendship to the Cuban people, and this delegation, including some of America's most distinguished writers, artists, musicians, as well as arts and cultural leaders, will continue this historic collaboration with the Cuban people.
Personal life
In 2001, Usher began dating TLC member Chilli Thomas, and their relationship lasted for two years. In 2003, Usher started working on the album that would become Confessions, which contained songs inspired by the personal lives of Usher and his collaborators. The songs about infidelity and pregnant mistresses were not inspired by Usher's private life, but by Jermaine Dupri's own personal challenges at the time. Dupri deliberately intended to create an air of mystery about Usher, and arouse fans' curiosity about how much of the infidelity story was Usher's own confession. The unintended result of this was to arouse Thomas's suspicions about Usher. They broke up in December 2003.
This was followed by a media frenzy surrounding the personal nature of Confessions. Many fans believed that the infidelity portrayed in "Confessions" was real, and the real reason for the split. In February 2004, in an interview on The Bert Show on the Atlanta radio channel Q100, Thomas was perceived as insinuating that Usher cheated on her: "Usher did the ultimate no-no to me. ... I will never be with him again, and that is that". Usher defended: "... it just didn't work out. But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash. That ain't what broke it up". This was backed up years later by Thomas, who said "People assumed that album was about us, but it was not."
In 2004, it was reported that Usher briefly dated British supermodel Naomi Campbell for a few months, together the pair attended the MTV Europe Music Awards and it was reported that Naomi jumped out of a pop out cake to surprise him for his birthday. The following year, he was linked to model Eishia Brightwell for some time. They were seen together at different events including the Grammys, the Vanity Fair Oscar party and the NAACP Awards.
In November 2005, Usher began dating stylist Tameka Foster, who worked as his personal stylist for several years. Their engagement was announced in February 2007. After the sudden cancellation of a planned July wedding in the Hamptons, the two were wed on August 3, 2007, in a civil ceremony in Atlanta. This was followed by a larger wedding ceremony on September 1, 2007, held at the Chateau Elan Winery & Resort outside Atlanta.
Usher's father, Usher Raymond III, died of a heart attack on January 21, 2008. For a short period of time shortly after the death of his father, Usher adopted a vegan diet. After several years, Usher dropped all egg and dairy products, embracing an entirely vegan diet for health reasons. Usher years later told reporters that he stopped his vegan diet saying that maintaining the lifestyle was expensive.
Upon his marriage to Foster, Usher became a stepfather to Foster's three sons from previous relationships, one born when she was a teenager and two from her first marriage to Atlanta clothier Ryan Glover. Usher and Foster also have two sons together: Usher "Cinco" Raymond V, born in November 2007, and Naviyd Ely Raymond, born in December 2008.
In February 2009, two months after the birth of their second son, Foster suffered a cardiac arrest in São Paulo, Brazil, when she was given general anesthesia prior to scheduled cosmetic surgery (reportedly liposuction), which was ultimately not performed. She was induced into a coma to aid her recovery and was transferred to a larger facility, the Hospital Sírio-Libanês. Usher cancelled his performance at Clive Davis's pre-Grammy Gala in order to fly to Brazil to be with Foster. After a week of recovery, Foster's surgeon issued a statement saying that she was "doing very well".
Usher filed for divorce from Foster in June 2009 in Atlanta. The divorce was legally finalized in Fulton County Court on November 4, 2009. This preceded a highly publicized child custody dispute spanning three years, which ultimately culminated on August 24, 2012, with a judge awarding Usher primary custody of his two sons with Foster.
Forbes magazine placed Usher at number 32 on its Celebrity 100, and reported his earnings after the OMG Tour to stand at $46 million, ranking him at number 12 on "The World's 25 Highest-Paid Musicians" list in 2011.
Foster's 11-year-old son Kile Glover, Usher's former stepson, was declared brain dead on July 8, 2012, after being struck by a personal water craft on Lake Lanier the previous day. Glover died on July 21, 2012, after being removed from life support. Just over a year later, on August 5, 2013, Usher's eldest son, Usher V, was hospitalized in the ICU after he became stuck in a drain while swimming in a pool at Usher's home. The next day, Foster filed a request for an emergency custody hearing in Fulton County Superior Court, seeking temporary primary custody and citing Usher V's "near-death accident" as evidence of a lack of supervision of the children. At the hearing on August 9, 2013, the case was dismissed and Usher retained primary custody of their two sons.
In September 2015, Usher quietly married his long-time girlfriend and manager Grace Miguel while vacationing in Cuba. There was speculation of the two being married when Miguel's Instagram post showed a picture of a gold wedding band on Usher's finger. He confirmed the marriage during an interview on The Ellen DeGeneres Show.
On July 19, 2017, documents leaked online allege that Usher has been a carrier of the herpes virus since 2009 or 2010 and that he infected a partner with it in 2012. It alleges that Usher paid the woman's doctor bills and settled a civil suit with her for $1.1 million. Amid the allegations, TMZ reported that another woman filed a $10 million lawsuit against Usher claiming that he exposed her to the herpes virus without her knowledge or consent, which is a crime in certain states. TMZ followed up this story with another alleging that she increased her lawsuit to $20 million after testing positive.
Three more claimants sued him on allegations of fraud, sexual battery, infliction of emotional distress and more, alleging that he was positive for the herpes virus and did not tell them in advance. All three were represented by attorney Lisa Bloom, who said on August 8, 2017, that one of her three clients had contracted genital herpes allegedly from him. One of the accusers, Quantasia Sharpton, said she had unprotected sex with him after a concert she attended. The other two accusers, one male and one female, preferred to remain anonymous plaintiffs. Sharpton admitted she tested negative and Bloom stated she did not know if the singer had the disease.
On March 6, 2018, Usher and wife Grace Miguel informed Us Weekly of their separation in a statement that read, in part: "After much thought and consideration we have mutually decided to separate as a couple ... We remain deeply connected, loving friends who will continue supporting each other through the next phases of our lives". On December 28, 2018, Usher filed for divorce from Miguel in Georgia.
In September 2020, it was confirmed that Usher was expecting his third child, with music executive Jenn Goicoechea, whom it was reported he started dating in October 2019. Their daughter was born on September 24, 2020. Usher and Girlfriend Jen Goicoecha welcomed their second child together, Sire Castrello Raymond, on September 29, 2021.
Discography
Studio albums
Usher (1994)
My Way (1997)
8701 (2001)
Confessions (2004)
Here I Stand (2008)
Raymond v. Raymond (2010)
Looking 4 Myself (2012)
Hard II Love (2016)
Confessions 2 (TBA)
Collaborative albums
A (with Zaytoven) (2018)
Concerts
Headlining
Evolution 8701 Tour (2002)
Truth Tour (2004)
One Night Stand Tour (2008)
OMG Tour (2010–2011)
The UR Experience Tour (2014–2015)
RNB Fridays Live (2018)
Concert residencies
Usher: The Las Vegas Residency (2021–2022)
Opening act
Share My World Tour (1997–1998)
The Velvet Rope Tour (1998–1999)
No Way Out Tour (1998)
Filmography
The Faculty (1998)
She's All That (1999)
Light It Up (1999)
Geppetto (2000)
Texas Rangers (2001)
In the Mix (2005)
Killers (2010)
Justin Bieber: Never Say Never (2011)
Scary Movie 5 (2013)
Justin Bieber's Believe (2013)
Muppets Most Wanted (2014)
Hands of Stone (2016)
Popstar: Never Stop Never Stopping (2016)
People You May Know (2017)
Welcome to My Life (2017)
Drop the Mic (2017)
Burden (2018)
Last of the Showmen (2018)
Incredibles 2 (2018)
Hustlers (2019)
Justin Bieber: Seasons (2020)
Stage productions
Chicago (2008) (Broadway)
See also
Honorific nicknames in popular music
List of best-selling singles
List of best-selling albums
List of best-selling music artists
List of best-selling music artists in the United States
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of Billboard Hot 100 chart achievements and milestones
References
External links
[ Usher] at Billboard.com
1978 births
Living people
20th-century American male actors
20th-century American singers
21st-century American male actors
21st-century American singers
African-American businesspeople
African-American choreographers
African-American male actors
African-American male dancers
African-American male singers
African-American male singer-songwriters
African-American sports executives and administrators
African-American television personalities
American art collectors
American child singers
American choreographers
American contemporary R&B singers
American cosmetics businesspeople
American fashion businesspeople
American hip hop singers
American male child actors
American male dancers
American male film actors
American male pop singers
American male singers
American male soap opera actors
American male songwriters
American male television actors
American music industry executives
American music video directors
American philanthropists
American sports executives and administrators
American tenors
Arista Records artists
Businesspeople from Atlanta
Businesspeople from Tennessee
Businesspeople from Texas
Cleveland Cavaliers owners
Grammy Award winners
Jive Records artists
LaFace Records artists
Male actors from Atlanta
Male actors from Tennessee
Male actors from Texas
MTV Europe Music Award winners
Musicians from Atlanta
Musicians from Dallas
Participants in American reality television series
People from Chattanooga, Tennessee
RCA Records artists
Singers with a three-octave vocal range
Singer-songwriters from Georgia (U.S. state)
Singer-songwriters from Tennessee
Singer-songwriters from Texas
World Music Awards winners
Writers from Atlanta
Writers from Dallas | [
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215555 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20Bird%20Corporation | Blue Bird Corporation | The Blue Bird Corporation (originally known as the Blue Bird Body Company) is an American bus manufacturer headquartered in Fort Valley, Georgia. Best known for its production of school buses, the company has also manufactured a wide variety of other bus types, including transit buses, motorhomes, and specialty vehicles such as mobile libraries and mobile police command centers. Currently, Blue Bird concentrates its product lineup on school buses, school pupil activity buses (SPAB) and specialty vehicle derivatives.
Blue Bird Body Company was founded in 1932 in Fort Valley, Georgia, as A.L. Luce closed his automobile dealership to concentrate exclusively on bus production. Remaining under family control into the early 1990s, Blue Bird changed hands several times in the 2000s; in February 2015, it became a publicly owned company (with previous owner Cerberus Capital Management holding a 58% share).
History
1927–1930s
As the second quarter of the 20th century began, Albert Luce Sr. was an entrepreneur who developed some of earliest purpose-built school buses, transitioned from wagons. What is now Blue Bird Corporation began life as a side project in a Ford Motor Company dealership in Perry, Georgia. Along with the dealership in Perry, Luce owned the Ford franchise in Fort Valley, Georgia, a rural farming community south of Macon.
In 1925, Luce sold a customer a Ford Model T with a wooden bus body; the customer sought to use the bus to transport his workers. Due to a combination of unsatisfactory construction quality of the bus body and the rough conditions of the rural Georgia roads, the wooden bus body started to disintegrate before the customer had finished paying for the vehicle. Driven to produce an improved design to sell to his customers, Luce sought input to develop a stronger bus body capable of surviving unimproved roads. In place of wood, Luce constructed his bus body from steel and sheet metal; wood was used as a secondary material. Completed in 1927, the bus was put into use as a school bus.
While buses would initially remain a side project for Luce (with only nine bus bodies produced between 1929 and 1931), the onset of the Great Depression would change his company forever. Following a 95% decline in car sales in 1931, Luce sold both of his Ford dealerships, using the $12,000 proceeds from the sale to begin his own company, concentrating solely on bus production. Inspired to begin production in order to support the local economy, Luce also felt school buses would be a necessary resource as part of the shift towards consolidated schools.
The early use of farm wagons on a part-time basis soon evolved into purpose-built school bus products, each with economy and function as major priorities. In 1937, the company began production of full-steel bus bodies, an innovation which soon replaced the wooden bodies which were then in common use around the United States.
In a 1939 conference, Blue Bird engineers contributed to the selection of school bus yellow, still in use today.
Blue Bird Number One
Completed in 1927, the first bus completed by A.L. Luce was sold to a customer and put into use as a school bus. Following the establishment of Blue Bird Body Company in 1932, the bus became retroactively known as Blue Bird "Number One". In 1946, the bus was reacquired by the Luce family; as part of the restoration, the body was placed on a Ford Model TT chassis, undergoing a second restoration in the 1970s.
In 2008, Blue Bird "Number One" was donated to The Henry Ford Museum, marking the 100th anniversary of the Model T Ford and the 80th anniversary of its construction.
Alongside the 1948 Blue Bird All American, a replica of Blue Bird Number One sits on the Blue Bird factory floor in Fort Valley, Georgia.
1940s
By the 1940s, the demand for school buses expanded the presence of Blue Bird from rural Georgia to multiple states across the Southern United States. Following World War II, several changes across the country further created a need for school buses. In all but the most remote rural communities, centralized schools (with the graded class structure of urban schools) had succeeded one-room schoolhouses. In metropolitan areas, urban populations began to move into suburbs. Depending on location, the practice of walking to school had become increasingly impractical (particularly as students progressed into high school). At the end of the decade, the baby-boom generation began their education, having an impact across the education system for the next 30 years.
Near the end of 1945, the company suffered a major setback, as its Fort Valley factory was destroyed by fire (nearly claiming the life of A.L. Luce). While the factory building was burned to the ground, a significant amount of equipment was salvaged along with a number of buses on the assembly line. Production was restarted on a makeshift assembly line on other company property, with some work completed under tents. The Fort Valley factory was rebuilt by the spring of 1946, following several challenges; while building materials themselves were no longer rationed, the ability to secure large quantities of beams, trusses, and sheetmetal remained a formidable task.
Following a 1946 heart attack, A.L. Luce began to hand over day-to-day operations of Blue Bird to his three sons. By the end of the decade, the company became the seventh-largest school bus manufacturer in the United States.
World War II production
Following the outbreak of World War II, school bus production went on hiatus; Blue Bird produced buses for the U.S. Navy. As steel was heavily rationed, company engineers were required to re-engineer the body designs, using wood as part of the body structure.
Alongside its buses for the Navy, Blue Bird also produced ambulance buses. Intended for mass evacuations, the vehicles were fitted with four stretchers.
All American
In 1948, on a trip to Europe, A.L. Luce and his son George attended the 1948 Paris Auto Show. After viewing a GM-chassis forward-control bus on display, Luce sought to buy a similar bus chassis to produce with a Blue Bird body. Unable to secure a chassis, Luce instead purchased the display vehicle, importing it to the United States.
After reverse-engineering the chassis design (to modify American-produced vehicles), Blue Bird completed its first forward-control prototype in 1949, naming it the All American. In 1950, the All American entered full-scale production. For 1952, Blue Bird became the first school bus manufacturer to produce its own chassis (rather than from outside suppliers). With the exception of the van-based Micro Bird, Blue Bird builds the chassis of each bus its produces.
Currently in its sixth generation, the Blue Bird All American is the longest-running bus model line. While not the first forward-control school bus (the Crown Supercoach was introduced in 1932), the All American would become one of the designs to widely expand its use, leading its wider use by school districts and school bus operators throughout the United States and Canada. Along with the Blue Bird Conventional (and the later Blue Bird Vision), many Blue Bird body designs would share design elements with the All American, including the TC/2000, TC/1000, APC and CS commercial buses, and Wanderlodge recreational vehicle.
1950s
In 1950, A.L. Luce retired from daily operations of Blue Bird, with operations of the company handled by his three sons; A.L "Buddy" Luce Jr. became company president and general manager; George Luce oversaw engineering and Joseph Luce overseeing production and assembly. The same year, the company began assembly of a second product line, as the All American entered full-scale production. In an effort to guarantee year-round demand, Blue Bird turned to exports for its buses, entering Central America and South America.
During the late 1950s, several changes were made to the body design of Blue Bird buses. In 1957, the body underwent a complete redesign, including a higher roofline and flatter body sides; with several revisions, the current Blue Bird Vision and All American continue to use this body. As an option, a "high-headroom" body was introduced, raising interior height to 77 inches.
1960s
At the beginning of the 1960s, Blue Bird stood as the fourth-largest manufacturer of school buses in the United States. To accommodate the added demand, the Luce brothers added several production facilities to supplement the Fort Valley, Georgia plant. In 1958, Blue Bird Canada was opened in Brantford, Ontario. In 1962, Blue Bird Midwest was opened in Mount Pleasant, Iowa.
At the beginning of the decade, Blue Bird introduced its roofline brand emblem, becoming the first bus manufacturer to do so. In 1962, Blue Bird introduced a panoramic windshield design, used on the All American through 2013 (and still on use on the Vision). In the early 1960s, Blue Bird introduced its long-running company slogan: "Your Children's Safety is Our Business", appearing in company advertising (and inside bus bodies) into the 1990s.
Company founder A.L. Luce died in 1962. Shortly after, the three Luce sons sought to diversify the company product line, fearing that demand for school bus production would eventually recede; while the baby boom generation affected student populations, the generation (as a whole) would complete high school shortly after 1980.
In 1965, the company launched bus assembly outside of North America for the first time, opening Blue Bird Central America in Guatemala. While assembling the bodies of the Conventional and All American, Blue Bird Central America lowered production and maintenance costs by using locally sourced chassis (from Mercedes-Benz, Hino, Nissan Diesel, and Toyota) in place of sharing components from the United States.
Wanderlodge
In 1963, the first major Blue Bird venture outside of school buses made its debut. Named the Blue Bird Transit Home (re-branded as Wanderlodge in 1968), it was a $12,000 luxury recreational vehicle based on the All American type. Using the heavy-duty frame and all-steel body to its advantage, the vehicle was marketed as higher-quality than other RVs of the time; the interior was largely built to order. For over 25 years of production, the Wanderlodge developed a loyal customer base, including celebrities and heads of state among their owners.
1970s
In the 1970s, Blue Bird further diversified its product line. Entering the transit bus segment, the Company introduced the City Bird, a rear-engine variant of the All American developed for smaller mass-transit routes.
During the decade, the design of small school buses evolved into a dedicated vehicle (away from adaptations of automobiles). While designs based on cutaway vans were not invented by the company, the 1975 Micro Bird introduced several key features retained by van-based buses today. Along with a full-height entry door, the Micro Bird added windows forward of the entry door (to aid loading-zone visibility). The 1977 Mini Bird was larger than the Micro Bird, using the GM P-30 stepvan chassis; it shared the body width of the full-size Conventional and All American.
From the Micro Bird to the All American, Blue Bird introduced the "Handy Bus" option, adding a wheelchair lift to the bus.
1980s
By 1980, Blue Bird would become the largest school bus manufacturer in the United States, with over 20 times the yearly sales of only two decades prior. Despite the added presence of Blue Bird, as a whole, the segment of school bus manufacturing was in turmoil; many of the early 1960s predictions of the Luce brothers had largely come true. No longer supplemented by the baby-boom generation, student populations began to level off in the early 1980s, with the school bus manufacturing segment becoming saturated. From 1979 to 1982, three of the six largest school bus manufacturers—Carpenter, Superior, and Ward—would file for bankruptcy.
To preserve sales, in 1984, Blue Bird began the use of financing for bus acquisitions. The strategy proved successful, with sales increasing further in the mid-1980s; as the highest-selling bus manufacturer, nearly one out of every three new school buses was a Blue Bird.
While the 1980s would prove successful for Blue Bird in school bus production, the company saw mixed results in other segments. After 10 years of weak sales, the Blue Bird City Bird was discontinued in 1986. Despite volatile sales in recreational vehicles, the Wanderlodge remained successful, accounting for nearly one in five Blue Bird vehicles sold. To better compete with more modern designs, Blue Bird began to differentiate the Wanderlodge from the All American school bus with several exterior restylings in the late 1980s. In 1988 a wide version of the Wanderlodge was introduced—wider than the school bus bodies. The final Wanderlodge to share a body and chassis with the All American was produced in 1990.
During the end of the 1980s, the Blue Bird product line saw several changes. While the company had offered a rear-engine All American since 1961, in 1988, Blue Bird introduced its first rear-engine All American with a company-sourced chassis. As a running change during 1989 production, a new generation of the All American was introduced for the first time since 1957. Alongside a redesigned driver's compartment, the All American received a new powertrain lineup.
Management changes
Since its founding in 1932, the operations of Blue Bird were overseen by A.L. Luce or his three sons. In 1984, the board of directors was expanded outside of the family for the first time; in 1986, the company hired Paul Glaske, president of Marathon LeTourneau (a Texas-based heavy equipment manufacturer). Glaske oversaw day-to-day operations of the company, while the sons of Buddy and Joseph Luce worked elsewhere in company management.
TC/2000
The transit-style school bus product line was expanded from one to two in 1987, as Blue Bird introduced the Blue Bird TC/2000. Largely a response to the Wayne Lifestar, the TC/2000 was an effort to secure bids from operators of large fleets, and intended to be priced closely to conventional-style buses. In line with the All American, the TC/2000 used a Blue Bird-made chassis, but with lighter-duty powertrain and suspension components.
The TC/2000 sold well, by 1990, nearly one in ten new school buses sold in the United States was a TC/2000.
1990s
At the beginning of the 1990s, Blue Bird had secured its position as the highest-volume school bus manufacturer; following the launch of the TC/2000, the company held nearly a 50% market share. After nearly six decades as a family-run company, in 1991, the Luce family decided to put Blue Bird Body Company up for sale. After showing the company to potential buyers through much of 1991, six buyers offered bids. For $397 million, Merrill Lynch Capital Partners purchased an 82% share of Blue Bird in November 1991, changing the name from Blue Bird Body Company to Blue Bird Corporation. Under the terms of the sale, the remaining 18% of the company was equally distributed between Paul Glaske and 14 management employees selected by the Luce family; Buddy and Joseph Luce retired while the rest of the management team was retained.
During the early 1990s, following the success of its school bus product lines, Blue Bird commenced efforts to further diversify its product lines. As a replacement for the City Bird, in 1992, Blue Bird launched the Blue Bird Q-Bus, designed for mass-transit and charter applications. In contrast to the City Bird, the Q-Bus shared no design commonality with a Blue Bird school bus. In addition to the Q-Bus, the APC (All-Purpose Coach) and CS (Commercial Series) were introduced, as commercial buses based on the bodies of the All American and TC/2000; a "shell" version was sold for upfitters as well.
To better compete with more modern designs of luxury recreational vehicles, Blue Bird began to update the design of the Wanderlodge. Following the 1988 introduction of the 102" wide body, the Wanderlodge line was redesigned entirely for 1991 (effectively sharing only Blue Bird emblems with the All American). In 1994, a second version of the Wanderlodge was introduced, as the Wanderlodge BMC debuted. To expand its availability, the Wanderlodge BMC was produced using a chassis from Spartan Motors; a Blue Bird QMC commercial variant was introduced, designed as a mobile workstation. In 1997, Blue Bird expanded into the passenger motorcoach segment, introducing the LTC-40 (Luxury Touring Coach); for 1998, the Wanderlodge LX/LXi were introduced, adapting the LTC body.
In an effort to match demand for its product lines, Blue Bird made several changes to its production facilities, closing Blue Bird East in (in Virginia) in 1992 and opening Blue Bird de Mexico (in Monterrey, Nuevo León) in 1995.
After few major changes to its school bus product lines through the 1990s, in 1999, the Blue Bird All American underwent its second redesign in 10 years. In order to increase forward visibility, the All American was given an all-new chassis (positioning the engine lower), adopting the larger windshield of the TC/2000, and redesigned dashboard and control panels (later used in the TC/2000).
During the late 1990s, Blue Bird Corporation would undergo the first of several ownership changes. After increasing sales each year throughout the second half of the 1990s, Blue Bird was acquired from Merril Lynch Capital Partners by Henlys Group PLC for $428 million (with Henlys also paying $237 million of Blue Bird company debt). At the time, Henlys sought to expand its operations in North America, with 10% of the company owned by Volvo Group.
Joint ventures
During the 1990s, Blue Bird would enter into several joint ventures as part of its school bus production, for both small and full-size school buses.
In an effort to supplement the Blue Bird Micro Bird, in 1992, Blue Bird entered into a supply agreement with Quebec-based bus manufacturer Girardin Minibus to supply Blue Birds with Girardin-produced MB-II/MB-IV school buses (branded as Blue Birds) on cutaway van chassis. While configured similar to the Micro Bird, the Blue Bird MB-II/IV by Girardin allowed Blue Bird to offer an updated body design; at the time, Girardin was the sole manufacturer to produce a full cutaway body for single rear-wheel van chassis. The MB-II and MB-IV were sold by Blue Bird until 1999, when they adopted the Girardin branding.
Coinciding with the 1991 redesign of the General Motors medium-duty truck line, General Motors entered into a 10-year supply agreement with Blue Bird, starting early in 1992, as a 1993 model. Under the agreement, the Chevrolet/GMC B7 would only be sold to Blue Bird. Blue Bird offered a choice of other cowled chassis (Ford B700/B800, International 3700, 3800, and later Freightliner FS-65). The CV200 was produced through 2002. The 2002s were considered 2003 models.
Environmentally friendly buses
In place of bringing all-new product lines to production, during the 1990s, Blue Bird explored several methods of reducing the environmental impact of school buses, with several methods reaching production. In 1991, Blue Bird developed the first school bus powered by compressed natural gas (CNG), an All American Rear Engine. In 1995, Blue Bird began a collaboration with John Deere to produce school buses with CNG engines, lasting into the 2000s; along with the All American, CNG engines were produced for the TC/2000.
In 1996, Blue Bird debuted the Envirobus 2000 concept school bus. Derived loosely from the Q-Bus, the Envirobus served loosely as a testbed for safety-related technology along with the viability of CNG-powered school buses.
Along with alternative-fuel buses, Blue Bird became the first school bus manufacturer to develop fully electric school buses; during the 1990s, technology limited its development to the prototype stage. In 1994, the company developed a battery-powered school bus in an effort with Westinghouse Electronic Systems for a school district in California. In 1996, Blue Bird collaborated with Electrosource, Inc in an effort to design a battery system intended for buses.
2000s
While the late 1990s were calmer than the late 1970s for the school bus industry, it still remained a time of relative turmoil for school bus manufacturers; this would carry into the 2000s. Several school bus manufacturers underwent acquisition or changed hands (AmTran and Thomas Built Buses); by 2001, several others (Crown Coach, Carpenter, Gillig, Wayne) would end school bus production forever. Instead of being family-run companies, school bus manufacturers were now owned by larger companies with ties to truck manufacturing. For Blue Bird, a large stake of the company was owned by the Volvo Group, the largest bus manufacturer in the world. However, during the early 2000s, due to financial difficulties of its other parent company, Blue Bird was sold from Henlys in 2004. In 2006, Blue Bird was acquired through a bankruptcy filing by Cerberus Capital Management. Looking to develop its entries in the transportation sector, Blue Bird was paired with North American Bus Industries (NABI) and Optima Bus Corporation by Cerberus.
At the beginning of the 2000s, Blue Bird sought to modernize its aging transit bus line; the Q-Bus was nearly a decade old and the CS and APC coaches were essentially commercial versions of the All American and TC/2000 school buses. For 2002, the 96-inch wide Q-Bus was replaced by the 102-inch wide Xcel102 and the CS and APC lines were retired. In 2003, the company entered the low-floor segment with the introduction of the UltraLF and UltraLMB.
As the number of full-size school bus manufacturers had been cut from seven to three from 1990 to 2000, Blue Bird began on making its school bus products more competitive during the early part of the decade. Following the substantial update of the All American in 1999, Blue Bird discontinued the slow-selling TC/1000 in 2001 and consolidated the TC/2000 with the All American early in 2004.
However, the largest change came in 2003, as Blue Bird sought to replace the CV200. While initially developed to use the Ford F-650 Super Duty chassis, the Vision underwent a major change before its release. In a major break from precedent, Blue Bird did not use an existing truck manufacturer for the chassis, instead developing its own version from the ground up. While the Vision used the same bus body as the long-running Conventional, engineering changes were made to optimize forward visibility.
As part of its acquisition by Cerberus, Blue Bird gradually saw itself positioned exclusively into yellow school bus production, its largest market. In 2007, the Xcel102 was discontinued and the low-floor UltraLF/LMB product lines were added to NABI. In a controversial move, the rights to the Wanderlodge luxury motorhome were sold to Complete Coach Works; production ended in 2009.
In commemoration of the 80th anniversary of the construction the first Blue Bird bus and the centennial of the Model T Ford, the Luce family donated the restored vehicle to The Henry Ford Museum in 2008. Dubbed "Blue Bird #1", it is the oldest known surviving school bus in the United States.
With resources dedicated solely towards school bus production, the Vision saw a major update for 2008. In addition to a new dashboard, it received a new cowl with larger headlights and grille. For 2009, the company expanded alternative-fuel options as it introduced a propane-fuel variant of the Vision; it was powered by a General Motors 8.1L V8. For 2010, the All American was given a complete update, marking some of the largest changes to the Blue Bird body design in over 50 years; along with a complete redesign of the roof, windshield, and rear entry, the interior received a ground-up redesign.
With the streamlining of bus production, the number of production facilities utilized by the company has been reduced. Blue Bird de Mexico was closed in 2001 and Blue Bird Midwest in Mount Pleasant, Iowa was closed in 2002. In 2010, Blue Bird North Georgia was closed, consolidating all bus production back to company headquarters in Fort Valley.
In October 2009, Blue Bird further streamlined its bus production as it entered into a second joint venture with Canadian school bus manufacturer Girardin Minibus. Dubbed Micro Bird, Inc., all small bus production was consolidated at the Girardin facilities in Quebec, Canada; consequently, all Blue Bird production is now limited to full-size conventional and transit buses. The 2010 Micro Bird was the last Blue Bird bus to use a non-Blue Bird chassis.
2010-present
Following the consolidation of Blue Bird production to the Vision and All American school buses (and vehicles derived from them), during the 2010s, a number of changes were phased in. In following with the popularity with the LPG/propane autogas version of the Blue Bird Vision bus, a version powered by a Ford V10 and equipped with a ROUSH CleanTech propane autogas fuel system was introduced in 2011 (as the original General Motors V8 engines were no longer in production); in addition, the Vision received a dashboard and steering column shared with the All American.
In late 2012, Blue Bird unveiled a redesigned 2014 All American series (code-named the T3 Series), which would replace versions introduced in 1999 and 2008 produced concurrently. Distinguished by a redesigned (rounder) roof, the new All American has increased parts commonality with the Vision. In October 2013, the 2015 Vision was introduced. Along with clear-lens headlights and a new grille, propane-fueled versions gained the option of an extended-range 98-gallon fuel tank. Company owner Cerberus Capital sold off the majority of its transportation holdings, including NABI and Optima to Canadian bus builder New Flyer; Blue Bird remained under Cerberus ownership.
In late 2013, Blue Bird entered a different segment of school transportation as it introduced Blue Bird Connect™, a GPS-based fleet management software system co-developed with Synovia Solutions. While designed as an integrated system as an option for any Blue Blue school bus, Blue Bird Connect™ was also intended for retrofit to existing fleets of school buses as well, regardless of brand.
Though produced by Girardin under the Micro Bird joint venture, in late 2014, the company introduced the Micro Bird T-Series, a Girardin-bodied Type A school bus; it is the first school bus body ever produced for the Ford Transit in North America. Largely due to the Ford-derived chassis design, Blue Bird predicts a 20% fuel economy increase over its E-Series MB/G5 counterpart. In 2014, Blue Bird introduced the Sigma, an all-new transit bus. While developed solely for export, the Sigma derived its chassis configuration and drivetrain from the All American.
In September 2014, the ownership of Blue Bird underwent another transition. Texas-based venture capital firm Hennessy Capital Acquisition Corporation purchased a $255 million stake of the company from Cerberus affiliate The Traxis Group. As part of the acquisition, Cerberus/Traxis would retain majority ownership; the Blue Bird leadership team remained in place. Although Cerberus remains the majority owner of Blue Bird with a 58% share of the company, in late February 2015, Blue Bird became the first stand-alone school bus manufacturer to become publicly traded on NASDAQ.
By 2015, Blue Bird ranked as the leading provider of propane autogas powered school buses through a partnership with ROUSH CleanTech, which provides propane autogas fuel systems for the buses. At this time, the Propane Education & Research Council (PERC) estimated that between school districts and private fleets, 11,000 propane school buses had been purchased in the United States.
In September 2015, Blue Bird further expanded its non-diesel fuel offerings as the company introduced a gasoline-fueled variant of the Vision, starting with 2016 production The first gasoline-fueled full-size school bus since the discontinuation of the 2002 Blue Bird CV200, it is powered by the same Ford V10 used by the propane-fueled variant of the Vision. At the end of 2018, Blue Bird produced the 5,000th gasoline-powered version of the Vision.
In January 2017, Blue Bird announced it would begin development of a Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) school bus with the Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology. This development work is being supported by a $4.4 million grant from the U.S. Department of Energy, as well as additional support from other entities, bringing together just over $9 million in funds. The project will result in eight ZEV V2G school buses being deployed in California. After unveiling fully electric versions of the Micro Bird G5 and All American in late 2017, Blue Bird delivered its first production electric school buses in September 2018.
Products
In addition to school, activity, and commercial applications, Blue Bird buses have been custom-built for unique applications such as bloodmobiles, mobile libraries, and public safety command centers.
School buses
Other vehicles
Exports
Blue Bird have also built a number of buses for the United Kingdom market, with 62 Blue Bird buses being exported to the UK between 1992 and 2007. Most of the vehicles exported were right hand drive variants of the Blue Bird All American and the Blue Bird Q-Bus. Various local councils, such as Staffordshire County Council and West Sussex County Council, imported a large number of Blue Bird school buses for their own school routes; FirstGroup were the largest private customer in the United Kingdom, ordering eighteen All Americans in 2002.
In addition to school buses, a single low-floor city bus, known as the Blue Bird LFCC9, was built in late 2003. The 29-seater midibus, registered NK53TJV, received the then-popular Plaxton Pointer 2 bodywork and entered service with Arriva North East.
Prototypes
Company timeline
Manufacturing and assembly
Traditionally, school buses such as those produced by Blue Bird consist of components purchased from various outside suppliers and parts which are manufactured in-house to the company's specifications. These two categories of parts are then typically assembled into bodies which can be mounted onto chassis which have often been variations of those used in a myriad of truck applications. Alongside its role of vehicle assembly, the Blue Bird facility in Fort Valley, Georgia, also manufactured parts used for all company facilities to produce vehicles. Blue Bird Wanderlodges were manufactured in an adjacent facility in Fort Valley, including Wanderlodge Wayside Park, a tree-shaded motor home park to accommodate Wanderlodges visiting for service.
Blue Bird currently operates its Fort Valley manufacturing facility as its sole point of assembly; Micro Birds are assembled in the Girardin factory in Drummondville, Quebec, Canada. In the past, the company held four factories (and the Wanderlodge factory) in the United States, two facilities in Canada (separate from Girardin), one in Mexico, and one in Guatemala. In the 1980s, Blue Bird exited production in South America; during the 2000s, the company gradually wound down its number of factories as the company centralized production and consolidated its model lines to school buses and their derivatives. In 2010, Blue Bird North Georgia (LaFayette, Georgia) was closed.
Branding
Company name
The exact origin of the Blue Bird company name is unknown; several theories are known to exist. Most commonly, A.L. Luce was perceived to have been hesitant about using the family surname for the company out of fears of mispronunciation (i.e., a Luce bus = "loose bus").
In another version, when showing a blue and yellow demonstrator unit to school officials, Luce overheard the positive reception of school children who had seen the bus, who nicknamed it "a pretty blue bird", and the name was chosen for the company. Conversely, since the end of the 1930s, yellow would become the exterior color associated with American-manufactured school buses.
Roof emblem
The Blue Bird company emblem is a silhouette profile of the company namesake bluebird; the design has been painted on the roof on many of its buses since the beginning of the 1960s. Later in the decade, the company began to combine the emblem with a stripe painted on the roof of the bus, known as a "streamer". On school buses, the emblem and streamers are black (if specifications allow for their use); the streamer is also offered as an option. On non-school buses, the emblem and streamer are also offered in various colors, coordinated to the design of the bus.
The combination of roof emblems and streamers would come into use by other school manufacturers as a design feature; the latter would become most closely associated with Blue Bird and its roof emblem.
In 2013, the roof streamer was redesigned for the first time. To simplify manufacturing, the roof-length streamer was replaced by a single design shared across Blue Bird and Micro Bird buses (introduced for 2014 production), with three versions, distinguished by fuel type. Diesel-fuel buses retained the previous black design, with propane-fuel vehicles receiving a green emblem and streamer; the gasoline-fuel Vision received a blue-colored design.
For 2019 production, Blue Bird retired the roof streamer design. As the company introduced electric-powered buses for 2020, an electric cord-style streamer was introduced with a green Blue Bird emblem (distinguishing it from propane-fuel buses).
See also
School bus
North American Bus Industries
List of school bus manufacturers
References
External links
Blue-Bird.com Blue Bird Corporation official website
Blue Bird Corporation official Facebook Page
Blue Bird Corporation official Twitter Page
School Bus Fleet magazine official website
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS) for school buses
U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics
Technical support forum for the Blue Bird Wanderlodge
School bus manufacturers
Manufacturing companies based in Georgia (U.S. state)
Companies based in Peach County, Georgia
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1927
Cerberus Capital Management companies
Companies listed on the Nasdaq
1927 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state) | [
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|
215563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%20206 | U.S. Route 206 | U.S. Route 206 (US 206) is a north–south United States highway in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, United States. Only about a half a mile (800 m) of its length is in Pennsylvania; the Milford–Montague Toll Bridge carries it over the Delaware River into New Jersey, where the remainder of the route is. The highway's northern terminus is near Milford, Pennsylvania at an intersection with US 209; some sources and signs show an overlap with US 209 to end at its parent route US 6. Its southern terminus is in Hammonton, New Jersey at an intersection with US 30 and Route 54. For much of its length, US 206 is a rural two-lane undivided road that passes through the Pine Barrens, agricultural areas, and the Appalachian Mountains of northwestern New Jersey, with some urban and suburban areas. The route connects several cities and towns, including Bordentown, Trenton, Princeton, Somerville, Roxbury, Netcong, and Newton. The road is known as the Disabled American Veterans Highway for much of its length.
What is now US 206 in New Jersey was designated as part of several state routes prior to 1927, including pre-1927 Route 2 between Bordentown and Trenton in 1916, pre-1927 Route 13 between Trenton and Princeton in 1917, and pre-1927 Route 16 between Princeton and Bedminster Township in 1921. The current routing along pre-1927 Route 2 became a part of US 130 in 1926. In 1927, current US 206 became Route 39 between Hammonton and White Horse, Route 37 between White Horse and Trenton, Route 27 between Trenton and Princeton, Route 31 between Princeton and Newton, and Route S31 between Newton and the Delaware River. In the later 1930s, US 206 was designated to connect US 30 in Hammonton north to US 6 and US 209 in Milford; the northern terminus was moved to its current location in the 1940s. The state highways running concurrent with US 206 in New Jersey were removed in 1953. In the 1960s, two separate freeways were proposed for US 206 but never built. The first freeway was to connect Hammonton south along the Route 54 corridor toward Route 55 and the planned Route 60 in Vineland and Millville. The other US 206 freeway was planned in northwestern New Jersey, connecting I-80 in Netcong north to Montague Township. Construction began for a bypass of US 206 around Hillsborough in 2010 and was completed in 2021. The NJDOT widened the route in Byram Township to alleviate congestion, with completion in 2013.
Route description
|-
|NJ
|129.77
|208.84
|-
|PA
|0.46
|0.74
|-
|Total
|130.23
|209.58
|}
New Jersey
Atlantic and Burlington counties
US 206 begins at US 30 in the town of Hammonton in Atlantic County, New Jersey, heading north-northeast on the two-lane, undivided Disabled American Veterans Highway. South of this intersection, the road continues as Route 54. From its southern terminus, US 206 runs through farmland, which eventually gives way to the heavily forested Pine Barrens. Within this area, the route continues through the Wharton State Forest. Here, the road comes to the eastern terminus of CR 536.
US 206 continues into Shamong Township, Burlington County, passing through more of the Pine Barrens. In Shamong Township, the road makes a turn to the north and passes by Atsion Lake. After running northwest, CR 541 splits to the left. After this intersection, US 206 heads north out of the Wharton State Forest and into more agricultural areas. At the intersection with CR 648, the route briefly widens into a four-lane undivided road before narrowing back to two lanes. Upon intersecting CR 622, US 206 enters Tabernacle Township. Here, CR 532 crosses the route at a signalized intersection. Following CR 532, residential development increases along the route as it continues into Southampton Township. US 206 becomes a three-lane road with one northbound lane and two southbound lanes as it comes to the Red Lion Circle with Route 70. Past the Red Lion Circle, the route becomes two lanes again and passes more rural surroundings with some development. US 206 comes to a junction with the eastern terminus of Route 38 and the western terminus of CR 530.
A short distance after the Route 38/CR 530 intersection, the route becomes the border between Eastampton Township to the west and Southampton Township to the east before running between Eastampton Township and Pemberton Township. Along this portion, it passes through Ewansville. Continuing entirely into Springfield Township, the route crosses CR 537. Past this intersection, US 206 widens into a four-lane undivided road. The route briefly gains a wide painted median before crossing the Assicunk Creek into Mansfield Township In Mansfield Township, US 206 becomes a divided highway as it bypasses the community of Columbus to the west, with CR 690 continuing through Columbus. On the bypass of Columbus, the route has an interchange with CR 543.
Past Columbus, US 206 becomes undivided again, with residential development increasing. It becomes a divided highway again and merges with Route 68, the main access road to the Fort Dix entity of Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst, at a directional intersection. After this intersection, US 206 enters Bordentown Township and reaches an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95) in a commercial area. Following this interchange, the route crosses over CR 545. A short distance later, US 206 merges into US 130 at a directional interchange to form a concurrency. The two roads continue north on a six-lane divided highway, briefly entering the eastern edge of Bordentown at the intersection with CR 528. Back in Bordentown Township, US 130 and US 206 split at another directional interchange. Past US 130, US 206 crosses under Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Robbinsville Industrial Track railroad line and heads through development as a four-lane divided highway, making a slight northwest bend before resuming north.
Mercer County
US 206 crosses the Crosswicks Creek and enters Hamilton Township, Mercer County. Immediately after the Crosswicks Creek, there is an interchange with I-195. Past I-195, the route reaches the White Horse Circle, where it intersects CR 524 and CR 533. At this point, US 206 turns west-northwest to run along four-lane divided locally maintained Broad Street. Passing through White Horse, the road briefly becomes five lanes with a center left-turn lane before becoming a four-lane divided highway again as it crosses over I-295 without an interchange. Running into more urban areas of development, the route enters Trenton at the crossing of CR 650 After entering Trenton, US 206 narrows into a two-lane undivided street. As the road heads toward downtown Trenton, it crosses NJ Transit’s River Line immediately before interchanging with Route 129. From here, the road turns more to the northwest with four lanes and passes by the CURE Insurance Arena before crossing over Amtrak’s Northeast Corridor and the US 1 freeway simultaneously. US 206 enters the commercial downtown area, narrowing back to two lanes before reaching Warren Street, where US 206 splits into a one-way pair following Broad Street northbound and Warren Street southbound.
This one–way pairing, which carries two lanes in each direction, curves north and continues through downtown Trenton. At the Trenton Battle Monument, the road reaches an intersection with the southern terminus of Route 31 and US 206 turns northeast onto another one-way pairing that follows Brunswick Avenue northbound and Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard southbound, with each road being two-way but only carrying one direction of US 206. The road continues through neighborhoods, with southbound US 206 forming the border between Ewing Township to the northwest and Trenton to the southeast as a county-maintained road at the Calhoun Street intersection. At this point, southbound US 206 becomes concurrent with CR 583. At the junction with Spruce Street, northbound US 206 becomes the border between Lawrence Township and Trenton, becoming state-maintained, while southbound US 206/CR 583 fully crosses into Lawrence Township. Northbound US 206 widens into a four-lane divided highway as it comes to the Brunswick Circle with US 1 Business. At this point, US 1 Business continues northeast on Brunswick Pike while northbound US 206 heads north as a two-lane undivided road called Lawrence Road. CR 645 links the Brunswick Circle to southbound US 206/CR 583.
At this point, both directions of US 206 are in Lawrence Township and rejoin, with US 206 continuing north as a two-lane undivided road and CR 583 heading to the northeast. US 206 continues through suburban residential areas within Lawrence Township. The route makes a turn to the northeast before heading north again and passing to the east of Rider University. A short distance later, the road has a cloverleaf interchange with I-295 prior to an intersection with CR 546. In this area, US 206 is briefly a two-lane divided highway. Past CR 546, the route becomes two-lane undivided Main Street and heads north-northeast through Lawrenceville, passing development and the mile-long campus of The Lawrenceville School. Upon leaving Lawrenceville, US 206 turns more to the east through rural surroundings, forming a short concurrency with CR 569. From this point, the route continues northeast and enters Princeton.
In Princeton, CR 533 intersects US 206, and the two routes form a concurrency. The road becomes Stockton Street, passing by the Drumthwacket Governor's mansion. US 206 turns north onto Bayard Lane, with Route 27 continuing northeast into downtown Princeton on Nassau Street, which provides access to Princeton University through Princeton Downtown. The stretch from Lawrenceville until the intersection with Nassau Street in Princeton is part of the King's Highway Historic District. Bayard Lane carries the route past more wooded developed areas, eventually curving northeast through a park. Here, US 206 becomes State Road and turns north again. Continuing to the north, the amount of development adjacent to the road decreases.
Somerset County
US 206 enters Montgomery Township in Somerset County, where the name of the road becomes Van Horne Memorial Highway. In Montgomery Township, the route runs to the east of Princeton Airport and crosses CR 518. Following this intersection, CR 533 splits from US 206 by heading northeast, and US 206 continues north-northwest through a mix of suburban and rural areas. The road passes through the community of Harlingen before widening to four lanes and reaching Belle Mead. In this area, US 206 passes over CSX’s Trenton Subdivision before making a turn to the northeast and then to the north, narrowing back to two lanes. The road enters Hillsborough Township, where the Van Horne Memorial Highway designation ends. US 206 intersects US 206 Bypass at its southern end and Mountain View Road. The road continues into residential and commercial areas of Hillsborough. It comes to a junction with CR 514 in this area.
Past the CR 514 intersection, US 206 makes a curve northeast before heading east to intersect the northern end of US 206 Bypass before heading north. Leaving the center of Hillsborough, the road runs northeast past more wooded areas as it crosses under Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line. The route passes more development as it widens into a four lane divided highway with jughandles, turning to the north and passing Duke Gardens. US 206 briefly becomes six lanes wide at the CR 608 intersection before narrowing back to four lanes as it crosses the Raritan River into Somerville. In Somerville, the road runs northwest parallel to the Raritan River prior to turning north into commercial areas and entering Raritan. US 206 runs under NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line before making a turn to the north-northwest.
US 206 comes to the modified Somerville Circle, where it meets US 202 and Route 28. At this modified traffic circle, US 206 and Route 28 run through it while US 202 passes over it with ramp access. US 206 forms a concurrency with US 202 at this point and the two routes continue north into Bridgewater Township, briefly entering Somerville. The road features an interchange with US 22 and heads north with the Bridgewater Commons shopping mall on the east side of the road and the Somerset Corporate Center on the west side of the road. An interchange with Commons Way provides access to both these places. Past Commons Way, the road passes under Garrettson Road and comes to an interchange with I-287 that also provides access to I-78. Past the I-287 interchange, US 202/206 continue north as a two-lane undivided road past suburban areas. The road crosses Chambers Brook into Bedminster Township, where it soon passes under I-78. Shortly after I-78, it widens into a four-lane divided highway with a Jersey barrier. US 202/206 come to another interchange with I-287, pass over the North Branch Raritan River, and come to an intersection where the two routes split.
After the US 202 split, US 206 continues north as a four-lane divided highway through commercial areas, with the grass median becoming replaced by a painted median as it comes to a junction with CR 523 in downtown Bedminster. Following this intersection, the route narrows into a two-lane undivided road that runs through less development. US 206 enters Peapack-Gladstone, where it runs a short distance to the west of NJ Transit's Gladstone Branch. In Peapack-Gladstone, the road briefly becomes a four-lane divided highway as it has an interchange with Pfizer Way, a road that provides access to a Pfizer facility. Past this point, US 206 becomes a two-lane undivided road that runs northwest through rural areas, with CR 512 crossing the road. Just after this intersection, the route enters Bedminster Township again, turning to the north.
Morris County
The route continues north into Chester Township, Morris County. In Chester Township, US 206 passes through forested areas, with the northbound direction briefly gaining a second lane. As the road comes into Chester Borough, it widens to four lanes and passes shopping areas including the Streets of Chester. In the center of Chester, the route crosses CR 513. Past this intersection, US 206 continues into woodland development, with the northbound direction narrowing back into one lane as the route heads back into Chester Township. The road narrows back to two total lanes as it enters more rural surroundings, coming into Mount Olive Township. Further north, residential development near the road starts to increase. As US 206 reaches an intersection with CR 613, the surroundings becomes commercial before the route passes under Dover and Rockaway River Railroad's High Bridge Branch. After this area, the road turns north-northeast and runs through forested areas as a three lane road with two northbound lanes and one southbound lane, eventually entering Roxbury Township.
Business in the area of the road increase before US 206 widens to four total lanes and comes to a modified cloverleaf interchange with I-80 and the southern terminus of Route 183. At this point, the road continues north into Netcong as Route 183 while US 206 heads west along I-80, a six-lane freeway that continues into Mount Olive Township. The freeway continues northwest, running through a small corner of Netcong before coming back into Mount Olive Township and interchanging with US 46. Immediately after US 46, the highway passes over NJ Transit's Morristown Line/Montclair-Boonton Line before turning north and reaching a trumpet interchange where US 206 splits from I-80. Following this split, US 206 is a four-lane freeway that heads northeast, crossing under Waterloo Valley Road and an abandoned railroad line before coming to an interchange with International Drive.
Sussex County
After the International Drive interchange, US 206 crosses the Musconetcong River and enters Stanhope, Sussex County. Immediately following the river crossing, the freeway merges with the northern terminus of Route 183 at an interchange on the border between Byram Township to the west and Stanhope to the east. Past Route 183, US 206 continues north as a four-lane divided surface road past development, fully entering Stanhope again before crossing into Byram Township. Upon entering Byram Township, the route becomes a two-lane undivided road. Upon turning northwest, the surroundings become more forested as US 206 crosses a mountain, with the northbound direction gaining a second lane for a distance. There are a few businesses along the road as it runs north past wooded areas near Cranberry Lake and Panther Lake. The route continues into Andover, where it becomes Main Street and passes under the abandoned Lackawanna Cut-Off. US 206 forms a brief concurrency with CR 517 in the commercial downtown area. Past CR 517, US 206 bends northwest and enters Andover Township. Here, the road runs back into forested areas, passing by Whites Pond and running near Kittatinny Valley State Park. After a curve to the north, the route enters a mix of development and rural areas, passing to the west of Newton Airport prior to entering Newton.
In Newton, the road is known as Main Street and is lined by homes as it turns north. Upon reaching the downtown area, US 206 meets Route 94 and CR 519 at the Park Place square. At this point, US 206 forms a concurrency with Route 94/CR 519, and all three routes run concurrent north on four-lane undivided Water Street for a short distance. CR 519 splits from the road by turning north on Mill Street while US 206 and Route 94 continue north as a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane, crossing Paulins Kill before coming to a shopping district as the road leaves Newton for Hampton Township. The road narrows back to two lanes and heads into areas of farmland, becoming Hampton House Road. Route 94 splits from US 206 by making a right turn to continue east. After this intersection, US 206 turns northeast and enters Frankford Township. After crossing the Paulins Kill, Route 15 and CR 565 end at a traffic light with US 206, with the route making a turn to the northwest on an unnamed road.
After this intersection, the route passes near Skylands Stadium before passing more farmland and reaching the community of Augusta. After Augusta, US 206 turns north-northwest through more rural areas before entering Branchville. Here, the route bypasses the center of town to the south as a four-lane divided highway before crossing CR 519. Past CR 519, the median ends and US 206 continues to the west-northwest. After crossing back into Frankford Township, the route continues through forested areas. Turning more to the north, US 206 runs a short distance to the west of Culver's Lake prior to intersecting CR 521 and forming a concurrency with that route. The concurrent US 206 and CR 521 heads into Sandyston Township, where it crosses the Appalachian Trail at Culvers Gap in Kittatinny Mountain and passes through the mountainous Stokes State Forest.
After heading north with a three-lane stretch that has two southbound lanes and one northbound lane, the two-lane road reaches a junction with CR 560. After this intersection, the road leaves the state forest and continues through wooded areas with some commercial establishments. US 206/CR 521 reaches the community of Hainesville, where it passes through more agricultural surroundings with some development. Leaving Hainesville, the road continues into Montague Township. Near the community of Montague, CR 521 splits from US 206 by heading to the northeast. Meanwhile, US 206 turns to the northwest to run through wooded areas of the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, where it comes to the Milford–Montague Toll Bridge over the Delaware River that is maintained by the Delaware River Joint Toll Bridge Commission.
Pennsylvania
After crossing the river on the Milford–Montague Toll Bridge, US 206 continues north into Dingman Township in Pike County, Pennsylvania. A short distance after the bridge, the route comes to a northbound toll plaza, where it becomes a two-lane divided highway. US 206 officially ends at an intersection with US 209 not far after the toll plaza for the bridge. Even though this intersection marks the end of US 206, a few signs show the route heading concurrent with US 209 to continue north to US 6 in Milford.
History
What is now US 206 was part of several Lenape trails: the Shamong Trail, later known as the Cape May Road, ran from what is now Crosswicks to Cape May; a trail running from Trenton through Crosswicks; the Assanpink Trail, later known as the Old Dutch Road, running from Trenton north to New Brunswick; and the Great Minisink Trail, running from Navesink through Netcong to Minisink Village in modern-day Montague Township. In 1801, the Morris Turnpike was legislated to run from Elizabeth through Netcong to Culver's Gap. In 1804, the Union Turnpike was chartered to run from Morristown to the crossing at Dingman's Ferry in Montague Township. In 1814, the Deckerton and Newton Turnpike branched from Newton through Deckerton, now Sussex, to New York. The Crosswicks and Trenton Turnpike was chartered in 1854; the road is now locally known as Broad Street, and was included in U.S. 206 west of White Horse.
Prior to 1927, what is now US 206 in New Jersey was legislated as part of several routes. Between Bordentown and Trenton, the current alignment was designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 2 in 1916. Between Trenton and Princeton, present-day US 206 became the southernmost part of pre-1927 Route 13 in 1917. In 1921, the current route from Princeton north to Bedminster Township was legislated as part of pre-1927 Route 16.
After the U.S. Highway System was created in 1926, the route between Bordentown and Trenton became the northernmost part of US 130 while it became a part of US 1 between Trenton and Princeton. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, several state highways were legislated along present-day US 206. Route 39 followed the route from Hammonton to White Horse, while Route 37 was designated along it between White Horse and Trenton. From Trenton north to Princeton, pre-1927 Route 13 was replaced by Route 27. Present-day US 206 between Princeton and Newton became part of Route 31, a route that was to go past Newton to the New York border near Unionville, while the portion north of Newton to the Delaware River in Montague became Route S31, a spur of Route 31. Another spur of Route 31, Route 31A, was legislated in 1941 to run from Route 31 in Princeton to Route 33 in Hightstown; only a small portion of this was built over the Northeast Corridor railroad line and is now Route 64.
US 206 was designated in the later 1930s, running from US 30 in Hammonton, New Jersey north to US 6 and US 209 in Milford, Pennsylvania. By this time, the US 1 and US 130 designations were removed from the route onto new alignments. In 1938, US 206/Route 31 was designated to bypass Somerville, the former alignment was known as Route 177 from the 1960s until 1974. In the 1940s, US 206/Route 39 was realigned to the south of White Horse; the former alignment was known as Route 160 between the 1960s and the 1980s. Also in the 1940s, the northern terminus of US 206 was moved to its current location at US 209 in Dingman Township, Pennsylvania.
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, the state highways running concurrent with US 206 were removed. When US 206's current alignment bypassing Columbus was built by the 1960s, the designation of Route 170 was given to the old alignment through Columbus; this road was turned over to Burlington County in the 1980s and is now CR 690. In the late 1960s, a freeway was proposed for the US 206/Route 54 corridor, running from US 30 in Hammonton south to Route 55 and the proposed Route 60 near Vineland and Millville. Originally, a parkway had been planned in 1932 to serve the US 206 corridor between Hammonton and Trenton, but never materialized. The freeway between Vineland/Millville and Hammonton was to cost $47 million and was intended to provide a better route between the two areas than the existing two-lane roads. However, it was never built due to environmental and financial issues.
A freeway was also proposed for US 206 in northwestern New Jersey during the 1960s. In 1964, a Route 94 freeway was planned to follow US 206 between Netcong and Newton on its way to the proposed Route 23 freeway in Hamburg. The Tri-State Transportation Commission proposed a longer US 206 freeway that was to connect I-78 and I-287 in Bedminster Township north to Newton, incorporating the southern portion of the Route 94 proposal. This freeway was intended to relieve traffic on existing roads and provide access to recreation areas. By the late 1960s, the US 206 freeway would be planned by the NJDOT to connect I-80 in Netcong north to Montague. This freeway was proposed to provide access to proposed national recreation area along the Delaware River that would have been built in conjunction with the controversial Tocks Island Dam project as well as alleviating traffic on the existing road. However, like the US 206 freeway proposal in southern New Jersey, it was not built yet.
Since 1974, a bypass has been planned for the congested part of US 206 through Hillsborough. In 2002, the NJDOT modified plans for the bypass. The bypass is to be mostly four lanes wide and run to the east of Hillsborough, with the southernmost portion only being two lanes; one interchange was planned with CR 514. The road is to meet a Smart Growth goal by preserving land and eliminating two planned interchanges that would have increased congestion. In July 2009, it was announced that construction of the US 206 Hillsborough bypass, which is projected to cost $148 million, would start in 2010. On June 24, 2010, a contract was given to Carbro Constructors Corporation to build the first phase between CR 514 and Hillsborough Road. Construction on this portion, planned to cost $43 million, began on August 18, 2010, and opened on October 28, 2013. This section is currently designated US 206 Bypass. In early 2015, work on grading and utility relocation for the ends of the bypass was slated to be completed. Work on constructing the northern and southern ends of the US 206 bypass of Hillsborough was originally planned to begin in early 2017. On April 13, 2018, construction began on the final phase to build the northern and southern ends of the bypass. The final phase of the Hillsborough bypass, which is projected to cost $36.6 million and be funded through state and federal money, opened on June 5, 2021. The Hillsborough Bypass is named for Peter J. Biondi, a former Assemblyman and Hillsborough mayor who died in 2011.
US 206 was widened in Byram Township to six lanes. This construction follows a decade of controversy, including concerns that the widening would violate the Highlands Water Protection and Planning Act passed in 2004; an exemption to this act allowed the construction to proceed. The widening was done in order to eliminate backups on the previous two-lane stretch during rush hours. The project was slated to be finished in November 2013.
The NJDOT is planning on widening the route in Hillsborough to four lanes and adding a concrete median from Doctors Way to Brown Avenue, where the four lane highway south of the Raritan River ends. This will replace the railroad overpass that is primarily blocking the widening project. The first half, from Doctors Way to Valley Road, will start in the summer of 2020 and is anticipated to be completed by fall 2022. The second half, from Valley Road to Brown Avenue will take place in 2022 and take 2 years to complete.
Major intersections
Special routes
U.S. Route 206 Bypass (US 206 Byp.) is the designation for the Peter J. Biondi Bypass, a bypass of the section of US 206 through Hillsborough Township in Somerset County. The road begins at an at-grade intersection with US 206 and Mountain View Road and heads north as a two-lane divided road. First crossing over CSX's Trenton Subdivision, it curves to the north and comes to a signalized intersection with Hillsborough Road, the bypass's temporary southern terminus from 2013 to 2021. Continuing north, the bypass passes through farmland and woodland with some nearby development, coming to bridges over Homestead Road and the Trenton Subdivision. The next intersection is a quadrant interchange with CR 514. The connector road to CR 514 is named Service Road though a direct ramp from CR 514 westbound to US 206 Byp. northbound exists. From here, the road becomes four lanes wide with a concrete barrier separating the carriageways. After passing under Hamilton Road, the bypass ends at a signalized intersection with US 206, which continues north.
The first section of US 206 Byp., in length and running from Hillsborough Road to CR 514, opened on October 28, 2013. The full bypass opened on June 5, 2021.
Major intersections
See also
Related routes
U.S. Route 6
U.S. Route 106
References
External links
New Jersey Roads - US 206
New Jersey Roads - US 206 Photos
Pennsylvania Roads - US 206
Pennsylvania Highways: US 206
US 206 in New Jersey at AARoads.com
Endpoints of US 206 at USEnds.com
Somerset County Functional Classification Map
Speed Limits for New Jersey State Roads: U.S. Route 206 in New Jersey
An enlarged view of road jurisdiction in Trenton at the confluence of US 1, US 206, NJ 29, NJ 33 and NJ 129
An enlarged view of road jurisdiction at the confluence of I-80, US 46, US 206 and NJ 183 in and near Roxbury Township
An enlarged view of road jurisdiction at the confluence of US 206, NJ 94 and CR 519 in Newton
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Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey
206
Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey
Transportation in Somerset County, New Jersey
Transportation in Morris County, New Jersey
Transportation in the Pine Barrens (New Jersey)
Transportation in Sussex County, New Jersey
Transportation in Pike County, Pennsylvania
Lincoln Highway
Limited-access roads in New Jersey | [
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|
215565 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Output%20budgeting | Output budgeting | Output budgeting is a wide-ranging management technique introduced into the United States in the mid-1960s by Robert S. McNamara's collaborator Charles J. Hitch, not always with ready cooperation with the administrators and based on the industrial management techniques of program budgeting. Subsequently, the technique has been introduced into other countries including Canada and the UK.
Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System (PPBS) is in effect an integration of a number of techniques in a planning and budgeting process for identifying, costing and assigning a complexity of resources for establishing priorities and strategies in a major program and for forecasting costs, expenditure and achievements within the immediate financial year or over a longer period.
United States Department of Defense leaders use their Planning, Programming, and Budgeting System to link operational requirements with financial obligations. Department of Defense branches typically divide the process into plans, programs and budgets. While planning, programming, and budgeting continues throughout the year, PPBS dictates a sequential and annual process culminating with annual Defense Plan, followed by a Defense Program, then a Defense Budget.
PPBS requires Planners focus on operational requirements, programmers link the plans to a six-year financial plan (known as a Future Years Defense Plan (FYDP)), and budgeters prepare a two-year Congressional budget. While each step contains more detailed financial data, the two-year Congressional budget stems from the six-year Future Years Defense Plan, which is based on the even longer term Defense Plan.
Literature
Department of Education and Science, London, England. (1970).Output Budgeting for the Department of Education and Science, Pendragon House, Inc. 176 p.
Christine E. Bonham, Elizabeth A. McClarin (2000), Accrual Budgeting: Experiences of Other Nations and Implications for the United States, DIANE, 217 p.
References
Performance Budgeting: Linking Funding and Results, Marc Robinson (ed.), IMF, 2007
From Line-item to Program Budgeting, John Kim, Seoul, 2007
Program and Performance Budgeting Enthusiasm in India -- IMF Training Course, Holger van Eden, IMF, 2007
United States Department of Defense
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215566 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink%20%28singer%29 | Pink (singer) | Alecia Beth Moore (born September 8, 1979), known professionally as Pink, or P!nk, is an American singer and songwriter. She was originally a member of the girl group Choice. In 1995, LaFace Records saw potential in Pink and offered her a solo recording contract. Her R&B-influenced debut studio album Can't Take Me Home (2000) was certified double-platinum in the United States and spawned two Billboard Hot 100 top-ten songs: "There You Go" and "Most Girls". She gained further recognition with the collaborative single "Lady Marmalade" from the Moulin Rouge! soundtrack, which topped many charts worldwide. Refocusing her sound to pop rock with her second studio album Missundaztood (2001), the album sold more than 13 million copies worldwide and yielded the international number-one songs "Get the Party Started", "Don't Let Me Get Me", and "Just Like a Pill".
While Pink's third studio album, Try This (2003), sold significantly less than her previous work, it earned her the Grammy Award for Best Female Rock Vocal Performance. She returned to the top of record charts with her fourth and fifth studio albums, I'm Not Dead (2006) and Funhouse (2008), which spawned the top-ten entries "Who Knew" and "U + Ur Hand", as well as the number-one single "So What". Pink's sixth studio album, The Truth About Love (2012), was her first Billboard 200 number-one album and spawned her fourth US number-one single, "Just Give Me a Reason". In 2014, Pink recorded a collaborative album, Rose Ave., with Canadian musician Dallas Green under a folk music duo named You+Me. Her next studio albums, Beautiful Trauma (2017) and Hurts 2B Human (2019), both debuted at atop the Billboard 200 chart, with the former becoming the world's third best-selling album of the year.
Noted for her distinctive raspy voice and acrobatic stage presence, Pink has sold over 135 million records worldwide (60 million albums and 75 million singles), making her one of the world's best-selling music artists. Her career accolades include three Grammy Awards, two Brit Awards, a Daytime Emmy Award and seven MTV Video Music Awards, including the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award. In 2009, Billboard named Pink the Pop Songs Artist of the Decade. Pink was also the second most-played female solo artist in the United Kingdom during the 2000s decade, behind only Madonna. VH1 ranked her at number ten on their list of the 100 Greatest Women in Music, while Billboard awarded her the Woman of the Year award in 2013. At the 63rd annual BMI Pop Awards, she received the BMI President's Award for "her outstanding achievement in songwriting and global impact on pop culture and the entertainment industry."
Early life and family
Alecia Beth Moore was born on September 8, 1979, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania, to emergency room nurse Judith "Judy" Moore (née Kugel) and insurance salesman James "Jim" Moore. She has described herself as an "Irish-German-Lithuanian-Jew", and self-identifies as Jewish. Although a healthy baby at birth, she quickly developed asthma that plagued her through her early years. When Pink was a toddler, her parents began having marital problems and divorced before she was 10.
Pink was trained as a competitive gymnast between the ages 4 and 12. She developed her voice early in life. She attended Central Bucks High School West. In high school, Pink joined her first band, Middleground, but it disbanded upon losing a Battle of the Bands competition. As a teenager, she wrote lyrics as an outlet for her feelings, and her mother commented, "Her initial writings were always very introspective. Some of it was very black, and very deep, almost worrisome."
Career
1995–1998: Career beginnings
Pink began performing in Philadelphia clubs when she was about 14 years old. She adopted her stagename, "Pink", around this time. She has given different explanations about how she came to be given her nickname as a child.
At 14, she was convinced to audition to become a member of the all-female group Basic Instinct, and earned a spot in the lineup. Ultimately, the group disbanded without releasing any material. At 16, Pink and two other teenage girls, Sharon Flanagan and Chrissy Conway, formed the R&B group Choice. A copy of their first song, "Key to My Heart", was sent to LaFace Records in Atlanta, Georgia, where L.A. Reid overheard it and arranged for the group to fly there so he could see them perform. After that, he signed them to a record deal. Since the three girls were under 18 at the time, their parents had to cosign the contract. The group relocated to Atlanta and recorded an album, which was never released, but "Key to My Heart" appeared on the soundtrack to the 1996 film Kazaam. During a Christmas party, Reid gave Pink an ultimatum: go solo or go home. Choice disbanded in 1998.
1999–2002: Can't Take Me Home and Missundaztood
After Choice disbanded, Pink signed a recording contract with LaFace Records and began working on her debut solo album with producers such as Babyface, Kandi Burruss and Tricky Stewart. Her debut single, "There You Go", was released in February 2000 and became her first top-ten hit on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it peaked at number seven. Internationally, the song also charted inside the top ten in Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. In April, Pink's debut album, Can't Take Me Home, was released to commercial success. It peaked 26 on the Billboard 200 chart, and was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for two million units shipped in the United States. It also went platinum in the United Kingdom and multi-platinum in Australia and Canada, while selling over four million copies worldwide. Critical reception to the album was mixed. The album's second single, "Most Girls", peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and became her first chart-topping single in Australia. "You Make Me Sick" was released as the final single and reached number 33 on the Hot 100.
Pink won the trophy for Female New Artist of the Year at the 2000 Billboard Music Awards. She was billed as a supporting act on the North American leg of NSYNC's No Strings Attached Tour throughout the summer of 2000. In 2001, Pink, alongside singers Christina Aguilera and Mýa as well as rapper Lil' Kim, performed a cover of "Lady Marmalade" for the soundtrack of the film Moulin Rouge!. In the US it became the most successful airplay-only single in history, as well as Pink's first #1 single. The success of the single was helped by its music video, which was popular on music channels and won the MTV Video Music Award for Video of the Year. The song won Pink's first Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals.
Tired of being marketed as another cookie cutter pop act, as well as eager both to be seen as a more serious songwriter and musician and to perform the type of music she wanted to, Pink took her sound in a new direction and sought more artistic or creative control during the recording of her second album, Missundaztood. She recruited Linda Perry, former singer of 4 Non Blondes (one of Pink's favorite groups in her teenage years). Pink moved into Perry's Los Angeles home where the pair spent several months writing songs for the album. Perry co-wrote and co-produced the album with Dallas Austin and Scott Storch, and according to VH1's Driven program, Antonio "LA" Reid of LaFace Records was not initially content with the new music Pink was making. The album, named Missundaztood because of Pink's belief that people had a wrong image of her, was released in November 2001.
"Get the Party Started" was released as the lead single and peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100. It also became a worldwide hit, reaching number one in Australia, Ireland, New Zealand, Romania, and Spain, as well as spending four weeks at the top of the European Hot 100 Singles chart. At the 2002 MTV Video Music Awards, its music video won in the categories of Best Female Video and Best Dance Video. The album's other singles—"Don't Let Me Get Me", "Just Like a Pill", and "Family Portrait"—were also radio and chart successes, with "Just Like a Pill" becoming Pink's second number-one hit in the United Kingdom. Missundaztood remains Pink's best-selling record with over 13 million copies sold worldwide. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), Missundaztood was the eighth best-selling album of 2002 globally. Pink won a World Music Award for Best Selling American Pop/Rock Female Artist. She was also nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 45th Grammy Awards. Faith Hill's 2002 album, Cry, features a song co-written by Pink and Perry ("If You're Gonna Fly Away"). In 2002, Pink headlined a tour of America, Europe and Australia, the Party Tour, as well as becoming a supporting act for Lenny Kravitz's American tour. Pink was named the Top Female Billboard 200 Artist of 2002.
2003–2007: Try This and I'm Not Dead
In mid-2003, Pink contributed the song "Feel Good Time" to the soundtrack of the film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle, in which she had a cameo appearance as a motocross race ramp owner/promoter. Featuring electronic music artist William Orbit, it became Pink's first single to miss the top 40 on Billboards Hot 100 chart, although it was a hit in Europe and in Australia. It was later included on non-U.S. editions of Pink's third album, Try This, which was released on November 11, 2003. Eight of the 13 tracks were co-written with Tim Armstrong of the band Rancid. Linda Perry was featured on the album as a writer and musician. Despite the album reaching the top ten on album charts in the US, in Canada, in the UK, and in Australia, sales were considerably lower than those of Missundaztood. However, it did go platinum in the US. The singles "Trouble" and "God Is a DJ" did not reach the US top 40 but did reach the top ten in other countries, and "Last to Know" was released as a single outside North America. "Trouble" earned Pink the Grammy award in Best Female Rock Vocal Performance category at the 46th Annual Grammy Awards, and "Feel Good Time" was nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. She toured extensively on the Try This Tour through Europe and Australia, where the album was better received.
During the same period, Pink co-wrote the song "Take A Picture" with Damon Elliott which was released on Mýa's album Moodring. In 2005, Pink collaborated with Lisa Marie Presley on the track "Shine", released on Presley's second album Now What. Pink took a break to write the songs for her fourth album, I'm Not Dead, which she said she titled as such because "It's about being alive and feisty and not sitting down and shutting up even though people would like you to." Pink worked with producers Max Martin, Billy Mann, Christopher Rojas, Butch Walker, Lukasz Gottwald, and Josh Abraham on the album. The album's release through LaFace Records in April 2006 was a substantial success throughout the world, particularly in Australia. The album reached the top ten in the US, the top five in the UK, No. 1 in Germany, and was No. 1 in Australia for two non-consecutive weeks.
The album's lead single, "Stupid Girls", was Pink's biggest US hit since 2002 and earned her a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Its music video, in which she parodies celebrities such as Lindsay Lohan, Jessica Simpson, Mary-Kate Olsen, and Paris Hilton, won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Pop Video. Subsequent singles "Who Knew" and "U + Ur Hand" were substantial hits in Australia and Europe, and they later became top ten singles in the US. in 2007. The non-US singles were "Nobody Knows", a minor hit in the UK, Australia and Germany; "Dear Mr. President", an open letter to the US President George W. Bush which featured the Indigo Girls and became a No. 1 hit in Belgium as well as a top five hit in Germany, Australia, and other countries; "Leave Me Alone (I'm Lonely)", a UK top 40 and Australian top five entry; and "'Cuz I Can". The album has sold over 1.3 million copies in the US, as well as over 700,000 copies in Australia. The album proved very popular in Australia, with six top five singles and a record-breaking 62 weeks in the top 10; so far the album has gone 10 times platinum.
In support of the album, Pink embarked on the world I'm Not Dead Tour, for which ticket sales in Australia were particularly high; she sold approximately 307,000 tickets in Australia, giving her the record for the biggest concert attendance for an arena tour by a female artist. One of the London shows on the tour was taped and released as a DVD, Pink: Live from Wembley Arena, where she sang Linda Perry's "Whats Up?". In 2006, Pink was chosen to sing the theme song for NBC Sunday Night Football, "Waiting All Day for Sunday Night", which is a take on "I Hate Myself for Loving You" by Joan Jett. She contributed a cover of Rufus's "Tell Me Something Good" to the soundtrack of the film Happy Feet, and lent her name to PlayStation to promote the PSP, a special pink edition of which was released.
Pink collaborated with several other artists in 2006 and 2007, when she opened for Justin Timberlake on the American leg of his FutureSex/LoveShow Tour. She sang on the Indigo Girls album Despite Our Differences. She was featured on India.Arie's song "I Am Not My Hair" from the Lifetime Television film Why I Wore Lipstick to My Mastectomy. She wrote a song, "I Will", for Natalia's third album, Everything and More. "Outside of You", another song she co-wrote, was recorded by dance-pop singer Hilary Duff and released on her 2007 album Dignity. Pink recorded a song with Annie Lennox and twenty-two other female acts for Lennox's fourth solo studio album, Songs of Mass Destruction; titled "Sing", it was written as an anthem for HIV/AIDS, according to Lennox's website. In December 2007, a special edition Pink Box, which comprises her second to fourth albums and the DVD Live in Europe, was released in Australia. It reached the top twenty on the albums chart and was certified Gold, selling over 35,000 units.
2008–2011: Funhouse and Greatest Hits... So Far!!!
On August 7, 2008, Pink's single "So What" was leaked online, and radio stations across Australia were quick to give it massive airplay. Less than six hours after the leak, "So What" was voted No.1 on Nova 100 Melbourne and shot to No.1 on the Today Network's national radio Hot30 Countdown. On August 22, Pink announced a new track, titled "Crystal Ball". On September 18, 2008, "So What" became her second number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100. Pink was the guest of honor at the 2008 ARIA Music Awards, which were held in Sydney, Australia, in October 2008. There she sang "So What". On November 3, 2008, Funhouse debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA charts. In Australia it sold over 86,000 units in its first week, and was eventually certified eleven times platinum.
On November 23, 2008, Pink performed "Sober", the second single from Funhouse, at the American Music Awards. The third single was "Please Don't Leave Me", with a video directed by Dave Meyers. In Australia, "Bad Influence" was released as the album's fourth single as a promotional single for her Funhouse Tour, and "Funhouse" was later released as the fifth single. However, "Bad Influence" was not released as a single in Europe until March 2010, which was after "Funhouse" had been released. In May 2009, Pink released a four-CD box set of her first four albums; this set peaked at No. 7 in the UK Album Chart. In 2009, Pink performed in The People Speak, a documentary feature film that uses dramatic and musical performances of the letters, diaries, and speeches of everyday Americans, based on historian Howard Zinn's A People's History of the United States.
Pink's Funhouse Tour started in France on February 24, 2009, and continued through Europe until mid-May, with supporting act Raygun. Pink then performed a series of shows in Australia, all of which sold out. Between May and August 2009, she performed for a total of more than 600,000 Australian fans at 58 shows around the country.
On September 13, 2009, Pink performed "Sober" while doing a trapeze act at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards, where she was nominated for Best Female Video for "So What". On January 31, 2010, Pink did another circus act in the form of aerial silks at the 2010 Grammy Awards, this time performing the song "Glitter in the Air". She received a standing ovation. In 2013, Billboard ranked the performance as the best between 2000 and 2012. Billboard recognized Pink as the Pop Songs Artist of the Decade. According to the BBC countdown compiled by PPL, Pink was the second most-played female solo artist in the United Kingdom during the 2000s decade, behind Madonna.
Pink was a soloist in the remake of the 1985 charity single, "We Are the World". She collaborated on the 2010 Herbie Hancock album, The Imagine Project, in which she sang Peter Gabriel's "Don't Give Up" with John Legend and contributed vocals to John Lennon's "Imagine" with Seal, India.Arie, Jeff Beck, Konono Nº1, Oumou Sangaré, and others. The last collaboration earned Pink a Grammy Award for Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals. She was featured on a track titled "Won't Back Down" for Eminem's 2010 album Recovery; Eminem explained that he included Pink because he "felt like she would smash this record."
On July 15, 2010, during a concert in Nurnberg, Germany, Pink was preparing to end her concert with an aerial acrobatic routine when she was pulled offstage and onto a barricade below. Her left-side flywire had been activated before the right-side one had been properly attached to her harness. She was taken to a local hospital where it was determined that she had not been seriously injured. Pink sold a total of 3,000,000 concert tickets on her 2009–10 worldwide tour, according to a statement on behalf of UK tour promoter Marshall Arts.
In the first week of October 2010, Pink released "Raise Your Glass", the first single from her first compilation album, Greatest Hits... So Far!!!. The song celebrates a decade since Pink's debut in 2000 and is dedicated to her fans who have been supporting her over the years. The song reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Pink's tenth Top 10 hit, and her third number-one on the chart.
She released the compilation album on November 12, 2010, and almost a month later she released the album's second single, named "Fuckin' Perfect". The song reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, and peaked at number one on the airplay charts in Germany. On the German singles chart, the song entered at number seven in March 2011.
Pink voiced the character of Gloria in Happy Feet Two, which premiered on November 18, 2011, in the United States. She also sings the movie's theme song, "Bridge of Light".
On October 7, 2011, RCA Music Group announced that it would be disbanding Jive Records, along with Arista Records and J Records. With the shutdown, Pink and all other artists previously signed to the labels would release any future material through RCA Records.
2012–2015: The Truth About Love and You+Me
In February 2012, Pink confirmed that she was in the writing process for her next studio album, The Truth About Love. She was scheduled to perform at a fundraiser for the presidential campaign of Barack Obama that June, but had to cancel her performance after she was hospitalized and underwent the removal of her gallbladder. The Truth About Love was preceded with the release of its lead single, "Blow Me (One Last Kiss)", in July. The single peaked at number five on the Billboard Hot 100, while reaching number one in Australia and Hungary, and the top five in Canada, Japan, and the United Kingdom. Released in September, The Truth About Love made its debut atop the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 281,000, making it her first number-one album in the United States. It also topped the charts in Australia, Austria, Canada, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, and Switzerland, and became the world's sixth best-selling album of 2012 according to the IFPI. The album was certified double platinum by the RIAA for two million copies shipped and has sold over seven million copies worldwide. The Truth About Love received positive response from music critics and was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards.
"Try" was released as the second single from The Truth About Love in October 2012 and became a worldwide top-ten hit, peaking at number nine on the Billboard Hot 100. In February 2013, Pink released the fourth single, "Just Give Me a Reason", featuring guest vocals by Nate Ruess of fun. It became the most successful single from The Truth About Love, topping the record charts in more than 20 countries worldwide and becoming Pink's fourth number-one hit on the Billboard Hot 100. According to the IFPI, the song was the fourth best-selling digital single of 2013 with 9.9 million copies sold worldwide. The song won the Billboard Mid-Year Award for Favorite Hot 100 No.1 Song, and garnered two nominations for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance and Song of the Year at the 56th Annual Grammy Awards. Three further singles, "True Love", "Walk of Shame", and "Are We All We Are", was released throughout 2013 to less commercial success. On February 13, 2013, Pink kicked off her sixth tour, known as The Truth About Love Tour, in Phoenix, Arizona. Billboard released a statement on June 14, announcing that Pink held the No. 1 spot on their Hot Tours chart, as the American leg of her Truth About Love Tour grossed over $23.6 million. She still held the title a week later, as the European leg grossed $30.7 million.
In addition to her work for The Truth About Love, Pink appeared on the track "Guns and Roses" on T.I.'s album Trouble Man: Heavy Is the Head. The song has been certified Gold by the ARIA for sales of 35,000 digital downloads shipped in Australia. She also wrote two songs, "I Walk Alone" and "Lie to Me", for Cher's new album, Closer to the Truth. Pink starred as a sex addict alongside Gwyneth Paltrow and Mark Ruffalo in the 2013 movie Thanks for Sharing. The official trailer was released on June 27 and the movie premièred on September 20, 2013. Her legal name, Alecia Moore, is used for the movie credits. Her role as Dede was heavily praised by critics. rogerebert.com commented on her performance saying "Of all the cast here, the least experienced is the pop singer Pink, yet she does the best acting in the film: natural, a little harsh, a little unstable. Pink, like Macy Gray in her Lee Daniels movie roles, knows instinctively how to behave on camera by just pretending that the camera isn't there."
Billboard named Pink Woman of the Year 2013. In December, the magazine also named The Truth About Love Tour the 3rd best selling tour of 2013 with $147.9 million in ticket sales; falling only behind Bon Jovi and Michael Jackson: The Immortal World Tour. Also in Billboard's end of year charts, Pink was ranked the 6th top artist of 2013 and she scored her highest charting end-of-year song and album; with Just Give Me a Reason sitting at number 7 on the Billboard Hot 100 and The Truth About Love placing at number 8 on the Billboard 200. In Australia, Pink has had an album placed at number one or two in the ARIA End of Year Albums Chart for six out of the past seven years as The Truth About Love topped the chart for two years in a row. She was the 9th top grossing music artist of 2013, with $20,072,072.32 earned. RCA Records later announced that they have signed Pink for a multi-album deal that will last for years to come. The singer was quoted about the deal saying "I am super-duper excited to continue onwards and upwards with RCA and my team there".
It was announced in September 2014, that Pink and Dallas Green, lead singer of City and Colour, worked together on a collaborative album, under the band name You+Me. The album, titled Rose Ave., was released on October 14, 2014. The album debuted at number four on the Billboard 200 and at number one on the US Folk Albums chart.
In August 2015, Pink recorded the theme song for the 13th season of The Ellen DeGeneres Show. The song, "Today's the Day", was performed during the show's premiere week in New York City on September 10, 2015.
2016–2020: Beautiful Trauma, Hurts 2B Human and hiatus
It was announced in February 2016 that Pink will cover a Beatles song, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds", for the upcoming Netflix original series Beat Bugs. In the same month, it was announced that she had recorded a cover of "White Rabbit" for the movie Alice Through the Looking Glass, while in April it was revealed that she contributed the song "Just like Fire" to the soundtrack of the movie. In Australia, it topped the ARIA Charts. The following July, it was announced that Pink had written a song for French-Canadian singer Celine Dion called "Recovering" for inclusion on her upcoming English-language album. Pink provided guest vocals on country singer Kenny Chesney's single "Setting the World on Fire" which was released on August 1, 2016. The single topped on the Billboard Hot Country Songs and went platinum in the United States and Canada. On March 10, 2017, Pink teamed up with Stargate and Australian star Sia on the former's debut single, "Waterfall".
Pink took a break to write songs for her upcoming seventh album. In June 2017, Pink confirmed that she was making her next studio album. On July 17, 2017, she announced via her official Twitter account that the video shoot for the first single will take place the following week. "What About Us", the lead single from Pink's seventh studio album, Beautiful Trauma, was released on August 10, 2017 and reached number one in Australia. The album was released on October 13, 2017, and became the third best-selling album of the year worldwide. On August 27, 2017, Pink received the Michael Jackson Video Vanguard Award at the MTV Video Music Awards. She also performed a medley of some of her hits, including her new single, "What About Us", before accepting the award, which was presented to her by Ellen DeGeneres. "What About Us" reached number one on the Adult Pop Songs chart, earning Pink her ninth leader on the chart, breaking her out of a tie with Katy Perry for the solo female artist with the most number-ones in the chart's history and placing her in second place amongst all acts. The song received one nomination at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards for Best Pop Solo Performance. "Beautiful Trauma" was released on November 21, 2017, as the second single from Beautiful Trauma to less commercial success, reaching top thirty in Australia, the United Kingdom, France, and Scotland. While it only managed to peak at number seventy-eight on the Billboard Hot 100, it topped on the Billboard Dance Club Songs chart. On December 5, 2017, rapper Eminem revealed that Pink would be collaborating on the song "Need Me" for his ninth studio album Revival. The album received the nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album earned Pink's 20th nomination at the Annual Grammy Awards.
Although sick with influenza, Pink sang the U.S. national anthem ahead of Super Bowl LII, a dream she had had since, as a child, seeing Whitney Houston sing at Super Bowl XXV in 1991. On March 1, 2018, Pink started her seventh concert tour, the Beautiful Trauma World Tour, which was scheduled to visit North America and Oceania until September 8, 2018. She later decided to extend the tour until May 2019 including Europe. On April 6, 2018, she was featured on Elton John's Revamp & Restoration, singing the song "Bennie and the Jets", with Elton John himself and Logic.
On April 17, 2018, People teased its 2018 "Most Beautiful" cover star by calling her "a performer, mother and role model whose honesty, humour, confidence and sheer star power make her one of the most beloved and fascinating entertainers on the planet." The next day the magazine revealed the cover, which features Pink with her two kids Willow and Jameson. The magazine issue was named the "beautiful issue." Similar covers had featured Julia Roberts and Jennifer Aniston.
On October 23, 2018, Pink released her version of the song "A Million Dreams" from the upcoming "The Greatest Showman – Reimagined" album, a reworking of the soundtrack with contributions from various artists including Kelly Clarkson, Kesha, Jess Glynne and Missy Elliott. Pink's daughter, Willow Sage Hart is also featured on the album performing the song's reprise.
On February 5, 2019, Pink received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame; she further announced the release of her eighth album, Hurts 2B Human, which was released on April 26, 2019. The album's lead single, "Walk Me Home" was released on February 20, 2019. On the release date, Pink performed the song alongside a medley of her biggest hits at the BRIT Awards, including "Try", "Just Give Me a Reason", with Fun. lead singer Nate Ruess, and "What About Us". She was also awarded with the Outstanding Contribution to Music Award at the ceremony. In December 2019, Pollstar named her Artist of the Year. Pink confirmed that in 2020 she will take a break from music to focus on her family.
2021: All I Know So Far
On February 12, 2021, she released the song "Cover Me in Sunshine", a duet with her daughter Willow Sage Hart. On April 9, 2021, she released the song "Anywhere Away from Here", a duet with Rag'n'Bone Man. On April 29, she announced a live album, titled All I Know So Far: Setlist, which was released on May 21. The album contains the live versions of previous Pink songs, live covers and "Cover Me in Sunshine". It also includes the title track, released as a single on May 7. All I Know So Far: Setlist serves as the companion album to the documentary film covering Pink's life of the same name, which was released simultaneously with the album through Amazon's Prime Video platform.
In April 2021, Pink confirmed to ET Canada that a ninth studio album was "very early days, but I will tell you, it will be very honest".
Artistry
Influences
Pink has named Madonna and Janis Joplin as her biggest musical influences. In a 2000 interview with MTV, Pink said that during her childhood she used to think that she was Madonna's daughter, saying: "I've always been the type of person that followed Madonna like a lost puppy. I didn't speak to my mother for a year, because I was sure she adopted me." She stated, "Madonna has always been an inspiration for me... I was a fan right from the first time I heard 'Holiday'." Pink also won her first talent show singing Madonna's "Oh Father". Of Janis Joplin, Pink said "She was so inspiring by singing blues music when it wasn't culturally acceptable for white women, and she wore her heart on her sleeve. She was so witty and charming and intelligent, but she also battled an ugly-duckling syndrome. I would love to play her in a movie." In a tribute performance on her Try This Tour, Pink called Joplin "a woman who inspired me when everyone else ... didn't!"
As a child, she admired the leader of 4 Non Blondes, Linda Perry, whom she would later track down and form a close relationship with on her second album. She said: Literally this woman spoke to me. Being in pain and being on drugs and being misunderstood and, yeah she spoke my language. Without having to say anything, she could sing a note and it was what I was feeling. I used to sit at three or four o' clock in the morning, tripping on whatever, screaming 4 Non Blondes out the window until the cops were called.
Voice and timbre
Throughout her career, Pink has received acclaim from critics for her powerful singing abilities. Her voice has been described as "raspy", "husky", and "distinctive." James Montgomery of MTV calls her "a deceptively good singer ... who can out-sing almost anyone". The Guardian describes her voice as "prodigious". Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times labeled her "a powerhouse vocalist". Pink has also been noted for her "raw", "soulful" voice and her ability to emote. The Inquirer defined her voice as "husky" and "gutsy", further complimenting her for developing into a "powerfully emotive vocalist", while comparing her to Janis Joplin. The Star Tribune commends her by writing, "Her slightly raspy, slightly soulful voice made you feel the dysfunction in 'Family Portrait', the longing of 'Who Knew' and the empowerment in 'Perfect'." CNN has said that Pink is known for singing "with the right level of emotion". Fellow artist Kelly Clarkson has called Pink's voice "the best of our generation". Troy L. Smith, writing for Cleveland.com, called Pink one of her generation's most underrated vocalists, writing that she is capable of "sing[ing] anything, from rock and pop to folk and R&B." Smith named her 2006's second best vocalist, runner-up to Carrie Underwood.
Public image
Aside from her music, Pink has been noted for her fashion style, such the "adventurous" hairstyles she has worn, which have included fluorescent spikes to pink-streaked dreadlocks to a pitch-black skater cut. Regarding her style, she told InStyle, "I'm eclectic. I'm a tomboy, but I'm kind of a hippie and kind of a gangster ... I don't know if that's a good thing, but it is my thing."
Pink is an animal-rights activist and a prominent campaigner for PETA, contributing her voice toward causes such as the protest against KFC. In conjunction with PETA, she criticized the Australian wool industry over its use of mulesing. In January 2007, she stated that she had been misled by PETA about mulesing and that she had not done enough research before lending her name to the campaign. Her campaigning led to a headlining concert called PAW (Party for Animals Worldwide) in Cardiff, Wales on August 21, 2007. In 2015, she posed nude for PETA's "I'd Rather Go Naked Than Wear Fur", campaign.
Pink is also outspoken about LGBT rights and supports same-sex marriage. In October 2012, Pink told The Advocate that she does not define her sexual orientation saying, "I never felt the need to".
Pink is also involved with several charities, including Human Rights Campaign, ONE Campaign, The Prince's Trust, New York Restoration Project, Run for the Cure Foundation, Save the Children, Take Back the Night, UNICEF and World Animal Protection. Pink has been officially recognized as an advocate for RSPCA Australia. On February 16, 2009, Pink announced she was donating $250,000 to the Red Cross Bushfire Appeal to aid the victims of the bushfires that swept through the Australian state of Victoria earlier that month. Pink stated that she wanted to make "a tangible expression of support". Pink also donated money to Autism Speaks. In July 2021 she offered to pay the fines handed out to the Norwegian women's beach handball team, after they wore shorts like their male counterparts instead of bikini bottoms.
In August 2012, Pink became a spokesmodel for CoverGirl, featuring in a fall 2013 advertising campaign themed "beauty with an edge".
On August 21, 2018, Pink stopped her concert in Brisbane for a grieving fan. A girl named Leah lost her mother one month prior to the concert, and she and her family hung up signs all around the concert, saying "My name is Leah – I'm 14 years old. I lost my beautiful Mum last month. I would LOVE a hug... Please!". The signs grabbed the attention of Pink.
Legacy
Pink has been credited for breaking boundaries and pushing the envelope throughout her career. She is regarded as the "most trailblazing artist" of her pop generation. Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times says, "Pink stood up for her music, broke the music industry's mold and scored a breakout hit, challenging a school of teen singers to find their own sounds as well." He adds, "[Pink] also started a race among other teen pop stars like Christina Aguilera to add substance to their own sound." Ann Powers refers to her as a "powerhouse vocalist", stating her mix of rebellion, emotional rawness, humor, and "infectious" dance beats created "a model for the mashup approach of latter-day divas such as Katy Perry, Kesha, and Rihanna." Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone commented: "I think people respond to her sense of independence and dedication. It inspires people... This is a prolific pop artist who is sometimes famous and successful, sometimes obscure, who nonetheless keeps making her own kind of music."
James Montgomery of MTV describes her as "a fabulously fearless pop artist" who can "out-sing almost anyone out there. She can out-crazy Gaga or Lily. She's the total pop-star package, everything you'd want in a singer/entertainer/icon. And still, she remains oddly off the radar. Such is the price of busting borders". Entertainment Weekly said: "She essentially invented the whole modern wave of Pop Diva Domination: You can draw a straight line from "Get This Party Started" to Katy Perry, Kesha, pre-messianic Lady Gaga, and post-weird Rihanna." Glamour Magazine wrote: "When Pennsylvania-born Alecia Moore debuted in 2000, pop was dominated by long-locked blonds like Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera and Jessica Simpson. Pink changed the game. Without her, the last 13 years of big-voiced, tough chick music is hard to imagine."
Following her performance at the American Music Awards of 2012, LZ Granderson of CNN wrote: ... our culture's biggest sin may well be the auto-tuned syrup we've allowed to dominate the pop charts. All-time chart records are handed to vacuous acts such as the Black Eyed Peas and singing awards are given to vocal lightweights such as Taylor Swift [...] But thank God for Pink. [...] While Christina Aguilera has a tendency to oversing, Britney Spears can't sing, and Lauryn Hill sorta stopped singing, Pink has managed to carve a brilliant 13-year career by being something that is incredibly rare these days—an artist.
British soul singer Adele considers Pink's performance at Brixton Academy in London as one of "the most defining moments" in her life, saying "It was the Missundaztood record, so I was about 13 or 14. I had never heard, being in the room, someone sing like that live. I remember sort of feeling like I was in a wind tunnel, her voice just hitting me. It was incredible."
Pink's work has inspired many other artists, including Christina Aguilera, Demi Lovato, Kelly Clarkson, Taylor Swift, Katy Perry, Tegan and Sara, Ashley Tisdale, Alessia Cara, Victoria Justice, Adele, Julia Michaels, Ben Hopkins of Pwr Bttm Dua Lipa, Bebe Rexha, Halsey, Anne Marie, Kehlani, and Daya.
Personal life
Pink met professional motocross racer Carey Hart at the 2001 X Games in Philadelphia. Following a brief separation in 2003, Pink proposed to Hart in June 2005 during a Mammoth Lakes motocross race; she was "assisting" in his race and wrote "Will You Marry Me? I'm serious!" on a pit board. He initially did not notice and continued on for another lap. When he did notice later, he veered off the track to accept right then. She then made him finish the race. They married in Costa Rica on January 7, 2006.
After months of speculation, Pink announced in February 2008, that she and Hart had separated. Hart subsequently appeared in the video for her 2008 song "So What", which deals with their separation. The couple sought marriage counseling during their separation in hopes of reconciliation. In February 2010, Pink confirmed that she and Hart were back together. Hart also appears with Pink in the music video for her songs "Just Give Me a Reason", "True Love", and "Just Like Fire".
In November 2010, Pink announced on The Ellen DeGeneres Show that she and Hart were expecting their first child. In June 2011, she gave birth to their daughter, Willow Sage. In December 2016, she gave birth to their second child, a son, Jameson Moon.
Pink is a supporter of attachment parenting.
In 2010, she appeared on Forbes "The Celebrity 100" list at number 27, with earnings of $44 million. In 2011, she appeared on Forbes The Top-Earning Women in Music list at number 6 with earnings of $22 million, with an average of $1 million per show on the road. In 2009, Billboard put her number 6 on their "Money Makers" list, listing her earnings as $36,347,658. In 2013, she appeared on Forbes list of "Highest Paid Musicians", with earnings of $32 million. In 2018, she appeared on Forbes list of "Highest Paid Female Celebrities", with earnings of $52 million.
On April 4, 2020, amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, Pink announced that she and her three-year-old son, Jameson, showed symptoms for COVID-19 and she subsequently tested positive, but fully recovered. She also announced donations of $500,000 each to the Temple University Hospital Fund in Philadelphia, where her mother worked for nearly two decades, and the City of Los Angeles Mayor's Emergency COVID-19 Crisis Fund.
Awards and achievements
According to Nielsen SoundScan, Pink's record sales stand at 16 million copies in the United States. Pink has sold over 40 million albums and 50 million singles worldwide, making her one of the world's best-selling music artists.
Discography
Can't Take Me Home (2000)
Missundaztood (2001)
Try This (2003)
I'm Not Dead (2006)
Funhouse (2008)
The Truth About Love (2012)
Beautiful Trauma (2017)
Hurts 2B Human (2019)
Filmography
Tours
Party Tour (2002)
Try This Tour (2004)
I'm Not Dead Tour (2006–2007)
Funhouse Tour (2009)
The Funhouse Summer Carnival (2010)
The Truth About Love Tour (2013–2014)
Beautiful Trauma World Tour (2018–2019)
See also
List of animal rights advocates
References
Further reading
External links
/ Vevo
1979 births
Living people
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
Activists from Pennsylvania
Activists from Philadelphia
Actresses from Philadelphia
American child singers
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American women pop singers
American women rock singers
American feminists
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent
American pop rock singers
American soul singers
American women activists
American women writers
ARIA Award winners
Arista Records artists
Brit Award winners
Feminist musicians
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American musicians
Jewish singers
Jive Records artists
LGBT rights activists from the United States
MTV Europe Music Award winners
Musicians from Philadelphia
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals people
People from Doylestown, Pennsylvania
RCA Records artists
Sex-positive feminists
Singers from Pennsylvania
Songwriters from Pennsylvania
World Music Awards winners
Writers from Philadelphia
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|
215567 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pink | Pink | Pink is the color of a namesake flower that is a pale tint of red. It was first used as a color name in the late 17th century. According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most often associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, childhood, femininity, and romance. A combination of pink and white is associated with chastity and innocence, whereas a combination of pink and black links to eroticism and seduction.
In nature and culture
Etymology and definitions
The color pink is named after the flowers, pinks, flowering plants in the genus Dianthus, and derives from the frilled edge of the flowers. The verb "to pink" dates from the 14th century and means "to decorate with a perforated or punched pattern" (possibly from German picken, "to peck").
Pink rarely appears in nature, which is why it was first used as a noun to refer to a color in the 17th century. The verb "pink" continues to be reflected today as the name of hand-held scissors that cut a zig-zagged line to prevent fraying that are referred to as pinking shears.
History, art and fashion
The color pink has been described in literature since ancient times. In the Odyssey, written in approximately 800 BCE, Homer wrote "Then, when the child of morning, rosy-fingered dawn appeared..." Roman poets also described the color. Roseus is the Latin word meaning "rosy" or "pink." Lucretius used the word to describe the dawn in his epic poem On the Nature of Things (De rerum natura).
Pink was not a common color in the fashion of the Middle Ages; nobles usually preferred brighter reds, such as crimson. However, it did appear in women's fashion, and in religious art. In the 13th and 14th century, in works by Cimabue and Duccio, the Christ child was sometimes portrayed dressed in pink, the color associated with the body of Christ.
In the high Renaissance painting the Madonna of the Pinks by Raphael, the Christ child is presenting a pink flower to the Virgin Mary. The pink was a symbol of marriage, showing a spiritual marriage between the mother and child.
During the Renaissance, pink was mainly used for the flesh color of faces and hands. The pigment commonly used for this was called light cinabrese; it was a mixture of the red earth pigment called sinopia, or Venetian red, and a white pigment called Bianco San Genovese, or lime white. In his famous 15th century manual on painting, Il Libro Dell'Arte, Cennino Cennini described it this way: "This pigment is made from the loveliest and lightest sinopia that is found and is mixed and mulled with St. John’s white, as it is called in Florence; and this white is made from thoroughly white and thoroughly purified lime. And when these two pigments have been thoroughly mulled together (that is, two parts cinabrese and the third white), make little loaves of them like half walnuts and leave them to dry. When you need some, take however much of it seems appropriate. And this pigment does you great credit if you use it for painting faces, hands and nudes on walls..."
18th century
The zenith of the color pink was the 18th century, when pastel colors became very fashionable in all the courts of Europe. Pink was particularly championed by Madame de Pompadour (1721–1764), the mistress of King Louis XV of France, who wore combinations of pale blue and pink, and had a particular tint of pink made for her by the Sevres porcelain factory, created by adding nuances of blue, black and yellow.
While pink was quite evidently the color of seduction in the portraits made by George Romney of Emma, Lady Hamilton, the future mistress of Admiral Horatio Nelson, in the late 18th century, it had the completely opposite meaning in the portrait of Sarah Barrett Moulton painted by Thomas Lawrence in 1794. In this painting, it symbolized childhood, innocence and tenderness. Sarah Moulton was just eleven years old when the picture was painted, and died the following year.
19th century
In 19th century England, pink ribbons or decorations were often worn by young boys; boys were simply considered small men, and while men in England wore red uniforms, boys wore pink. In fact the clothing for children in the 19th century was almost always white, since, before the invention of chemical dyes, clothing of any color would quickly fade when washed in boiling water. Queen Victoria was painted in 1850 with her seventh child and third son, Prince Arthur, who wore white and pink. In late nineteenth-century France, Impressionist painters working in a pastel color palette sometimes depicted women wearing the color pink, such as Edgar Degas’ image of ballet dancers or Mary Cassatt’s images of women and children.
20th century - present
The US presidential inauguration of Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1953 when Eisenhower's wife Mamie Eisenhower wore a pink dress as her inaugural gown is thought to have been a key turning point to the association of pink as a color associated with girls. Mamie's strong liking of pink led to the public association with pink being a color that "ladylike women wear." The 1957 American musical Funny Face also played a role in cementing the color's association with women.
In the 20th century, pinks became bolder, brighter, and more assertive, in part because of the invention of chemical dyes which did not fade. The pioneer in the creation of the new wave of pinks was the Italian designer Elsa Schiaparelli, (1890-1973) who was aligned with the artists of the surrealist movement, including Jean Cocteau. In 1931 she created a new variety of the color, called shocking pink, made by mixing magenta with a small amount of white. She launched a perfume called Shocking, sold in a bottle in the shape of a woman's torso, said to be modelled on that of Mae West. Her fashions, co-designed with artists such as Cocteau, featured the new pinks.
In Nazi Germany in the 1930s and 1940s, inmates of Nazi concentration camps who were accused of homosexuality were forced to wear a pink triangle. Because of this, the pink triangle has become a symbol of the modern gay rights movement.
The transition to pink as a sexually differentiating color for girls occurred gradually, through the selective process of the marketplace, in the 1930s and 40s. In the 1920s, some groups had been describing pink as a masculine color, an equivalent of the red that was considered to be for men, but lighter for boys. But stores nonetheless found that people were increasingly choosing to buy pink for girls, and blue for boys, until this became an accepted norm in the 1940s.
Science and nature
Optics
In optics, the word "pink" can refer to any of the pale shades of colors between bluish red to red in hue, of medium to high lightness, and of low to moderate saturation. Although pink is generally considered a tint of red, the colors of most tints of pink are slightly bluish, and lie between red and magenta. A few variations of pink, such as salmon color, lean toward orange.
Sunrises and sunsets
As a ray of white sunlight travels through the atmosphere, some of the colors are scattered out of the beam by air molecules and airborne particles. This is called Rayleigh scattering. Colors with a shorter wavelength, such as blue and green, scatter more strongly, and are removed from the light that finally reaches the eye. At sunrise and sunset, when the path of the sunlight through the atmosphere to the eye is longest, the blue and green components are removed almost completely, leaving the longer wavelength orange, red and pink light. The remaining pinkish sunlight can also be scattered by cloud droplets and other relatively large particles, which give the sky above the horizon a pink or reddish glow.
Geology
Biology
Pink coloration of meat and seafood
Raw beef is red, because the muscles of vertebrate animals, such as cows and pigs, contain a protein called myoglobin, which binds oxygen and iron atoms. When beef is cooked, the myoglobin proteins undergo oxidation, and gradually turn from red to pink to brown; that is, from rare to medium to well-done. Pork contains less myoglobin than beef and therefore is less red; when heated, it changes from pinkish-red to less pink to tan or white.
Ham, though it contains myoglobins like beef, undergoes a different transformation. Traditional hams, such as prosciutto, are made by taking the hind leg or thigh of a pig, covering it with sea salt, which removes the moisture content, and then letting it dry or cure for as long as two years. The salt (sodium nitrate) permits the ham to retain its original pink color, even when dried out. Supermarket hams are made by a different and faster process; they are brined, or infused with a salt-water solution, containing sodium nitrite, which transfers nitric oxide, which bonds with the myoglobin to form the traditional pink cured ham color.
The shells and flesh of crustaceans such as crabs, lobsters and shrimp contain a pink carotenoid pigment called astaxanthin. Their shells, naturally blue-green, turn pink or red when cooked. The flesh of the salmon also contains astaxanthins, which makes it pink. Farm-bred salmon are sometimes fed these pigments to improve their pinkness, and it is sometimes also used to enhance the color of egg yolks.
Plants and flowers
Pink is one of the most common colors of flowers; it serves to attract the insects and birds necessary for pollination and perhaps also to deter predators. The color comes from natural pigments called anthocyanins, which also provide the pink in raspberries.
Pigments - Pinke
In the 17th century, the word pink or pinke was also used to describe a yellowish pigment, which was mixed with blue colors to yield greenish colors. Thomas Jenner's A Book of Drawing, Limning, Washing (1652) categorizes "Pink & blew bice" amongst the greens (p. 38), and specifies several admixtures of greenish colors made with pink—e.g. "Grasse-green is made of Pink and Bice, it is shadowed with Indigo and Pink … French-green of Pink and Indico [shadowed with] Indico" (pp. 38–40). In William Salmon's Polygraphice (1673), "Pink yellow" is mentioned amongst the chief yellow pigments (p. 96), and the reader is instructed to mix it with either Saffron or Ceruse for "sad" or "light" shades thereof, respectively.
Sonics
Pink noise (), also known as 1/f noise, in audio engineering is a signal or process with a frequency spectrum such that the power spectral density is proportional to the reciprocal of the frequency.
Lighting
Grow lights often use a combination of red and blue wavelengths, which generally appear pink to the human eye.
Pink neon signs are generally produced using one of two different methods. One method is to use neon gas and a blue or purple phosphor, which generally produces a warmer (more reddish) or more intense shade of pink. Another method is to use an argon/mercury blend and a red phosphor, which generally produces a cooler (more purplish) or softer shade of pink.
Pink LEDs can be produced using two methods, either with a blue LED using two phosphors (yellow for the first phosphor, and red, orange, or pink for the second), or by placing a pink dye on top of a white LED. Color shifting was a common issue with early pink LEDs, where the red, orange, or pink phosphors or dyes faded over time, causing the pink color to eventually shift towards white or blue. These issues have been mitigated by the more recent introduction of more fade-resistant phosphors.
Engineering
Insulation manufactured by Owens Corning is dyed pink, with the Pink Panther as its corporate mascot. The company holds a trademark on the color pink for insulation products in order to prevent competitors from using it, and is the first company in the United States to trademark a color.
The United States Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices specifies fluorescent pink as an optional color for traffic signs used for incident management as an alternative to the traditional orange in order to distinguish them from construction zone signs.
In symbolism and culture
Common associations and popularity
According to public opinion surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most associated with charm, politeness, sensitivity, tenderness, sweetness, softness, childhood, the feminine, and the romantic. Although it did not have any strong negative associations in these surveys, few respondents chose pink as their favorite color. Pink was the favorite color of only two percent of respondents. There was a notable difference between men and women in regards to a preference for pink; three percent of women chose pink as their favorite color, compared with less than one percent of men. Many of the men surveyed were unable to even identify pink correctly, confusing it with mauve. Pink was also more popular with older people than younger.
In Japan, pink is the color most commonly associated with springtime due to the blooming cherry blossoms. This is different from surveys in the United States and Europe where green is the color most associated with springtime.
Pink in other languages
In many languages, the word for the color pink is based on the name of the rose flower; like rose in French; roze in Dutch; rosa in German, Latin, Portuguese, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Swedish and Norwegian (Nynorsk and Bokmål); rozovyy/розовый in Russian; różowy in Polish; ורוד (varód) in Hebrew; গোলাপি (golapi) in Bangla; and गुलाबी (gulābee) in Hindi. In English "rose", too, often refers to both the flower and the color.
In Danish, Faroese and Finnish, the color pink is described as a lighter shade of red: lyserød in Danish, ljósareyður in Faroese and vaaleanpunainen in Finnish, all meaning "light red". Similarly, some Celtic languages use a term meaning "whitish red": gwynnrudh in Cornish, bándearg in Irish, bane-yiarg in Manx, bàn-dhearg in Scottish Gaelic (which also uses liath-dhearg "greyish/pale red" and pinc from English). In Icelandic, the color is called bleikur, originally meaning "pale".
In the Japanese language, the traditional word for pink, , takes its name from the peach blossom. There is a separate word for the color of the cherry blossom: sakura-iro. In recent times a word based on the English version, , has begun to be used.
In Chinese, the color pink is named with a compound noun 粉紅色, meaning "powder red" where the powder refers to substances used for women's make-up.
The Thai word for the color, ชมพู (chom-puu), derives ultimately from Sanskrit जम्बू (jambū) "rose apple".
Idioms and expressions
In the pink. To be in top form, in good health, in good condition. In Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio says; "I am the very pink of courtesy." Romeo: Pink for flower? Mercutio: Right. Romeo: Then my pump is well flowered."
To see pink elephants means to hallucinate from alcoholism. The expression was used by American novelist Jack London in his book John Barleycorn in 1913.
Pink slip. To be given a pink slip means to be fired or dismissed from a job. It was first recorded in 1915 in the United States.
The phrase "pink-collar worker" refers to persons working in jobs conventionally regarded as "women's work."
Pink money, the pink pound or pink dollar is an economic term which refers to the spending power of the LGBT community. Advertising agencies sometimes call the gay market the pink economy.
Tickled pink means extremely pleased.
Architecture
Early pink buildings were usually built of brick or sandstone, which takes its pale red color from hematite, or iron ore. In the 18th century - the golden age of pink and other pastel colors - pink mansions and churches were built all across Europe. More modern pink buildings usually use the color pink to appear exotic or to attract attention.
Food and beverages
According to surveys in Europe and the United States, pink is the color most associated with sweet foods and beverages. Pink is also one of the few colors to be strongly associated with a particular aroma, that of roses. Many strawberry and raspberry-flavored foods are colored pink and light red as well, sometimes to distinguish them from cherry-flavored foods that are more commonly colored dark red (although raspberry-flavored foods, particularly in the United States, are often colored blue as well). The drink Tab was packaged in pink cans, presumably to subconsciously convey a sweet taste.
The pink color in most packaged and processed foods, ice creams, candies and pastries is made with artificial food coloring. The most common pink food coloring is erythrosine, also known as Red No. 3, an organoiodine compound, a derivative of fluorone, which is a cherry-pink synthetic. It is usually listed on package labels as E-127. Another common red or pink (particularly in the United States where erythrosine is less frequently used) is Allura Red AC (E-129), also known as Red No. 40. Some products use a natural red or pink food coloring, Cochineal, also called carmine, made with crushed insects of the family Dactylopius coccus.
Gender
In Europe and the United States, pink is often associated with girls, while blue is associated with boys. These colors were first used as gender signifiers just prior to World War I (for either girls or boys), and pink was first established as a female gender signifier in the 1940s. In the 20th century, the practice in Europe varied from country to country, with some assigning colors based on the baby's complexion, and others assigning pink sometimes to boys and sometimes to girls.
Many have noted the contrary association of pink with boys in 20th-century America. An article in the trade publication Earnshaw's Infants' Department in June 1918 said:
One reason for the increased use of pink for girls and blue for boys was the invention of new chemical dyes, which meant that children's clothing could be mass-produced and washed in hot water without fading. Prior to this time, most small children of both sexes wore white, which could be frequently washed. Another factor was the popularity of blue and white sailor suits for young boys, a fashion that started in the late 19th century. Blue was also the usual color of school uniforms, for boys and girls. Blue was associated with seriousness and study, while pink was associated with childhood and softness.
By the 1950s, pink was strongly associated with femininity but to an extent that was "neither rigid nor universal" as it later became.
One study by two neuroscientists in Current Biology examined color preferences across British and Chinese cultures and found significant differences between male and female responses. Both groups favored blues over other hues, but women had more favorable responses to the reddish-purple range of the spectrum and men had more favorable responses to the greenish-yellow middle of the spectrum. Despite the fact that the study used adults in mainstream cultures, and both groups preferred blues, and responses to the color pink were never even tested, the popular press represented the research as an indication of an innate preference by girls for pink. The misreading has been often repeated in market research, reinforcing American culture's association of pink with girls on the basis of imagined innate characteristics.
As of 2008 various feminist groups and the Breast Cancer Awareness Month use the color pink to convey empowerment of women. Breast cancer charities around the world have used the color to symbolize support for people with breast cancer and promote awareness of the disease. A key tactic of these charities is encouraging women and men to wear pink to show their support for breast cancer awareness and research.
Pink has symbolized a "welcome embrace" in India and masculinity in Japan.
Toys
Toys aimed at girls often display pink prominently on packaging and the toy themselves. This is a relatively recent trend, with toys from the 1920s to the 1960s not being gendered by color (though they were gendered by a focus on domesticity and nurturing). The current color-based gendering of toys can be traced back to the deregulation of children's television programs. This allowed toy companies to produce shows that were designed specifically to sell their products, and gender was an important differentiator of these shows and the toys they were advertising.
In its 1957 catalog, Lionel Trains offered for sale a pink model freight train for girls. The steam locomotive and coal car were pink and the freight cars of the freight train were various pastel colors. The caboose was baby blue. It was a marketing failure because any girl who might want a model train would want a realistically colored train, while boys in the 1950s did not want to be seen playing with a pink train. However, today it is a valuable collector's item.
Sexuality
As noted above, pink combined with black or violet is commonly associated with eroticism and seduction.
In street slang, the pink sometimes refers to the vagina.
In Russian, pink (розовый, rozovyj) is used to refer to lesbians, and light blue (голубой, goluboj) refers to gay men.
In Japan, a genre of low budget, erotic cinema is referred to as .
In India, Pink coloured turbans are worn at Hindu weddings.
Politics
Pink, being a 'watered-down' red, is sometimes used in a derogatory way to describe a person with mild communist or socialist beliefs (see Pinko).
The term little pink (小粉红) is used to describe the young nationalists on the internet in Mainland China.
The term pink revolution is sometimes used to refer to the overthrow of President Askar Akayev and his government in the Central Asian republic of Kyrgyzstan after the parliamentary elections of February 27 and of March 13, 2005, although it is more commonly called the Tulip Revolution.
The Swedish feminist party Feminist Initiative uses pink as their color.
Code Pink is an American women's anti-globalization and anti-war group founded in 2002 by activist Medea Benjamin. The group has disrupted Congressional hearings and heckled President Obama at his public speeches.
The TRS party of Telangana, India has pink as its primary color
It was a common practice to color British Empire pink on maps.
Supporters of Philippine Presidential aspirant, and incumbent Vice President Leni Robredo, use pink to show solidarity with her for her 2022 presidential campaign.
Social movements
Pink is often used as a symbolic color by groups involved in issues important to women, and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people.
A Dutch newsgroup about homosexuality is called nl.roze (roze being the Dutch word for pink), while in Britain, Pink News is a gay newspaper and online news service. There is a magazine called Pink for the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community which has different editions for various metropolitan areas. In France Pink TV is an LGBT cable channel.
In Ireland, Support group for Irish Pink Adoptions defines a pink family as a relatively neutral umbrella term for the single gay men, single lesbians, or same-gender couples who intend to adopt, are in the process of adopting, or have adopted. It also covers adults born/raised in such families. The group welcome the input of other people touched by adoption, especially people who were adopted as children and are now adults.
Pinkstinks, a campaign founded in London in May 2008 to raise awareness of what they claim is the damage caused by gender stereotyping of children.
The Pink Pistols is a gay gun rights organization.
The pink ribbon is the international symbol of breast cancer awareness. Pink was chosen partially because it is so strongly associated with femininity.
Academic dress
In the French academic dress system, the five traditional fields of study (Arts, Science, Medicine, Law and Divinity) are each symbolized by a distinctive color, which appears in the academic dress of the people who graduated in this field. Redcurrant, an extremely red shade of pink, is the distinctive color for Medicine (and other health-related fields) :fr:Groseille (couleur).
Heraldry
The word pink is not used for any tincture (color) in heraldry, but there are two fairly uncommon tinctures which are both close to pink:
The heraldic color of rose is a modern innovation, mostly used in Canadian heraldry, depicting a reddish pink color like the shade usually called rose.
In French heraldry, the color carnation is sometimes used, corresponding to the skin color of a light skinned Caucasian human. This can also be seen as a pink shade but is usually depicted slightly more brownish beige than the rose tincture.
Calendars
In Thailand, pink is associated with Tuesday on the Thai solar calendar. Anyone may wear pink on Tuesdays, and anyone born on a Tuesday may adopt pink as their color.
The press
Pink is used for the newsprint paper of several important newspapers devoted to business and sports, and the color is also connected with the press aimed at the gay community.
Since 1893 the London Financial Times newspaper has used a distinctive salmon pink color for its newsprint, originally because pink dyed paper was less expensive than bleached white paper. Today the color is used to distinguish the newspaper from competitors on a press kiosk or news stand. In some countries, the salmon press identifies economic newspapers or economics sections in "white" newspapers. Some sports newspapers, such as La Gazzetta dello Sport in Italy, also use pink paper to stand out from other newspapers. It awards a pink jersey to the winner of Italy's most important bicycle race, the Giro d'Italia. (See #Sports).
Law
In England and Wales, a brief delivered to a barrister by a solicitor is usually tied with pink ribbon. Pink was traditionally the color associated with the defense, while white ribbons may have been used for the prosecution.
Literature
In Spanish and Italian, a romantic novel is known as a "pink novel" (novela rosa in Spanish, romanzo rosa in Italian).
In Nathaniel Hawthorne's 1835 short story, Young Goodman Brown, Faith is wearing a pink ribbon in her hair which represents her innocence.
Carl Surely's short story "Dinsdale's Pink" is a coming of age tale of a young man growing up in Berlin in the 1930s, dealing with issues of gender, sexuality and politics.
In Louisa May Alcott’s 1868-69 book Little Women, Amy March uses blue and pink ribbons to tell the difference between her sister Meg's newborn twins.
Religion
In the Yogic Hindu, Shaktic Hindu and Tantric Buddhist traditions rose is one of the colors of the fourth primary energy center, the heart chakra Anahata. The other color is green.
In Catholicism, pink (called rose by the Catholic Church) symbolizes joy and happiness. It is used for the Third Sunday of Advent (Gaudete Sunday) and the Fourth Sunday of Lent (Laetare Sunday) to mark the halfway point in these seasons of penance. For this reason, one of the candles in an Advent wreath may be pink, rather than purple.
Pink is the color most associated with Indian spiritual leader Meher Baba, who often wore pink coats to please his closest female follower, Mehera Irani, and today pink remains an important color, symbolizing love, to Baba's followers.
In Paganism, it represents affection, friendship, companionship, and spiritual healing. It is often used for love spells.
Sports
Palermo, a soccer team based in Palermo, Italy, traditionally wears pink home jerseys.
Cerezo Osaka, a soccer team based in Osaka, Japan, typically wears pink home shirts. Cerezo is the spanish translation for cherry tree, which are known for its pink blossoms.
Inter Miami, a soccer team based in South Florida, USA, features pink home shirts. The club wore white home shirts in its first two seasons in existence.
In Major League Baseball, pink bats are used by baseball players on Mother's Day as part of a week-long program to benefit Susan G. Komen for the Cure.
Pink can mean the scarlet coat worn in fox hunting (a.k.a. "riding to hounds"). One legend about the origin of this meaning refers to a tailor named Pink (or Pinke, or Pinque).
The leader in the Giro d'Italia cycle race wears a pink jersey (maglia rosa); this reflects the distinctive pink-colored newsprint of the sponsoring Italian La Gazzetta dello Sport newspaper.
The University of Iowa's Kinnick Stadium visitors' locker room is painted pink. The decor has sparked controversy, perceived by some people as suggesting sexism and homophobia.
WWE Hall of Famer Bret Hart, as well as other members of the Hart wrestling family, is known for his pink and black wrestling attire.
The Western Hockey League team Calgary Hitmen originally wore pink as a tribute to the aforementioned Bret Hart, who was a part team owner at the time.
Snooker uses a pink-coloured object ball that is worth 6pts when legally potted.
Formula One constructors Force India and Racing Point used pink as the primary color on their cars during the 2017–2020 seasons. At the 2017 United States Grand Prix, the purple side-wall branding on the ultra-soft compound tire was replaced by pink for the race to raise awareness of Breast Cancer Awareness Month. Several teams also incorporated pink into their liveries to support the cause (except Force India, whose cars were pink to begin with).
To distinguish tuned performance models from ordinary ones, Subaru uses a badge with a pink background on their cars. Also the logo of their motorsports arm Subaru Tecnica International is colored pink.
The NFL among other sports have incorporated pink into their promotions, team uniforms and equipment during the month of October in support of Breast Cancer Awareness Month.
Music
The names of the music artists Pink Floyd, Pink, Momoiro Clover Z and Blackpink use the color as an influence.
See also
Fuchsia (color)
Lists of colors
Pinkstinks
Rosé, a wine whose color is between red and white
Shades of pink
References
Further reading
Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Think Pink, 2014. Exhibition Link
Susan Stamberg/NPR, "Girls Are Taught To 'Think Pink,' But That Wasn't Always So, 2014. Story link.
Notes and citations
External links
Tertiary colors
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|
215568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mystacocarida | Mystacocarida | Mystacocarida is a subclass of crustaceans, that form part of the meiobenthos. They are less than long, and live interstitially in the intertidal zones of sandy beaches.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of the Mystacocarida is extremely conservative, since all mystacocarids look superficially alike. , the 13 described species are divided between two genera, Derocheilocaris (eight species) and Ctenocheilocharis (five species). The first mystacocarids to be found were discovered on a beach in southern New England in 1939.
Distribution
Mystacocarids occur along the coasts of South and North America, southern Africa, and the western Mediterranean. The lack of records from other parts of the world is "almost certainly" due to a lack of appropriate sampling, rather than a true absence.
Description
Mystacocarids are tiny crustaceans, less than long, that live in the spaces between sand grains on intertidal beaches. They have a cylindrical body, with five thoracic and five abdominal segments. Four pairs of small thoracic appendages are seen.
The head is relatively large and divided into two by a stricture, so that the latter part gives the appearance of being a part of the thorax. This region bears a pair of maxillipeds, and the head also has two pairs of maxillae, a pair of limb-like mandibles, and two pairs of long antennae. The appendages on the head are much longer than those on the thorax, and have a number of fine hairs that the animal uses to strain detritus from the water to feed on. They have a single naupliar eye. After mating, mystacocarids lay tiny eggs which hatch into a nauplius or metanauplius larva.
References
Maxillopoda
Arthropod subclasses | [
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|
215569 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usher | Usher | Usher may refer to:
Several jobs which originally involved directing people and ensuring people are in the correct place:
Usher (occupation)
Church usher
Wedding usher, one of the male attendants to the groom in a wedding ceremony
Field usher, a military rank
Court usher, a court official
Usher of Justice, a judicial official in some countries
Usher of the Black Rod, a parliamentary official in the UK, Australia, Canada and New Zealand
Gentleman Usher, a category of royal official in the United Kingdom
White House Chief Usher
Usher (Switzerland), a largely ceremonial function in Swiss federal, cantonal, and local governments
People
Usher (musician) (born 1978), American R&B recording artist, performer, and actor
Usher (album), a 1994 debut album by Usher
Usher (surname), a list of people
Places
Usher, Western Australia
Mount Usher, Antarctica
Usher Glacier, South Shetland Islands
Usher Hall, Edinburgh, Scotland
Ushers, New York, a hamlet in Saratoga County, New York
Usher, Florida
Media
Film
Usher (2002 film), a short film directed by Curtis Harrington
Usher (2004 film), a film based on the short story by Poe
Other uses in media
The family name in the Edgar Allan Poe short story "The Fall of the House of Usher"
The Fall of the House of Usher (disambiguation), adaptations of Poe's work
Other uses
Gentleman Usher of an order of knights in the United Kingdom
Usher 1C, a human gene
Usher syndrome, a genetic disorder
Ushers of Trowbridge, a former English brewery
Usher baronets, a title in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom
Usher (fragrance)
Usher (software), an enterprise security platform
See also
Ussher | [
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215575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaafar%20Al-Askari | Jaafar Al-Askari | Ja'far Pasha al-Askari () (15 September 1885 – 29 October 1936) served twice as prime minister of Iraq: from 22 November 1923 to 3 August 1924; and from 21 November 1926 to 31 December 1927.
Al-Askari served in the Ottoman Army during World War I until he was captured by British forces attacking the Empire from Egypt. After he was released he was converted to the cause of Arab nationalism and joined forces with Amir Faisal and T. E. Lawrence (Lawerence of Arabia), with his brother-in-law, Nuri as-Said, who would also serve as prime minister of Iraq. Al-Askari took part in the conquest of Damascus in 1918 and supported placing Faisal on the Syrian throne. When Faisal was deposed by the French in 1920, he advocated granting him a new throne in Iraq.
As a reward for his loyalty, Faisal granted Al-Askari several important cabinet positions, including minister of defense in the first Iraqi government. He served as prime minister twice, and was also minister of foreign affairs. Al-Askari was minister of defense in Yasin al-Hashimi's government when it was overthrown by Chief of Staff Bakr Sidqi in 1936, in Iraq's first coup. Al-Askari was assassinated during the coup.
Early life and Ottoman Army career
Ja’far Pasha al-Askari was born on September 15, 1885, in Kirkuk, when it was still part of the Ottoman Empire. The fourth of five brothers and one sister, his family were of Kurdish origin. His father, Mustafa Abdul Rahman Al-Mudarris, was a colonel in the Ottoman Army. Ja’far attended the Military College in Baghdad before transferring to the Military College in the Ottoman capital of Constantinople, where he graduated in 1904 as a second lieutenant. He was then sent to the Sixth Army stationed in Baghdad. Ja’far then was sent to Berlin, Germany from 1910 to 1912 to train and study as part of an Ottoman initiative to reform the army through the selection of officers via competition. Al-Askari stayed in this program until ordered back to the Ottoman Empire to fight in the war between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan States.
After the war with the Balkan states ended in 1913, Ja’far was made an instructor at the Officer Training College in Aleppo, but eight month later passed qualifications for the Staff Officers’ College in Constantinople.
World War I and the Arab Rebellion
When World War I broke out, Ja’far first fought on the side of the Ottomans and the Triple Alliance in Libya. His campaign started in Dardanelles, after which he received the German Iron Cross and was promoted to general. After his promotion he was sent to command the Senoussi Army in Libya. At the Battle of Agagia Ja’far was captured by the British led forces and incarcerated in a citadel in Cairo with his friend and later brother-in-law Nuri as-Said. Ja’far made one escape attempt by fashioning a rope out of blankets to scale the citadel walls. During this attempt, the blanket broke and Ja’far fell, breaking his ankle leading to his being captured by the guards. According to his obituary, Ja’far offered to pay for the blanket as he was on friendly terms with his captors.
Some time after his escape attempt (either while recovering or on parole), Ja’far learned about the nationalist Arab Revolt against the Ottomans led by the Hashemite leader of the Hijaz, Hussein bin Ali, the Sharif of Mecca. This revolt had been sponsored by the British forces and the Triple Entente so as to open up an extra front inside the Ottoman Empire in order to bleed them from internal rebellion. In exchange, the British had promised to create an Arab country led by Husayn. This promise is embodied in the Husayn-McMahon Correspondence. Upon reading about the Arab Revolt and due to an increasing hostile Ottoman approach to Arab affairs (his friend Salim Al-Jazairi was executed along with other prominent Arabs for nationalist activities by another Ottoman general, Jamal Pasha), Ja’far decided that this was precisely in line with beliefs he had and decided to switch sides from the Ottomans to the Hashemite Revolt forces along with his friend Nuri as-Said. At first Sharif Husayn was hesitant to let Ja’far, a former general in the Ottoman army, join his forces, but eventually relented and Ja’far was invited by Husayn's son, Amir Faisal, to join in the fight against the Ottoman Empire. Ja’far fought under Amir Faisal throughout this period up until the fall of the Ottoman Empire, including Faisal's assault on Damascus in 1918.
Governor of Aleppo and Iraqi Nationalism
After World War I and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, another of Husayn's sons, Amir Zaid, on behalf of Amir Faisal, asked Ja’far to be the Inspector General of the Army of the newly established Arab state of Syria, which he accepted. Shortly thereafter, Ja’far was appointed the military Governor of the Aleppo Vilayet in Syria. During his time as governor in Syria, Ja’far listened to many Iraqis about the status of their homeland and British rule. Ja’far advocated the idea that Iraqis could take charge of Iraq themselves and would do better than the British officials currently controlling the territory. Al-Askari was in favor of a Hashemite ruler with ties to Britain taking over Iraq; he joined his friend Nuri al-Sa’id in being part of the faction of the al-‘Ahd al-‘Iraqi group that was in favor of British ties.
Establishment of Iraq and political career
In 1921 the British decided that it would be prudent to set up an Arab government in Iraq and chose Faisal ibn Hussein bin Ali al-Hashemi, the son of Sharif Hussein, to be King. Faisal had never even been to Iraq and so chose certain commanders that were from the area to fulfill his various posts, including Ja’far Pasha al-Askari who was appointed minister of defense. During this period one of the important things Ja’far al-Askari did was arrange for the return of 600 Ottoman soldiers who were originally from Iraq in order to form the Officer Corps of the new Iraqi army. His brother-in-law Nuri al-Sa’id became Chief of the General Staff of the army in February 1921.
In November 1923, King Faisal appointed al-Askari to be prime minister of Iraq. Faisal wanted a strong supporter of the king to be prime minister during this key time when the Constituent Assembly opened in March 1924. The dominant issue during this assembly was the Anglo-Iraqi Treaty the British were pushing to help legitimize their League of Nations-appointed Mandate of Iraq. Many Iraqis were opposed to the treaty and it did not look like it would pass. But then High Commersioner Percy Cox threatened to fulfill the British Mandate in a different way unless it was passed. After the passing of the treaty in the Constituent Assembly, al-Askari resigned as prime minister as he did not really enjoy the job and felt he had accomplished what he needed to.
In November 1926, Faisal again appointed Ja’far al-Askari (who at the time was acting as Iraqi minister in London) prime minister of Iraq. Two main issues dominated his term in office: conscription and Shi’i discontent. Conscription was a controversial issue with one side believing that they needed it to encourage a strong Iraq by creating a strong army and the Sharifians (former Ottoman soldiers who had fought in the Arab revolt) seeing it as a holy duty; those in power also saw it as a way to create national unity and an Iraqi identity. On the other side, Shi’is found it repugnant and the various tribes who wished to be autonomous found it threatening. The British were not in favor of conscription as they thought it could lead to issues in Iraq that they would then have to intervene in and they also wanted to keep the country weaker so as to have better control over the country. Further complicating al-Askari's term was the growing Shi’i discontent in Iraq with massive protests occurring across the country in response to a book written by a Sunni official criticizing the Shi’i majority as well as the promotion of the commanding officer of an army unit that opened fire on Shiite demonstrators during a rally. Also at this time, the British wanted a new Anglo-Iraqi Treaty signed. Among the numerous powers the British retained, the treaty said they would support Iraq's entry into the League of Nations in 1932 (not 1928 as previously promised) as long as it kept itself progressing in a manner consistent with British supervision. Al-Askari resigned as prime minister in December 1927 as a result of the cool reception the draft treaty received among the Iraqi people and the growing discontent in the Shi’i majority.
In addition to his important period as prime minister, Ja’far also served as minister for foreign affairs, diplomatic minister in London multiple times, and minister of defense four other times. He was elected as the president of the Chamber of Deputies in November 1930 and in November 1931.
Assassination and Aftermath
During the 1936 military coup led by Bakr Sidqi against the government of Yasin al-Hashimi, Ja’far, who was serving as minister of defense, was sent to talk to Bakr Sidqi in an attempt to stop the violence and inform Sidqi of the new change in government, that of Hashimi resigning and Hikmat Sulayman (who Sidqi supported) being made prime minister. Sidqi was suspicious of this move and ordered his men to intercept and murder al-Askari. His body was hastily buried along the roadside as Sidqi's supporters triumphantly invaded Baghdad, effectively finalizing Sidqi's power over the government.
Al-Askari's assassination proved to be detrimental to Sidqi. Many of Sidqi's supporters in the army no longer supported the coup as they had been brought in and trained under al-Askari and he was well loved. His death helped to undermine the legitimacy of Sidqi's government. The British, the Iraqis, and many of Sidqi's own supporters were horrified by the act. The new government only lasted 10 months before Sidqi was assassinated through a plot in the officers corps of the Iraqi army. After his assassination, the government he created fell apart and Sulayman stepped down as prime minister. Ja’far al-Asakari's brother-in-law was not content in just seeing Sidqi die and sought revenge against those he found responsible for Ja’far's death. He claimed Sulayman and others were plotting to assassinate King Ghazi. The evidence was speculative and in all likelihood false, yet they were found guilty and sentenced to death (but their terms were commuted to life).
References
1885 births
1936 deaths
Iraqi Arab nationalists
Iraqi nationalists
Ottoman Arab nationalists
Arabs of the Ottoman Empire
Ottoman Army officers
Ottoman Military Academy alumni
Ottoman Military College alumni
Ottoman military personnel of World War I
Ottoman prisoners of war
People from Baghdad
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies of Iraq
World War I prisoners of war held by the United Kingdom
Arab independence activists
Assassinated heads of state | [
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|
215577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.O.D. | P.O.D. | Payable on Death is an American Christian metal band formed in 1992 and based in San Diego, California. The band's line-up consists of drummer and rhythm guitarist Wuv Bernardo, vocalist Sonny Sandoval, bassist Traa Daniels, and lead guitarist Marcos Curiel. They have sold over 12 million records worldwide. Over the course of their career, the band has received three Grammy Award nominations, contributed to numerous motion picture soundtracks and toured internationally. With their third studio album, The Fundamental Elements of Southtown, they achieved their initial mainstream success; the album was certified platinum by the RIAA in 2000. Their following studio album, Satellite, continued the band's success with the singles, "Alive" and "Youth of the Nation", pushing it to go triple platinum.
History
Early years (1991–1993)
In 1991, friends Wuv Bernardo and Marcos Curiel engaged in jam sessions, with Bernardo playing the drums and Curiel covering guitar with no vocalist. Calling themselves Eschatos, they started playing at keg parties doing Metallica and Slayer cover songs.
After his mother's fatal illness, Sonny Sandoval converted to Christianity and was asked by Bernardo, his cousin, to join the band as a way to keep his mind straight as mentioned on their DVD, Still Payin' Dues. They then recruited bassist Gabe Portillo and eventually changed their name to P.O.D.
Snuff the Punk and Brown (1994–1998)
After recording a demo tape, Traa Daniels joined the band in 1994 when they needed a bassist for some shows to replace Portillo. P.O.D. signed with Rescue Records, a label created by Bernardo's father, Noah Bernardo Sr., who was also the band's first manager. Between 1994 and 1997, they released three albums under the label, Snuff the Punk, Brown and Payable on Death Live. Longtime manager Tim Cook was first introduced to the band when he booked them to play his club The Where-House in Bartlesville, Oklahoma following strong local word of mouth support. He later described their performance by saying: "I stood at the back of the venue with tears in my eyes – it was the greatest thing I had ever seen." By that point, Bernardo Sr. was looking for someone else to take P.O.D.'s career further and so Cook took over as manager.
Shortly after the release of Payable on Death Live, Essential Records offered P.O.D. a $100,000 recording contract, but on behalf of the band Sandoval told band manager Tim Cook to decline the offer because, "God has a bigger plan for P.O.D." When, in 1998, Atlantic Records A&R John Rubeli first came across P.O.D.'s demo he "didn't quite get it", as he later told HitQuarters. It was only when he saw them play live at The Roxy on the Sunset Strip and witnessed not just an enthusiastic audience singing every word but the center of a vibrant youth movement that he became convinced by the band. The band was quickly signed to a major-label deal. P.O.D. soon released The Warriors EP, a tribute EP to their loyal fans as a transitional album from Rescue Records to Atlantic Records.
The Fundamental Elements of Southtown and Satellite (1999–2002)
P.O.D.'s third studio album, 1999's The Fundamental Elements of Southtown, spawned the hits "Southtown" and "Rock the Party (Off the Hook)", which was their first video to reach No. 1 on MTV's Total Request Live. The song "School of Hard Knocks" was featured on the soundtrack for Little Nicky while both "Southtown" and "Rock the Party" appeared in the movie. All three music videos endured heavy play on MTV2 and the songs were rock radio hits. The album went on to become RIAA certified platinum.
On September 11, 2001 P.O.D. released their fourth studio album, Satellite. The album's first single, "Alive", went on to become one of MTV's and MTV2's top played videos of the year. The video's popularity, as well as the song's positive message, helped the song become a huge modern rock radio hit and it was Grammy nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 2002. Also in 2002, the band contributed the song "America" to Santana's album Shaman.
The album's second single, "Youth of the Nation", was influenced in part by the school shootings at Santana High School, Columbine High School, and Granite Hills High School. It was Grammy nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance in 2003. The 2002 singles, "Boom" and "Satellite", also became quite popular. In addition, the concluding track of the album, "Portrait," was Grammy nominated for Best Metal Performance in 2003. It was used in the comedy film Here Comes the Boom, starring Kevin James.
Satellite went on to become RIAA-certified triple platinum. The author of Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music has described P.O.D. as "One of the biggest success stories in recent Christian music."
Payable on Death and Testify (2003–2006)
On February 19, 2003, guitarist Curiel left the band due to his side project, The Accident Experiment, and "spiritual differences." However, Curiel claimed that he was actually kicked out of the band. Curiel was replaced by Jason Truby, former member of Christian metal band Living Sacrifice, and assisted with the recording of "Sleeping Awake", from The Matrix Reloaded soundtrack. In an interview with Yahoo! Music, Sandoval stated that Truby is the reason why the group is still together. On November 4, 2003, P.O.D. released their fifth studio album, Payable on Death, which saw the group shift from their well-known rapcore sound to a darker, more melodic metal sound. The album was hit with controversy due to its "occult" cover, which led as many as 85% of Christian bookstores across the United States to ban the album. With the help of the album's hit single "Will You" and "Change the World", it went on to sell over 520,000 copies and was certified Gold. Sometime after the tsunami in Asia, many singers, musicians, and actors/actresses, including Sandoval and Bernardo, participated in the recording of, "Forever in Our Hearts", with all proceeds going to benefit the tsunami relief.
P.O.D.'s sixth studio album Testify was slated for a December 2005 release, but was pushed back to January 24, 2006. On November 15, 2005, P.O.D. released The Warriors EP, Volume 2, which featured demos from the upcoming album, to help build up the fans' anticipation for the pending January release. The album's first single, "Goodbye for Now" (with a vocal tag by a then-unknown Katy Perry) went on to become a No. 1 video on MTV's TRL, along with having a solid radio presence, it also became the band's unprecedented 4th number one video on Total Request Live. The second single off the album, "Lights Out" was a minor hit, but was featured as the official theme song to WWE's Survivor Series 2005. In another contribution to WWE, they performed fellow San Diego native Rey Mysterio's theme song "Booyaka 619" at WrestleMania 22. To promote their latest album, P.O.D. went on a nationwide tour called the "Warriors Tour 2: Guilty by Association", which began in April, and included the bands Pillar, The Chariot and Maylene and the Sons of Disaster.
On August 11, 2006, P.O.D. announced in their online newsletter that they had left Atlantic Records.
On September 16, 2006, P.O.D. announced that they had teamed up with Rhino Records to release a greatest hits record simply titled, Greatest Hits: The Atlantic Years, which was released on November 21, 2006. They shot a music video for their single "Going In Blind", one of the two new songs they included in the tenth album, and they had meetings with various record labels to begin working on new material for an album they hoped to release in mid-2007.
When Angels & Serpents Dance (2007–2009)
In a statement made by the band's manager on their MySpace page, it was officially announced, on December 30, 2006, that Jason Truby had left the band. They had said "God worked it out because Truby decided to leave the band the same day Curiel asked to rejoin." Curiel performed with the band for the first time since his departure on the 2006 New Year's Eve episode of Jimmy Kimmel Live!.
On February 2, 2007, the band made a new record deal with INO Records.
On June 1, 2007, at the Rockbox in San Diego, the band performed and revealed a new song entitled "Condescending", along with another new song performed on June 16, 2007, at the Journeys Backyard BBQ tour entitled "Addicted". They also revealed the title of their new album to be When Angels & Serpents Dance. On August 4, 2007, the band played at Angel Stadium of Anaheim's annual Harvest Crusade for a crowd of 42,000, where they revealed a new song, "I'll Be Ready", originally thought to be titled "When Babylon Come for I".
The album cover was officially revealed on December 10, 2007. The title track was released for free download on their site in January 2008. The first single "Addicted" was released on February 19 and peaked at No. 30 on the Mainstream Rock chart. The album was released on April 8, 2008, entitled When Angels & Serpents Dance. On July 28, 2008, the group played a free public performance at the Orange County Choppers headquarters in Newburgh, NY, with OCC The Band opening. The band also played on August 16, 2008, at the Angel Stadium of Anaheim's annual Harvest Crusade. During September 2008 P.O.D played alongside Redline, Behind Crimson Eyes, Alter Bridge, and Disturbed as part of the Music As a Weapon tour 2008 in Australia.
Murdered Love (2010–2013)
The band headlined the first annual Spring Jam Fest in May 2011. They appeared on the Rock of Allegiance tour later that summer. On July 25, 2011, the band released a demo of the song "On Fire" as a free download on their official website.
In October 2011, P.O.D. announced a multi-album artist deal with Razor & Tie. On April 5, 2012, the song "Eyez" became a free download on the band's website for a limited time. Shortly after, an article on their website stated that "Lost in Forever" would be the first single from the new album, entitled Murdered Love.
Murdered Love was originally going to be released in June 2012, but was instead pushed back to July 10. The album was produced by Howard Benson, who also produced Satellite and The Fundamental Elements of Southtown. It was described by Curiel as "Back to our roots. A little bit of hip hop, a little bit of punk rock, or reggae". The album caused controversy concerning its eleventh track, "I Am", which uses the word "fuck" (albeit backmasked). Sandoval, explaining the purpose of the song, said, "being up close and personal with these kids, that's what came out in that song. I'm a man of faith and I'm a follower and a believer of Jesus Christ, and in talking to these kids, and even in talking to people just throughout my career in P.O.D., a lot of these bands and athletes and all these people that you meet, they don't have a problem with Jesus. They have a problem with people that are religious and claim to know Jesus, but aren't living it or acting it and aren't loving the way Jesus did. In my faith, if I believe that Jesus paid for the sins of the world, and I'm all these things, this is what's going on in the real world, and do you still love someone like me? And even though I know you do, and I believe in you, I believe in your forgiveness and your grace and your mercy, there's still so much confusion around me that everybody's getting in the way and trying to take your place. Everything gets in my way from seeing who Jesus was...We had that song for almost a year, and I didn't take it lightly. I'd been praying on it for over a year. I'd actually took counsel and let people hear it. And it was 50/50. Some people are like, you know what, go for it. Because my heart is like, I don't write music for Christians. I don't write music for people that I believe are saved and going to heaven. If it's a breath of you and encourages you and gives you a sense of power to go balls out for what you believe in, then by all means. But ultimately we're trying to reach people fed up with religion that are sick and tired of it, and people that are in the real world that really are lost and confused. Our music has always been a tool to bring hope to those people. I'm sorry we can't please everybody in the church, but ultimately in our faith, I believe you're taken care of. There are a lot of people that live in the real world that are out on the streets, that are prostituting themselves, that are being sexually abused, that are being murdered and killed, and it's an evil world. And sometimes you've got to just give them the truth flat out. And it might offend some people. Might offend a lot of people. But at the end of the day, if they understand it and they get it, and they allow God to speak straight into their soul, then I think it's worth the slap on the hand." The band went on tour with Shinedown and Three Days Grace as an opening act.
In a 2012 interview with Broken Records Magazine, Sandoval said that the band had to get their lives back in order and take care of personal needs before getting back into music, but was extremely happy about the response the band was getting from fans.
On October 22, 2013, P.O.D. released a deluxe edition of Murdered Love. The album contains the original songs, slightly remixed, along with bonus tracks "Find a Way", "Burn It Down", acoustic versions of "Beautiful" and "West Coast Rock Steady", a remixed version of "On Fire", and music videos for "Murdered Love", "Beautiful", "Higher", and "Lost In Forever". Multiple behind the scenes videos were also on the track list.
SoCal Sessions, The Awakening and Circles (2014–present)
In mid-2014, P.O.D. announced an acoustic album to be released toward the end of the year. The album was crowd-funded on the website PledgeMusic. On October 20, 2014, P.O.D. announced a new record deal with T-Boy Records along with a new acoustic album. SoCal Sessions was released on November 17, 2014, and contained songs such as "Alive" and "Youth of the Nation".
The band followed that release with another studio album, The Awakening, released on August 21, 2015, which was produced by Howard Benson, with guest vocalists such as Maria Brink of In This Moment and Lou Koller of Sick of It All.
On May 17, 2016, the band announced that they would be taking part in the Make America Rock Again super tour throughout the summer and fall 2016. The tour featured a number of artists who had success throughout the 2000s.
On August 18, 2017, the band released a new song, "Soundboy Killa", and embarked on a fall tour promoting the song.
In January 2018, it was announced that the band had signed a new record deal with Mascot Records. They toured alongside Alien Ant Farm, Lit, and Buckcherry on the "Gen-X Tour" in 2018. Their tenth studio album, Circles, was released on November 16, 2018.
Their band were scheduled to start their Satellite Album 20th Anniversary tour in Sturgis, South Dakota at Buffalo Chip on August 14, 2021, and end on October 7, 2021, at the House of Blues in San Diego, California.
Musical style and influences
The band's name, Payable on Death (P.O.D.), derives itself from the banking term "Payable on Death". The band chose this name to be a direct tie in with the Christian theology that explains that since Jesus died on the Cross, Christians' debts to God have been paid for; in other words all believers, in their acceptance that Jesus was sacrificed for them on God's behalf, have inherited eternal life. P.O.D.'s style has evolved over the years, from the rap metal sound on their early albums to the nu metal and reggae-infused alternative metal styles for which they're most well known. The band's seventh album, When Angels & Serpents Dance, is a combination of alternative rock, reggae rock and Latin-influenced metal with almost none of the rap metal or nu metal sound of their older releases. P.O.D.'s influences include Boogie Down Productions, Run-DMC, U2, the Police, Bad Brains, Santana, Metallica, AC/DC, Suicidal Tendencies, Bob Marley, Primus, Earth, Wind & Fire, 24-7 Spyz, and Steel Pulse.
Band members
Current members
Wuv Bernardo − drums, rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1992–present)
Sonny Sandoval − lead vocals (1992–present)
Traa Daniels − bass, backing vocals (1993–present)
Marcos Curiel − lead guitar, programming, backing vocals (1992–2003, 2006–present)
Former members
Gabe Portillo − bass, backing vocals (1992–1993)
Jason Truby − lead guitar, backing vocals <small>(Living Sacrifice) (2003–2006)
Former touring musicians
Tim Pacheco – backing vocals, percussion, trumpet, keyboards (2006)
Luis Castillo – keyboards, backing vocals, percussion (2011–2016)
Sameer Bhattacharya – keyboards, backing vocals (2016–2018)
Jonny Beats – drums (February – March 2019, October – November 2019)
Timeline
Discography
Snuff the Punk (1994)
Brown (1996)
The Fundamental Elements of Southtown (1999)
Satellite (2001)
Payable on Death (2003)
Testify (2006)
When Angels & Serpents Dance (2008)
Murdered Love (2012)
SoCal Sessions (2014)
The Awakening (2015)
Circles (2018)
Awards
American Music Awards
2003 - Favorite Contemporary Inspirational Artist (nomination)
Echo Awards
2003 - International Alternative Group of the Year
San Diego Music Awards
1999 - Best Hard Rock Artist
2000 - Best Hard Rock Artist
Note: Album- and single-specific awards and nominations are listed under their respective articles.
References
External links
American alternative metal musical groups
American Christian metal musical groups
Atlantic Records artists
Christian alternative metal groups
Christian rock groups from California
Hard rock musical groups from California
Musical groups established in 1992
Musical groups from San Diego
Musical quartets
Nu metal musical groups from California
Rapcore groups
P.O.D.
Razor & Tie artists | [
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|
215579 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%C4%9Fuz%20Y%C4%B1lmaz%20%28musician%29 | Oğuz Yılmaz (musician) | Oğuz Yılmaz (25 October 1968 – 19 May 2021) was a Turkish folk musician. He was born and raised in Ankara, Turkey. He lived and performed most of his life in Sincan, a region of Ankara. Therefore, he is also known as "Oguz from Sincan". His lyrics were controversial, educational and also entertaining. His musical style was a combination of traditional Turkish folk music with modern dance music.
Discography
Gel Yanıma Gel
Kibar Kız
Ayaş Yolları
Dursun
Tik Tak
Kaynana
Tak Zilleri
Hanımefendi Mi Oldun?
Arabistan Kızları
Akşamcı
Baldız
Alemci
Çık Ortaya Gel
Tırı Vırı
Sakın
Gıdı Gıdı Hatçam
Otuz Beşlik Rakı
Çok Yalvardım Sana
Unutma Dostum
Dilber
Çekirge
Yersen
Usta (Bas bas paraları Leyla'ya)
References
External links
Biography and Personal Website (Turkish)
1968 births
2021 deaths
Musicians from Ankara
Turkish folk musicians | [
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215586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayaquil | Guayaquil | Guayaquil (; ), officially Santiago de Guayaquil, is the largest city in Ecuador and also the nation's main port. The city is the capital of Guayas Province and the seat of Guayaquil Canton.
The city is located on the west bank of the Guayas River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Guayaquil.
History
Guayaquil was founded on July 25, 1538 by Spanish conqueror Francisco de Orellana in the location of a native village and given the name Muy Noble y Muy Leal Ciudad de Santiago de Guayaquil (Most Noble and Most Loyal City of Santiago of Guayaquil).
On April 20, 1687, Guayaquil was attacked and looted by English and French pirates under the command of George d'Hout (English) and Picard and Groniet (French). Of more than 260 pirates, 35 were killed and 46 were wounded; 75 defenders of the city died and more than 100 were wounded.
In 1709, the English captains Woodes Rogers, Etienne Courtney, and William Dampier, along with a crew of 110, looted Guayaquil and demanded ransom; however, they departed suddenly and without collecting the ransom after an epidemic of yellow fever broke out.
In colonial times Guayaquil was the chief Spanish shipyard in the Pacific, although some navigators considered that Valdivia (now in Chile) had better conditions. Guayaquil was a stopover point in the commerce between Asia and Latin America conducted by Philippines-based Manila Galleons, which had links to Acapulco in Mexico and terminated with a node in Callao, Peru.
On October 9, 1820, almost without bloodshed, a group of civilians, supported by soldiers from the "Granaderos de Reserva" battalion quartered in Guayaquil, led by the Peruvian Colonel Gregorio Escobedo, overwhelmed the resistance of the Royalist guards and arrested the Spanish authorities. Guayaquil declared independence from Spain, becoming "Provincia Libre de Guayaquil", and José Joaquín de Olmedo was named Jefe Civil (Civilian Chief) of Guayaquil.
Departing from Guayaquil, General Antonio José de Sucre, sent by Simón Bolivar and supported by a division promised by José de San Martín, led the allied independence army in the Battle of Pichincha that sealed the independence of the Gran Colombia and also what would become the future Republic of Ecuador.
On July 26, 1822, generals José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar held a meeting in Guayaquil to plan how to the complete the independence of Perú and with it all of Spanish South America.
In 1829, the city was invaded by the Peruvian Army, which occupied it for seven months.
In 1860, the city was the site of the Battle of Guayaquil, the last of a series of military conflicts between the forces of the Provisional Government, led by Gabriel García Moreno and General Juan José Flores, and the forces of the Supreme Chief of Guayas, General Guillermo Franco, whose government was recognized as possessing sovereignty over the Ecuadorian territory by Peruvian president Ramón Castilla. Moreno's forces were victorious, countering Peruvian influence over Ecuador.
In 1896, large portions of the city were destroyed by a major fire.
On July 8, 1898, the Guayaquil City Hall "Muy Ilustre Municipalidad de Guayaquil" officially recognized the anthem written by José Joaquín de Olmedo in 1821, with the music composed by Ana Villamil Ycaza in 1895, as the "Himno al 9 de Octubre" Canción al Nueve de Octubre, most widely known now as the "Himno a Guayaquil" (Guayaquil Anthem).
In 1922, workers in the city went on a general strike lasting three days, ending after at least 300 people were killed by military and police.
In 2020, the city was hit hard by the coronavirus pandemic. Its medical and mortuary services were overwhelmed to the point where bodies lay in the streets. Almost 6,000 more deaths were recorded in the first two weeks of April than the average for the same period in other years.
On 28 September 2021, 118 inmates were killed in a prison riot.
Economy
Guayaquileños''' main sources of income are formal and informal trade, business, agriculture and aquaculture. Most commerce consists of small and medium businesses, adding an important informal economy occupation that gives thousands of guayaquileños employment.
The Port of Guayaquil is Ecuador's most important commercial port; most international import and export merchandise passes through the Gulf of Guayaquil. As the second largest city in the country, most industries are located either in the city or its peripheral areas.
Ongoing projects seek urban regeneration as a principal objective of the growth of the city's commercial districts, as the increase of capital produces income. These projects in the city driven by the recent mayors have achieved this goal after investing large sums of money. The current municipal administration aims to convert Guayaquil into a place for first-class international tourism and multinational businesses.
Government
Guayaquil's mayor was Cynthia Viteri, the second elected female mayor in the city's history, the first being Elsa Bucaram in 1988. Previous mayor Jaime Nebot supported her. He began a campaign of construction projects for the city in the early 2000s to attract tourism, that included the "urban regeneration" plan which reconstructed the city's main tourist streets' sidewalks and upgraded the city's chaotic transit system with multiple infrastructure projects (speedways, bridges, overhead passages, tunnels, etc.).
In August 2006, the city's first rapid transit bus system, Metrovia, opened to provide a quicker, high-capacity service. One of the main projects was called Malecón 2000 , the renovation of the waterfront promenade (malecón) along the Guayas River. Another project was the creation of the Nuevo Parque Histórico, a park in a housing development area that is called Entre Ríos because it lies between the Daule and Babahoyo Rivers (which merge to form the Guayas River), in a mangrove wetland area. The park cost the city about US$7 million.
In 2013, the national government led by Rafael Correa built two pedestrian bridges connecting downtown Guayaquil, Santay Island, and the town of Durán, to allow people to make ecotourism trips and return the same day.
Geography
Guayaquil is the nation's second largest city and the capital of Guayas Province. It is on the Guayas River about north of the Gulf of Guayaquil, near the Equator.
Guayaquil is constantly facing tsunami and major earthquake threats due to its soil stratigraphy and location near the Gulf of Guayaquil and the south of the North-Andean subduction zone. The city can be easily damaged by earthquakes as its weak and compressible soil is composed of deep soft sediments over hard rocks and deposits in a brackish environment. Also, the city itself is strongly affected by the subduction of the active Ecuadorian margin, an intraplate region where active faults locate; and the Guayaquil-Babahoyo strike-slip fault system, formed as the North Andean Block drifts northward. The tsunami threat is caused by the nearby Gulf of Guayaquil which also is one of the major locations on the Earth where earthquakes tend to happen all the time. It has complex tectonic features such as the Posorja and the Jambeli –two major east–west trending detachment systems; the Puna-Santa Clara northeast-southwest trending fault system; and the Domito north-south trending fault system; that have developed since the Pleistocene times. Tsunami threats are only predicted for coastal farming zones, not the main populated areas.
Guayaquil city sectors
Here you can find the list of Neighborhoods and Parishes of Guayaquil
Demographics
Climate
Guayaquil features a tropical savanna climate (Köppen: Aw). Between January and April, the climate is hot and humid with heavy rainfall, especially during El Niño years when it increases dramatically and flooding usually occurs. The rest of the year (from May through December), however, rainfall is minimal due to the cooling influence of the Humboldt Current, with usually cloudy mornings and afternoons, and evening breezes. Guayaquil, along with most of the coastal region, was impacted by the April 16, 2016 earthquake of 7.8 magnitude. A bridge that was above a major artery, Avenida de las Americas, collapsed in the early evening of April 16, killing two people.
Food
Typical Guayaquil cuisine includes mostly seafood dishes such as encebollado, ceviche, cazuela, and encocado (shrimp or tuna with a coconut sauce and rice).
During breakfast, patacones and bolon (fried plantain with cheese mashed and given a rounded shape) play a big role. Pan de yuca is a typical snack in Guayaquil.
Some other typical dishes of Guayaquil are the ball soup (based on peanuts and green plantains creating a green plantain ball filled with meat and other ingredients). El bollo is another typical dish of this city that also the main ingredient is the green plantain and seafood. Just to mention others are the biche, sango de mariscos, Arroz con pezcado frito (rice with fried fish), Arroz con menestra y carne asada (rice with stew and roast meat), Ayaca, Guatita, Caldo de mondongo, Humitas, Maduro lampriado, Maduro con queso, Tripita, and many more.
Notable people
Arts and literature
Ecuador is known for its artists and writers and for its place in art history. Many of them were born in Guayaquil, such as:
Félix Arauz (b. 1935, Guayaquil)
Theo Constanté (1934-2014, Guayaquil)
José de la Cuadra (1903, Guayaquil – d. 1941, Guayaquil)
Alfredo Pareja Diezcanseco (1908, Guayaquil – d. 1993, Quito)
Carmen Febres-Cordero de Ballén (b. 1829, Guayaquil - d. 1893, Valparaíso)
Araceli Gilbert (b. 1913, Guayaquil – d. 1993, Quito)
Enrique Gil Gilbert (1912, Guayaquil – d. 1973, Guayaquil)
Julio Jaramillo (b. 1935, Guayaquil – d. 1978, Guayaquil)*
Joaquín Gallegos Lara (b. 1909, Guayaquil – d. 1947, Guayaquil)
Numa Pompilio Llona (b. 1832, Guayaquil – d. 1907, Guayaquil)
Demetrio Aguilera Malta (b. 1909, Guayaquil – d. 1981, Mexico)
Luis Miranda (b. 1932, Guayaquil)
Luis Molinari (b. 1929, Guayaquil)
Xavier Blum Pinto (b. 1957, Guayaquil)
José Martínez Queirolo (b. 1931, Guayaquil – d. 2008, Guayaquil)
Víctor Manuel Rendón (b. 1859, Guayaquil – d. 1940, Guayaquil)
Enrique Tábara (b. 1930, Guayaquil)
Jorge Velarde (b. 1960, Guayaquil)
Juan Villafuerte (b. 1945, Guayaquil – d. 1977, Barcelona, Spain)
Eugenia Viteri (b. 1928, Guayaquil)
Teresa Alavedra y Tama (b. 1889, Guayaquil)
Cesar Paris Yarleque (b. 1967. Guayaquil)
Others
Other notable people from Guayaquil include:
Olga Álava, Miss Ecuador Earth 2011, Miss Earth 2011
Prima ballerina and choreographer Noralma Vera Arrata
Sir Frederick Ashton, British choreographer and dancer
Geovanni Camacho, football player
Actor and model Danilo Carrera
Fernanda Cornejo, Fashion model and Miss International 2011
Operatic soprano Beatriz Parra Durango
Striker Felipe Caicedo, who is currently playing for Lazio.
Former world's oldest person María Capovilla
Swimmer Jorge Delgado, fourth in the 1972 Munich Olympic Games, multiple times South American champion (19), Gold Medal 1975 Panamerican champion.
Operatic soprano Beatriz Parra Durango
Writer/historian Jenny Estrada
Jorge Perrone Galarza former mayor from 1986 to 1988
Poets Karina Galvez and Adalberto Ortiz
Rapper Gerardo, made famous during the early 1990s for his song "Rico Suave"
Tennis player Andrés Gómez, who won the ATP Championship of Roland Garros in Paris, France in 1990
Animator Mike Judge
47th President of Ecuador Guillermo Lasso
Writer and educator Rita Lecumberri
Novelist Demetrio Aguilera Malta
Actor and model Roberto Manrique
United States Representative for Florida's 26th congressional district Debbie Mucarsel-Powell, first immigrant from South America to be a member of the U.S. House.
Actor Albert Paulsen
Striker Joao Plata, who is currently playing for Real Salt Lake.
Violinist Jorge Saade
color commentator for the WWE Spanish team and former professional wrestler Hugo Savinovich
Tennis player Pancho Segura who in 1950 and 1952 was the world's Co-No. 1 player
Scholar Benjamín Urrutia
Writer Pedro Jorge Vera
Violinist Alex Jimbo Viteri
Writer and feminist Rosa Borja de Ycaza
Archeologist Presley Norton Yoder
Midwife and formerly enslaved woman María del Tránsito Sorroza
Education
Biblioteca Municipal de Guayaquil (Municipal Library of Guayaquil) serves as the public library of Guayaquil.
The city has several universities, including the University of Guayaquil (founded in 1867), the Universidad Catolica de Santiago de Guayaquil, the Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral (ESPOL), and the Universidad de Especialidades Espiritu Santo.
Religion
The largest religion in Guayaquil is Roman Catholicism.
Sports
There are two major association football clubs; the Barcelona Sporting Club and the Club Sport Emelec. Each club has its own stadium; the Estadio Monumental Banco Pichincha is the home of the "Barcelonistas" while the Estadio George Capwell is the home of the "Emelecistas". These two teams have a long history of rivalry in Guayaquil and when these two teams play against each other the game is called "El Clásico del Astillero".
The city is the birthplace of Francisco Segura Cano; and Andrés Gómez and Nicolás Lapentti, Ecuador's two most successful tennis players, now both retired. The "Abierto de Tenis Ciudad de Guayaquil" is a tennis tournament organised in Guayaquil by Gómez and Luis Morejon, and held annually in November.
Another major event in the city is the Guayaquil Marathon, which has been held every year on the first weekend of October since 2005. These race is certified by the (AIMS) Association of International Marathons and Distance Races.
The sports & Ecological Park called Parque Samanes de Guayaquil is a park with courts for soccer, tennis, volleyball, and basketball, two lakes, a soccer stadium and an amphi theatre for open air concerts and events. It is connected to a forest reserve with trails for cycling and walking, as well as installations for climbing and zip-lining.
Universities
Some of Guayaquil's main universities are:
Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral
Universidad de Especialidades Espíritu Santo
University of Guayaquil
Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil
Universidad Laica Vicente Rocafuerte
Universidad Casa Grande
Universidad Tecnológica Ecotec
Universidad Santa María
Blue Hill College
Universidad Del Pacífico – Ecuador
Institute of Graphics Arts and Digital Science
Universidad Politécnica Salesiana
Notable places
The Malecón 2000 is a restoration project of the historic Simón Bolívar Pier. It will be a symbolic centre of the city, a mix of green areas and shopping. The tall ship Guayas has its home base here.
The Palacio Municipal is located in front of the Malecón and holds the political offices of city and provincial officials. Built in a neoclassical style, it is considered one of the most important architectural works in the country.
El Barrio las Peñas is a neighbourhood in the northeast corner of the city centre; is the artistic centre of the city. Many of the area's 400-year-old houses have been converted into art galleries and several notable artists have studios in the area.
The Mercado Artesanal is the largest artisan market in the city. The market is housed in a 240-shop building that takes up an entire block.
Parque Centenario is located on Av. 9 de Octubre, between Lorenzo de Garaycoa and Pedro Moncayo. This is the largest park in the town centre, occupying four city blocks. A large Statue of Liberty dominates the central area of the park.
Parque Seminario (also known as Parque de Las Iguanas or Iguana Park) is home to many iguanas (Iguana iguana''), some of which approach in length. Tourists and locals alike often feed the iguanas mango slices from park vendors. An equestrian statue of Simón Bolívar is located in the centre of the park.
Urdesa is a traditional neighborhood for stores and restaurants in Guayaquil .
There are a number of forest reserves in and around the city, among them Cerro Blanco Forest, nearby Parque Lago with a big lake where kayaking is practised, Cerro Colorado with the botanical garden, the forest reserve of Samanes, Cerro Paraíso with a viewpoint, the small park Palo Santo in the city, and at the outskirts Papagayo, Prosperina, and Bosqueira. Close to the city there are Isla Santay and the Parque Histórico in Samborondón with a zoo.
Guayaquil Municipal Museum
Montañita (also known as "Little Amsterdam") is a small surfer town located in Santa Elena Península. Known for its nightlife, Montañita attracts thousands of tourists from all over the world (mainly Western Europe) with its incessant partying, affordable food and drinks, and its key location by the beach.
Transport
Guayaquil is located along national Highway 40 and is near Highway 25.
Among Guayaquil's major trading points are the seaport, the largest in Ecuador and one of the biggest handlers of shipping on the shores of the Pacific; and José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport.
José Joaquín de Olmedo International Airport, though using the same runways, had its passenger terminal completely rebuilt in 2006 and was renamed. The old passenger terminal is now a convention centre.
Guayaquil is served by a bus rapid transit system, Metrovia, which opened in 2006. The system has three lines and is supplemented by 35 feeder routes, carrying a total of 400,000 daily passengers.
Twin towns – sister cities
Guayaquil is twinned with:
Houston, United States (1987)
Jesús María, Peru (2011)
Shanghai, China (2001)
Santiago, Chile
See also
Casa del Hombre Doliente – care facility for those suffering a terminal illness
Newspapers of Guayaquil
Aerovia (Guayaquil)
References
External links
Images of Guayaquil before and After
Municipalidad de Guayaquil
Guayaquil Canton
Populated places in Guayas Province
Populated coastal places in Ecuador
Port cities in Ecuador
Provincial capitals in Ecuador
Populated places established in 1538
1538 establishments in the Spanish Empire | [
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|
215588 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IiO | IiO | iiO (pronounced "eye-oh") was a New York City-based dance music act composed of singer and songwriter Nadia Ali and record producer Markus Moser. The group gained prominence for its 2001 single, "Rapture", which reached number two on the UK Singles Chart and the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. Following the success of "Rapture", iiO released several singles and the studio album, Poetica in 2005. The album reached number 17 on the Billboard Top Electronic Albums chart.
The same year, Ali left iiO to pursue a solo career. Meanwhile, Moser continued to release material, featuring her on vocals, which included the 2006 single, "Is It Love?" that reached number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. In 2011, he released the studio album, Exit 110, which again, featured Ali on vocals and was announced as the final project of the act.
History
Nadia Ali was working in the New York offices of Versace, when a co-worker introduced her to record producer Markus Moser, who was looking for a female singer to collaborate on some of his productions for a girl group. The two teamed up and started a group that was originally named "Vaiio", named after the Sony Vaio laptop Ali used to write lyrics on. They later dropped the "va", on the advice of their label, to avoid causing problems in the future with Sony. Working with Moser, she wrote the lyrics and the vocals for the songs. Their first release was the 2001 single, "Rapture", a song Ali wrote in 30 minutes based on a relationship with an Australian man she met in a nightclub. The song was a hit, charting at number 2 in the UK Singles Chart and the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart. The song was remixed by prominent DJs and record producers including Avicii, Paul van Dyk, John Creamer & Stephane K, Armin van Buuren and Deep Dish.
"Rapture" was followed by "At the End" in 2002. The duo subsequently released "Smooth" in 2003, "Runaway" in 2004 and "Kiss You" in 2005. Their first studio album, Poetica, was released in 2005 by Made Records. The release of the album was timed with the dissolution of iiO with Ali leaving to pursue a solo career. Meanwhile, Moser continued to release material, featuring her on the vocals. These included the 2006 number one Billboard Hot Dance Club Play single, "Is It Love?", the 2007 remix album, Reconstruction Time: The Best of iiO Remixed, and the 2008 compilation album, Rapture Reconstruction: Platinum Edition.
In 2010, iiO re-emerged from hiatus when Moser released new remixes of "At the End". In April 2011, iiO's second studio album and final project, Exit 110, was released, featuring Ali on vocals. Speaking of the album, Ali explained that she had no involvement in it except her vocals and lyrics from nearly ten years ago being used for the project. She described it as "interesting" that there was new work featuring her being released by iiO when she had neither worked with or been in contact with Moser since she left iiO and was completely focused on her solo career. When asked further if the dissolution of the duo was amicable, she refused to comment further. Moser, on the other hand, said he decided to use material Ali had recorded before she left iiO to release a new album due to a demand by fans.
Discography
Studio albums
2005 Poetica – Top Electronic Albums number 17
2011 Exit 110
Remix albums
2007 Reconstruction Time: The Best of iiO Remixed
2011 American Ambient
Compilations
2008 Rapture Reconstruction: Platinum Edition
2011 Frank Bailey vs iiO Remastered
Singles
References
External links
Interview with Markus Moser, HitQuarters, May 15, 2003
American dance music groups
American house music groups
American musical duos
Musical groups from New York City | [
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|
215590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Burnet | William Burnet | William Burnet may refer to:
William Burnet (colonial administrator) (1688–1729) British colonial administrator
William Burnet (physician) (1730–1791) American physician and political leader
See also
William Burnett (disambiguation)
William Burnet Kinney, American diplomat and politician | [
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|
215591 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guayas%20Province | Guayas Province | Guayas () is a coastal province in Ecuador. It is bordered to the west by Manabí, Santa Elena, and the Pacific Ocean (as the Gulf of Guayaquil); to the east by Los Ríos, Bolívar, Chimborazo, Cañar, and Azuay; to the north by Los Ríos and Bolívar; and to the south by El Oro and the Pacific Ocean.
With a population of over 3 million people, it is the most populous province in Ecuador. In terms of area it is the seventh largest province in the country. The main port of Ecuador, Guayaquil, is located within the province.
Geography
Guayas' natural terrain is very diverse. The province has no elevations, except for the Coastal Range, which starts in Guayaquil and goes to Manabí. The areas west of the Coastal Range are desertic, with an average temperature of 23 °C. The areas east of the range belong to the Guayas Watershed. They are quite humid and fertile, especially in the north of the province, with an average temperature of 30 °C in the humid season (December–May) and 25 °C in the dry season (June–November).
Hydrography
The most important river in the province is the Daule River, which flows from the north to join the Babahoyo River to form the Guayas river. The province is part of the largest river basin in South America west of the Andes Mountains.
Roads
Guayas has its own system for numbering roads. However, this system is unknown to most residents, so it is not regularly used.
The inter-provincial roads are also numbered with the national system. Even routes travel north-south; odd routes travel east-west. The inter-provincial roads that cross the province are the following:
Ecuador Highway 15 (Vía del Pacífico; Pacific Way)
Ecuador Highway 25 (Troncal de la Costa; Coastal Main Way)
Ecuador Highway 40 (Transversal Austral; Austral Crossing Way)
History
Pre-Hispanic cultures
The native culture living in Guayas is the Huancavilca culture. Exactly before the European discovery of America, the Huancavilca Culture was living in the province. Their decedents make up a large part of the population of the province.
Spanish conquest and independence
Guayaquil was founded on August 14, 1534 (its foundation is celebrated on July 25). During the Spanish conquest, Guayaquil became one of the most important ports in South America. The city became free on October 9, 1820, and the Guayaquil Department (one of the original subdivisions of Ecuador) was founded soon afterwards. It consisted of the Manabí Province, and the Guayaquil Province, which was later renamed Guayas. The Guayaquil Province included territory of what now is Peruvian Tumbes, and today's Los Ríos and El Oro. The provinces were separated from Guayas in 1860 and 1884, respectively.
Urbanization
Guayas is the most populous province in the country. In recent decades, there has been a massive exit from rural areas to the main cities (especially Guayaquil). This has created a problem in Guayaquil, as most of the migrants move to municipal areas, creating shantytowns, with no services like water or electricity.
Demographics
Guayas is the most populous province in the country. The estimated population of the province in 2003 was about 3,360,000 people. A large percentage of the population are mestizos, i.e. descendants of both Spanish and indigenous peoples, there are also big communities of people that descend from Italians, Lebanese and German people.
Ethnic groups as of the Ecuadorian census of 2010:
Mestizo 67.5%
Montubio 11.3%
White 9.8%
Afro-Ecuadorian 9.7%
Indigenous 1.3%
Other 0.5%
Political divisions
The province is divided into 25 cantons. The following table lists each with its population at the time of the 2001 census, its area in square kilometres (km2), and the name of the canton seat or capital.
See also
Provinces of Ecuador
Cantons of Ecuador
References
External links
Gobierno Provincial del Guayas, official website
Provinces of Ecuador
States and territories established in 1820
1820 establishments in Gran Colombia | [
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|
215599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Burnet%20%28physician%29 | William Burnet (physician) | William Burnet (December 13, 1730 – October 7, 1791) was an American political leader and physician from New Jersey. He served in the Continental Army and the Continental Congress.
Biography
He was born on December 13, 1730 in Elizabeth, New Jersey.
Burnet graduated from Princeton University in 1749, studied medicine under Dr. Staats in White Plains, New York, and started his practice in Newark, New Jersey. He was a member of Newark's Committee of Safety in 1775 before he joined the Continental Army as a surgeon. He opened a hospital in Newark for wounded soldiers, and ran it throughout the Revolution. He was appointed Surgeon General for the Eastern Region in 1776, and also held that position until the war ended in 1783.
Burnet was elected to the Continental Congress in 1780 and served from December 11, 1780 until his resignation on April 1, 1781, when he was forced to leave this service by the press of other duties and his wife's illness. Later that year he began serving as a judge in Essex County. He also led the New Jersey Medical Society in 1787. He was a member of The Society of the Cincinnati in the state of New Jersey, taking the seat of his brother Ichabod upon his death. He died in Newark, New Jersey on October 7, 1791, aged 60, and was interred in that city's First Presbyterian Church Cemetery.
Family
He married Mary Camp (1731–1781) and raised a large and successful family. Among his sons by his first wife Jacob Burnet was later a United States Senator from Ohio, while Ichabod and William, Jr. followed their father as doctors. With his second wife, Gertrude Gouverneur Rutgers, the widow of Anthony A. Rutgers (a brother of Henry Rutgers who founded Rutgers University), Burnet had three more sons. Isaac G. Burnet served as mayor of Cincinnati, and his youngest son, David Gouverneur Burnet, played a prominent role in Texas's struggle for independence.
References
External links
William Burnet at The Political Graveyard
The Society of the Cincinnati
The American Revolution Institute
1730 births
1791 deaths
Continental Army staff officers
Continental Congressmen from New Jersey
18th-century American politicians
Physicians from Newark, New Jersey
Politicians from Elizabeth, New Jersey
Politicians from Newark, New Jersey
People of New Jersey in the American Revolution
Physicians in the American Revolution
Princeton University alumni
Presidents of the Medical Society of New Jersey | [
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|
215609 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali%20Abdullah%20Saleh | Ali Abdullah Saleh | Ali Abdullah Saleh al-Ahmar (, ʿAlī ʿAbdullāh Ṣāliḥ al-Aḥmar; born 21 March 1947 – 4 December 2017) was a Yemeni politician who served as the first President of Yemen, from Yemeni unification on 22 May 1990 to his resignation on 25 February 2012, following the Yemeni Revolution. Previously, he had served as President of the Yemen Arab Republic, or North Yemen, from July 1978 to 22 May 1990, after the assassination of President Ahmad al-Ghashmi.
Saleh developed deeper ties with Western powers, especially the United States, in the War on Terror. Islamic terrorism may have been used and encouraged by Ali Abdullah Saleh to win Western support and for disruptive politically motivated attacks. In 2011, in the wake of the Arab Spring, which spread across North Africa and the Middle East (including Yemen), Saleh's time in office became more and more untenable until eventually he was ousted as president in 2012. He was succeeded by Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, who had been vice-president since 1994.
In May 2015, Saleh openly allied with the Houthis (Ansar Allah) during the Yemeni Civil War, in which a protest movement and subsequent insurgency succeeded in capturing Yemen's capital, Sana'a, causing President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi to resign and flee the country. In December 2017, he declared his withdrawal from his coalition with the Houthis and instead sided with his former enemies – Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and President Hadi.
On 4 December 2017, during a battle between Houthi and Saleh supporters in Sanaa, the Houthis accused Saleh of "treason", and he was killed by a Houthi sniper. Reports were that Saleh was killed while trying to flee his compound in a car; however, this was denied by his party officials, who said he was executed at his house.
Early life
Ali Abdullah Saleh was born on 21 March 1947 to a poor family in Beit al-Ahmar village (Red House village) from the Sanhan () clan (Sanhan District), whose territories lie some 20 kilometres southeast of the capital, Sana'a. Saleh's father, Abdallah Saleh died when Saleh was still young and after he divorced Ali Abdullah's mother. His mother later remarried to her deceased former husband's brother, Muhammad Saleh, who soon became Saleh's mentor and stepfather. Saleh's brother Mohammed was a Major General and had three children: Yahya, Tareq, and Ammar, who all served under Saleh during his rule.
Saleh's cousin, Ali Mohsen al-Ahmar from the Al Ahmar family, which is also part of Sanhan clan is often confused with the same-named leading family of the Hashid tribe, with which the Sanhan clan was ally. The Hashid tribe, in turn, belongs to the larger Yemeni parent group, the Kahlan tribe. The clans Sanhan and Khawlan are said to be related.
Rise to the presidency
Saleh received his primary education at Ma'alama village before leaving to join the North Yemeni Armed Forces in 1958 at the age of 11 as an infantry soldier, and was admitted to the North Yemen Military Academy in 1960. Three years later, in 1963, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Armoured Corps. He participated in the Nasserist-inspired Army Coup of 1962, which was instrumental in the removal of King Muhammad al-Badr and the establishment of the Yemen Arab Republic. During the North Yemen Civil War he served in the Tank Corps, attaining the rank of major by 1969. He received further training as a staff officer in the Higher Command and staff C
Course in Iraq, between 1970 and 1971, and was promoted to lieutenant colonel. He became a full colonel in 1976 and was given command of a mechanised brigade. In 1977, the President of North Yemen, Ahmed bin Hussein al-Ghashmi, appointed him as military governor of Ta'izz.
After al-Ghashmi was assassinated on 24 June 1978, Colonel Saleh was appointed to be a member of the four-man provisional presidency council and deputy to the general staff commander. On 17 July 1978, Saleh was elected by the Parliament to be the President of the Yemen Arab Republic, while simultaneously holding the positions of chief of staff and commander-in-chief of the armed forces.
Governance in the Middle East and North Africa: A Handbook describes Saleh as being neither from a "sheikhly family" nor a "large or important tribe", but instead rising to power through "his own means", and creating a patronage system with his family at the top. His seven brothers were placed "in key positions", and later he relied on "sons, daughters, sons-in-law and nephews". Beneath the positions occupied by his extended family, Saleh "relied heavily on the loyalty" of two tribes, his own Sanhan tribe and the Hamdan San'a tribe of his mentor, the late president Ahmad al-Ghashmi. The New York Times Middle Eastern correspondent Robert F. Worth described Saleh as reaching an understanding with powerful feudal "big sheikhs" to become "part of a Mafia-style spoils system that substituted for governance". Worth accused Saleh of exceeding the aggrandisement of other Middle Eastern strongmen by managing to "rake off tens of billions of dollars in public funds for himself and his family" despite the extreme poverty of his country.
North Yemen presidency
On 10 August 1978, Saleh ordered the execution of 30 officers who were charged with being part of a conspiracy against his rule. Saleh was promoted to major general in 1980, elected as the secretary-general of the General People's Congress party on 30 August 1982, and re-elected president of the Yemen Arab Republic in 1983.
In the late 1980s, Saleh was under considerable international pressure to permit his country's Jewish citizens to travel freely to places abroad. Passports were eventually issued to them, which facilitated their unrestricted travel.
Unified Yemen presidency
The decline of the Soviet Union severely weakened the status of South Yemen, and, in 1990, the North and South agreed to unify after years of negotiations. The South accepted Saleh as President of the unified country, while Ali Salim al-Beidh served as the Vice President and a member of the Presidential Council.
After Iraq lost the Gulf War, Yemeni workers were deported from Kuwait by the restored government.
In the 1993 parliamentary election, the first held after unification, Saleh's General People's Congress won 122 of 301 seats.
Terrorist links
Around 1994, jihadists from Ayman al-Zawahiri's Egyptian Islamic Jihad attempted to regroup in Yemen following a harsh crackdown in Egypt. In this, they were tacitly supported by the regime of Ali Abdullah Saleh, as he found them useful in his fight against southern separatists in the war of 1994. After using Islamic militants to repress the separatists and keep the country under his rule, Saleh turned a blind eye to their activities, and allowed their sympathizers to work in his intelligence services.
Military promotion
On 24 December 1997, Parliament approved Saleh's promotion to the rank of field marshal, making him highest-ranking military officer in Yemen.
He became Yemen's first directly elected president in the 1999 presidential election, winning 96.2% of the vote. The only other candidate, Najeeb Qahtan Al-Sha'abi, was the son of Qahtan Muhammad al-Shaabi, a former president of South Yemen. Though a member of Saleh's General People's Congress (GPC) party, Najeeb ran as an independent.
1999 election
After the 1999 elections the Parliament passed a law extending presidential terms from five to seven years, extending parliamentary terms from four to six years, and creating a 111-member, presidentially-appointed council of advisors with legislative power. This move prompted Freedom House to downgrade their rating of political freedom in Yemen from 5 to 6.
2005 election
In July 2005, during the 27th-anniversary celebrations of his presidency, Saleh announced that he would "not contest the [presidential] elections" in September 2006. He expressed hope that "all political parties – including the opposition and the General People's Congress – find young leaders to compete in the elections because we have to train ourselves in the practice of peaceful succession." However, in June 2006, Saleh changed his mind and accepted his party's nomination as the presidential candidate of the GPC, saying that when he initially decided not to contest the elections his aim was "to establish ground for a peaceful transfer of power", and that he was now, however, bowing to the "popular pressure and appeals of the Yemeni people." Political analyst Ali Saif Hasan said that he had been "sure [President Saleh] would run as a presidential candidate. His announcement in July 2005 – that he would not run – was exceptional and unusual." Mohammed al-Rubai, head of the opposition supreme council, said the president's decision "show[ed] that the president wasn't serious in his earlier decision. I wish he hadn't initially announced that he would step down. There was no need for such farce."
In the 2006 presidential election, held on 20 September, Saleh won with 77.2% of the vote. His main rival, Faisal bin Shamlan, received 21.8%. Saleh was sworn in for another term on 27 September.
In December 2005, Saleh stated in a nationally televised broadcast that only his personal intervention had preempted a U.S. occupation of the southern port of Aden after the 2000 USS Cole bombing, stating "By chance, I happened to be down there. If I hadn't been, Aden would have been occupied as there were eight U.S. warships at the entrance to the port." However, transcripts from the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee state that no other warships were in the vicinity at the time.
Colluding with terrorists
After 9/11, Saleh sided with America in the War on Terror. Following the mysterious "escape" of Al Qaeda convicts in Yemeni custody, Saleh would demand more American money and support in order to catch the fugitive.
In an investigative documentary allegations were made that Saleh's government supported and directly helped Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP).
An informant for the National Security Bureau (NSB) and Political Security Organization (PSO) made these allegations.Hani Muhammad Mujahid, 38, told Al Jazeera that "many Al-Qaeda leaders were under the complete control of Ali Abdullah Saleh", "Ali Abdullah Saleh turned Al-Qaeda into an organized criminal gang. He was not only playing with the West. He was playing with the entire world".Richard Barrett, who was with Britain's MI6 intelligence agency before becoming director of the Al-Qaeda Monitoring Team for the UN, described Mujahid's story of his background in Afghanistan, his return to Yemen and his involvement with AQAP as "credible". The attack on the U.S. Embassy in 2008 was funded by Saleh's nephew and Al Qaeda leaders had close relationships with him. The informant also gave critical intelligence on terrorist movement, attacks and leaders but no action was taken.
Ousted from the presidency
Protests
In early 2011, following the Tunisian revolution which resulted in the overthrow of the long-time Tunisian president, Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, opposition parties attempted to do the same in Yemen. Opposition elements started leading protests and demanding that Saleh end his three-decade-long rule because of the perceived lack of democratic reform, widespread corruption and human rights abuses carried out by him and his allies. His net worth was estimated to be between 32 and 64 billion dollars with his money spread across multiple accounts in Europe and abroad.
On 2 February 2011, facing a major national uprising, Saleh announced that he would not seek re-election in 2013, but would serve out the remainder of his term. In response to government violence against protesters, eleven MPs of Saleh's party resigned on 23 February. By 5 March, this number had increased to 13, as well as the addition of two deputy ministers.
On 10 March 2011, Saleh announced a referendum on a new constitution, separating the executive and legislative powers. On 18 March, at least 52 people were killed and over 200 injured by government forces when unarmed demonstrators were fired upon in the university square in Sana'a. The president claimed that his security forces were not at the location, and blamed local residents for the massacre.
On 7 April 2011, a U.S. state department cable obtained by WikiLeaks reported the plans of Hamid al-Ahmar, the Islah Party leader, prominent businessman, and de facto leader of Yemen's largest tribal confederation, claiming that he would organize popular demonstrations throughout Yemen aimed at removing President Saleh from power.
On 23 April 2011, facing massive nationwide protests, Saleh agreed to step down under a 30-day transition plan in which he would receive immunity from criminal prosecution. He stated that he planned to hand power over to his vice president, Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi as part of the deal.
On 18 May 2011, he agreed to sign a deal with opposition groups, stipulating that he would resign within a month; On 23 May, Saleh refused to sign the agreement, leading to renewed protests and the withdrawal of the Gulf Cooperation Council from mediation efforts in Yemen.
Assassination attempt and resignation
On 3 June 2011, Saleh was injured in a bomb attack on his presidential compound. Multiple C-4 (explosive) charges were planted inside the mosque and one exploded when the president and major members of his government were praying. The explosion killed four bodyguards and injured the prime minister, deputy prime ministers, head of the Parliament, governor of Sanaa and many more. The man responsible for speaking at Saleh's public events was reported killed. Saleh suffered burns and shrapnel injuries, but survived, a result that was confirmed by an audio message he sent to state media in which he condemned the attack, but his voice clearly revealed that he was having difficulty in speaking. Government officials tried to downplay the attack by saying he was lightly wounded. The next day he was taken to a military hospital in Saudi Arabia for treatment. According to U.S. government officials, Saleh suffered a collapsed lung and burns on about 40 percent of his body. A Saudi official said that Saleh had undergone two operations: one to remove the shrapnel and a neurosurgery on his neck.
On 4 June 2011, Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi was appointed as acting president, while Saleh remained the President of Yemen.
On 7 July 2011, Saleh appeared for his first live television appearance since his injury. He appeared badly burned and his arms were both bandaged. In his speech, he welcomed power-sharing but stressed it should be "within the framework of the constitution and in the framework of the law". On 19 September 2011, he was pictured without bandages, meeting King Abdullah.
On 23 September 2011, Yemeni state television announced that Saleh had returned to the country after three months amid increasing turmoil in a week that saw increased gun battles on the streets of Sana'a and more than 100 deaths.
Saleh said on 8 October 2011, in comments broadcast on Yemeni state television, that he would step down "in the coming days". The opposition expressed skepticism, however, and a government minister said Saleh meant that he would leave power under the framework of a Gulf Cooperation Council initiative to transition toward democracy.
On 23 November 2011, Saleh flew to Riyadh in neighbouring Saudi Arabia to sign the Gulf Cooperation Council plan for political transition, which he had previously spurned. Upon signing the document, he agreed to legally transfer the office and powers of the presidency to his deputy, Vice President Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi. The agreement also led to the formation of a government divided by Saleh's political party (GPC) and the JMP.
It was reported that Saleh had left Yemen on 22 January 2012 for medical treatment in New York City. He arrived in the United States six days later. On 27 February 2012, Saleh formally ceded power to his deputy Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi and stepped down as the President of Yemen, pledging to support efforts to "rebuild" the country still reeling from months of violence.
Post-presidency
In February 2013, Saleh opened a museum documenting his 33 years in power, located in a wing of the Al Saleh Mosque in Sanaa. One of the museum's central display cases exhibits a pair of burnt trousers that Saleh was wearing at the time of his assassination attempt in June 2011. Other displays include fragments of shrapnel that were taken out of his body during his hospital treatment in Saudi Arabia, as well as various gifts given to Saleh by kings, presidents and world leaders over the course of his rule.
Later that year, in October, the United Nations Special Envoy to Yemen, Jamal Benomar said that Saleh and his son have the right to run in the next Yemeni presidential election, as the 2011 deal does not cover political incapacitation.
Saleh was a behind-the-scenes leader of the Houthi takeover in Yemen led by Zaydi Houthi forces. Tribesmen and government forces loyal to Saleh joined the Houthis in their march to power. On 28 July 2016, Saleh and the Houthi rebels announced a formal alliance to fight the Saudi-led military coalition, run by a Supreme Political Council of 10 members – made up of five members from Saleh's General People's Congress, and five from the Houthis. The members were sworn in on 14 August 2016.
The United Nations Security Council imposed sanctions on Saleh in 2014, accusing him of threatening peace and obstructing Yemen's political process, subjecting him to a global travel ban and an asset freeze.
Death
Houthi spokesperson Mohamed Abdel Salam stated that his group had spotted messages between the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Saleh three months before his death. He told Al-Jazeera that there was communication between Saleh, UAE and a number of other countries such as Russia and Jordan through encrypted messages. The alliance between Saleh and the Houthi broke down in late 2017, with armed clashes occurring in Sana'a from 28 November. Saleh declared the split from the Houthi movement in a televised statement on 2 December, calling on his supporters to take back the country and expressed openness to a dialogue with the Saudi-led coalition.
On 4 December 2017, Saleh's house in Sana'a was assaulted by fighters of the Houthi movement, according to residents. Saleh was killed on his way to Ma'rib while trying to flee into Saudi-controlled territories after a rocket-propelled grenade struck and disabled his vehicle in an ambush and he was subsequently shot in the head by a Houthi sniper, something his party denied. Houthis published a video allegedly depicting Saleh's body with a gunshot wound to the head. His death was confirmed by a senior aide to Saleh, and also by Saleh's nephew. His death has been described by The Economist as an embarrassment of Saudi foreign policy failures under Mohammad bin Salman. The attack also resulted in the death of General People's Congress' assistant secretary Yasser al-Awadi.
Saleh's home was captured by Houthis before he fled. Officials of his party General People's Congress, while confirming his death, stated that a convoy he and other party officials were travelling in was attacked by Houthis as they fled towards his hometown Sanhan. Houthi leader Abdul Malik al-Houthi meanwhile celebrated his death and called it "the day of the fall of the treasonous conspiracy". He also stated that his group had "no problem" with the GPC or its members. Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi offered condolences for his death and called for an uprising against the Houthis. The Houthis accused the UAE of dragging Saleh to "this humiliating fate."
On 9 December 2017 he was buried in Sana'a, according to an official. A Houthi commander reported that the burial was held in strict conditions with no more than 20 people attending.
Honours
National honours
: Grand Master with Collar of the Order of Unification
Foreign honours
: Medal of the Order of José Martí
: First Class of the Order of the Grand Conqueror
: Grand Cordon of the Order of the Seventh of November
: Collar of the Order of Zayed
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (defunct honour)
Two Sicilian Royal Family: Recipient of the Two Sicilian Royal Sacred Military Constantinian Order of Saint George Benemerenti Medal, 1st Class
Two Sicilian Royal Family: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Order of Francis I
Wealth
The UN Sanctions Panel said that by 2012 Saleh had amassed a fortune worth $32–60 billion hidden in at least twenty countries, making him one of the richest people in the world. Saleh was gaining $2 billion a year from 1978 to 2012, mainly through illegal methods, such as embezzlement, extortion and theft of funds from Yemen's fuel subsidy program.
See also
1994 civil war in Yemen
Arab Spring
Yemeni Civil War (2015–present)
Battle of Sanaa (2017)
Notes
References
External links
President Ali Abdullah Saleh official Yemen government website
Ali Abdullah Saleh
Timeline: Saleh's 32-year rule in Yemen, Reuters, 22 March 2011
In Yemen, onetime foes united in opposing President Saleh, Sudarsan Raghavan in Sanaa, The Washington Post, 25 March 2011
Profile: Yemen's Ali Abdullah Saleh, BBC News, 23 April 2011
|-
|-
1947 births
2017 deaths
Yemeni anti-communists
Critics of Islamism
Yemeni politicians
Deaths by firearm in Yemen
Field marshals
General People's Congress (Yemen) politicians
People from Sanaa Governorate
People of the Yemeni Revolution
Presidents of North Yemen
Vice presidents of North Yemen
Presidents of Yemen
Yemeni Arab nationalists
People killed in the Yemeni Civil War (2014–present)
Yemeni Zaydis
Saleh family
People of the North Yemen Civil War | [
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|
215611 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte%20Mew | Charlotte Mew | Charlotte Mary Mew (15 November 1869 – 24 March 1928) was an English poet whose work spans the eras of Victorian poetry and Modernism.
Early life and education
Mew was born in Bloomsbury, London, the daughter of Anna Maria Kendall and the architect Frederick Mew, who designed Hampstead Town Hall. The marriage produced seven children. Charlotte, nicknamed Lotti by her family, attended Gower Street School, where she was greatly influenced by the school's headmistress, Lucy Harrison, and attended lectures at University College London. Her father died in 1898 without making adequate provision for his family; two of her siblings suffered from mental illness and were committed to institutions, and three others died in early childhood, leaving Charlotte, her mother, and her sister Anne. Charlotte and Anne made a pact never to marry for fear of passing on insanity to their children. (One scholar believes that Charlotte was "almost certainly chastely lesbian".) Mew had a strong sense of style: her friend and editor Alida Monro remembers her wearing distinctive red worsted stockings in the winter months, and she insisted on buying her black, button-up boots (in a tiny size 2) from Pinet's bootmakers in Mayfair; items left to different friends in her will (such as a 'small three drop diamond pendant' and a 'scarlet Chinese embroidered scarf') also suggest a keen interest in fashion. In later years, she often dressed in masculine attire, adopting the appearance of a dandy.
Writing career
In 1894, Mew succeeded in getting a short story published in The Yellow Book. Entitled Passed its inspiration derived from Mew's activities as a volunteer social worker and concerns a sex worker, who leads the narrator to a room where the sex worker's sister lies dead. The narrator is profoundly shocked by the experience, but flees in the end to her comfortable life. Yet, she is later confronted by the woman again, accompanied by a man, and this causes the narrator to break down. Five years followed without any publications, but by the beginning of the 20th century she was contributing fiction with some regularity to magazines, including Temple Bar. She apparently wrote very little poetry until the 1910s. Her first collection, The Farmer's Bride, was published in 1916 in chapbook format by the Poetry Bookshop; in the United States this collection was entitled Saturday Market and published in 1921 by Macmillan. It earned her the admiration of Sydney Cockerell and drew popular respect for her as a poet.
Her poems are varied: some of them (such as "Madeleine in Church") are passionate discussions of faith and the possibility of belief in God; others are proto-modernist in form and atmosphere ("In Nunhead Cemetery"). She made experimental use of long, prose-like lines, and varieties of enjambment and indentation, which has been praised for its originality. Many of her poems are in the form of dramatic monologues, and she often wrote from the point of view of a male persona ("The Farmer's Bride"). Two concern mental illness – "Ken" and "On the Asylum Road". Many of Mew's poems, including "Ken", "The Farmer's Bride", and "Saturday Market", are about outcast figures, expressing Mew's feelings of alienation from the community in which she lived. Her poem "The Trees Are Down" is a poignant plea for ecological sensitivity and is singled out particularly in the anthology The Green Book of Poetry by Ivo Mosley.
Mew gained the patronage of several literary figures, notably Thomas Hardy, who called her the best woman poet of her day; Virginia Woolf, who said she was "very good and interesting and quite unlike anyone else"; and Siegfried Sassoon. In 1923, she obtained a Civil List pension of £75 per year with the aid of Cockerell, Hardy, John Masefield, and Walter de la Mare. This helped ease her financial difficulties.
Decline and death
After the death of her sister from cancer in 1927, she descended into a deep depression and was admitted to a nursing home where she died by suicide from drinking Lysol, a disinfectant.
Mew is buried in the northern part of Hampstead Cemetery, London NW6.
References
Further reading
This Rare Spirit: A Life of Charlotte Mew, Julia Copus, Faber, 2021.
Charlotte Mew: Selected Poetry and Prose, edited with an introduction and notes by Julia Copus, Faber, 2019
Charlotte Mew and Her Friends, Penelope Fitzgerald, Collins, 1984.
Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 19: British Poets, 1880–1914. London, 1983
Charlotte Mew: Collected Poems and Prose, edited with an introduction by Val Warner. London, 1981
External links
1869 births
1928 suicides
19th-century English women writers
20th-century English women writers
19th-century English poets
20th-century English poets
19th-century English writers
Burials at Hampstead Cemetery
English women poets
People with mental disorders
People from Bloomsbury
Suicides by poison
Suicides in England
Victorian poets
Victorian women writers
Chapbook writers
1928 deaths | [
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|
215615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon%20%28city%29 | Colophon (city) | Colophon (; ) was an ancient city in Ionia. Founded around the turn of the first millennium BC, it was likely one of the oldest of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. It was located between Lebedos (120 stadia to the west) and Ephesus (70 stadia to its south). Its ruins are south of the town Değirmendere in the Menderes district of Izmir Province, Turkey.
The city's name comes from the word κολοφών, "summit", (which is also the origin of the bibliographic term "colophon", in the metaphorical sense of a 'crowning touch',) as it was sited along a ridgeline. The term colophony for rosin comes from the term colophonia resina ( Kolophōnia rhētinē), resin from the pine trees of Colophon, which was highly valued for increasing friction of the bow hairs of stringed musical instruments.
History
According to Apollodorus and Proclus, the mythical seer Calchas died at Colophon after the end of the Trojan War. Strabo names Clarus as the place of his death, which would later be a cult center in the territory of Colophon. An oracle had it that he would die when he would meet a better seer than himself. As Calchas and the other heroes on their way home from Troy came upon the seer Mopsus in Colophon, the two competed in their mantic qualities. Calchas couldn't equal Mopsus' skills as a seer, being a son of Apollo and Manto, so he died.
In Greek antiquity Damasichthon and Promethus, two sons of Codrus, King of Athens, established a colony there. (Promethus later killed Damasichthon; he then escaped to Naxos, and died there, but his corpse was brought back to Colophon by Damasichthon's sons, and subsequently lied near Colophon) It was the birthplace of the philosopher Xenophanes and the poets Antimachus and Mimnermus.
Colophon was the strongest of the Ionian cities and renowned both for its cavalry and for the inhabitants' luxurious lifestyle, until Gyges of Lydia conquered it in the 7th century BC. Colophon then went into decline and was eclipsed by neighbouring Ephesus and by the rising naval power of Ionia, Miletus.
After the death of Alexander the Great, Perdiccas expelled the Athenian settlers on Samos to Colophon, including the family of Epicurus, who joined them there after completing his military service.
In the 3rd century BC, it was destroyed by Lysimachus—a Macedonian officer, one of the successors (Diadochi) of Alexander the Great, later a king (306 BC) in Thrace and Asia Minor, during the same era when he nearly destroyed (and did depopulate by forced expulsion) the neighboring Ionian League city of Lebedos.
Notium served as the port, and in the neighbourhood was the village of Clarus, with its famous temple and oracle of Apollo Clarius, where Calchas vied with Mopsus in divinatory science.
In Roman times, after Lysimachus' conquest, Colophon failed to recover (unlike Lebedos) and lost its importance; actually, the name was transferred to the site of the port village of Notium, and the latter name disappeared between the Peloponnesian War and the time of Cicero (late 5th century BC to 1st century BC).
Additionally, the city, as a major location on the Ionic mainland, was cited as a possible home or birthplace for Homer. In his True History, Lucian lists it as a possible birthplace along with the island of Khios and the city of Smyrna, though Lucian's Homer claims to be from Babylon.
Bishopric
While tradition gave as the first bishops of the bishopric of Colophon Sosthenes ( and ) and Tychicus (), the only ones historically documented are Eulalius or Euthalius, who was at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, and Alexander who was represented at the Council of Chalcedon in 451, without attending it personally.
Colophon continued to be listed in Notitiae Episcopatuum as late as the 12th or 13th century, as a suffragan of Ephesus, capital of the Roman province of Asia.
No longer a residential bishopric, Colophon is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Notable people
Antimachus, an Ancient Greek poet and grammarian.
Hermesianax, an Ancient Greek elegiac poet of the Hellenistic period.
Hermesianax, an Ancient Greek wrestler, son of Agoneus (), who won at boys' wrestling in the Ancient Olympic Games and the commonwealth of Colophon erected a statue dedicated to him. In later year, his grandson (son of his daughter), Icasius (), was also victor at wrestling in the games.
Mimnermus, an Ancient Greek elegiac poet.
Xenophanes, an Ancient Greek philosopher, theologian, poet, and social and religious critic.
Attribution
References
Sources
Loeb Classical Library, vol. 3/8 of Lucian's works, with facing Greek text
Works of Lucian of Samostata at sacred-texts.com
Herodotus Project: Colophon
'The Rise of the Greeks' - Michael Grant (Guild Publishing) 1987 - pages 159, 345.
External links
Ionian League
Populated places established in the 2nd millennium BC
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Former populated places in Turkey
Populated places in ancient Ionia
Geography of İzmir Province
History of İzmir Province
Members of the Delian League
Greek city-states
Menderes (Cumaovası) District | [
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|
215619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VH1 | VH1 | VH1 (originally an initialism of Video Hits One) is an American basic cable television network based in New York City and owned by Paramount Global. It was created by Warner-Amex Satellite Entertainment, at the time a division of Warner Communications and the original owner of MTV, and launched on January 1, 1985, in the former space of Turner Broadcasting System's short-lived Cable Music Channel.
The channel was originally conceived to build upon the success of sister channel MTV by playing music videos targeting a slightly older demographic than MTV by focusing on the lighter, softer side of popular music. Like MTV, VH1 ultimately drifted away from music videos and into reality television programming, albeit with a focus on music personalities and celebrities, and shows targeting African American audiences. VH1 is best known for franchises such as Behind the Music, the I Love… series, the Celebreality block, and Love & Hip Hop.
As of January 2016, approximately 90.2 million US households received VH1.
History
Early history (1985–1994)
Format and VJs (1985–89)
VH1's aim was to focus on the lighter, softer side of popular music, including US and international musicians such as Olivia Newton-John, Kenny Rogers, Carly Simon, Tina Turner, Elton John, Billy Joel, Eric Clapton, Sting, Donna Summer, Rod Stewart, Kenny G, Michael Bolton, Anita Baker, Chicago and Fleetwood Mac, in hopes of appealing to people aged 18 to 35, and possibly older. Also frequently featured in the network's early years were "videos" for Motown and other '60s oldies consisting of newsreel and concert footage. It was introduced on January 1, 1985, with the video performance of "The Star-Spangled Banner" by Marvin Gaye, who died a year before the network launched (the national anthem was also played at the launch of Cable Music Channel).
From the start, Video Hits One was branded as an urban version of its sister/parent channel. It played more jazz and R&B artists than MTV and had a higher rotation of urban-contemporary performers. Its early on-camera personalities were New York radio veterans Don Imus (then of WNBC), Frankie Crocker (then program director and DJ for WBLS), Scott Shannon (of WHTZ), Jon Bauman ("Bowzer" from Sha Na Na), and Rita Coolidge.
Later VJs included Bobby Rivers, who joined in 1987, Tim Byrd of WPIX-FM (the current day FM rebroadcast of WFAN), a station whose eclectic ballad-and-R&B oriented format mirrored that of VH-1, Roger Rose - Actor and comedian (Ski Patrol), and Alison Steele ("The Nightbird" of WNEW-FM). Rosie O'Donnell later joined the outlet's VJ lineup. O'Donnell would also host a comedy show featuring various comedians each episode. As an added touch to make the network more like a televised radio station, the early years of the network featured jingles in their bumpers produced by JAM Creative Productions in Dallas, who had previously made jingles for radio stations worldwide.
The format left room for occasional ad-libs by the VJ, a godsend for emcees such as Imus and O'Donnell. In true Imus style, he used a 1985 segment of his VH-1 show to jokingly call smooth-jazz icon Sade a "grape" for her oval-shaped head.
Typical of VH1's very early programming was New Visions, a series which featured videos and in-studio performances by smooth jazz and classical and new-age bands and performers, including Spyro Gyra, Andy Narell, Mark Isham, Philip Glass, and Yanni. At first many different musicians guest-hosted the program, but eventually musician/songwriter Ben Sidran became the permanent host.
New Age music videos continued to play on the channel into the 1990s. They would be seen on the Sunday morning two-hour music video block titled Sunday Brunch.
Early programming (1989–1994)
Once VH1 established itself a few years later, they catered to Top 40, adult contemporary, classic rock, and 1980s mainstream pop. For a time, even country music videos aired in a one-hour block during the afternoons. They started out using MTV's famous Kabel based credits for their music video credit tags. It was later replaced in 1991 by a larger, vertically oriented font, with the year the video was made added to the lower column that identified the label on which the album was released. In 1993, the name of the videos' director was included at the bottom of the credits.
During this time, they also had some non-music programming, such as a comedy hour hosted by Rosie O'Donnell with various amateur and veteran comedians, called Stand Up Spotlight, an in-depth look at current movies called Flix, and reports on good civilians and volunteers in the community, called Good News People.
Every week, the Top 21 Video Countdown usually had a different guest host. Occasionally, they had themed countdowns as well, such as Elvira hosting creepy videos for Halloween in 1991.
Long blocks of music videos by a particular artist or band, theme, or years were also very popular in this era. One popular weekend program was called Video Rewind, in which blocks of 1980s videos from one particular year would play for an hour. There was also a short-lived hour-long program called By Request in which viewers could call a 1–900 hotline number to request their videos.
Also in 1991, a popular morning program was introduced called Hits News & Weather that ran from 7am to 9am ET. (It later expanded to 10am ET.) It composed of music videos both past and present along with a 90-second update of the day's news & weather provided by All News Channel. The updates were typically shown twice an hour during the program. A box displaying the minutes past the hour was shown below the logo during the period. It was discontinued a week before the channel was re-branded in the Spring of 1994. During the week prior, classic music videos from forgotten artists/bands aired, titled Whatever Happened To...?
The channel's playlist was gradually expanding, and, by 1994, included contemporary musicians such as Ace of Base, Melissa Etheridge, Sheryl Crow, Lisa Loeb, Amy Grant, Seal, and other slightly heavier, or more alternative rock-influenced music than what it had originally played, although favorites such as Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Rod Stewart, Cher, Elton John, Madonna, Phil Collins, Janet Jackson, and Céline Dion still continued to receive heavy play for several more years as well. VH1 to One was a program in the Video Hits One days that was very similar to Behind The Music. It profiled artists such as Phil Colins, Michael Bolton and Paul McCartney, plus other various artists of interest at the time that were playing the network's chosen style of music at the time and their music careers.
VH1 Corvette Give-away Sweepstakes
In order to reach a wider and younger audience, VH1 announced in late 1989 that in 1990 they would be holding a contest where the grand prize was a collection of 36 Chevrolet Corvettes, one for every model year from its introduction year of 1953, to the then current model year of 1989 (there is no model for 1983), all going to a single grand winner. All cars were to be certified as roadworthy and in "good" to "excellent" condition. The collection at the time had an estimated worth of over 1 million. Contestants entered by calling a 900 number and registering, at $2 per call. VH1 received over 4 million call-in entries. The winner was a man from Long Island, New York, who immediately sold the entire collection to artist Peter Max for $500,000. Max intended to use the cars for an art project, but it never got started and the entire collection was left in an underground parking lot in New York City for over 20 years, and deteriorated into poor condition.
VH1: Music First (1994–2003)
In October 1994, VH1 re-branded itself as VH1: Music First, following a slight ratings decline in the early 1990s. They began airing "History of Music Videos A to Z" during the July 4 weekend from 1994 to 1998 where they would show a large percentage of their library of music videos, which would include mini-marathons of videos by artists with a large number of videos. The success of A to Z led to a weeknight 11p.m. hour-long broadcast of Madonna videos, titled The Madonna Show. The videos were aired without introduction by a VJ and the program was soon shortened to thirty minutes, and then scrapped altogether. By 1996, VH1 was heading down the same path as its sister channel, MTV, choosing to focus more on music-related shows than on music videos. Additionally, the network began to expand its playlist of music videos to include more rock music. Old episodes of American Bandstand could regularly be seen on the channel. By that time, the channel's ratings were beginning to fall.
Video Countdown
As part of VH-1's re-branding as "VH1: Music First" in 1994, the channel launched a new series, the VH1 Top 10 Countdown, that counted down the top 10 music videos played on VH1 each week. A combination of record sales, radio airplay, video spins, message board posts, and conventional mail would decide the order of the countdown. A rotating cast of VJs picked up hosting duties for the show over the years. The series expanded from 10 to 20 music videos, becoming the VH1 Top 20 Video Countdown, in 2001. The show was renamed The 20 in early 2015, and ended later that year.
Pop-Up Video
In the fall of 1996, VH1 premiered Pop-Up Video, in which music videos were accompanied by "pop-ups" (also known as "bubbles" or "info nuggets")—small enclosed areas of the screen containing facts about the band artists, and videos such as career highlights, discography, biographical details, quotes, and anecdotes. For a time, this was VH1's highest rated show.
VH1 Storytellers
In February 1996, VH1 again hit it big with the premiere of the first of the network's flagship shows, VH1 Storytellers. The show started with a broadcast of Ray Davies, during his "Storyteller" tour, and took its name from this first show. In each hourlong episode, artists appear in front of a (mostly small and intimate) live audience, interspersing musical performances with anecdotes related to the songs' meaning, the songwriting process, audience reaction, etc. Along with Davies, the series has featured a widely diverse list of artists, including Culture Club, Willie Nelson and Johnny Cash, Kanye West, Tom Waits, and Def Leppard. Meat Loaf enjoyed the show's format so much that he bought the stage decorations from VH-1 and went on to do a "Storytellers" tour in 1998/1999.
Behind the Music
VH1 scored another hit in August 1997 with the debut of Behind the Music. The hourlong show features interviews and biographies of some of popular music's biggest stars qualified to be profiled on the series. The premiere episode featured Milli Vanilli. Episodes have ranged from Aaliyah to Stryper to Keith Moon, as well as others such as, Meat Loaf, Tori Amos, MC Hammer, Cher, Oasis, Steppenwolf, Fleetwood Mac, TLC, "Weird Al" Yankovic, Megadeth, Britney Spears, Selena, Petra, Pantera, and Eminem, with more episodes being produced periodically. By the late 1990s, the show began to run out of artists to profile, leading to the short-lived BTM2 program, half-hour looks into bands and artists whose popularity was rising, but not yet at its peak.
Legends
Shortly after, VH1 created a companion series, Legends (originally sponsored by AT&T), profiling artists who have made a more significant contribution to music history to qualify as "Legends" (that is, those artists who have gone beyond the category of Behind the Music biographies). The artists profiled so far have included Aerosmith; the Bee Gees; David Bowie; Johnny Cash; Eric Clapton; The Clash; George Clinton; Sam Cooke; Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young; The Doors; John Fogerty; Aretha Franklin; Marvin Gaye; The Grateful Dead; Guns N' Roses; Jimi Hendrix; Michael Jackson; Eminem; Elton John; Janis Joplin; B. B. King; Led Zeppelin; John Lennon; Curtis Mayfield; Nirvana; Pink Floyd; The Pretenders; Red Hot Chili Peppers; Queen; Bruce Springsteen; Tina Turner; U2; Stevie Ray Vaughan; The Who, and Neil Young.
Save The Music Foundation
Founded in 1997 by John Sykes as VH1 Save The Music and funded by the first Divas concerts, the Save The Music Foundation became a standalone 501(c)(3) nonprofit in 2008. The mission of the organization is to help students, schools, and communities reach their full potential through the power of making music. Save The Music partners with school districts and raises funds to restore music programs in public schools. Since inception, STM has donated over $60 million worth of new musical instruments, equipment, and technology to 2,201 schools in 277 school districts around the country, reaching hundreds of thousands of students.
VH1 Divas
In 1998, VH1 debuted the first annual VH1 Divas concert and featured the "divas" Aretha Franklin, Mariah Carey, Shania Twain, Gloria Estefan, and Celine Dion, and the "special guest" Carole King. The second installment of these "diva" shows was produced in 1999 featuring Whitney Houston, Tina Turner, Cher, LeAnn Rimes, Mary J. Blige, Billy Joel, Chaka Khan, Brandy, and special "divo" Elton John. It became a huge success and was featured in the following years starring Diana Ross, Donna Summer, Destiny's Child, Kelly Clarkson, Jordin Sparks, Miley Cyrus, Jennifer Hudson, Shakira, Deborah Harry, Anastacia, Dixie Chicks, Gladys Knight, Patti LaBelle, and Jessica Simpson. Also in 1999, Donna Summer who was asked to do the "diva" concert, was given her own concert special by VH1 "Donna Summer Live and More: Encore". Some female artists such as Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Aretha Franklin, Mary J. Blige, Celine Dion, Cher, Chaka Khan, and Billy Joel were featured in two or more VH1 divas concerts, with Cyndi Lauper appearing the most times, having been featured in four concerts. In 2000, Diana Ross, who has been asked several times to appear on previous editions, appeared in her own edition of the special, "VH1 Divas 2000: A Tribute To Diana Ross"
Movies That Rock
In 1999, VH1 aired its first original movie, a biopic on Sweetwater. Their third original movie (which aired in 2000), Two of Us, focused on a fictional meeting between John Lennon and Paul McCartney. Over the next three years, they made over a dozen movies, including bio-pics on Jim Morrison and The Doors, Ricky Nelson, MC Hammer, The Monkees, Meat Loaf, and Def Leppard.
VH1 continues to air "Movies That Rock" on a regular basis, expanding to include movies not produced by VH1. The subject matter remains mostly focused on music and musicians.
Diversification
In the late 1990s, VH1 continued to get more diverse and teen-based with its music selection, and with that, the network updated its 1994 "Big 1" logo. Various late-night rock shows have been shown on VH1, featuring alternative rock and metal videos from the 1980s and 1990s. VH1 eventually warmed up to harder rock acts such as the Red Hot Chili Peppers, the Foo Fighters, the Stone Temple Pilots, and Metallica. Their new videos began being added into VH1's playlist right away.
Around late 2002, VH1 even began to play mainstream rap musicians. The latest videos by Eminem, Nelly, Jay-Z, Snoop Dogg, Busta Rhymes, Missy Elliott, and Eve began to be shown in VH1's rotation and even started to cut up on VH1's top 20 countdown. VH1 also plays music from Latin artists such as Ricky Martin, Marc Anthony, Enrique Iglesias, Thalía, and Shakira.
Other past trends
rockDocs was the title under which VH1 aired various music documentaries, both those produced by VH1 and those produced by third parties. Such documentary series produced by VH1 include "And Ya' Don't Stop", a five-part series on the history of hip-hop and rap, a four-part series on the history of heavy metal, Heavy: The Story of Metal, and The Drug Years, which tells the story of different drug cultures that changed America. Films produced by other studios have also been aired as rockDocs, including Woodstock, Madonna: Truth or Dare, Tupac: Resurrection, Metal: A Headbanger's Journey, Awesome; I Fuckin' Shot That!, a documentary on the Beastie Boys, and most recently Last Days of Left Eye which documented the last month of Lisa Lopes's life from the band TLC, and N.W.A.: The World's Most Dangerous Group, featuring the narration of comedian Chris Rock, which chronicled the rise and fall of N.W.A.
VH1 endured criticism for Music Behind Bars, which mainly focuses on musicians in custody. Critics have claimed prisoners, mainly those convicted of murder, should not be entitled to any exposure, especially nationally.
The channel aired Where Are They Now? from 1999 to 2002. It featured former celebrities and their current professional and personal status. Each episode was dedicated to a specific genre, ranging from past child stars to Aaron Spelling's notable productions, to controversial news figures.
VH1 also aired a series of promos in 2003, featuring animated kittens from the online animation website Rathergood, lipsyncing popular songs such as "I Love Rock n' Roll" written & performed by Alan Merrill of the Arrows since 1975 (US cover hit by Joan Jett in 1982), Culture Club's "Karma Chameleon" and Guns N' Roses' "Welcome to the Jungle". These spots were done by British animator Joel Veitch.
Box logo era (2003–2013)
In August 2003, the network changed its focus again, dropping "Music First" from its name, and introducing a box logo. Having saturated its Behind The Music series (and spinoff BTM2, a 30-minute version that told the stories of current chart-toppers), gotten past the point of showing music videos on a regular basis, the network began to target the pop culture nostalgia market. Following the controversy over the murder-suicide of a contestant from Megan Wants a Millionaire, the channel toned down its reality programming. On July 1, 2007, VH1 and MHD simulcast the entire Concert for Diana live from London, England, on the birthday of Princess Diana, Princess of Wales.
VH1 would continue to air its music video blocks despite its decreasing reliance on such programming. Their main program block was seen from 3a.m. to 11a.m. ET. The overnight block was called Insomniac Music Theater, later renamed Nocturnal State in August 2005. At of the beginning of October 2008, Nocturnal State was cut down to one hour, and Fresh: New Music was supplanted by additional hours of Jump Start. In 2010, VH1 retired Nocturnal State. Music Videos continued to be branded under Jump Start until January 5, 2013.
I Love… series (2002–2014)
In 2002, VH1 broadcast a ten-part series entitled I Love the '80s. The series was adapted from a BBC series, first broadcast in 2000, in which current entertainers and pop-culture figures offered their take on the trends, events, and personalities of another decade. The success of VH1's I Love the '80s, coupled with the growing nostalgia for ever-more-recent times, led the network to create a parade of similarly themed programs. These ranged from 2003's I Love the '70s, to further variants like I Love the '80s Strikes Back, I Love the '90s, and I Love the '90s: Part Deux. More recently, VH1 premiered I Love the '80s 3-D and I Love the '70s: Volume 2. So eager was the network to capitalize on the trend while it was hot, that it devoted a series to the 2000s, despite the fact that the decade had not yet ended (I Love the New Millennium, broadcast in 2008, covered only the years 2000–2007). This was thought to be the final installment of the series until 2014, when I Love the 2000s continued the format.
The concept was broadened to include non-decade based installments, I Love the Holidays and I Love Toys. The format of these shows has also been repeated for the weekly program Best Week Ever.
The Greatest series
VH1 also produces its The Greatest series in which a similar format is used to countdown lists like "100 Greatest Artists of Rock and Roll", "The 50 Sexiest Video Moments", "100 Greatest Songs of Rock 'N' Roll", "100 Greatest Songs from the Past 25 Years", "100 Greatest One-hit Wonders", "100 Greatest Kid Stars", and "100 Greatest Teen Stars". In 2001, Mark McGrath hosted VH1's miniseries "100 Most Shocking Moments in Rock 'N' Roll", which compiled a list of the moments in music history that changed its course and shook its foundations. Recently in late December 2009, an updated series titled "100 Most Shocking Music Moments" aired on VH1. In 2008 and early 2009, the channel premiered the "100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs", "100 Greatest Hard Rock Songs", "100 Greatest Songs of the 90s", and "100 Greatest Songs of the 80s".
40 Most Awesomely Bad
In 2004, VH1 began this mini-series category with "50 Most Awesomely Bad Songs...Ever". Additional series in this group include "40 Most Awesomely Bad Dirrty Songs...Ever", "40 Most Awesomely Bad Break-up Songs...Ever", "40 Most Awesomely Bad #1 Songs...Ever", "40 Most Awesomely Bad Metal Songs...Ever", and "40 Most Awesomely Bad Love Songs".
Celebreality
In January 2005 VH1 launched its Celebreality programming block of reality shows featuring celebrities, anchored by The Surreal Life, which mimics MTV's The Real World, instead placing celebrities from the past into a living environment.
The word "celebreality" is blend of the words "celebrity" and "reality" and is generally used to describe reality TV shows in which celebrities participate as subjects. The term appears to have been coined by Michael Gross, writing for The Toronto Star on May 12, 1991. In his article, entitled "Celebrity's New Face," Mr. Gross used a hyphenated form of the word ("celeb-reality") to describe the tendency of certain contemporary celebrities to downplay the traditional trappings of Hollywood glamour. "You could see the new celeb-reality on display at this year's Oscars," wrote Gross. "It is Kathy Bates and Whoopi Goldberg, not Kim Basinger and Michelle Pfeiffer. It is Jeremy Irons in black tie and the sneakers he says keep his feet on the ground. It is Kevin Costner, fighting small, important battles, winning big, but reacting with modesty and going off to party privately. The new celebrities are human first, famous second."
The next known citation of the word is by Joyce Millman, writing for The New York Times on January 5, 2003. In an article entitled, "Celebreality: The 'Stars' Are Elbowing Their Way In," Ms. Millman wrote: "Celebreality, the junk genre du jour, turns the notion of reality TV upside down. Instead of real people acting like celebrities on shows like "Survivor", "Big Brother" and "The Bachelor", celebreality gives us celebrities acting like real people on shows like "The Osbournes", "The Anna Nicole Show" and "Celebrity Boot Camp." I'm using the term "celebrity" loosely here—we're not talking about Russell Crowe, Julia Roberts and Dame Judi Dench eating bugs and scrubbing latrines. No, the celebrities of celebreality are a motlier crew, like, well, Mötley Crüe's Vince Neil, the former rap superstar M. C. Hammer and the wee ex-Michael Jackson ornament Emmanuel ("Webster") Lewis. Those three will be setting up housekeeping together on Thursday in "The Surreal Life" on WB, a celebreality spin on MTV's "Real World." Not to be outdone, ABC sends a Baldwin brother (Stephen), a supermodel (Frederique) and a former "L.A. Law" star (Corbin Bernsen) to Hawaii for "Celebrity Mole Hawaii", beginning Wednesday."
The VH1 Celebreality block has also aired shows such as:
2003: Surviving Nugent sent eight individuals to Ted Nugent's house to compete in various games and activities. One of the contestants was future reality show star Tila Tequila.
2005–2007: Hogan Knows Best is Hulk Hogan's reality show.
2005–2010: Celebrity Fit Club is a show where celebrities get in shape.
2005: Strange Love is a spin-off of The Surreal Life, following the relationship between Brigitte Nielsen and Flavor Flav.
2005–2008: My Fair Brady is another spin-off from The Surreal Life, which follows the relationship of Christopher Knight, who played Peter Brady on The Brady Bunch, and Adrianne Curry, who won the first season of America's Next Top Model.
2005-2006: Breaking Bonaduce covers the therapy and life of Danny Bonaduce.
2006–2007: Celebrity Paranormal Project features celebrities placed in haunted locations to explore and perform tasks.
2006–2008: Flavor of Love is a spin-off of Strange Love, where Flavor Flav tries to find love.
2007–2009: I Love New York, New York Goes to Hollywood, and New York Goes to Work feature Tiffany "New York" Pollard, from Flavor of Love.
2007: Flavor of Love Girls: Charm School is a spin-off of Flavor of Love
2007–2009: Rock of Love features Bret Michaels searching for love.
2007: Ego Trip's The (White) Rapper Show is a reality contest hosted by MC Serch.
2007–2008: The Salt-N-Pepa Show is a reality series following the 1990s rap duo Salt-N-Pepa.
2008–2009: Rock of Love: Charm School is a spin-off of Rock of Love with Bret Michaels
2008–2010: I Love Money is a spin-off of Flavor of Love, I Love New York, Real Chance of Love, and Rock of Love with Bret Michaels. There were 4 seasons of this show made altogether (Seasons 1, 2, and 4. The 3rd season was cancelled due to contestant Ryan Jenkin's involvement in the murder of Jasmine Fiore, which took place in August 2009.
2008: ¡Viva Hollywood! featured Hispanic actors competing for a chance to star in a telenovela, hosted by Carlos Ponce and María Conchita Alonso.
2008: Ego Trip's Miss Rap Supreme is another reality contest hosted by MC Serch.
2008–2009: Real Chance of Love is a spin-off of I Love New York and I Love Money.
2008–2012: Celebrity Rehab with Dr. Drew, which chronicled a group of celebrities as they're treated for alcohol and drug addiction by Dr. Drew Pinsky and his staff at the Pasadena Recovery Center in Pasadena, California.
2008: Glam God with Vivica A. Fox is a reality show with red carpet diva Vivica A. Fox.
2008: The Cho Show is a reality sitcom following the antics of comedian Margaret Cho.
2009: Daisy of Love features Daisy de la Hoya, the runner-up of Rock of Love 2, in her own dating show spin-off.
2009: My Antonio is a reality series based on Antonio Sabato Jr.'s search for love.
2009: Charm School with Ricki Lake is a spin-off of Rock of Love Bus with Bret Michaels and Real Chance of Love.
2009: Megan Wants a Millionaire features Megan Hauserman from Rock of Love 2, I Love Money, and Rock of Love: Charm School in her own reality dating spin-off. The program was canceled in mid-August 2009, a third of the way through its run, due to show contestant Ryan Jenkins's involvement in the murder of Jasmine Fiore.
2010: Frank the Entertainer in a Basement Affair features Frank Maresca, a contestant from I Love New York 2, I Love Money, and I Love Money 2, in his own dating show spin-off.
2010: The Price of Beauty is a reality/documentary show featuring singer Jessica Simpson traveling the world.
Hip-Hop and Rock Honors
Since 2004, VH1 has showed their appreciation for hip-hop and rock music by honoring pioneers and movements. Hip-hop musicians honored include Eazy-E, LL Cool J, The Notorious B.I.G., 2Pac, and Public Enemy. All of the shows have been taped in the Hammerstein Ballroom in New York City. On May 25, 2006, Queen, Judas Priest, Def Leppard, and Kiss were the inaugural inductees into the VH1 Rock Honors in Las Vegas. The ceremony aired on VH1 six days later. In 2007, ZZ Top, Heart, Genesis, and Ozzy Osbourne were inducted into the VH1 Rock Honors. 2008's sole Rock Honors inductees were The Who.
For What It's Worth
For What It's Worth premiered on February 21, 2013, and only lasted the length of one season. The show featured hosts Gary Dell'Abate and Jon Hein appraising music and pop-culture memorabilia. The first episode featured musician Jack White at Third Man Records in Nashville, Tennessee, discussing a format of vinyl record he invented called the "Triple Decker Record". The show also chose Gary Sohmers, an appraiser from Antiques Roadshow, to be an expert appraiser on all six episodes.
Breakfast television
Starting in 2011, VH1 has broadcast Big Morning Buzz Live, a daily morning news and pop culture talk show hosted by Carrie Keagan, Jason Dundas and VH1 music expert Jim Shearer and, later, Nick Lachey. The show features entertainment news, celebrity interviews and musical performances. On June 3, 2013, VH1 premiered The Gossip Table, another live daily entertainment news program featuring five entertainment columnists presenting entertainment news and gossip. Both shows have since been cancelled.
VH1 Best Cruise Ever
From April 28 to May 2, 2011, from Tampa to Cozumel music fans could experience non-stop music performances from headliners Train, Lifehouse, Colbie Caillat, and The Script. Other bands include Alpha Rev, Civil Twilight, Mat Kearney, One eskimO, SafetySuit, Thriving Ivory, Trailer Park Ninjas, and Ryan Star. The cruise is on The Carnival Cruise Line ship Carnival Inspiration.
Current era (2013–present)
On January 5, 2013, VH1 introduced a new logo that closely resembles their first. The logo has a "plus" sign in it, representing VH1's focus on music-related shows and events and pop culture-based reality programming. The network's main video block was VH1 + Music, seen weekday mornings between 6a.m. and 9a.m. The new Nocturnal State block aired Mondays through Sundays between 3a.m. and 6a.m.
Since 2014, VH1 programming was noted to be shifting towards shows centered around African American personalities, similar to BET and its sister channels. In the first quarter of 2016, VH1 announced its highest ratings in six years and it was then the fastest-growing subscription channel in that same period. Thanks to the success of shows like Love & Hip Hop, Stevie J & Joseline Go Hollywood, K. Michelle: My Life, and Mob Wives, the channel has moved ahead as a Top Five network for adults. Conversely, VH1 + Music was discontinued and replaced by reruns of 1990s–2000s sitcoms shared with Paramount's other networks. Since then, the channel only carries music videos in continuity between shows.
Also in 2016, VH1 would revive the former CW reality competition series America's Next Top Model.
VH1 has seen further shifts to its programming as part of Viacom's 2017 restructuring plan. Beginning with its ninth season, Logo TV original series RuPaul's Drag Race was moved to VH1. In 2019, as part of an expansion of MTV's Wild 'n Out, new episodes premiered on VH1 from July 7, 2019, to September 15, 2019.
Programming
Original programming currently seen on VH1 includes the Love & Hip Hop, Black Ink Crew, and Basketball Wives franchises. Other notable shows include RuPaul's Drag Race (which was moved over from Logo in 2017), reruns and new episodes (as of July 2019) of Nick Cannon Presents: Wild 'N Out (which originated on MTV), and Martha & Snoop's Potluck Dinner Party. VH1's current programming is noted to predominantly focus on urban music genres and lean towards African-American personalities, similar to BET.
Sister and international networks
VH1 HD
VH1 HD (launched in 2005) is a 1080i high-definition feed, with all major providers carrying the network; as of 2016 this feed is downgraded at a provider's headend to provide the network's standard definition channel on systems.
Sister channels in the U.S.
VH1 has launched spinoff digital networks as part of The MTV Suite. Initially, four VH1 spinoff networks were formed, with another being made later on. By August 2016, all of VH1's spinoffs had been realigned with either MTV, BET, or CMT or were shuttered altogether.
VH1 Classic: Music videos primarily from the 1970s and 1980s, but also the 1960s and 1990s, concert footage, old movies, and original programming focused on adult hits, classic hits and classic rock music. Rebranded as MTV Classic on August 1, 2016, in honor of MTV's 35th anniversary.
VH1 MegaHits: A channel which played mostly top 40 adult contemporary videos from throughout VH1's history, from the 1980s to the early 2000s. Due to low viewership, the network was discontinued. The satellite space was utilized by corporate parent MTV Networks to launch the LGBTQ network Logo.
VH1 Soul: Classic and neo-soul music videos from the past and today. Rebranded as BET Soul under the editorial control of BET Networks on December 28, 2015.
VH1 Uno: A Spanish language channel which mostly composed of music videos of Latin pop, rock, and traditional ballads, tropical, salsa and merengue music. Discontinued February 2, 2008, by MTV Networks to expand normal distribution of MTVU beyond college campuses.
VH1 Country: Continuous country music videos; moved under CMT's editorial control and renamed CMT Pure Country on Memorial Day 2006.
Internet
VH1's website launched in the late 1990s. In 2003, MTV Networks VSPOT, a broadband video channel that followed the model of MTV Overdrive, containing the shows aired by VH1 and music videos. Like Overdrive, it was coolly received due to a heavy reliance on broadband and advanced web technologies. VH1 returned to a traditional-style website in late 2007.
International networks
As with other MTV channels, MTV Networks broadcasts international versions of VH1:
VH1 Adria: By the end of September 2012, Serbia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Croatia got their regional version of VH1 called VH1 Adria. However, due to financial problems, the channel closed in January 2015 and was replaced by the feed of VH1 Europe.
VH1 Australia: Since March (April for Optus customers) 2004, VH1 has been available in Australia on Foxtel, Optus Television and Austar. It is also available on the SelecTv pay TV platform. On May 1, 2010, VH1 Australia was re-branded as MTV Classic.
VH1 Brasil: The Portuguese-language version of VH1 was launched in Brazil on May 1, 2004. However, VH1 Soul had been available to digital cable subscribers since 2004. In 2007 VH1 Soul stopped being available in Brazil. In 2009 the version HD of VH1 was launched. It closed down on November 14, 2014.
VH1 Mega Hits Brazil: Replaced the Brazilian version of MTV Hits. The channel plays 24h chart hits non-stop. Closed down on July 31, 2020.
VH1 Caribbean: Founded on April 14, 2004, VH1 Caribbean also known as VH1 Puerto, is a music television channel from Viacom International Media Networks, based on the American channel of the same name. This version of VH1 is very different from its American counterpart, since it has never ceased to be a proper music channel, playing a wide variety of music programs on a daily or weekly basis. VH1 Caribbean is in 2013 the only major music channel in Caribbean and North Central America still broadcasting in the 4:3 ratio while others broadcast in 16:9 widescreen. VH1 Caribbean has also Change logo same as the original U.S. channel has adopted a new logo since 2013. It appeared for the first time in Latin America in 2004 and the version airing was subsequently distributed across the whole of the Caribbean Islands. However, its current pan-Caribbean feed was officially launched in 2006, hence becoming a separate service from the Latin-aimed channel VH1 Latin America, The HD version of VH1 Caribbean began broadcasting on October 7, 2020. This signal replaced VH1 HD in Brazil and Latin America, except United States. On August 2, 2021, the channel has been replaced by MTV 00s.
VH1 Christmas: A special channel that plays Christmas music videos. VH1 Christmas airs on MTV Rocks in the UK and Ireland during the Christmas period annually.
VH1 Denmark: The Danish version of VH1 was launched in Denmark on March 15, 2008. Today the programming still consist of musicvideos unlike it's american counterpart.
VH1 Europe: The Pan-European VH1 channel has broadcast in the European continent as well as Africa and the Middle East. This channel also airs in Russia and many countries of Latin America, albeit only in Russia it has the "16+" icon on the bottom-right, due to Russia's broadcasting laws. VH1 Europe was replaced with MTV 00s on August 2, 2021.
VH1 Export: VH1 Export is the technical name used for the version of VH1 European available in the Middle East, Africa, and the Levant territories broadcasting via satellite, exclusively from the OSN pay-TV network. In Africa (on DStv), the channel is exactly the same as VH1 European, but with different adverts. Also VH1 Export has ceased existing on August 2, 2021, and has been replaced by MTV 00s.
VH-1 Germany: In 1995 to 2001, a German-language version of VH-1 was broadcast, featuring more adult music than MTV, and using the original 1985 to 1987 US logo. It proved unsuccessful and eventually had to make way for a non-stop music channel aimed at teenagers called MTV2 Pop. However, VH1 has not really disappeared from German television, since it is still available in its pan-European version.
VH1 India: In December 2004, MTV India and Zee-Turner teamed up to bring VH1 to India (later owned by Viacom18). It is the only version of VH1 that currently uses the 2003 branding. It also airs MTV international shows due to MTV India only airing Indian originals.
VH1 Indonesia: In Indonesia, VH1 programming were aired on MTV Indonesia at 4 until 8pm, and on local terrestrial channels such as Jak-TV, Jakarta, STV Bandung, TV Borobudur, Semarang, TATV, Solo, and Makassar TV, Makassar (UHF21) and also a full link channel seen on satellite PALAPA C2.
VH1 Italy: Launched in July 2016, which replaced MTV Music on DTT, which sold the main MTV station to Sky Italia on August 1, 2015.
VH1 Latin America: On April 1, 2004, VH1 Latin America joined MTV and Nickelodeon Latin America targeting audiences 25–49 years old. Until then, the VH1 main channel available for Latin America was the original US version. The Spanish-language channel is tailored for the market and feature a mix of music and entertainment with local and international-recording artists, as well as original programming. VH1 Latin America closed down on October 7, 2020, being replace by its European counterpart.
VH1 Pakistan: It was launched in 2008 by Viacom as a joint venture with ARY Digital Network. However, in 2009, the channel was closed due to low ratings and repeated shows.
VH1 Polska: Launched (or rather renamed) on December 1, 2005. The channel was aimed at people in Poland over 25. The channel was formerly known as "MTV Classic" and (especially in its last months) was the same as present VH1, airing the same programs for the same target group. VH1 Polska closed down in March 2020 being replaced by VH1 Europe.
VH1 Russia: VH1 Russia launched on December 2, 2005. It ceased broadcasting on July 1, 2010, and was replaced by the European VH1 feed.
VH1 UK: VH1 UK targeted 25–44 years old and had much of the same content as the main U.S. channel. From 2008 until the last few years of its existence, the channel played music videos, mostly prominently countdowns and artist playlists. However, it shifted its focus to reality and travel shows, ending up with re-runs of Are You the One? and Channel 5 's Cruising With Jane McDonald, when it closed down on January 7, 2020. In addition to VH1, there were two sister stations in the UK: VH1 Classic (now MTV Classic) and VH2 (now closed).
Out of the list of VH1 channels aired worldwide, Canada has never operated a VH1 branded channel. In 1998, CHUM Limited launched MuchMoreMusic, a sister channel to MuchMusic. As MuchMoreMusic, the network aired the majority of VH1's music and reality programming. It was closed in 2016 and the channel's license was replaced by Gusto, which was renamed to CTV Life Channel in 2019.
See also
Cable Music Channel
List of programs broadcast by VH1
MTV
MTV Classic
Night Tracks
The Tube Music Network
Roger Rose
Video Hits (Australian TV series)
References
External links
Official website
English-language television stations in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1985
ViacomCBS Domestic Media Networks
Music video networks in the United States
Television networks in the United States
1985 establishments in the United States
African-American television networks
African-American television | [
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|
215620 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limburg-Weilburg | Limburg-Weilburg | Limburg-Weilburg is a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Lahn-Dill, Hochtaunuskreis, Rheingau-Taunus, Rhein-Lahn, Westerwaldkreis.
History
1867 the Oberlahnkreis, capital Weilburg was created
1886 the district Limburg an der Lahn, capital Limburg created.
1974 both districts were merged due to the district reorganization in Hesse.
Geography
The district is located between the two mountain areas Westerwald and Taunus. The main river is the Lahn, a tributary of the Rhine.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms consists of the main symbols of the two precursor districts. The cross from the district Limburg, symbolizing both Saint George the patron of the cathedral in Limburg, as well as the bishops of Trier who acquired the Limburg area in the 14th century. The chequered bar inside the cross derives from the Counts of Limburg of the 15th century. The lion in the inescutcheon, which was one of the symbols in the coat of arms of the Oberlahn district, is the lion of Nassau, as the area belonged to the Duchy of Nassau.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website (German) | [
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215623 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist%20state | Communist state | A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state that is administered and governed by a communist party guided by Marxism–Leninism. Marxism–Leninism was the state ideology of the Soviet Union, the Comintern after Bolshevisation and the communist states within the Comecon, the Eastern Bloc and the Warsaw Pact. Marxism–Leninism remains the ideology of several communist states around the world and the official ideology of the ruling parties of China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam.
Communist states are typically authoritarian and are typically administered through democratic centralism by a single centralised communist party apparatus. These parties are usually Marxist–Leninist or some national variation thereof such as Maoism or Titoism, with the official aim of achieving socialism and progressing toward a communist society. There have been several instances of communist states with functioning political participation (i.e. Soviet democracy) processes involving several other non-party organisations such as direct democratic participation, factory committees and trade unions, although the communist party remained the centre of power.
As a term, communist state is used by Western historians, political scientists and media to refer to these countries. However, these states do not describe themselves as communist nor do they claim to have achieved communism—they refer to themselves as socialist states that are in the process of constructing socialism. Terms used by communist states include national-democratic, people's democratic, socialist-oriented and workers and peasants' states. Academics, political commentators and other scholars tend to distinguish between communist states and democratic socialist states, with the first representing the Eastern Bloc and the latter representing Western Bloc countries which have been democratically governed by socialist parties such as Britain, France, Sweden and Western social-democracies in general, among others.
Overview
Development
During the 20th century, the world's first constitutionally communist state was in Russia at the end of 1917. In 1922, it joined other former territories of the empire to become the Soviet Union. After World War II, the Soviet Army occupied much of Eastern Europe and helped bring the existing communist parties to power in those countries. Originally, the communist states in Eastern Europe were allied with the Soviet Union. Yugoslavia would declare itself non-aligned, and Albania later took a different path. After a war against Japanese occupation and a civil war resulting in a Communist victory, the People's Republic of China was established in 1949. Communist states were also established in Cambodia, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam. A communist state was established in North Korea, although it later adopted its own ideology called Juche. In 1989, the communist states in Eastern Europe collapsed after the Iron Curtain broke as a result of the Pan-European Picnic, under public pressure during a wave of mostly non-violent movements as part of the Revolutions of 1989 which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. China's socio-economic structure has been referred to as "nationalistic state capitalism" and the Eastern Bloc (Eastern Europe and the Third World) as "bureaucratic-authoritarian systems."
Today, the existing communist states in the world are in China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam. These communist states often do not claim to have achieved socialism or communism in their countries but to be building and working toward the establishment of socialism in their countries. The preamble to the Socialist Republic of Vietnam's Constitution states that Vietnam only entered a transition stage between capitalism and socialism after the country was re-unified under the communist party in 1976 and the 1992 Constitution of the Republic of Cuba states that the role of the communist party is to "guide the common effort toward the goals and construction of socialism."
Institutions
Communist states share similar institutions which are organised on the premise that the communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of democratic centralism, developed by Vladimir Lenin as a set of principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party, is extended to society at large. According to democratic centralism, all leaders must be elected by the people and all proposals must be debated openly, but once a decision has been reached all people have a duty to account to that decision. When used within a political party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent factionalism and splits. When applied to an entire state, democratic centralism creates a one-party system. The constitutions of most communist states describe their political system as a form of democracy. They recognize the sovereignty of the people as embodied in a series of representative parliamentary institutions. Such states do not have a separation of powers and instead have one national legislative body (such as the Supreme Soviet in the Soviet Union) which is considered the highest organ of state power and which is legally superior to the executive and judicial branches of government.
In communist states, national legislative politics often has a similar structure to the parliaments that exist in liberal republics, with two significant differences. First, the deputies elected to these national legislative bodies are not expected to represent the interests of any particular constituency, but rather the long-term interests of the people as a whole; and second, against Karl Marx's advice, the legislative bodies of communist states are not in permanent session. Rather, they convene once or several times per year in sessions which usually last only a few days. When the national legislative body is not in session, its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often called a presidium) which combines legislative and executive power and in some communist states (such as the Soviet Union before 1990) acts as a collective head of state. In some systems, the presidium is composed of important communist party members who vote the resolutions of the communist party into law.
A feature of communist states is the existence of numerous state-sponsored social organisations (associations of journalists, teachers, writers and other professionals, consumer cooperatives, sports clubs, trade unions, youth organisations and women's organisations) which are integrated into the political system. In communist states, the social organisations are expected to promote social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government and society and to provide a forum for recruitment of new communist party members.
Historically, the political organisation of many socialist states has been dominated by a one-party monopoly. Some communist governments such as those in China, Czechoslovakia or East Germany have or had more than one political party, but all minor parties are or were required to follow the leadership of the communist party. In communist states, the government may not tolerate criticism of policies that have already been implemented in the past or are being implemented in the present. Nevertheless, communist parties have won elections and governed in the context of multi-party democracies without seeking to establish a one-party state and therefore these entities do not fall under the definition of communist state. In most of Europe, communist parties were highly popular and served in several coalition governments during the 20th century. Examples of direct ruling include San Marino (1945–1957), Nicaragua (1984–1990), Guyana (1992–2015), Moldova (2001–2009), Cyprus (2008–2013) and Nepal (1994–1998; 2008–2013; 2015–2017; 2018–present) as well as several Brazilian, Indian (Kerala) and Russian states.
State
According to Marxist–Leninist thought, the state is a repressive institution led by a ruling class. This class dominates the state and expresses its will through it. By formulating law, the ruling class uses the state to oppress other classes and forming a class dictatorship. However, the goal of the communist state is to abolish that said state. The Soviet Russia Constitution of 1918 stated: "The principal object of the Constitution of the R.S.F.S.R., which is adapted to the present transition period, consists in the establishment of a dictatorship of the urban and rural proletariat and the poorest peasantry, in the form of a powerful All-Russian Soviet power; the object of which is to secure complete suppression of the bourgeoisie, the abolition of exploitation of man by man, and the establishment of Socialism, under which there shall be neither class division nor state authority". The communist state is the dictatorship of the proletariat, where the advanced elements of the proletariat are the ruling class. In Marxist–Leninist thinking, the socialist state is the last repressive state since the next stage of development is that of pure communism, a classless and stateless society. Friedrich Engels commented on the state, writing: "State interference in social relations, becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of production. The state is not 'abolished'. It dies out."
In "The Tax in Kind", Vladimir Lenin argued: "No one, I think, in studying the question of the economic system of Russia, has denied its transitional character. Nor, I think, has any Communist denied that the term Soviet Socialist Republic implies the determination of the Soviet power to achieve the transition to socialism, and not that the existing economic system is recognised as a socialist order." The introduction of the first five-year plan in the Soviet Union got many communists to believe that the withering away of the state was imminent. However, Joseph Stalin warned that the withering away of the state would not occur until after the socialist mode of production had achieved dominance over capitalism. Soviet jurist Andrey Vyshinsky echoed this assumption and said that the socialist state was necessary "in order to defend, to secure, and to develop relationships and arrangements advantageous to the workers, and to annihilate completely capitalism and its remnants."
Ideology permeates these states. According to scholar Peter Tang, "[t]he supreme test of whether a Communist Party-state remains revolutionarily dedicated or degenerates into a revisionist or counterrevolutionary system lies in its attitude toward the Communist ideology." Therefore, the sole ideological purpose of communist states is to spread socialism and to reach that goal these states have to be guided by Marxism–Leninism. The communist states have opted for two ways to achieve this goal, namely govern indirectly by Marxism–Leninism through the party (Soviet model), or commit the state officially through the constitution to Marxism–Leninism (Maoist China–Albania model). The Soviet model is the most common and is currently in use in China.
Marxism–Leninism was mentioned in the Soviet constitution. Article 6 of the 1977 Soviet constitution stated: "The Communist Party, armed with Marxism–Leninism, determines the general perspective of the development of society and the course of the domestic and foreign policy of the USSR." This contrasts with the 1976 Albanian constitution which stated in Article 3: "In the People's Socialist Republic of Albania the dominant ideology is Marxism–Leninism. The entire social order is developing on the basis of its principles." The 1975 Chinese constitution had a similar tone, stating in Article 2 that "Marxism–Leninism–Mao Zedong Thought is the theoretical basis guiding the thinking of our nation." The 1977 Soviet constitution did also use phrases such as "building socialism and communism", "on the road to communism", "to build the material and technical basis of communism" and "to perfect socialist social relations and transform them into communist relations" in the preamble.
People's democratic state
The people's democratic state was implemented in Eastern Europe after World War II. It can be defined as a state and society in which feudal vestiges have been liquidated and where the system of private ownership exists, but it is eclipsed by the state-owned enterprises in the field of industry, transport and credit.
In the words of Eugene Varga, "the state itself and its apparatus of violence serve the interests, not of the monopolistic bourgeoisie, but of the toilers of town and country." Soviet philosopher N. P. Farberov stated: "People's democracy in the people's republics is a democracy of the toiling classes, headed by the working class, a broad and full democracy for the overwhelming majority of the people, that is, a socialist democracy in its character and its trend. In this sense we call it popular."
People's republican state
The people's republican state is a type of socialist state with a republican constitution. Although the term initially became associated with populist movements in the 19th century such as the German Völkisch movement and the Narodniks in Russia, it is now associated to communist states. A number of the short-lived communist states which formed during World War I and its aftermath called themselves people's republics. Many of these sprang up in the territory of the former Russian Empire following the October Revolution.
Additional people's republics emerged following the Allied victory in World War II, mainly within the Soviet Union's Eastern Bloc. In Asia, China became a people's republic following the Chinese Communist Revolution and North Korea also became a people's republic.
During the 1960s, Romania and Yugoslavia ceased to use the term people's republic in their official name, replacing it with the term socialist republic as a mark of their ongoing political development. Czechoslovakia also added the term socialist republic into its name during this period. It had become a people's republic in 1948, but the country had not used that term in its official name. Albania used both terms in its official name from 1976 to 1991.
National-democratic state
The concept of the national-democratic state tried to theorize how a state could develop socialism by bypassing the capitalist mode of production. While the theory of non-capitalist development was first articulated by Vladimir Lenin, the novelty of this concept was applying it to the progressive elements of the national liberation movements in the Third World. The term national-democratic state was introduced shortly after the death of Stalin, who believed colonies to be mere lackeys of Western imperialism and that the socialist movement had few prospects there.
The countries in which the national liberations movements took power and which instituted an anti-imperialist foreign policy and sought to construct a form of socialism were considered as national-democratic states by Marxist–Leninists. An example of a national-democratic state is Egypt under Gamal Abdel Nasser which was committed to constructing Arab socialism. With the exception of Cuba, none of these states managed to develop socialism. According to scholar Sylvia Woodby Edington, this might explain why the concept of the national-democratic state "never received full theoretical elaboration as a political system." However, one feature was clearly defined, namely that these states did not need to be led by a Marxist–Leninist party.
Socialist-oriented state
A socialist-oriented state seeks to reach socialism by non-capitalist development. As a term, it is substantially different from the concept of the national-democratic state. The singular difference is that the socialist-oriented state was divided into two stages, firstly into a national-democratic socialist-oriented state and secondly into a people's democratic socialist-oriented state. Countries belonging to the national-democratic socialist-oriented state category were also categorised as national-democratic states. Examples of national-democratic socialist-oriented states are Algeria ruled by the National Liberation Front, Ba'athist Iraq and Socialist Burma. In contrast, people's democratic socialist-oriented states had to be guided by Marxism–Leninism and accept the universal truths of Marxism–Leninism and reject other notions of socialism such as African socialism.
The socialist-oriented states had seven defining features, namely they were revolutionary democracies, had a revolutionary-democratic party, class dictatorship, defense of the socialist-oriented states, had organs of socialisation, initiated socialist construction and the type of socialist-oriented state (either national-democratic or people's democratic). The political goal of revolutionary democracy is to create the conditions for socialism in countries were the social, political and economic conditions for socialism do not exist. The second feature to be met is the establishment of a revolutionary-democratic party which has to establish itself as the leading force and guide the state by using Marxist–Leninist ideology. While introduced in these states, democratic centralism is rarely upheld.
Unlike capitalism which is ruled by the bourgeoisie class and socialism were the proletariat leads, the socialist-oriented state represents a broad and heterogeneous group of classes that seek to consolidate national independence. Since the peasantry were usually the largest class in socialist-oriented states, their role were emphasised—similar to the working class in other socialist states. However, Marxist–Leninist admitted that these states often fell under the control of certain cliques such as the military in Ethiopia. The establishing of a legal system and coercive institutions are also noted to safeguard the socialist-oriented nature of the state. The fifth feature is that the media and educational system has to be taken over by the socialist-oriented state while establishing mass organisations to mobilize the populace. Unlike the Soviet economic model, the economy of the socialist-oriented states are mixed economies that seek to attract foreign capital and which seeks to maintain and develop the private sector. In the words of Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, these states were in the process of taking over the commanding heights of the economy and instituting a state planned economy. According to Soviet sources, only Laos was the one socialist-oriented state that has managed to develop into a socialist state.
Socialist state
A socialist state is more than a form of government and can only exist in countries with a socialist economy. There are examples of several states that have instituted a socialist form of government before achieving socialism. The former socialist states of Eastern Europe were established as people's democracies (a developmental stage between capitalism and socialism). On the question of the Marxist–Leninist ruled countries of Africa and the Middle East, the Soviet Union deemed none of them to be socialist states—referring to them as socialist-oriented states. While many countries with constitutional references to socialism and countries ruled by long-standing socialist movements exist, within Marxist–Leninist theory a socialist state is led by a communist party that has instituted a socialist economy in a given country. It deals with states that define themselves either as a socialist state or as a state led by a governing Marxist–Leninist party in their constitutions. For this reason alone, these states are often called communist states.
Political system
Government
The highest administrative agency of state power is the government. It functions as the executive organ of the legislature. The Supreme Soviet has been introduced with variations in all communist states. For most of its existence, the Soviet government was known as the Council of Ministers and identical names were used for the governments of Albania, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania. It was independent of the other central agencies such as the legislature and its standing committee, but the Supreme Soviet was empowered to decide on all questions it wished. The Soviet government was responsible to the legislature and in between sessions of the legislature it reported to the legislature's standing committee. The standing committee could reorganise and hold the Soviet government accountable, but it could not instruct the government.
In communist states, the government was responsible for the overall economic system, public order, foreign relations and defense. The Soviet model was more or less identically implemented in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland and Romania, with few exceptions. One exception was Czechoslovakia, where it had a president and not a collective head of state. Another exception was in Bulgaria, where the State Council was empowered to instruct the Council of Ministers.
Legislature
Powers and organisation
All state power is unified in the legislature in communist states. This is a firm rejection of the separation of powers found in constitutional democracies. The constitution is passed by the legislature and can only be amended by the legislature. Judicial review and extra-parliamentary review were denounced by Soviet legal theorists as bourgeoisie institutions. They also perceived it as a limitation of the people's supreme power. The legislature together with its suborgans was responsible for overseeing the constitutional order. Since the legislature is the supreme judge of constitutionality, the legislature's own acts cannot, therefore, be unconstitutional.
The Supreme Soviet was the first socialist legislature and the Soviet legislative system has been introduced in all communist states. The Supreme Soviet convened twice a year, usually for two or three days each, making it one of the world's first frequently convened legislatures during its existence. The same meeting frequency was the norm in the Eastern Bloc countries as well as modern-day China. China's legislature, the National People's Congress (NPC) is modeled on the Soviet one. As with the Soviet one, the NPC is the highest organ of the state and elects a Standing Committee (the Soviets had a Presidium), the government and the State Council (the Soviet counterpart being the Council of Ministers). In addition, all communist states the ruling party has either had a clear majority such as China, or held every seat as they did in the Soviet Union in their Supreme Soviet.
Western researchers have devoted little attention to legislatures in communist states. The reason being that there are not significant bodies of political socialisation when compared to legislatures in constitutional democracies. While political leaders in communist states are often elected as members of legislatures, these posts are not relevant to political advancement. The role of legislatures is different from country to country. In the Soviet Union, the Supreme Soviet did "little more than listen to statements from Soviet political leaders and to legitimate decisions already made elsewhere" while in the legislatures of Poland, Vietnam and Yugoslavia it has been more active and had an impact on rule-making.
Representativity
Both Marx and Lenin abhorred the parliamentary systems of bourgeois democracy, but neither of them sought to abolish it. Lenin wrote that it would be impossible to develop proletarian democracy "without representative institutions." Both of them considered the governing model of the Paris Commune of 1871 in which executive and legislative were combined in one body to be ideal. More importantly, Marx applauded the election process by "universal suffrage in the various wards and town." While the institution of the such a legislature might not be important in itself, they "have a place in the literature and rhetoric of the ruling parties which cannot be ignored—in the language of the party's intimacy with working masses, of its alleged knowledge about interests of working people, of social justice and socialist democracy, of the mass line and learning from the people."
By having legislatures, the Marxist–Leninist parties try to keep ideological consistency between supporting representative institutions and safeguarding the leading role of the party. The seek to use the legislatures as a linkage between the rulers and the ruled. These institutions are representative and usually mirror the population in areas such as ethnicity and language, "yet with occupations distributed in a manner skewed towards government officials." Unlike in constitutional democracies, legislatures of communist states are not to act as a forum for conveying demands or interest articulation—they meet too infrequently for this to be the case. This might explain why communist states have not developed terms such as delegates and trustees to give a legislature representatives to vote according to their best judgement or in the interest of their constituency. Scholar Daniel Nelson has noted: "As with the British parliament before the seventeenth-century turmoil secured its supremacy, legislative bodies in communist states physically portray the 'realm' ruled by (to stretch an analogy) 'kings'. Members of the assemblies 'represent' the population to whom the rulers speak and over whom they govern, convening a broader 'segment of society' [...] than the court itself." Despite this, it does not mean that the communist states use legislatures to strengthen their communication with the populace—the party, rather than the legislature, could take that function.
Ideologically, it has another function, namely to prove that communist states do not only represent the interests of the working class, but all social strata. Communist states are committed to establish a classless society and use legislatures to show that all social strata, whether bureaucrat, worker or intellectual, are committed and have interests in building such a society. As is the case in China, national institutions such as the legislature "must exist which brings together representatives of all nationalities and geographic areas." It does not matter if the legislatures only rubber stamp decisions because by having them it shows that communist states are committed to incorporate minorities and areas of the country by including them in the composition of the legislature. In communist states, there is usually a high proportion of members who are government officials. In this instance, it might mean that it's less important what legislatures do and more important who its representatives are. The members of such legislatures at central and local level are usually either government or party officials, leading figures in their community, or national figures outside the communist party. This goes to show that legislatures are tools to garner popular support for the government in which leading figures campaign and spread information about the party's policies and ideological development.
Military
Control
Communist states have established two types of civil-military systems. The armed forces of most socialist states have historically been state institutions based on the Soviet model, but in China, Laos, North Korea and Vietnam the armed forces are party-state institutions. However, there are several differences between the statist (Soviet) model and the party-state model (China). In the Soviet model, the Soviet armed forces was led by the Council of Defense (an organ formed by the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union) while the Council of Ministers was responsible for formulating defense policies. The party leader was ex officio the Chairman of the Council of Defense. Below the Council of Defense, there was the Main Military Council which was responsible for the strategic direction and leadership of the Soviet armed forces. The working organ of the Council of Defense was the General Staff which was tasked with analysing military and political situations as they developed. The party controlled the armed forces through the Main Political Directorate (MPD) of the Ministry of Defense, a state organ that functioned "with the authority of a department of the CPSU Central Committee." The MPD organised political indoctrination and created political control mechanism at the center to the company level in the field. Formally, the MPD was responsible for organising party and Komsomol organs as well as subordinate organs within the armed forces; ensuring that the party and state retains control over the armed forces; evaluates the political performance of officers; supervising the ideological content of the military press; and supervising the political-military training institutes and their ideological content. The head of the MPD was ranked fourth in military protocol, but it was not a member of the Council of Defense. The Administrative Organs Department of the CPSU Central Committee was responsible for implementing the party personnel policies and supervised the KGB, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Ministry of Defense.
In the Chinese party-state model, the People's Liberation Army (PLA) is a party institution. In the preamble of the Constitution of the Communist Party of China, it is stated: "The Communist Party of China (CPC) shall uphold its absolute leadership over the People's Liberation Army and other people's armed forces." The PLA carries out its work in accordance with the instructions of the CPSU Central Committee. Mao Zedong described the PLA's institutional situation as follows: "Every communist must grasp the truth, 'Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.' Our principle is that the party commands the gun, and the gun must never be allowed to command the Party." The Central Military Commission (CMC) is both an organ of the state and the party—it is an organ of the CPC Central Committee and an organ of the national legislature, the National People's Congress. The CPC General Secretary is ex officio party CMC Chairman and the President of the People's Republic of China is by right state CMC Chairman. The composition of the party CMC and the state CMC are identical. The CMC is responsible for the command of the PLA and determines national defense policies. There are fifteen departments that report directly to the CMC and that are responsible for everything from political work to administration of the PLA. Of significance is that the CMC eclipses by far the prerogatives of the CPSU Administrative Organs Department while the Chinese counterpart to the Main Political Directorate supervises not only the military, but also intelligence, the security services and counterespionage work.
Representation
Unlike in constitutional democracies, active military personnel are members and partake in civilian institutions of governance. This is the case in all communist states. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) has elected at least one active military figure to its CPV Politburo since 1986. In the 1986–2006 period, active military figures sitting in the CPV Central Committee stood at an average of 9,2 percent. Military figures are also represented in the national legislature (the National Assembly) and other representative institutions. In China, the two CMC vice chairmen have had by right office seats in the CPC Politburo since 1987.
Ruling party
Leading role
Every communist state has been led by a Marxist–Leninist party. This party seeks to represent and articulate the interests of the classes exploited by capitalism. It seeks to lead the exploited classes to achieve communism. However, the party cannot be identified with the exploited class in general. Its membership is composed of members with advanced consciousness who are above sectional interests. Therefore, the party represents the advanced section of the exploited classes and through them leads the exploited classes by interpreting the universal laws governing human history towards communism.
In Foundations of Leninism (1924), Joseph Stalin wrote that "the proletariat [working class] needs the Party first of all as its General Staff, which it must have for the successful seizure of power. [...] But the proletariat needs the Party not only to achieve the [class] dictatorship; it needs it still more to maintain the [class] dictatorship." The current Constitution of Vietnam states in Article 4 that "[t]he Communist Party of Vietnam, the vanguard of the Vietnamese working class, simultaneously the vanguard of the toiling people and of the Vietnamese nation, the faithful representative of the interests of the working class, the toiling people, and the whole nation, acting upon the Marxist–Leninist doctrine and Ho Chi Minh's thought, is the leading force of the state and society." In a similar form, the Communist Party of China (CPC) describes itself as "the vanguard of the Chinese working class, the Chinese people, and the Chinese nation." As noted by both communist parties, the ruling parties of communist states are vanguard parties. Vladimir Lenin theorised that vanguard parties were "capable of assuming power and leading the whole people to socialism, of directing and organising the new system, of being the teacher, the guide, the leader of all the working and exploited people in organising their social life without the bourgeoisie." This idea eventually evolved into the concept of the party's leading role in leading the state as seen in the CPC's self-description and Vietnam's constitution.
Internal organisation
The Marxist–Leninist governing party organises itself around the principle of democratic centralism and through it the state too. It means that all directing bodies of the party, from top to bottom, shall be elected; that party bodies shall give periodical accounts of their activities to their respective party organisations; that there shall be strict party discipline and the subordination of the minority to the majority; and that all decisions of higher bodies shall be absolutely binding on lower bodies and on all party members.
The highest organ of a Marxist–Leninist governing party is the party congress. The congress elects the central committee and either an auditing commission and a control commission, or both, although not always. The central committee is the party's highest decision-making organ in between party congresses and elects a politburo and a secretariat amongst its members as well as the party's leader. When the central committee is not in session, the politburo is the highest decision-making organ of the party and the secretariat is the highest administrative organ. In certain parties, either the central committee or the politburo elects amongst its members a standing committee of the politburo which acts as the highest decision-making organ in between sessions of the politburo, central committee and the congress. This leadership structure is identical all the way down to the primary party organisation of the ruling party.
Economic system
From reading their works, many followers of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels drew the idea that the socialist economy would be based on planning and not market mechanism. These ideas later developed into the belief that planning was superior to market mechanism. Upon seizing power, the Bolsheviks began advocating a national state planning system. The 8th Congress of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) resolved to institute "the maximum centralisation of production [...] simultaneously striving to establish a unified economic plan." The Gosplan, the State Planning Commission, the Supreme Soviet of the National Economy and other central planning organs were established during the 1920s in the era of the New Economic Policy. On introducing the planning system, it became common belief in the international communist movement that the Soviet planning system was a more advanced form of economic organisation than capitalism. This led to the system being introduced voluntarily in countries such as China, Cuba and Vietnam and in some cases imposed by the Soviet Union.
In communist states, the state planning system had five main characteristics. Firstly, with the exception of the field consumption and employment, practically all decisions were centralized at the top. Secondly, the system was hierarchical—the center formulated a plan that was sent down to the level below which would imitate the process and send the plan further down the pyramid. Thirdly, the plans were binding in nature, i.e. everyone had to follow and meet the goals set forth in it. Fourtly, the predominance of calculating in physical terms to ensure planned allocation of commodities were not incompatible with planned production. Finally, money played a passive role within the state sector since the planners focused on physical allocation.
According to Michael Ellman, in a centrally planned economy "the state owns the land and all other natural resources and all characteristics of the traditional model the enterprises and their productive assets. Collective ownership (e.g. the property of collective farms) also exists, but plays a subsidiary role, and is expected to be temporary." The private ownership of the means of production still exist, although it plays a fairly smaller role. Since the class struggle in capitalism is caused by the division between owners of the means of production and the workers who sell their labour, state ownership (defined as the property of the people in these systems) is considered as a tool to end the class struggle and empower the working class.
Judicial system
Constitution
Role of constitutions
Marxist–Leninists view the constitution as a fundamental law and as an instrument of force. The constitution is the source of law and legality. Unlike in constitutional democracies, the Marxist–Leninist constitution is not a framework to limit the power of the state. To the contrary, a Marxist–Leninist constitution seeks to empower the state—believing the state to be an organ of class domination and law to be the expression of the interests of the dominant class. It is the belief of Marxist–Leninists that all national constitutions do this to ensure that countries can strengthen and enforce their own class system. In this instance, it means that Marxist–Leninists conceive of constitutions as a tool to defend the socialist nature of the state and attack its enemies. This contrasts with the liberal conception of constitutionalism that "law, rather than men, is supreme."
Unlike the relatively constant (and, in some instances, permanently fixed) nature of democratic constitutions, a Marxist–Leninist constitution is ever-changing. Andrey Vyshinsky, a Procurator General of the Soviet Union during the 1930s, notes that the "Soviet constitutions represent the sum total of the historic path along which the Soviet state has traveled. At the same time, they are the legislative basis of subsequent development of state life." That is, the constitution sums up what already has been achieved. This belief is also shared by the Communist Party of China which argued that "the Chinese Constitution blazes a path for China, recording what has been won in China and what is yet to be conquered." A constitution in a communist state has an end. The preamble of the 1954 Chinese constitution outlines the historical tasks of the Chinese communists, "step by step, to bring about the socialist industrialisation of the country and, step by step, to accomplish the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicraft and capitalist industry and commerce."
In communist states, the constitution was a tool to analyse the development of society. The Marxist–Leninist party in question would have to study the correlation of forces, literally society's class structure, before enacting changes. Several terms were coined for different developmental states by Marxist–Leninists legal theorists, including new democracy, people's democracy and the primary stage of socialism. This is also why amendments to constitutions are not enough and major societal changes need a novel constitution which corresponds with the reality of the new class structure.
With Nikita Khrushchev's repudiation of Stalin's practices in the "Secret Speech" and the Communist Party of China's repudiation of certain Maoist policies, Marxist–Leninist legal theories began to emphasise "the formal, formerly neglected constitutional order." Deng Xiaoping, not long after Chairman Mao Zedong 's death, noted that "[d]emocracy has to be institutionalised and written into law, so as to make sure that institutions and laws do not change whenever the leadership changes or whenever the leaders change their views. [...] The trouble now is that our legal system is incomplete. [...] Very often what leaders say is taken as law and anyone who disagrees is called a lawbreaker." In 1986, Li Buyan wrote that "the policies of the Party usually are regulations and calls which to a certain extent are only principles. The law is different; it is rigorously standardised. It explicitly and concretely stipulates what the people should, can or cannot do." These legal developments have been echoed in later years in Cuba, Laos and Vietnam. This has led to the development of the communist concept of socialist rule of law which runs parallel to and is distinct to the liberal term of the same name. In the last years, this emphasis on the constitution as both a legal document and a paper which documents society's development has been noted by Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping, who stated in 2013 that "[n]o organisation or individual has the privilege to overstep the Constitution and law."
Constitutional supervision
After Soviet Union general secretary Joseph Stalin's death, several communist states have experimented with some sort of constitutional supervision. These organs were designed to safeguard the supreme power of the legislature from circumvention by political leaders. Romania was the first to experiment with constitutional supervision when it established a Constitutional Committee in 1965. It was elected by the legislature and leading jurists sat in the committee, but it was only empowered to advice the legislature. Keith Hand has commented that "[i]t was not an effective institution in practice," being unable to prevent Nicolae Ceausescu's emasculation of Romania's Great National Assembly after the inauguration of the July Theses.
Hungary and Poland experimented with constitutional supervision in the early 1980s. Hungary established the Council of Constitutional Law which was elected by the legislature and consisted of several leading jurists. It was empowered to review the constitutionality and legality of statutes, administrative regulations and other normative documents; however, if the agency in question failed to heed its advice, it needed to petition the legislature. In 1989, the Soviets established the Constitutional Supervision Committee which "was subordinate only to the USSR constitution." It was empowered "to review the constitutionality and legality of a range of state acts of the USSR and its republics. Its jurisdiction included laws [passed by the legislature], decrees of the Supreme Soviet's Presidium, union republic constitutions and laws, some central administrative decrees, Supreme Court explanations, and other central normative documents." If the committee deemed the legislature to have breached legality, the legislature was obliged to discuss the issue, but it could reject it if more than two-thirds voted against the findings of the Constitutional Supervision Committee. While it was constitutionally powerful, it lacked enforcement powers, it was often ignored and it failed to defend the constitution during the coup against Mikhail Gorbachev.
The Chinese leadership has argued against establishing any corresponding constitutional supervisory committee due to their association with failed communist states of Europe. None of the surviving communist states (China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam) have experimented with constitutional supervision committees or constitutional supervision of anykind outside the existing framework.
Legal system
All communist states have been established in countries with a civil law system. The countries of Eastern Europe had formally been governed by the Austro-Hungarian Empire, German Empire and Russian Empire—all of whom had civil law legal system. Cuba had a civil law system imposed on them by Spain while China introduced civil law to overlay with Confucian elements and Vietnam used French law. Since the establishment of the Soviet Union, there has been a scholarly debate on whether socialist law is a separate legal system or is a part of the civil law tradition. Legal scholar Renè David wrote that the socialist legal system "possesses, in relation to our French law, particular features that give it a complete originality, to the extent that it is no longer possible to connect it, like the former Russian law, to the system of Roman law." Similarly, Christoper Osakwe concludes that socialist law is "an autonomous legal system to be essentially distinguished from the other contemporary families of law." Proponents of socialist law as a separate legal system, have identified the following features:
The socialist law is to disappear with the withering away of the state.
The rule of the Marxist–Leninist party.
The socialist law is subordinate and reflect changes to the economic order (the absorption of private law by public law).
The socialist law has a religious character.
The socialist law is prerogative rather than normative.
Legal officials argue differently for their case than Westerners. For instance, "[t]he predominant view among Soviet jurists in the 1920s was that Soviet law of that period was Western-style law appropriate for a Soviet economy that remained capitalist to a significant degree." This changed with the introduction of the command economy and the term socialist law was conceived to reflect this in the 1930s. Hungarian legal theorist Imre Szabó acknowledged similarities between socialist law and civil law, but he noted that "four basic types of law may be distinguished: the laws of the slave, feudal, capitalist and socialist societies." Using the Marxist theory of historical materialism, Szabó argues that socialist law cannot belong to the same law family since the material structure is different from the capitalist countries as their superstructure (state) has to reflect these differences. In other words, law is a tool by the ruling class to govern. As Renè David notes, socialist jurists "isolate their law, to put into another category, a reprobate category, the Romanist laws and the common law, is the fact that they reason less as jurists and more as philosophers and Marxists; it is in taking a not strictly legal viewpoint that they affirm the originality of their socialist law." However, some socialist legal theorists such as Romanian jurist Victor Zlatescu differentiated between type of law and family of law. According to Zlatescu, "[t]he distinction between the law of the socialist countries and the law of the capitalist countries is not of the same nature as the difference between Roman-German law and the common law, for example. Socialist law is not a third family among the others, as appears in certain writings of Western comparatists." In other words, socialist law is civil law, but it is a different type of law for a different type of society.
Yugoslav jurist Borislav Blagojevic noted that a "great number of legal institutions and legal relations remain the same in socialist law", further stating that it is "necessary and justified" to put them to use if they are "in conformity with the corresponding interests of the ruling class in the state in question." Importantly, socialist law has retained civil law institutions, methodology and organisation. This can be discerned by the fact that East Germany retained the 1896 German civil code until 1976 while Poland used existing Austrian, French, German and Russian civil codes until its adoption of its own civil code in 1964. Scholar John Quigley wrote that "[s]ocialist law retains the inquisitorial style of trial, law-creation predominantly by legislatures rather than courts, and a significant role for legal scholarship in construing codes."
List of communist states
Current communist states
The following countries are one-party states in which the institutions of the ruling communist party and the state have become intertwined. They are adherents of Marxism–Leninism. They are listed here together with the year of their founding and their respective ruling parties.
Multi-party states with governing communist parties
There are multi-party states with communist parties leading the government. Such states are not considered to be communist states because the countries themselves allow for multiple parties and do not provide a constitutional role for their communist parties. Nepal was previously ruled by the Nepal Communist Party, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) and the Unified Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) between 1994 and 1998 and then again between 2008 and 2018 while states formerly ruled by one or more communist party include San Marino (1945–1957), Nicaragua (1984–1990), Moldova (2001–2009), Cyprus (2008–2013) and Guyana (1992–2015).
Former communist states
The following communist states were socialist states committed to communism. Some were short-lived and preceded the widespread adoption of Marxism–Leninism by most communist states.
Russia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1991)
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1924)
Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1941)
Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990)
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1924)
Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1941; 1944–1945)
Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1990)
Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1940; 1956–1991)
Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1925–1936)
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936)
Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1935–1943; 1957–1991)
Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1993)
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956)
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1957)
Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1961–1992)
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar (1917–1918)
Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918)
Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic (1919)
Far Eastern Republic (1920–1922)
Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Ukraine
Odessa Soviet Republic (1918)
Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918)
Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic (1919)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1940)
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1991–1992)
Finland
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (1918)
Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940)
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956)
Germany
Free Socialist Republic of Germany (1918–1919)
Saxony Soviet (1918–1919)
Bremen Soviet Republic
Bavarian Soviet Republic (1919)
Soviet occupation of Germany (1945–1949)
Soviet occupation of Berlin (1945–1949)
German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)
East Berlin (1949–1990)
France
Alsace-Lorraine Soviet Republic (1918)
Estonia
Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919)
First Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940–1941)
Second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944–1945)
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1991)
Latvia
Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920)
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1991)
Lithuania
Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)
First Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940–1941)
Second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944–1945)
Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1991)
Belarus
Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919)
Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Hungary
Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)
Soviet occupation of Hungary (1944–1946)
Second Hungarian Republic (1946–1949)
Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989)
Ireland
Monaghan Soviet (1919)
Limerick Soviet (1919)
Knocklong Soviet (1919)
Waterford Soviet (1920)
Bruree Soviet (1921)
Cork Harbour Soviet (1921)
Azerbaijan
Mughan Soviet Republic (1919)
Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)
Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1990)
Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Czechoslovakia
Slovak Soviet Republic (1919)
Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia (1944–1948)
Fourth Czechoslovak Republic (1948–1960)
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1960–1990)
Tajikistan
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1929–1991)
Turkmenistan
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1925–1991)
Uzbekistan
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)
Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1929)
Karakalpak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1932–1991)
Iran
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1921)
Soviet occupation of Iran (1941–1946)
Azerbaijan People's Government (1945–1946)
Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947)
Poland
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
Provisional Government of National Unity (1945–1947)
Polish People's Republic (1947–1989)
Armenia
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)
Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Georgia
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)
Adjar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1990)
Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1931–1996)
Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Mongolia
People's Republic of Mongolia (1921–1924)
Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992)
China
Hunan Soviet (1927)
Guangzhou Commune (1927)
Soviet Zone of China (1927–1949)
(1931–1937)
Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet (1931–1934)
People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China (1933–1934)
Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949)
Inner Mongolian People's Republic (1945)
Soviet occupation of Manchuria (1945–1946)
Spain
Asturian Socialist Republic (1934)
Kazakhstan
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Kyrgyzstan
Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Romania
Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (1940)
Soviet occupation of Romania (1944–1947)
Romanian People's Republic (1947–1965)
Socialist Republic of Romania (1965–1989)
Moldova
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991)
Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Greece
Political Committee of National Liberation (1944–1949)
Albania
Democratic Government of Albania (1944–1946)
People's Republic of Albania (1946–1976)
People's Socialist Republic of Albania (1976–1992)
Bulgaria
Soviet occupation of Bulgaria (1944–1946)
People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)
Norway
Soviet occupation of Northern Norway (1944–1946)
Austria
Soviet occupation of Austria (1945–1946)
Soviet occupation of Vienna (1945–1946)
Denmark
Soviet occupation of Bornholm (1945–1946)
Japan
Soviet occupation of the Kuril Islands (1945)
Korea
Soviet Civil Administration (1945–1946)
Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (1946–1947)
People's Committee of North Korea (1947–1948)
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948–1992/2009)
Yugoslavia
Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1963)
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992)
Colombia
Marquetalia Republic (1948–1958)
Vietnam
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1954–1975)
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (1969–1976)
Yemen
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–1990)
Republic of the Congo
People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1992)
Somalia
Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)
Ethiopia
Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia (1974–1987)
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1987–1991)
Mozambique
People's Republic of Mozambique (1975–1990)
Angola
People's Republic of Angola (1975–1992)
Benin
People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990)
Cambodia
Democratic Kampuchea (1976–1979)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989)
State of Cambodia (1989–1992)
Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (1982–1992)
Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia (1994–1998)
Afghanistan
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1987)
Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)
Grenada
People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada (1979–1983)
Burkina Faso
People's Republic of Burkina Faso (1984–1987)
Analysis
Countries such as the Soviet Union and China were criticised by Western authors and organisations on the basis of a lack the representative nature of multi-party constitutional democracy, in addition to several other areas where socialist society and Western societies differed. Socialist societies were commonly characterised by state ownership or social ownership of the means of production either through administration through communist party organisations, democratically elected councils and communes and co-operative structures—in opposition to the liberal democratic capitalist free-market paradigm of management, ownership and control by corporations and private individuals. Communist states have also been criticised for the influence and outreach of their respective ruling parties on society, in addition to lack of recognition for some Western legal rights and liberties such as the right to own property and the restriction of the right to free speech. The early economic development policies of communist states have been criticised for focusing primarily on the development of heavy industry.
Soviet advocates and socialists responded to criticism by highlighting the ideological differences in the concept of freedom. McFarland and Ageyev noted that "Marxist–Leninist norms disparaged laissez-faire individualism (as when housing is determined by one's ability to pay), also [condemning] wide variations in personal wealth as the West has not. Instead, Soviet ideals emphasized equality—free education and medical care, little disparity in housing or salaries, and so forth." When asked to comment on the claim that former citizens of communist states enjoy increased freedoms, Heinz Kessler, former East German Minister of National Defence, replied: "Millions of people in Eastern Europe are now free from employment, free from safe streets, free from health care, free from social security."
In his analysis of states run under Marxist–Leninist ideology, economist Michael Ellman of the University of Amsterdam notes that such states compared favorably with Western states in some health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy. posits that there was an increase in the standard of living throughout Eastern Bloc countries as the result of modernisation programs under communist governments. Similarly, Amartya Sen's own analysis of international comparisons of life expectancy found that several Marxist–Leninist states made significant gains and commented "one thought that is bound to occur is that communism is good for poverty removal." The dissolution of the Soviet Union was followed by a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease, infant mortality, domestic violence and income inequality, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy and income.
Memory
Monuments to the victims of communist states exist in almost all the capitals of Eastern Europe and there are several museums documenting communist rule such as the Museum of Occupations and Freedom Fights in Lithuania, the Museum of the Occupation of Latvia in Riga and the House of Terror in Budapest, all three of which also document Nazi rule. In Washington D.C., a bronze statue based upon the 1989 Tiananmen Square Goddess of Democracy sculpture was dedicated as the Victims of Communism Memorial in 2007, having been authorized by the United States Congress in 1993. The Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation plans to build an International Museum on Communism in Washington. As of 2008, Russia contained 627 memorials and memorial plaques dedicated to victims of the communist states, most of which were created by private citizens and did not have a national monument or a national museum. The Wall of Grief in Moscow, inaugurated in October 2017, is Russia's first monument for victims of political persecution by Stalin during the country's Soviet era. In 2017, Canada's National Capital Commission approved the design for a memorial to the victims of communism to be built at the Garden of the Provinces and Territories in Ottawa. On 23 August 2018, Estonia's Victims of Communism 1940–1991 Memorial was inaugurated in Tallinn by President Kersti Kaljulaid. The memorial construction was financed by the state and is managed by the Estonian Institute of Historical Memory. The opening ceremony was chosen to coincide with the official European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism.
According to anthropologist Kristen Ghodsee, efforts to institutionalize the victims of communism narrative, or the moral equivalence between the Nazi Holocaust (race murder) and the victims of communism (class murder), and in particular the recent push at the beginning of the global financial crisis for commemoration of the latter in Europe, can be seen as the response by economic and political elites to fears of a leftist resurgence in the face of devastated economies and extreme inequalities in both the East and West as the result of the excesses of neoliberal capitalism. Ghodsee argues that any discussion of the achievements under communist states, including literacy, education, women's rights, and social security is usually silenced, and any discourse on the subject of communism is focused almost exclusively on Stalin's crimes and the double genocide theory. According to Laure Neumayer, this is used as an anti-communist narrative "based on a series of categories and figures" to "denounce Communist state violence (qualified as 'Communist crimes', 'red genocide' or 'classicide') and to honour persecuted individuals (presented alternatively as 'victims of Communism' and 'heroes of anti totalitarian resistance')."
See also
List of socialist states
List of anarchist communities
Capitalist state
List of anti-capitalist and communist parties with national parliamentary representation
List of communist parties
Marxism–Leninism–Maoism
Stalinism
Notes
References
Bibliography
General
References for when the individuals were elected to the office of CPC leader, the name of the offices and when they established and were abolished are found below.
Articles and journal entries
Books
Authoritarianism
State
Dictatorship
Lists of countries
Maoism
Marxism–Leninism
Socialism
Totalitarianism | [
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|
215624 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pazzi | Pazzi | The Pazzi were a noble Florentine family. Their main trade during the fifteenth century was banking. In the aftermath of the Pazzi conspiracy in 1478, members of the family were banished from Florence and their property was confiscated; the family name and coat-of-arms were permanently suppressed by order of the Signoria.
History
The traditional story is that the family was founded by Pazzo di Ranieri, first man over the walls during the Siege of Jerusalem of 1099, during the First Crusade, who returned to Florence with flints supposedly from the Holy Sepulchre, which were kept at Santi Apostoli and used on Holy Saturday to re-kindle fire in the city. The historical basis of this legend has been in question since the work of in the mid-nineteenth century.
The first apparently historical figure in the family is the who was a captain of the Florentine (Guelph) cavalry at the battle of Montaperti on 4 September 1260, and whose hand was treacherously severed by , causing the standard to fall. His son was a Black Guelph and a follower of Charles de Valois.
Andrea di Guglielmo de' Pazzi (1372–1445) was a banker and merchant. In 1429 he commissioned construction of the Pazzi Chapel in the Franciscan church of Santa Croce in Florence. His son Jacopo de' Pazzi became head of the family in 1464.
Guglielmo di Antonio de' Pazzi married Bianca de' Medici, sister of Lorenzo de' Medici, in 1460; , the sixth of their sixteen children, became archbishop of Florence in 1508.
Francesco de' Pazzi was one of the instigators of the Pazzi Conspiracy in 1477–78. He, Jacopo de' Pazzi and Jacopo's brother Renato de' Pazzi were executed after the plot failed.
was a condottiere; he died at the Battle of Ravenna in 1512.
Maria Maddalena de' Pazzi (1566–1607) was a Carmelite nun and mystic; she was canonised in 1669.
Pazzi conspiracy
Early in 1477, Francesco de' Pazzi, manager in Rome of the Pazzi bank, plotted with Girolamo Riario, nephew and protégé of the pope, Sixtus IV, and with Francesco Salviati, whom Sixtus had made archbishop of Pisa, to assassinate Lorenzo de' Medici and his brother Giuliano to oust the Medici family as rulers of Florence. Sixtus gave tacit support to the conspirators. The assassination attempt was made during mass in the Florence Cathedral on 26 April 1478. Giuliano was killed; Lorenzo was wounded but escaped. Salviati, with mercenaries from Perugia, tried but failed to take over the Palazzo della Signoria. Most of the conspirators were soon caught and summarily executed; five, including Francesco de' Pazzi, were hanged from the windows of the Palazzo della Signoria. Jacopo de' Pazzi, head of the family, escaped from Florence but was caught and brought back. He was tortured, then hanged from the Palazzo della Signoria next to the decomposing corpse of Salviati. He was buried at Santa Croce, but the body was dug up and thrown into a ditch. It was then dragged through the streets and propped up at the door of Palazzo Pazzi, where the rotting head was mockingly used as a door-knocker. From there it was thrown into the Arno; children fished it out and hung it from a willow tree, flogged it, and then threw it back into the river.
The Pazzi were banished from Florence, and their lands and property confiscated. Guglielmo de' Pazzi, husband of Lorenzo's sister Bianca, was placed under house arrest, and later forbidden to enter the city; he went to live at Torre a Decima, near Pontassieve. The family name and coat-of-arms were perpetually suppressed by decree of the Signoria. The name was erased from public registers, and all buildings and streets carrying it were renamed. Their shield with its dolphins was obliterated. Anyone named Pazzi had to take a new name; any man married to a Pazzi was barred from public office. Customs and traditions of the family were suppressed, among them the Easter Saturday ritual involving the flint from Jerusalem.
After the overthrow of Piero de' Medici in 1494, members of the Pazzi family were able to return to Florence.
Buildings
The Pazzi Chapel in the Franciscan church of Santa Croce in Florence was commissioned by Andrea di Guglielmo de' Pazzi in 1429. It was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi. Construction began in 1442 in a cloister of the church, and continued after the death of the patron in 1445 and the architect in 1446; work was interrupted by the Pazzi plot and the chapel was never completed.
Palazzo Pazzi or Palazzo Pazzi-Quaratesi was the main seat of the family in the "Canto dei Pazzi", at the intersection of and . It was commissioned by Jacopo de' Pazzi, and built circa 1462–1472 to designs by Giuliano da Maiano. Above its traditionally rusticated ground floor of yellow-ochre sandstone, it had a then-novel stuccoed first and second floor, with delicate designs in the windows influenced by Brunelleschi. The central court is surrounded on three sides by round-headed arcading, with circular bosses in the spandrels.
(or Palazzo Pazzi dell'Accademia Colombaria) is a smaller palace in the Borgo degli Albizi, between Palazzo Ramirez de Montalvo and the Palazzo Nonfinito. It houses a section of the Museum of Natural History of Florence, and hosts temporary exhibitions. The façade is attributed to Bartolomeo Ammannati.
Notes
References
Banking families
Families of Florence
Italian noble families | [
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215626 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Burnet | Gilbert Burnet | Gilbert Burnet (18 September 1643 – 17 March 1715) was a Scottish philosopher and historian, and Bishop of Salisbury. He was fluent in Dutch, French, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. Burnet was highly respected as a cleric, a preacher, an academic, a writer and a historian. He was always closely associated with the Whig party, and was one of the few close friends in whom King William III confided.
Early life: 1643–1674
Burnet was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1643, the son of Robert Burnet, Lord Crimond, a Royalist and Episcopalian lawyer, who became a judge of the Court of Session, and of his second wife Rachel Johnston, daughter of James Johnston, and sister of Archibald Johnston of Warristoun, a leader of the Covenanters. His father was his first tutor until he began his studies at the University of Aberdeen, where he earned a Master of Arts in Philosophy at the age of thirteen. He studied law briefly before changing to theology. He did not enter into the ministry at that time, but travelled for several years. He visited Oxford, Cambridge, London, the United Provinces and France. He studied Hebrew under a Rabbi in Amsterdam. By 1665 he returned to Scotland and was ordained in the Church of Scotland (then episcopal) by the bishop of Edinburgh. In 1664 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society.
He began his ministry in the rural church at East Saltoun, East Lothian, and served this community devoutly for four years. In 1669, without his being asked, he was named to the vacant chair of Divinity at the University of Glasgow. At first he declined, since his congregation unanimously asked him to remain at East Saltoun; but, when the Bishop of Edinburgh, Leighton, urged him, he accepted the post. He was later offered, but declined, a Scottish bishopric.
In 1672 or 1673 he privately married Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of the Earl of Cassilis, who was many years his senior. The great differences between the couple in age, rank and fortune caused them to keep the marriage secret for a considerable time. Burnet's motives for marriage were certainly not mercenary, as he entered into what has been described as an early form of "pre-nuptial agreement" by which he renounced any claim to his wife's money. Burnet himself recalled that they had been good friends for several years, but that in his view such a close friendship between a single man and a single woman could not continue indefinitely unless they married. The marriage seems to have been happy, despite their lack of children, which Burnet regretted. He was to have numerous children by later marriages.
London: 1674–1685
In view of the unsettled political times, he left the University in 1674 and moved to London. In London, his political and religious sentiments prompted him to support the Whigs. His energetic and bustling character led him to take an active part in the controversies of the time, and he endeavoured to bring about a reconciliation between Episcopacy and Presbytery.
At Court, where his brother Thomas was a royal physician, he gained the favour of Charles II, from whom he received various preferments. He described Charles shrewdly as a man who, despite his affable manner and famed courtesy, was at heart the archetypal cynic: "he has a very ill opinion of men and women, and so is infinitely distrustful... he thinks the world is governed wholly by (self) interest". Burnet noted fairly that this attitude was quite understandable, given the King's experiences in the English Civil War and the Interregnum, which had shown him when he was still very young the "baseness of human nature". Like many other observers he noted Charles's remarkable self-control: "he has a strange command of himself: he can pass from business to pleasure, and from pleasure to business, in so easy a manner that all things seem alike to him." He also recorded some of the King's most memorable sayings, such as "Appetites are free, and Almighty God will never damn a man for allowing himself a little pleasure".
The Popish Plot
During the Popish Plot, when Queen Catherine was accused of treason, (it was alleged that she had conspired to murder her husband), the King confided to Burnet his feelings of guilt about his ill-treatment of the Queen, "who is incapable of doing a wicked thing", his resolve not to abandon her ("it would be a horrible thing, considering my faultiness to her"), and his wish to live a more moral life in future. Burnet, for his part, told the King frankly that he was wrong to believe that the Earl of Shaftesbury had any part in the charges of treason made against the Queen: Shaftesbury, who was well aware of the Queen's great popularity with the English ruling class, was simply too shrewd a statesman to make such a serious political misjudgment.
As regards the reality of the Plot itself, while the King quickly became a total skeptic on the subject, Burnet probably captures Charles's first reaction to the accusations neatly enough: "among so many particulars I do not know but there may be some truth." Burnet himself was neither a sceptic, nor a convinced believer in the Plot. Like most sensible Protestants he believed that there had probably been a Catholic conspiracy of some sort, but he had grave doubts about the veracity of the informers, especially Titus Oates, while he regarded Israel Tonge, the co-author of the Plot, as insane. He recognised the danger that innocent people might be falsely accused, and it is notable that he praised the Catholic martyr Oliver Plunkett, Archbishop of Armagh, who is nowadays probably the best-known victim of the Plot, as a good and innocent man who was destroyed by the malice of his personal enemies. He also argued strongly that the first victim of the Plot, the young Catholic banker William Staley, was innocent, although his narrative of Staley's trial was undoubtedly coloured by his detestation of William Carstares, the Crown's chief witness at Staley's trial. Whether the Catholic nobleman William Howard, 1st Viscount Stafford, executed for treason in 1680, was innocent or guilty he regarded as a mystery whose solution must await "the great revelation of all secrets".
History of the Reformation
In the mid-1670s, a French translation of Nicholas Sanders' (1585) appeared. Sanders attacked the English Reformation as a political act carried on by a corrupt king. Several of Burnet's friends wished him to publish a rebuttal of the work, so in 1679 his first volume of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England was published. This covered the reign of Henry VIII; the second volume (1681) covered the reign of Elizabeth and the Elizabethan Religious Settlement; the third volume (1715) consisted of corrections and additional material. His literary reputation was greatly enhanced by this publication. The Parliament of England voted thanks for Burnet after the publication of the first volume, and in 1680 the University of Oxford awarded Burnet the degree of Doctor of Divinity on the advice of William Sancroft, Archbishop of Canterbury. For over a century this was the standard reference work in the field, although Catholics disputed some of its content.
Initial publication of the three volumes of the History of the Reformation
These early editions of Gilbert Burnet's The History of the Reformation of the Church of England were all published in London:
1679 : first edition of Volume 1, that is, The First Part, of the Progress made in it during the Reign of K. Henry the VIII. London: Richard Chiswell.
1681 : second edition of Volume 1. London: Richard Chiswell.
1681 : first edition of Volume 2, that is, The Second Part, of the Progress made in it till the Settlement of it in the beginning of Q. Elizabeths Reign. London: Richard Chiswell.
1683 : second edition of Volume 2. London: Richard Chiswell.
1714 : An Introduction to the Third Volume of The History of the Reformation of the Church of England. London: John Churchill. 72 pages. The text of this Introduction was reprinted the following year in Volume 3.
1715 : first edition of Volume 3, that is, The Third Part. Being Supplement to the Two Volumes formerly publish'd. London: John Churchill.
1715 : fourth edition of Volume 1. London: Daniel Midwinter; and Benjamin Cowse.
1715 : fourth edition of Volume 2. London: Daniel Midwinter; and Benjamin Cowse.
Although a "fourth" edition was published in 1715 by Midwinter and by Cowse, a third edition of these volumes was neither prepared nor published by Burnet.
Exile: 1685–1688
Upon the succession of the Roman Catholic King James II in 1685, Burnet requested permission to go abroad, which James heartily consented to. He left on 11 May and reached Paris at the end of that month. He travelled through Switzerland to Italy, where Pope Innocent XI offered him an audience, which Burnet declined on account of his poor knowledge of the Italian language. We cannot know whether a personal meeting with the Pope would have altered Burnet's low opinion of him (in his History he describes Innocent as "jealous, fearful and extremely ignorant", a view not shared by most later historians). After more months of travelling across France, Switzerland and Germany he arrived at Utrecht, Netherlands, in May 1686. He was sent letters from the court of William, Prince of Orange, and his wife Princess Mary inviting him to take up residence at The Hague. This courting of Burnet infuriated James and under his pressure he was formally dismissed from court, but still kept in contact with William and Mary. It was Burnet who pointed out that William's marriage to Mary did not in itself entitle him to reign jointly with her if she became Queen, and that further steps would be necessary to ensure his right to the throne.
In 1687, in light of James' policy of wanting to receive William and Mary's support for the repeal of the Test Act, Burnet wrote a pamphlet against repeal. William and Mary declined to support repeal, apparently on Burnet's advice. Burnet also upset James by becoming engaged to the wealthy heiress Mary (Maria) Scott (his first wife Lady Margaret had died in 1685). James prosecuted Burnet for high treason in Scotland, accusing him of corresponding with Archibald Campbell, 9th Earl of Argyll, and others convicted of high treason. To safeguard Burnet, the States General of the Netherlands naturalised him without opposition, and James's request for Burnet's extradition was declined. Burnet and Mary Scott were married and the marriage proved to be a happy one. Burnet, who had long been resigned to being childless (as his first wife Lady Margaret Kennedy had been nearly twenty years his senior), quickly found himself the father of an increasing family.
Burnet was not privy to William's decision-making process because he was apparently unable to keep a secret (he was not informed of William's planned invasion of England until July 1688). However his help was needed to translate William's Declaration which was to be distributed in England after his landing. When William's fleet set sail for England in October 1688, Burnet was made William's chaplain.
Glorious Revolution
William landed at Torbay on 5 November.
When Burnet came ashore he hastened to William and eagerly inquired of him what William now intended to do. William regarded the interference in military matters by non-military personnel with disgust, but he was in good humour at this moment, and responded with a delicate reproof: "Well, Doctor, what do you think of predestination now?"
Burnet was appointed to preach the coronation sermon, on 11 April 1689.
He was appointed tutor to the future Queen Anne's only surviving child, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, in 1698. He attempted to refuse the appointment, knowing that Anne, who instinctively disliked anyone whom William favored, was strongly opposed to it, but the King was adamant, despite Burnet's plea that he was still in mourning for his second wife Mary Scott, who had recently died of smallpox while on a visit to Rotterdam. The appointment was unwelcome to most of Anne's household as well as to the Princess herself, but as Burnet recalled cheerfully, "I lived with them well enough". He was well known for having no feelings to be hurt. After Mary's death, Burnet, in 1700, married, as his third wife, Elizabeth Berkeley (née Blake): his choice of her met with general approval, as Elizabeth had been Mary's best friend, and Mary herself had told her husband that should he outlive her, she would wish him to marry Elizabeth.
Bishop of Salisbury
On Easter 1689, Burnet was consecrated Bishop of Salisbury and three days later was sworn as Chancellor of the Order of the Garter. His tenure as bishop is noted for his liberal views and zealous discharge of duty.
Under Queen Anne
He was present at King William's deathbed, and with that knack for appearing absurd which sometimes detracted from his genuine gifts, he rushed in haste to be the first to break the news to the new Queen, and went on his knees in front of her, only to find himself "generally laughed at". He was out of royal favour in the reign of Queen Anne: apart from Anne's reflexive hostility to anyone whom King William had favoured, she apparently thought Burnet to be something of a buffoon, although he could sometimes be an entertaining one. Nonetheless, like her four royal predecessors, she occasionally confided in him. In 1713 he warned her of an impending Jacobite invasion: the Queen, unimpressed, noted drily that while Burnet apparently considered himself to be all-knowing, she could not help recalling that he had made a similar prophecy the previous year, which had proved to be entirely groundless.
He was nominated by John Tillotson, Archbishop of Canterbury, to write answers to the works sponsored by Tillotson's friend, the Socinian businessman and philanthropist Thomas Firmin, who was funding the printing of Socinian tracts by Stephen Nye. Yet neither Burnet nor Tillotson was entirely unsympathetic to non-conformism. Of the Athanasian Creed, the new Archbishop of Canterbury wrote to the new Bishop of Salisbury, "I wish we were well rid of it".
Last years and death
In 1714, as Queen Anne approached death, Burnet became briefly, and in the opinion of his critics, somewhat hysterically concerned about the dire consequences for Protestants if her Catholic half-brother, the Old Pretender, succeeded to the throne. His predictions of doom were received with general scepticism: "Be easy my Lord, and disturb not the peace of your old age with vain imaginings of a second Revolution and a flight to Holland... I am sure you need not die a martyr for your faith", wrote one correspondent acidly. In the event the throne passed peacefully to the Protestant House of Hanover in August 1714, seven months before Burnet's own death.
Burnet died of a fever on 17 March 1715, having been ill for only three days. His mood in his final days was described as being calm, cheerful and absolutely resigned to death. His will has been called one of those rare dispositions of one's property which please everyone: one third of his estate was left to his eldest son and the rest was divided among the other four children. What happened to his daughter Elizabeth's share of the money is something of a puzzle, as she is known to have spent her last years in poverty.
History of His Own Time
Burnet began Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time in 1683, covering the English Civil War and the Commonwealth of England to the Treaty of Utrecht of 1713. The first volume was published in 1724, ending before the Glorious Revolution. In 1734 the second volume was published, taking the History to the Treaty of Utrecht. A critical edition in six volumes with numerous footnotes was edited by Martin Routh and published by Oxford University Press in 1823 (updated 1833). The work gives a sketch of the history of the Civil Wars and Commonwealth, and a detailed account of the immediately succeeding period down to 1713. While not free from egotism and some party feeling, it is written with a sincere desire for accuracy and fairness, and it has largely the authority of an eyewitness. The style, if somewhat lacking in dignity, is lively and picturesque.
A supplemental biography of Burnet, titled A Supplement to Burnet's History of my Own Time and edited by H. C. Foxcroft and T. E. S. Clarke, was published in 1902.
Theology
After 1664, Burnet developed relations with the Dutch Arminians, with among them Jean Le Clerc, and Philipp van Limborch. He then rejected his calvinist soteriology for an Arminian one. Besides, Gilbert is counted among the Latitudinarian divines with distinctive theological characteristics of thought. In particular he was attacked for his latitude in the interpretation of the Thirty-Nine Articles which could encompass an Arminian reading.
Family
He married three times, firstly, c.1672 to Lady Margaret Kennedy, daughter of John Kennedy, 6th Earl of Cassilis and his wife Lady Jean Hamilton. Margaret was a lady famous for her beauty and strength of character, and was many years older than her husband. The marriage was kept secret for some time, and Gilbert renounced any claim to his wife's fortune. She is said to have lost her memory completely some time before she died in 1685.
He was married, secondly, in 1687 to Mary Scott (Maria Schotte) (1660–1698), a Dutch heiress of Scots descent: she was a granddaughter of the prominent statesman and jurist Apollonius Schotte. Although Mary brought him a fortune, it was generally regarded as a love match on both sides: Mary, whose wealth gave her an unusual degree of freedom for a woman of her time, had always maintained that she would only marry a man she really cared for. She died of smallpox while visiting Rotterdam on business in 1698.
He married, thirdly, in 1700 Elizabeth Berkeley (née Blake), widow of Robert Berkeley, and daughter of Sir Richard Blake of Clerkenwell; she was a religious writer of some note. She died in 1709. This marriage was largely the work of Burnet's second wife Mary, who, apprehensive that she might die on her last visit to Rotterdam, where the smallpox was raging, advised Burnet in the event of her death to marry Elizabeth, who was a close friend of hers.
All his surviving children were by Mary Scott; Elizabeth bore two daughters who died young.
By Mary he had five sons of whom two died young. The three surviving sons were:
William Burnet, the Royal governor of New Jersey (1720–1728), and later of Massachusetts and New Hampshire;
Gilbert Burnet, the pamphleteer;
Thomas Burnet, judge of the Court of Common Pleas
He and Mary also had twin daughters :
Mary, who married David Mitchell, nephew and heir of Admiral Sir David Mitchell.
Elizabeth, who married Richard West, a distinguished lawyer who became Lord Chancellor of Ireland, by whom she was the mother of Richard West the younger, the poet and friend of Thomas Gray.
Burnet was a devoted parent and all his children were deeply attached to him. Even Thomas, whose youthful reputation for debauchery caused his father much distress, sincerely mourned "the best of fathers".
Influential close relatives include Burnet's mother's brother Archibald Johnston and his son James Johnston.
Personality
Thomas Babington Macaulay describes Burnet in relation to the king he served, William of Orange:
When the doctor took liberties, which was not seldom the case, his patron became more than usually cold and sullen, and sometimes uttered a short dry sarcasm which would have struck dumb any person of ordinary assurance. In spite of such occurrences, however, the amity between this singular pair continued, with some temporary interruptions, till it was dissolved by death. Indeed it was not easy to wound Burnet's feelings. His self-complacency, his animal spirits, and his want of tact, were such that, though he frequently gave offence, he never took it. —History of England, Vol. 2, Ch 7.
In J.P. Kenyon's view Burnet's great gifts never quite received the recognition they deserved, perhaps because there was always "something of the buffoon" about him.
Notes and references
Citations
Sources
Further reading
Osmund Airy, "Gilbert Burnet", in The Dictionary of National Biography, eds. Leslie Stephen & Sidney Lee, 2nd ed. (London: Smith, Elder & Co. 1908), vol. 3, pp. 394–404.
Thomas Babington Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James the Second. Popular Edition in Two Volumes. (London: Longmans, 1889).
External links
Individual online books
Relation of the Bloody and Barbarous Massacre of about One Hundred Thousand Protestants, Begun at Paris and Carried on All Over France by the Papists in the Year 1572 by Gilbert Burnet (1678)
Some letters containing an account of what seemed most remarkable in Switzerland, Italy by Gilbert Burnet (1686)
Dr. Burnet's Travels: or Letters Containing an Account of What Seemed Most Remarkable in Switzerland, Italy, Germany, and France, &c. by Gilbert Burnet (1687)
A Discourse of the Pastoral Care by Gilbert Burnet (1713)
Historical and Critical Remarks Upon Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time by B. Higgons (1727)
Some Account of the Life and Death of John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester by Gilbert Burnet (Munroe and Francis, 1812)
The Life of Sir Matthew Hale, Knt., Sometime Lord Chief Justice of His Majesty's Court of King's-Bench by Gilbert Burnet (C. & J. Rivington, 1823)
The History of the Reformation of the Church of England by Gilbert Burnet (Oxford University Press, 1829): Volume I,Volume I, Part II, Volume II, Volume II, Part II, Volume III Volume III, Part II
Bishop Burnet's History of His Own Time, ed. M. J. Routh (1823):Volume I, Volume II, Volume III, Volume IV, Volume V, Volume VI
Lives, Characters, and an Address to Posterity by Gilbert Burnet, ed. John Jebb (1833)
An Exposition of the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England by Gilbert Burnet (G. S. Appleton, 1850)
The Court Sermon: 1674 by Gilbert Burnet (R. Clarke, 1868)
A Supplement to Burnet's History of My Own Time (Clarendon Press, 1902)
Gilbert Burnet as Educationist, Being His Thoughts on Education, With Notes and Life of the Author by John Clarke (1914)
1643 births
1715 deaths
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|
215628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terence%20Stamp | Terence Stamp | Terence Henry Stamp (born 22 July 1938) is an English actor. After training at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art in London, he started his acting career in 1962. He has been referred to as the "master of the brooding silence" by The Guardian. His performance in the title role of Billy Budd, his film debut, earned him an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor and a BAFTA nomination for Best Newcomer. Associated with the Swinging London scene of the 1960s – during which time he was in high-profile relationships with actress Julie Christie and supermodel Jean Shrimpton – Stamp was among the subjects photographed by David Bailey for a set titled Box of Pin-Ups.
Stamp played butterfly collector Freddie Clegg in The Collector (1965), and in 1967 appeared in Far from the Madding Crowd, starring opposite Christie. His other major roles include playing archvillain General Zod in Superman and Superman II, tough guy Wilson in The Limey, Supreme Chancellor Valorum in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, transgender woman Bernadette Bassinger in The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert, ghost antagonist Ramsley in The Haunted Mansion, Stick in Elektra, Pekwarsky in Wanted, Siegfried in Get Smart, Terrence Bundley in Yes Man, the Prophet of Truth in Halo 3, Mankar Camoran in The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, and General Ludwig Beck in Valkyrie. He has appeared in two Tim Burton films, Big Eyes (2014) and Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children (2016).
For his acting, Stamp has won a Golden Globe, a Mystfest, a Cannes Film Festival Award, a Seattle International Film Festival Award, a Satellite Award, and a Silver Bear. Stamp has also had voice work, narrating Jazz Britannia on the BBC, and 1966 – A Nation Remembers on ITV in July 2016 which marked the 50th anniversary of England's 1966 FIFA World Cup victory.
Early life
Stamp, the eldest of five children, was born on 22 July 1938 in Stepney, London, England, the son of Ethel Esther (née Perrott; 1914–1987) and Thomas Stamp (1912–1982), who was a tugboat stoker. His early years were spent in Canal Road, Bow, in the East End, but later in his childhood the family moved to Plaistow, West Ham, Essex (now in Greater London), where he attended Plaistow County Grammar School. His father was away for long periods with the Merchant Navy and the young Stamp was mostly brought up by his mother, grandmother, and aunts. He grew up idolising actor Gary Cooper after his mother took him to see Beau Geste (1939) when he was three years old. He was also inspired by the 1950s method-trained actor James Dean.
Growing up in London during World War II Stamp endured the Blitz as a child (he would later aid Valkyrie director Bryan Singer in staging a scene where the von Stauffenbergs hide from the Allied bombings). After leaving school, Stamp worked in a variety of advertising agencies in London, working his way up to earning a reasonable salary. In the mid‑1950s, he also worked as an assistant to professional golfer Reg Knight at Wanstead Golf Club in east London. He describes this period of his life positively in his autobiography Stamp Album.
Career
Early career and rise to fame
Stamp won a scholarship to train at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art, then performed in various provincial repertory theatres, most notably in a national tour of Willis Hall's play The Long the Short and the Tall alongside another young cockney actor Michael Caine. Caine moved in with Stamp, and they began hanging out with Peter O'Toole in the London party scene. Stamp made his film debut in Peter Ustinov's film adaptation of Herman Melville's Billy Budd (1962). His portrayal of the title character brought him not only an Academy Award nomination but also international attention. He then appeared opposite Laurence Olivier in Term of Trial (1962).
Stamp collaborated with some of the most revered filmmakers. He starred in William Wyler's adaptation of John Fowles' The Collector (1965), opposite Samantha Eggar, and in Modesty Blaise (1966), for director Joseph Losey and producer Joe Janni. Stamp reunited with producer Janni for two more projects: John Schlesinger's adaptation of Thomas Hardy's Far from the Madding Crowd (1967) starring Julie Christie, and Ken Loach's first feature film Poor Cow (1967).
He was approached to play the role of James Bond when Sean Connery retired from the role, but did not receive a second call from producer Harry Saltzman because, in Stamp's opinion, "my ideas about [how the role should be portrayed] put the frighteners on Harry. I didn't get a second call from him."
Stamp then travelled to Italy to star in Federico Fellini's Toby Dammit, a 50-minute portion of the Edgar Allan Poe film adaptation Histoires extraordinaires (1968, aka Spirits of the Dead). Stamp lived in Italy for several years, during which time his film work included Pier Paolo Pasolini's Teorema (1968) opposite Silvana Mangano, and Una Stagione all'inferno (1970). Stamp was considered for the title role of Alfie (1966), but turned it down in favour of Modesty Blaise (1966).
His subsequent film credits included The Mind of Mr. Soames (1970), A Season in Hell (1971), Meetings with Remarkable Men (1979), and The Hit (1984), which won a Mystfest Award for Best Actor, shared with John Hurt and Tim Roth. Also in 1984, he had the opportunity to play the Devil in a cameo in The Company of Wolves. He also appeared in Link (1986), Legal Eagles (1986), The Sicilian (1987), and a cameo as Sir Larry Wildman in Wall Street (1987). He played the ranch owner, John Tunstall, in Young Guns (1988). His film Beltenebros (1992) (aka Prince of Shadows), was awarded the Silver Bear at the 42nd Berlin International Film Festival. Stamp began his fourth decade as an actor wearing some of the choicest of Tim Chappel's Academy Award-winning costumes for the comedy The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert (1994) which co-starred Guy Pearce and Hugo Weaving.
In 1999, Stamp played a lead role in The Limey to widespread critical acclaim at the Cannes Film Festival. For his performance, Stamp received nominations for Best Male Lead at the 2000 Independent Spirit Awards and for Best British Actor at the London Film Critics' Circle (ALFS) Awards. Also in 1999, Stamp appeared in the blockbuster Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace as Chancellor Finis Valorum (an experience he later described as 'boring'), followed by Bowfinger (1999) and Red Planet (2000). He also appeared in Damian Pettigrew's award-winning documentary, Fellini: I'm a Born Liar (2002), offering ideas into the mind and working methods of Italian director Federico Fellini with whom Stamp had worked in the 1960s.
Superman roles
Stamp portrayed the Kryptonian supervillain General Zod in Richard Donner's Superman (1978), in which he appeared in a scene with Marlon Brando. The film and its first sequel were originally conceived as one film, with Zod and his evil conspirators returning later in the film to challenge Superman, but the screenplay was so long that the producers elected to split it into two parts. Both parts began shooting simultaneously, but production on the sequel was halted partway through due to budget and time constraints. Stamp reappeared as General Zod in the second part, Superman II (1980), as the movie's primary villain. Donner was replaced as director on the sequel with Richard Lester, who completed the film using portions of Donner's original footage combined with newly filmed scenes. Total Film magazine ranked Stamp's portrayal of General Zod #32 on their "Top 50 Greatest Villains of All Time" list in 2007.
On the occasion of Superman's fiftieth anniversary in 1988, Stamp introduced the BBC Radio special Superman On Trial, which was produced by Dirk Maggs and starred Stuart Milligan as Superman. In 2003, Stamp returned to the Superman franchise in a new role, by portraying the voice of Clark Kent's biological father Jor-El in the WB/CW television series Smallville. He also provided the scream of Zod (being exorcised from the body of Lex Luthor) in the sixth-season premiere episode "Zod". In 2006, he appeared as Zod once again in Superman II: The Richard Donner Cut (a retooled version of the 1980 film which features footage shot by Donner, the film's original director).
Recent years
In recent years, Stamp has appeared in the films Ma femme est une actrice (aka My Wife Is An Actress, 2001), My Boss's Daughter (2003), Disney's The Haunted Mansion (2003), and the superhero fantasy Elektra (2005). In 2008, he appeared in the film remake of the spy comedy Get Smart; another comedy about the man who says yes to everything Yes Man, opposite Jim Carrey; with Angelina Jolie, James McAvoy and Morgan Freeman in Wanted; and with Tom Cruise in Valkyrie, based on the true story of Colonel Claus von Stauffenberg's failed attempt to assassinate Adolf Hitler.
Entering in the 2010s, Stamp appeared in The Adjustment Bureau (2011), an American romantic science fiction thriller film loosely based on the Philip K. Dick short story, "Adjustment Team", opposite Matt Damon. In 2012, Stamp appeared in the Peter Serafinowicz-directed music video for the Hot Chip song "Night & Day", portrayed a grumpy husband called Arthur in Paul Andrew Williams' Song for Marion (2012), opposite Gemma Arterton and a heist comedy The Art of the Steal (2013), with Kurt Russell, Matt Dillon and Jay Baruchel.
In 2014, Stamp appeared in Tim Burton's drama film Big Eyes, with Amy Adams and Christoph Waltz. In 2016, Stamp appeared in another Tim Burton film, Miss Peregrine's Home for Peculiar Children, where played Abe, the grandfather of the film's protagonist Jake.
Stamp's next project was Crooked House (2017), directed by Gilles Paquet-Brenner and starring Christina Hendricks, Gillian Anderson and Glenn Close. He also appears in George Mendeluk's Bitter Harvest, opposite Max Irons, Samantha Barks, Barry Pepper, and Aneurin Barnard.
Books, music videos and voice acting
In addition to his acting career, Terence Stamp is an accomplished writer and author. He has published three volumes of his memoirs including Stamp Album (written in tribute to his late mother), a novel entitled The Night, and a cookbook co-written with Elizabeth Buxton to provide alternative recipes for those who are wheat- and lactose-intolerant. Stamp's recent projects include the video game The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, in which he lends his voice to the villainous cult leader Mankar Camoran; and the films Zombie Island and These Foolish Things. Stamp voiced the Prophet of Truth in Halo 3, replacing Michael Wincott. In 2005, Stamp also narrated the BBC Four documentary Jazz Britannia, which chronicles the evolution of British jazz music.
Stamp read the book Perfect Brilliant Stillness by David Carse for SilkSoundBooks. In his introductory reading, Stamp describes his love for this book by saying, "Greater love hath no man". Stamp appeared in the music video for "At the Bottom of Everything" by Bright Eyes. Stamp appeared as the featured 'castaway' on BBC Radio's long-running Desert Island Discs in June 1987, and made a second appearance in March 2006 with a different selection of music.
In 2002 Stamp provided the narration for History of Football: The Beautiful Game, a series on all aspects of the world's most popular sport. Stamp attended every England game (including the final) at the 1966 FIFA World Cup, and in July 2016 he narrated 1966 – A Nation Remembers shown on ITV, marking the 50th anniversary of England's World Cup victory.
On 7 July 2007, Stamp gave a speech on climate change at the British leg of Live Earth in Wembley Stadium before introducing Madonna. His memoir, The Ocean Fell into the Drop, was published by Repeater Books in 2017. Stamp also narrated the BBC's The Story of Only Fools and Horses in 2017.
Personal life
In the 1960s, Stamp shared a house with actor Michael Caine in Wimpole Street, London, before and during their rise to fame. In his autobiography, What's it All About, Caine stated that he "still wakes up sweating in the night as he sees Terence agreeing to accept my advice to take the role in Alfie".
Stamp received extensive media coverage of his romances in the 1960s with film star Julie Christie and supermodel Jean Shrimpton. He and Shrimpton were one of the most-photographed couples of Mod London. After Shrimpton ended her relationship with Stamp, he moved to India and spent time at the ashram of Krishnamurti.
Stamp's brother Chris became a rock music impresario credited with helping to bring The Who to prominence during the 1960s and co-founding Track Records.
In 1984, the band The Smiths released their third single, "What Difference Does It Make?". The single cover was a photograph taken on the set of the film The Collector (but not depicted in the film). Originally, Stamp refused permission for the still to be used, and some pressings featured lead singer Morrissey in a re-enacted scene. In the re-enactment Morrissey is holding a glass of milk, as opposed to the chloroform pad of the original. Eventually, Stamp changed his mind, and the original cover was reinstated.
On New Year's Eve 2002, Stamp married at the age of 64. His 29-year-old bride was Elizabeth O'Rourke, whom Stamp first met in the mid-1990s at a chemists in Bondi, New South Wales. Of Australian and Indian-Singaporean parentage, O'Rourke was brought up in Singapore before moving to Australia in her early twenties to study pharmacology. The couple divorced on the grounds of his "unreasonable behaviour" in April 2008.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
Theatre
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1938 births
Living people
20th-century English male actors
21st-century English male actors
Alumni of the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art
Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners
English male film actors
English male stage actors
English male television actors
Independent Spirit Award winners
Male actors from London
New Star of the Year (Actor) Golden Globe winners
People from Stepney
Rajneesh movement
Silver Bear for Best Actor winners | [
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|
215631 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4%20Non%20Blondes | 4 Non Blondes | 4 Non Blondes was an American alternative rock band from San Francisco, California, active from 1989 to 1994. Their only album, Bigger, Better, Faster, More! spent 59 weeks on the Billboard 200 and sold 1.5 million copies between 1992 and 1994. They hit the charts in 1993 with the release of the album's second single, "What's Up?".
Originally, the band was all-female, with lead singer Linda Perry, bassist Christa Hillhouse, guitarist Shaunna Hall, and drummer Wanda Day. However, along with Day being replaced by Dawn Richardson (drums), Hall was replaced by Roger Rocha (guitar) before the release of the album.
Lead singer Linda Perry left the band in 1994, and the remaining members disbanded shortly thereafter.
Formation and debut album
Bassist Christa Hillhouse and guitarist Shaunna Hall had been roommates and met drummer Wanda Day when they joined a band she was playing in. When the three left that band, they started playing as a trio, but after seeing Perry sing at a solo performance, Hillhouse and Hall asked her to join as vocalist.
According to Perry, she and Hall were at Nightbreak, a San Francisco club, and when it was mentioned the trio was looking for a vocalist, Perry announced she was a singer, to which Hall replied, "I know". Their first rehearsal was supposed to be at 6:10 pm on October 17, 1989, but shortly after 5:00 pm the Loma Prieta earthquake hit the San Francisco area.
The unusual name of the band came from an experience the group had in the Bay Area with a blonde family. According to Christa Hillhouse, "Right next to us, there's a trash receptacle with a piece of pizza on top and the kid wanted to pick it up. The mom said, 'No, it's probably dirty, what with the pigeons and people.' And she stared right at us. We were Non Blondes."
The experience and the name became a symbol that they didn't fit the California stereotype.
They got their start in the San Francisco bar scene, especially lesbian bars, gaining a significant lesbian following. In July 1991, the band was signed to Interscope following a performance at the Gavin Convention, where they opened for Primus on Valentine's Day of the same year. As they began pre-production for their debut album, Day was fired and replaced by Dawn Richardson. In 1992, while recording Bigger, Better, Faster, More! the album's producer, David Tickle, felt that Hall's guitar playing was "not happening" so she was let go from the band as well.
Guitarist Louis Metoyer finished the record. The album and its song "What's Up?" was released as the album's second single in 1993. It was successful in the United States and in several European countries, peaking at number one in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Germany, Iceland, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Sweden, and Switzerland.
Roger Rocha joined after completion of the album and stayed with the band until 1994.
Openly lesbian lead singer Perry often performed with a prominent "dyke" sticker affixed to her guitar, including at the Billboard Music Awards in 1993 and on Late Night with David Letterman.
4 Non Blondes contributed the song "Mary's House" to the film Wayne's World 2 in 1993. They also covered Van Halen's "I'm the One" on the soundtrack for Airheads. They contributed "Bless the Beasts and Children" to a 1994 The Carpenters tribute album If I Were a Carpenter, and "Misty Mountain Hop" to the 1995 Encomium tribute album to Led Zeppelin.
Disbanding
The group disbanded in late 1994 during the recording of their second album. Perry has said that she had been unhappy with Bigger, Better, Faster, More! She has also explained that her sexuality had a part to play in her tensions with the group. Perry was an out lesbian, but band members Hillhouse and Richardson were less comfortable being as open about their sexuality in the early 1990s.
Perry went solo in 1995. She has released solo work, and produced and written songs on albums by Christina Aguilera, Alicia Keys, Pink, Gwen Stefani, Courtney Love and Kelly Osbourne.
Hall has recorded, produced, composed for and performed with various artists, including vocalist Storm Large (1999–2001), guitarist Eric McFadden (1995–2001) and funk pioneer George Clinton & Parliament Funkadelic and released "Electrofunkadelica: e3+FUNKnth = music for the body, mind & soul", a self-produced project in 2006 on Make Music, Not War! Records.
After leaving the Blondes in 1991, Day continued drumming with Malibu Barbi, and then Bad Dog Play Dead. In late 1992, an accident crushed her legs and broke her back, which made drumming very painful. She moved out of San Francisco in 1995, spent some time in Arizona and eventually went back to Salt Lake City. Day died on July 10, 1997, and is buried in Tropic, Utah.
Hillhouse maintains the official website for 4 Non Blondes.
Reunions
Perry and Hillhouse reunited in 1999 in support of Perry's solo tour.
On May 11, 2014, the group reunited to perform a concert at a fundraiser entitled "An Evening For Women: Celebrating Arts, Music and Equality" which was held at the Beverly Hilton in Los Angeles. Perry produces the annual event for the L.A. Gay & Lesbian Center to raise money for the center. According to Perry, "the majority of the money goes to the youth center program, which is basically kids that get thrown out on the street by their own parents for being gay."
The six songs on the track list were "Train", "Spaceman", "The Ladder", "Mighty Lady", "Superfly" and "What's Up?," and the fundraiser was organized by the Los Angeles LGBT Center.
Members
Wanda Day – drums (1989–1991; died 1997)
Shaunna Hall – lead guitar (1989–1992)
Christa Hillhouse – bass, backing vocals (1989–1994, 2014)
Linda Perry – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1989–1994, 2014)
Dawn Richardson – drums (1991–1994, 2014)
Roger Rocha – lead guitar (1992–1994, 2014)
Louis Metoyer – lead guitar (1992)
Timeline
Discography
Studio album
Live album
Hello Mr. President (Live in Italy 1993) (1994)
Singles
Videos
1992 – "Dear Mr. President"
1993 – "What's Up?"
1993 – "Spaceman"
1994 – "Superfly"
1995 – "Misty Mountain Hop"
1996 – "4 Non Blondes vs BBC"
Awards and nominations
See also
List of bands from the San Francisco Bay Area
References
External links
A Story of 4 Non Blondes by Christa Hillhouse
4 Non Blonde Page on Founding Guitarist Shaunna Hall's Official Website
1989 establishments in California
1996 disestablishments in California
All-female bands
Atlantic Records artists
Alternative rock groups from California
Hard rock musical groups from California
Interscope Records artists
Musical groups established in 1989
Musical groups disestablished in 1996
Musical quartets | [
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|
215632 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria%20Coventry%2C%20Countess%20of%20Coventry | Maria Coventry, Countess of Coventry | Maria Coventry, Countess of Coventry (née Gunning; 1733 – 30 September 1760) was a famous Irish beauty and London society hostess during the reign of King George II. She died at a young age from lead and mercury poisoning, killed by the toxins used in her beauty regimen.
Biography
Maria was born in Hemingford Grey, Huntingdonshire and was the eldest child of John Gunning of Castle Coote, County Roscommon and his wife Hon. Bridget Bourke, daughter of Theobald Bourke, 6th Viscount Mayo (1681–1741). Maria's younger siblings were Elizabeth Gunning, Duchess of Hamilton and Argyll, Catherine (married Robert Travis, died 1773), Sophia, Lizzie and John (a general in the army).
In late 1740 or early 1741, the Gunning family returned to John Gunning's ancestral home in Ireland, where they divided their time between their home in Roscommon and a rented house in Dublin. According to some sources, when Maria and her sister Elizabeth came of age, their mother urged them to take up acting in order to earn a living, owing to the family's relative poverty. The sources further state that the Gunning sisters worked for some time in the Dublin theatres, befriending actors like Peg Woffington, even though acting was not considered a respectable profession, as many actresses doubled as courtesans to wealthy benefactors. However, other sources deny this and point out that Margaret Woffington did not arrive in Dublin until May 1751, by which time Maria and her sister Elizabeth were in England.
In October 1748, a ball was held at Dublin Castle by the Viscountess Petersham. The two sisters did not have any dresses for the gathering until Thomas Sheridan (actor), the manager of one of the local theatres, supplied them with two costumes from the green room, those of Lady Macbeth and Juliet. Wearing the costumes, they were presented to the Earl of Harrington, the then-Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Harrington must have been pleased by the meeting as, by 1750, Bridget Gunning had persuaded him to grant her a pension, which she then used to transport herself, Maria and Elizabeth back to their original home in Huntingdon, England. With their attendance at local balls and parties, the beauty of the two girls was much remarked upon. They became well-known celebrities, their fame reaching all the way to London. On 2 December 1750, they were presented at the court of St James, at which time they were sufficiently famous that the presentation was noted in the London newspapers. Maria, who was notoriously tactless, was reported to have made a notable gaffe by telling the elderly George II that the spectacle she would most like to see was a royal funeral. Fortunately, the king was highly amused.
Within a year, Elizabeth had married the Duke of Hamilton. In March 1752, Maria married the 6th Earl of Coventry and became the Countess of Coventry. Her husband became involved with the then-famous courtesan Kitty Fisher, which caused Maria much distress.
She was rumoured to have been involved romantically with the 3rd Duke of Grafton, but this was never confirmed beyond doubt.
Death
Maria's early death (at the age of 27) on 30 September 1760 was caused by lead poisoning from the makeup she wore, which was very stylish at the time. Throughout the 17th and 18th centuries, it was fashionable for ladies to have pale white skin and red rouged cheeks; to achieve this look, lead-based Venetian ceruse was often used. The noxious effects of lead caused skin eruptions, which then encouraged ladies to apply more ceruse to cover the blemishes, eventually causing blood poisoning.
Originally known simply as a beautiful but vain woman, Maria eventually became known in society circles as a "victim of cosmetics".
References
External links
1733 births
1760 deaths
English countesses
People from Hemingford Grey
18th-century English people
Deaths from sepsis
Lead poisoning incidents | [
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|
215633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piero%20the%20Unfortunate | Piero the Unfortunate | Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici (15 February 1472 – 28 December 1503), called Piero the Unfortunate, was the lord of Florence from 1492 until his exile in 1494.
Early life
Piero di Lorenzo de' Medici was the eldest son of Lorenzo de' Medici (Lorenzo the Magnificent) and Clarice Orsini. He was raised alongside his younger brother Giovanni, who would go on to become Pope Leo X, and his cousin Giulio, who would later become Pope Clement VII.
Piero was educated to succeed his father as head of the Medici family and de facto ruler of the Florentine state, under figures such as Angelo Poliziano or Marsilio Ficino. However, his feeble, arrogant, and undisciplined character was to prove unsuited to such a role. Poliziano later died of poisoning, very possibly by Piero, on 24 September 1494. Piero was also constantly at odds with his cousins, Lorenzo and Giovanni, the two sons of Pierfrancesco de' Medici, who were both older and richer than Piero.
Marriage and children
In 1486, Piero's uncle Bernardo Rucellai negotiated for Piero to marry the Tuscan noblewoman Alfonsina Orsini and stood in for him in a marriage by proxy. Piero and Alfonsina met in 1488. She was a daughter of Roberto Orsini, Count of Tagliacozzo, and Caterina Sanseverino. They had two children:
Lorenzo II, Duke of Urbino (1492–1519).
Clarice de' Medici (1493–1528). She married Filippo Strozzi the Younger.
Rule of Florence
Piero took over as leader of Florence in 1492, upon Lorenzo's death. After a brief period of relative calm, the fragile peaceful equilibrium between the Italian states, laboriously constructed by Piero's father, collapsed in 1494 with the decision of King Charles VIII of France to cross the Alps with an army in order to assert hereditary claims to the Kingdom of Naples. Charles had been lured to Italy by Ludovico Sforza (Ludovico il Moro), ex-regent of Milan, as a way to eject Ludovico's nephew Gian Galeazzo Sforza and replace him as duke.
After settling matters in Milan, Charles moved towards Naples. He needed to pass through Tuscany, as well as leave troops there to secure his lines of communication with Milan. As Charles's army approached Tuscany, he sent envoys to Florence to ask Piero to support his claim to Naples and allow his army to pass through Tuscany. Piero waited five days before responding that Florence would remain neutral. This was unacceptable to Charles, who intended to invade Tuscany, starting with the fortress of Fivizzano, which he sacked and brutally massacred.
Piero attempted to mount a resistance, but received little support from members of the Florentine elite who had fallen under the influence of the fanatical Dominican priest Girolamo Savonarola. Even his cousins, Lorenzo and Giovanni, allied themselves with Charles, sending him messages to pledge their support and funds.
By the end of October, Piero had not succeeded in gaining any support for Florence, and, without consulting the governing Signoria, decided to visit Charles at his camp and try to win his friendship. During their meeting, Piero acceded to all of Charles's demands, including surrendering the fortresses of Sarzana, Pietrasanta, Sarzanello, and Librafratta, as well as the towns of Pisa and Livorno.
When Piero returned to Florence to report back to the Signoria, he was greeted with public outrage, and he and his family fled the city for Venice. The family palazzo was looted, and the substance as well as the form of the Republic of Florence was re-established with the Medici formally exiled. A member of the Medici family was not to rule Florence again until 1512, when the city was forced to surrender by Giovanni de' Medici, who in 1513 was elected Pope Leo X, solidifying the family's power.
Exile
Piero and his family fled at first to Venice with the aid of the French diplomat Philippe de Commines, a retainer of Charles VIII. They supported themselves by selling Medici jewels that had been collected by Lorenzo de' Medici. Piero also tried to reinstate himself in Florence multiple times, once appearing at the Porta Romana in Florence with a band of men, who left for Siena after it appeared that Florentines would not welcome the Medici back as leaders.
In 1503, as the French and Spanish continued their struggle in Italy over the Kingdom of Naples, Piero was drowned in the Garigliano River while attempting to flee the aftermath of the Battle of Garigliano, which the French (with whom he was allied) had lost. He was buried in the abbey of Monte Cassino.
References
Sources
External links
Rulers of Florence
1472 births
1503 deaths
Piero
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
Deaths by drowning
15th-century rulers in Europe | [
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215634 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Hamilton%2C%201st%20Baroness%20Hamilton%20of%20Hameldon | Elizabeth Hamilton, 1st Baroness Hamilton of Hameldon | Elizabeth Hamilton Campbell, Duchess of Argyll & 1st Baroness Hamilton of Hameldon (née Gunning; December 1733 – 20 December 1790) was a celebrated Irish belle, lady-in-waiting and society hostess.
Early life
Born in Hemingford Grey, Huntingdonshire, she was the daughter of John Gunning of Castle Coote, County Roscommon and his wife, the Hon. Bridget Bourke, daughter of Theobald Bourke (1681–1741), 6th Viscount Mayo. Elizabeth's elder sister was Maria Gunning.
In late 1740 or early 1741, the Gunning family returned to John Gunning's ancestral home in Ireland, where they divided their time between their home in Roscommon, and a rented house in Dublin. According to some sources, when Maria and her sister Elizabeth came of age, their mother urged them to take up acting in order to earn a living, owing to the family's relative poverty. The sources further state that the Gunning sisters worked for some time in the Dublin theatres, befriending actors like Margaret Woffington, even though acting was not considered a respectable profession as many actresses of that time doubled as courtesans to wealthy benefactors. However, other sources differ and point out that Margaret Woffington did not arrive in Dublin until May 1751, by which time Maria and her sister Elizabeth were in England.
In October 1748, a ball was held at Dublin Castle by the Viscountess Petersham. The two sisters did not have any dresses for the gathering until Thomas Sheridan (actor), the manager of one of the local theatres, supplied them with two costumes from the green room, those of Lady Macbeth and Juliet. Wearing the costumes, they were presented to the Earl of Harrington, the then Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Harrington must have been pleased by the meeting as, by 1750, Bridget Gunning had persuaded him to grant her a pension, which she then used to transport herself, Maria, and Elizabeth, back to their original home in Huntingdon, England. With their attendance at local balls and parties, the beauty of the two girls was much remarked upon. They became well-known celebrities, their fame reaching all the way to London, with themselves following soon afterwards. On 2 December 1750, they were presented at the court of St James. By this time, they were sufficiently famous that the presentation was noted in the London newspapers.
Elizabeth was immortalized in portraits by, among others, artists Sir Joshua Reynolds and Gavin Hamilton.
Marriage into nobility
In January 1752, Elizabeth met the Duke of Hamilton. According to Walpole, on 14 February (St. Valentine's Day) at a party at Bedford House, the duke declared his desire to marry Elizabeth that night and he called for a local parson to perform the ceremony. However, without a licence, calling of banns, and a ring, the parson refused. They were eventually married that night in Mayfair Chapel (which did not require a licence) in a clandestine marriage, with a ring from a bed-curtain, whereupon Elizabeth became the Duchess of Hamilton.
Horace Walpole said of the couple:
"Duke Hamilton is the abstract of Scotch pride: he and the Duchess at their own house walk in to dinner before their company, sit together at the upper end of their own table, eat off the same plate, and drink to nobody beneath the rank of Earl-would not one wonder how they could get any body either above or below that rank to dine with them at all?"
When the duke died in 1758, she became engaged to the Duke of Bridgwater, but the engagement was cancelled that year for reasons unknown. On 3 February the following year she married John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne.
From 1761 to 1784, she was a Lady of the Bedchamber to Queen Charlotte. Her husband later succeeded to his father's title of Duke of Argyll in 1770, and Elizabeth became known as the Duchess of Argyll. On 20 May 1776, King George III, a long time admirer of hers, created her Baroness Hamilton of Hameldon in her own right.
Children
She had three children from her first marriage with the Duke of Hamilton:
Lady Elizabeth Hamilton (26 January 1753 – 14 March 1797), married Edward Smith-Stanley, 12th Earl of Derby
James Douglas-Hamilton, 7th Duke of Hamilton (18 February 1755 – 7 July 1769)
Douglas Douglas-Hamilton, 8th Duke of Hamilton (24 July 1756 – 2 August 1799)
She had five children from her second marriage with the Duke of Argyll:
Lady Augusta Campbell
George John Campbell, Earl of Campbell (1763–1764)
George Campbell, 6th Duke of Argyll (1768–1839)
Lady Charlotte Campbell (1775–1861)
John Campbell, 7th Duke of Argyll (1777–1847)
Later life
Elizabeth died on 20 December 1790 at her home of Argyll House in London and was buried at Kilmun Parish Church in Kilmun, Argyllshire.
Honours
Lady of the Bedchamber, 1761–1784
References
The Two Beautiful Misses Gunning
The Gunning Sisters
Undone by Virginia Henley
Horace Beakley, The Story of a Beautiful Duchess, published 1907
External links
1733 births
1790 deaths
British duchesses by marriage
Elizabeth
Barons in the Peerage of Great Britain
Peers of Great Britain created by George III
Created suo jure peeresses
People from Hemingford Grey
Ladies of the Bedchamber
18th-century Irish people
E
Court of George III of the United Kingdom | [
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215642 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeAnn%20Rimes | LeAnn Rimes | Margaret LeAnn Rimes Cibrian (born August 28, 1982) is an American singer, songwriter, producer, actress, and author. Rimes originally rose to success as a country music artist at age 13 with 1996's "Blue". She has since crossed over into pop, contemporary Christian, and other musical genres. Rimes has placed over 40 singles on international charts since 1996. In addition, she has sold over 37 million records worldwide, with 20.8 million album sales in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan. Billboard ranked her number 17 in terms of sales success in the 1990–2000 decade.
Rimes was raised in Texas and demonstrated a unique singing ability from a young age. Through her parents' efforts, Rimes began performing in various programs, including musical theater and local music contests. Developing a local following, Rimes recorded two studio albums as a preteen. These records helped bring her to the attention of Nashville label Curb Records. She signed a contract with Curb at age 13 and released 1996's "Blue". It became a top ten hit on the Billboard country songs chart. Her 1996 album of the same name sold over six million copies and established her as a major country artist. In 1997, Rimes crossed over into pop music with "How Do I Live". The song became one of the best-selling singles of the 1990s. An extended mix of the track was included on her next album You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs, which sold over four million copies. Over the next several years, Rimes's singles demonstrated further crossover success. Her further songs included "I Need You" and "Can't Fight the Moonlight".
Breaking away from her father's management in the 2000s, Rimes experimented with several styles. In 2002, she released the pop-inspired Twisted Angel and in 2004 released the Christmas record What a Wonderful World. She returned to her country origins with 2005's This Woman, which produced three country hits. A similar album project followed in 2007 titled Family. After appearing in the 2009 television film Northern Lights, Rimes began an affair with fellow actor Eddie Cibrian. The relationship received notable media attention over the next several years. Her 2013 album, Spitfire chronicled the affair and her personal difficulties from the experience.
Ending her long-time professional relationship with Curb Records, Rimes released a series of Christmas recordings over the next several years. This included 2014's One Christmas: Chapter 1 and 2015's Today Is Christmas. In 2016 she returned with the pop-flavored studio effort Remnants, which featured two Billboard dance club hits. Her most recent efforts include a 2020 album titled Chant: The Human & the Holy, which centers on personal mantras and chants inspired by Rimes's mental health journeys. Rimes further developed her acting career during this period. She has since appeared in several feature and television films including Good Intentions (2010), Reel Love (2011) and It's Christmas, Eve (2018).
Early life
Margaret LeAnn Rimes was born in Jackson, Mississippi. She is the only child of Wilbur Rimes and Belinda Butler. The family moved to Garland, Texas, when she was six. She was enrolled in vocal and dance classes, and was performing at local talent shows at the age of five.
Rimes began her career in musical theatre, performing in a Dallas, Texas, production of A Christmas Carol, and almost landing the lead part in the Broadway production of Annie. After appearing on the network television competition show Star Search, where she clearly charmed host Ed McMahon in addition to being a one-week champion, Rimes decided to go into country music. Rimes appeared a number of times on Johnnie High's Country Music Revue in Arlington, Texas, which gained the attention of national talent scouts.
By age nine, Rimes was an experienced singer. She toured nationally with her father and also regularly performed a cappella renditions of "The Star-Spangled Banner" at the opening of the Dallas Cowboys football games. Wilbur Rimes began recording his daughter under the independent label Nor Va Jak when she turned 11. Her debut studio album was released on the label in 1991 entitled Everybody's Sweetheart. Rimes was then discovered by Dallas disc jockey and record promoter Bill Mack. Mack was impressed by Rimes's vocal ability, and over the following three years, he made various attempts to take Rimes to a mainstream level. The center of Mack's plan to bring her success was his composition, "Blue". In July 1994, Rimes recorded the song on her second studio album, All That. Mack then arranged a recording contract for Rimes with Curb Records. She signed with the Nashville label in 1996.
Music career
1996: Country music breakthrough with Blue
After signing with Curb Records, Rimes recorded a new version of "Blue" as a single. However, Rimes told a BBC radio program in October 2016 that the record company accidentally released the version she had recorded as an 11-year-old. She said it was this version that peaked at number ten on the Billboard Country Chart. Writers and critics drew comparisons to Rimes with that of Patsy Cline. Promotion for the single incorrectly stated that Rimes was the first person to record the song. The statement proved false as the song had been recorded by multiple artists over the years including Bill Mack himself. Nontheless, the media attention to "Blue" further added to the belief that Rimes was the successor to Cline's legacy.
Rimes third album of the same name was also released in 1996. The disc sold 123,000 copies in its first week, the highest figure in SoundScan history at that time. It peaked at number one on the Top Country Albums and debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 albums chart, eventually selling a total of four million copies in the United States and eight million copies worldwide. AllMusic considered the album to be "delightful" and that it could "help inspire other young teens". Rimes followed up the single with "One Way Ticket (Because I Can)". The song became her first and only number one single on the Billboard Country Chart. A remake of Eddy Arnold's 1955 hit "The Cattle Call" was later released as a single as well. Blue would also spawn the charting single "Hurt Me" and the top five country song "The Light in Your Eyes".
With the album's success, Rimes received many major industry awards. In 1997 at 14 years old she became the youngest person to win a Grammy, for Best New Artist and Best Female Country Vocal Performance for "Blue". She was also the first Country music artist to win the Best New Artist category. The same year she won the Country Music Association's "Horizon Award" for Best New Artist Of The Year, becoming the youngest person to ever be nominated and win a Country Music Association award. She was nominated for similar awards from the Academy of Country Music.
1997–2004: Pop crossover and worldwide success
In 1997, Rimes released a compilation of previously recorded material under the Nor Va Jak label, Unchained Melody: The Early Years. The album mainly consisted of remakes, ranging from Country to pop, including songs originally recorded by The Beatles, Whitney Houston, Bill Monroe, and Dolly Parton. Rimes's version of the title track became a major country hit in early 1997 and helped increase sales for the album. In June 1997, Rimes would appear on the Disney Channel for television special called LeAnn Rimes in Concert. In September 1997, Rimes released her follow-up studio album to Blue titled You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs. The album covered classic inspirational songs and several pop songs. The album was a departure from Rimes's previous releases as it contained more Adult Contemporary-styled music than Country. The album sold over four million copies in the United States, certifying 4× Multi-Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album contained an extended version of the single "How Do I Live", which became a major pop hit on the Billboard Hot 100, reaching number two. "How Do I Live" set a new record for becoming the longest-running single in Billboard Hot 100 history, spending 69 weeks on the chart. In later years, the song was ranked as the most successful song of the 1990s by Billboard magazine.
Rimes released her third album in May 1998 titled Sittin' on Top of the World. The album leaned towards Adult Contemporary and mid-tempo pop music. It included pop material written by Carole Bayer Sager and David Foster. It also included a remake of Prince's "Purple Rain" and was produced by her father. The album was given mixed reviews. Allmusic gave the album two out of five stars. Rolling Stone stated that Rimes "holds her own in the more popular style of Mariah Carey and Celine Dion, wherein a spectacular voice upstages a song, grins and goes on about her business." Sittin' on Top of the World debuted at number two on the Top Country Albums chart, and number three on the Billboard 200, and sold over a million copies in the United States, certifying "Platinum" in sales by the RIAA. The project spawned the number four Billboard country hit "Commitment", the Top 20 Pop hit "Looking Through Your Eyes", and the number 10 country hit "Nothin' New Under the Moon".
In October 1999, Curb released Rimes's self-titled fourth studio album. The record was a collection of country music cover songs mainly by Patsy Cline. It included "Crazy", "I Fall to Pieces", and "She's Got You". These recordings were primarily taken from Cline's 12 Greatest Hits album. Rimes' album received mostly positive reviews. Allmusic called the song, "a return to her roots" and "a salute to one of her idols, Patsy Cline." The album in general received much praise. Allmusic called the album one of her "better" efforts, since they had disliked her previous releases. Entertainment Weekly gave the album a positive review and said that Rimes's voice, "dares listeners to take note of what is missing in her interpretations – the gutsiness and gut-wrenching urgency of performers who felt what they sang." The album debuted at number one on the Top Country Albums chart, topping the country albums chart for two weeks. It also peaked at number eight on the Billboard 200 albums chart. The album also sold over one million copies in the United States, and was certified "Platinum" in sales by the RIAA. The project also included the new song "Big Deal". Released as the lead single, "Big Deal" reached number six on the Billboard country chart. Also in 1999, Rimes recorded a duet with Elton John for the stage musical Aida, titled "Written in the Stars".
In 2000, Rimes contributed to the soundtrack from the 1999 TV movie Jesus. The song, "I Need You", was issued as the lead single from the soundtrack in July 2000. A country mix was released as a single to radio along with a pop version. "I Need You" was characterized by Allmusic as having similarities to that of Adult Contemporary and Pop music. The song reached number eight on the Billboard country songs chart and number 11 on the Hot 100. Rimes would then make an appearance in the 2000 film Coyote Ugly and contribute four songs to the soundtrack. "Can't Fight the Moonlight" was released as a single from the film, reaching number 11 on the Hot 100. By February 2002 "Can't Fight the Moonlight" had become a crossover pop hit, reaching number 11 in United States and becoming the highest selling single of 2001 in Australia. "Can't Fight the Moonlight" won Rimes a Blockbuster Entertainment Award for "Favorite Song from a Movie". Also issued from the soundtrack was "But I Do Love You", which reached the American country top 20.
In January 2001, Curb Records released another compilation of previously recorded material, I Need You. The album received mostly unfavorable reviews. Rolling Stone gave the album two and a half stars, describing it as "synthetic-feeling". Despite very little praise from critics, the album sold well, and was certified "Gold" in sales by the RIAA. Rimes would later go on to publicly disown the album, which she stated was compiled from studio outtakes her father had produced and that it was released without her knowledge or input. At the time, during the litigation with her label Curb, Rimes was asking that Curb give her the rights to all past recordings and videos, give up all publishing interests in her compositions, and destroy all currently available recordings. In 2002, she released her fifth studio effort Twisted Angel, which contained more adult material. It was certified "Gold" by the RIAA, her second Gold-certified album. Rolling Stone gave the album two out of five stars, stating that the album sounded too "country-pop crossover." The following year when Rimes turned 21, she released her first children's book, titled Jag, in July and she also released a Greatest Hits compilation in November.
2005–2013: Return to country
In January 2005, Rimes's ninth studio album This Woman was released. The disc's songwriting and production was a return to her country origins. "It's mainly a Country album, but it's my kind of Country music," she told the Voice of America. It was Rimes's best-selling album in over five years, reaching the top five of both the Billboard Country Albums chart and the Billboard 200.
The album spawned the singles "Nothin' 'Bout Love Makes Sense", "Probably Wouldn't Be This Way", and "Something's Gotta Give". All three songs reached the top five of the Billboard country songs chart, becoming her highest-charting singles in over five years. In summer 2006, Rimes released the studio album Whatever We Wanna. Due to the increased success of This Woman in North America, it was sold exclusively to European audiences. In the United Kingdom, the album reached number 15.
In October 2007, Asylum-Curb issued Rimes's eleventh studio disc titled Family. The country-flavored project as the first album in her career in which every track featured writing credits from Rimes herself. Rolling Stone called the record "uneven" and gave it a rating of three and half stars. Allmusic gave Family four stars and said that it "illustrates her range as a singer along with some true strength as a writer."
The project's lead single "Nothin' Better to Do" reached the top 20 of the Billboard country songs chart while the second single, "Good Friend and a Glass of Wine", reached the top 40. In 2008, Rimes joined Kenny Chesney on his Poets and Pirates Tour, along with Brooks & Dunn, Keith Urban, Sammy Hagar, Gary Allan, Big & Rich, and Luke Bryan. Around the same time, she collaborated with Joss Stone for a CMT Crossroads special aired in fall 2007. In 2009, Rimes published What I Cannot Change along with song co-writer, Darrell Brown. It was released on April 14, 2009, and contains a bonus CD with an exclusive live performance of the song and both Brown and Rimes reading excerpts from the book.
In 2011, Rimes released her twelfth studio collection called Lady & Gentlemen. Co-produced by Vince Gill, the disc contained a set of classic country songs originally made successful by male artists that Rimes re-recorded from a female perspective. It also featured production credits from Rimes herself, becoming her first album that she produced. Included on the project were songs by John Conlee, George Jones and Merle Haggard. AllMusic's Stephen Thomas Erlewine commented, "As concept albums go, LeAnn Rimes’ 2011 album Lady & Gentlemen is a good one: a collection of masculine country classics reinterpreted by a female singer. Entertainment Weeklys Mikael Wood concluded that "The result is predictably solid, though it rarely sheds new light on the top-shelf material." The album's cover of John Anderson's "Swingin'" was nominated for a Grammy award. Lady & Gentlemen also featured two bonus tracks that were original recordings: "Crazy Women" and "Give". Both tracks were released as singles and reached charting positions on the Billboard country survey.
Over the next several years, Rimes went into the studio to record songs for her next project. In 2013, Spitfire was released and marked her final album with the Curb label. It was co-produced by Rimes, along with Darrell Brown. The disc centered around Rimes's affair with future husband Eddie Cibrian and the media speculation around their relationship. "I used to get mad at the tabloids, but I should be thanking them because they helped me write this whole record," she commented. The album sold 10,798 copies in its first week and debuted at number 36 on the Billboard 200. It also debuted at number nine on the country albums chart. The official first single to be released from Spitfire, "What Have I Done", was released to digital download originally in 2012, but was replaced by the second single, "Borrowed", also issued in 2012 for radio release. Sales of the album were considered "disappointing" by several news outlets, including US Weekly while singles released from the album failed to become commercially-successful.
2014–present: Changes in musical style and new directions
In 2014, Rimes announced that she would release three Christmas EPs over the course of three years: 2014, 2015 and 2016. In October 2014, the first of these planned EP's was released entitled One Christmas: Chapter 1. It was issued through Iconic Entertainment and contained six holiday cover tunes. This included the lead single, a cover of "I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas". It peaked at number 20 on the Top Country Albums chart and number 35 on the Top Holiday Albums list. Rimes later embarked on a holiday tour to promote the project titled the "One Christmas Tour", which played multiple shows around the United States in the winter months of 2014. Rimes's original plan of multiple EP releases was dropped and replaced with a full-length holiday album in 2015. That year, she released Today Is Christmas through Prodigy Entertainment. The 12-track holiday record contained a mixture of cover tunes and original songs, including the title track. This included was a duet of "Celebrate Me Home" with Gavin DeGraw. The record reached number two on the Holiday albums chart and number nine on the Country Albums chart.
In 2016, Rimes signed with RCA UK and released a cover of Brandi Carlile's "The Story". It was included on her fifteenth studio album titled Remnants, which was also issued on RCA. First issued in the United Kingdom in 2016, Remnants was later released in the United States in February 2017. The disc reached number 15 on the UK Albums Chart and number 88 on the Billboard 200. The record received mixed reviews. AllMusic concluded that "She may be able to sing just about anything but the album would've been stronger if it had a greater connective thread than sheer skill." Meanwhile, Matt Bjorke of Roughstock wrote, "With these 14 fantastic songs, Remnants is easily an early contender for my album of the year." The album would also spawn the singles "Long Live Love" and "Love Is Love Is Love". Both recordings topped the Billboard Dance Club Songs, becoming her second and third number one Dance hits.
In June 2018, Rimes released Re-Imagined through EverLe Records and the Thirty Tigers label. The EP contained five tracks from her back-catalogue that she re-recorded ("Can't Fight the Moonlight", "Blue", "One Way Ticket", "How Do I Live" and "Borrowed"). The new recording of "Borrowed" featured duet vocals from Stevie Nicks. Later in 2018, Rimes appeared in the Hallmark original television film titled It's Christmas, Eve. She recorded the film's soundtrack of the same name, which was released in October 2018. Included were covers of Christmas standards, as well as new recordings she composed with producer Darrell Brown. In 2019, Rimes recorded and released her first live album titled Rimes: Live at Gruene Hall. A mixture of country, pop and rock covers were featured and were all recorded at Gruene Hall, a venue located in Texas.
In November 2020, Rimes released her seventeenth studio record Chant: The Human & the Holy. The project was a change in musical directions, as its 12 tracks were built from chants and daily mantras rather than traditional songs. A corresponding health and wellness podcast titled Wholly Human followed around the same time that focused on similar themes. Rimes produced and composed the album with longtime musical collaborator Darrell Brown. "As I started meditating I started chanting and singing. And as I felt what was coming through needed to come through and felt good, I would press record on my phone and get it down, then expand it from there," Rimes explained of the projects.
Rimes announced that she will release a new studio album in 2022 titled God's Work.
Acting career
1997–2007: Move to Los Angeles and early acting roles
In 1997, Rimes's parents divorced. While her father stayed in Nashville, Rimes chose to move to Los Angeles with her mother. In Los Angeles, Rimes started an acting career at age 16. The same year, Rimes starred in the ABC television film Holiday in Your Heart. The film was based off Rimes's book of the same name, which was also released in 1997. The film was the start of three-movie contract that Rimes was offered by ABC in 1998. The film was partially semi-autobiographical, with Rimes playing a country performer who discovers that her grandmother becomes hospitalized. In the film, Rimes also performed several of her hits including "Blue" and "One Way Ticket (Because I Can)". In 1998, she played a teen runaway in one episode of Days of Our Lives. "My grandmother used to ... I used to want to watch Sesame Street and she would make me watch Days of Our Lives and so I got hooked on it. I watch Days all the time," Rimes explained.
In 2000, Rimes not only contributed to the soundtrack of Coyote Ugly, but also appeared in the film itself. Rimes only appeared at the end of the movie, dancing on top of a bar alongside actresses Tyra Banks and Piper Perabo. "I was trying to be this sexy singer performing on a bar, and that was so opposite of me. I was really acting at the time 'cause I was still figuring all that out about myself," she told Entertainment Tonight. In addition, Rimes provided the singing voice for Piper Perabo's character Violet Sanford.
In 2005, Rimes became the host of the USA Network talent competition Nashville Star. The show was broadcast from the BellSouth Acuff Theater in Nashville. However, a vocal chord illness stopped Rimes from maintaining hosting duties. In 2006, Rimes contributed to the soundtrack of the direct to DVD film Holly Hobbie and Friends: Christmas Wishes. She also guest starred in the film. In 2007, Rimes contributed to the soundtrack of Evan Almighty. For the film, she contributed the song "Ready For A Miracle" (previously recorded by Patti LaBelle). The song can be heard in the movie, during the end credits, and in the trailers of Evan Almighty.
2009–present: Television film transition
In 2009, Rimes played the role of Meg Galloway in the made-for-television film Northern Lights. The show was aired on the Lifetime network. The film was based off of Nora Roberts's book of the same name. At the time of the film's announcement, it was reported that Rimes's character have love scenes with a fellow male actor. "I definitely will be making out with someone...I think I know who but I can't say yet," she told The Boot in 2008. It was later announced the Eddie Cibrian would be playing her love interest. Rumors of their real-life affair helped make Northern Lights the network's most-watched television movie, with four and a half million viewers in March 2009.
Rimes played a supporting role in the movie Good Intentions with Elaine Hendrix, which filmed near Atlanta, Georgia. "I've been wanting to act...It’s just been finding the right thing. And Good Intentions was the right thing at the right time. It was the right script," she told Sounds Like Nashville. Rimes also contributed to the film's soundtrack. In 2011, she played a guest role in the television show Drop Dead Diva, starring as the ex-wife of fictional celebrity. In 2011, Rimes played the role of an attorney who returns to her hometown in the television film Reel Love. The film aired on Country Music Television and also starred actor Burt Reynolds. In 2013, she appeared on the FX television show Anger Management alongside Charlie Sheen. In 2014, Rimes starred in the reality television series LeAnn & Eddie alongside Eddie Cibrian. The program aired on the VH1 network. The intention of the reality show was to "help clear the air" about their romantic relationship. "This show gave us an opportunity to take back our lives in a way and show a different side of us than what people really believe," Rimes commented. After one season, the show was cancelled by VH1.
In 2017, Rimes made a cameo appearance in the film Logan Lucky where she sang "America the Beautiful". One year later, Rimes starred as the main character in the Hallmark Channel's television film It's Christmas, Eve. Rimes played the fictional character Eve Morgan who is a high school superintendent who helps saves the district's music program. In 2020, Rimes competed as the "Sun" on the fourth season of the Fox reality singing competition The Masked Singer. Her identity was revealed during the season finale on December 16, 2020, where she was declared the winner of the season. She was later a guest panelist in the season five finale. Darius Rucker also joined her in the show.
Artistry
Voice and vocal ability
Rimes's voice has been described as a soprano. She has often been described by critics as having "powerhouse vocals". Critics took notice from her earliest recordings. Entertainment Weekly'''s Don McLeese commented, "Though 'Young Country' doesn’t get much younger than Rimes, she already shows more poise and maturity than many artists twice her age." In similar vein, The Washington Post wrote in 2005 "Rimes's voice is far and away her strongest selling point. Rich and worldly, it belied her young age -- especially when she tackled a vintage-sounding country song like 'Blue'." From a young age, Rimes also chose material that was considered beyond her years. In her first album, Rimes recorded such material as Deborah Allen's "My Baby", whose lyrics say, "my baby is a full-time lover, my baby is a full-grown man." Other material such as Diane Warren's "How Do I Live" had also been considered too mature for Rimes's age and was the main reason why her version of the song was not chosen to be used in the soundtrack for the film Con Air.
As Rimes matured into adulthood, critics continued to take notice of her voice. In reviewing a 2005 concert, Chrissie Dickinson of The Chicago Tribune found that while her stage presence was lacking, Rimes's voice had significant power: "But what Rimes lacked in stage electricity she made up for in vocal power. She has superlative control over that big voice, a soaring instrument that can belt and whisper within the same song." In reviewing her 2011 album Lady & Gentlemen Stephen Thomas Erlewine stated, "Throughout it all, Rimes hits her marks with ease...she’s become a stronger, more nuanced singer over the years." Jessica Goodman of Glamour found that her 2016 song "Remnants" "showcases the powerhouse vocals that made Rimes famous all those years ago."
Influences
Rimes has credited performers of different musical styles as career influences, including Alanis Morissette,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Williams |first1=Melissa |title=COUNTRY STARLET'S TALENT FAR EXCEEDS HER YEARS\ FOURTEEN-YEAR-OLD LEANN RIMES BREAKS THROUGH WITH BLUE' |url=https://greensboro.com/country-starlets-talent-far-exceeds-her-years-fourteen-year-old-leann-rimes-breaks-through-with/article_02006643-54fa-5776-bab0-bd269186963c.html |access-date=December 21, 2021 |work=News & Record |date=October 9, 1996}}</ref> Reba McEntire, Wynonna Judd, Judy Garland, Barbra Streisand and Whitney Houston. Early in her career, Rimes commented on McEntire's influence with The New York Times: "If I had to model my career after anyone it would have to be Reba. She's made some great business decisions in her career to stay around for 20 years, and my biggest goal right now is to stay around for a long time."
Rimes was most notably influenced by Patsy Cline. Listeners and critics drew similarities to Cline's voice through Rimes's phrasing and vocal delivery Rimes later stated that Cline's voice largely influenced the way she created her own unique sound. "[Patsy Cline] was such a huge part of how I created my sound. From [Cline], really it was about this true, honest, emotional connection and the way that she could just take you to a place that you don't normally go within yourself when you listened to her music," she told popculture. In 2013, Rimes performed a tribute to Cline at the American Country Awards she sang a tribute medley of Cline's songs. "I mean I know how much I've been influenced by her and how I feel about her and then you see a sea of people and artists who have been just as influenced and she's touched so many people," she told E!.
Musical styles
Rimes has been categorized in the musical genres of country, pop, Contemporary Christian, adult contemporary and dance pop. Rimes began her career rooted in the country genre with debut Curb release, "Blue" and its subsequent country chart hits. After crossing over with songs like "How Do I Live" and "Can't Fight the Moonlight", Rimes was then described as a pop artist. Further releases like Sittin' on Top of the World demonstrated a more adult contemporary style. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic found that while she dabbled in many styles, Rimes was tied to the country genre: " During the decade that separated "Can't Fight the Moonlight" and Remnants, Rimes dabbled in pop, but she remained anchored in country music, regularly placing on Billboard's Country Top 40 and occasionally landing a big hit."
Personal life
Marriages and relationships
In 1998, Rimes dated actor Andrew Keegan. When they first met, Rimes was 15 and Keegan was 19. The couple dated when Rimes and her father were involved in a lawsuit. In the same lawsuit, Rimes's father claimed that Keegan was attempting to "get his hands" on Rimes's finances. The relationship ended in 2001. According to press reports, Keegan became romantically interested in Rimes's co-star in Coyote Ugly (Piper Perabo).
Shortly after the couple parted ways, Rimes met dancer Dean Sheremet at the 2001 Academy of Country Music Awards. By December 2001, the pair became engaged. In 2002 and at age 19, Rimes wed Sheremet in a church ceremony in Dallas, Texas. In 2003, the couple purchased a 1.7 million dollar home, located in Nashville, Tennessee. In 2007, Sheremet directed the choreography for Rimes's single "Nothin' Better to Do". According to People, the couple spent more time apart in later years of their marriage as Rimes devoted energy towards an acting career in Los Angeles while Sheremet remained in Nashville. In July 2009, the couple separated and in September 2009, Rimes announced their plans to divorce. The divorce was finalized on June 19, 2010, exactly six months after Sheremet filed divorce documents for dissolution of marriage.
Rimes began an extramarital affair with actor Eddie Cibrian, whom she worked with on the TV film Northern Lights Reports surfaced in March 2009 of the couple embracing while eating at a restaurant. Brandi Glanville, Cibrian's wife at the time and the mother of his two sons, filed for divorce as a result of the affair in August 2009, ending eight years of marriage. In June 2010, Rimes spoke for the first time about the end of her first marriage, stating; "I take responsibility for everything I've done. I hate that people got hurt, but I don't regret the outcome." In June 2010, Rimes moved into Cibrian's California home. In an interview with ABC, Rimes discussed her new relationship: "What happened is not who I am, period. But I do know how much I love him. So I've always said I don't live my life with regret. I can't." In December 2010, it was announced via Billboard that Rimes and Cibrian were engaged. Rimes and Cibrian wed on April 22, 2011, at a private home in California. The 40-person ceremony also included Cibrian's sons from his first marriage. In 2013, the couple bought a home in Hidden Hills, California listed for three million dollars.
Family challenges and lawsuits
From the beginning of Rimes' career, father Wilbur Rimes managed his daughter and served as producer on her records. In May 2000, Rimes and her mother sued Wilbur, alleging that he took more than seven million dollars of her income over the course of five years. The lawsuit claimed that money was being taken away from Rimes personally as well as from a management company that was founded back in 1995. The suit also included her former manager, Lyle Walker, who assisted her father in management duties. The suit was filed in a district court in Dallas, Texas. Rimes also alleged that both men made unreasonable fees and took advantage of Rimes's label (Curb Records). Rimes sought unspecified damages because her attorney was not sure of how much money had been lost in the preceding five years. In May 2001, she was informed by a Nashville court that she could not break her contract with Curb Records. Amidst the reaction, she visibly mouthed the words, "I hate you" to her father. When Rimes was 18, she filed a lawsuit against Curb Records on her own, successfully petitioning a court to remove her position as a "minority" on the recording contract. As a result, this change made the contract binding.
In 2002, Rimes's lawsuit with her father was "settled on undisclosed terms." "It is difficult to express just how happy I am that all of the legal troubles between my daughter and I are over," Rimes's father commented. Rimes reconciled with her father for her wedding. During her wedding ceremony to Dean Sheremet, Wilbur Rimes walked his daughter down the aisle. "I've never hated my dad. I just wanted a dad. I guess I just really disliked where he was in my life. I just wanted him to be my father," she told ABC News.
Health challenges
In August 2012, Rimes checked into treatment for anxiety and stress. Rimes checked into the treatment facility one day after her 30th birthday. "This is just a time for me to emotionally check out for a second and take care of myself and come back in 30 days as the best 30-year-old woman I can be," she explained. In 2020, she told People magazine that in addition to anxiety and stress, she was also suffering from depression in 2010: "It's something I've been very vocal about, because I feel like there's so much stigma around it." In 2008, she opened up about her lifelong struggle with the autoimmune disease psoriasis. She participated in a PSA to raise awareness about the disease. In 2020, following a stress-related flare up of the disease, Rimes posed for a nude photo shoot for Glamour magazine as part of her efforts to raise awareness and acceptance about the disease on 2020 World Psoriasis Day (observed October 29). In March 2014, Rimes's jaw became dislocated while performing, ending her concert encore early. Rimes attributed the dislocation to temporomandibular joint dysfunction, a disorder of the jaw joint and surrounding muscles. She has publicly posted about her struggles with this disorder via Twitter.
Philanthropy
Rimes lent her voice to the 2008 song "Just Stand Up." The proceeds benefited Stand Up to Cancer. As a result of SU2C fundraising endeavors, the SU2C scientific advisory committee, overseen by the American Association for Cancer Research, was able to award $73.6 million towards cancer research. In 2009, Rimes was given a special humanitarian award from the Academy of Country Music in honor of her philanthropic efforts. In December 2010, she performed "The Rose," joined by The Gay Men's Chorus of Los Angeles in remembrance of the many gay teenagers who committed suicide in 2010. On her weblog she wrote on June 18, 2011: "I believe in equality for everyone. I believe everyone should have the right to love and commit to whomever they want. [...] All I know is that in God's eyes we are all the same. I just wish we could see through the eyes of God more often." In 2017, Rimes revealed that her uncle was gay and died from the AIDS virus. "Now, every time, everywhere I get to sing — or when I get stand up alongside my LGBTQ brothers and sisters — I get to give him a voice," she commented.
Discography Studio albums'''
Everybody's Sweetheart (1991)
All That (1994)
Blue (1996)
You Light Up My Life: Inspirational Songs (1997)
Sittin' on Top of the World (1998)
LeAnn Rimes (1999)
I Need You (2001)
Twisted Angel (2002)
What a Wonderful World (2004)
This Woman (2005)
Whatever We Wanna (2006)
Family (2007)
Lady & Gentlemen (2011)
Spitfire (2013)
Today Is Christmas (2015)
Remnants (2016)
Chant: The Human & the Holy (2020)
God's Work (TBA)
Filmography
Holiday in Your Heart (1997)
Days of Our Lives (1998)
Moesha (1999)
Coyote Ugly (2000)
American Dreams (2003)
Holly Hobbie and Friends: Christmas Wishes (2006)
Northern Lights (2009)
Good Intentions (2010)
Drop Dead Diva (2011)
Anger Management (2013)
It's Christmas, Eve (2018)
Awards and nominations
Rimes has won several awards for her work as a music artist. This includes three accolades from the Academy of Country Music and two accolades from the Grammy Awards.
Publications
Holiday in Your Heart (1997) with Tom Carter
Jag (2003)
Jag's New Friend (2004)
What I Cannot Change'' (2009) with Darrell Brown
References
External links
Official website
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
1982 births
Actresses from Mississippi
Actresses from Texas
American child singers
American country singer-songwriters
American women country singers
American women pop singers
American women singer-songwriters
American sopranos
APRA Award winners
Child pop musicians
Country musicians from Mississippi
Country musicians from Texas
Curb Records artists
Grammy Award winners
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Living people
Musicians from Jackson, Mississippi
People from Garland, Texas
People from Hidden Hills, California
RCA Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Mississippi
Ballad musicians
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Singer-songwriters from California | [
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|
215644 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongman | Strongman | Strongman or Strong Man may refer to:
Strongman (strength athlete)
Strongman (politics)
Strongman game, a physical strength carnival attraction also known as a high striker
Strongman (comics), a Marvel Comics character
Jon Andersen (born 1972), professional wrestler also known by the ring names Jon Strongman and Strong Man
Strongman Mine, a New Zealand coal-mine
Strong Man, one of The Mighty Heroes in the U.S. animated television series
The Strong Man, a 1926 American silent film
Strongman (2009 film), a documentary movie about Stanley Pleskun
Strongmen, a 2020 book by Ruth Ben-Ghiat
Strongman, a Ghanaian rapper
People with the surname
Steve Strongman, Canadian blues guitarist, singer and songwriter | [
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|
215645 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan%20Janssonius | Jan Janssonius | Johannes Janssonius (1588, Arnhem – buried July 11, 1664, Amsterdam) (born Jan Janszoon, in English also Jan Jansson) was a Dutch cartographer and publisher who lived and worked in Amsterdam in the 17th century.
Biography
Janssonius was born in Arnhem, the son of Jan Janszoon the Elder, a publisher and bookseller. In 1612 he married Elisabeth de Hondt, the daughter of Jodocus Hondius. He produced his first maps in 1616 of France and Italy. In 1623 Janssonius owned a bookstore in Frankfurt am Main, later also in Danzig, Stockholm, Copenhagen, Berlin, Königsberg, Geneva and Lyon. Elisabeth Hondius died in 1627 and he married Elisabeth Carlier in 1629. In the 1630s he formed a partnership with his brother in law Henricus Hondius, and together they published atlases as Mercator/Hondius/Janssonius.
Under the leadership of Janssonius the Hondius Atlas was steadily enlarged. Renamed Atlas Novus, it had three volumes in 1638, one fully dedicated to Italy. In 1646, a fourth volume came out with "English County Maps", a year after a similar issue by Joan Blaeu. Janssonius' maps are similar to those of Blaeu, and he is often accused of copying from his rival, but many of his maps predate those of Blaeu and/or covered different regions. By 1660, at which point the atlas bore the appropriate name "Atlas Major", there were 11 volumes, containing the work of about a hundred credited authors and engravers. It included a description of "most of the cities of the world" (Townatlas), of the waterworld (Atlas Maritimus in 33 maps), and of the Ancient World (60 maps). The eleventh volume was the Atlas of the Heavens by Andreas Cellarius. Editions were printed in Dutch, Latin, French, and a few times in German.
After Janssonius's death, the publishing company was continued by his son-in law, Johannes van Waesbergen. The London bookseller Moses Pitt attempted publication of the Atlas Major in English, but ran out of resources after the fourth volume in 1683.
Selected works
Sueciæ, Norvegiæ et Daniæ Nova Tabula, Amsterdam c. 1645.
Tabula exactissima Regnorum Sueciæ et Norvegiæ (1636), which replaced Hondius II 1613
Episcopatum Stavangriensis, Bergensis et Asloiensis Amsterdam 1636–1642. The first map to show the Oslo Fjord by name. This map shows Southern Norway with the Stavanger bishopric and the adjoining area of the Bergen and Oslo bishoprics.
Literature
Peter van der Krogt (ed.): Koeman's atlantes Neerlandici, Vol. 1: The folio atlases published by Gerard Mercator, Jodocus Hondius, Henricus Hondius, Johannes Janssonius and their successors, ’t Goy-Houten 1997,
See also
List of cartographers
History of cartography
Willem Blaeu
Joan Blaeu
References
External links
17th-century Dutch cartographers
1588 births
1664 deaths
Dutch publishers (people)
People from Arnhem | [
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|
215650 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ertu%C4%9Frul | Ertuğrul | Ertuğrul or Ertuğrul Gazi (; ; died ) was a 13th century bey, who was the father of Osman I. Little is known about Ertuğrul's life. According to Ottoman tradition, he was the son of Suleyman Shah, the leader of the Kayı tribe (a claim which has come under criticism from many historians) of the Oghuz Turks, who fled from western Central Asia to Anatolia to escape the Mongol conquests, but he may instead have been the son of Gündüz Alp. According to this legend, after the death of his father, Ertuğrul and his followers entered the service of the Sultanate of Rum, for which he was rewarded with dominion over the town of Söğüt on the frontier with the Byzantine Empire. This set off the chain of events that would ultimately lead to the founding of the Ottoman Empire.
Biography
Nothing is known with certainty about Ertuğrul's life, other than that he was the father of Osman; historians are thus forced to rely upon stories written about him by the Ottomans more than a century later, which are of questionable accuracy. An undated coin, supposedly from the time of Osman, with the text "Minted by Osman son of Ertuğrul", suggests that Ertuğrul was a historical figure. Another coin reads "Osman bin Ertuğrul bin Gündüz Alp", though Ertuğrul is traditionally considered the son of Suleyman Shah.
In Enveri's Düsturname (1465) and Karamani Mehmet Pasha's chronicle (before 1481), Suleyman Shah replaces Gündüz Alp as Ertugrul's father. After Aşıkpaşazade's chronicle Tevārīḫ-i Āl-i ʿOsmān (15th century), the Suleyman Shah version became the official one.
According to many Turkish sources, Ertuğrul had three brothers named; Sungur-tekin, Gündoğdu and Dündar. After the death of their father, Ertuğrul with his mother Hayme Hatun, Dündar and his followers from the Kayı Tribe migrated west into Anatolia and entered the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum, leaving his two brothers who took their clans towards the east. In this way, the Kayı Tribe was divided into two parts.
According to these later traditions, Ertuğrul was chief of his Kayı Tribe.
As a result of his assistance to the Seljuks against the Byzantines, Ertuğrul was granted lands in Karaca Dağ, a mountainous area between Diyarbakır and Urfa, by Kayqubad I, the Seljuk Sultan of Rum. One account indicates that the Seljuk leader's rationale for granting Ertuğrul land was for Ertuğrul to repel any hostile incursion from the Byzantines or other adversary. Later, he received the village of Söğüt which he conquered together with the surrounding lands. That village, where he later died, became the Ottoman capital under his son, Osman I. Osman's mother has been referred to as Halime Hatun in later myths, and there is a grave outside the Ertuğrul Gâzi Tomb which bears the name, but it is disputed.
According to many sources, he had two other sons in addition to Osman I: Saru-Batu (Savci) Bey and Gündüz Bey. Like his son, Osman, and their descendants, Ertuğrul is often referred to as a Ghazi, a heroic champion fighter for the cause of Islam.
Legacy
A tomb and mosque dedicated to Ertuğrul is said to have been built by Osman I at Söğüt, but due to several rebuildings nothing certain can be said about the origin of these structures. The current mausoleum was built by sultan Abdul Hamid II (1842 – 1918) in the late 19th century. The town of Söğüt celebrates an annual festival to the memory of the early Osmans.
In 1826, Ertuğrul Cavalry Regiment of the Ottoman Army was named in his honor.
The Ottoman frigate Ertuğrul, launched in 1863, was named after him. Abdul Hamid II also had a yacht with the same name. The Ertuğrul Tekke Mosque (late 19th century) in Istanbul, Turkey and the Ertuğrul Gazi Mosque in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (completed in 1998), are also named in his honor. The mosque in Turkmenistan was established by the Turkish government as a symbol of the link between Turkey and Turkmenistan.
Ertuğrul is one of several statues that surround the Independence Monument in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. The statues depict people praised in the Ruhnama, a spiritual guide written by Turkmenistan president Saparmurat Niyazov. The Ertuğrul statue has also been depicted on a 2001 commemorative coin.
2 statues of Ertuğrul on horseback were placed by a private cooperative housing society in Lahore, Pakistan in 2020. They were inspired by Diriliş: Ertuğrul, a 2014 tv-series. A bust of Ertuğrul was erected in Ordu, Turkey in 2020, but was removed by local authorities after it was pointed out that it resembled the Ertuğrul-actor from the same tv-series.
In fiction
Ertugrul has been portrayed in the Turkish television series (1988), adapted from a novel by the same name, Diriliş: Ertuğrul (2014) and the sequel Kuruluş: Osman (2019).
See also
Ottoman family tree
Söğüt Ertuğrul Gazi Museum
Karacahisar Castle
Ertuğrul Osman, "the Last Ottoman"
Notes
References
Bibliography
1280 deaths
13th-century people of the Ottoman Empire
13th-century rulers in Asia
Legendary Islamic people
Ottoman dynasty
Turkic rulers
Warriors
Year of birth unknown | [
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215651 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20di%20Bicci%20de%27%20Medici | Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici | Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (c. 1360 – February 1429) was an Italian banker and founder of the Medici Bank. While other members of the Medici family, such as Chiarissimo di Giambuono de' Medici, who served in the Signoria of Florence in 1201, and Salvestro de' Medici, who was implicated in the Ciompi Revolt of 1378, are of historical interest, it was Giovanni's founding of the family bank that truly initiated the family's rise to power in Florence. He was the father of Cosimo de' Medici and of Lorenzo the Elder; grandfather of Piero di Cosimo de' Medici; great-grandfather of Lorenzo de' Medici (the Magnificent); and the great-great-great-grandfather of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.
Biography
Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici was born in Florence, Italy. He was the son of Averardo de' Medici and Jacopa Spini. His father, Averardo died in 1363 with a respectable amount of wealth. This inheritance was divided among Giovanni and his four brothers, leaving Giovanni with very little. However, his uncle, Vieri de' Medici, was still a prominent banker in Florence. Vieri helped Giovanni begin his career in the Florentine banking system. He worked his way up through the ranks, eventually becoming a junior partner in the branch located in Rome. Vieri de' Medici retired in 1393 leaving the bank in the hands of Giovanni. From this point the Medici bank grew vastly and quickly. This growth culminated with the acquisition as the Chief Papal Banker, which meant that the Medici Bank now handled the accounts of the Church. The Medici family bank, which he founded in 1397, became his main commercial interest. The Medici bank under Giovanni had branches throughout the northern Italian city-states and beyond, and constituted an early "multi-national" company.
Giovanni owned two wool workshops in Florence, and was a member of two guilds: the Arte della Lana and the Arte del Cambio. In 1402, he served as one of the judges on the panel that selected Lorenzo Ghiberti's design for the bronzes on the doors to the Florence Baptistery. Giovanni also funded the construction of the sacristy in the Church of San Lorenzo in the year 1418. He picked Brunelleschi to be the architect and chose Donatello to create the sculptures. These are just a few of the many contributions that Giovanni made to the art world.
In 1414, Giovanni bet on the permanent return of the papacy to Rome after a long period of exile and schism, and was correct; the papacy was permanently installed in Rome in 1417 under a single pope after the deliberations of the Council of Constance. Rewarding Giovanni for his support, Pope Martin V gave Giovanni's general manager control of the Apostolic Chamber. Subsequent popes also made use of the services of the Medici banks, and in addition, Giovanni was able to secure tax-farming contracts and the rights to many alum mines from the papacy. He set his family on the path to becoming one of the richest dynasties in Europe, thereby making an essential stride towards its later cultural and political prominence. One way in which he laid the groundwork for this was by marrying Piccarda Bueri, whose old and respectable family brought him a large dowry.
In 1418, Giovanni collaborated with one of Florence's chief nobles, Niccolò da Uzzano, to secure the release of the deposed Antipope John XXIII, who was imprisoned in Germany. De Medici paid the stiff ransom of 38,000 ducats himself, and when the former pope died the following year in Florence, de Medici sponsored the construction of his magnificent tomb in the Baptistery.
Despite his growing wealth, Giovanni was diligent in his efforts not to separate the Medici family from the other citizens in Florence. He did so by continuously ensuring that he and his sons dressed and behaved like the average working-class citizens of Florence. This was in part due to his desire not to draw undue attention to himself and his family, and to ensure that, unlike other wealthy families, the Medici remained in the favour of the population. His hopes were to build a positive reputation of his family by avoiding conflicts with the law and keeping the people of Florence happy. His disposition can be understood in his writings, "Strive to keep the people at peace, and the strong places well cared for. Engage in no legal complications, for he who impedes the law shall perish by the law. Do not draw public attention on yourselves yet keep free from blemish as I leave you."
Political activity
Giovanni stayed at arms length from politics for much of his life, but he was urged to reluctantly accept various positions of high office throughout his life in the Signoria of Florence because of the prestige and universal popularity he enjoyed in the city. His attitude is exemplified in his writings to his son Cosimo, saying, "Do not make the government-house your work shop, but wait until you are called to it, then show your selves obedient." He served as a Priore in the Signoria in 1402, 1408 and 1411 and as a Gonfaloniere for the statutory two-month period in 1421. In 1407, he also served as the governor of the city of Pistoia.
In the sphere of politics, Giovanni stayed true to his reputation and the tradition of the Medici family as champions of the people and intractable opponents of the nobility of Florence. In 1426, he exerted his considerable personal influence in the Signoria to replace Florence's inequitable and oppressive poll tax with the Catasto. This was a more regular property tax devised by Giovanni, which lifted the tax burden from the poorer classes in Florence and made it more difficult for the nobility to evade their share. The following year he once again wielded his personal authority and influence in the Signoria to block the passage of oligarchic reforms proposed by the nobility, which would have repealed the ban on nobles serving in the Signoria, and removed some of the lesser guilds from being represented there.
Legacy
When he died, di Bicci was one of the richest men in Florence, as shown by his tax report of 1429. It was reported that upon his death, he was the second richest man in Florence, leaving an abundance of wealth to his son Cosimo. This wealth and banking system led to Cosimo becoming one of the wealthiest men in Europe. Also upon his death, he had become a favourite amongst the Florentine public, with even professional rival Niccolò da Uzzano. Niccolò states in a letter to Giovanni's sons that he had made the family beloved by the people and positioned them for great success. In 1420, Giovanni had given the majority of control of the bank to his two sons, Cosimo and Lorenzo. Upon his death in 1429, he was buried in the Old Sacristy of the Basilica of San Lorenzo, Florence, and his wife was buried with him after her death four years later.
Fictional depictions
Giovanni de' Medici is portrayed by Dustin Hoffman in the 2016 television series Medici: Masters of Florence.
References
Sources
External links
PBS - Medici: Godfathers of the Renaissance
THE MEDICI Genealogical tree from Florence Art Guide - The Renaissance
Medici Family from The Galileo Project
Image of Medici family tree
Italian bankers
Medieval bankers
1360 births
1429 deaths
Giovanni di Bicci
14th-century people of the Republic of Florence
15th-century people of the Republic of Florence
Burials at San Lorenzo, Florence
14th-century Italian businesspeople
15th-century Italian businesspeople | [
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|
215656 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Augustus%20Holyoke | Edward Augustus Holyoke | Edward Augustus Holyoke (August 1, 1728 – March 31, 1829) was an American educator and physician.
Biography
Edward Augustus was born in Marblehead, Province of Massachusetts Bay, on August 1, 1728. His father was the Reverend Edward Holyoke, a former President of Harvard. Edward Augustus himself graduated from Harvard college in 1746. He opened a medical practice in 1748 and practiced for 73 more years, until retiring in 1821. In 1768 he was elected to the American Philosophical Society as a member. He died in Salem, Massachusetts in 1829 at the age of 100, surpassing the average life expectancy of the time by fifty years.
Holyoke was a charter member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the president of the organization from 1814 to 1820. He was also a founder Massachusetts Medical Society. He served as president of the society from 1782 to 1784 and from 1786 to 1788. The length of his service to the medical practice and his pioneering work in the advancement of smallpox vaccinations have been acknowledged.
References
External links
Memoir of Edward A. Holyoke, M.D., (1829). From the Digital Collections of the National Library of Medicine.
1728 births
1829 deaths
American centenarians
Men centenarians
18th-century American physicians
Harvard University alumni
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
Members of the American Philosophical Society | [
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|
215659 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Art%20Institute%20of%20Seattle | The Art Institute of Seattle | The Art Institute of Seattle was a for-profit art and culinary school in Seattle, Washington. The school was one of a number of Art Institutes, a franchise of for-profit art colleges with many branches in North America, owned and operated by Education Management Corporation. EDMC owned the college from 1982 until 2017, when, facing significant financial problems and declining enrollment, the company sold the Art Institute of Seattle, along with 30 other Art Institute schools, to Dream Center Education, a Los Angeles-based Pentecostal organization.
The Dream Center Foundation acquired the school in 2018 and laid off ten of its thirteen full-time teachers in October 2018. The Washington Student Achievement Council then suspended Ai-Seattle's license to operate, which blocked enrollment of new students.
The school closed permanently on March 8, 2019, with 650 students unable to finish the winter quarter. Students were forced to retrieve paper copies of their documents during the last day and were offered scholarships and classes from other nearby universities, including Seattle Pacific University.
History
The Art Institute of Seattle was located in several buildings near the Elliott Bay waterfront in the Belltown neighborhood of Downtown Seattle, near many of the city's design studios, restaurants and corporate offices. It was founded in 1946 as the Burnley School for Art and was renamed in 1982.
In 1946, Edwin Burnley founded the Burnley School of Art and Design and opened the doors at the end of World War II in 1947. In the late 1940s, the Burnley school of Art and Design changed its name to The Burnley School of Professional Art. In 1959, Jess Cauthorn bought the school from Edwin Burnley. The school was run and owned privately by Jess Cauthorn and his wife until 1982 when Jess Cauthorn sold the school to the Education Management Corporation and the school's name became The Art Institute of Seattle. Jess Cauthorn also became the President of the school that year. In 1984, the Accrediting Commission of Career Schools and Colleges of Technology accredited the Art Institute of Seattle. Also in that year, Jess Cauthorn stepped down as the Art Institute of Seattle's president and on May 23, George Pry became the new President of the Art Institute of Seattle. It became part of The Art Institutes and changed its name to The Art Institute of Seattle in 1982. In fall of 1985, the school became fully accredited by the National Association of Trade & Technical Schools; the school also moved from its address at 905 E. Pine to its current location on the waterfront of Seattle at 2323 Elliott Avenue. In 1986, the Art Institute of Seattle was one of eight schools among the Art Institutes. In October 1989, George Pry left the school and Hal Griffith took his place. Hal Griffith was at the school for a period of thirteen months. In November 1990, David Pauldine became the new school President. David Pauldine left in December 1993 and was replaced temporarily by Lew Bender. In February 1994 Less Pritchard became the President of the Art Institute of Seattle. In 1999, Timothy Schutz became President of the school and The Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities granted regional accreditation to the school. In 2003, Shelly Dubois became president. In 2006, the school was granted accreditation at a baccalaureate level to offer programs leading to the Bachelor of Fine Arts degree. In 2009, Barbara Singer became the President of the Art Institute of Seattle followed by Elden Monday in 2010.
Notable persons
Presidents and deans (by year)
1946 – Edwin Burnley (Founder and original owner of the Burnley School of Art and Design)
1959 – Jess Cauthorn (Bought school from Burnley, name changed to The Burnley School of Professional Arts)
1984 – George Pry (School became the Art Institute of Seattle), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
1989 – Hal Griffith (President), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
1990 – David Pauldine (President), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
1993 – Lew Bender (interim replacement for David), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
1994 – Less Pritchard (President), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
1999 – Timothy T. Shutz (President), Daniel J. Lafferty (Dean of Education)
2003 – Shelly C. Dubois (President), Pamela Goad (Dean of Education)Wayback Machine
2009 – Barbara Singer (President), Joan Bouillon (Dean of Academic Affairs)
2010 - Elden Monday (President), Scott Carnz (Dean of Education)
2018 - Lindsey Morgan (President)
Alumni
Gina Mazany (fighter) (graphic design), professional Mixed Martial Artist, current UFC Bantamweight
Jan Haag (art and painting), founder of the American Film Institute's Directing Workshop for Women, textile artist, and poet
References
External links
Universities and colleges in Seattle
Seattle
Art schools in Washington (state)
Educational institutions established in 1946
Cooking schools in the United States
1946 establishments in Washington (state)
Belltown, Seattle
Art Institute of Seattle | [
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|
215661 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhothai%20province | Sukhothai province | Sukhothai (, ) is one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (changwat) lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighboring provinces are Phrae, Uttaradit, Phitsanulok, Kamphaeng Phet, Tak, and Lampang. Sukhothai can be translated as 'dawn of happiness'.
Toponymy
The modern-day province of Sukhothai was named after the Sukhothai Kingdom that once ruled the area, which in turn borrowed its name from the Sanskrit terms sukha ( 'happiness') + udaya ( 'rise', 'emergence'), meaning 'dawn of happiness'.
Geography
Sukhothai is in the valley of the Yom River in the lower north of Thailand. The provincial capital, Sukhothai Thani is north of Bangkok and south of Chiang Mai. The province covers .
The Khao Luang Mountain Range, with its four main peaks: Khao Phu Kha, Khao Phra Mae Ya, Khao Chedi, and Pha Narai, lies within the Ramkhamhaeng National Park in the south of the province. Si Satchanalai National Park is in the northwest, protecting the mountainous forest areas of the Phi Pan Nam Range at the northern end of the province. The total forest area is or 29.6 percent of provincial area.
History
Sukhothai was a town founded in the 13th century on the fringe of the Khmer empire. The exact year is unknown, but according to the Fine Arts Office it was between 1238 and 1257. Founded by Phokhun Si Intharathit, it was the first truly independent Thai (Siamese) Kingdom after defeating the Khmers. Sukhothai enjoyed a golden age under their third king, King Ramkhamhaeng, who was credited with creating the Khmer-derived Thai alphabet which is essentially the same as that in use today. He also laid the foundation for politics, the monarchy and religion, as well as expanding its circle of influence. Sukhothai was later ruled by many kings. The province is most known for the historic city of Sukhothai, the capital of the Sukhothai Kingdom. It is about 12 km from the modern New Sukhothai city. Not far from Sukhothai are the Si Satchanalai Historical Park and the Kamphaeng Phet Historical Park. Both were cities in the former Sukhothai kingdom and at the same time period.
Sukhothai Kingdom was merged into Ayutthaya Kingdom in 1438.
The province was at first known as Sawankhalok; it was renamed to Sukhothai in 1939.
Language
The inhabitants of Sukhothai still speak the Sukhothai dialect of Thai, a language that has been spoken since the formation of the Sukhothai Kingdom, some 700 years ago, among themselves. The Sukhothai dialect is distinct from Central Thai in both tone and vocabulary and is thought to be similar to proto-Tai in tone structure, an ancestor to the modern Thai language. The inhabitants of Si Satchanalai and Thung Saliam Districts in the northern part of the province mainly speak Kham Muang (also known as Northern Thai language or Lan Na).
Symbols
The provincial seal shows King Ram Khamhaeng the Great sitting on the Managkhasila Asana throne. Under King Ramkhamhaeng the kingdom of Sukhothai flourished.
The provincial tree is Afzelia xylocarpa. The provincial flower is the Lotus (Nymphaea lotus).
The provincial slogan is "Source of national heritage and pride, birth place of the Thai alphabet, fireworks of the Loy Krathong festival, preservation of Buddhism, the fine Teen Jok cloth, ancient golden chinaware, holy image of Ramkhamhaeng the Great's mother, the dawn of happiness".
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
The province is divided into nine districts (amphoes). These are further divided into 86 subdistricts (tambons) and 782 villages (mubans).
Mueang Sukhothai
Ban Dan Lan Hoi
Khiri Mat
Kong Krailat
Si Satchanalai
Si Samrong
Sawankhalok
Si Nakhon
Thung Saliam
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Sukhothai Provincial Administration Organisation () and 21 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Sukhothai, Sawankhalok and Si Satchanalai have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 18 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 69 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Transport
Roads
There are five highways traversing Sukhothai:
Highway 12 connects the eastern districts starting at Ban Dan Lan Hoi and passing Muang and Kong Krailat districts to Phitsanulok province.
Highway 101, starting at Si Satchanalai District, connects the northern districts to the southern districts and passing Sawankhalok, Si Samrong, Muang and Khiri Mat Districts to Kamphaeng Phet province.
Highway 102 connects Si Satchanalai District to Uttaradit province.
Highway 1180 connects Sawankhalok District to Si Nakhon District and Uttaradit province.
Highway 1048 connects Sawankhalok District to Thung Saliam District and Lampang province.
Air
Sukhothai Airport is in Sawankhalok District, about from downtown. Flights operate daily between Sukhothai and Bangkok.
Rail
The Rail system in Sukhothai is part of the Sawankhalok Line, a branch line which splits from the Chiang Mai Main Line at Ban Dara Junction, Uttaradit and ends at Sawankhalok Station, 30 kilometers from Sukhothai town.
Songthaew
Songthaews are the most popular form of public transport in the new city and the rural areas. Larger sized Songthaews travel to and from the old and new cities.
Bus
Air-conditioned buses run regularly from Sukhothai Bus Terminal to Bangkok and Chiang Mai, stopping at other major towns on the way. Non air-conditioned buses are for inter-provincial travel to the other districts.
Other
Tuk-tuks and motorbike-taxis are popular for short journeys within the new town.
Tourism
Sukhothai province is most known for its historical city of Sukhothai, the first capital of Siam, founded by King Ramkhamhaeng. The province's temples and monuments have been well restored and Sukhothai Historical Park is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other interesting places include Ramkhamhaeng National Museum, Ramkhamhaeng National Park, Si Satchanalai Historical Park, Khao Luang National Park and The Royal Palace and Wat Mahathat.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Gallery
References
External links
Website of the province
Province page from the Tourist Authority of Thailand
Sukhothai provincial map, coat of arms and postal stamp
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|
215664 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simmering%20%28Vienna%29 | Simmering (Vienna) | Simmering (; Central Bavarian: Simmaring) is the 11th district of Vienna, Austria (). It borders the Danube and was established as a district in 1892. Simmering has several churches, some museums, schools, old castles, and four cemeteries, one of them being the Wiener Zentralfriedhof, one of the largest cemeteries of Europe.
History
The first indications of the settlement Simmering are from 1028. A brewery was built in 1605 and continued to bring in revenue for the area for more than 300 years. Simmering remained small until 1860, when the Rinnböckhäuser housing development was built, which at the time was the second-largest in Vienna, and resulted in rapid growth in the area.
Kaiserebersdorf (earlier known as Ebersdorf) was one of the original villages in the district and held the residence of the Ebendorfer dynasty. Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II hunted frequently in the area and converted the residence into the hunting lodge Schloss Neugebäude.
On January 1, 1892, Simmering, Kaiserebersdorf, and some very small parts of Kledering, Schwechat, and Albern were incorporated into Vienna as the 11th district.
The first indications of the small town of Albern originate from 1162. The town was small throughout its history. It had to be moved and resettled twice due to flooding from the Danube. On October 15, 1938, the town was moved to the former 23rd district of Schwechat. But after World War II, it was moved to the 2nd district Leopoldstadt so that its refineries would belong to the Soviet-occupied quarter of Vienna. In 1955, in the Austrian State Treaty it became part of Simmering.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms for the 11th district has three parts, each representing one of the former villages that were united to form the district. The silver "S" on a blue background stands for the former village of Simmering. The rearing unicorn on a golden background stands for Kaiserebersdorf and comes from the coat of arms of the Herr von Hintperg-Ebersdorf, who founded the settlement. The third part shows the symbol of the former village of Albern. The crossed fish on red background are reminiscent of the fishing tradition that was important to the people of Albern.
Geography
The district lies in the southern part of Vienna. It borders the Danube and Danube Canal to the east and the East railway to the west. Of all the districts, Simmering is the lowest district in terms of elevation.
Transportation
Simmering has always been on important transport routes to the south and east. These include the following:
Simmering was crossed by the Wiener Neustadt Canal, which has fallen into disuse around Simmering.
Many railway lines pass through Simmering, such as the East railway, the railway to Aspang, and many industrial lines.
Albern is home to a harbour for cereals on the River Danube.
The high street in Simmering dates back to a Roman road.
The motorway A4 to Vienna International Airport and on to Hungary starts in Simmering.
Politics
Simmering was a stronghold for social democrats as early as the start of the 20th century. In the district vote of 1919, the social democrats won 21 positions in the district government, with the Christian Social Party taking the next largest vote with only 7 seats and the Tschechische Liste (literally Czech list) taking 2 seats.
The social democrats of Simmering and of the rest of the so-called "Rotes Wien" (Red Vienna) pushed to build housing developments throughout Vienna and in 1934, 19 Gemeindebauten were built in Simmering.
The rise of Nazism in Vienna was hardly acknowledged in the vote of Simmering, as the party took only 7.2% of the vote in 1932, the worst outcome in the whole city. Even after 1945, the Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) continued to dominate the votes. In the mid-1990s, the SPÖ fell from 59% to 48% of the vote and lost their majority, with the Freedom Party (FPÖ) gaining support to 31% of the vote. The trend reversed itself in 2001, and the SPÖ retook 59.22% of the vote, FPÖ took 21.37%, Austrian People's Party (ÖVP) had 9.82%, the Greens had 6.77%, and the Liberal Forum barely took a seat with 2.02% of the vote. In 2005, the SPÖ improved their result slightly to 60.7%, before losing the absolute majority with a loss of 11% at the following election in 2010, finishing with 49.2% of the vote. The ÖVP and Greens also lost voters, while the FPÖ nearly doubled their share of the vote to 34.2%. In 2015, the SPÖ lost the relative majority to the FPÖ. Simmering is the first Viennese district with an FPÖ district director.
Infrastructure
The 11th district has always been known for its industries. In the 19th century, Simmering generated and supplied the electricity for the Straßenbahnen (trams) of Vienna and also had a gas works to supply the city with town gas for its lights. The gas works produced natural gas from 1899 to 1978, but today serves as a distribution post for natural gas brought in. There were huge 70-meter tall gas tanks on the premises, called the Gasometer (featured in the James Bond film The Living Daylights). Reconstruction in 2001 converted the structures from containers to buildings that today house apartments, offices, a shopping centre, and a cinema. The towers of the Gasometer have ranked next to the Zentralfriedhof as a landmark of the 11th district.
The district also hosts other municipal infrastructure, including the EBS (special material recycling center), a sewage treatment facility that treats about 90% of the city's sewage, and also a juvenile detention center.
Gardens
Simmering is home to many large undeveloped stretches of greenery and fields full of vegetable gardens that provide produce for the city.
Industry
Many industries call Simmering home, including Simmering-Graz-Pauker (SGP, rail car manufacturer), Steyr (armory, weapons, and military vehicle manufacturer), Hoerbiger (compression valve manufacturer, founded by Hanns Hörbiger), and other companies in the electrical and pharmaceutical industries.
Cultural and medial reflection
1979 Simmering, a poetic documentary film about Simmering was released by Alexander Schukoff and Reinhard Kofler. Prior to her death, Russian-American cultural theorist Svetlana Boym worked on the short film Remembering Forgetting based on her time at the transit refugee camp for Jewish emigrants from the Soviet Union in 1981, for which she interviewed Schukoff and other Jewish intellectuals who stayed at the camp. Among them were Masha Gessen, Vitaly Komar, Anton Vidokle, and Regina Spektor. The film debuted in 2016.
Notable people
Rosa Jochmann, social democrat and resistance fighter
Christian Kern, social democratic Chancellor of Austria (2016–2017)
Karl Sesta (Szestak), footballer
Sightseeing
The following are points of interest:
Feuerhalle Simmering - crematorium
Friedhof der Namenlosen, cemetery of the nameless
Gasometer, gas tanks remodelled into housing, offices, and shopping venues
Lueger Kirche - church
Schloss Concordia - castle
Schloss Neugebäude - castle
Schloss Thürnlhof - castle
Wiener Zentralfriedhof, cemetery
Notes
References
[Parts of this article were translated from German Wikipedia.]
"Wien - 11. Bezirk/Simmering", Wien.gv.at, 2008, webpage (15 subpages): Wien.gv.at-simmering (in German).
Felix Czeike: Wiener Bezirkskulturführer: XI. Simmering. Jugend und Volk, Vienna 1980, .
Hans Havelka: Simmering. Geschichte des 11. Wiener Gemeindebezirkes und seiner alten Orte. Jugend und Volk, Vienna 1983, .
Hans Havelka: Verschwundenes und vergessenes Simmering. Ein besinnlicher Spaziergang von St. Marx bis zur alten Laurenzkirche. Heimat-Museum Simmering, Vienna 1968.
Christine Klusacek, Kurt Stimmer: Simmering. Von der Had zum Monte Laa. Mohl, Vienna 1997, .
Petra Leban: Simmering: Wiens 11. Bezirk. Sutton, Erfurt 2001. .
External links
Communal website of the district Simmering
Gasometer in Vienna (English)
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|
215668 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhothai | Sukhothai | Sukhothai () may refer to:
Sukhothai Kingdom, kingdom in Thailand, 1238–1583
Sukhothai (city), historic capital of the kingdom
Sukhothai Historical Park, the ruins of the city
Sukhothai state, vassal state of Khmer empire in the 12th century.
Sukhothai art, traditional Thai artwork from the Sukhothai Kingdom
Sukhothai Province, province in central northern Thailand
Mueang Sukhothai District, capital district of the province
New Sukhothai or Sukhothai Thani, the town and capital of the province
Sukhothai F.C., football club based in Sukhothai Province
Sukhothai Institute of Physical Education Stadium, multi-use stadium, home of the Sukhothai football club
Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, public university in Nonthaburi, Thailand
HTMS Sukhothai Subclass, corvette in the Royal Thai Navy | [
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215669 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacGillycuddy%27s%20Reeks | MacGillycuddy's Reeks | MacGillycuddy's Reeks () is a sandstone and siltstone mountain range in the Iveragh Peninsula in County Kerry, Ireland. Stretching , from the Gap of Dunloe in the east, to Glencar in the west, the Reeks is Ireland's highest mountain range, and includes most of the highest peaks and sharpest ridges in Ireland, and the only peaks on the island over in height.
Near the centre of the range is Carrauntoohil, Ireland's highest mountain at . The range was heavily glaciated which carved out deep corries (e.g. the Eagle's Nest), U-shaped valleys (e.g. Lough Coomloughra), and sharp arêtes and ridges (e.g. the Beenkeragh Ridge).
The range, part of the Reeks District, is a popular destination for mountain walking and climbing and includes some of Ireland's most regarded walking routes such as the 15–kilometre Coomloughra Horseshoe, and the 26-kilometre MacGillycuddy's Reeks Ridge Walk that traverses the full range; it is estimated that over 140,000 people visit the range each year. The entire range is in private ownership; however, reasonable access is given for recreational use.
Geology
MacGillycuddy's Reeks are composed of sandstone particles of various sizes which are collectively known as the Old Red Sandstone. The rocks date from the Upper Devonian period (310–450 million years ago) when Ireland was in a hot equatorial setting. During this 60 million year period, Ireland was the site of a major basin, known as the Munster basin, and the counties of Cork and Kerry were effectively a large alluvial floodplain. Chemical oxidation stained the material with a purple–reddish colour (and green in places from chlorination), still visible today. There are virtually no fossils in Old Red Sandstone. The composition of Old Red Sandstone is variable and contains quartz stones, mudstones, siltstones, and sandstone particles (boulders of conglomerate rock containing quartz pebbles are visible throughout the range). The Reeks were also subject to significant glaciation which led to fracturing of the rock, and resulted in deep corries (e.g. the Eagle's Nest), U-shaped valleys (e.g. Lough Coomloughra), and sharp arêtes and ridges (e.g. the Beenkeragh Ridge).
Geography
MacGillycuddy's Reeks are variously described as consisting of two main sections, containing all ten of the Reeks that are above 3,000 ft:
The Eastern Reeks meet the Coomloughea Reeks at the col of the Devil's Ladder, a popular ascent route for Carrauntoohil.
MacGillycuddy's Reeks contains the three peaks in Ireland which are over in height, namely: Carrauntoohil, Ireland's highest mountain at , followed by Beenkeragh at and Caher at .
The range contains eleven of the fourteen peaks in Ireland that are over in height, and meet the Vandeleur-Lynam classification of a mountain—peaks with a prominence over . All but one of these eleven 3,000 ft peaks, namely Cnoc an Chuillinn East Top, are amongst the list of thirteen Irish Furths—peaks which meet the Scottish Mountaineering Club's criteria for a Munro, and they are therefore also known as Irish Munros.
There are 29 peaks in the range above in height. The range contains 14 Irish Hewitts (height above 2,000 ft and prominence above 30 metres), and 16 Irish Arderins (height above 500 metres and prominence above 30 metres). The range is also known for its sharp aretes, including The Bones arete, more famously known as the Beenkeragh Ridge, and The Big Gun arete.
A feature of the range is the modest topographic prominence, or "drop" between many of its peaks. Only two of the eleven Reeks over 3,000 ft meet the Marilyn classification of a mountain (a prominence above 150 metres), namely Carrauntoohil and Cnoc na Péiste. The only Reek that meets the P600 classification (a prominence above 600 metres), is Carrauntoohil itself. The combination of high peaks and low prominence, means the ridges between the peaks are at a sustained height (e.g. why the prominence is so modest), which has contributed to the popularity of ridge walking in the Reeks, particularly, the Coomloughra Horseshoe, and the MacGillycuddy's Reeks Ridge Walk, and the term, "Ireland's highest mountain range".
Ownership
The entire range is held in private ownership, both in individually owned freehold parcels in the lower reaches and in commonly owned, open upland zones (‘commonage’). A State-sponsored report into access for the range in December 2013 titled MacGillycuddy Reeks Mountain Access Development Assessment (also called the Mountain Access Project, or MAP), mapped the complex network of land titles. Unlike many other national mountain ranges, the MacGillycuddy's Reeks are not part of a national park or a trust structure.
The private ownership has led to issues around the upkeep of popular paths in the Reeks, most particularly the erosion of the Devil's Ladder path, which is used to summit Carrauntoohil; and various car-parks and bridges used by climbers. The 2013 MAP report noted the importance of safety in light of the increasing climbers and walkers to the Reeks. The MAP report stated that Kerry Mountain Rescue ("KMR") logged 17 fatalities on the Reeks between 1966 and 2000, or about one every second year, but since 2000, KMR had been logging approximately 2 fatalities per annum.
In 2019 the Irish Times reported that the MacGillycuddy Reeks Mountain Access Forum, a cross-body group of landowners, commercial users and public access and walking groups set up in 2014 with the aim of "protecting, managing and sustainably developing the MacGillycuddy's Reeks mountain range, while halting and reversing the obvious and worsening path erosion", had achieved some success laying down new pathways in the Hag's Glen approach to Carrauntoohil; however, the Irish Times still wondered, "Should the Kerry reeks be a national park?".
Naming
The name of the range is , which is shortened in the Irish form to , meaning "The Black Stacks". However, in the English form, the name is translated as "MacGillycuddy's Reeks" (the translation used in Gasaitéar na hÉireann). The English name is sometimes incorrectly written as "The MacGillycuddy's Reeks", "MacGillycuddy Reeks", or "Macgillycuddy's Reeks".
The MacGillycuddy () were a sept, or branch, of the O'Sullivan Moore clan. The MacGillycuddy is recorded as being one of a smaller number of Gaelic chieftains whose lands were returned post the Cromwellian confiscations, which explains why the name survives to this day. The MacGillycuddy family tomb is at Kilgobnet (Kerry), between the mountains and Killorglin. The clan chief, McGillycuddy of the Reeks, owned land in this part of Munster until the end of the 20th century. The word reek is a Hiberno-English version of the English word rick, meaning a stack.
Recreation
Visitors
Jim Ryan's 2006 book on the Reeks, Carrauntoohil and MacGillycuddy's Reeks: A Walking Guide to Ireland's Highest Mountains, stated that there were 25,000 annual visitors to the Reeks. The 2013 MAP report quoted Ryan's figures, which were cited in the MAP's Terms of Reference, but stated that: "The Reeks are accessed by at least 25,000 recreational users per annum. It is highly likely that the numbers are a factor of 4 times higher based on observation of the year-round level of usage – but data is required to ascertain the visitor numbers." It was estimated that 125,000 visitors entered the range in 2017 from footfall at three main access points, and that 140,000 entered in 2018 by recording footfall at four main access points.
Hill walking
The most common reason for visiting the Reeks is to climb Ireland's highest mountain, Carrauntoohil. The popular route starts from Cronin's Yard () and enters the Hag's Glen to climb the Devil's Ladder (the col between Carrauntoohil and Cnoc na Toinne), from which the summit is accessed. A more challenging route is via the Hag's Tooth Ridge which circles the Eagle's Nest, and takes in Beenkeragh, and the Beenkeragh Ridge.
MacGillycuddy's Reeks is particularly regarded for the quality of its ridge walking routes, with the 6–8 hour Coomloughra Horseshoe, that circles Lough Coomloughra, considered "one of Ireland's classic ridge walks", which takes in all three of Ireland's peaks, namely, Carrauntoohil, Beenkeragh, and Caher (East Top and West Top), as well as the famous Beenkeragh Ridge.
The most challenging route is the full MacGillycuddy's Reeks Ridge Walk, a 12- to 14-hour, traverse of the entire range. The route normally starts at the eastern end from Kate Kearney's Cottage in the Gap of Dunloe. The route takes in Stickeen Mountain () and Cnoc an Bhráca () before reaching the ridge proper at Cruach Mhór (). From there it continues along the narrow arete of The Big Gun () to Cnoc na Péiste (), and continuing along the chain of Maolán Buí (), Cnoc an Chuillinn (), Cnoc na Toinne () to the summit of Carrauntoohil ().
From Carrauntoohil, a number of variations are possible, the main one being a detour to Beenkeragh () before returning along the same route to get to Caher () and then on to Caher West Top () before descending to the Hydro-Track () car park near Lough Acoose, Glencar.
An alternative variation is to continue from Beenkeragh on the northern side of the Coomloughra Horseshoe to the peaks or Skregmore () and Cnoc Íochtair () before descending to the Hydro-Track car park.
Rock and winter climbing
MacGillycuddy's Reeks are not especially known for their rock-climbing routes, unlike Ailladie in Clare or Fair Head in Antrim. The rock climbing grade Very Difficult (V-Diff), Howling Ridge up the central arete between the east and north-east faces of Carrauntoohil is notable. The north-east face of Carrauntoohil (e.g. the Eagle's Nest area), is better known for its winter climbing, conditions permitting, offering 80 routes with 7 up to winter Grade V.
List of peaks
The following is a download from the MountainViews Online Database, which lists 29 identifiable Reeks with an elevation, or height, above .
See also
Lists of mountains in Ireland
List of Irish counties by highest point
List of mountains of the British Isles by height
List of P600 mountains in the British Isles
List of Furth mountains in the British Isles
List of highest points of European countries
List of countries by highest point
References
Further reading
External links
MountainViews: The Irish Mountain Website
Hill Bagging UK & Ireland, the searchable interface for the DoBIH
Winter Climbing around Carrauntoohil, The Irish Climbing Wiki
Ordnance Survey Ireland ("OSI") Online Map Viewer
MacGillycuddy's Reeks Mountain Access Forum, group tasked with developing the range
Hag's Glen, MacGillycuddy's Reeks, aerial photograph of the central Reeks.
Marilyns of Ireland
Hewitts of Ireland
Mountains and hills of County Kerry
Highest points of Irish counties
Furths
One-thousanders of the British Isles
Iveragh Peninsula
Highest points of countries | [
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215670 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil%27%20Kim | Lil' Kim | Kimberly Denise Jones (born July 11, 1974), better known by her stage name Lil' Kim, is an American rapper and reality television personality. Born and raised in Brooklyn, New York City, she lived much of her adolescent life on the streets after being expelled from home. In her teens, Jones would freestyle rap, influenced by fellow female hip hop artists like MC Lyte and The Lady of Rage. In 1994, she was discovered by fellow rapper The Notorious B.I.G., who invited her to join his group Junior M.A.F.I.A.; their debut album, Conspiracy, generated two top 20 singles in the United States and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA).
Lil' Kim's debut studio album, Hard Core (1996) was certified double platinum, has since sold more than six million copies worldwide, and spawned three successful singles: "No Time", "Not Tonight (Ladies Night)", and "Crush on You". It had the highest debut in the US for a female rap album at the time. Her following albums, The Notorious K.I.M. (2000) and La Bella Mafia (2003) were also certified platinum. In 2001, Lil' Kim reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 with the single "Lady Marmalade" (a remake of LaBelle' 1974 single), alongside Mýa, Pink, and Christina Aguilera. Other notable singles from this period include "The Jump Off" and "Magic Stick", the latter of which reached number two on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Kim's 2nd-highest-charting single as a lead artist.
In 2005, Lil' Kim served a one-year prison sentence for lying to a jury about her friends' involvement in a shooting four years earlier. During her incarceration, her fourth album, The Naked Truth, was released to positive reviews from critics. A reality series covering her sentence, Lil' Kim: Countdown to Lockdown, premiered on BET in 2006. She released her first mixtape, Ms. G.O.A.T., in 2008 and returned to the public eye in 2009 with an appearance on Dancing with the Stars. Throughout the 2010s, she continued to release music and perform sporadically, collaborating with artists such as Faith Evans, Remy Ma, and Fabolous. Her fifth studio album, 9, was released in 2019.
Lil' Kim has been referred to as the "Queen of Rap" by several media outlets, and has sold more than 15 million albums and 30 million singles worldwide. Her songs "No Time", "Big Momma Thang", and "Not Tonight (Ladies Night)" were each listed on Complex's list of the 50 Best Rap Songs By Women. In 2012, Lil' Kim was listed on VH1's 100 Greatest Women in Music list at number 45, the second highest position for a solo female hip-hop artist. Aside from music, Lil' Kim is also known for her risk-taking and luxurious approach to fashion that inspired many artists; she has been cited as a fashion icon. She has been noted for helping women embrace their "sexuality and femininity" in a way that was a stark contrast at the time from other female artists.
Life and career
Early life and career beginnings
Jones was born in the Bedford–Stuyvesant neighborhood of Brooklyn, the second child of Linwood Jones, a former U.S. Marine, and Ruby Jones (later Ruby Jones-Mitchell). She has one older brother named Christopher. As a child, Jones attended Queen of All Saints Elementary School in Brooklyn. At the age of 9, her parents separated, and Jones was raised by her father, with whom she had a tumultuous relationship. After being kicked out of her house by her father, Jones dropped out of high school and began living out on the streets.
As a teenager, Jones met Christopher Wallace, known professionally as The Notorious B.I.G., who was a key figure in both her personal and artistic life, particularly after Wallace gained popularity and influence through his relationship with Bad Boy Records, founded by Sean "Puffy" Combs. Jones attended Sarah J. Hale Vocational High School for two and a half years. Many of her friends also went there, and they would all often skip school to hang out with each other. Since she was not completing her school work, the decision was made for her to transfer to Brooklyn College Academy to finish her remaining year and half of high school. This was the same school that fellow rappers Nas and Foxy Brown attended.
In 1994, B.I.G. was instrumental in introducing and promoting the Brooklyn-based group Junior M.A.F.I.A., which included Jones, who adopted the stage name Lil' Kim and was 19 at the time. The group's album, Conspiracy, was released to mediocre reviews and moderate sales on August 29, 1995, but debuted at number eight on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart, selling 69,000 copies in its first week of release. Wallace wrote and ghostwrote most of the album's material. Three hit singles came from Conspiracy: "Player's Anthem", "I Need You Tonight", and "Get Money". The RIAA certified Conspiracy gold on December 6, 1995. "Player's Anthem" and "Get Money" were certified gold and platinum respectively. Lil' Kim's increasing popularity as a member of Junior M.A.F.I.A. allowed her to start a solo career shortly after the Conspiracy album was released, and she began working on what would become her debut album Hard Core by late 1995.
1996–2002: Hard Core and The Notorious K.I.M.
After a year with Junior M.A.F.I.A., Lil' Kim began her solo career by making guest performances on R&B albums and recording her debut album, Hard Core, which was released in November 1996. The album debuted at number 11 on the Billboard 200, the highest debut for a female rap album at that time, and number 3 on Billboards Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums, selling 78,000 copies in its first week of release and has sold over 5 million copies worldwide. Hard Core was certified double platinum by the RIAA on March 14, 2001, after having been certified gold on January 6, 1997, and platinum on June 3, 1997. The album's lead single "No Time", a duet with Combs, reached the top spot of the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart and was certified gold by the RIAA. The following single was "Crush on You", a remixed version of the track that appeared on Hard Core. A remix of the album's track "Not Tonight" saw Lil' Kim team up with Missy Elliott, Angie Martinez, Da Brat and Left Eye of TLC with the song peaking at 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. The song was part of the soundtrack to the Martin Lawrence movie Nothing to Lose, nominated for a Grammy Award, and certified platinum. She became the first female rapper to have three consecutive number ones on the Billboard Hot Rap Tracks chart. In one stockholders' meeting of Warner Bros. Records, activist C. Delores Tucker criticized the label "for producing this filth", referring to perceived graphic sexual content in Lil' Kim's lyrics, and labeling them "gangsta porno rap". In 1997, Lil' Kim promoted Hard Core by performing on P. Diddy's "No Way Out" tour. The tour continued through to 1998 and became one of the highest grossing hip-hop tours of all time, grossing an estimated $16 million. That same year, she launched her own label Queen Bee Entertainment. From 1998 to 2000, Lil' Kim continued working under the management of B.I.G.'s best friend, Damion "D-Roc" Butler's "Roc Management", touring and modeling for various fashion and pop culture companies including Candie's, Versace, Iceberg, and Baby Phat. Her outfit at the 1999 MTV Video Music Awards received widespread media attention, fueled by the "shocked" response of presenter Diana Ross, who approached and jiggled Kim's exposed breast on national television. The Washington Post considered that the incident solidified Lil' Kim's "image of sexual fearlessness" and her career as "a fashion trendsetter."
On June 27, 2000, Lil' Kim released her second album The Notorious K.I.M. The album marked a new image and revamped look for the rapper. Despite the limited success of its singles, the album debuted at number 4 on the Billboard 200 and number 1 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, selling 229,000 copies in its first week. It was certified platinum by the RIAA, four weeks after its release. It was on this LP that the well-known hip-hop feud between Lil' Kim and Foxy Brown escalated. In 2001, Lil' Kim teamed up with Christina Aguilera, Pink, and Mýa to remake "Lady Marmalade", which was originally written about a bordello in New Orleans and performed by the group Labelle (which included diva Patti LaBelle) 25 years earlier. The song was recorded for the Moulin Rouge! film soundtrack, released in April 2001, and stayed number 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks. The song also went to number 1 in 50 countries around the world. This was a big accomplishment for female rap, as well as for Lil' Kim, who scored her first number 1 Hot 100 hit and became the second solo female rapper in history to hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 charts. "Lady Marmalade" also garnered Lil' Kim her first Grammy Award. The second single, "Kimnotyze", was released as the lead single of record producer DJ Tomekk's compilation album Beat Of Life, Vol 1. It was released in Switzerland, Austria and Germany only. The song was successful, becoming Lil' Kim's third consecutive top 10 hit in Germany after her number 5 hit "Lady Marmalade".
In 2002, Lil' Kim recorded a new entrance theme for then World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) Women's Champion Trish Stratus entitled "Time to Rock 'n Roll", which was used during broadcasts, until Stratus' retirement. The single was released on WWE Anthology, a compilation of entrance theme music to various professional wrestling superstars. Lil' Kim released the song "Whats The Word" in mid-2002. Despite not having an official release, it went on to peak at number 9 on the Bubbling Under R&B/Hip-Hop Singles chart. It would later be released on the Japan edition of her third studio album, La Bella Mafia, as a bonus track.
2003–2005: La Bella Mafia
On March 4, 2003, Lil' Kim released her third studio album, La Bella Mafia. It debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200, selling 166,000 copies in its first week, giving Lil' Kim her second consecutive top 5 album. The album received generally positive reviews from critics, receiving a score of 65 on Metacritic. A buzz single, "Came Back For You", was released ahead of the album, the music video for the song featured reality television personality Victoria Gotti. The first single, "The Jump Off", featuring Mr. Cheeks, peaked at number 16 on the Billboard Hot 100. Follow up single, "Magic Stick", featuring 50 Cent, peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100, staying there for three weeks. The song did not have a commercial release or a music video, but was successful due to high radio airplay, peaking at number one on the Billboard Airplay chart. A third US only single, "Thug Luv", featuring Twista, was released in the last quarter of 2003 at peaked at number 60 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. The album was certified platinum in the US, selling over 1.1 million copies. Lil' Kim promoted the album with a string of concerts, which also featured DMX and Nas. Lil' Kim was nominated for five Source Awards and won two ("Female Hip-Hop Artist of the Year", and "Female Single of the Year"). The album also got two Grammy Award nominations for Best Female Rap Solo Performance ("Came Back For You") and Best Rap Collaboration ("Magic Stick"). She was also nominated for Best Pop Collaboration with singer Christina Aguilera for the song "Can't Hold Us Down", from Aguilera's album Stripped.
Greg Thomas, an English professor at Syracuse University, began teaching "Hip-Hop Eshu: Queen B@#$H Lyricism 101". Lil' Kim herself was a guest speaker at the school. Professor Thomas considered Lil' Kim's lyrics "the art with the most profound sexual politics I've ever seen anywhere." David Horowitz criticized the course as "academic degeneracy and decline". Lil' Kim also made an appearance on the multi-platform videogame Def Jam: Fight for NY. Lil' Kim provided voice-overs for her part in the storyline, where the player may fight an opponent to have Lil' Kim as their girlfriend. In 2004, Lil' Kim recorded a cover of "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" which was used as the opening theme for Victoria Gotti's reality series Growing Up Gotti. The same year Lil' Kim was featured on the remix of "Naughty Girl" by Beyoncé. In December 2004, Lil' Kim began recording a pilot for a VH1 reality show titled 718 Makeover. The 718 in the title is the area code for Brooklyn, where Lil' Kim grew up. The show did not make it to air.
2005–2008: The Naked Truth and Ms. G.O.A.T
Lil' Kim released her fourth album, The Naked Truth, on September 27, 2005, while serving a federal prison sentence. It earned her a 5 mic rating from The Source, making her the only female rapper to ever receive a 5 mic rating. The album debuted at number 6 on the Billboard 200 chart, selling 109,000 copies in its first week of release, giving Lil' Kim her third top 10 debut on the chart. The Naked Truth did not sell as well as her previous works, it only managed to reach a gold certification by RIAA. She said that her prison sentence left her with no time to promote the project. The music video for The Naked Truth first single, "Lighters Up", was number one on BET's 106 & Park for two weeks. "Lighters Up" was a Top Ten hit on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart. The single also reached number. 67 on the German Single Chart, number 12 on the UK Top 75 and number 4 on the Finland Single Chart. The second single, "Whoa" was released on February 17, 2006. It reached number 22 on Airplay.
On March 9, 2006, BET premiered the show Lil' Kim: Countdown to Lockdown, which was filmed before Lil' Kim headed to prison. The show became the highest rated premiere in BET history, averaging 1.9 million viewers. In May 2006, Debbie Harry released a song in tribute to Lil' Kim called "Dirty and Deep" in protest of her conviction. The song was available for free from her official website. Dance Remixes, her first compilation album, was released on June 6, 2006. The album featured remixes of songs from The Naked Truth and Hard Core. A limited pressing released only in the US, it received no promotion, due to Lil' Kim being in prison at the time of release, and failed to chart. On August 31, 2006, Lil' Kim presented the award for Best Male Video at the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards, it marked her first televised appearance since being released from prison. She also made appearances on the show The Pussycat Dolls Present: The Search for the Next Doll and Pussycat Dolls Present: Girlicious in 2007 and 2008 as a judge.
In January 2008, Lil' Kim announced that she had parted ways with Atlantic Records, choosing to release future projects independently. She stated she had no hard feelings towards Atlantic but felt more comfortable in her knowledge of the music business to do it alone. Lil' Kim released her first mixtape, Ms. G.O.A.T., an acronym for "Greatest of All Time", on June 3, 2008. It was produced by New York City DJs Mister Cee and DJ Whoo Kid. Among critics, the mixtape received generally positive reviews. It has been called a representation of Lil' Kim's return to the streets. Tito Salinas of All Hip Hop says "Lil' Kim shows that her time behind bars did not rust all of her swag away" on Ms. G.O.A.T. On the other hand, Ehren Gresehover of New York Mag says that although one of the tracks "The Miseducation of Lil' Kim" is not bad, he wished that it was Lauryn Hill who was making a comeback instead.
2009–2011: Dancing with the Stars and Black Friday
On March 10, 2009, the song "Girls" by Korean singer Seven featuring Lil' Kim was released through digital stores as his U.S. debut single. Lil' Kim appeared in the music video that was released on the same day. "Girls" was produced by Darkchild. On March 24, 2009, she released the song "Download" featuring R&B singers T-Pain and Charlie Wilson. It was written by Lil' Kim and T-Pain and produced by Trackmasters. The song samples "Computer Love" by Zapp. Although it missed the Hot 100, it did chart on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, peaking at number 21.
Lil' Kim appeared on the eighth season of reality series Dancing with the Stars, which began airing on March 9, 2009. She was paired with professional dancer Derek Hough until the dance couple was eliminated on May 5, 2009, against Ty Murray and his partner Chelsie Hightower, putting her at fifth place from all thirteen contestants that season. Her elimination was met by many boos from the audience, as she was a consistent high-scorer and a fan favorite.
On February 16, 2010, the Ludacris song "Hey Ho", which featured Lil' Kim and Lil Fate, was released as a promo single for his seventh studio album Battle of the Sexes. In June 2010, Lil' Kim started her 2010 Tour, her first headlining tour since 2000. It took her across the US, as well as Canada and Europe.
Lil' Kim released her second mixtape, Black Friday, on February 14, 2011. The video for the title track was released on February 16, 2011. The mixtape received mostly negative reviews from critics. It was made available for purchase via PayPal. In May 2011, Lil' Kim performed in South Africa as part of the music festival ZarFest alongside Fat Joe, Timbaland and Ciara. On June 19, 2011, Lil' Kim performed alongside G-Unit member Shawty Lo and hinted a possible working relationship with G-Unit Records. That same month the song Lil' Kim, along with Rick Ross, was featured on titled "Anything (To Find You)", by R&B singer Monica was leaked. The song, which samples The Notorious B.I.G.'s "Who Shot Ya?", initially featured just Lil' Kim, but her second verse was removed to make room for Ross. Her vocals were then removed fully due to contractual issues with B.I.G.'s estate. In August 2011, Lil' Kim performed four dates in Australia as part of the WinterBeatz Festival alongside Fabolous, Mario, 50 Cent and G-Unit. During the August, 17 date in Perth, she joined 50 Cent on stage for a performance of "Magic Stick". It marked the first time the pair had performed the song together. On November 28, 2011, Lil' Kim released a buzz single called "I Am Not the One". She also announced that she would release an EP, but it was later shelved for unknown reasons.
2012–2016: Hardcore Mixtape and Lil' Kim Season
In the summer of 2011, Lil' Kim began recording material for her fifth studio album, as a restriction banning her from releasing new material as a result of her settlement with Trackmasters was lifted. On Valentine's Day, 2012, Lil' Kim released the song "If You Love Me" produced by Prince Saheb of Knockout Entertainment as a gift to her fans. That same month it was announced she would make her return to the stage on BET's Rip the Runway. It marked her first televised performance in years. In March 2012, during an interview with MTV's Sucker Free, Lil' Kim revealed that contract issues with production duo Trackmasters were the reason behind her album delay, saying "...contractually, by the courts, I could not record any music – I wasn't supposed to put any music out." On March 23, 2012, the song "Keys to the City", a collaboration with Young Jeezy, was leaked to the Internet. Lil' Kim first mentioned the song during an interview with MTV's RapFix, saying "I have a song with another celebrity person that I know the world and my fans are gonna love... It's vintage Kim mixed with the new Kim." During the same RapFix interview, Lil' Kim also revealed another song, titled "I'm Ready", which she hopes to do with rapper 50 Cent. Lil' Kim also commented on the direction of her music, saying she was in "Kanye West mode", adding "...You do whatever you want to do ...it's all about taking chances". Lil' Kim kicked off her Return of the Queen Tour on May 17, 2012, to positive reviews. In a radio interview at 99 Jamz, Lil' Kim stated that her upcoming book, The Price of Loyalty, is on hold to coincide with the release of her new album. During an interview with XXL on April 26, 2013, Lil' Kim revealed that she does not have a name for the album yet, but the first official single would be out by mid year. Lil' Kim described the single, produced by Bangladesh, as "different" and "sweet dessert". On July 11, 2013, Lil' Kim released the Rockwilder-produced single "Looks Like Money" as a free download to her fans on her birthday.
On July 26, 2013, Lil' Kim announced and released the cover art for a new mixtape entitled Hard Core 2K13, which will also serve as a sequel to her critically acclaimed debut album, Hard Core. The mixtape was originally set to be released on October 31, 2013, but for unknown reasons, was pushed back. To make up for not releasing the mixtape, Lil' Kim released the singles "Dead Gal Walking" and "Kimmy Blanco" to the public, along with the track list. The track list revealed collaborations with French Montana, Miley Cyrus, Jadakiss, and Yo Gotti.
On August 2, 2014, Lil' Kim announced via her Twitter page that she would be launching a concert tour to promote her forthcoming Hard Core Mixtape. Throughout the remainder of the month of August, Lil' Kim released a number of remixes to popular songs, including a remix to Beyoncé's and Nicki Minaj's collaboration of "Flawless", seemingly as a diss to Minaj, reigniting the rap feud between the two rappers.
On September 11, 2014, the Hard Core mixtape was released as free download on Kim's official website. In an interview with Revolt TV on the same day, Lil' Kim revealed that she, Iggy Azalea, and T.I. would be collaborating on a song sometime in the future, saying "I don't know if it's going to be for my album or if we're just going to…we have other plans for it as well. But, I think we're going to do a double release." In the same interview, she explained the reasons why the mixtape was pushed back twice, stating "When this project was supposed to come out I had got pregnant. I didn't know. [...] Once I became fully pregnant, I was working in the studio but at one point I couldn't work anymore, obviously".
In 2016, Lil' Kim's fourth mixtape Lil Kim Season was released. On the mixtape, she freestyles over several popular beats, Drake's "Summer Sixteen", Rihanna's "Work", and Desiigner's "Panda". Upon release, the mixtape received mixed reviews from critics. Jen Yamato from The Daily Beast wrote, "if anything, Lil Kim Season indicates that Kim's got her sights set on returning in a big way—and that she's collecting collaborators who might help her achieve it."
2017–present: Girls Cruise and 9
In February 2017, Lil' Kim announced via her Instagram account and an interview that she is working on a new album set to be released in 2019. Lil' Kim was featured on the song "Lovin You for Life" from the album The King & I, by singer Faith Evans, which was released on May 19, 2017. That same month, Lil' Kim along with Eve and Trina was featured on the remix of "I'm Better" by Missy Elliott. In November, Lil' Kim released a promotional single "Took Us a Break", and was featured on the song "Wake Me Up" by rapper Remy Ma. In March 2018, Lil' Kim released another promotional single "Spicy" featured rapper Fabolous.
On July 11, 2018, Lil' Kim released the single "Nasty One" which was anticipated to be a single from her highly anticipated album (the track would later go on to not be included). That same day during an interview with Billboard, Lil' Kim revealed that her upcoming album would be released in November 2018. A remix for the single was released on October 26, 2018, and featured Kranium, HoodCelebrityy, and Stefflon Don. In September 2018, it was revealed that the debut single for her album, titled "Go Awff" would be released at a later date. The song was eventually released on February 15, 2019. That same month, Kim was spotted in Barbados with fellow hip hop stars Mýa and Chilli, friends Char DeFrancesco (husband to Marc Jacobs one of Kim's best friends) and Tiffany, as well as MTV personalities Pretty Vee and B. Simone from MTV's Wild 'n Out. It was later revealed that this was part of a reality show titled Girls Cruise to be broadcast on VH1, of which Kim would serve as an executive producer. The show followed the group as they set sail to embark on a 10-day cruise in the Caribbean visiting the countries of Barbados and Trinidad just in time for Carnival festivities and also documented the group's bonding and new friendships with one another. The show premiered on July 15 with approximately 1.2 million viewers and ran for 11 episodes. It is unclear if there will be an upcoming season of the series.
In March 2019, Kim revealed that her new album would be titled 9 and added "There's a lot of meaning behind that." Later that month, she announced that the album would be released on May 17, 2019. After a minor setback with her record label, eOne Music, that caused the album not be released on the original planned date, the project was postponed. On September 27, 2019, Kim released a second single titled "Found You" featuring City Girls and O.T. Genasis. The album later became available for pre-order on all digital-download platforms on October 4, 2019 (along with the track "Pray For Me" featuring Rick Ross and Musiq Soulchild) with a release date set for October 11, 2019.
Upon its first week of release, the album charted on the R&B/Hip-Hop and Rap Album Sales, Digital Albums, Top Albums Sales, Independent Albums and Rap Album Sales. However, the album failed to chart on the Billboard 200 due to selling less than 1,000 copies, and no song from the album landed on the Hot 100 or Bubbling Under. During one of the reunion episodes for Girls Cruise, Kim revealed that the album would be a two-part project, stating "I recorded so many songs. I have a part one and a part two." She also shared that her co-star and Instagram comedian Vena "Pretty Vee" Excell will make an appearance on the record. In October 2019, Kim revealed that she will have a collaboration with Missy Elliott and Paris Hilton on the follow-up to 9. In an interview with Radio 103.9, Kim confirmed that the City Girls would be involved with the follow-up to 9. She also stated that she would "love" to have Pretty Vee host her tour. On her November 8, 2019 appearance on The Real, Kim again confirmed that Paris Hilton and Missy Elliott will appear on 9s follow-up; she said the song "sounds like a classic Missy Elliott record but 'now.'"(1:20)
Products and endorsements
In 1998, Lil' Kim signed to Wilhelmina Models. That same year she was announced as the face for the fashion brand Candie's alongside Brandy. She became the first and only rapper to endorse the brand to date. In 2000, Lil' Kim signed a deal with fashion house Iceberg, and also with cosmetics brand MAC to help endorse their VIVA GLAM line of lipsticks and lip glosses alongside Mary J. Blige. The MAC VIVA GLAM III campaign, which was built around a plum-brown lipstick, helped raise $4 million for the company in one year and became the most successful VIVA GLAM campaign to date. Due to the success, the two signed on for a second year. The rapper also modeled for the urban fashion line Baby Phat in August 2000. In March 2001, Lil' Kim, along with several other artists, featured in a commercial for Apple's Mac computers. It highlighted how users can burn custom CD's on their Mac. In 2003, Lil' Kim became the spokesperson for American clothing brand Old Navy. That same year her song "The Jump Off" was used in a commercial for AOL's dial up Internet service.
In 2004, it was announced that Lil' Kim would launch a designer watch collection, titled Royalty by Lil' Kim. Jeweler Jacob Arabo manufactured the watches. She also debuted her first clothing line, entitled Hollyhood. Lil' Kim also lent her voice to the video game Def Jam: Fight for NY which she was featured in. In 2005, Lil' Kim collaborated on a shoe line with high end shoe store, Petite Peton. That same year Lil' Kim was featured as a character in the limited edition comic book "The Heist". The book was a collaboration between Marvel and Atlantic Records. In August 2010, Lil' Kim signed a deal with Three Olives Vodka to become the face for their Purple vodka. In September of that same year, Lil' Kim, along with her cousin, Katrise Jones, opened their first beauty salon in Charlotte, North Carolina called Salon Se Swa. That same month, Lil' Kim also launched her second clothing line, entitled 24/7 Goddess Collection, at Charlotte NC Fashion Week. In November 2012, Lil' Kim began endorsing Cîroc vodka, revealing her own cocktail, titled "Queen Bee", and announcing herself as the "First Lady" of the brand.
Philanthropy
In 2000, Lil' Kim embarked on a promo tour in support of her second studio album, The Notorious K.I.M., and the MAC AIDS Fund. She visited MAC cosmetics counters, interacted with fans and help raise money and awareness for the cause, which helps people who are living with HIV/AIDS worldwide. She also took part in MAC's Fashion Cares show in Toronto, Canada. The show raised close to one million for the AIDS Committee of Toronto. Her endorsement for MAC, with Mary J. Blige, would go on to raise $4 million for the fund. In October 2001, Lil' Kim was featured on the R&B mix of the song "What's Going On". Lil' Kim, along with several other popular recording artists, released the song under the name "Artists Against AIDS Worldwide", with proceeds going to AIDS programs worldwide and also United Ways September 11th Fund. That same month, Lil' Kim performed at Breathe, a benefit concert for breast cancer research and treatment. Proceeds from the concert went to the UCLA Breast Center and the Breast Examination Center of Harlem, an outreach program of the Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center. On March 12, 2002, Lil' Kim walked her dogs in the 3rd annual "Paws for Style" fashion show. The event is held by Animal Fair magazine as a benefit for the Humane Society of New York. Items worn by the animals were later auctioned off online. In 2004, Lil' Kim started her own foundation called Lil' Kim Cares. The foundation raises funds, resources and awareness for national programs that assist with issues of homelessness, HIV/AIDS prevention and awareness, transitional living, child neglect and violence against women. Speaking about the foundation, Lil' Kim stated she planned to be involved in a number of causes, most of which had affected her personally in past years. On April 17, 2004, Lil' Kim participated in the 28th annual Toyota Pro/Celebrity Race. The event helped raise more than $100,000 for "Racing for Kids", a non-profit program benefiting Southern California children's hospitals in Long Beach and Orange County. On August 24, 2004, Lil' Kim encouraged others to vote in the United States presidential election through the Rock the Vote campaign.
On March 10, 2005, Lil' Kim, along with several other artists, appeared in an episode of The Apprentice. Each artist was approached by contestants to donate a "personal experience" to be auctioned off for charity through music channel Fuse's "Daily Download" program with proceeds going to the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation. In September 2005, Lil' Kim paired up with fashion designer Marc Jacobs for a limited edition T-shirt line featuring images of the rapper. The shirts, titled Marc Jacobs Loves Lil' Kim, were sold exclusively at Marc Jacob stores with 100% of the proceeds going to The Door. That same year Lil' Kim donated a diamond watch from her "Royalty" watch line to the World AIDS Day eBay auction titled "Bid 2 Beat AIDS". Proceeds went to LIFEbeat, an organization providing HIV/AIDS information to millions of young people annually. Through her foundation, Lil' Kim has given back to many, including teaming up with apparel company Mitchell & Ness and boxer Zab Judah to donate toys to underprivileged youth in Philadelphia in 2005, and teaming up with MusiCares in 2007 for a silent auction, held at the Grammys On The Hill ceremony, to help raise funds for the foundation. That same year, Lil' Kim was a part of the 4th Annual Grammy Charity Holiday Auction, which featured a large variety of celebrity-signed memorabilia that people could bid on through the online auction site eBay. On December 1, 2007, Lil' Kim teamed up with Preserve Our Legacy and the New Jersey Stem Cell Research and Education Foundation to put on a celebrity basketball game to raise awareness about various health issues plaguing minority communities.
On July 11, 2010, Lil' Kim launched her signature milkshake, titled "Queen Bee", at Millions of Milkshakes in West Hollywood, with proceeds going towards Wyclef Jean's Yéle Haiti Foundation. On February 9, 2013, Lil' Kim took part in the first annual Reality On The Runway fashion show. The event wanted to help raise $300,000 for people infected with HIV/AIDS and increase awareness. All designs from the show were auctioned off online following the event with a portion of the proceeds going to AIDS United.
Lil' Kim has been a longtime LGBT advocate and has participated in many gay pride festivals, including the LGBT Pride March in New York City, as well as performing at Atlanta Black Pride and D.C. Black Pride.
Personal life
In her teens, Jones dated Shawn Powell. The pair met at the Empire Roller Skating rink in Brooklyn. After a couple of months of seeing each other, Powell was arrested for robbery and was sentenced to eight and a half years in prison. Jones and Powell continued their relationship with Jones visiting frequently and kept in touch by writing letters to each other. The couple became engaged while he was incarcerated. During this time, Jones met Christopher Wallace (The Notorious B.I.G.). With Jones focusing on starting her rap career, the engagement to Powell was eventually called off and the couple split. In 1996, during the recording of her debut album, Jones became pregnant with Wallace's child. Jones did not make it public until 1999 during an interview with The Source. Jones decided to terminate the pregnancy. "I already knew the kind of relationship that Biggie and I had, and I knew that [having a child] was something that couldn't take place..." Wallace called Jones three days before his death and told her he loved her. In a 2010 interview with Ed Lover on Power 105, Jones revealed that Wallace assaulted her and she described an incident where he choked her until she passed out. In 2017, Jones admitted her relationship with Wallace was "very violent" after Jermaine Dupri claimed that he witnessed Wallace pull a pistol out on Jones.
On July 23, 1996, Jones was arrested for possession of marijuana after police raided the Teaneck, New Jersey home of Wallace. The arrest came after police smelled marijuana inside the home when they went to ask for someone to move an illegally parked car. Jones denied she was smoking, claiming she was "upstairs all day sleeping". On March 17, 1999, Teaneck police issued an arrest warrant after Jones failed to turn up to court dates stemming from the arrest. The warrant was not a top priority for the police and was not made public until September 2003, after the story was published online by The Smoking Gun. Jones was later removed from Teaneck's wanted list in October 2003, after $350 in bail was posted on her behalf. Jones' attorney told reporters that she did not appear in court as she believed the case had been resolved.
In 2002, Jones started dating Damion "World" Hardy; the couple split in 2003. It was during this time that Jones had been a victim of physical abuse. Jones also stated how she had to have multiple nose jobs due to being punched.
On June 20, 2003, Jones had $250,000 worth of jewelry stolen from her while catching a flight at New York's John F. Kennedy International Airport after a bag, which she intended to carry on, was mixed up with eight other pieces of her luggage. The missing jewelry was recovered 10 days later, found wrapped up in a rag in a locker room for airline employees by a United Airlines worker.
In 2004, Jones dated record producer Scott Storch. The two met when Storch offered Jones a ride to her hotel. The couple split after 2 months. In 2013, Storch revealed that he would have married Jones if the relationship had worked out. In 2007, Jones and Ray J briefly dated.
On March 17, 2005, Lil' Kim was convicted of three counts of conspiracy and one count of perjury for lying to a Federal grand jury about her and her friends' involvement in a 2001 shooting outside the Hot 97 studios in Manhattan. During the trial of her co-manager, Damion "D-Roc" Butler, and her bodyguard, Suif "Gutta" Jackson, a former member of the hip hop group Junior M.A.F.I.A, she testified not to have known they were at the scene. However, video footage from a security camera placed all three at the scene, exiting the building. This directly contravened testimony before the grand jury. Butler and Jackson have pleaded guilty to gun charges. Jackson was sentenced to twelve years in federal prison as part of plea bargain in which he admitted to firing at least twenty rounds during the incident. The length of the sentence was said to have been influenced by his previous gun-related convictions. In July 2005, Lil' Kim was sentenced to one year in prison, thirty days home detention upon release from custody, and three years of probation. She served the entirety of her sentence at the Federal Detention Center, Philadelphia in Center City, Philadelphia. She was released on July 3, 2006, after serving approximately 12 months. Lil' Kim, Federal Bureau of Prisons (BOP) Register #56198-054, was released from BOP supervision on August 2, 2006.
On June 9, 2014, Jones gave birth to a baby girl named Royal Reign.
Jones identifies as a Christian.
Feuds
Foxy Brown
Once high school friends, Lil' Kim and Foxy Brown originally remained close despite becoming associates of clashing hip hop groups Junior M.A.F.I.A. and The Firm, respectively. In 1995, they collaborated with Da Brat for the remix of "No One Else" by Total. The following year, they were featured in the Hot 97 NY Fashion Show, and additionally appeared on the covers of The Source and Vibe. However, their first dispute developed after both of their debut studio albums were scheduled for release a week apart in November 1996. Media outlets additionally noted similarities between the sleeve covers of Lil' Kim' Hard Core and Brown's Ill Na Na, where the two were shown wearing the same outfit. In 1997, the feud led to the deterioration of their friendship, and also resulted in the cancellation of a collaborative album Thelma & Louise. Brown noted that the breakdown of their relationship was influenced by their conflicting entourages. They first attempted a reconciliation in 1998 after Lil' Kim called Brown and her mother after the two were held at gunpoint during a house burglary.
In January 1999, critics noted the track "My Life" from Brown's second studio effort Chyna Doll for being an "open appeal" to Brown's friendship with Lil' Kim, in which she cited the relationship being "lost for pride", but also contradicted herself after making attacks on "pointed mistresses". Critics indicated the records were in subtle use to diss Lil' Kim, especially since during this time, Brown had been supporting Lil' Kim' rival Faith Evans in multiple interviews. In February 1999, a significant part of the media took note of Brown "suddenly sound[ing] 'exactly' like Lil' Kim". In late May 1999, Lil' Cease's "Play Around", featuring Lil' Kim and Diddy, was released to radio airwaves and was set to be featured on Cease's debut The Wonderful World of Cease A Leo. In the song, after Lil' Kim' guest rap, Diddy recites: "Stop trying to sound like her too bitches"; a subliminal diss aimed at Foxy. The line spurred enough controversy that various media sources went on to remark: "It's finally coming out. Foxy Brown bites worse than a pit bull." Additionally, Lil' Kim's guest appearance on Mobb Deep's "Quiet Storm (Remix)" and her second album's title track, "The Notorious K.I.M.", were released as diss records to Foxy Brown. Angered by Lil' Kim' response, Brown collaborated with longtime associates Capone-N-Noreaga on the track, "Bang, Bang." In the track, Brown mimicked Lil' Kim's interpolation of MC Lyte's 10% Dis, and went on to recite: "You and Diddy y'all kill me with that subliminal shit." Towards the ending of her verse, Brown attacked Lil' Kim's grieving for the loss of Biggie Smalls by remarking: "Let the nigga [Biggie] rest in peace, and hop off his dick, bitch do you."
On February 26, 2001, at 3 p.m., when Lil' Kim had left New York radio station Hot 97, a shooting broke out; over twenty shots were fired between two groups of three men. One of the men in the groups was Capone, one-half member of Capone-N-Noreaga, who was entering the Hot 97 building in promotion of interviewer DJ Clue's new album, The Professional 2, which happened to have also featured Lil' Kim. An affiliate, Efrain Ocasio, from Capone's entourage was shot in the back; both parties from Lil' Kim and Capone denied any involvement in the shooting. However, a motive behind the shooting was later determined; detectives informed The New York Daily News that it was a result of the verses Foxy Brown recited in "Bang, Bang".
Shaken up by the incident, Brown tried to reach out to Lil' Kim in hopes of settling a truce. Brown stated, "I really don't know how it started. But Russell [Simmons] and I, we got together, and I said, 'Russell, I want to call a truce.' I want to have a sit-down with Kim. I don't care what it is. Let's just end it. We can even do a collaboration. We're bigger than this. If it has to start with me, let it start with me." Brown extended an olive branch to Lil' Kim' camp, however Lil' Kim had cut all ties with Diddy and Bad Boy associates and wanted no communication with Brown whatsoever. On July 6, 2005, Lil' Kim was sentenced to prison for three counts of perjury and one count of conspiracy.
During the 4-year span leading up to Lil' Kim's sentencing, Brown and Lil' Kim began to exchange subtle diss records towards each other, among them included Lil' Kim' La Bella Mafia, "Quiet", and "Guess Who's Back"; and in turn, Brown's Ill Na Na 2: The Fever and various mixtape freestyles. In the midst of the diss records, Brown was interviewed by Doug Banks in 2003 to disclose any further details pertaining to her dispute with Lil' Kim. Brown claimed that Lil' Kim was allegedly jealous that Biggie was to include Brown in his Junior Mafia collective. Brown also added that a tell-all book disclosing the feud would be released in Christmas of 2003. In her final regards to the dispute, Brown stated: "Kim is the only female artist that keeps me on my toes. She's the only one that I can look at; and any other artist that says they don't have that one person that keeps them driven... is lying."
Following her release from prison, Lil' Kim no longer acknowledged Brown. Brown, on the other hand, has consistently targeted Lil' Kim as a prime basis in her music and concert venues since Lil' Kim's prison release.
On May 17, 2012, Lil' Kim attended an interview with radio show, The Breakfast Club. When asked about whether or not she had spoken to Brown at all in recent years, Lil' Kim replied, "I don't even know her. And when I say that; I don't know who she is to these days. I wouldn't even know what her voice sounds like."
Nicki Minaj
Lil' Kim has been embroiled in a feud with fellow rapper Nicki Minaj since Minaj's success with Pink Friday. With Lil' Kim and media critics noticing resemblances with her on the Sucka Free mixtape, Lil' Kim accused Minaj of copying her image saying, "If you are going to steal my swag, you gonna have to pay. Something gotta give. You help me, I help you. That's how it goes to me." Minaj's single "Roman's Revenge" with Eminem was believed by critics to be a response to Lil' Kim's comments, although at the time she denied this, she responded to the situation in an interview on The Angie Martinez show saying "She picked a fight with Foxy, then she picked a fight with Eve, then she picked a fight with Remy, then it was Mrs. Wallace, then it was Nicki Minaj", said Minaj. "Every time you in the news, it's 'cause you gettin' at somebody! Where's your music? Put your music out, and when I see your name on Billboard, that's when I'll respond to you. Other than that, goodbye. It's Barbie, bitch."
Lil' Kim reignited the feud following the release of her mixtape Black Friday, an album that directly referenced Nicki Minaj, via her debut album title and freestyling on Minaj's songs such as "Did It On'em" (that became "Pissin' On'em"); and with artwork that showed Lil' Kim decapitating Minaj with a sword. A fragment of Minaj's diss track "Tragedy" was released online in April 2011, featuring lyrics "Pink Friday, Eminem, 8 Mile/ It must hurt to sell your album on PayPal." Following the release of Minaj's second album, Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded, critics suggested that the tracks "Stupid Hoe" may have contained attacks at Lil' Kim. Lil' Kim later suggested in an interview with 105's Breakfast Club that the song "Automatic" from Minaj's second album was similar to her unreleased material, also calling Minaj "obnoxious" and "catty".
However, in a 2018 interview with Genius, Minaj alluded to the situation with Lil' Kim, seemingly confirming that the track "Roman's Revenge" was about the feud, saying, "Someone got at me. A veteran got at me, and I hit them with Roman's Revenge and then I kept on going." In 2021, Lil' Kim stated on the red carpet of the BET Awards that she would like to do a Verzuz with Minaj.
Legacy
Several media outlets have cited Lil' Kim as the "Queen of Rap", and as the alias she uses, "Queen Bee". Newsweek has called her the "First Lady of Rap", with editor Allison Samuels writing in 2000 that she has "transcended the male-dominated world of rap to become one of America's sassiest, most engaging icons". Lil' Kim's music catalogue features undertones of sex-positive feminism and the importance of female pleasure, instead of the man as the "dominant priority," through explicit lyrics about sex. Dazed considered her "the first high-profile female rapper to flip the script on female objectification in the rap industry". For NMEs editor Jordan Bassett, she "out-filthed the male rappers at every turn."
According to BBC, Hard Core (1996) was the most successful debut album by a female hip hop artist at the time; the album saw her "inhabit the territory of sexual edginess and hardcore rap, traditionally the preserve inhabited by male artists." In 2000, Los Angeles Times writer Isaac Guzman expressed that the her debut solo album created a path for a new wave of female rappers, with her at the forefront of her generation, and established her as "the raunchiest, hardest, sexiest, most glamorous woman in all of hip-hop." During that time, several new female hip hop artists modeled themselves after her stylistically. Placing Hard Core at number 80 on their list of "Best Rap Albums of the 90s", Complex stated, "when Lil Kim released her debut album—women in hip-hop finally had options, paths to follow and models [...] she was the raunchiest woman you ever heard on the mic." The Village Voice writer Joan Morgan considered that the album "transformed her into a cultural icon", and opined that it put an emphasis on sex appeal, looks, and packaging as a priority for female rappers. A Camera Obscura publication noted her as one of the late twentieth-century "self-marketers of female trouble" in music, along with Janet Jackson and Tina Turner.
Aside from music, Lil' Kim is also known for her risk-taking and luxurious approach to fashion that inspired many artists; she has been cited as a fashion icon, as well as one of the most influential rappers of all time by various media outlets. Vogue editor-at-large André Leon Talley called her "the black Madonna." Lil' Kim has been cited as an inspiration for designers such as Marc Jacobs, Versace, and Giorgio Armani, according to Vogue. In 2020, XXL wrote that "twenty-five years later, no rapper is more influential to the new female rhymers". Some artists who have credited Kim as influence include Rihanna, Cardi B, Megan Thee Stallion, Kash Doll, Bree Runway, Teyana Taylor, Doja Cat, Hitmaka, Casanova, Spice, Zaytoven, Stefflon Don, Flo Milli, Saweetie, and Erica Banks. Actress Taraji P. Henson has stated that Lil' Kim inspired her portrayal of Empire character Cookie Lyon.
Awards and nominations
Throughout her career, Lil' Kim has earned numerous honors and awards. Lil' Kim's debut album Hard Core was certified double platinum by the RIAA, and is considered a classic hip-hop album. As of 2007, Lil' Kim has sold over 15 million albums worldwide. Her songs "No Time", "Big Momma Thang" and "Ladies Night" were listed on Complex Magazine's "The 50 Best Rap Songs By Women", at number 24, 13, and 7, respectively. Her song "Lady Marmalade" with Pink, Christina Aguilera, and Mýa, is one of the best-selling singles of all time worldwide, with sales of over 5.1 million worldwide. Lady Marmalade went number one on the US Billboard Hot 100, making her the first female rapper to have a number one on that chart. The song won a 2002 Grammy Award in the category of "Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals".
Lil' Kim was ranked as one of the top 50 greatest MCs of all time in Kool Moe Dee's 2003 book, There's a God on the Mic. In 2012, Lil' Kim was honorably listed on VH1's "100 Greatest Women In Music" at number 45, making her the fourth highest position for a female rapper. In 2014, Lil' Kim was included in Billboards list of the "31 Female Rappers Who Changed Hip-Hop". In 2016, VH1 honored Lil' Kim with VH1 Hip-Hop Honors and WEEN Award honored Kim with Icon Award because of her contribution to hip hop.
In June 2018, Lil' Kim was honored with a proclamation by the New York City Council's Black, Latino, and Asian Caucus (BLAC) as part of the annual African-American Music Appreciation Month for her contributions to hip-hop. Along with the proclamation, she also accepted the New York City 12th Council District Arts and Music Award and the city's Power Of Influence Award. In 2019, Lil' Kim was honored by BET Hip Hop Awards with the I Am Hip Hop Award.
Discography
Studio albums
Hard Core (1996)
The Notorious K.I.M. (2000)
La Bella Mafia (2003)
The Naked Truth (2005)
9 (2019)
Collaboration albums
Conspiracy with Junior M.A.F.I.A. (1995)
Tours
Headlining
The Notorious K.I.M. Tour (2000)
2010 Tour (2010)
Return of the Queen Tour (2012)
Joint tours
No Way Out Tour (1997–1998)
Winterbeatz Australia (2011)
Bad Boy Family Reunion Tour (2016)
Filmography
Films
Video games
Television
See also
Honorific nicknames in popular music
List of artists who reached number one in the United States
List of Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles of 2001
Billboard Year-End Hot 100 singles of 2001
References
External links
1970s births
1974 births
African-American Christians
American women rappers
African-American women rappers
American perjurers
African-American women singers
American dance musicians
Atlantic Records artists
East Coast hip hop musicians
MNRK Music Group artists
Grammy Award winners
Hardcore hip hop artists
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
People from Bedford–Stuyvesant, Brooklyn
Rappers from Brooklyn
Feminist rappers
The Notorious B.I.G.
American women activists
HIV/AIDS activists
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American women musicians
20th-century women rappers
21st-century women rappers | [
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|
215674 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian%20perspectives%20on%20intellectual%20property | Libertarian perspectives on intellectual property | Libertarians have differing opinions on the validity of intellectual property.
Political parties
The Libertarian Party of Canada takes "a moderate approach to patents and copyrights", calling for "a careful review of existing and proposed legislation".
Right-libertarian views
Anarcho-capitalists oppose the existence of even a minimal state. This ideological framework requires that any functions served by intellectual property law promulgation and enforcement be provided through private sector institutions.
Murray Rothbard argues for allowing contractually arising infinite copyright terms and against the need for any government role in protecting intellectual property. Rothbard states that government's involvement in defining arbitrary limits on the duration, scope and so on of intellectual property in order to "promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts" is inherently problematic, saying: "By what standard do you judge that research expenditures are 'too much,' 'too little,' or just about enough?". Thus, he argues that intellectual property laws can actually hinder innovation since competitors can be indefinitely discouraged from further research expenditures in the general area covered by the patent because the courts may hold their improvements as infringements on the previous patent and the patent holder is discouraged from engaging in further research in this field because the privilege discourages his improvement of his invention for the entire period of the patent, with the assurance that no competitor can trespass on his domain.
Morris and Linda Tannehill propose that ideas in the form of inventions could be registered in a privately owned "data bank". The inventor could then buy insurance against the theft and unauthorized commercial use of the invention and the insurance company would guarantee to not only compensate the inventor for any losses suffered due to such infringement but to stop such unauthorized use.
Opponents to intellectual property rights include Wendy McElroy, Tom G. Palmer, Henri Lepage, Boudewijn Bouckaert, Jeffrey Tucker and Stephan Kinsella. Kinsella points out in Against Intellectual Property that patents may be inefficient since they divert resources from research and development to patent filing and lawsuits. He notices that theoretical research can not be patented as easily as practical research and thus theoretical research is relatively underfunded. Moreover, he argues that property rights can only apply to resources that are scarce, which intellectual property is not. Kinsella also claims that the only way that intellectual property rights can be implemented is by limiting others' physical property rights.
David D. Friedman takes a neutral stance on intellectual property, claiming "there are good arguments on both sides of that question".
Ayn Rand's Views
Ayn Rand, founder of Objectivism, supported copyrights and patents, noting in Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal:
Rand held that patent should be granted for limited terms only:
Left-libertarian views
Roderick T. Long argues that the concept of intellectual property is not libertarian. He holds that prohibiting people from using, reproducing and trading copyrighted material is an infringement of freedom of speech and freedom of the press and that since information exists in people's minds and other people's property one cannot own information without owning other people. Claiming that authors and publishers will continue to produce absent copyright protection, he cites the fact that hundreds of thousands of articles are uploaded onto the Internet by their authors every day, available to anyone in the world for free and that nearly all works written before the 20th century are in the public domain, yet pre-1900 works are still published and sold.
Benjamin Tucker, opposing intellectual property, writes that "the patent monopoly consists in protecting inventors against competition for a period long enough to extort from the people a reward enormously in excess of the labor measure of their services,in other words, in giving certain people a right of property for a term of years in laws and facts of Nature, and the power to exact tribute from others for the use of this natural wealth, which should be open to all".
Other libertarian and anarchist views
Anarchists such as Lysander Spooner and J. Neil Schulman have also argued for forms of intellectual property.
See also
Copyright Term Extension Act (CTEA)
References
Intellectual property law
Intellectual property
Intellectual property activism
Economics of intellectual property | [
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|
215677 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhothai%20Thani | Sukhothai Thani | Sukhothai Thani (, ) is a small town about north of Bangkok on the River Yom, a tributary of the Chao Phraya River. The population is 37,000. The town is east of the historic city of Sukhothai. This city was the capital of the first Thai kingdom, usually called the Sukhothai Kingdom, hence the modern city is often called New Sukhothai. Sukhothai Thani is the capital of Sukhothai Province.
External links
Populated places in Sukhothai province | [
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215682 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhothai%20Historical%20Park | Sukhothai Historical Park | Sukhothai Historical Park ( (Pronunciation)) covers the ruins of Sukhothai, literally 'dawn of happiness', capital of the Sukhothai Kingdom in the 13th and 14th centuries, in north central Thailand. It is near the city of Sukhothai, capital of Sukhothai Province.
The city's walls form a rectangle about east-west by north-south. There are 193 ruins on of land. There is a gate in the centre of each wall. Inside are the remains of the royal palace and twenty-six temples, the largest being Wat Mahathat. The park is maintained by the Fine Arts Department of Thailand with help from UNESCO, which has declared it a World Heritage Site. Each year, the park welcomes thousands of visitors.
History
Khmer Era
Originally, Sukhothai was a Khmer empire's outpost named Sukhodaya. During the reign of Khmer Empire, the Khmers built some monuments there, several of them survived in Sukhothai Historical Park such as the Ta Pha Daeng shrine, Wat Phra Phai Luang, and Wat Sisawai. About some 50 kilometer north of Sukhothai is another Khmer military outpost of Si Satchanalai or Sri Sajanalaya.
In the mid-13th century, the Tai tribes led by Si Indradit rebelled against the Khmer governor at Sukhodaya and established Sukhothai as an independent Tai state and remained the center of Tai power until the end of the fourteenth century.
Liberation from Khmer Empire (Lavo)
Prior to the 13th century, a succession of Tai kingdoms existed in the northern highlands including the Ngoenyang (centered on Chiang Saen, predecessor of Lan Na) kingdom and the Heokam (centered on Chiang Hung, modern Jinghong in China) kingdom of Tai Lue people. Sukhothai had been a trade center and part of Lawo, which was under the domination of the Khmer Empire. The migration of Tai people into the upper Chao Phraya valley was somewhat gradual.
Modern historians believe that the secession of Sukhothai (once known as Sukhodaya) from the Khmer empire began as early as 1180 during the reign of Pho Khun Sri Naw Namthom who was the ruler of Sukhothai and the peripheral city of Sri Satchanalai (modern day Si Satchanalai District in Sukhothai Province). Sukhothai had enjoyed substantial autonomy until it was re-conquered around 1180 by the Mons of Lawo under Khomsabad Khlonlampong.
Two brothers, Pho Khun Bangklanghao and Pho Khun Phameung took Sukhothai from Mon hands in 1239. Khun (ขุน) before becoming a Thai feudal title, was a Tai title for a ruler of a fortified town and its surrounding villages, together called a muang; in older usage prefixed pho (พ่อ) 'father', Comparable in sound and meaning to rural English 'paw'. Bangklanghao ruled Sukhothai as Sri Indraditya and began the Phra Ruang Dynasty. He expanded his kingdom to bordering cities. At the end of his reign in 1257, the Sukhothai Kingdom covered the entire upper valley of the Chao Phraya River (then known simply as Menam, 'mother of waters', the generic Thai name for rivers.)
Traditional Thai historians considered the founding of the Sukhothai Kingdom as the beginning of the Thai nation because little was known about the kingdoms prior to Sukhothai. Modern historical studies demonstrate that Thai history began before Sukhothai. Yet the foundation of Sukhothai is still a celebrated event.
Expansions under Ramkamhaeng
Pho Khun Ban Muang and his brother Ram Khamhaeng expanded the Sukhothai Kingdom. To the south, Ramkamhaeng subjugated the kingdoms of Supannabhum and Sri Thamnakorn (Tambralinga) and, through Tambralinga, adopted Theravada as the state religion. To the north, Ramkamhaeng put Phrae and Muang Sua (Luang Prabang) under tribute.
To the west, Ramkhamhaeng helped the Mons under Wareru (who is said to have eloped with Ramkamhaeng's daughter) to free themselves from Pagan domination and establish a kingdom at Martaban (they later moved to Pegu). So, Thai historians considered the Kingdom of Martaban a Sukhothai tributary. In practice, Sukhothai domination may not have extended that far.
With regard to culture, Ramkhamhaeng had the monks from Sri Thamnakorn propagate the Theravada religion in Sukhothai. In 1283, Ramkamhaeng is said to have invented Thai script, incorporating it into the controversial Ramkamhaeng Stele discovered by Mongkut 600 years later.
It was also during this period that the first contacts with Yuan Dynasty were established and Sukhothai began sending trade missions to China. One well-known export of Sukhothai was the Sangkalok (Song Dynasty pottery). This was the only period that Siam produced Chinese-styled ceramics, which fell out of use by the 14th century.
Decline and domination of Ayutthaya
Sukhothai domination was short-lived. After the death of Ramkhamhaeng in 1298, Sukhothai's tributaries broke away. Ramkhamhaeng was succeeded by his son, Loe Thai. The vassal kingdoms, first Uttaradit in the north, then soon after the Laotian kingdoms of Luang Prabang and Vientiane (Wiangchan), liberated themselves. In 1319 the Mon state to the west broke away, and in 1321 the Lanna absorbed Tak, one of the oldest towns under the control of Sukhothai. To the south, the powerful city of Suphanburi also broke free early in the reign of Loe Thai. Thus the kingdom was quickly reduced to its former local importance only. Finally in 1378, the armies of the expanding Ayutthaya Kingdom invaded and forced Sukhothai's King Thammaracha II to yield to this new power. After the Battle of Sittaung River in 1583, King Naresuan of Phitsanulok (and crown prince of Ayutthaya) forcibly relocated people from Sukhothai and surrounding areas to the Southern Central plain, due to the war with the Burmese and an earthquake.
Later Development
Sukhothai repopulated again but declined due to successive Burmese–Siamese wars, especially the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67). In 1793 Rama I, after establishing Bangkok as a new capital city of the kingdom, founded New Sukhothai in Thani, 12 km (7.5 mi) to the east of old Sukhothai, thus abandoning Sukhothai. In 1801 Rama I commissioned the construction of many royal temples in the capital city. He ordered that old Buddha images be brought to Bangkok from the ruined temples around the country. One of the Buddha images is the famous eight metre (25 foot) tall bronze Phra Sri Sakyamuni (; ), the principal Buddha image of Wat Suthat, which was the principal Buddha image of Wat Mahathat, the biggest temple in Sukhothai. In 1833 Mongkut, during his monkhood, travelled to Sukhothai and discovered the controversial Ramkhamhaeng stele in Wat Mahathat and other artifacts, now in the National Museum in Bangkok. The formal name of this stone is The King Ram Khamhaeng Inscription Documentary heritage inscribed on the Memory of the World Register in 2003 by UNESCO.
In 1907, Vajiravudh, as crown prince, conducted a two-month archaeological field trip to Nakhon Sawan, Kampheang Phet, Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai, Uttaradit, and Pitsanulok. He later published "Phra Ruang City Journey" (; ) to promote historical and archaeological study by the public. The work has been used by later archaeologists and historians including Damrong Rajanubhab, the founder of the modern Thai educational system and George Coedès, a 20th-century scholar of southeast Asian archaeology and history.
In July 1988 the historical park was officially opened. On 12 December 1991, it was declared a World Heritage Site as part of the Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns together with the associated historical parks in Kamphaeng Phet and Si Satchanalai.
Management
Sukhothai Historical Park is managed by the Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture. The protection of the area was first announced in the Royal Gazette on 6 June 1962. The enabling law is the Act on Ancient Monuments, Antiques, Objects of Art and National Museums, B.E. 2504 (1961) as amended by Act (No. 2), B.E. 2535 (1992).
Sights
Wat Mahathat
Wat Mahathat or Mahathat Temple () is the most important and impressive temple in Sukhothai Historical Park. The temple's name translates to 'temple of the great relic'. The temple was founded by Sri Indraditya, between 1292 and 1347 as the main temple of the city as well as the Sukhothai Kingdom. The design is based on a mandala, representing the universe, with a principal stupa, built in 1345 to enshrine relics of the Buddha, surrounded by smaller stupas in eight directions. The main stupa has the shape of a lotus bud, which characterizes Sukhothai architectural arts. Its base is adorned with 168 stuccoed sculptings of Buddhist disciples walking with their hands clasped together in salutation. The eight smaller stupas, of which the four at the corners are in Mon Haripunchai - Lanna style and the four in between show Khmer influence. At both sides of the main stupa has two standing Buddha images called Phra Attharot (). The temple also includes an assembly hall (vihara), mandapa, ordination hall, and 200 subordinate stupas.
Noen Prasat
Noen Prasat or Palace Hill () is the remains of the royal palace of the Kingdom of Sukhothai. The Noen Prasat was discovered in 1833 by Mongkut, who had made a pilgrimage to the north of Siam as a monk. The palace was built on a square base with the dimensions of 200 x 200 meters. Nearby were two small ponds where the archaeologists found the remains of terracotta pipes which probably been used to supply water from a city lake to the ponds. In the southwest, there are the remains of a brick platform on which they found ashes and bones inside, so It can be assumed that it was the royal cremation place. The Ramkhamhaeng stele was discovered here by Mongkut. He also discovered the so-called "Manangasila Throne" (), an approximately 1m x 2, 50m x 15 cm large slab of gray stone, which is decorated with lotus petals depiction. The Ramkhamhaeng Stele says that Ramkhamhaeng erected this stone throne in the sugar palm grove. Mongkut took these finds to Bangkok.
Ramkhamhaeng National Museum
Ramkhamhaeng National Museum () is a branch of the National Museum of Thailand in the Sukhothai Historical Park. It was opened in 1964 by Thailand's King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit. More than 2,000 artifacts were donated from Phra Ratchaprasitthikhun, the abbot of Ratchathani Temple. Locals also contributed to the collection by donating many historical objects. Most of the objects on display in the main museum building, come from Sukhothai, others were found in Si Satchanalai, Kamphaeng Phet, Phichit and Phetchabun. The collection including Buddha images and Hindu god sculptures from Wat Phra Phai Luang and Wat Mahathat, sculptures from the pre-Sukhothai period (about 13th century), Sukhothai artifacts from the 14th and 15th centuries, early Ayutthaya artifacts from about 1351 to 1488, porcelain from the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, which was found during the excavations in Sukhothai and Si Satchanalai.
Wat Si Sawai
Wat Si Sawai or Si Sawai Temple () is one of the oldest temples in Sukhothai. The temple was founded in the late-12th or early-13th century as a Hindu Shrine for Vishnu and the place for the Thiruppavai ceremony before the liberation from Lawo and foundation of Sukhothai Kingdom. The temple has three well-preserved laterite prangs, representing the Hindu trinity, enclosed by a double rampart and a moat. The lower parts of prangs are apparently Khmer, while the upper have been expanded or renovated by Thais in brick and stucco. The central prang is held in Lawo or Hindu-style. Each prang contains a cella, possibly a podium for lingam and crypt. There are few remaining stucco works on the top of central prang. Later around the 14th century the temple was adapted to the needs of the Buddhist faith: vihara were added to the south of the central prang. Numerous Chinese porcelains and Hindu god statues had been found in the area. One of artifacts is the Shiva statue discovered by Vajiravudh in 1907.
Wat Phra Phai Luang
Wat Phra Phai Luang () was the ritual center of Sukhothai and the biggest temple in the city area. Built in the late 12th century during the reign of Jayavarman VII when the city was still under control of Khmer-Lavo. After the liberation and the construction of Wat Mahathat, Wat Phra Phai Luang lost it main ceremonial role and become Theravada Buddhist temple. Similar to Wat Si Sawai, the temple has three laterite prang, but only one still preserved in good condition. Archaeologists suspect that the three prangs originally stood on a common laterite base. All three prangs were open to the east, with doors flanked by columns which carry a richly decorated tympanum depicting scenes from the life of Buddha. The doors on the other three sides were so-called "false doors". The tympanum The complex is enclosed by double moat. The outer moat is 600 meters length and is fed by the Lam-Pan River. In the north-west of prang complex are the remains of late 14th century vihara, mandapa and a small ordination hall with eight Bai Sema. The temple is an important place to study the transition of Khmer art to Thai art. Since in the 14th century the prang has been renovated by adding elaborate stucco in leaves and frames patterns which become the basic pattern of Thai art; however, most of stucco arts are now kept at Ramkhamhaeng National Museum.
Wat Sa Si
Wat Sa Si () is a small temple close to Ramkhamhaeng Monument. Wat Sa Si is beautifully situated in the midst of Traphang-Trakuan lake northwest of Wat Mahathat. Due to its location, the temple is one of the most beautiful place in Sukhothai. The temple has a Lanka styled stupa. The vihara of Wat Sa Si is situated on the east side of the stupa. Further east lies the ordination hall on its own little island. Also a large number of smaller stupas, of which today only the foundations are visible. Due to the similarities in structure and similar Bai Sema landmarks, it is believed today that Wat Sa Si were built at the same time of Wat Tra Kuan and Wat Chana Songkhram.
Wat Asokaram
Wat Asokārām () or Wat Salat Dai () was founded in the time of Sukhothai Kingdom in the reign of Sailuethai in 1399. The name of Asokaram was forgotten for a long time. Locals called the temple "Wat Salat Dai" because the terrain of Euphorbia antiquorum () was overgrown in the temple area. In 1958 treasure hunters dug the stupa, they found a stone inscription. Today it is on display in the Ramkhamhaeng National Museum. The stone inscription informed that Wat Asokaram was found in 1399 by the widow of Luethai, the Queen Mother, the "Satṃtec brah Rājadebī Sri Cuḷālakṣana Arrgarājamahesī Debadhòranī Tilakaratana". She was the daughter of Lithai. By her husband, Luethai they had two sons, Sailuethai, and Asoka. It is not clear why she named the temple Asokaram. One possible reason is to be a monument for her son, Asoka, other reason might have been even the name of an ancestor or even the Indian ruler Asoka. Another possibility is the name refers to "Asoka trees" Saraca asoca that are common on the temple grounds. The temple attractions are the large 5-stage step pyramid stupa, a vihara, a mandapa, and foundations of smaller pagodas.
Wat Tra Kuan
Wat Tra Kuan () is a small temple close to Ramkhamhaeng Monument north of Wat Mahathat. The original name of the temple is not Thai, according to a theory of Vajiravudh Tra Kuan is a Khmer term for a plant that is morning glory, a medicinal plant is used in traditional Asian medicine. Wat Tra Kuan was founded in the time of the Kingdom of Sukhothai, probably the temple was finished at the beginning of the 15th century. A majestic stupa in Lanka styled is in the west of the site. Its square base has three tier layers. East of stupa are the ruins of an ordination hall with a small terrace, six columns and a staircase on the eastern side. This layout differs from the standard Sukhothai temple, usually east of stupa should be vihara. Simple Bai Sema and the foundations of several smaller stupas are arranged around the ordination hall. In 1960s Archaeologists found a bronze Buddha image on the premises. This unique Buddha image, is now kept in the Ramkhamhaeng National Museum, resembles Lanna and Lanka styles with Sukhothai influence, thus the art historian called this style "Wat Tra Kuan style".
Wat Chana Songkhram
Wat Chana Songkhram () is a small temple close to Ramkhamhaeng Monument north of Wat Mahathat in the same area with Wat Sa Si and Wat Tra Kuan. The temple was built in the time of the Sukhothai Kingdom. Today only ruins of the former layout can be seen. The largest stupa is an example of the Lanka - Sukhothai style with bell shaped. Buildings are arranged around the number of smaller stupas. Located on the east side of stupa have Ayutthaya period building. An ordination hall is located on the eastern border of the temple.
Wat Pa Mamuang
Wat Pa Mamuang or Pa Mamuang Temple () means the mango forest monastery and was a temple of the prestigious forest monks in which the Sangharaja resided. According to legend, Ramkhamhaeng planted a mango grove in front of the city. Here Luethai founded a royal temple, Wat Pa Mamuang was called. He built a Mandapa for the "Devalayamahaksetra", a Brahmin shrine. Although Sukhothai kings were devoted Buddhists, the royal Brahmin ceremonies was still practiced in the court. The excavations found in the 20th century that Lithai made two larger than life bronze statues of Shiva and Vishnu. The statues are now on display in the National Museum in Bangkok. In 1341 when Sukhothai adopted Ceylon Theravada Buddhism or Lankavamsa (นิกายลังกาวงศ์), Luethai invited a monk from Ceylon, Sumana Thera, to Sukhothai and resided in this temple. In 1361 Lithai appointed the famous monk Mahasamī to be Sangharaja, Mahasami had also acquired his profound knowledge of the Tipitaka during long studies in Ceylon. He renovated and enlarged the temple. On November 23, 1361 Lithai had ordained to become the monk, thus the first Siamese king who spent time in the Buddhist monastic life. A tradition which continue until present day.
Wat Chang Lom
Wat Chang Lom () is a temple complex consist of a large stupa in Lanka style with the remains of a gallery, the ruins of a vihara and an ordination hall, surrounded by moat. Numerous small stupas, of many is only the foundation remain, are scattered around the grounds. The large bell-shaped stupa stands on a square brick base with about 18 meters on each side. 32 elephant sculptures stand around the base. Each elephant seems to be on a small brick niche, only the front part of the elephant is visible. A square portico with brick foundation and remains of laterite pillars surrounding the stupa area at some distance. East of the Stupa are the ruins of a vihara with a Buddha image and round and square laterite pillars.
Wat Chang Rop
Wat Chang Rop (also "Rob") () lies two kilometers west of Sukhothai in the wooded hills as a forest temple. In Sukhothai period the Buddhist monks could be divided according to their way of life in two groups. The first group preferred to live in monasteries within the city and focus on tripitaka study, therefore this group called "city monks" or Kamawasi (). The other group preferring to practice meditation and often lived in monasteries outside the city in quiet forest areas, therefore "forest monks" or Aranyawasi (). Wat Chang Rop was one of the temples for forest monks during that time. The main structure of the temple is a bell-shaped stupa standing on a large square base. There are niches with 24 elephants on the four sides of the stupa. This stupa is probably the first in Sukhothai having the Lanka style. In front of the stupa are the remains of a small vihara with laterite pillars.
Wat Si Chum
Wat Si Chum () has a massive mandapa in the middle of the complex which was built in the late 14th century by King Maha Thammaracha II. Inside the mandapa, there is a huge 11 meters wide and 15 meters high seated Buddha image called "Phra Achana", which was mentioned in Ramkhamhaeng stele. The Mandapa has a square base of 32 meters on each side and 15 meters high, and its walls are three feet thick. In the south wall there is a narrow staircase passage which can be used to reach the roof. In this passage more than 50 slates were discovered on which images from the life of Buddha (Jataka) are engraved. These slates are the oldest surviving examples of Thai art of drawing. East of mandapa are the ruins of vihara with column fragments and three Buddha image pedestals. North of the Mandapa are the ruins of another small vihara and another smaller mandapa with a Buddha image. The entire complex is surrounded by a moat. There is a legend that to boost morale of the ancient soldiers and people, the kings went through the hidden passageway and address the people through a hole, making them believed the voice they were hearing was actually the Buddha's.
Wat Saphan Hin
Wat Saphan Hin () or Wat Taphan Hin () is located on the 200 metres hill above the plain of Sukhothai. The name of the temple means Stone Bridge Monastery, since there is a slate pathway and staircase in front of the temple complex. In various stone inscriptions found in Sukhothai, this temple was also called "Wat Aranyik", and since Wat Saphan Hin and Wat Aranyik are only about 500 meters away from each other, so perhaps originally a single temple. When Ramkhamhaeng invited a learned monk from the distant Nakhon Si Thammarat in the south of present-day Thailand to become Sangharaja of Sukhothai, he built Wat Saphan Hin with beautiful vihara for Sangharaja to reside. The temple also has a large 12.5 meters tall standing Buddha image named "Phra Attharot". Another large Buddha image was found in the mid-20th century. The image has features of Dvaravati style, but more likely made in the 8th century in the kingdom of Srivijaya.
Wat Aranyik
Wat Aranyik () was one of the first temple built by Tai in and around Sukhothai. The architectural remains indicate that the temple was built at beginning of the 13th century. Although the typical Khmer stonework are present everywhere. The buildings are arranged rather scattered over a relatively extensive grounds. There is a small Khmer style ordination hall on a high stone pedestal with eight Bai sema on the separate stone pedestals. Scattered on the wooded grounds are the remains of many unidentifiable stone structures possibly stupa or vihara. Normally monk residence were built from non-durable materials and are therefore no longer discernible. However, at Wat Aranyik there are some small cells made of stone, which could be perhaps once been monk residence.
Wat Chedi Ngam
Wat Chedi Ngam () is a temple located about 2.5 kilometers west of the western city wall. The main building of Wat Chedi Ngam are aligned in east–west direction. There is a paved road leads up to the temple. The bell-shaped stupa is in Sri Lanka style which is visible from afar. Similar to Wat Chang Rop, the stupa stands on a large, square base of 24 meters on each side. On each side there is a niche which once contained a statue of Buddha. There is a slate tiles floor vihara in the east but few remains are still visible. In the north there are some structures of brick and stone that might once were monk residence. In the vicinity there is a fountain.
Wat Chedi Si Hong
Wat Chedi Si Hong () located about two kilometers south of the southern city gate, opposite Wat Chetuphon. The temple was built in the reign of Lithai in the late 14th century. Excavations by the Fine Arts Department in 1963 and from 1970 to 1971, the temple were restored. There is a large, bell-shaped stupa on a high, square base. Around the base of stupa are the remains of unique stucco reliefs depicting many-armed deities with flower vases, their clothing and jewelry attest to the fashion in the time of Sukhothai Kingdom. Between the deities, there are lions and elephants. The vihara is 19 × 25 meters and has rounded laterite pillars and a small porch to the east. The legs of a huge seated Buddha statue can be seen at the western brick wall. A small ordination hall with remains of the boundary stones (Bai Sema) is located in the north of the temple.
The base of several smaller stupas are scattered around the grounds. More stucco reliefs, which were found in the temple, are now in the Ramkhamhaeng National Museum.
Wat Chetuphon
Wat Chetuphon () is a temple located about two kilometers south of the southern city wall, which surrounds the historic city of Sukhothai. According to Wat Sorasak Inscription, the temple have been built before 1412 and was restored in 1970-1972 by the Fine Arts Department. A moat and a brick wall surround this temple and in the center stands a large brick mandapa, at the four outer sides they are 14th or early 15th century stucco Buddha sculptures with different postures. The eastern side depicts a walking Buddha, the northern one is sitting, the western one is standing, and the southern one is a reclining Buddha. The two large statues in the west and in the east are called "Phra Attharot". Another special feature of this temple is the use of slate in the galleries around the mandapa and the door frame.
To the west, there is a slightly smaller mandapa with a Buddha image, which is called by the locals "Phra Sri Ariya" (Maitreya). Traces of black floral patterns can be identified on the walls. There is a vihara, of which only the foundations and a few fragments of columns can be seen today. About 100 meters south of the moat is an ordination hall on a slightly elevated mound and has two sets of Bai Sema.
Wat Traphang Ngoen
Wat Traphang Ngoen () means silver lake monastery. The temple was probably built in the 14th century, around the same time with Wat Mahathat. Wat Traphang Ngoen is oriented so that it is illuminated by both rising and setting sun. The main structures of the temple are a central stupa, the ruins of a vihara, a large Buddha image on a pedestal in the west and an ordination hall on an island in the middle of an artificial lake, "Traphang Ngoen" (Silver Lake). The stupa is typical 10 meters Sukhothai style in the form of a closed lotus flower stands on a square laterite base, followed by five smaller and smaller levels of brick with a plain stucco, standing Buddha image in niches in the four cardinal directions. An ordination hall lies to the east of the main stupa on a small island in the middle of the lake. In the Sukhothai time, the ordination hall was separated by a water area from the rest of the temple complex to symbolize purity. Today only foundation bricks, some fragments of columns and a pedestal on which probably used to be a Buddha image are visible.
Wat Traphang Thong
Wat Traphang Thong () means golden lake monastery. The temple is located next to the Sukhothai eastern ramparts and the eastern city gate, the "Kamphaeng-Hak" gate. The temple itself is located on an island in a lake and can be reached via a pedestrian bridge from the main road. There is a typical main stupa in Sukhothai style and eight smaller stupas around the main one. A simple ordination hall was founded in 1917 by a governor of Sukhothai. The most important artifact of the temple is a footprint of the Buddha, which is located in a modern mandapa next to the stupa. The footprint was created in 1359 out of dark gray stone by Lithai. Wat Traphang Thong is the only temple of the historical park, in which an active community of monks lives.
Wat Tuek
Wat Tuek () lies approximately 400 meters west of the O Gate () outside the old Sukhothai. This temple was founded in the time of Sukhothai Kingdom. In 1970 to 1971 the temple was restored by the Fine Arts Department. On the small temple grounds there is a small mandapa with a side length of eight meters contains a seated Buddha statue made of bricks that was once covered with stucco. The mandapa has three brick walls and a porch on the east side which is similar to Wat Si Chum, but is much smaller scale. There was a stucco reliefs on the outer sides, which can be seen on historical photos depicting scenes the life of Buddha. East of mandapa are the remains of a vihara with dimensions of 10 × 14 meters with some laterite pillars and a greatly dilapidated Buddha image made of laterite. The vihara is surrounded by several smaller stupa bases.
Wat Sorasak
Wat Sorasak () was founded in the time of the Kingdom of Sukhothai during the reign of Sailuethai. In 1955 a stone inscription was discovered by the Fine Arts Department and called "Wat Sorasak stone inscription" also Inscription no. 49. It is now in the Ramkhamhaeng National Museum. Because of this stone inscription, the foundation year of Wat Sorasak can be dated to 1412. Nai Inthara Sorasak, the temple founder and the author of the stone inscription was probably an officer from Ayutthaya Kingdom, sent by Intha Racha to secure the interests of Ayutthaya over Sukhothai. According to the stone inscription, there was a great stupa, vihara, a building for Buddha image in the temple complex. The Lanka style stupa was surrounded by elephants and decorated with a seated Buddha image on a square base. The stupa is reminiscent of Ramkhamhaeng's Wat Chang Lom in Si Satchanalai Historical Park. The Fine Arts Department found the remains of elephants statues and fragments of the Buddha image.
Thuriang Kilns
The Thuriang Kilns () are ruins of the old celadon factory, which may have been founded in the late 13th century, are situated near the city moat near Wat Phra Phai Luang. This is a site where Sukhothai celadons were made. So far, 49 kilns have been discovered in 3 different areas: 37 lie north of the moat, 9 to the south, near the city wall, and 3 to the east. The vaulted brick kilns measure 1.5 – 2 metres wide and 4.5 metres long. The ceramic wares found here are generally large bowls and jars; they have a matt yellowish grey glaze, and a design, usually of a flower, a fish, or a whirling circle, painted in black.
Saritphong Dam or Thamnop Phra Ruang
Saritphong Dam or Thamnop Phra Ruang () is an ancient dam, now restored by the Irrigation Department, comprises earthenworks that stretched between Khao Phra Bat Yai Mountain and Khao Kio Ai Ma Mountain. There was a spillway and pipes to carry water across canals towards the city gates to be further reserved at the Traphang Ngoen and Traphang Thong lakes. Water from these reservoirs was used in the old city and the palace of Sukhothai.
Gallery
References
Further reading
A.B. Griswold: Towards A History Of Sukhothai Art. The Fine Arts Department, Bangkok 1967 (no ISBN)
Hiram W. Woodward Jr.: Guide to Old Sukhothai. The Fine Arts Department, Bangkok 1972 (no ISBN)
Betty Gosling: Sukhothai Its History, Culture, And Art. Asia Books (Oxford University Press), Bangkok 1991,
External links
Kampaengphet Historical Park
Archaeological sites in Thailand
Historical parks of Thailand
Historic Town of Sukhothai and Associated Historic Towns
Former populated places in Thailand
Tourist attractions in Sukhothai province
Buildings and structures in Sukhothai province
World Heritage Sites in Thailand
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|
215687 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian%20perspectives%20on%20immigration | Libertarian perspectives on immigration | The libertarian perspective on immigration is often regarded as one of the core concepts of libertarian theory and philosophy. There is considerable disagreement among libertarians as to what stance towards immigration best accords with libertarian principles. Some hold that restrictions on immigration are an infringement of the rights of immigrants and other property owners and constitute a threat to individual liberty. Others maintain that open borders amount to a policy of forced integration on the part of the state, and that protecting the rights of property holders requires that present governments adopt much more discriminatory policies on who is allowed to enter a country.
Libertarian proponents of free immigration
Samuel Edward Konkin III has promoted illegal immigration as being a key part of the counter-economy.
Economist and libertarian theorist Walter Block argues that restrictions on immigration are incompatible with libertarianism. In his view, state-enforced national boundaries are arbitrary and violently imposed, and so therefore can provide no justification for restricting the movement of immigrants or emigrants. In accordance with libertarian principles, Block holds that immigration must be permitted insofar as it does not imply aggression. Where there is a property owner willing to take in an immigrant, third parties have no grounds for complaint.
Block further argues that imperfect present conditions of state-imposed migration barriers do not give license to libertarians to oppose open immigration. He holds that libertarians should not try to approximate what would be the case in a libertarian society, but should rather advocate those policies that accord directly with the non-aggression principle. This implies opposing state enforced immigration barriers and returning to property owners the right to decide who may or may not enter their territory. Block also holds that arguments to the effect that immigration would erode national institutions or culture are indefensible on libertarian grounds. If neither of these effects of immigration involve the physical invasion of property, then in Block's view, libertarians are unjustified in meeting peaceful immigrants with force.
Libertarian author Jacob Hornberger, a proponent of freer immigration policies, argues that open borders is the only libertarian immigration position.
The libertarian Cato Institute has been arguing in favor of liberalized immigration for over forty years and often criticizes the current system as antiquated, unfair and often maliciously conceived.
Political philosopher Adam James Tebble argues that more open borders aid both the economic and institutional development of poorer migrant sending countries, contrary to "brain-drain" critiques of migration.
Libertarian proponents of restricted immigration
Libertarian theorist and economist Murray Rothbard approached the question of immigration through the lens of private property. In The Ethics of Liberty, Rothbard argued that the question of immigration could be adequately resolved within a libertarian society, where all streets and land would be privately owned. Immigration would be permitted and encouraged to the extent that there were property owners willing to receive immigrants and allow them to travel on their private roads. Rothbard believed this would lead to a varied arrangement of migration, reflecting the attitudes and desires of property owners in a given area.
Rothbard's views on immigration evolved later in his career, as he argued more pointedly that the anarcho-capitalist model would not lend itself to unrestricted immigration. He argued that policies of open immigration enforced by the state are antithetical to liberty:"A totally privatized country would be as "closed" as the particular inhabitants and property owners desire. It seems clear, then, that the regime of open borders that exists de facto in the U.S. really amounts to a compulsory opening by the central state, the state in charge of all streets and public land areas, and does not genuinely reflect the wishes of the proprietors."Hans-Hermann Hoppe, a student of Rothbard and another influential libertarian thinker and economist, is well known for his criticism of unrestricted immigration. He argues that there is no inconsistency in advocating for free trade of good while at the same time arguing for policies of restricted immigration. In his view, free trade always implies a willing buyer and a willing seller. This is not the case with immigration, where immigrants can move on public roads of their own volition and to places where they are not necessarily welcome, amounting to forced integration. As Hoppe states in his article "The Case for Free Trade and Restricted Immigration", "It is precisely the absolute voluntariness of human association and separation—the absence of any form of forced integration—which makes peaceful relationships—free trade—between racially, ethnically, linguistically, religiously, or culturally distinct people possible."
Moreover, Hoppe stresses that the political climate in the Western democracies has made the situation even more dire, as the welfare policies of these countries imply that immigration will lead to economic devastation. Hoppe agrees with Rothbard that the ultimate solution to the problem of immigration must be the abolition of government and privatization of all property, including the roads by which immigrants enter a nation and move about within it. This implies that every immigrant will be received by a willing property owner, thus making forced integration impossible. With regards to the anarcho-capitalist model, Hoppe says"Clearly, under this scenario there exists no such thing as freedom of immigration. Rather, there exists the freedom of many independent private property owners to admit or exclude others from their own property in accordance with their own unrestricted or restricted property titles [...] There will be as much immigration or non-immigration, inclusivity or exclusivity, desegregation or segregation, non-discrimination or discrimination based on racial, ethnic, linguistic, religious, cultural or whatever other grounds as individual owners or associations of individual owners allow."Even if the current situation of democratic central states does not approximate the anarcho-capitalist ideal, Hoppe still thinks that one can still advocate for policies that align more closely with libertarianism. He holds that democratic rulers should set policies as though they owned personally the territory over which they preside. This entails strong discrimination along the lines of "skill, character, and cultural compatibility" as the rulers try to maximize the value of their territory. Further, as Hoppe says, this model entails "requiring as necessary, for resident alien status as well as for citizenship, the personal sponsorship by a resident citizen and his assumption of liability for all property damage caused by the immigrant."
Still others hold that libertarians should oppose open borders on the grounds that it leads to increases in the size of government, as immigrants tend to vote for increases in wealth redistribution.
References
Further reading
Immigration
Immigration | [
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|
215694 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collared%20treepie | Collared treepie | The collared treepie, black-faced treepie or black-browed treepie (Dendrocitta frontalis) is an Asian treepie, a small perching bird of the crow family, Corvidae.
This bird is slightly smaller than a blue jay and has the typical compact body and long tail of this group. The forehead, face and bib are black with the chest, neck and shoulders a light silvery or bluish-grey in color. The back is a warm chestnut brown with similar underparts. The wing coverts are white with the primaries and tail black.
It inhabits a broad band (though often very localized) from the north eastern Indian Himalayas, Bangladesh, Nepal and across into Burma (Myanmar) in hill forests often at quite high elevations.
It feeds mainly on invertebrates of various types, and hawks for termites in flight; it also eats fruits and berries. It probably takes similar overall food types as the other treepies.
The nest is a small, neat structure often placed in bamboo clumps, small trees or bushes at the edge of a clearing. There are usually 3-5 eggs laid.
The voice is described as varied but contains metallic notes as well as the chatter alarm call sounding similar to the other species.
References
collared treepie
Birds of Bhutan
Birds of Northeast India
Birds of Myanmar
Birds of Vietnam
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|
215695 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian%20perspectives%20on%20abortion | Libertarian perspectives on abortion | Libertarians promote individual liberty and seek to minimize the role of the state. The abortion debate is mainly within right-libertarianism between cultural liberals and social conservatives as left-libertarians generally see it as a settled issue regarding individual rights, as they support legal access to abortion as part of what they consider to be a woman's right to control her body and its functions. Religious right and intellectual conservatives have attacked such libertarians for supporting abortion rights, especially after the demise of the Soviet Union. Libertarian conservatives claim libertarian principles such as the non-aggression principle (NAP) apply to human beings from conception and that the universal right to life applies to fetuses in the womb. Thus, some of those individuals express opposition to legal abortion.
Support for legal abortion
Russian-American novelist Ayn Rand argued that the notion of a fetus's having a right to life is "vicious nonsense" and stated: "An embryo has no rights. [...] A child cannot acquire any rights until it is born". She also wrote: "Abortion is a moral right—which should be left to the sole discretion of the woman involved; morally, nothing other than her wish in the matter is to be considered".
Anarcho-capitalist philosopher and Austrian school economist Murray Rothbard wrote that "no being has a right to live, unbidden, as a parasite within or upon some person's body" and that therefore the woman is entitled to eject the fetus from her body at any time. However, explaining the right of the woman to "eject the fetus from her body", Rothbard also wrote that "every baby as soon as it is born and is therefore no longer contained within his mother's body possesses the right of self-ownership by virtue of being a separate entity and a potential adult. It must therefore be illegal and a violation of the child's rights for a parent to aggress against his person by mutilating, torturing, murdering him, etc." Rothbard also opposed all federal interference with the right of local governments to fashion their own laws, so he opposed the Supreme Court's Roe v. Wade decision. He believed that states should be able to author their own abortion policies. He also opposed taxpayer funding for abortion clinics, writing "it is peculiarly monstrous to force those who abhor abortion as murder to pay for such murders".
19th-century individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker initially concluded that no one should interfere to prevent neglect of the child, although they could still repress a positive invasion. However, Tucker, having reconsidered his opinion, resolved that parental cruelty is of non-invasive character and therefore is not to be prohibited. Tucker's opinion is grounded on the fact that he viewed the child as the property of the mother while in the womb and until the time of their emancipation (at the age of being able to contract and provide for themselves) unless the mother had disposed of the fruit of her womb by contract. In the meantime, Tucker recognized the right of the mother to dispose of her property as she sees it fit. According to Tucker's logic, "the outsider who uses force upon the child invades, not the child, but its mother, and may be rightfully punished for doing so".
In "The Right to Abortion: A Libertarian Defense", the Association of Libertarian Feminists created what they call a "systematic philosophical defense of the moral case for abortion from a libertarian perspective". It concludes: "To sacrifice existing persons for the sake of future generations, whether in slave labor camps for the utopian nightmares of Marxists or fascists, or in unwanted pregnancies, compulsory childbearing, and furtive coat hanger abortions for the edification of fetus-worshippers, is to establish hell on earth".
Capitalism Magazine supports the abortion-rights position, writing:
Harry Browne, the Libertarian Party candidate for president in 1996 and 2000, rejected the terms "pro-life" and "pro-choice" and stated about abortion: "Whatever we believe abortion is, we know one thing: Government doesn't work, and it is as incapable of eliminating abortions as it is of eliminating poverty or drugs".
The Libertarian Party's 2004 presidential candidate Michael Badnarik had a similar position, writing: "I oppose government control over the abortion issue. I believe that giving the government control of this issue could lead to more abortions rather than fewer, because the left-right pendulum of power swings back and forth. This shift could place the power to set policy in the hands of those who demand strict population control. The government that can ban abortion can just as easily mandate abortion, as is currently the case in China". The party's 2012 presidential candidate Gary Johnson wanted to keep abortion legal.
U.S. Libertarian Party national platform
Its 2012 political platform states, "Recognizing that abortion is a sensitive issue and that people can hold good-faith views on all sides, we believe that government should be kept out of the matter, leaving the question to each person for their conscientious consideration."
Other organizations
Other abortion rights libertarian organizations include the Association of Libertarian Feminists and Pro-Choice Libertarians.
Opposition to legal abortion
The anti-abortion libertarian group Libertarians for Life argues that humans in the zygotic, embryonic and fetal stages of development have the same rights as humans in the neonatal stage and beyond. Doris Gordon of the group notes that the principles of both the Libertarian Party and Objectivist ethics require some obligation to children and counter with an appeal to the non-aggression principle:
Evictionism
Walter Block, Rothbardian writer and professor of economics at Loyola University New Orleans, provides an alternative to the standard choice between "pro-life" and "pro-choice" which he terms "evictionism". According to this moral theory, the act of abortion must be conceptually separated into the acts of (a) eviction of the fetus from the womb; and (b) killing the fetus. Building on the libertarian stand against trespass and murder, Block supports a right to the first act, but except in certain circumstances not the second act. He believes the woman may legally abort if (a) the fetus is not viable outside the womb, and (b) the woman has publicly announced her abandonment of the right to custody of the fetus.
Departurism
Departurism is a theory developed by Sean Parr which, like evictionism, holds that the mother may evict but not directly kill the "trespassing" fetus, but, contrary to evictionism, neither may she kill him by eviction. The mother, if her actions are to conform to gentleness (an ex ante element of law akin to the ex post element proportionality), must allow for the continued departure of the trespasser until such time that eviction no longer entails his death. That is, it is only the fatal (or otherwise seriously injurious) eviction of a fetus during a normal pregnancy that departurism argues is discordant with gentleness and, thus, a NAP-violation.
Anti-abortion political officials
Ron and Rand Paul
Anti-abortion Republican and former Libertarian congressman Ron Paul says in "Abortion and Liberty":
His main position calls for overturning Roe v. Wade and letting the states decide the issue. Ron Paul's son, Republican Senator Rand Paul, calls himself "totally pro-life" and supports "any and all legislation that would end abortion or lead us in the direction of ending abortion".
Bob Barr
In 2008, the Libertarian Party candidate for president was Bob Barr who has called abortion "murder" and opposed legalized abortion.
Justin Amash
Republican-turned-Libertarian Justin Amash opposes abortion and federal funding for abortion. He describes himself as "100 percent pro-life" and in 2017 voted in favor of federal legislation to ban most abortions after 20 weeks of pregnancy.
Amash voted "present", rather than "yes" or "no", on the 2011 Full Year Continuing Appropriations Act, which provided for the cessation of federal funding to Planned Parenthood. Although he supports eliminating federal funding for Planned Parenthood, he abstained from defunding legislation, arguing that "legislation that names a specific private organization to defund (rather than all organizations that engage in a particular activity) is improper" and an "arguably unconstitutional" bill of attainder.
In May 2012, Amash was one of seven Republicans to vote against the Prenatal Non-Discrimination Act, which would have made it a crime for a doctor to perform an abortion on a woman who wants to end a pregnancy based on the gender of the fetus. He criticized the bill as ineffective and virtually impossible to enforce, and said Congress "should not criminalize thought", while maintaining that he believes "all abortion should be illegal".
Austin Petersen
Austin Petersen, presidential candidate for the Libertarian Party in 2016 and Republican candidate for senator in 2018, is a believer and advocate for a consistent life ethic, meaning that he opposes both abortion and the death penalty.
Anti-abortion political pundits
Talk radio host Larry Elder has argued that Roe v. Wade should be overturned, calling the decision "one of the worst decisions that the Supreme Court ever handed down." He has called abortion "murder" and believes that abortion laws should be decided at the state level.
Economist and social theorist Thomas Sowell has condemned partial-birth abortion.
Columnist Nat Hentoff was strongly opposed to abortion, and believed that a consistent life ethic should be the viewpoint of a genuine civil libertarian.
References
Further reading
External links
Pro-Choice Libertarians Activist network that promotes pro-abortion rights view within libertarian movement
Libertarians for Life Anti-abortion libertarian perspective
National Platform of the Libertarian Party, 1.4 Abortion, adopted in Convention, May 2012.
Abortion debate
Abortion | [
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|
215698 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pwyll%20%28crater%29 | Pwyll (crater) | Pwyll () is an impact crater on the surface of Jupiter's moon Europa. It is thought to be one of the youngest features on the moon. The crater was first observed from Voyager images in 1986, and the name was officially recognized by the IAU in 1997, after Pwyll of Welsh mythology.
Description
Pwyll crater is estimated to be 18 million years old or younger. Its visible dark central region is about in diameter, with several small peaks, and a central peak rising to about . Dark material in the center of the crater was exposed as a result of the impact, and may have been excavated from a depth of .
Ejected bright material extends outward from Pwyll in rays that extend as far as , covering the darker reddish surface of Europa. The bright white color suggests a composition of water ice particles. In addition to the white rays, the impact also produced a multitude of smaller secondary craters, which are largest near the center of each ray, and close to the central crater.
See also
List of craters on Europa
List of geological features on Europa
References
External links
Planetary Photojournal image page
NASA Europa images
Impact craters on Jupiter's moons
Surface features of Europa (moon) | [
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|
215699 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian%20perspectives%20on%20capital%20punishment | Libertarian perspectives on capital punishment | Most libertarians oppose capital punishment. They argue that capital punishment is an extreme exertion of state power, it is contrary to the values of a free society, authoritarian countries tend to be retentionist, and liberal-democratic societies generally abolitionist.
Proponents of capital punishment believe that such punishment may be justified as a deterrent to particularly atrocious crimes and as a means of keeping dangerous individuals permanently incapacitated. Furthermore, if people commit crimes, they may sacrifice their rights and if the legal system is legitimate, perhaps capital punishment is justified. The U.S. Libertarian Party, a right-libertarian American third party, opposes "the administration of the death penalty by the state" despite the large stake that conservatives would have in abolishing the death penalty.
There is also the fundamental problem of the possibility of error or even the outright framing of the accused. To that effect, lack of trust in government to make decisions (including life-and-death decisions) competently or for the best motives may confound the issue; already deeply distrustful of government, they say, it should not be trusted to be an arbiter of life and death without error.In any case, to anarcho-capitalists making judges, police officers, and other law enforcement personnel just as responsible for their acts as any citizen, with no privilege or special right or exemption, will prevent abuse of force in general, and of deadly force in particular. Walter Block went so far as to say, "We have seen that in the libertarian philosophy, the death penalty is justified for those whose crimes rise to a sufficient degree of severity. Surely, there are heads of state whose evil deeds many times eclipse such a level. Thus, it would altogether be justified to end their lives by violence."
Further reading
References
Capital punishment
Death penalty | [
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|
215700 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subsistence%20%28disambiguation%29 | Subsistence (disambiguation) | Subsistence may refer ro:
Subsistence economy, a non-monetary economy to provide for basic needs
Travel and subsistence, expenses related to business travel
Subsistit in, Catholic ecclesiological doctrine of Vatican II
See also
Subsistence agriculture
Subsistence crisis
Subsistence Homesteads Division, of the US Department of the Interior; a New Deal agency
Subsistence pattern or strategy, the means by which a society satisfies its basic needs for survival | [
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|
215705 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wu-Tang%20%28disambiguation%29 | Wu-Tang (disambiguation) | Wu-Tang Clan is an American hip-hop group.
Wu-Tang may also refer to:
Wu-Tang: Shaolin Style, a 1999 video game
Wu-tang (dance), a form of hip-hop dance
Wu Tang (Qing dynasty) (吳棠), a Viceroy of Min-Zhe from 1866 to 1867
Wudang Sect, sometimes also referred to as the Wu-tang Sect or Wu-Tang Clan, a fictional martial arts sect mentioned in several works of wuxia fiction
See also
Wudang (disambiguation), spelled Wutang or Wu-tang in Wade–Giles
Wu Dan (disambiguation)
Tang Wu (fl. 1940s–1960s), an ambassador of China to Egypt and other countries | [
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215706 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermassive%20black%20hole | Supermassive black hole | A supermassive black hole (SMBH or sometimes SBH) is the largest type of black hole, with its mass being on the order of millions to billions of times the mass of the Sun (). Black holes are a class of astronomical objects that have undergone gravitational collapse, leaving behind spheroidal regions of space from which nothing can escape, not even light. Observational evidence indicates that almost every large galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center. For example, the Milky Way has a supermassive black hole in its Galactic Center, corresponding to Sagittarius A*. Accretion of interstellar gas onto supermassive black holes is the process responsible for powering active galactic nuclei and quasars.
Description
Supermassive black holes are classically defined as black holes with a mass above 0.1 million to 1 million . Some astronomers have begun labeling black holes of at least 10 billion as ultramassive black holes. Most of these (such as TON 618) are associated with exceptionally energetic quasars. Even larger ones have been dubbed stupendously large black holes (SLAB) with masses greater than 100 billion . Although they noted there is currently no evidence that stupendously large black holes are real, they noted that supermassive black holes almost that size do exist. Some studies have suggested that the maximum mass that a black hole can reach, while being luminous accretors, is of the order of ~50 billion .
Supermassive black holes have physical properties that clearly distinguish them from lower-mass classifications. First, the tidal forces in the vicinity of the event horizon are significantly weaker for supermassive black holes. The tidal force on a body at a black hole's event horizon is inversely proportional to the square of the black hole's mass: a person at the event horizon of a 10 million black hole experiences about the same tidal force between their head and feet as a person on the surface of the earth. Unlike with stellar mass black holes, one would not experience significant tidal force until very deep into the black hole. In addition, it is somewhat counterintuitive to note that the average density of a SMBH within its event horizon (defined as the mass of the black hole divided by the volume of space within its Schwarzschild radius) can be less than the density of water. This is because the Schwarzschild radius is directly proportional to its mass. Since the volume of a spherical object (such as the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole) is directly proportional to the cube of the radius, the density of a black hole is inversely proportional to the square of the mass, and thus higher mass black holes have lower average density.
The Schwarzschild radius of the event horizon of a (nonrotating) supermassive black hole of ~1 billion is comparable to the semi-major axis of the orbit of planet Uranus, which is 19 AU.
History of research
The story of how supermassive black holes were found began with the investigation by Maarten Schmidt of the radio source 3C 273 in 1963. Initially this was thought to be a star, but the spectrum proved puzzling. It was determined to be hydrogen emission lines that had been red shifted, indicating the object was moving away from the Earth. Hubble's law showed that the object was located several billion light-years away, and thus must be emitting the energy equivalent of hundreds of galaxies. The rate of light variations of the source dubbed a quasi-stellar object, or quasar, suggested the emitting region had a diameter of one parsec or less. Four such sources had been identified by 1964.
In 1963, Fred Hoyle and W. A. Fowler proposed the existence of hydrogen burning supermassive stars (SMS) as an explanation for the compact dimensions and high energy output of quasars. These would have a mass of about . However, Richard Feynman noted stars above a certain critical mass are dynamically unstable and would collapse into a black hole, at least if they were non-rotating. Fowler then proposed that these supermassive stars would undergo a series of collapse and explosion oscillations, thereby explaining the energy output pattern. Appenzeller and Fricke (1972) built models of this behavior, but found that the resulting star would still undergo collapse, concluding that a non-rotating SMS "cannot escape collapse to a black hole by burning its hydrogen through the CNO cycle".
Edwin E. Salpeter and Yakov Zeldovich made the proposal in 1964 that matter falling onto a massive compact object would explain the properties of quasars. It would require a mass of around 108 to match the output of these objects. Donald Lynden-Bell noted in 1969 that the infalling gas would form a flat disk that spirals into the central "Schwarzschild throat". He noted that the relatively low output of nearby galactic cores implied these were old, inactive quasars. Meanwhile, in 1967, Martin Ryle and Malcolm Longair suggested that nearly all sources of extra-galactic radio emission could be explained by a model in which particles are ejected from galaxies at relativistic velocities; meaning they are moving near the speed of light. Martin Ryle, Malcolm Longair, and Peter Scheuer then proposed in 1973 that the compact central nucleus could be the original energy source for these relativistic jets.
Arthur M. Wolfe and Geoffrey Burbidge noted in 1970 that the large velocity dispersion of the stars in the nuclear region of elliptical galaxies could only be explained by a large mass concentration at the nucleus; larger than could be explained by ordinary stars. They showed that the behavior could be explained by a massive black hole with up to 1010 , or a large number of smaller black holes with masses below 103 . Dynamical evidence for a massive dark object was found at the core of the active elliptical galaxy Messier 87 in 1978, initially estimated at . Discovery of similar behavior in other galaxies soon followed, including the Andromeda Galaxy in 1984 and the Sombrero Galaxy in 1988.
Donald Lynden-Bell and Martin Rees hypothesized in 1971 that the center of the Milky Way galaxy would contain a massive black hole. Sagittarius A* was discovered and named on February 13 and 15, 1974, by astronomers Bruce Balick and Robert Brown using the Green Bank Interferometer of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory. They discovered a radio source that emits synchrotron radiation; it was found to be dense and immobile because of its gravitation. This was, therefore, the first indication that a supermassive black hole exists in the center of the Milky Way.
The Hubble Space Telescope, launched in 1990, provided the resolution needed to perform more refined observations of galactic nuclei. In 1994 the Faint Object Spectrograph on the Hubble was used to observe Messier 87, finding that ionized gas was orbiting the central part of the nucleus at a velocity of ±500 km/s. The data indicated a concentrated mass of lay within a span, providing strong evidence of a supermassive black hole. Using the Very Long Baseline Array to observe Messier 106, Miyoshi et al. (1995) were able to demonstrate that the emission from an H2O maser in this galaxy came from a gaseous disk in the nucleus that orbited a concentrated mass of , which was constrained to a radius of 0.13 parsecs. Their ground-breaking research noted that a swarm of solar mass black holes within a radius this small would not survive for long without undergoing collisions, making a supermassive black hole the sole viable candidate. Accompanying this observation which provided the first confirmation of supermassive black holes was the discovery of the highly broadened, ionised iron
Kα emission line (6.4 keV) from the galaxy MCG-6-30-15. The broadening was due to the gravitational redshift of the light as it escaped from just 3 to 10 Schwarzschild radii from the black hole.
On April 10, 2019, the Event Horizon Telescope collaboration released the first horizon-scale image of a black hole, in the center of the galaxy Messier 87.
In February 2020, astronomers reported that a cavity in the Ophiuchus Supercluster, originating from a supermassive black hole, is a result of the largest known explosion in the Universe since the Big Bang.
In March 2020, astronomers suggested that additional subrings should form the photon ring, proposing a way of better detecting these signatures in the first black hole image.
Formation
The origin of supermassive black holes remains an open field of research. Astrophysicists agree that black holes can grow by accretion of matter and by merging with other black holes. There are several hypotheses for the formation mechanisms and initial masses of the progenitors, or "seeds", of supermassive black holes. Independently of the specific formation channel for the black hole seed, given sufficient mass nearby, it could accrete to become an intermediate-mass black hole and possibly a SMBH if the accretion rate persists.
The early progenitor seeds may be black holes of tens or perhaps hundreds of solar masses that are left behind by the explosions of massive stars and grow by accretion of matter. Another model involves a dense stellar cluster undergoing core collapse as the negative heat capacity of the system drives the velocity dispersion in the core to relativistic speeds.
Before the first stars, large gas clouds could collapse into a "quasi-star", which would in turn collapse into a black hole of around . These stars may have also been formed by dark matter halos drawing in enormous amounts of gas by gravity, which would then produce supermassive stars with tens of thousands of solar masses. The "quasi-star" becomes unstable to radial perturbations because of electron-positron pair production in its core and could collapse directly into a black hole without a supernova explosion (which would eject most of its mass, preventing the black hole from growing as fast).
A more recent theory proposes that SMBH seeds were formed in the very early universe each from the collapse of a Supermassive star with mass of around 100,000 solar masses.
Large, high-redshift clouds of metal-free gas, when irradiated by a sufficiently intense flux of Lyman–Werner photons, can avoid cooling and fragmenting, thus collapsing as a single object due to self-gravitation. The core of the collapsing object reaches extremely large values of the matter density, of the order of about , and triggers a general relativistic instability. Thus, the object collapses directly into a black hole, without passing from the intermediate phase of a star, or of a quasi-star. These objects have a typical mass of about and are named direct collapse black holes.
Finally, primordial black holes could have been produced directly from external pressure in the first moments after the Big Bang. These primordial black holes would then have more time than any of the above models to accrete, allowing them sufficient time to reach supermassive sizes. Formation of black holes from the deaths of the first stars has been extensively studied and corroborated by observations. The other models for black hole formation listed above are theoretical.
The formation of a supermassive black hole requires a relatively small volume of highly dense matter having small angular momentum. Normally, the process of accretion involves transporting a large initial endowment of angular momentum outwards, and this appears to be the limiting factor in black hole growth. This is a major component of the theory of accretion disks. Gas accretion is the most efficient and also the most conspicuous way in which black holes grow. The majority of the mass growth of supermassive black holes is thought to occur through episodes of rapid gas accretion, which are observable as active galactic nuclei or quasars. Observations reveal that quasars were much more frequent when the Universe was younger, indicating that supermassive black holes formed and grew early. A major constraining factor for theories of supermassive black hole formation is the observation of distant luminous quasars, which indicate that supermassive black holes of billions of solar masses had already formed when the Universe was less than one billion years old. This suggests that supermassive black holes arose very early in the Universe, inside the first massive galaxies.
There is an upper limit to how large supermassive black holes can grow. So-called ultramassive black holes (UMBHs), which are at least ten times the size of most supermassive black holes, at 10 billion solar masses or more, appear to have a theoretical upper limit of around 50 billion solar masses, as anything above this slows growth down to a crawl (the slowdown tends to start around 10 billion solar masses) and causes the unstable accretion disk surrounding the black hole to coalesce into stars that orbit it.
Distant supermassive black holes, such as J0313–1806, and ULAS J1342+0928, are hard to explain so soon after the Big Bang. Some postulate they might come from direct collapse of dark matter with self-interaction. A small minority of sources argue that they may be evidence that the Universe is the result of a Big Bounce, instead of a Big Bang, with these supermassive black holes being formed before the Big Bounce.
Activity and galactic evolution
Gravitation from supermassive black holes in the center of many galaxies is thought to power active objects such as Seyfert galaxies and quasars, and the relationship between the mass of the central black hole and the mass of the host galaxy depends upon the galaxy type.
An active galactic nucleus (AGN) is now considered to be a galactic core hosting a massive black hole that is accreting matter and displays a sufficiently strong luminosity. The nuclear region of the Milky Way, for example, lacks sufficient luminosity to satisfy this condition. The unified model of AGN is the concept that the large range of observed properties of the AGN taxonomy can be explained using just a small number of physical parameters. For the initial model, these values consisted of the angle of the accretion disk's torus to the line of sight and the luminosity of the source. AGN can be divided into two main groups: a radiative mode AGN in which most of the output is in the form of electromagnetic radiation through an optically thick accretion disk, and a jet mode in which relativistic jets emerge perpendicular to the disk.
An empirical correlation between the size of supermassive black holes and the stellar velocity dispersion of a galaxy bulge is called the M–sigma relation.
Evidence
Doppler measurements
Some of the best evidence for the presence of black holes is provided by the Doppler effect whereby light from nearby orbiting matter is red-shifted when receding and blue-shifted when advancing. For matter very close to a black hole the orbital speed must be comparable with the speed of light, so receding matter will appear very faint compared with advancing matter, which means that systems with intrinsically symmetric discs and rings will acquire a highly asymmetric visual appearance. This effect has been allowed for in modern computer-generated images such as the example presented here, based on a plausible model for the supermassive black hole in Sgr A* at the center of the Milky Way. However, the resolution provided by presently available telescope technology is still insufficient to confirm such predictions directly.
What already has been observed directly in many systems are the lower non-relativistic velocities of matter orbiting further out from what are presumed to be black holes. Direct Doppler measures of water masers surrounding the nuclei of nearby galaxies have revealed a very fast Keplerian motion, only possible with a high concentration of matter in the center. Currently, the only known objects that can pack enough matter in such a small space are black holes, or things that will evolve into black holes within astrophysically short timescales. For active galaxies farther away, the width of broad spectral lines can be used to probe the gas orbiting near the event horizon. The technique of reverberation mapping uses variability of these lines to measure the mass and perhaps the spin of the black hole that powers active galaxies.
In the Milky Way
Astronomers are confident that the Milky Way galaxy has a supermassive black hole at its center, 26,000 light-years from the Solar System, in a region called Sagittarius A* because:
The star S2 follows an elliptical orbit with a period of 15.2 years and a pericenter (closest distance) of 17 light-hours ( or 120 AU) from the center of the central object.
From the motion of star S2, the object's mass can be estimated as , or about .
The radius of the central object must be less than 17 light-hours, because otherwise S2 would collide with it. Observations of the star S14 indicate that the radius is no more than 6.25 light-hours, about the diameter of Uranus' orbit.
No known astronomical object other than a black hole can contain in this volume of space.
Infrared observations of bright flare activity near Sagittarius A* show orbital motion of plasma with a period of at a separation of six to ten times the gravitational radius of the candidate SMBH. This emission is consistent with a circularized orbit of a polarized "hot spot" on an accretion disk in a strong magnetic field. The radiating matter is orbiting at 30% of the speed of light just outside the innermost stable circular orbit.
On January 5, 2015, NASA reported observing an X-ray flare 400 times brighter than usual, a record-breaker, from Sagittarius A*. The unusual event may have been caused by the breaking apart of an asteroid falling into the black hole or by the entanglement of magnetic field lines within gas flowing into Sagittarius A*, according to astronomers.
Outside the Milky Way
Unambiguous dynamical evidence for supermassive black holes exists only in a handful of galaxies; these include the Milky Way, the Local Group galaxies M31 and M32, and a few galaxies beyond the Local Group, e.g. NGC 4395. In these galaxies, the mean square (or rms) velocities of the stars or gas rises proportionally to 1/ near the center, indicating a central point mass. In all other galaxies observed to date, the rms velocities are flat, or even falling, toward the center, making it impossible to state with certainty that a supermassive black hole is present. Nevertheless, it is commonly accepted that the center of nearly every galaxy contains a supermassive black hole. The reason for this assumption is the M–sigma relation, a tight (low scatter) relation between the mass of the hole in the 10 or so galaxies with secure detections, and the velocity dispersion of the stars in the bulges of those galaxies. This correlation, although based on just a handful of galaxies, suggests to many astronomers a strong connection between the formation of the black hole and the galaxy itself.
The nearby Andromeda Galaxy, 2.5 million light-years away, contains a central black hole, significantly larger than the Milky Way's. The largest supermassive black hole in the Milky Way's vicinity appears to be that of Messier 87 (i.e. M87*), at a mass of at a distance of 53.5 million light-years. The supergiant elliptical galaxy NGC 4889, at a distance of 336 million light-years away in the Coma Berenices constellation, contains a black hole measured to be .
Masses of black holes in quasars can be estimated via indirect methods that are subject to substantial uncertainty. The quasar TON 618 is an example of an object with an extremely large black hole, estimated at . Its redshift is 2.219. Other examples of quasars with large estimated black hole masses are the hyperluminous quasar APM 08279+5255, with an estimated mass of , and the quasar S5 0014+81, with a mass of , or 10,000 times the mass of the black hole at the Milky Way Galactic Center.
Some galaxies, such as the galaxy 4C +37.11, appear to have two supermassive black holes at their centers, forming a binary system. If they collided, the event would create strong gravitational waves. Binary supermassive black holes are believed to be a common consequence of galactic mergers. The binary pair in OJ 287, 3.5 billion light-years away, contains the most massive black hole in a pair, with a mass estimated at . In 2011, a super-massive black hole was discovered in the dwarf galaxy Henize 2-10, which has no bulge. The precise implications for this discovery on black hole formation are unknown, but may indicate that black holes formed before bulges.
On March 28, 2011, a supermassive black hole was seen tearing a mid-size star apart. That is the only likely explanation of the observations that day of sudden X-ray radiation and the follow-up broad-band observations. The source was previously an inactive galactic nucleus, and from study of the outburst the galactic nucleus is estimated to be a SMBH with mass of the order of a million solar masses. This rare event is assumed to be a relativistic outflow (material being emitted in a jet at a significant fraction of the speed of light) from a star tidally disrupted by the SMBH. A significant fraction of a solar mass of material is expected to have accreted onto the SMBH. Subsequent long-term observation will allow this assumption to be confirmed if the emission from the jet decays at the expected rate for mass accretion onto a SMBH.
In 2012, astronomers reported an unusually large mass of approximately for the black hole in the compact, lenticular galaxy NGC 1277, which lies 220 million light-years away in the constellation Perseus. The putative black hole has approximately 59 percent of the mass of the bulge of this lenticular galaxy (14 percent of the total stellar mass of the galaxy). Another study reached a very different conclusion: this black hole is not particularly overmassive, estimated at between with being the most likely value. On February 28, 2013 astronomers reported on the use of the NuSTAR satellite to accurately measure the spin of a supermassive black hole for the first time, in NGC 1365, reporting that the event horizon was spinning at almost the speed of light.
In September 2014, data from different X-ray telescopes have shown that the extremely small, dense, ultracompact dwarf galaxy M60-UCD1 hosts a 20 million solar mass black hole at its center, accounting for more than 10% of the total mass of the galaxy. The discovery is quite surprising, since the black hole is five times more massive than the Milky Way's black hole despite the galaxy being less than five-thousandths the mass of the Milky Way.
Some galaxies lack any supermassive black holes in their centers. Although most galaxies with no supermassive black holes are very small, dwarf galaxies, one discovery remains mysterious: The supergiant elliptical cD galaxy A2261-BCG has not been found to contain an active supermassive black hole, despite the galaxy being one of the largest galaxies known; ten times the size and one thousand times the mass of the Milky Way. Since a supermassive black hole will only be visible while it is accreting, a supermassive black hole can be nearly invisible, except in its effects on stellar orbits.
In December 2017, astronomers reported the detection of the most distant quasar currently known, ULAS J1342+0928, containing the most distant supermassive black hole, at a reported redshift of z = 7.54, surpassing the redshift of 7 for the previously known most distant quasar ULAS J1120+0641.
In February 2020, astronomers reported the discovery of the Ophiuchus Supercluster eruption, the most energetic event in the Universe ever detected since the Big Bang. It occurred in the Ophiuchus Cluster in the galaxy NeVe 1, caused by the accretion of nearly 270 million solar masses of material by its central supermassive black hole. The eruption lasted for about 100 million years and released 5.7 million times more energy than the most powerful gamma-ray burst known. The eruption released shock waves and jets of high-energy particles that punched the intracluster medium, creating a cavity about 1.5 million light-years wide - ten times the Milky Way's diameter.
In February 2021, astronomers released, for the first time, a very high-resolution image of 25,000 active supermassive black holes, covering four percent of the Northern celestial hemisphere, based on ultra-low radio wavelengths, as detected by the Low-Frequency Array (LOFAR) in Europe.
Hawking radiation
Hawking radiation is black-body radiation that is predicted to be released by black holes, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. This radiation reduces the mass and energy of black holes, causing them to shrink and ultimately vanish. If black holes evaporate via Hawking radiation, a supermassive black hole with a mass of 1011 (100 billion) will evaporate in around 2×10100 years. Some monster black holes in the universe are predicted to continue to grow up to perhaps 1014 during the collapse of superclusters of galaxies. Even these would evaporate over a timescale of up to 10106 years.
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Black Holes: Gravity's Relentless Pull Award-winning interactive multimedia Web site about the physics and astronomy of black holes from the Space Telescope Science Institute
Images of supermassive black holes
NASA images of supermassive black holes
The black hole at the heart of the Milky Way
ESO video clip of stars orbiting a galactic black hole
Star Orbiting Massive Milky Way Centre Approaches to within 17 Light-Hours ESO, October 21, 2002
Images, Animations, and New Results from the UCLA Galactic Center Group
Washington Post article on Supermassive black holes
Video (2:46) – Simulation of stars orbiting Milky Way's central massive black hole
Video (2:13) – Simulation reveals supermassive black holes (NASA, October 2, 2018)
Galaxies
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Concepts in astronomy
Articles containing video clips | [
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|
215719 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grey%20treepie | Grey treepie | The grey treepie, also known as the Himalayan treepie, (Dendrocitta formosae) is an Asian treepie, a medium-sized and long-tailed member of the crow family. The species was first described by Robert Swinhoe in 1863. They are widely distributed along the foothills of the Himalayas in the Indian Subcontinent and extending into Indochina, southern mainland China and Taiwan. The populations vary in plumage and several are named as subspecies.
Grey treepies are omnivorous birds mostly thriving among dense foliage and in forests. They sometimes take part in mixed species flocks with laughingthrushes, especially the white-throated laughingthrush. They systematically work together through the hill forests, rhododendrons, oaks and other broad-leaved trees, especially in the mornings.
Description
The grey treepie is long and weighs . It is the same size as other Dendrocitta species and is separated from them by the overall grey colour of the body. The races in the western part of the distribution have a greyish rump and some grey in tail while the eastern forms have a white rump and a black tail. The face and throat are dark and black with a diffuse mask. The body is grey on the underside becoming whiter towards the vent. The back and scapulars are brownish. The crown and nape are greyish and the black wing has a prominent white carpal patch. The vent is rufous and the outer tail feathers and tips of the central feathers are black. The beak is black, the legs are blackish-brown and the eyes are red or reddish-brown. The two sexes are similar. The juvenile bird is duller, with a browner nape, and all of its feathers have rufous tips.
The species occupies a large geographical range and has several recognised regional forms that differ slightly from one another for instance in colour and tail length. These include occidentalis of the western Himalayan foothills (identified by its slightly longer tail), himalayana from the central Himalayas east into Thailand and Vietnam. A disjunct population, said to have a smaller or narrower bill, is found in the Eastern Ghats of peninsular India, sarkari, that is sometimes subsumed into himalayana. The Southeast Asian races include assimilis, sapiens, sinica, formosae (the nominate race from Taiwan) and insulae (Hainan Island).
It has been suggested that this species forms a superspecies along with Dendrocitta occipitalis and Dendrocitta cinerascens.
Distribution and habitat
The grey treepie is largely arboreal and is found in a wide range of habitats including forest, cultivation and human habitation. The distribution range includes the foothills of the Himalayas, the Eastern Ghats (India), Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, China, Hainan, Taiwan and northern Indochina. In the Himalayas, it is found up to above sea level, and in southeastern China, it is found between and .
Behaviour and ecology
This treepie is mostly an arboreal feeder but will take some food from the ground, especially in cultivated regions. It eats a wide range of insects and other invertebrates, berries, nectar, grain and other seeds, and also small reptiles, eggs and nestlings. It sometimes joins mixed-species foraging flocks.
In the foothills of the Himalayas in India, they are known to breed from 2000 to 6000 feet high mainly during the months of May to July. The nest is a shallow cup lined with hair and is built in trees and bushes or clumps of bamboo with 3-4 eggs per clutch. The eggs can be whitish, buffish or pale green, with brown or grey spots. Both the male and female build the nest and feed the young birds.
The voice is described as harsh and grating, but like other species is quite varied and includes a grating k-r-r-r-r sound as well as more melodious notes not unlike those of the rufous treepie. These include a tiddly-aye-kok, ko-ku-la and barking braap...braap...braap calls.
Status
The global population size is not known. In China, there are an estimated 10,000 to 100,000 breeding pairs, and the population size in Taiwan is estimated at 10,000 to 100,000 breeding pairs. The population in Hainan may be endangered by habitat destruction. The species has a large range, and the population decline does not appear to be very rapid, so the IUCN Red List has assessed the species to be of least concern.
References
External links
Grey treepie
grey treepie
Birds of the Himalayas
Birds of Eastern Himalaya
Birds of South China
Birds of Hainan
Birds of Hong Kong
Birds of East India
Birds of Laos
Birds of Myanmar
Birds of Taiwan
Birds of Thailand
Birds of Yunnan
grey treepie
grey treepie | [
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|
215722 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood%20sausage | Blood sausage | A blood sausage is a sausage filled with blood that is cooked or dried and mixed with a filler until it is thick enough to solidify when cooled. Most commonly, the blood of pigs, sheep, lamb, cow, or goose is used.
In Europe and the Americas, typical fillers include meat, fat, suet, bread, cornmeal, onion, chestnuts, barley, oatmeal and buckwheat. On the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America and Asia, fillers are often made with rice. Sweet variants with sugar, honey, orange peel and spices are also regional specialties.
In many languages, there is a general term such as blood sausage (American English) and blood pudding (British English) that is used for all sausages that are made from blood, whether or not they include non-animal material such as bread, cereal, and nuts. Sausages that include such material are often referred to with more specific terms, such as black pudding in English.
Africa
Mutura is a traditional blood sausage dish among the people of central Kenya, although recently its popularity has spread throughout Kenya. It is made with meat, blood, and spices all encased in the animal's intestines or stomach. In Kenya fillers include fresh minced goat, beef, and mutton, fat, and red onions.
Nowadays many types of mutura, especially commercial street food versions, do not contain blood. The meat used in the filling can be any fleshy part, but like any other type of sausage, prime cuts are not ordinarily used for the stuffing. Instead the tougher, leaner cuts – for example the neck – are trimmed off the bone. The casing for the stuffing is the stomach sac and larger intestines. These are flushed many times with water to clean them.
The meat for the stuffing is finely chopped or minced, and the mandatory fat is often trimmed from other parts. The meat is slightly fried, mixed with finely chopped red onions, salt and optionally fresh chili. Other additions include freshly chopped coriander (dhania or cilantro), garlic, pepper and even beef stock. This is then mixed thoroughly with the fresh blood from the animal, and stuffed into the stomach and intestines, with the openings sewn or tied together with string.
The sausage is boiled in a large pot (often with other parts of the animal not roasted and used to make soup) for 30–45 minutes, and roasted over coals till brown. Sliced, it is served with kachumbari, an onion based salad consisting of tomatoes, red onions and fresh coriander, a bit of chili and squeeze of lemon. The accompanying starch is ugali.
Americas
North America
Caribbean
In Antigua, rice pudding is a local delicacy and it is prepared the same way as blood sausage.
In Barbados, blood sausage, also called pudding, is made with sweet potato (batata), pig's blood and onions, seasoned with peppers and other herbs and stuffed in pig intestines. Traditionally pig's blood was used to darken the mixture but Browning sauce (caramelized sugar) is sometimes used as a substitute. It is normally served with souse, which is pickled pig's feet, pig's ears and other trimmings. The cooked meat is cut into bite-sized pieces and soaked in a brine made of water, lime juice, cucumbers, hot pepper, and specially prepared seasonings. Blood sausage and souse, more commonly known as pudding and souse, is a Bajan delicacy usually prepared on weekends and special occasions.
In the French Antilles, boudin créole, or boudin antillais is very popular, this being the French boudin noir with local Caribbean chilli and other spices.
In Puerto Rico, blood sausage is known as morcilla. Puerto Rican blood sausage is made with rice, culantro, cilantro, garlic, and Cubanelle pepper. Some contain paprika and annatto. Morcilla is especially popular during Christmas.
In Trinidad and Tobago, the local style of blood sausage is heavily seasoned with local peppers and traditionally prepared from pig's blood, often replaced by pig's liver today. It is sold by local producers as a popular accompaniment to rolls of crusty hops bread or served as an accompaniment to trotter souse, a stew based on trotters.
Other varieties of blood sausage include boudin rouge (Creole and Cajun), rellena or moronga (Mexico) and sanganel (Friuli).
Central America
In Panama, blood sausage is called morcilla, rellena or tubería negra, and is usually filled with rice. In El Salvador and Nicaragua, it is called "moronga".
Mexico
In the Yucatán Peninsula, morcilla is made exclusively from pig's blood and once deep fried it is served with a mix of pickled onions, cilantro and spices. It is always consumed in the form of tacos and paired with fresh habanero peppers.
In Central Mexico, morcilla is known as moronga.
United States
Blood sausages are very difficult to find in US supermarkets. Brussels and Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin are both home to local grocers who produce blood sausage, due to their large Belgian American populations. Supermarkets throughout Maine also carry locally produced blood pudding due to the state's large French Canadian population. In southeastern Michigan, Polish-style kaszanka can be found in supermarkets throughout the year and is very popular.
An Italian-American version of blood sausage in the San Francisco Bay Area is called biroldo and has pine nuts, raisins, spices, and pig snouts and is made using either pig's or cow's blood. German-style blood sausage and Zungenwurst can be found in Fresno and Santa Rosa, where Russian and Armenian delis offer a wide range of Central European foods. Also, Alpine Village in Torrance, California has Blutwurst due to a considerable German-American population in the South Bay area of Los Angeles County.
Cajun boudin is a fresh sausage made with green onions, pork, pork liver (making it somewhat gritty or grainy), and rice. Pig's blood was sometimes added to produce boudin rouge, but this tradition became increasingly rare after the mid-twentieth century due to the decline of the boucherie (traditional communal butchering) and government health regulations prohibiting the transportation of raw blood. As a result, Cajun boudin is now usually made without blood; however, blood or "black" boudin can still be purchased.
Latin America
In many areas of Latin America, morcilla is served. Morcilla is sometimes made with a filler of rice and/or onions, and seasoned with paprika and other spices. In Puerto Rico, it is served fried and mostly consumed during the holidays. In Colombia, morcilla can have rice, green peas, cilantro or culantro, and is often eaten as an appetizer called "picada" or with the traditional dishes "Bandeja Paisa" or "Fritanga". In Venezuela, morcilla is often served with parrilla (barbecue).
South America
Andean
In Ecuador and Bolivia the blood sausage is also called morcilla, and is usually filled with rice.
Argentina, Uruguay
Morcilla is also eaten inside a sandwich called "morcipán", especially in the Río de la Plata. Morcilla is a component of the asado criollo, a regional mixed grill or barbecue meal. In Uruguay and in Argentina, a sweet version including raisins and pine nuts is popular; some vendors even add chocolate, caramelised orange peels, peanuts, and other dried fruits. Uruguayans usually are fond of sweet or salty morcilla, and most restaurants and supermarkets carry both versions.
Brazil
In Brazil there is a version of the blood sausage called chouriço or morcela (sometimes the Castillian Spanish version morcilla is used as well), consisting of a fresh sausage made of the blood and fat from pork and usually rice. It is a variation of the Portuguese blood sausage, and it is known for its deep dark color. In some regions, it is popular on barbecues (Churrascos) as a starter.
Chile
In Chile, the blood sausage is called "prieta" (a synonym of "negra", black) and tends to have a very thick skin, so is eaten cut open lengthwise. Apart from blood and a little fat, "prietas" may contain a variety of ingredients, such as chopped onion and spices, cabbage, peppers, watercress, rice, meat or even dried fruit or nuts. "Prietas" or "morcillas" are part of the Chilote tradition of "reitimiento" involving the slaughter and preparation of a pig.
Prietas are easily found at supermarkets throughout the country and are available from practically any butcher.
Guianas
In Guyana, blood sausage is a very popular snack served at social occasions, and as "cutters" when drinking. The main ingredient is cooked rice seasoned with herbs, such as thyme and basil. The rice is mixed with cow's blood, stuffed into cow's or pig's intestine, and boiled until firm, sliced and served with Sour (a mild type of dipping sauce with hot peppers). White pudding is also made.
In Suriname, blood sausage is known by the Dutch name bloedworst, and white pudding by the equally Dutch name vleesworst.
Asia
Across Asia, various people create food from congealed animal blood. Most of these food types do not have casings and might be considered a version of sliced sausage.
East Asia
Hong Kong
In Hong Kong, the dish closest to blood sausage is pig blood curd, which is only made from pig's blood and is not considered a sausage.
Korea
The majority of Korea's sundae (순대) can be categorised as blood sausage. The most common type of sundae is made of sweet potato noodle (dangmyeon), barley, and pig's blood, but some variants contain sesame leaves, green onion, fermented soy paste (doenjang), sweet rice, kimchi, and bean sprouts, in addition to the common ingredients. The Korean sundae is wrapped with pig's intestines. The addition of sweet potato noodle is a more modern addition to the dish. There is another Korean food called seonji which is cow blood that has been boiled in soup. It looks like the Blodpudding of Sweden.
Manchuria and China
In Chinese cuisines, whole coagulated blood is fried or steamed as a snack or cooked in a hot pot. In mainland China, "blood tofu" (), or "red tofu" (), is most often made with pig's or duck's blood. Like the above dishes, this has no casing but is simply cut into rectangular pieces and cooked. In Northeast China, the "blood sausage" was a traditional food which is cooked with sheep or goat blood. In Tibet, congealed yak's blood is a traditional food. Chinese people also used pig blood curd that was consumed by laborers in Kaifeng over 1,000 years ago in the south of China.
Mongolia
Blood sausage is popular in Mongolia. In Mongolia a special method of killing sheep was made mandatory by Genghis Khan to save blood for sausage. It appears in the Yasa and is still used today.
Taiwan
In Taiwan, "pig's blood cake" () or "rice blood cake"(), made of pork blood and sticky rice, is served on a popsicle stick; this is a very popular snack at local night markets.
Tibet
In Tibetan cuisine, sausages or gyurma refer to blood sausages and are made with yak or sheep's blood which may or may not include either rice or roasted barley flour as filler. The sausage uses natural casing employing the use of yak or sheep's intestine.
Southeast Asia
Indonesia
In Bali, Urutan is a version of blood sausage made with pork intestine and pork blood. It is served with rice.
Another version in Java called saren or marus, is made with chicken's blood and usually cut into small cube pieces.
While in Sumatra, Bataknese eats a dish called Kidu-Kidu , a sausage dish made from pork intestines, served with sauce made from pork's blood and spices such as andaliman pepper.
Malaysia
In Penang or other northern states, pig blood curd (known locally in Penang Hokkien as "too huet"; ) is usually served with the local street delicacy Curry Mee (curry noodles). It can also be mixed with some traditional Hokkien dishes as well.
Philippines
Blood sausage is known generically as longganisang dugo (lit. "blood longaniza") in the Philippines. A notable type of native pre-colonial blood sausage is pinuneg, which is composed of minced pork and innards in a pork casing made from large intestines that is prepared in the Cordillera Administrative Region of the Philippines.
Thailand
In Thai cuisine sai krok lueat (Thai: ไส้กรอกเลือด) is a blood sausage ( = sausage, = blood), often served sliced and accompanied by a spicy dipping sauce. "Blood tofu" is simply called lueat (, blood) in Thailand. This can be used in many Thai dishes such as in noodle soups, Thai curries, or as an addition to certain rice dishes such as Khao man kai.
Vietnam
Vietnamese 'dồi tiết' (Northern) or 'dồi huyết' (Southern) is blood sausage, boiled or fried, made with pork blood, pork fat and basil.
South Asia
Nepal
In Limbu cuisine, sargemba or sargyangma is a type of blood sausage made mostly from pork intestines, pork fat, rice and yangben, a type of edible wild lichen.
Europe
Central and Eastern Europe
Throughout Central and Eastern Europe, blood sausage, known as kishka (meaning "intestine"), is made with pig's blood and buckwheat kasha. It is also known in Russia as krovyanka (кровянка), or krovyanaya kolbasa (кровяная колбаса, literally "blood sausage"), and includes buckwheat as a main filler, instead of oats or oatmeal. In Ukraine it's called krov'yanka (кров'янка) or kryvava kyshka (кривава кишка), and kiszka or kaszanka in Poland; krvavnička in Slovakia and krupniok in Silesia. Polish salceson ("black" and "Brunszwicki") are a type of head cheese ("brawn") that contains blood. In Hungary, véres hurka is typically made with pig's blood and barleycorn or cubed bread (typically zsemle) as filler as such also known as zsemlés hurka and gerslis hurka. In Bulgaria, karvavitsa (кървавица) is usually prepared with pig's blood, fat and a variety of mountain herbs and spices and eaten warm during the winter.
In Romania, the traditional sângerete (from sânge, "blood" in Romanian) is made from shoulder butt pork meat, pork blood and a filler such as pre-boiled rice seasoned with pepper, garlic and basil. It has many regional variants, but the most common are the sângerete from Transylvania.
Similarly, in Czech cuisine, jelito is made from second-rate pork, pig's blood and peeled barley; the stuffing served by itself, unformed, is called prejt.
Northern Europe
Denmark
In Denmark, blodpølse is made from pigs's blood and suet, rye flour, brown sugar, raisins, salt, cinnamon and cardamom stuffed into natural or artificial intestines. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried, served with syrup, cinnamon and stewed apples.
Estonia
In Estonia, verivorst (blood sausage) is made of pig's blood, barley groats, pork, marjoram and other flavourings. It is sold and eaten mostly in winter, being a traditional Christmas food. At that time there is a large variety of verivorst in stores, ranging in shapes and sizes. Verivorst is usually cooked in an oven, but sometimes also fried in a pan. Verivorst is often eaten together with lingonberry jam, but occasionally also with butter or sour cream. Another similar dish is called verikäkk (blood dumpling, similar to black pudding). The popularity of verikäkk has decreased during the past decades (possibly because of its less appealing commercial appearance) and has mostly been substituted by verivorst.
Finland
Mustamakkara (literally "black sausage") is a roasted sausage containing pig's blood and very similar to Estonian verivorst. The sausage is said to originate from Tampere and is considered an integral part of the city's culture.
A dish similar to the British black pudding is also made by making batter out of pig's blood and baking it like pancakes. Traditionally, rye flour or oatmeal is used and minced onion is added to the mix. This dish is called veriohukainen or verilettu (blood pancake). Rössypottu is a traditional soup in northern Finland with blood pudding as a main ingredient.
Most blood sausage dishes in Finland are often eaten with lingonberry jam to sweeten the taste.
Iceland
In Iceland, blóðmör is one of two types of slátur. It is made from lamb's blood and suet, rye flour and oats, traditionally stuffed into pouches sewn from the lamb's stomach. It is usually boiled in its skin, eaten hot or cold, sometimes sliced and fried. After cooking, it is often preserved in fermented whey and acquires a distinct sour taste.
Latvia
In Latvia, blood sausage is either called asinsdesa (blood sausage) or putraimu desa (groat sausage) because of the added barley groats. It usually served with lingonberry jam and sour cream.
Sweden
Blodpudding is a traditional medieval dish still popular in Sweden. The exact proportions and ingredients vary, partly according to regional preference, but generally it is made from pig's blood, milk, rye or barley flour, diced lard, either beer or svagdricka, treacle and onion, flavoured with allspice and marjoram. It is then poured into forms and oven-baked in a waterbath. Most of the blodpudding consumed today is made on industrial basis.
When prepared for serving, it is sliced and fried. The style of serving and accompaniments vary across the country, and it is not uncommon to have the blodpudding act as the meat in a meal. Nationally, the common way is to serve it with lingonberry jam, grated carrots and ice cold milk to drink. Fried bacon or pork side is also common. In Scania, the lingonberry jam is often replaced by finely sliced apples, fried along with the pork.
Other blood-based foods include blodkorv (blood sausage) which differs from blodpudding by having raisins, pork tallow and apple sauce in it, blodplättar (blood pancakes, similar to the original Finnish dish veriohukainen above) and blodpalt. There is also a soup made from blood, called svartsoppa (black soup).
United Kingdom and Ireland
Black pudding is the native British version of blood sausage. It is generally made from pork blood and a relatively high proportion of oatmeal. In the past it was occasionally flavoured with pennyroyal, differing from continental European versions in its relatively limited range of ingredients and reliance on oatmeal and barley instead of onions to absorb the blood. It can be eaten cold, as it is cooked in production, grilled, fried or boiled in its skin. It is often served sliced and fried or grilled as part of a traditional full breakfast, a tradition that followed British and Irish emigrants around the world. Black pudding is now part of the local cuisine of New Zealand and the Canadian provinces of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador.
Stornoway black pudding produced on the Isle of Lewis, Scotland, is one of the most renowned varieties and has been granted Protected Geographical Indicator of Origin (PGI) status.
The similar white pudding (mealie pudding) is a further important feature of the traditional Northumbrian, Scottish, Irish and Newfoundland breakfast. Black and white pudding, as well as a third variant, red pudding, is served battered in some chip shops in England, Scotland and Ireland as an alternative to fish and chips.
While "blood sausage" in English is understood in Britain, the term is applied only to foreign usage (e.g., in the story The Name-Day by Saki), or to similar blood-based sausages elsewhere in the world.
Southern Europe
Croatia, Bosnia, Serbia, Slovenia
A similar blood sausage to karvavitsa, called krvavica (крвавица), made out of similar ingredients, is eaten in Bosnia, Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia in wintertime, usually with sauerkraut and cooked potatoes.
Italy
In Italy, regional varieties of blood sausage are known as sanguinaccio. In Tuscany, buristo is a sausage made with pig's blood and fat cooked in a pig's stomach. It is not reheated and is often spread on bread. It is found only in the south of Tuscany in the winter months and even there it can be difficult to come by. Biroldo is another type of black pudding which can be found in Tuscany, while the version made in southern Lombardy is called marsapan.
Migliaccio is a black pudding that is traditionally prepared in winter in Romagna. It is a sweet pudding with a thick black filling made with pig's blood, sugar, breadcrumbs, almonds, chocolate, butter and spices contained in a thin pastry crust. A similar pudding is made throughout southern Italy, generally called sanguinaccio.
Portugal
In Portuguese cuisine, there are many varieties of blood sausage. Sausages made of blood are usually called morcela or negrinha (a slang term from Portuguese negro meaning dark or black). There are many varieties around the Portuguese world. There are varieties local to Portugal, the Azores, Hawaii, China, US and India, etc.
Spain
Spanish morcilla has many variants. The most well-known and widespread is morcilla de Burgos which contains mainly pork blood and fat, rice, onions, and salt, and is produced in two varieties: cylindrical and gut-shaped. In Albacete and La Mancha, the morcilla is filled with onions instead of rice, which completely changes the texture. In Extremadura the creamy morcilla patatera includes roughly mashed potatoes. In the northern regions and the Canary Islands there is a sweet variety known as morcilla dulce. Other varieties introduce breadcrumbs, pine nuts, and almonds, and vary the proportions of the other ingredients or flavourings, some of them considered delicacies.
There are other similarly famous kinds being made at Asturias (slightly darker and smaller, used for bean and chickpea stews) and León (without rice, grilled & spread on toasted bread). Other less popular varieties may add cumin to the pudding mixture, but this is not a standard practice. The cooking method for consumption is typically frying, stewing, grilling or roasting, and usually sliced in one-finger-thick wheelettes ("rodajas"). There are many derivative foods made from morcilla, such as omelettes, stuffed red pepper, puff pastry, pizza, flavoured nachos, croquettes, and a range of fillings for different dishes.
In Galicia, blood pancakes are called filloas.
Western Europe
Belgium, Netherlands and Luxembourg
In Belgium and the Netherlands, bloedworst or beuling is sold in slices. It is generally pan fried; sometimes apples are cooked alongside or on top of the pieces. It is also eaten with apple sauce, brown sugar, syrup or red cabbage. As a cold cut, thin slices are eaten as a sandwich topping. Zwarte pens are individual blood sausages the size of a banana.
The Luxembourg träipen includes green cabbage, and is served pan fried with apple sauce. It was eaten in church in the Middle Ages during Carnival and is still consumed for breakfast, baked with apples and topped with apple syrup, during Carnival in the Dutch province of Limburg.
France and southern Belgium
In France and Wallonia (south Belgium) boudin noir is traditionally prepared in charcuteries, shops that prepare mainly pork products (and sometimes duck and game), but also sell smoked and dried sausages, pâtés, and terrines, along with prepared salads. It is usually called boudin noir and is often made with cream with apples or onions as a filler. It is generally served with either cooked apples, mashed potatoes or both, and is appreciated by combining either the apples or mashed potatoes with each bite of boudin, which has been gently heated and browned in butter. In France also, there are many different regional Boudins Noirs such as the large Boudin du Béarn with pork meat pieces usually eaten cold. The French Confrérie des Chevaliers du Goûte-Boudin (Brotherhood of the Knights of Blood Sausage Tasting) in Mortagne-au-Perche in southern Normandy holds an annual contest of international blood sausage specialities. Boudin is considered the emblematic staple of the French Foreign Legion, and gives its name to the Legion's anthem.
Germany and Austria
The most common variant of German Blutwurst is made from pork rind, pork blood and regionally different fillers such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is sometimes served warm, similar to the style in France. In the Rhineland, where it is also traditionally made from horse meat, fried Blutwurst is a constituent of various dishes. In particular in Cologne, the traditional Himmel und Erde (Heaven and Earth) combines apple sauce, mashed potatoes and Blutwurst served hot on one plate. In Berlin, hot Blutwurst mixed together with liverwurst and potatoes is called "Tote Oma" ("Dead Grandma").
Other German variants are Zungenwurst, which is Blutwurst mixed with pieces of pickled ox tongue, and Beutelwurst, which is pressed in a linen or paper bag (Beutel). A variety of Blutwurst, the Rotwurst from Thuringia (Thüringer Rotwurst), has geographical indication protection under EU law, with PGI status. Kartoffelwurst (potato sausage) is a post-World War II variety popular in the Palatinate, a reduced fat version of Blutwurst using potato cubes instead of bacon.
In Austria it is often prepared in a dish known as Blunzngröstl, which consists of pan-fried potatoes and blood sausage. This is usually served with freshly grated horseradish.
Symbol of Carnival
Many Roman Catholics celebrate Mardi Gras, the last day of carnival, (Literally meaning Carne Vale, farewell to Meat in Italian) with rituals involving the blood sausage. For example, in Spain, they celebrate carnival with judías con morcilla (morcilla is a variation of Blood sausage) followed by the funeral of the sardina.
Likewise, in Belgium and the Netherlands, the Bloodsausage is a symbol for Carnival (most likely following the invasion of Spain during the Eighty Years' War).
François Rabelais in France mentions in his "fourth book" (1552) carnavalesque figures called forest-dwelling Blood-puddings (Saulcis- sons montigènes, Boudins sylvatiques) as a farce representing the Swiss and German Protestants.
Additional varieties
Other varieties of blood sausage include blodpølse (Norway and Denmark), tongenworst (with added pigs tongues) (Netherlands), mazzit (Malta), krvavica (Balkans), krovianka (Russia and Ukraine), and vėdarai (Lithuania).
See also
Blood soup
Breakfast roll
Boerewors
Commonwealth Black Pudding Throwing Championships
Drisheen
Full breakfast
List of sausages
Red pudding
Sliced sausage
White pudding
References
External links
The Black Pudding. A history and guide by The English Breakfast Society.
Black pudding recipe from uktv food
English cuisine
Estonian cuisine
Scottish cuisine
Cuisine of Northern Ireland
Irish cuisine
Argentine cuisine
Chilean cuisine
German cuisine
Ukrainian cuisine
Mexican cuisine
Philippine cuisine
Puerto Rican cuisine
Russian cuisine
Uruguayan cuisine
Venezuelan cuisine
Vietnamese cuisine
Taiwanese cuisine
Lancashire cuisine
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|
215724 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty | Betty | Betty or Bettie is a name, a common diminutive for the names Bethany and Elizabeth. In Latin America, it is also a common diminutive for the given name Beatriz, the Spanish form of the Latin name Beatrix and the English name Beatrice. In the 17th and 18th centuries, it was more often a diminutive of Bethia.
Notable people
Athletes
Betty Cuthbert (1938–2017), Australian sprinter and Olympic champion
Betty Jameson (1919–2009), American Hall-of-Fame golfer and one of the founders of the LPGA
Betty McKilligan (born 1949), Canadian pairs figure skater
Betty Nuthall (1911–1983), English tennis player
Betty Pariso, American bodybuilder
Betty Stöve (born 1945), Dutch tennis player
Betty Ann Grubb Stuart (born 1950), American tennis player
Betty Uber (1906–1983), English badminton and tennis player
Journalists and media personalities
Betty Elizalde (1940–2018), Argentine journalist and broadcaster
Betty Kennedy (1926–2017), Canadian broadcaster, journalist and author
Betty Nguyen (born 1974), American news anchor
Performing artists and fashion models
Betty Arvaniti (born 1939), Greek actress
Betty Boije (1822–1854), Finnish-Swedish contralto and composer
Betty Boo (born 1970), stage name of English singer and songwriter Alison Moira Clarkson
Betty Bronson (1906–1971), American actress
Betty G, a stage name of an Ethiopian singer and songwriter Bruktawit Getahun
Betty Buckley (born 1947), American actress
Betty Burbridge (1895–1987), American actress
Betty Carter (Lillie Mae Jones) (1929–1998), American jazz singer
Betty Cody (1921–2014), Canadian-born American country music singer
Bette Davis (1908–1989) American actress
Bettie de Jong (born 1933), Dutch rehearsal director and dancer
Betty Deland (1831–1882), Swedish actress
Betty Driver (1920–2011), British actress and singer
Betty Everett (1939–2001), American soul singer
Betty Faria (born 1941), Brazilian actress
Betty Garrett (1919–2011), American actress, comedian, singer and dancer
Betty Grable (1916–1973), American actress, singer, dancer and pin-up girl
Betty Harlafti, Greek mezzo-soprano and singer
Betty Harris (born 1939), American soul singer
Betty Hutton (1921–2007), American actress and singer
Betty Kelly (born 1944), American singer, member of Martha and the Vandellas
Betty Knox (Alice Elizabeth Peden) (1906–1963), part of Wilson, Keppel and Betty, a British music hall and vaudeville act
Betty Kuuskemaa (1879–1966), Estonian actress
Betty Moschona (1927–2006), Greek actress
Bettie Page (1923–2008), American pin-up and fetish model
Betty Stockfeld (1905–1966), Australian actress
Betty White (1922–2021), American actress, best known for Life with Elizabeth, The Mary Tyler Moore Show and The Golden Girls
Betty Wright (1953–2020), American soul and R&B singer and songwriter
Betty (singer) (born 2003), Armenian child singer
Politicians and activists
Betty Apiafi (born 1962), Nigerian MP and educator
Betty de Boer (born 1971), Dutch politician
Betty Boothroyd (born 1929), British MP and former Speaker of the House of Commons
Betty Friedan (1921–2006), American feminist and author of The Feminine Mystique
Bettie Hewes (1924–2001), Canadian politician
Betty Komp (born 1949), American politician
Betty McCollum (born 1954), American politician
Betty Shabazz (1934–1997), American educator and civil rights advocate, wife of Malcolm X
Betty Williams (Nobel laureate) (born 1943), North Irish peace activist
Betty Williams (politician) (born 1944), Welsh politician and MP
Visual artists
Bettie Cilliers-Barnard (1914–2010), South African abstract artist
Betty Curnow (1911–2005), New Zealand painter and printmaker
Betty Muffler (born 1944), Aboriginal Australian artist and healer
Betty Parsons (1900–1982), American artist, art dealer, and collector
People in other fields
Madeleine Passot "Betty" (1914–2009), French Resistance agent
Acid Betty (born 1977), American drag queen
Betty Ang, Filipina businesswoman
Betty Bentley Beaumont (1828–1892), British author, merchant
Betty Ford (1918–2011), First Lady of the United States, wife of Gerald Ford
Betty Jackson (born 1949), British fashion designer
Betty Joseph (1917–2013), British psychoanalyst
Betty Klimenko (born 1959), Australian businessperson and motorsport team owner
Betty Linderoth (1822–1900), Swedish clockmaker
Betty MacDonald (1908–1958), American author
Betty Siegel (1931–2020), American author, and president of Kennesaw State University
Betty (slave) (c. 1738–1795), one of Martha Washington's slaves
Bettie, a black cook at the Battle of the Alamo - see List of Texian survivors of the Battle of the Alamo
Lady Betty (Lady Elizabeth Hastings) (1682–1739), philanthropist
Lady Betty (Elizabeth Sugrue) (c. 1740/1750–1807), Irish executioner
Fictional characters
Betty, a character in the 1991 American comedy movie What About Bob?.
Betty (Naked Brothers Band), in the TV series The Naked Brothers Band.
Betty, the title character of the comic strip Betty (1920–1943) by Charles A. Voight
Betty, the title character of Yo soy Betty, la fea, a Colombian soap opera, basis for the US TV series Ugly Betty.
Betty, the antagonist of the comedy film Kung Pow! Enter the Fist (2002)
Atomic Betty or 'Betty Barrett', Cartoon Network-Teletoon's first child superhero
Boxcar Betty (Boxcar Bertha), a fictional hobo and Industrial Workers of the World organizer
Brickhouse Betty, the title character from the animated cartoon series featured on Playboy TV and the Internet
Betty Blue, the main character of the film Betty Blue.
Betty Boop, a Paramount Pictures cartoon character
Betty Brant, a Marvel Comics supporting character
Betty Burke, a character from Power Rangers Beast Morphers
Betty Childs-Skolnic, a character in the Revenge of the Nerds film series
Betty Cooper, a comic book character published by Archie Comics
Betty Draper, a character in the TV series Mad Men.
Betty Eagleton, a character in the British soap opera Emmerdale
Betty Gordon, the protagonist of a series of children's novels
Betty Kane, now known as Bette Kane
Betty Lou, a muppet character on Sesame Street
Betty Rizzo, a character in the film Grease (1978), played by Stockard Channing
Betty Ross, Bruce Banner's love interest in the Hulk comics
Betty Rubble, a Flintstones character
Betty Slug, the lead character in the Canadian comic strip [[Betty (comic strip)|Betty].]
Betty Smith, a character in the TV series Littlest Pet Shop.
Betty Spencer, the wife of Frank Spencer in the British sitcom [[Some Mothers do 'ave 'em].].
Betty Suarez, the title character and heroine of the TV series Ugly Betty
Betty Williams (Coronation Street), in the British soap opera Coronation Street
References
See also
Bette (given name)
Betti (disambiguation)
Betty (surname)
English feminine given names
English given names
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215738 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orpheus%20%28film%29 | Orpheus (film) | Orpheus (; also the title used in the UK) is a 1950 French film directed by Jean Cocteau and starring Jean Marais. It is the central part of Cocteau's Orphic Trilogy, which consists of The Blood of a Poet (1930), Orpheus (1950), and Testament of Orpheus (1960).
Plot
Set in contemporary Paris, the story of the film is a variation of the classic Greek myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. The picture begins with Orpheus (Marais), a famous poet, visiting the Café des Poètes. At the same time, a Princess (Casares) and Cégeste (), a handsome young poet whom she supports, arrive. The drunken Cégeste starts a brawl. When the police arrive and attempt to take Cégeste into custody, he breaks free and flees, only to be run down by two motorcycle riders. The Princess has the police place Cégeste into her car in order to "transport him to the hospital". She also orders Orpheus into the car in order to act as a witness. Once in the car, Orpheus discovers Cégeste is dead and that the Princess is not going to the hospital. Instead, they drive to a chateau (the landscape through the car windows is presented in negative) accompanied by the two motorcycle riders as abstract poetry plays on the radio. This takes the form of seemingly meaningless messages, like those broadcast to the French Resistance from London during the Occupation.
At the ruined chateau, the Princess reanimates Cégeste into a zombie-like state, and she, Cégeste, and the two motorcycle riders (the Princess' henchmen) disappear into a mirror, leaving Orpheus alone. He wakes in a desolate landscape, where he stumbles on the Princess' chauffeur, Heurtebise (Périer), who has been waiting for Orpheus to arrive. Heurtebise drives Orpheus home where Orpheus' pregnant wife Eurydice (Déa), a police inspector, and Eurydice's friend Aglaonice (head of the "League of Women", and apparently in love with Eurydice) discuss Orpheus' mysterious disappearance. When Orpheus comes home, he refuses to explain the details of the previous night despite the questions which linger over the fate of Cégeste, whose body cannot be found. Orpheus invites Heurtebise to live in his house and to store the Rolls in Orpheus' garage, should the Princess return. Eurydice attempts to tell Orpheus that she is with child, but is silenced when he rebuffs her.
While Heurtebise falls in love with Eurydice, Orpheus becomes obsessed with listening to the abstract poetry which only comes through the Rolls' radio, and it is revealed that the Princess is apparently Death (or one of the suborders of Death). But note that Cocteau himself commented on such interpretation:
"Among the misconceptions which have been written about Orphée, I still see Heurtebise described as an angel and the Princess as Death.
In the film, there is no Death and no angel. There can be none. Heurtebise is a young Death serving in one of the numerous sub-orders of Death, and the Princess is no more Death than an air hostess is an angel.
I never touch on dogmas. The region that I depict is a border on life, a no man's land where one hovers between life and death."
When Eurydice is killed by Death's henchmen, Heurtebise proposes to lead Orpheus through the Zone (depicted as a ruined city – actually the ruins of Saint-Cyr military academy) into the Underworld in order to reclaim her. Orpheus reveals that he may have fallen in love with Death who has visited him in his dreams. Heurtebise asks Orpheus which woman he will betray: Death or Eurydice? Orpheus enters the afterlife by donning a pair of surgical gloves left behind by the Princess after Eurydice's death.
In the Underworld, Orpheus finds himself as a plaintiff before a tribunal which interrogates all parties involved in the death of Eurydice. The tribunal declares that Death has illegally claimed Eurydice, and they return Eurydice to life, with one condition: Orpheus may not look upon her for the rest of his life on pain of losing her again. Orpheus agrees and returns home with Eurydice. They are accompanied by Heurtebise, who has been assigned by the tribunal to assist the couple in adapting to their new, restrictive, life together.
Eurydice visits the garage where Orpheus constantly listens to the Rolls' radio in search of the unknown poetry. She sits in the backseat. When Orpheus glances at her in the mirror, Eurydice disappears. A mob from the Café des Poètes (stirred to action by Aglaonice) arrives in order to extract vengeance from Orpheus for what they suppose to be his part in the murder of Cégeste. Orpheus confronts them, armed with a pistol given to him by Heurtebise, but is disarmed and shot. Orpheus dies and finds himself in the Underworld. This time, he declares his love to Death who has decided to herself die in order that he might become an "immortal poet". The tribunal this time sends Orpheus and Eurydice back to the living world with no memories of the previous events. Orpheus learns that he is to be a father, and his life begins anew. Death and Heurtebise, meanwhile, walk through the ruins of the Underworld towards an even worse fate than death - to become judges themselves.
Interpretation
Cocteau wrote in The Art of Cinema:
"The three basic themes of Orphée are:
The successive deaths through which a poet must pass before he becomes, in that admirable line from Mallarmé, tel qu'en lui-même enfin l'éternité le change—changed into himself at last by eternity.
The theme of immortality: the person who represents Orphée's Death sacrifices herself and abolishes herself to make the poet immortal.
Mirrors: we watch ourselves grow old in mirrors. They bring us closer to death.
The other themes are a mixture of Orphic and modern myth: for example, cars that talk (the radio receivers in cars).
Orphée is a realistic film; or, to be more precise, observing Goethe's distinction between reality and truth, a film in which I express a truth peculiar to myself. If that truth is not the spectator's, and if his personality conflicts with mine and rejects it, he accuses me of lying. I am even astonished that so many people can still be penetrated by another's ideas, in a country noted for its individualism.
While Orphée does encounter some lifeless audiences, it also encounters others that are open to my dream and agree to be put to sleep and to dream it with me (accepting the logic by which dreams operate, which is implacable, although it is not governed by our logic).
I am only talking about the mechanics, since Orphée is not at all a dream in itself: through a wealth of detail similar to that which we find in dreams, it summarizes my way of living and my conception of life."
Main cast
Jean Marais as Orphée
François Périer as Heurtebise
María Casares as The Princess – Death
Marie Déa as Eurydice
Henri Crémieux as L'éditeur
Juliette Gréco as Aglaonice
Roger Blin as The Poet
as Jacques Cégeste
René Worms as Judge
Production
In his autobiography, the actor Jean-Pierre Aumont claimed that Cocteau wrote the film for him and his then-wife Maria Montez, but then decided to make it with other actors.
Reception
In 2000, critic Roger Ebert added Orpheus to his "Great Films" list, praising the simple but ingenious special effects, and writing: "Seeing Orpheus today is like glimpsing a cinematic realm that has passed completely from the scene. Films are rarely made for purely artistic reasons, experiments are discouraged, and stars as big as Marais are not cast in eccentric remakes of Greek myths. The story in Cocteau's hands becomes unexpectedly complex; we see that it is not simply about love, death and jealousy, but also about how art can seduce the artist away from ordinary human concerns".
The Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa cited Orpheus as one of his favorite films.
Adaptation and Legacy
In 1993, Philip Glass adapted the film as a stage opera, Orphée, with a libretto by the composer taken directly from Cocteau's screenplay. Jointly commissioned by the American Repertory Theater and the Brooklyn Academy of Music, the work had its premiere on May 14, 1993, at the American Repertory Theater.
Francesca Zambello directed the premiere, and the production, closely based on the imagery of the film, was by frequent Glass collaborator Robert Israel. Baritone Eugene Perry originated the role of Orphée, with Wendy Hill as the Princess, Richard Fracker as Heurtebise, and Elizabeth Futral as Eurydice.
In 2007, the opera was revived at Glimmerglass conducted by Anne Manson, and Manson also conducted a recording with the Portland Opera in 2010. New York Times critic Anthony Tommasini, following a negative review by the paper's Edward Rothstein of the opera's premiere, wrote about the release of the recording, "14 years after my first hearing, I was swept away by Orphée."
See also
List of avant-garde films of the 1950s
References
External links
Orpheus an essay by Jean Cocteau at the Criterion Collection
Orpheus: Through a Glass, Amorously an essay by Mark Polizzotti at the Criterion Collection
1950 films
1950s fantasy films
Existentialist works
French black-and-white films
Films set in Paris
Films based on classical mythology
Films directed by Jean Cocteau
French fantasy films
French films
French-language films
1950s romantic fantasy films
Orpheus
Films scored by Georges Auric
Films with screenplays by Jean Cocteau | [
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|
215740 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan%20Caplan | Bryan Caplan | Bryan Douglas Caplan (born April 8, 1971) is an American economist and author. Caplan is a professor of economics at George Mason University, research fellow at the Mercatus Center, adjunct scholar at the Cato Institute, and former contributor to the Freakonomics blog; he also publishes his own blog, EconLog. He is a self-described "economic libertarian". The bulk of Caplan's academic work is in behavioral economics and public economics, especially public choice theory.
Education
Caplan holds a B.A. in economics from the University of California, Berkeley (1993) and a Ph.D. in economics from Princeton University (1997).
Writings
The Myth of the Rational Voter
The Myth of the Rational Voter: Why Democracies Choose Bad Policies, published in 2007, further develops the "rational irrationality" concept from Caplan's earlier academic writing. It draws heavily from the Survey of Americans and Economists on the Economy in making the argument that voters have systematically biased beliefs about many important economic topics. Caplan writes that rational irrationality is an explanation for the failure of democracy. The book was reviewed in the popular press, including The Wall Street Journal, The New York Times, and The New Yorker, as well as in academic publications such as the Journal of Libertarian Studies, Public Choice, Libertarian Papers, and The Independent Review. It received a disparaging critique by Rupert Read in the European Review.
Selfish Reasons to Have More Kids
In 2011, Caplan published his second book, titled Selfish Reasons to Have More Kids, arguing that people often work too hard in child-rearing, and as a result, they are scared of the idea of having children. Caplan's book urged parents to relax with respect to child-rearing. The book argues that as the perceived costs (in terms of child-rearing expense and effort) of having children fell, it made sense to have more children based on the basic theory of supply and demand. The book was reviewed in The Wall Street Journal, The Guardian, RealClearMarkets, and The Washington Times. It also led to debates sponsored by The Wall Street Journal and The Guardian. The Guardian had Caplan debating "Tiger Mom" Amy Chua on the merits of strict parenting style. The book was also featured in a story on National Public Radio. Kirkus Reviews described it as "inconsistent and unpersuasive."
"The Ideological Turing Test"
In a June 2011 blog post titled "The Ideological Turing Test" contesting Paul Krugman's claim that political liberals can accurately state conservatives' views but not vice versa, Caplan proposed a test analogous to a kind of Turing test: instead of judging whether a chatbot had accurately imitated a person, the test would judge whether a person had accurately stated the views of ideological opponents to the opponents' satisfaction. Other writers have since said of someone that they can (or can't) "pass an ideological Turing test" if they are deemed to be capable (or incapable) of understanding and accurately stating an adversary's arguments.
The Case Against Education
The Case Against Education: Why the Education System Is a Waste of Time and Money, was published in 2018 by Princeton University Press. Drawing on the economic concept of job market signaling and research in educational psychology, the book argues that much of higher education is very inefficient and has only a small effect in improving human capital, contrary to much of the conventional consensus in labor economics that Caplan claims takes the human capital theory for granted.
Open Borders: The Science and Ethics of Immigration
Caplan and Saturday Morning Breakfast Cereal cartoonist Zach Weinersmith created the graphic non-fiction book Open Borders: The Science and Ethics of Immigration, which was released on October 29, 2019.
Tyler Cowen called it "a landmark in economic education, how to present economic ideas, and the integration of economic analysis and graphic visuals." The Economist praised it as "a model of respectful, persuasive argument".
Kevin D. Williamson concluded a review of the book with "Professor Caplan's argument is multifaceted, energetically presented, fun to read, and worth giving some real attention to if only as an exercise in clarifying one's own thinking about the question".
Views
Caplan was cited as one of the leading proponents of the open borders position in articles in The Atlantic and Vox. He has also been quoted on the topic of immigration in outlets such as the Huffington Post and Time magazine.
Caplan's anarcho-capitalist views were discussed by Brian Doherty in his book Radicals for Capitalism and in Reason magazine. Caplan has claimed that anarcho-capitalists have a better claim on the history of anarchist thought than "mainstream anarchists", or "left-anarchists", as he refers to them. However, this claim has been disputed by anarchists.
Personal life
Caplan is married to Corina Caplan, with four children, and resides in Oakton, Virginia.
References
External links
1971 births
Living people
21st-century American economists
American anarcho-capitalists
American atheists
American libertarians
American male bloggers
American political writers
Cato Institute people
Economists from California
Economists from Virginia
George Mason University faculty
Libertarian economists
Mercatus Center
Natalism
People from Northridge, Los Angeles
People from Oakton, Virginia
Princeton University alumni
Public choice theory
UC Berkeley College of Letters and Science alumni
American bloggers | [
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|
215741 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capitalization | Capitalization | Capitalization (American English) or capitalisation (British English) is writing a word with its first letter as a capital letter (uppercase letter) and the remaining letters in lower case, in writing systems with a case distinction. The term also may refer to the choice of the casing applied to text.
Conventional writing systems (orthographies) for different languages have different conventions for capitalization, for example, the capitalization of titles. Conventions also vary, to a lesser extent, between different style guides.
The full rules of capitalization in English are complicated. The rules have also changed over time, generally to capitalize fewer words. The conventions used in an 18th-century document will be unfamiliar to a modern reader; for instance, many common nouns were capitalized.
The systematic use of capitalized and uncapitalized words in running text is called "mixed case".
Parts of speech
Owing to the essentially arbitrary nature of orthographic classification and the existence of variant authorities and local house styles, questionable capitalization of words is not uncommon, even in respected newspapers and magazines. Most publishers require consistency, at least within the same document, in applying a specified standard: this is described as "house style".
Pronouns
In English, the subjective form of the singular first-person pronoun, "I", is capitalized, along with all its contractions such as I'll and I'm. Objective and possessive forms "me", "my", and "mine" are not.
Many European languages traditionally capitalize nouns and pronouns used to refer to God, including references to Jesus Christ (reverential capitals): hallowed be Thy name, look what He has done. Some English authors capitalize any word referring to God: the Lamb, the Almighty; some capitalize "Thy Name". These practices have become much less common in English in the 20th and 21st centuries.
In Baháʼí literature, singular and plural object, subject, and possessive forms get capitalization if referring to a Rasul, the Twelve Imams, or 'Abdu'l-Baha.
Some languages capitalize a royal we (), e.g. it is capitalized in German.
2nd-person pronouns
Many languages distinguish between formal and informal 2nd-person pronouns.
In German, the formal 2nd-person plural pronoun is capitalized along with all its case-forms (, , etc.), but these words are not capitalized when used as 3rd-person feminine singular or plural pronouns. Until the recent German spelling reform(s), the traditional rules (which are still widely adhered to, although not taught in schools) also capitalized the informal 2nd-person singular pronoun (and its derivatives, such as ) when used in letters or similar texts, but this is no longer required.
Italian also capitalizes its formal pronouns, and , and their cases (even within words, e.g. "goodbye", formal). This is occasionally also done for the Dutch , though this is formally only required when referring to a deity and may be considered archaic.
In Spanish, the abbreviations of the pronouns and , , , , and , are usually written with a capital.
In Finnish, the second-person plural pronoun can be used when formally addressing a single person, and in writing the pronoun is sometimes capitalized as to indicate special regard. In a more familiar tone, one can also capitalize the second-person singular pronoun .
Similarly, in Russian the formal second-person pronoun , and its oblique cases , etc., are capitalized (usually in personal correspondence); also in Bulgarian.
Slovenian, Croatian, Serbian capitalize the formal second-person pronoun along with its oblique cases (, , ) and personal pronoun ( etc.) in formal correspondence. Historically, the familiar second-person pronoun and its cases (, , ) were capitalized as well, but new orthography prohibits such use.
In Danish, the plural second-person pronoun, , is capitalized, but its other forms and are not. This distinguishes it from the preposition ("in"). The formal second-person pronoun is also capitalized in all its forms (, , ), distinguishing it from the otherwise identical third-person plural pronouns.
In Norwegian, both second-person singular and plural have a capitalized alternative form (, , in Bokmål; , , in Nynorsk) to express formality for both subject and object of a sentence, but is very rarely used in modern speech and writing.
In formally written Polish, Czech, Slovak and Latvian, most notably in letters and e-mails, all pronouns referring to the addressee are capitalized. This includes ("thou") and all its related forms such as and . This principle extends to nouns used formally to address the addressee of a letter, such as ("sir") and ("madam").
In Indonesian, capitalizing the formal second-person pronoun along with all references to the addressee, such as "" ((to) Sir/Madam), is required in practice of (Perfected Orthography). However, some people do not know of or choose not to adhere to this spelling rule. In contrast, Malay orthography used in Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei does not require the capitalization of .
In Tagalog and its standard form, Filipino, the formal second-person pronouns and and their oblique form are customarily and reverentially capitalized as such, particularly in most digital and printed media related to religion and its references. Purists who consider this rule as nonstandard and inconsistent do not apply it when writing.
In Tajik, capitalization is used to distinguish the second-person formal pronoun from the second-person plural pronoun .
In Swedish, since , the second-person singular pronoun may be capitalized as when addressed formally.
Nouns
The various languages and dialects in the High German family, including Standard German and Luxembourgish, are the only major languages using the Latin alphabet in which all nouns are generally capitalized. This was also practiced in other Germanic languages (mainly due to German influence):
In German, all nouns are capitalized.
Danish, before the spelling reform of 1948
Swedish, during the 17th and 18th centuries
English, during the 17th and 18th centuries (as in Gulliver's Travels, and most of the original 1787 United States Constitution)
Some regional languages, such as Saterland Frisian
In nearly all European languages, single-word proper nouns, including personal names, are capitalized (like France or Moses). Multiple-word proper nouns usually follow the traditional English rules for publication titles (as in Robert the Bruce).
Where placenames are merely preceded by the definite article, this is usually in lower case (as in the Philippines).
Sometimes, the article is integral to the name, and thus is capitalized (as in , ). However, in French this does not occur for contractions and (as in , "I come from Le Havre"). In other European languages, it is much more common for the article to be treated as integral to the name, but it may not be capitalized (, , , etc.).
A few English names are written with two lowercase "f"s: ffrench, ffoulkes, etc. This originated as a variant script for capital F.
A few individuals have chosen not to use capitals in their names, such as k.d. lang and bell hooks. E. E. Cummings, whose name is often written without capitals, did not do so himself: the usage derives from the typography used on the cover of one of his books.
Most brand names and trademarks are capitalized (e.g., Coca-Cola, Pepsi), although some have chosen to deviate from standard rules (e.g., easyJet, id Software, eBay, iPod) to be distinctive. When capitals occur within a word, it is sometimes referred to as camel case.
In English, the names of days of the week, months and languages are capitalized, as are demonyms like Englishman, Arab. In other languages, practice varies, but most languages other than German (which capitalizes all nouns) do not.
In English-language addresses, the noun following the proper name of a street is capitalized, whether or not it is abbreviated: Main Street, Fleming Ave., Montgomery Blvd. This capitalization is often absent in older citations and in combined usages: Fourth and Main streets. In French, street names are capitalized when they are proper names; the noun itself (, ) is normally not capitalized: , .
In Italian the name of a particular concept or object is capitalized when the writer wants to emphasize its importance and significance.
Capitalization is always used for most names of taxa used in scientific classification of living things, except for species-level taxa or below. Example: Homo sapiens sapiens.
Controversially, some authors capitalize common names of some animal and plant species. As a general rule, names are not capitalized, unless they are part of an official list of names, in which case they have become proper nouns and are capitalized. This is most common for birds and fishes. Names referring to more than one species (e.g., horse or cat) are always in lower case. Botanists generally do not capitalize the common names of plants, though individual words in plant names may be capitalized for another reason: (Italian stone pine). See the discussion of official common names under common name for an explanation.
Common nouns may be capitalized when used as names for the entire class of such things, e.g. what a piece of work is Man. French often capitalizes such nouns as (the state) and (the church) when not referring to specific ones.
Names by which gods are known are capitalized, including God, Athena, and Vishnu. The word god is generally not capitalized if it is used to refer to the generic idea of a deity, nor is it capitalized when it refers to multiple gods, e.g. Roman gods. There may be some confusion because Judaism, Christianity, and Islam rarely refer to the Deity by a specific name, but simply as God (see Writing divine names). Other names for the God of these three Abrahamic faiths, such as Elohim, Yahweh, and Lord, are also capitalized.
While acronyms have historically been written in all-caps, British usage is moving towards capitalizing only the first letter in cases when these are pronounced as words (e.g. Unesco and Nato), reserving all-caps for initialisms (e.g. UK, USA, UNHCR).
In life stance orthography, in order to distinguish life stances from general -isms. For instance, Humanism is distinguished from humanism.
In legal English, defined terms that refer to a specific entity, such as "Tenant" and "Lessor", are often capitalized. More specifically, in legal documents, terms which are formally defined elsewhere in the document or a related document (often in a schedule of definitions) are capitalized to indicate that that is the case, and may be several words long, e.g. "the Second Subsidiary Claimant", "the Agreed Conditional Release Date".
Most English honorifics and titles of persons, e.g. Sir, Dr Watson, Mrs Jones, His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. This does not apply where the words are not titles; e.g. Watson is a doctor, Philip is a duke.
In very formal British English the Queen is referred to as The Queen.
The governing body of English solicitors is correctly referred to as The Law Society. (In general any organisation may choose a name starting with a capitalized "The".)
Adjectives
In English, adjectives derived from proper nouns (except the names of characters in fictional works) usually retain their capitalization: e.g. a Christian church, Canadian whisky, a Shakespearean sonnet, but not a quixotic mission nor malapropism. Where the original capital is no longer at the beginning of the word, usage varies: anti-Christian, and either Presocratic, pre-Socratic, Pre-Socratic or presocratic. Never preSocratica hyphen must precede a capital in a compound word.
Such adjectives do not receive capitals in French (socratique, présocratique), Spanish (socrático, presocrático), Swedish (sokratisk, försokratisk), Polish (sokratejski, presokratejski) nor partly in German (sokratisch, präsokratisch, but Ohm'sches Gesetz ("Ohm's Law")). In German, if the adjective becomes a noun by using an article or numeral in front of it (das/die Bunte (the colorful thing(s)), eine Schöne (a beautiful one)), it is capitalized like any other noun, as are nouns formed from proper nouns (der Urgoethe). The same applies to verbs (das Laufen (the (practice of) running), das Spazierengehen (the (practice of) going for a walk)).
Adjectives referring to nationality or ethnicity are not capitalized in German, French or Czech, even though nouns are: ein kanadisches Schiff, un navire canadien, kanadská loď, a Canadian ship; ein Kanadier, un Canadien, Kanaďan, a Canadian. Both nouns and adjectives are capitalized in English when referring to nationality or ethnicity.
Places and geographic terms
The capitalization of geographic terms in English text generally depends on whether the author perceives the term as a proper noun, in which case it is capitalized, or as a combination of an established proper noun with a normal adjective or noun, in which case the latter are not capitalized. There are no universally agreed lists of English geographic terms which are considered as proper nouns. The following are examples of rules that some British and U.S. publishers have established in style guides for their authors:
In general, the first letter is capitalized for well-defined regions, e.g. South America, Lower California, Tennessee Valley
This general rule also applies to zones of the Earth's surface (North Temperate Zone, the Equator)
In other cases, do not capitalize the points of the compass (north China, southeast London) or other adjectives (western Arizona, central New Mexico, upper Yangtze, lower Rio Grande)
Capitalize generic geographic terms that are part of a place name (Atlantic Ocean, Mt. Muztagata, River Severn)
Otherwise, do not capitalize a generic term that follows a capitalized generic term (Yangtze River valley)
Use lower case for plurals of generic terms (Gobi and Taklamakan deserts); but "the Dakotas"
Only capitalize "the" if it is part of the (short-form) formal place name (The Hague vs. the Netherlands, the Sudan, and the Philippines)
Upper case: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, Central America, North Korea, South Africa, the European Union, the Republic of Poland, the North Atlantic, the Middle East, the Arctic, The Gambia, The Bahamas, The Hague
Lower case: western China, southern Beijing, western Mongolia, eastern Africa, northern North Korea, the central Gobi, the lower Yangtze River.
Abbreviated
When a term is used as a name and then subsequently a shorter term is used, then that shorter term may be used generically. If that is the case do not capitalize. ("The Tatra National Park is a tourist destination in Poland. Watch out for bears when visiting the national park.")
By context
In all modern European languages, the first word in a sentence is capitalized, as is the first word in any quoted sentence. (For example, in English: Nana said, "There are ripe watermelons in the garden!")
The first word of a sentence is not capitalized in most modern editions of ancient Greek and, to a lesser extent, Latin texts. The distinction between lower and upper case was not introduced before the Middle Ages; in antiquity only the capital forms of letters were used.
For some items, many style guides recommend that initial capitalization be avoided by not putting the item at the beginning of a sentence, or by writing it in lowercase even at the beginning of a sentence. Such scientific terms have their own rules about capitalization which take precedence over the standard initial capitalization rule. For example, pH would be liable to cause confusion if written PH, and initial m and M may even have different meanings, milli and mega, for example 2 MA (megamperes) is a billion times 2 mA (milliamperes). Increasingly nowadays, some trademarks and company names start with a lowercase letter, and similar considerations apply.
When the first letters of a word have been omitted and replaced by an apostrophe, the first letter in a sentence is usually left uncapitalized in English and certain other languages, as "'tis a shame ..." In Dutch, the second word is capitalized instead in this situation: "'t Was leuk" vs. "Het was leuk" (both meaning "It was fun").
Traditionally, the first words of a line of verse are capitalized in English, e.g.:Meanwhile, the winged Heralds, by commandOf sovereign power, with awful ceremonyAnd trumpet's sound, throughout the host proclaimA solemn council forthwith to be heldAt Pandemonium, the high capitalOf Satan and his peers. [...] (Milton, Paradise Lost I:752–756)
Modernist poets often ignore or defy this convention.
In the U.S., headlines and titles of works typically use title case, in which certain words (such as nouns, adjectives and verbs) are capitalized and others (such as prepositions and conjunctions) are not.
Names of capitalization styles
The following names are given to systems of capitalization:
Sentence case
"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog." The standard case used in English prose. Generally equivalent to the baseline universal standard of formal English orthography mentioned above; that is, only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.
Title case
"The Quick Brown Fox Jumps Over the Lazy Dog."Also known as headline style and capital case. All words capitalized, except for certain subsets defined by rules that are not universally standardized, often minor words such as "the" (as above), "of", or "and". The standardization is only at the level of house styles and individual style manuals. (See Headings and publication titles.) A simplified variant is start case, where all words, including articles, prepositions, and conjunctions, start with a capital letter.
All caps
Also known/written as "all-caps". Capital letters only. This style can be used for headlines and book or chapter titles at the top of a book page. It is commonly used in transcribed speech to indicate that a person is shouting, or to indicate a hectoring and obnoxious speaker. For this reason, it is generally discouraged. Long spans of Latin-alphabet text in all uppercase are harder to read because of the absence of the ascenders and descenders found in lowercase letters, which can aid recognition. In professional documents, a commonly preferred alternative to all–caps text is the use of small caps to emphasize key names or acronyms, or the use of italics or (more rarely) bold. In addition, if all–caps must be used, it is customary in headings of a few words to slightly widen the spacing between the letters, by around 10% of the point height. This practice is known as tracking or letterspacing.
Special cases
Compound names
In German, the particle (meaning "of", pronounced ) or (meaning "named") in a surname (e.g. ) is not capitalized (unless it is the first letter of a sentence).
In Dutch, all particles like , or , or , or in a surname are capitalized unless a given name or initial precedes it. With compound particles like only the first one is capitalized. However, particles are capitalized in Belgium, except when introducing a title of nobility or when use of the lower case has been granted to some noble family. Thus in a sentence about the location of Van Gogh's most productive period:
would be, without the given name Vincent
In Dutch, , , or are never capitalized, even at the start of sentences — capitalization begins with the first complete word of the sentence. They are short for the articles , and the old possessive form . Examples: , .. In poetry, , the shortened / unemphasized form of ("I") follows the same rule.
In English, practice varies when the name starts with a particle with a meaning such as "from" or "the" or "son of".
Some of these particles (Mac, Mc, M, O) are always capitalized; others (, ) are usually capitalized; still others often are not (, , , ). The compound particle is usually written with the 'L' capitalized but not the 'd'.
The remaining part of such a name, following the particle, is always capitalized if it is set off with a space as a separate word, or if the particle was not capitalized. It is normally capitalized if the particle is Mc, M, or O. In other cases (including Mac), there is no set rule (both Macintyre and MacIntyre are seen, for example).
Titles
The Chicago Manual of Style recommends that the titles of English-language artistic works (plays, novels, essays, paintings, etc.) capitalize the first word and the last word in the title. Additionally, most other words within a title are capitalized as well; articles and coordinating conjunctions are not capitalized. Sources disagree on the details of capitalizing prepositions. For example, the Chicago Manual of Style recommends rendering all prepositions in lowercase, whereas the APA style guide instructs: Capitalize major words in titles of books and articles within the body of the paper. Conjunctions, articles, and short prepositions are not considered major words; however, capitalize all words of four letters or more.
In other languages, such as the Romance languages, only the first word and proper names are capitalized.
Acronyms
Acronyms are usually capitalized, with a few exceptions:
Acronyms which have become regular words such as laser and scuba.
Some acronyms of proper nouns in which function words are not capitalized, such as TfL (Transport for London) and LotR (The Lord of the Rings).
"O"
The English vocative particle O, an archaic form of address, e.g. Thou, O king, art a king of kings. However, lowercase o is also occasionally seen in this context.
Accents
In most languages that use diacritics, these are treated the same way in uppercase whether the text is capitalized or all-uppercase. They may be always preserved (as in German) or always omitted (as in Greek) or often omitted (as in French). Some attribute this to the fact that diacritics on capital letters were not available earlier on typewriters, and it is now becoming more common to preserve them in French and Spanish (in both languages the rule is to preserve them, although in France and Mexico, for instance, schoolchildren are often erroneously taught that they should not add diacritics on capital letters).
However, in the polytonic orthography used for Greek prior to 1982, accents were omitted in all-uppercase words, but kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before rather than above the letter). The latter situation is provided for by title-case characters in Unicode. When Greek is written with the present day monotonic orthography, where only the acute accent is used, the same rule is applied. The accent is omitted in all-uppercase words but it is kept as part of an uppercase initial (written before the letter rather than above it). The (diaeresis) should also always be used in all-uppercase words (even in cases where they are not needed when writing in lowercase, e.g. ).
Digraphs and ligatures
Some languages treat certain digraphs as single letters for the purpose of collation. In general, where one such is formed as a ligature, the corresponding uppercase form is used in capitalization; where it is written as two separate characters, only the first will be capitalized. Thus Oedipus or Œdipus are both correct, but OEdipus is not. Examples with ligature include in Danish, where Æ/æ is a completely separate letter rather than merely a typographic ligature (the same applies in Icelandic); examples with separate characters are in Welsh, where Ll is a single letter; and in Welsh where Ff is equivalent to English F (whereas Welsh F corresponds to English V). Presentation forms, however, can use doubled capitals, such as the logo of the National Library of Wales (). The position in Hungarian is similar to the latter.
An exception is the Dutch digraph IJ. Both letters are capitalized even though they are printed separately when using a computer, as in . In the past the digraph was written as Y, and this still survives in some surnames.
A converse exception exists in the Croatian alphabet, where digraph letters (Dž, Lj, Nj) have mixed-case forms even when written as ligatures. With typewriters and computers, these "title-case" forms have become less common than 2-character equivalents; nevertheless they can be represented as single title-case characters in Unicode (Dž, Lj, Nj).
In Czech the digraph ch (usually considered as a single letter) can be capitalized in two ways: Ch or CH. In general only the first part is capitalized (Ch), unless the whole text is written in capital letters (then it is written CH). In acronyms both parts are usually capitalized, such as VŠCHT for Vysoká škola chemicko-technologická (University of Chemistry and Technology). However, the practice is not unified when writing initial letters of personal names (first name and surname), for example Jan Chudoba can be abbreviated both J. Ch. or J. CH.
Initial mutation
In languages where inflected forms of a word may have extra letters at the start, the capitalized letter may be the initial of the root form rather than the inflected form. For example, in Irish, in the placename , "(the) mountain of the women" (anglicized as Slievenamon), the word-form written contains the genitive plural of the noun , "woman", mutated after the genitive plural definite article (i.e., "of the"). The written B is mute in this form.
Other languages may capitalize the initial letter of the orthographic word, even if it is not present in the base, as with definite nouns in Maltese that start with certain consonant clusters. For example, (the United States) capitalize the epenthetic , even though the base form of the word — without the definite article — is .
Case-sensitive English words
In English, there are a few capitonyms, which are words whose meaning (and sometimes pronunciation) varies with capitalization. For example, the month August versus the adjective august. Or the verb polish versus the adjective Polish.
See also
Camel case
Capitalization of Internet
Capitalization in English
Letter case
Orthography
Sentence case
Capitalization conspiracy
References
Further reading
Council of Science Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific Style and format: the CSE manual for authors, editors, and publishers, 7th ed. Reston (VA): The Council; 2006. Section 9.7.3, P. 120.
External links
Capitalization Rules for Song Titles at the Aichi Institute of Technology
Text::Capitalize, a Perl module for English capitalization
Lingua::EN::NameCase, a Perl module for Western European name capitalization
Bilingual Experiments on Automatic Recovery of Capitalization and Punctuation of Automatic Speech Transcripts
Orthography
Typesetting
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|
215745 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centers%20for%20Medicare%20%26%20Medicaid%20Services | Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services | The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS), is a federal agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) that administers the Medicare program and works in partnership with state governments to administer Medicaid, the Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP), and health insurance portability standards. In addition to these programs, CMS has other responsibilities, including the administrative simplification standards from the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA), quality standards in long-term care facilities (more commonly referred to as nursing homes) through its survey and certification process, clinical laboratory quality standards under the Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments, and oversight of HealthCare.gov.
CMS was previously known as the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) until 2001.
History
Originally, the name "Medicare" in the United States referred to a program providing medical care for families of people serving in the military as part of the Dependents' Medical Care Act, which was passed in 1956. President Dwight D. Eisenhower held the first White House Conference on Aging in January 1961, in which creating a health care program for social security beneficiaries was proposed.
President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Social Security Amendments on July 30, 1965, establishing both Medicare and Medicaid. Arthur E. Hess, a deputy commissioner of the Social Security Administration, was named as first director of the Bureau of Health Insurance in 1965, placing him as the first executive in charge of the Medicare program. At the time, the program provided health insurance to 19 million Americans. The Social Security Administration (SSA) became responsible for the administration of Medicare and the Social and Rehabilitation Service (SRS) became responsible for the administration of Medicaid. Both agencies were organized under what was then known as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW).
In March 1977, the Health Care Financing Administration (HCFA) was established under HEW. HCFA became responsible for the coordination of Medicare and Medicaid. The responsibility for enrolling beneficiaries into Medicare and processing premium payments remained with SSA.
HCFA was renamed the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services on July 1, 2001.
In 2013, a report by the inspector general found that CMS had paid $23 million in benefits to deceased beneficiaries in 2011.
In April 2014, CMS released raw claims data from 2012 that gave a look into what types of doctors billed Medicare the most.
In January 2018, CMS released guidelines for states to use to require Medicaid beneficiaries to continue receiving coverage. These guidelines came in response to then-President Trump's announcement that he would allow states to impose work requirements in Medicaid. In October, CMS reported a data breach of 75,000 people's personal data due to a hack.
In January 2021, CMS passed a rule that would cover "breakthrough technology" for four years after they received FDA approval. In September 2021, CMS submitted a proposal to repeal the rule based on safety concerns.
Workforce
CMS employs over 6,000 people, of whom about 4,000 are located at its headquarters in Woodlawn, Maryland. The remaining employees are located in the Hubert H. Humphrey Building in Washington, D.C., the 10 regional offices listed below, and in various field offices located throughout the United States.
The head of CMS is the Administrator of the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services. The position is appointed by the president and confirmed by the Senate. On May 27, 2021, Chiquita Brooks-LaSure was sworn in as Administrator, the first black woman to serve in the role.
Regional offices
CMS has its headquarters in Woodlawn, Maryland, with 10 regional offices located throughout the United States:
Region I – Boston, Massachusetts
Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Vermont
Region II – New York, New York
New York State, New Jersey, U.S. Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico
Region III – Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia and the District of Columbia
Region IV – Atlanta, Georgia
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina and Tennessee
Region V – Chicago, Illinois
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio and Wisconsin
Region VI – Dallas, Texas
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas
Region VII – Kansas City, Missouri
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska
Region VIII – Denver, Colorado
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming
Region IX – San Francisco, California
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, American Samoa, Guam, and the Northern Mariana Islands
Region X – Seattle, Washington
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington
List of administrators
See also
Center for Medicare and Medicaid Innovation
Zone Program Integrity Contractor
References
[2]Robinson, P. I. (1957). Medicare: Uniformed Services Program for Dependents. Social Security Bulletin, 20(7), 9–16.
External links
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services in the Federal Register
Health Care Financing Administration in the Federal Register
Medicare and Medicaid (United States)
United States Department of Health and Human Services agencies
Woodlawn, Baltimore County, Maryland
Government agencies established in 1965
1965 establishments in the United States | [
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|
215746 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crypsirina | Crypsirina | Crypsirina is a small genus of long-tailed passerine birds in the crow and jay family, Corvidae. The two species are highly arboreal and rarely come to the ground to feed. The generic name is derived from the Greek words kruptō, meaning "to conceal," and rhis or rhinos, meaning "nostrils".
They are:
The racket-tailed treepie, formerly placed in Dendrocitta, is an all-black Southeast Asian species. The grey and black hooded treepie is endemic to Myanmar.
References
Bird genera
Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot | [
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|
215747 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus%20delicti | Corpus delicti | (Latin for "body of the crime"; plural: ), in Western law, is the principle that a crime must be proved to have occurred before a person can be convicted of committing that crime.
For example, a person cannot be tried for larceny unless it can be proven that property has been stolen. Likewise, in order for a person to be tried for arson it must be proven that a criminal act resulted in the burning of a property. Black's Law Dictionary (6th ed.) defines "corpus delicti as: "the fact of a crime having been actually committed".
In common law systems, the concept has its outgrowth in several principles. Many jurisdictions hold as a legal rule that a defendant's out-of-court confession, alone, is insufficient evidence to prove the defendant's guilt beyond reasonable doubt. A corollary to this rule is that an accused cannot be convicted solely upon the testimony of an accomplice. Some jurisdictions also hold that without first showing independent corroboration that a crime happened, the prosecution may not introduce evidence of the defendant's statement.
Requirements
In general, all corpus delicti requires at a minimum:
The occurrence of the specific injury; and
some criminal act as the source of the injury.
For example:
Homicide: 1) An individual has died 2) as a result of action (or inaction) by another person.
Larceny: 1) Property is missing 2) because it was stolen.
In essence corpus delicti of crimes refers to evidence that a violation of law occurred, no literal 'body' is needed.
Murder cases
When a person disappears and cannot be contacted, many police agencies initiate a missing person case. If, during the course of the investigation, detectives believe that he/she has been murdered, then a "body" of evidentiary items, including physical, demonstrative and testimonial evidence, must be obtained to establish that the missing person has indeed died, and that their death was by homicide, before a suspect can be charged with murder. The clearest evidence in these cases is the physical body of the deceased. However, in the event that a body is not present or has not yet been discovered, it is possible to prove a crime took place if sufficient circumstantial evidence is presented to prove the matter beyond a reasonable doubt. For example, the presence at a missing person's home of spilled human blood, identifiable as that person's, in sufficient quantity to indicate exsanguination, demonstrates—even in the absence of a corpse—that the possibility that no crime has occurred, and the missing person is merely missing, is not reasonably credible.
Misinterpretation
The British serial killer John George Haigh destroyed the bodies of his victims with acid apparently because he thought that, in the absence of a corpse, murder could not be proven because there was no corpus delicti. Haigh had misinterpreted the Latin word corpus as a literal body rather than a figurative one. This had previously been the case, under Matthew Hale's Rule of "no body, no crime", but in the twentieth century, the law expanded to allow prosecution for murder solely on circumstantial evidence.
See also
Corroboration in Scots law
Element (criminal law)
Murder conviction without a body
References
External links
Criminal law
Evidence law
Latin legal terminology | [
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215750 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steadicam | Steadicam | Steadicam is a brand of camera stabilizer mounts for motion picture cameras invented by Garrett Brown and introduced in 1975 by Cinema Products Corporation. It mechanically isolates the camera from the operator's movement, allowing for a smooth shot, even when the operator moves over an irregular surface.
History
Before the camera stabilizing system, a director had two choices for moving (or "tracking") shots:
The camera could be mounted on a dolly, a wheeled mount that rolls on tracks or leveled boards. This procedure is time-consuming to set up, and it is impractical in many situations.
The camera operator could simply hold the camera. This manual grip allows speed and flexibility, but even the most skilled operator cannot entirely prevent shaking. Hand-held camera footage has traditionally been considered suitable mostly for documentaries, news, reportage, live action, unrehearsable footage, or the evocation of authentic immediacy or cinéma vérité during dramatic sequences.
While these cinematic techniques are still common, the Steadicam has added another dimension to motion picture cinematography and videography.
A Steadicam combines the stabilized steady footage of a conventional tripod mount with the fluid motion of a dolly shot and the flexibility of hand-held camera work. While smoothly following the operator's broad movements, the Steadicam's arm absorbs jerks, bumps, and shakes, while its almost frictionless gimbal gives precise control of the camera and framing.
The Steadicam was introduced to the industry in 1975 by inventor and cameraman Garrett Brown, who originally named the invention the "Brown Stabilizer". After completing the first working prototype, Brown shot a ten-minute demo reel of the revolutionary moves this new device could produce. This reel was seen by numerous directors, including Stanley Kubrick and John G. Avildsen. The Steadicam was subsequently licensed to and manufactured by Cinema Products Corporation, which later diversified the brand into a consumer line for DV cameras.
The Steadicam was first used in the Best Picture–nominated Woody Guthrie biopic Bound for Glory (1976), debuting with a shot that compounded the Steadicam's innovation: cinematographer Haskell Wexler had Brown start the shot on a fully elevated platform crane which jibbed down, and when it reached the ground, Brown stepped off and walked the camera through the set. This technically audacious and previously impossible shot created considerable interest in how it had been accomplished, and impressed the Academy enough for Wexler to win the Oscar for Best Cinematography that year.
It was then used in extensive running and chase scenes on the streets of New York City in Marathon Man (1976), which was released two months before Bound for Glory. It landed a notable third credit in Avildsen's Best Picture–winning Rocky in 1976, where it was an integral part of the film's Philadelphia street jogging/training sequences and the run up the Art Museum's flight of stairs, as well as the fight scenes where it can even be plainly seen in operation at the ringside during some wide shots of the final fight. Rocky was also released before Bound for Glory. Garrett Brown was the Steadicam operator on all of these.
The Shining (1980) pushed Brown's innovations even further, when director Stanley Kubrick requested that the camera shoot from barely above the floor. This prompted the innovation of "low mode" to mount the top of the camera to the bottom of an inverted post, which substantially increased the creative angles of the system which previously could not go much lower than the operator's waist height.
A Steadicam rig was also employed during the filming of Return of the Jedi (1983), in conjunction with two gyroscopes for extra stabilization, to film the background plates for the speeder bike chase. Brown, who personally operated the shot, walked through a redwood forest, with the camera running at a speed of less than one frame per second. The end result, when projected at 24 frames per second, gave the impression of flying through the air at perilous speeds. In the Michael Crichton film Runaway (1984), a Steadicam rig was used to simulate the point of view of a futuristic smart bullet in flight while targeting specific individuals by their heat signature.
Description
The operator wears a harness, the Steadicam vest, which is attached to an iso-elastic arm. This is connected by a multiaxis and ultra-low friction gimbal to the Steadicam "sled" which has the camera mounted at one end and counterbalancing weight (the monitor and batteries) at the other. The monitor substitutes for the camera's viewfinder, since the range of motion of the camera relative to the operator makes the camera's own viewfinder unusable. In the film industry the armature and weight are traditionally called the sled, as the two units combined resembled a sled in an early model of the Steadicam. The sled includes the top stage where the camera is attached, the post which in most models can be extended, with the monitor and batteries at the bottom to counterbalance the camera weight. This is how the Steadicam stays upright, by simply making the bottom slightly heavier than the top, pivoting at the gimbal. This leaves the center of gravity of the whole rig, however heavy it may be, exactly at the operator's fingertip, allowing deft and finite control of the whole system with the lightest of touches on the gimbal. The skill of the operator is to keep the desired framing and composition by feathering his touch on the gimbal, while the rig and operator is in motion, and, indeed, when still.
The combined weight of the counterbalance and camera means that the armature bears a relatively high inertial mass which is not easily moved by small body movements from the operator (much as it is difficult to quickly shake a bowling ball). The freely pivoting armature adds additional stabilization to the photographed image, and makes the weight of the camera-sled assembly acceptable by allowing the body harness to support it.
When the armature is correctly adjusted, operators can remove their hands from the Steadicam entirely and the camera stays in place. During operation, the operator usually rests a hand on the camera gimbal and applies force at that point to move the camera. To avoid shaking the camera when lens adjustments are made, a wireless remote operated by the camera assistant is used to control focus and iris.
For low-angle shots, the Steadicam sled can be inverted vertically, putting the camera on the bottom, and the monitor and batteries on the top. This is referred to as low mode operation.
The newest generation is the Tango. A body-supported camera-stabilization-system, its horizontal mechanism makes it possible to move the camera freely while staying horizontal. A Steadicam operator can change from low mode to high mode without any alteration. Dimensions are not limited to ups and downs, but also in depth and over or through obstacles.
The smallest, lightest Steadicam that can be used with a support arm and vest is the Merlin. It is light enough to be hand held with cameras weighing up to about 5.5 pounds (2.5 kg), and may carry cameras up to about 7 pounds (3.2 kg) when used with the arm. The Merlin may be folded and carried in comparatively small spaces such as medium-size camera bags. In its lightest configuration, the Merlin weighs just 12.5 ounces (0.35 kg). Photographers who shoot with HDSLR cameras that combine still and motion photography most often work with the Merlin. Since the Merlin has no facility to carry a separate monitor, cameras suitable for it must have built-in monitors.
Steadicam introduced a camera mount for smartphones, called the Smoothee, in 2012. Marketed to consumers instead of video professionals, its tubular frame supports iPhone and Android phones that are 4.53" to 6.26" long by 2.32" to 3.27" wide (115 to 159 mm long by 59 to 83 mm wide). An adapter can be used to fit a GoPro camera to it. An even smaller, camera-specific Steadicam Curve (a single, curved aluminum slash) is available for GoPro cameras. It is also marketed to consumers.
Awards and recognitions
Academy Award
1978 – Academy Award of Merit – Awarded to Garrett Brown (the Cinema Products Corporation; engineering staff under the supervision of John Jurgens) for the invention and development of Steadicam.
American Society of Cinematographers
2001 – President's Award, awarded to Garrett Brown
Society of Camera Operators
1992 – Technical Achievement Award, awarded to Garrett Brown (and Cinema Products Corporation) for the Steadicam camera stabilizing system.
2008 – Technical Achievement Award, awarded to Garrett Brown and Jerry Holway (inventor) and Tiffen (developer) for the Ultra2 Steadicam camera support system.
Steadicam Guild Life Achievement Award
2012 – The Steadicam Guild's Life Achievement Award, awarded to Garrett Brown (inventor and Steadicam operator) for his invention of the Steadicam and his Steadicam work on nearly 100 major motion pictures.
Nikola Tesla Satellite Award
2014 – Awarded to Garrett Brown for visionary achievement in filmmaking technology
See also
1976 in film
Image stabilization
List of generic and genericized trademarks
Panaglide
Skycam
SnorriCam
Spidercam
Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)
Vestibulo–ocular reflex
References
External links
garrettbrown.com, inventor's official website
steadicam.com, product's official website
flysteadicam.tiffen.com, official Steadicam Workshop training website
"Steadicam Posture"
"Steadicam Guild Life Achievement Award"
Produced for the thirtieth anniversary of the Steadicam.
Products introduced in 1976
American inventions
Cinematography
Film and video technology
Photography equipment
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215751 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hazlitt | Henry Hazlitt | Henry Stuart Hazlitt (; November 28, 1894 – July 9, 1993) was an American journalist who wrote about business and economics for such publications as The Wall Street Journal, The Nation, The American Mercury, Newsweek, and The New York Times.
Early life and education
Henry Hazlitt was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania and raised in Brooklyn, New York. He was a collateral descendant of the British essayist William Hazlitt, but grew up in relative poverty, his father having died when Hazlitt was an infant. His early heroes were Herbert Spencer and William James, and his first ambition was for an academic career in psychology and philosophy. He attended New York's City College, but left after only a short time to support his twice-widowed mother.
As he later wrote, his short time at college "had a greater influence than may at first sight be supposed, not as much from the knowledge gained there, as from the increased consciousness of the knowledge which I still had to gain and the consequent ambition to attain it."
Career
Early accomplishments
Hazlitt started his career at The Wall Street Journal as secretary to the managing editor when he was still a teenager, and his interest in the field of economics began while working there. His studies led him to The Common Sense of Political Economy by Philip Wicksteed which, he later said, was his first "tremendous influence" in the subject. Hazlitt published his first book, Thinking as a Science at age 21. He wrote the book because he realized—through his intense process of self-education—that it was more important to think clearly than to merely absorb information. As he explains in its opening pages:Every man knows there are evils in the world which need setting right. Every man has pretty definite ideas as to what these evils are. But to most men one in particular stands out vividly. To some, in fact, this stands out with such startling vividness that they lose sight of other evils, or look upon them as the natural consequences of their own particular evil-in-chief.
To the Socialist this evil is the capitalistic system; to the prohibitionist it is intemperance; to the feminist it is the subjection of women; to the clergyman it is the decline of religion; to Andrew Carnegie it is war; to the staunch Republican it is the Democratic Party, and so on, ad infinitum.
I, too, have a pet little evil, to which in more passionate moments I am apt to attribute all the others. This evil is the neglect of thinking. And when I say thinking I mean real thinking, independent thinking, hard thinking.
Military service
During World War I, he served in the Army Air Service. While residing in Brooklyn, he enlisted in New York City on February 11, 1918, and served with the Aviation Section of the Signal Enlisted Reserve Corps until July 9, 1918. He was then in Princeton, New Jersey, at the US School of Military Aeronautics until October 22, when he was sent to AS Camp Dick in Dallas, Texas, for a few weeks until November 7, and he was honorably discharged from service with the rank of private first class on December 12, 1918. He returned to New York, residing at Washington Square Park for many years.
Editor and author
In the early 1920s, he was financial editor of The New York Evening Mail, and during this period, Hazlitt reported his understanding of economics was further refined by frequent discussions with former Harvard economics professor Benjamin Anderson, who was then working for Chase National Bank in Manhattan. Later, when the publisher W. W. Norton suggested he write an official biography of their author Bertrand Russell, Hazlitt spent "a good deal of time," as he described it, with the famous philosopher. Lord Russell "so admired the young journalist's talent" that he had agreed with Norton's proposal, but the project ended after nearly two years of work when Russell declared his intention to write his own autobiography.
During the interwar decades, a vibrant period in the history of American literature, Hazlitt served as literary editor of The New York Sun (1925–1929), and as literary editor of the left-leaning journal, The Nation (1930–1933). In connection with his work for The Nation, Hazlitt also edited A Practical Program for America (1932), a compilation of Great Depression policy considerations, but he was in the minority in calling for less government intervention in the economy. After a series of public debates with socialist Louis Fischer, Hazlitt and The Nation parted ways.
In 1933, Hazlitt published The Anatomy of Criticism, an extended "trialogue" examining the nature of literary criticism and appreciation, regarded by some to be an early refutation of literary deconstruction. In the same year, he became H. L. Mencken's chosen successor as editor of the literary magazine, The American Mercury, which Mencken had founded with George Jean Nathan, as a result of which appointment Vanity Fair included Hazlitt among those hailed in its regular "Hall of Fame" photo feature. Due to increasing differences with the publisher, Alfred A. Knopf, Sr., he served in that role for only a brief time, but Mencken wrote that Hazlitt was the "only competent critic of the arts that I have heard of who was at the same time a competent economist, of practical as well as theoretical training," adding that he "is one of the few economists in human history who could really write."
From 1934 to 1946, Hazlitt was the principal editorial writer on finance and economics for The New York Times, writing both a signed weekly column and most of the unsigned editorials on economics, producing a considerable volume of work. Following World War II, he came into conflict with Arthur Hays Sulzberger, publisher of The New York Times, over the newly established Bretton Woods system which created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. Hazlitt opposed the Bretton Woods agreement, primarily fearing the risk of inflation. After agreeing not to write on the topic, he looked for another venue for his work, deciding on Newsweek magazine, for which he wrote a signed column, "Business Tides", from 1946 to 1966.
According to Hazlitt, the greatest influence on his writing in economics was the work of Ludwig von Mises, and he is credited with introducing the ideas of the Austrian School of economics to the English-speaking layman. In 1938, for example, he reviewed the recently published English translation of Mises's influential treatise Socialism for The New York Times, declaring it "a classic" and "the most devastating analysis of socialism yet penned." After the Jewish economist's emigration to the United States from National Socialist-dominated Europe in 1940, Hazlitt arranged for Mises to contribute editorials to The New York Times, and helped to secure for Mises a teaching position at New York University. Along with the efforts of his friends, Max Eastman and John Chamberlain, Hazlitt also helped introduce F. A. Hayek's The Road to Serfdom to the American reading public. His 1944 review in The New York Times caused Reader's Digest, where Eastman served as roving editor, to publish one of its trademark condensations, bringing the future Nobel laureate's work to a vast audience.
Author Tom Malone contends that Hazlitt distinguished himself from other economists largely by his skill as a writer:What set Hazlitt apart from other writers on economics was the incredible clarity of his writing and his ability to make the subject interesting to laymen. He did this by focusing on principles, using practical examples, and writing in a direct and conversational style. He also avoided the technical jargon and reliance on statistics that stud the writing of most economists—to the bane of most readers. When H. L. Mencken selected Hazlitt to succeed him as literary editor at the American Mercury, he called Hazlitt the “only competent critic of the arts that I have heard of who was at the same time a competent economist,” as well as “one of the few economists in human history who could really write.”Unlike many other writers of his generation from the political right, Hazlitt never experienced a period when he was a socialist or communist, or a significant change in his classical liberal political views. He was the founding vice president of the Foundation for Economic Education, which also acquired his large personal library in the 1980s. Established by Leonard Read in 1946, FEE is considered to be the first "think tank" for free-market ideas. He was also one of the original members of the classical liberal Mont Pelerin Society in 1947.
With John Chamberlain (and Suzanne La Follette as managing editor), Hazlitt served as editor of the early free market publication The Freeman from 1950 to 1952, and as sole editor-in-chief from 1952 to 1953, and its contributors during his tenure there included Hayek, Mises, and Wilhelm Röpke, as well as the writers James Burnham, John Dos Passos, Max Eastman, John T. Flynn, Frank Meyer, Raymond Moley, Morrie Ryskind, and George Sokolsky. Prior to his becoming editor, The Freeman had supported Senator Joseph McCarthy in his conflict with President Harry Truman on the issue of communism, "undiscriminatingly" according to some critics, but upon becoming editor, Hazlitt changed the magazine's policy to one of support for President Truman.
The Freeman is widely considered to be an important forerunner to the conservative National Review, founded by William F. Buckley, Jr., which from the start included many of the same contributing editors. Hazlitt himself was on the masthead of National Review, either as a contributing editor or, later, as contributor, from its inception in 1955 until his death in 1993. Differences existed between the journals: The Freeman under Hazlitt was more secular and presented a wider range of foreign policy opinion than the later National Review.
Even prior to her success with The Fountainhead, the novelist Ayn Rand was a friend of both Hazlitt and his wife, Frances, and Hazlitt introduced Rand to Mises, bringing together the two figures who would become most associated with the defense of pure laissez-faire capitalism. The two became admirers of Hazlitt and of one another.
Hazlitt became well known both through his articles and by frequently debating prominent politicians on the radio, including: Vice President Henry A. Wallace, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, and U.S. Senators Paul Douglas and Hubert H. Humphrey, the future Vice President. In the early 1950s, he also occasionally appeared on the CBS Television current events program Longines Chronoscope, interviewing figures such as Senator Joseph McCarthy and Congressman Franklin D. Roosevelt, Jr., along with coeditor William Bradford Huie. At the invitation of philosopher Sidney Hook, he was also a participating member of the American Committee for Cultural Freedom in the 1950s.
When he finally left Newsweek in 1966, the magazine replaced Hazlitt with three university professors: "free-market monetarist Milton Friedman of the University of Chicago, middle-of-the-roader Henry Wallich of Yale, and Keynesian Paul A. Samuelson of MIT." His last published scholarly article appeared in the first volume of The Review of Austrian Economics (now, The Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics) in 1987.
He was awarded an honorary doctoral degree at Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala.
Journalistic career timeline
1913-1916: The Wall Street Journal
1916-1918: New York Evening Post
1919-1920: Mechanics and Metals National Bank (monthly financial letter)
1921-1923: New York Evening Mail (financial editor)
1923-1924: New York Herald (editorial writer)
1924-1925: The Sun
1925-1929: The Sun (literary editor)
1930-1933: The Nation (literary editor)
1933-1934: American Mercury (editor)
1934-1946: The New York Times (editorial staff)
1946-1966: Newsweek (associate & columnist)
1950-1952: The Freeman (co-editor)
1952-1953: The Freeman (editor-in-chief)
1966-1969: Los Angeles Times Syndicate (columnist)
Economics and philosophy
About Hazlitt, Lew Rockwell wrote: "The times call for courage. The times call for hard work. But if the demands are high, it is because the stakes are even higher. They are nothing less than the future of liberty, which means the future of civilization." Rockwell called Economics in One Lesson Hazlitt's "most enduring contribution." With a million copies sold and available in ten languages, it is considered a classic by several American conservative, free-market, and right-libertarian circles, such as at the Mises Institute. Ayn Rand called it a "magnificent job of theoretical exposition", while Congressman Ron Paul ranks it with the works of Frédéric Bastiat and Friedrich Hayek. Hayek himself praised the work, saying that "Henry Hazlitt's explanation of how a price system works is a true classic: timeless, correct, painlessly instructive." Nobel Prize laureate Milton Friedman described it as "a brilliant performance. It says precisely the things which need most saying and says them with rare courage and integrity. I know of no other modern book from which the intelligent layman can learn so much about the basic truths of economics in so short a time." In 1996, Laissez Faire Books issued a 50th anniversary edition with an introduction by publisher and presidential candidate Steve Forbes. Economist Thomas Sowell's work has been described as following in the "Bastiat-Hazlitt tradition" of economic exposition.
Another of Hazlitt's works, The Failure of the New Economics (1959), gives a detailed, chapter-by-chapter critique of John Maynard Keynes's highly influential work The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. With reference to Keynes's book, Hazlitt paraphrased a quote attributed to Samuel Johnson, that he was "unable to find in it a single doctrine that is both true and original. What is original in the book is not true; and what is true is not original." Hazlitt also published three books on the subject of inflation, including From Bretton Woods to World Inflation (1984), and two influential works on poverty, Man vs. The Welfare State (1969), and The Conquest of Poverty (1973), thought by some to have anticipated the later work of Charles Murray in Losing Ground. Hazlitt's major work in philosophy, such as The Foundations of Morality (1964), a treatise on ethics defending utilitarianism, builds on the work of David Hume and John Stuart Mill. Hazlitt's 1922 work, The Way to Will-Power has been described as a defense of free will; Lew Rockwell characterized it as "a defense of individual initiative against the deterministic claims of Freudian psychoanalysis." In contrast to many other thinkers on the political right, Hazlitt was an agnostic with regard to religious beliefs.
In A New Constitution Now (1942), published during Franklin D. Roosevelt's unprecedented third term as President of the United States, Hazlitt called for the replacement of the existing fixed-term presidential tenure in the United States with a more Anglo-European system of "cabinet" government, under which a head of state who had lost the confidence of the legislature or cabinet might be removed from office after a no-confidence vote in as few as 30 days. In 1951, following Roosevelt's death in 1945, the United States imposed presidential term limits. Hazlitt's 1951 novel The Great Idea, reissued in 1966 as Time Will Run Back, depicts rulers of a centrally-planned socialist dystopia discovering, amid the resulting economic chaos, the need to restore a market pricing-system, private ownership of capital goods and competitive markets.
Personal life
Henry was born to Stuart Clark and Bertha (Zauner) Hazlitt on November 28, 1894, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. They resided at 819 North Broad Street in Philadelphia. The Hazlitt family was originally from England, although his paternal grandmother was from Ireland. His maternal grandparents were German immigrants. Henry's father, a clerk, died of diabetes when Henry was only five months old. His mother, Bertha, then married Frederick E. Piebes, who was engaged in manufacturing, and they resided in Brooklyn, where Henry was raised. Henry is listed on the 1905 New York state census as Henry S. Piebes, and he is listed on Frederick's will as Henry Hazlitt Piebes, Frederick's adopted son. His stepfather died in 1907, leaving Henry to support his mother and probably leading to the ambition that enabled him to work at the Wall Street Journal while he was still a teenager.
In 1929, Hazlitt married Valerie Earle, daughter of the noted photographer and Vitagraph film director William P. S. Earle. They were married by the pacifist minister, John Haynes Holmes, but later divorced. In 1936, he married Frances Kanes, the author of The Concise Bible, with whom he later collaborated to produce an anthology of the Stoic philosophers, The Wisdom of the Stoics: Selections from Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius (1984). They were married until Frances' death in 1991.
Hazlitt died at the age of 98 in Fairfield, Connecticut. At the time of his death, he resided in Wilton, Connecticut.
Legacy
Hazlitt was a prolific writer, authoring 25 works in his lifetime.
In 1981, President Ronald Reagan in his speech before the Conservative Political Action Conference (or "CPAC") named Hazlitt as one of the "[i]ntellectual leaders" (along with Friedrich Hayek, Ludwig von Mises, Milton Friedman, Russell Kirk, James Burnham and Frank Meyer) who had "shaped so much of our thoughts..."
Ludwig von Mises said at a dinner honoring Hazlitt: "In this age of the great struggle in favor of freedom and the social system in which men can live as free men, you are our leader. You have indefatigably fought against the step-by-step advance of the powers anxious to destroy everything that human civilization has created over a long period of centuries... You are the economic conscience of our country and of our nation."
Henry Hazlitt Foundation
From 1997 to 2002, there was an organization called The Henry Hazlitt Foundation which actively promoted libertarian networking online, especially through its website Free-Market.Net. This organization was named in honor of Hazlitt because he was known for introducing a wide range of people to libertarian ideas through his writing and for helping free-market advocates connect with each other. The foundation was started after Hazlitt's death and had no official connection with his estate.
Hazlitt Policy Center
On 1 March 2019, the Young Americans for Liberty announced the launch of the Hazlitt Policy Center "to provide YAL's elected officials with modern legislation, facts, and strategies to give them the extra muscle they need to be effective liberty legislators."
Publications
Books
Thinking as a Science, 1916
The Way to Will-Power, 1922
A Practical Program for America, 1932
The Anatomy of Criticism, 1933
Instead of Dictatorship, 1933
A New Constitution Now, 1942
Freedom in America: The Freeman (with Virgil Jordan), 1945
The Full Employment Bill: An Analysis, 1945
Economics in One Lesson, 1946
Will Dollars Save the World?, 1947
Forum: Do Current Events Indicate Greater Government Regulation, Nationalization, or Socialization?, Proceedings from a Conference Sponsored by The Economic and Business Foundation, 1948
The Illusions of Point Four, 1950
The Great Idea, 1951 (titled Time Will Run Back in Great Britain, revised and rereleased with this title in 1966.)
The Free Man's Library, 1956
[[The Failure of the New Economics|The Failure of the 'New Economics': An Analysis of the Keynesian Fallacies]], 1959
The Critics of Keynesian Economics (ed.), 1960
What You Should Know About Inflation, 1960
The Foundations of Morality, 1964
Man vs. The Welfare State, 1969
The Conquest of Poverty, 1973
To Stop Inflation, Return to Gold, 1974
The Inflation Crisis, and How To Resolve It, 1978
From Bretton Woods to World Inflation, 1984
The Wisdom of the Stoics: Selections from Seneca, Epictetus, and Marcus Aurelius, with Frances Hazlitt, 1984
The Wisdom of Henry Hazlitt, 1993
Rules for Living: The Ethics of Social Cooperation, 1999 (an abridgment by Bettina Bien Greaves of Hazlitt's The Foundations of Morality.)
Business Tides: The Newsweek Era of Henry Hazlitt, 2011
Articles
Rockwell, Lew. Biography of Henry Hazlitt (1894-1993). Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1 August 2007.
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Further reading
Articles
The Complete Bibliography of Henry Hazlitt. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 2 March 2015.
Henry Hazlitt: A Giant of Liberty, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 1994. .
Henry Hazlitt: an Appreciation. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 1989. (pp. 8–9)
Interview with Henry Hazlitt.
Richard M. Ebeling and Roy A. Childs, Jr., "Henry Hazlitt: An Appreciation," Laissez Faire Books, November 1985.
Greaves, Bettina Bien. “Henry Hazlitt: A Man for Many Seasons”. Irvington-on-Hudson, New York: Foundation for Economic Education, 1 November 1989.
Henry Hazlitt, "The Early History of FEE," The Freeman, March 1984 (article is excerpted from his remarks at the Leonard E. Read Memorial Conference on Freedom, November 18, 1983.)
Llewellyn H. Rockwell, "Henry Hazlitt: Journalist of the Century," The Freeman, May 1995.
Murray N. Rothbard, "Henry Hazlitt Celebrates 80th Birthday," Human Events, November 20, 1974, reprinted in The Libertarian Forum, December 1974.
George Selgin, Don Boudreaux, and Sanford Ikeda:, "An Interview with Henry Hazlitt", Austrian Economics Newsletter, Spring 1984.
"Reason Interview: Henry Hazlitt", Reason, December 1984.
Hans F. Sennholz, edit., The Wisdom of Henry Hazlitt, Foundation for Economic Education, 1993.
Jeffrey Tucker, "Henry Hazlitt: The People's Austrian" in Randall Holcombe, edit., The Great Austrian Economists (2009; originally published as 15 Great Austrian Economists, 1999), pp. 167–79.
External links
Henry Hazlitt at Google Books.
Henry Hazlitt at HathiTrust.
Henry Hazlitt at Internet Archive.
Henry Hazlitt at Online Liberty Library.
Henry Hazlitt at Open Library.
Henry Hazlitt at Project Gutenberg.
Henry Hazlitt at WorldCat.
En lärdom (första kapitlet i Economics in One Lesson, på Svenska) av Henry Hazlitt
The Complete Bibliography of Henry Hazlitt at Foundation for Economic Education.
Økonomiske forutsigelser – Hvor gode er de ? av Henry Hazlitt
Honorary Doctoral Degrees at University Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala
Henry Hazlitt Quotations
A Biography of Henry Hazlitt, Llewellyn H. Rockwell Jr., Mises Institute
Appearances on C-SPAN
1894 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American economists
Austrian School economists
American agnostics
American economics writers
American libertarians
American male non-fiction writers
American political philosophers
American political writers
Consequentialists
Conservatism in the United States
Economists from Pennsylvania
Foundation for Economic Education
Libertarian economists
Libertarian theorists
Mises Institute people
Old Right (United States)
Right-wing politics in the United States
Utilitarians
Writers from Philadelphia | [
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|
215754 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton-metre | Newton-metre | The newton-metre (also newton metre or newton meter; symbol N⋅m or N m) is a unit of torque (also called ) in the SI system. One newton-metre is equal to the torque resulting from a force of one newton applied perpendicularly to the end of a moment arm that is one metre long. The nonstandard notation Nm occurs in some fields.
The unit is also used less commonly as a unit of work, or energy, in which case it is equivalent to the more common and standard SI unit of energy, the joule. In this usage the metre term represents the distance travelled or displacement in the direction of the force, and not the perpendicular distance from a fulcrum as it does when used to express torque. This usage is generally discouraged, since it can lead to confusion as to whether a given quantity expressed in newton-metres is a torque or a quantity of energy. However, since torque represents energy transferred or expended per angle of revolution, one newton-metre of torque is equivalent to one joule per radian.
Newton-metres and joules are dimensionally equivalent in the sense that they have the same expression in SI base units,
but are distinguished to avoid misunderstandings when a torque is mistaken for an energy or vice versa. Similar examples of dimensionally equivalent units include Pa versus J/m3, Bq versus Hz, and ohm versus ohm per square.
Conversion factors
1 kilogram-force metre = 9.80665 N⋅m
1 newton-metre ≈ 0.73756215 pound-force-feet
1 pound-foot ≡ 1 pound-force-foot ≈ 1.35581795 N⋅m
1 ounce-inch ≡ 1 ounce-force-inch ≈ 7.06155181 mN⋅m (millinewton-metres)
1 dyne-centimetre = 10−7 N⋅m
See also
Bending moment
Spring scale
Torque tester
Newton-second, the derived SI unit of impulse
References
Units of torque
SI derived units | [
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|
215755 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhp | Bhp | BHP, bhp or similar may refer to:
Companies and organisations
BHP, Anglo-Australian multinational mining, metals and petroleum dual-listed public company; currently the largest mining company in the world. Previous and/or related names for BHP include:
1885-2000 The Broken Hill Proprietary Company Limited
2000-2001 BHP Limited
2001-2017 BHP Billiton Limited and BHP Billiton plc
BHP Nevada Railroad, a defunct Nevada railroad owned by the company
Bandim Health Project, a health research facility in Guinea-Bissau in West Africa
Beardmore Halford Pullinger, a make of aero engines
Botswana-Harvard AIDS Institute Partnership
Broadlands Hydropower Project, a hydroelectric power project in Kitulgala, Sri Lanka
Texas Business Honors Program (BHP), an undergraduate program in the McCombs School of Business at the University of Texas at Austin
Measurements
Units that approximate the mechanical power output expected of a typical draft horse:
Brake horsepower (or braking horsepower), time-rate of energy extraction in deceleration
Boiler horsepower, output power of a mechanical-power-producing machine that delivers energy via vapor (typically steam)
Other uses
Browning Hi-Power, a pistol
Butylated hydroxytoluene | [
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|
215756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racket-tailed%20treepie | Racket-tailed treepie | The racket-tailed treepie (Crypsirina temia) is an Asian treepie, a member of the crow family, Corvidae.
It has a velvety-black forehead of short, plush black feathers with the rest of the bird being an oily green colour, though appearing black in dim light. The tail feathers which in this species are long and broaden at the tail's end are black also with a greenish tinge, as are the wings. The iris of the bird is a turquoise-blue darkening towards the pupil to a very deep or near black. The bill, legs and feet are black.
This bird occurs in southern Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Indo-China, Sumatra, Java and Bali in scrub and secondary growth, open fields and gardens, bamboo thickets and open forest often near villages.
It almost always feeds in trees (arboreal) never feeding from the ground though coming down to bathe on occasion. It moves through the trees with great agility and uses its remarkable tail as a balancing organ. It eats mainly insects and fruit.
A cup shaped nest is built in bamboo or shrubs especially thorny ones often surrounded by open grassy areas and normally lays 2–4 eggs.
The voice is usually described as harsh and unattractive. It has several described calls but a whining call is often heard.
References
External links
Bird feeding young on nest
Black racket-tailed treepie videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
racket-tailed treepie
Birds of Southeast Asia
racket-tailed treepie
Taxa named by François Marie Daudin | [
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|
215758 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruhr%20Red%20Army | Ruhr Red Army | The Red Ruhr Army was an army of between 50,000 and 80,000 left-wing workers who conducted what was known as the Ruhr Uprising (Ruhraufstand). It was the largest armed workers' uprising in the nation's history, and ran from 13 March to 2 April, 1920, in Germany's most important industrial area. The workers were reacting to the Kapp Putsch, an effort by right-wing forces in March 1920 to overthrow the elected government.
After calling a general strike on 14 March, the Red Ruhr Army defeated the Freikorps and regular army units in the area and started the uprising. The government sent in regular and paramilitary forces, killing an estimated 1,000 workers and suppressing the revolt.
Description
The workers were drawn from the Communist Party of Germany, the Communist Workers' Party of Germany, the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany, and the Free Workers Union of Germany. Their army formed in the Ruhr Valley (the most important industrial area of Germany) on 13 March 1920 as a reaction to the Kapp Putsch. While the middle and upper classes feared a left-wing putsch, 300,000 mine workers supported the Ruhr Red Army. The strikers took over Düsseldorf, Elberfeld, and Essen, and soon had control over the whole Ruhr area.
After the failure of negotiations with the strikers, the government sent more troops into the Ruhr area on 2 April 1920. It was virtually civil war. These government troops consisted largely of regulars, but also of Freikorps paramilitary soldiers, who finally defeated the workers' uprising and reconquered the Ruhr area. While the Freikorps lost only 250 men, the Red Ruhr Army lost over a thousand during the bitter fighting. A memorial to the uprising was installed in Hagen.
On 12 April Reichswehr General Oskar von Watter banned any illegal behaviour on the part of his troops. He ended all battles and fights in the Ruhr area.
References
See also
Hans Marchwitza
Wilhelm Zaisser
Karl Schröder
1920s coups d'état and coup attempts
Attempted coups in Germany
Left-wing militant groups in Germany
Paramilitary organisations of the Weimar Republic
1920 in Germany
Conflicts in 1920
Ruhr
20th century in North Rhine-Westphalia
Rhine Province
Province of Westphalia | [
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|
215760 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax%20horsepower | Tax horsepower | The tax horsepower or taxable horsepower was an early system by which taxation rates for automobiles were reckoned in some European countries such as Britain, Belgium, Germany, France and Italy; some US states like Illinois charged license plate purchase and renewal fees for passenger automobiles based on taxable horsepower. The tax horsepower rating was computed not from actual engine power but by a mathematical formula based on cylinder dimensions. At the beginning of the twentieth century, tax power was reasonably close to real power; as the internal combustion engine developed, real power became larger than nominal taxable power by a factor of ten or more.
Britain
The so-called RAC horsepower rating was devised in 1910 by the RAC at the invitation of the British government. The formula is:
where:
is the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches,
is the number of cylinders
The formula was calculated from total piston surface area (i.e., "bore" only). The factor of 2.5 accounts for characteristics that were widely seen in engines at the time, such as a mean effective pressure in the cylinder of and a maximum piston speed of .
The system introduced a somewhat progressive way of taxing higher-value cars more than low-cost ones but was also introduced to protect the domestic British motor industry from foreign imports, especially the Ford Model T. Henry Ford's mass production methods meant that the Model T was competitively priced with British-built cars despite being a much larger, more durable and more powerful car than other available similarly-priced models. In 1912 Ford opened a factory to build Model Ts in Manchester, to circumvent the import tariffs that, up to that point, had increased the effective price of foreign cars. Under the RAC's formula the Model T was a 22 'tax horsepower' car, making it more expensive to run than its British-built rivals on sale for the same price.
At first the RAC rating was usually representative of the car's actual (brake) horsepower, but as engine design and technology progressed in the 1920s and 1930s these two figures began to diverge, with engines making much more power than their RAC ratings suggested: by 1924 the engine of the Austin Seven (named for its 7 hp rating) produced 10.5 brake horsepower, 50 percent more than its official rating.
It became common for the name of a model to include both its RAC tax horsepower and its actual power output, such as the Wolseley 14/60 and the Alvis 12/70 of 1938.
To minimise tax ratings British designers developed engines with very long stroke and low piston surface area. Another effect was the multiplicity of models: Sevens, Eights, Nines, Tens, Elevens, Twelves, Fourteens, Sixteens etc. each to fit with a taxation class. Larger more lightly stressed engines may have been equally economical to run and, in less variety, produced much more economically. The system discouraged manufacturers from switching to more fuel-efficient overhead valve engines as these generally required larger bores, while the established sidevalve layout could easily use very narrow bores. Despite OHV engines having significant benefits in economy, refinement and performance, the RAC system made these engines more expensive to own because it placed them in a higher tax class than sidevalve engines of identical power output. Despite this, by 1948 the Standard Flying Twelve, a typical mid-size saloon, produced from a engine, nearly four times as much horsepower as the RAC system suggested.
While the RAC system had protected the home market from the import of large-engined low-priced mass-produced American cars, the need for roomy generously proportioned cars for export was now paramount and the British government abandoned the tax horsepower system with effect from 1 January 1947 replacing it at first with a tax on cubic capacity, which was in turn replaced by a flat tax applying from 1 January 1948. However British cars and cars in other countries applying the same approach to automobile taxation continued to feature long, relatively narrow cylinders even in the 1950s and 1960s, partly because limited investment meant that new car models often had new bodies but their engines were carried over from earlier generations.
The emphasis on long strokes, combined with the nature of British roads in the pre-motorway era, meant that British engines tended to deliver strong low- and mid-range torque for their size, but low maximum speeds. The long stroke also meant that piston speeds and the load on the big end bearings became potentially damaging at high power outputs. Many smaller British cars did not cope well with sustained cruising at or more, which led to reliability problems when the vehicles were exported to other markets, especially the United States. Cars such as the Austin A40, the Morris Minor and the Hillman Minx all achieved notable initial sales success in the US in the late 1940s, until the short service life of the engines when asked to routinely drive long distances at freeway speeds became clear. Other imports originating in countries with different tax rules and existent high speed road networks, in particular the Volkswagen Beetle, proved more reliable, and achieved greater sales success.
Australia
In Australia, the various states had their own automobile taxation system. Several depended on the RAC formula, but the flaws of this system were well known as early as 1909. Another formula was the Dendy-Marshall formula, which included an engine's stroke. Several Australian states used Dendy-Marshall, although Western Australia reverted to RAC hp in 1957. The Union of South Africa also depended on Dendy-Marshall, at least in the 1920s. The Automobile Club of Australia's "A.C.A. formula" used the same calculations as did Dendy-Marshall formula. The Australian Bureau of Statistics used RAC hp in their Registration of New Motor Vehicles, Make of Vehicles, Australia statistics until this publication was discontinued in June 1976.
Several Australian states also added vehicle weight to the power rating, to get a power-weight unit which determined taxation.
The Dendy-Marshall / A.C.A. formula is as follows:
where:
= nominal horsepower
= the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches
= the length (or stroke) of the cylinder in inches
= the number of cylinders
United States
During the early twentieth century, automobiles in the United States were specified with a figure identical to RAC horsepower and computed using the same formula; this was known either as "NACC horsepower" (named for the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce), "ALAM horsepower" (for NACC's predecessor, the Association of Licensed Automobile Manufacturers), or "SAE horsepower" (for the Society of Automotive Engineers). (This last term should not be confused with later horsepower ratings by the SAE.) This value is still used for taxation and license fee purposes in the State of Missouri for passenger vehicles, with electric vehicles assigned to the 12-23 Horsepower bracket by statute.
Continental Europe
Although tax horsepower was computed on a similar basis in several other European countries during the two or three decades before the Second World War, continental cylinder dimensions were quoted in millimeters. As a result of roundings when converting the formula between the two measurement systems, a British tax horse-power unit ended up being worth 1.014 continental (i.e. French) tax horse-power units.
Belgium
In Belgium, the tax power depended on the cubic capacity of the engine in cubic centimeters at the rate of 1 tax horse power for every .
France
The Cheval Fiscal, often abbreviated to CV from "chevaux-vapeur" (literally 'steam horses') in tax law, is used for the issuing of French registration certificates known as "grey cards" (cartes grises). It is an administrative unit originally calculated partly from the power of the engine and used to calculate the amount of tax that may be due at the time of registration.
The Citroën 2CV (two tax horsepower) was the car that kept such a name for the longest time.
Its use in France dates from 1 January 1913. It was updated in 1956, with further revisions in 1978 and a new emission-based system introduced in 1998.
It was originally defined using the following formula:
where:
is the number of cylinders,
is the cylinder bore in centimeters,
is the stroke in centimeters,
is the engine speed in revolutions per second,
is a coefficient depending on the number of cylinders (single-cylinder engine : 0.00020; two-cylinder engine : 0.00017; four-cylinder engine: 0.00015; six-or-more-cylinder engine: 0.00013)
1956 formula
In a circular issued on 28 December 1956, the chevaux fiscaux was defined as:
where:
= puissance administrative,
= constant of 0.00015,
= number of cylinders,
= bore in centimetres,
= stroke in centimetres,
= speed of rotation in revolutions per second
The result is multiplied by 0.7 for a diesel engine.
1978 formula
A new system was announced on 23 December 1977 to come into force on 1 January 1978 calculated by the following formula:
where:
= puissance administrative,
= coefficient of 1 for petrol or 0.7 for diesel,
= engine capacity in cubic centimetres,
= parameter calculated from a weighted arithmetic average speed in kilometers per hour theoretically reached by the vehicle at an engine speed of 1000 revolutions per minute in each gearbox ratio (see dropdown table to the right for more details).
1998 formula
From 1998 until January 2020, the fiscal tax depended on a standardised value of carbon dioxide emissions in grams per kilometer (g/km) and the maximum engine power in kilowatts (kW). If C is the amount of released and P the engine power, then:
is expressed in horsepower, rounded to the nearest integer. The official emission rate of included in the calculation is taken from the European certificate of conformity.
Germany
Tax horse-power (Steuer-PS) was introduced in Germany on 3 June 1906 however in contrast to many regions, i.e. British and French tax horsepower formulae above, it was calculated based on the overall engine displacement from its implementation.
The German formula applied a higher tax horse-power factor to two stroke engine cars than to four stroke engined cars based on the fact each cylinder in a two stroke engine fires (has a power stroke) every revolution where an otto cycle or 4 stroke cylinder only fires every second revolution .
The formulae for calculating units of tax horsepower (Steuer-PS) were as follows:
four-stroke engined cars =
two-stroke engined cars =
where:
= the number of cylinders
= the diameter (or bore) of each cylinder
= the stroke length of each cylinder
Incomplete fractions were rounded up to the nearest whole number so a four-stroke engined car of would end up designated as a 4 PS (or four horsepower) car for car tax purposes.
After April 1928, recognizing the logic of the linear relationship between tax horsepower and engine capacity, the authorities simply set car tax rates according to engine size for passenger cars. (For commercial vehicles vehicle tax became a function of vehicle weight.) Attempts to correlate new tax horsepower values with old ones result in small differences due to roundings used in the new formula which are, for most purposes, unimportant.
In 1933 the Hitler government came into power and identified promotion of the auto-industry as key to economic recovery: new cars purchased after April 1933 were no longer burdened by an annual car tax charge and German passenger car production surged from 41,727 in 1932 to 276,804 in 1938. Thereafter war and military defeat led to a change in car tax policy and after 1945 tax horse-power returned in West Germany, applying the 1928 formula, as a determinant of annual car tax on new cars purchased in or after 1945. However, the introduction of tax on road fuel in 1951 and progressive increases in fuel tax thereafter reduced the importance of annual car tax so that today far more of the tax on car ownership is collected via fuel taxes than via annual car tax.
Italy
Fiscal horsepower is still used in Italy for insurance purposes; it was formerly used also for car property taxation and it is based on engine displacement.
Spain
Fiscal horsepower also lives on in Spain, but is defined simply in terms of overall engine capacity. It therefore encourages small engines, but does not influence the ratio of cylinder bore to stroke. The current Spanish definition does, however, add a factor that varies in order to favour four-stroke engines over two-stroke engines.
where:
= Tax Horsepower (Potencia fiscal),
= 0.08 for four-stroke engines, 0.11 for two-stroke engines,
= cylinder bore in centimeters,
= stroke length in centimeters,
= Number of cylinders
Switzerland
The 26 cantons of Switzerland used (and use) a variety of different taxation methods. Originally, all of Switzerland used the tax horsepower, calculated as follows:
where:
= the number of cylinders,
= the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in cm,
= the piston stroke in cm
or times engine displacement in cc
The limits between the horsepower denominations were drawn at either 0.49, 0.50, or 0.51 in different cantons. Thus, the eight horsepower category would cover cars of about 7.5–8.5 CV. In 1973 Berne switched to a taxation system based on vehicle weight, and a few other cantons followed. In 1986 Ticino switched to a system based on a calculation including engine size and weight. Nonetheless, the tax horsepower system remains in effect for seven cantons . The plethora of different taxation systems has contributed to there always being an uncommonly wide variety of different cars marketed in Switzerland.
Japan
In pre-war Japan, different prefectures had different automobile tax structures. Tokyo Prefecture was naturally the strictest, due to the population and vehicle density there, and used a tax horsepower system of their own devising:
where
= the diameter (or bore) of the cylinder in inches,
= the piston stroke in inches,
= the number of cylinders
Unlike the British system, the Tokyo system favored short-stroked engines, but since the tax categories were rather wide and only represented a portion of vehicle taxes it had less impact on sales. In 1950 new legislation was passed that taxed engine displacement in 500 cc increments. The automobile tax is paid every year during the road tax obligation.
Impact on engine design and on auto-industry development
The fiscal benefits of reduced cylinder diameters (bore) in favor of longer cylinders (stroke) may have been a factor in encouraging the proliferation of relatively small six-cylinder-engined models appearing in Europe in the 1930s, as the market began to open up for faster middle-weight models. The system clearly perpetuated side-valve engines in countries where the taxation system encouraged these engine designs, and delayed the adoption of overhead valve engines because the small cylinder diameter reduced the space available for overhead valves and the lengthy combustion chamber in any case reduced their potential for improving combustion efficiency.
Another effect was to make it very expensive to run cars imported from countries where there was no fiscal incentive to minimise cylinder diameters: this may have limited car imports from the US to Europe during a period when western governments were employing naked protectionist policies in response to economic depression, and thereby encouraged US auto-makers wishing to exploit the European auto-markets to set up their own dedicated subsidiary plants in the larger European markets.
Taxation can modify incentives and tax horsepower is no exception. Large capacity (displacement) engines are penalized, so engineers working where engine capacity is taxed are encouraged to minimize capacity. This rarely happened in the US, where license plate fees, even adjusted for horsepower ratings, were comparatively much lower than European car taxes.
References
This entry incorporates information from the equivalent entry in the French Wikipedia at 31 December 2009
This entry incorporates information from the equivalent entry in the Spanish Wikipedia at 31 December 2009
Vehicle taxes
Units of power
History of taxation | [
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|
215761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incesticide | Incesticide | is a compilation album by the American rock band Nirvana. It consists of their 1990 non-album single "Sliver", B-sides, demos, outtakes, cover versions, and radio broadcast recordings, and as such is not the official follow-up to the band's breakthrough album, Nevermind.
The album was released on December 14, 1992, in Europe, and December 15, 1992, in the United States. It eventually reached number 39 on the Billboard 200.
Background
Early in 1992, Jonathan Poneman of Sub Pop contacted Gary Gersh, who had previously signed Nirvana to DGC Records, to inform him that Sub Pop still had a number of unreleased early Nirvana recordings in their possession. The band had intended to release the material via Sub Pop and cynically called it Cash Cow. However, Sub Pop could not match Geffen's distribution network, and the band felt that getting the material maximum exposure was important. Sub Pop sold the recordings to Geffen for "a six-figure amount" on the condition that the band would create and approve the release of an album by Christmas 1992.
At the time, the majority of the material on Incesticide was circulating within fan communities (albeit in lower quality). It was widely reported in the music press that the band wanted to offer fans a higher-quality alternative. In the book Cobain Unseen, Charles R. Cross writes that Kurt Cobain agreed to the release of this compilation because he was allowed complete control over the album's artwork.
Since the songs were recorded in different sessions and some were recorded when Nirvana did not have a stable formation, the album includes recordings by four different drummers: Chad Channing, Dan Peters, Dale Crover, and Dave Grohl.
Songs
Previously unreleased
"Hairspray Queen"
"Aero Zeppelin"
"Big Long Now"
Alternate versions
"Been a Son" was a song originally released on the 1989 Blew EP, the version on Incesticide was recorded in 1991 during a BBC Radio 1 live studio session.
"(New Wave) Polly" is a hard rock version of the Nevermind album track, "Polly". The version on Incesticide was recorded in 1991 during a BBC Radio 1 live studio session.
"Aneurysm" was a song originally released as a b-side to the "Smells Like Teen Spirit" single, the version on Incesticide was recorded two months later during a BBC Radio 1 live studio session.
Previously released
"Dive" and "Sliver" were released on the "Sliver" single in 1990. "Dive" was also previously released on The Grunge Years compilation album in 1991.
"Stain" was released on the Blew EP in 1989.
The three cover songs, "Turnaround" (Devo), "Molly's Lips" and "Son of a Gun" (The Vaselines) were released on the Hormoaning EP in 1992, which was only released in Japan and Australia. All three songs were recorded live in 1990 during a BBC Radio 1 live studio session.
"Mexican Seafood" appeared on the 1989 Teriyaki Asthma Volume 1 compilation.
"Beeswax" appeared on the 1991 Kill Rock Stars compilation album.
"Downer" appears as a bonus track on the CD version of Nirvana's 1989 debut album, Bleach.
Artwork and packaging
The cover art was painted by Cobain, who is credited as Kurdt Kobain in the liner notes. The rubber duck seen on the album's back cover belonged to art-designer Robert Fisher. The front cover prominently displays a poppy, hinting at Cobain's struggle with heroin addiction.
The first several pressings of the album contained liner notes written by Cobain, including a statement decrying homophobia, racism and misogyny:
Versions of the album containing the liner notes by Cobain could be found at record stores as late as 1998. Initial copies in the U.S. and Canada also contained a Parental Advisory label.
Critical reception
The album received generally positive reviews. "Nobody really wants a Hatful of Hollow-type assortment of Peel/Goodier sessions, B-sides, demos and obscurities in the place of a proper studio album," observed Andrew Perry in Select. "But, hell, wouldn't you try and put an end to the consumer madness going on in your name? And harvest some of the money for yourself? Anyway, people might start talking about the music again…" In a review for AllMusic, music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that the song "Aneurysm" was "perhaps the greatest single song the group ever recorded".
Commercial performance
Incesticide was released on December 14, 1992, in the United Kingdom, and on December 15, 1992, in the United States. The record label, Geffen, decided against heavily promoting the album, possibly to avoid a "Nirvana burnout" as the band had released Nevermind and four singles in the preceding fifteen months.
Despite this lack of promotion and being a collection of old and new material, Incesticide debuted at number 51 in the Billboard 200 and sold 500,000 copies in two months. The album is certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America. In the United Kingdom, the album debuted at number 17, and peaked at number 14.
On November 23, 2012, Incesticide was re-released on vinyl as a limited two-LP 45 RPM edition for its 20th anniversary.
Track listing
Personnel
All sessions:
Kurt Cobain – vocals, guitar
Krist Novoselic – bass guitar
Seattle, WA: Reciprocal Recording Studios (January 23, 1988)
Nirvana's first studio demo tape.
Songs: "Beeswax," "Downer," "Mexican Seafood," "Hairspray Queen," and "Aero Zeppelin"
Dale Crover – drums
Jack Endino – producer, engineer
Seattle, WA: Reciprocal Recording Studios (December 1988 – January 1989)
The Bleach recording sessions.
Song: "Big Long Now"
Chad Channing – drums
Jack Endino – producer, engineer
Seattle, WA: Music Source Studios (September 1989)
The Blew EP recording sessions.
Song: "Stain"
Chad Channing – drums
Steve Fisk – producer
Madison, WI: Smart Studios (April 2, 1990 – April 6, 1990)
The sessions for the planned second Sub Pop album.
Song: "Dive"
Chad Channing – drums
Butch Vig – producer
Seattle, WA: Reciprocal Recording Studios (July 11, 1990)
The "Sliver" Sub Pop single session.
Song: "Sliver"
Dan Peters – drums
Jack Endino – producer, engineer
London, England: Maida Vale Studio 3 (October 21, 1990)
The 1990 BBC session for John Peel.
Songs: "Turnaround," "Molly's Lips," and "Son of a Gun"
Dave Grohl – drums
Dale Griffin – producer
Mike Engles – engineer
Fred Kay – engineer
London, England: Maida Vale Studio 4 (November 9, 1991)
The 1991 BBC session for Mark Goodier.
Songs: "Been a Son," "(New Wave) Polly," and "Aneurysm"
Dave Grohl – drums
Miti Adhikari – producer
John Taylor – engineer
Charts
Album
Certifications
References
Bibliography
Azerrad, Michael. Come As You Are: The Story of Nirvana. Doubleday, 1994.
Cross, Charles. Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain. Hyperion, 2001.
External links
Incesticide at YouTube (streamed copy where licensed)
Live Nirvana Companion to Official Releases - Incesticide
Nirvana (band) compilation albums
1992 compilation albums
Geffen Records compilation albums
DGC Records albums
Albums produced by Butch Vig
Albums produced by Steve Fisk
Albums produced by Jack Endino
B-side compilation albums
Peel Sessions recordings | [
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215764 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da%20Brat | Da Brat | Shawntae Harris (born April 14, 1974), better known by her stage name Da Brat, is an American rapper. Born and raised in Chicago, Illinois, she began her career in 1992, the year she signed with So So Def Records. Her debut album Funkdafied (1994) sold one million copies, making her the first female solo rap act to receive a platinum certification, and the second overall female rap act (solo or group) after Salt-N-Pepa. Brat has received two Grammy Award nominations. She has achieved two-top ten hits on the Billboard Hot 100, "Funkdafied" and "Not Tonight", the latter with Lil' Kim, Lisa Lopes, Missy Elliott and Angie Martinez. Brat has also had commercial success with other songs including "I Think They Like Me", a remix of Mariah Carey's "Loverboy" and "In Love wit Chu".
Early life and education
Da Brat was born on April 14, 1974, in Chicago, Illinois, and was raised primarily in the West Side district of the city. Her father is David Ray McCoy, a businessman, and mother, Beverly Calloway, a city bus driver. Her parents never married. Brat was subsequently raised in two different households. Da Brat lived part of the time with her mother and grandmother and attended an Apostolic church four times a week, where she sang in the choir. She is the paternal half-sister of LisaRaye McCoy. Da Brat attended Kenwood Academy during her sophomore and junior year, where she ran track and played basketball. She graduated from the Academy of Scholastic Achievement, a continuation charter school that caters to at-risk students in 1992.
Career
1992–1995: Early success
In 1992, Da Brat's big break occurred when she won the grand prize in a local rap contest sponsored by Yo! MTV Raps. For the prize, she met the young rap duo Kris Kross. They introduced her to their producer, Jermaine Dupri, who signed her to his So So Def label. Dupri cultivated Da Brat's image as a "female Snoop Doggy Dogg," and she became one of the first female "reality-based" rappers. Da Brat told the Atlanta Journal-Constitution that her stage name was inspired from being "a spoiled only child." Da Brat's debut album Funkdafied was released in 1994 and entered the rap albums chart at number 11. The album went platinum, making her the first female solo rapper to sell one million copies. The single "Funkdafied" reached number 1 on the rap singles chart and number 6 on the Billboard Hot 100. Her follow-up single from the same album, "Give It 2 You," reached number 26 on the Hot 100.
1996–1999: Collaborations and film projects
In 1996, Da Brat released her second full-length album, Anuthatantrum, which included the single "Ghetto Love" featuring T-Boz of TLC. During the rest of the 1990s, Da Brat came to be known more for her "featured" appearances on other rappers' and R&B singers' albums rather than for her own solo work. Da Brat was also featured with Kris Kross on the title track of their album Da Bomb (1993) as well as on their third album Young, Rich and Dangerous (1996). She contributed a rhyme to the hip hop remix of Mariah Carey's hit, "Always Be My Baby" (1996). She also made her feature film debut that year in Kazaam (1996) with Shaquille O'Neal. In 1997 she and Dupri appeared on the remix of the Dru Hill hit "In My Bed". That same year, Da Brat appeared along with Dupri on a remix of Carey's "Honey (So So Def mix)" (1997) and recorded the hit remix of "Ladies' Night (Not Tonight)" (1997) with Lil' Kim, Left-Eye of TLC, Angie Martinez, and Missy Elliott. Also in 1997, she was featured on "Sock It 2 Me," a track on Missy Elliott's debut album, Supa Dupa Fly. In 1999, she appeared, alongside Krayzie Bone, on the remix to Mariah Carey's cover of Brenda K. Starr's "I Still Believe" (1998). She also appeared as a guest artist with Elliott on Carey's remix of "Heartbreaker" (1999), and on the remix of Brandy's "U Don't Know Me (Like U Used To)." That year, she was also featured on a remix of the Destiny's Child single "Jumpin', Jumpin'" (1999).
2000–2003: Return to solo work
In early 2000, Da Brat released her third full-length album Unrestricted, which produced the moderately successful singles "That's What I'm Looking For" (U.S. number 56) and "What'chu Like" (U.S. number 26), featuring soul singer, Tyrese. The album was not well-received compared to Brat's earlier work. However, the new album and new millennium did inspire an image makeover for Da Brat. Abandoning her "gangsta" persona, she decided to follow the trend in popular music and attempted to add to her sex appeal. In 2001, Brat continued her trend of being featured on other artist's remixes, reaching number 1 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip Hop Singles chart along with rapper Ludacris on the main remix of Mariah Carey's "Loverboy" and being featured artist on Destiny's Child's "Survivor" remix. Da Brat also appeared as Louise in Carey's 2001 movie Glitter. In 2003, Brat released her fourth album, titled Limelite, Luv & Niteclubz, including the single In Love wit Chu which peaked at peaked at n°9 on the Billboard rhythmic. In the same time, she appeared on the fourth season of VH1's The Surreal Life.
2005–present: Current activities
In 2005, she made a comeback of sorts when she was featured on the remix of the song "I Think They Like Me," by Dem Franchize Boyz, which also featured Bow Wow and Jermaine Dupri. The song peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip Hop Singles chart and No. 15 on the Billboard Hot 100. In 2006, she was an onstage guest on Mariah Carey's The Adventures of Mimi Tour in Atlanta, New York City, Long Island, Washington, DC, Chicago, and Los Angeles performing her rap verses on the "Heartbreaker" and "Honey" remixes. She was also featured on Kelly Rowland's "Gotsta Go," a bonus track from her 2007 album Ms. Kelly and is also featured on "4real4real", a bonus track from Carey's E=MC². She also co-wrote a song with Carey called "O.O.C." which appears on E=MC² and contributes backing vocals on the track. In 2007, she participated in the fifth season of the VH1 reality series Celebrity Fit Club. In 2011, she did a remix with Kelly Rowland called "Motivation" featuring Lil Wayne. Following her release from prison, she launched a web series about life after the experience titled "Brat Chronicles: In Transition" on YouTube. She released her new single "Is It Chu?" on iTunes and other digital services on July 2, 2013. She now works for the Rickey Smiley Morning show as a co-host (July 2015 – present) and is part of the Dish Nation cast out of Atlanta. Since 2016, Da Brat has appeared on the reality TV series The Rap Game, as a mentor to young talent. In 2017 Da Brat joined the reality TV series Growing up Hip Hop: Atlanta which follows around Atlanta legends and children of Atlanta legends.
Personal life
Da Brat dated Allen Iverson in the late 1990s. In an interview with Variety in March 2020, she discussed coming out as a Lesbian and why it took her 25 years to do so. On March 26, 2020, Da Brat confirmed that she is in a relationship with hair product mogul Jesseca Dupart. On February 22, 2022, Da Brat and Dupart married in Georgia.
Legal troubles and 2008 prison sentence
In 2001, Da Brat pleaded guilty to misdemeanor reckless conduct after she had battered a woman with a gun during a dispute over VIP seating in an Atlanta nightclub in 2000. The victim in that incident received six stitches for a head wound. Da Brat ended up serving a year's probation, performed 80 hours of community service, and paid a $1,000 fine. On October 31, 2007, Da Brat was involved in an altercation that ended in assault at a Halloween party held at Studio 72 nightclub near Atlanta. Da Brat initially argued with a hostess, and when the hostess walked away to talk to her manager, Da Brat attacked her from behind, striking her in the face with a rum bottle. The waitress was rushed to an area hospital, and police arrested and jailed Da Brat. In court, Da Brat pleaded guilty to aggravated assault charges. She was sentenced to three years in prison, seven years of probation, 200 hours of community service. In May 2010, she was temporarily released from prison as part of a work-release program, after serving 21 months. On February 28, 2011, Da Brat was released from prison, according to her boss Jermaine Dupri. Her civil trial stemming from the 2007 altercation commenced on February 24, 2014. On February 28, 2014, a civil trial jury awarded ex-NFL cheerleader Shayla Stevens, the assault victim, $6.4 million to cover her injuries and past/future loss of earnings.
Discography
Studio albums
Funkdafied (1994)
Anuthatantrum (1996)
Unrestricted (2000)
Limelite, Luv & Niteclubz (2003)
Tours
Joint tour
Rainbow World Tour (with Mariah Carey and Missy Elliott) (2000)
Filmography
Film
Television
Awards and nominations
Grammy Awards
Soul Train Lady of Soul Awards
BET Awards
Billboard Awards
References
External links
1974 births
Living people
20th-century American actresses
20th-century American singers
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
Actresses from Chicago
African-American actresses
African-American women rappers
American women rappers
American film actresses
American people convicted of assault
American television actresses
LGBT rappers
Bisexual musicians
LGBT actresses
LGBT African Americans
LGBT people from Illinois
LGBT singers from the United States
Midwest hip hop musicians
Participants in American reality television series
Prisoners and detainees of Georgia (U.S. state)
Rappers from Chicago
So So Def Recordings artists
20th-century American women singers
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American women singers
20th-century LGBT people
21st-century LGBT people
20th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American women singers
21st-century African-American women singers | [
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|
215766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mr.%20Cheeks | Mr. Cheeks | Terrance Kelly (born March 28, 1971), known professionally as Mr. Cheeks, is an American rapper best known for his work with the musical group Lost Boyz, and as a solo artist with the single "Lights, Camera, Action!". CEO of Wundertwinz Records ™️ his attorney
D. Staggs Esq filed worldwide trademarks and is considered venture capitalist partner.
Biography
1991–2019: Lost Boyz
Mr. Cheeks, who was mentored by his uncle Gil Scott-Heron, along with bandmates Freaky Tah (1971–1999), Spigg Nice and Pretty Lou made up The Lost Boyz. The Lost Boyz practiced a sincere, literate, non-sensational style of New York hip-hop and produced a number of singles including; "Lifestyles of the Rich and Shameless" (1994), "Jeeps, Lex Coups, Bimaz & Benz" (1995) and "Renee" (1996). Lost Boyz gained worldwide critical acclaim following the release of the albums; Legal Drug Money in 1996, Love, Peace & Nappiness in 1997,LB IV Life in 1999 , LB Next Generation in 2019 and Legacy in 2020.
2001–09: Solo career
Mr. Cheeks became a solo artist in 2001. His debut solo album, John P. Kelly, named for both his cousin and his grandfather, featured the hit single "Lights, Camera, Action!". The album also included a collaboration with longtime friend and business partner, Stephen Marley, (son of reggae artist Bob Marley) featuring the ballad "Till We Meet Again" (recorded in Freaky Tah's memory) and the reggae-flavored "Mama Say”. In 2003, Mr. Cheeks released the follow-up album, Back Again! The single off the album was "Crush On You" and it featured Mario Winans. In the fall of 2003, Cheeks separated from Universal, forming his own label, Diane’s Boyz. Cheeks was also featured on Lil' Kim's single, "The Jump Off."
Discography
Solo albums
John P. Kelly (2001)
Back Again! (2003)
Ladies and Ghettomen (2004)
Raised (2015)
with Lost Boyz
Legal Drug Money (1996)
Love, Peace & Nappiness (1997)
LB IV Life (1999)
Next Generation (2019)
Legacy (2020)
Solo singles
"Lights, Camera, Action!" (2001)
"Friday Night" (2002)
"Crush on You" (2003)
"What We Do" (2006)
Featured singles
112 — "Come See Me" (1996)
Lil' Kim — "The Jump Off" (2003)
References
External links
Mr. Cheeks on Facebook
1971 births
African-American male rappers
Living people
People from Queens, New York
Rappers from New York City
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American male musicians
American radio personalities
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
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|
215772 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s%20the%20411%3F | What's the 411? | What's the 411? is the debut album by American R&B singer Mary J. Blige. It was released on July 28, 1992, by Uptown Records and MCA Records. After signing a record contract with Uptown, Blige began working on the album with producer Sean "Puff Daddy" Combs. Other producers and songwriters included DeVante Swing, Tony Dofat, Dave Hall, Mark Morales and Mark "Cory" Rooney. The resulting music covered hip hop soul, contemporary R&B, and new jack swing styles.
What's the 411? was also met with positive reviews from critics, who applauded Blige's singing and the combination of hip hop and soul music, which led to her being named the "Queen of Hip Hop Soul". The album peaked at number six on the US Billboard 200 and topped the US Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and eventually sold 3.4 million copies.
Background
At the age of 17, Blige recorded a cover version of Anita Baker's "Caught Up in the Rapture" in a recording booth at a local mall. Her mother's boyfriend at the time later played the cassette to recording artist and A&R runner for Uptown Records, Jeff Redd. Redd then sent it to the president and chief executive officer of the label, Andre Harrell. Blige met with Harrell in 1990 and performed the song for him. She was signed to Uptown and became the label's youngest and third female recording artist (after Finesse N' Synquis).
Recording
After being signed to Uptown Records, Blige began working with record producer Puff Daddy. He became the executive producer and produced a majority of the album. The title, What's the 411?, derived from Blige's past occupation as a 4-1-1 operator; it was also an indication by Blige of being the "real deal". The music was described as "revelatory on a frequent basis". Blige was noted for having a "tough girl persona and streetwise lyrics". The album begins with "Leave a Message", a collection of Blige's answering machine messages over a drum beat. The following two tracks, "Reminisce" and "You Remind Me", are melancholy songs that are overlaid with hip hop beats. A cover of Chaka Khan's "Sweet Thing" followed.
Release and promotion
What's the 411? was released on July 28, 1992. It peaked at number six on the Billboard 200 and topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It also peaked at number 53 on the UK Albums Chart. The first single released to promote the album was "You Remind Me", originally from 1991 film Strictly Business. It reached the number 29 position on the pop charts and number 1 on the R&B charts in 1992. The next single, "Real Love" (#7 pop, #1 R&B, 1992), made Blige one of the year's biggest crossover successes.
With the album, Blige became the most successful new female R&B artist of 1992 in the United States, according to music scholar Dave McAleer. Reporting on the album's commercial success for Entertainment Weekly that year, Dave DiMartino said Blige's "powerful, soulful voice and hip-hop attitude" made her "solidly connected with an audience that has never seen a woman do new jack swing but loves it just the same". The following year, a remix album was released to further market What's the 411?, while "Sweet Thing" reached number 28 on the pop charts as a single.
In 2000, What's the 411? was certified triple platinum by the RIAA for shipments of over three million copies. By August 2010, it had sold 3,318,000 copies in the United States.
Critical reception
What's the 411? received positive reviews from contemporary critics. Reviewing the album for Entertainment Weekly in 1992, Havelock Nelson hailed it as "one of the most accomplished fusions of soul values and hip-hop to date" while comparing Blige's "powerful voice" to Khan, Anita Baker, and Caron Wheeler. Connie Johnson from the Los Angeles Times was particularly impressed by her rendition of "Sweet Thing" and "You Remind Me", calling the latter track "one of those perfect singer-to-song matches". People magazine said the album succeeded because of Blige's "fly-girl attitude" and singing ability, even though "she may not be Chaka Khan or Gladys Knight". Mitchell May was more critical in the Chicago Tribune, writing that aside from the title track and "Sweet Thing", What's the 411? was marred by dull production and "silly lyrics" depriving the singer of self-esteem. Village Voice critic Robert Christgau was largely unimpressed, grading the album a "dud" in his consumer guide. He later upgraded his score to a one-star honorable mention—indicating "a worthy effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like"; he named "Sweet Thing" and "Real Love" as highlights while writing that "real is not enough, but attached to the right voice it's something to build on".
The album was voted the year's 30th best in the Pazz & Jop—an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by The Village Voice. It also earned Blige two Soul Train Music Awards in 1993: Best New R&B Artist and Best R&B Album, Female.
What's the 411? has since been viewed by critics as one of the 1990s' most important records. Blige's combination of vocals over a hip hop beat proved influential in contemporary R&B. With the album, she was dubbed the reigning "Queen of Hip Hop Soul", Stanton Swihart wrote in a retrospective review for AllMusic. He called it "the decade's most explosive, coming-out displays of pure singing prowess". According to David O'Donnell from BBC Music, What's the 411? was groundbreaking in its fusion of R&B hooks and hip hop beats, creating the formula for the contemporary R&B of the following decade. He complimented Blige's "sweet, soulful vocals", in line with Puff Daddy's "rough, jagged, hip-hop beats made for a winning combination that remains one of Blige's finest albums". In The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Tom Moon wrote that with the album, Blige offered "a gritty undertone and a realism missing from much of the devotional love songs ruling the charts at that time."
In 2020, the album was ranked 271 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.
Track listing
Notes
denotes co-producer
Sample credits
"Leave a Message (Intro)" contains a sample of "P.S.K. – What Does It Mean?" as performed by Schoolly D.
"Reminisce" contains a sample of "Stop, Look, Listen" as performed by MC Lyte.
"Real Love" contains a sample of "Top Billin'" as performed by Audio Two.
"You Remind Me" contains a sample of "Remind Me" as performed by Patrice Rushen.
"Intro Talk (Interlude)" contains a sample of "Hydra" as performed by Grover Washington, Jr.
"Sweet Thing" is a cover of "Sweet Thing" as performed by Rufus and Chaka Khan.
"Changes I've Been Going Through" contains a sample of "Make the Music With Your Mouth, Biz" as performed by Biz Markie.
"What's the 411?" contains a sample of "Pride and Vanity" as performed by the Ohio Players; "Very Special" as performed by Debra Laws.
Personnel
Mary J. Blige – vocals, background vocals
Tabitha Brace – background vocals
Jamie Brown – engineer
Puff Daddy – producer
Tony Dofat – producer, performer
Steven Ett – engineer
Mike Fonda – engineer
Grand Puba – background vocals, vocal harmony, performer
Andy Grassi – engineer
Cedric "K-Ci" Hailey – vocal harmony, performer
Dave Hall – drums, keyboards, producer
Andre Harrell – engineer
Kurt Juice – drums
David Kennedy – engineer
Clark Kent – engineer
Kenny Greene - writer
Billy Lawrence – background vocals
Little Shawn – background vocals
Tony Maserati – engineer
Mark Morales A.K.A Prince Markie Dee –Writer, producer, drum machine
Darryl Pearson – multi-instruments
Gordon Picket – programming
Mark C. Rooney –Writer, keyboards, background vocals, producer
Terri Robinson – background vocals
Busta Rhymes
CL Smooth – background vocals
DeVante Swing – keyboards, multi-instruments, producer
Christopher Williams – background vocals
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of number-one R&B albums of 1992 (U.S.)
What's the 411? Remix
Notes
References
External links
What's the 411? at Discogs
What's the 411? Accolades at acclaimedmusic.net
1992 debut albums
Uptown Records albums
Albums produced by Sean Combs
Mary J. Blige albums
Albums produced by Cory Rooney
New jack swing albums | [
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|
215780 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yo-Yo%20%28rapper%29 | Yo-Yo (rapper) | Yolanda Whitaker, also known as Yo-Yo (born August 4, 1971) is an American rapper and actress.
Much of Yo-Yo's music advocates female empowerment and denounces the frequent sexism and misogyny in hip-hop music. Yo-Yo is the protégé of gangsta rapper Ice Cube. Yo-Yo has dubbed her crew the IBWC, for the Intelligent Black Woman's Coalition.
Career
Music
Yo-Yo first appeared as a guest on Ice Cube's 1990 debut studio album AmeriKKKa's Most Wanted on the track "It's a Man's World". Cube returned the favor by appearing on "You Can't Play with My Yo-Yo", on Yo-Yo's 1991 debut album, Make Way for the Motherlode. Each of the videos for the singles from the album were directed by Okuwah Garrett of Power Films.
Her follow-up album released in 1992, Black Pearl, was well received by critics, partly because of its focus on positive messages and uplifting themes that heavily contrasted with the popular gangsta rap style at the time. Despite a plethora of renowned producers such as DJ Muggs, this failed to translate into a hit with mainstream hip-hop audiences, and the album's sales were considered a disappointment.
Less than a year later, Yo-Yo released her follow-up album, titled You Better Ask Somebody. The final track on the album was her third recorded hip-hop duet with Ice Cube, "The Bonnie and Clyde Theme".
Yo-Yo's next album, Total Control, was released in 1996. In 1998, Yo-Yo finished her fifth studio album, Ebony, though it was not released. In 2008, her single, "You Can't Play With My Yo-Yo" was ranked number 92 on VH1's 100 Greatest Hip-Hop Songs. Later that year, she performed with MC Lyte, The Lady of Rage, and Salt-N-Pepa at the BET Hip Hop Awards.
As of 2009, Yo-Yo has been working on an EP, titled My Journey to Fearless: The Black Butterfly.
In 2013, it was announced she joined the upcoming BET reality series Hip Hop Sisters which will focus on six female rappers' lives and their attempts to relaunch their careers. Other rappers confirmed to appear are MC Lyte, Lady of Rage, Monie Love, Lil Mama, and Smooth.
Acting
Yo-Yo appeared in the 1991 film Boyz n the Hood. She had a recurring role on the television show Martin as Keylolo, the sidekick to comedian Martin Lawrence's alter ego Sheneneh. Yo-Yo also appeared on other TV shows, including the Fox network's New York Undercover. She made a cameo appearance in the music video for Missy Elliot's "The Rain (Supa Dupa Fly)". She also appeared in the 2004 video game Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas as the voice of Kendl Johnson.
Personal life
Yo-Yo dated Tupac Shakur for some time in the 1990s. She was with Shakur in the hospital shortly before he died. Later, Yo-Yo became engaged to DeAndre Windom, the former mayor of Highland Park, Michigan, in August 2012. The two married on August 17, 2013 in the Cayman Islands and divorced in 2018.
Yo-Yo has been active in advocating for hip-hop artists to become involved within their community. Notably, she testified in 1994 for a Senate Judiciary Committee hearing about whether the government should require rating labels on gangsta rap. She also founded the Yo-Yo School of Hip-Hop to use hip-hop in curriculum for at-risk students.
Discography
Studio albums
Make Way for the Motherlode (1991)
Black Pearl (1992)
You Better Ask Somebody (1993)
Total Control (1996)
Filmography
Film
Television
Video Games
Awards and nominations
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Yo-Yo School of Hip Hop
1971 births
American women rappers
African-American women rappers
African-American actresses
Living people
Actresses from Los Angeles County, California
Musicians from Compton, California
Rappers from California
Songwriters from California
West Coast hip hop musicians
American film actresses
American television actresses
American video game actresses
American voice actresses
20th-century American rappers
20th-century American women musicians
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American women musicians
21st-century American actresses
African-American songwriters
20th-century African-American women
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American musicians | [
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|
215781 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CV | CV | CV, Cv, or cv may refer to:
Curriculum vitae, a summary of academic and professional history and achievements
CV, Cv, or cv may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
CV (novel), a novel by Damon Knight
Character voice, or CV; see voice acting in Japan
CV Network, a defunct Spanish-language television network in the United States
Producciones Cinevisión, formerly CV-TV, a Colombian
Businesses and organisations
Cargolux (IATA designator CV)
Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen, a German umbrella organisation of Catholic student fraternities
Central Vermont Railway, a railway that operated in the New England states
Christian Voice (UK)
Comando Vermelho, a Brazilian criminal organization
Conversio Virium, an education group of Columbia University
Places
.cv, the Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD) for Cape Verde
Cee Vee, Texas, an unincorporated community in the United States
CV postcode area, in the United Kingdom
Science, technology, and mathematics
Electronics and computing
Capacitance voltage profiling, a technique to characterize semiconductor materials and devices
Computer vision, methods of extracting information and meaning from images and video
Constant voltage source, electrical description
CV/Gate, a control voltage and gate solution
Medicine
Contractile vacuole, an organelle found in some cells
Coronavirus, a type of virus, notably:
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, the virus causing the 2019–2020 outbreak
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the disease caused by the virus
COVID-19 pandemic, the ongoing pandemic
Conduction velocity, the speed at which an electrochemical impulse propagates down a neural pathway
Other uses in science, technology, and mathematics
Cv, the flow coefficient, used to determine the pressure-drop across an element in fluid flow applications
cv, the specific heat of a material at constant volume
Calorific value, the amount of heat released during the combustion of a substance
Cataclysmic variable star, characterized by irregular and large increases in brightness
Coefficient of variation, a measure of dispersion of a probability distribution
Compensating variation, an economic concept of compensation for a price change
Constant-velocity joint, or CV-joint
Control volume, a presumed volume for analysing the thermodynamic state of a system
Consonantvowel, an open-syllable pattern in linguistics
Cultivated variety or cultivar, once commonly abbreviated cv., now officially deprecated but widely used and recommended
Cyclic voltammetry, an electrochemical way of measuring
Chemical formula of vanadium carbide
Other uses
CV (tax horsepower), a French and Italian system of car taxation
CV, the Hull classification symbol for aircraft carriers in the U.S. Navy
105 (number), Roman numerals representation of CV
Chuvash language, a Turkic language of Russia (ISO 639-1 code CV)
Cross of Valour (disambiguation), various decorations
See also
C5 (disambiguation), including a list of topics named C.V., etc. | [
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|
215785 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justification | Justification | Justification may refer to:
Justification (epistemology), a property of beliefs that a person has good reasons for holding
Justification (jurisprudence), defence in a prosecution for a criminal offense
Justification (theology), God's act of declaring or making a sinner righteous before God
Justification (typesetting), a kind of typographic alignment
Rationalization (making excuses), a phenomenon in psychology
See also
Justify
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|
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