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215788 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brand%20Nubian | Brand Nubian | Brand Nubian is an American hip hop group from New Rochelle, New York, composed of three emcees (Grand Puba, Sadat X and Lord Jamar), and formerly three DJs (DJ Alamo, DJ Sincere, and DJ Stud Doogie). Their debut studio album, One for All (1990), is one of the most popular and acclaimed alternative hip hop albums of the 1990s, known for socially conscious and political lyrics inspired by the teachings of The Nation of Gods and Earths. In 2008, About.com placed the group on its list of the 25 Greatest Rap Groups of All Time.
History
1989–1992
Brand Nubian formed in 1989 and their first single, "Brand Nubian," was released in 1989. Signed to Elektra Records by A&R man Dante Ross, their debut album, One For All, was released in 1990. Generally acclaimed, the album drew fire for militant Five-Percenter rhetoric on tracks such as "Drop the Bomb" and "Wake Up". The controversy helped selling in excess of 400,000 copies. A version of the Fab Five Freddy-directed video of the single "Wake Up," featuring a black man in white-face makeup, was banned from MTV. On that channel and from official WEA sources, this image was replaced by a Baptist preacher. The singles "Slow Down," "All for One," and "Wake Up" all became hits on Billboard’s Hot Rap Tracks chart in 1991.
Shortly after the group's debut release, Grand Puba quarreled with Sadat X and Lord Jamar, and he left the group, along with DJ Alamo, to pursue a solo career. Following this, Lord Jamar and Sadat X asked DJ Sincere to join the group in 1992. The same year, Puba released his solo debut, Reel to Reel.
At the end of 1992, Brand Nubian released the single "Punks Jump up to Get Beat Down". The track created controversy because of its homophobic content such as Sadat X's line "I can freak, fly, flow, fuck up a faggot/I don't understand their ways; I ain't down with gays". Despite this, the single charted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 77. Later versions omitted the line and replaced it with different lyrics, including the version on the greatest hits compilation The Very Best of Brand Nubian.
1992–1996
In early 1993, Brand Nubian released their second album, In God We Trust, which included the song "Punks Jump Up to Get Beat Down" and the number 92 Hot-100 single "Love Me or Leave Me Alone." That same year, the group's song "Lick Dem Muthaphuckas" was released as part of the Menace II Society soundtrack.
Brand Nubian's next release, Everything is Everything, was released in November 1994. Reviews were mixed and sales mediocre, despite the top-40 Hot Rap Tracks singles "Word is Bond" and "Hold On". In 1995, Brand Nubian broke up and its members started solo careers in music and television. That same year, Grand Puba released his second solo album, 2000, featuring another Billboard Hot 100 single, "I Like It (I Wanna Be Where You Are)," and Sadat X released his first solo album, Wild Cowboys, in 1996.
1997–2000
Brand Nubian's original members reunited in 1997 and contributed "A Child is Born" to the Soul in the Hole soundtrack. In 1997, "Keep It Bubblin'" appeared on the Money Talks soundtrack. In 1998, Brand Nubian released the album Foundation on Arista/BMG Records. It featured contributions from producers such as DJ Premier, Buckwild, Lord Finesse, and Diamond D. The lead single "Don't Let It Go to Your Head" became, at number 54, the group's highest-charting single on the Hot 100. In 1999, Grand Puba and Sadat X were featured on "Once Again", from the first Handsome Boy Modeling School record. In 2000, Brand Nubian once again teamed up with Buckwild of D.I.T.C., releasing the single "Rockin' It," after which the members, once again, pursued their solo projects. Sadat X released a solo EP in 2000, The State of New York vs. Derek Murphy.
2001–present
Grand Puba released his third solo effort, Understand This, in 2001, which received little attention. Brand Nubian reunited once again in 2004 for their fifth album, Fire in the Hole, released by Babygrande Records. Sadat X released another solo effort in 2005, titled Experience & Education, to mostly positive reviews. Jamar pursued his acting career, appearing on an episode of The Sopranos, as well as episodes of Oz, Third Watch, and Law & Order. Lord Jamar released his first solo album, The 5% Album, in June 2006, on Babygrande Records. Sadat X's third full-length album Black October came out in October 2006. In 2007, the group released an album titled Time's Runnin' Out, containing material recorded ten years earlier during the sessions for the 1998 Foundation album.
Members
Grand Puba (1988–1991, 1997–2000, 2003–present)
Sadat X (1988–1995, 1997–2000, 2003–present)
Lord Jamar (1988–1995, 1997–2000, 2003–present)
DJ Alamo (1988–1991, 1997–2000)
DJ Sincere (1988–1995)
DJ Stud Doogie
Discography
Studio albums
One for All (1990)
In God We Trust (1993)
Everything Is Everything (1994)
Foundation (1998)
Fire in the Hole (2004)
Time's Runnin' Out (2007)
References
External links
Brand Nubian interview with Scion Broadband
Hip Hop Icon Series: Brand Nubian
Arista Records artists
East Coast hip hop groups
Elektra Records artists
Five percenters
Musical groups established in 1989
Musical groups from New York (state) | [
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|
215789 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists%20of%20country-related%20topics | Lists of country-related topics | Each entry below presents a list of topics about a specific nation or state (country), followed by a link to the main article for that country. Entries for nations are in bold type, while those for subnational entities are in normal (unbolded) type.
A
Index of Abkhazia-related articles
Index of Akrotiri and Dhekelia-related articles - Sovereign Base Area of Akrotiri (UK overseas territory)
Index of Åland-related articles - Åland (Autonomous province of Finland)
Index of Algeria-related articles - People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
Index of American Samoa-related articles - Territory of American Samoa (US overseas territory)
Outline of Andorra - Principality of Andorra
Index of Angola-related articles - Republic of Angola
Index of Anguilla-related articles - Anguilla (UK overseas territory)
Index of Antigua and Barbuda-related articles - Antigua and Barbuda
Index of Argentina-related articles - Argentine Republic
Index of Armenia-related articles - Republic of Armenia
Index of Artsakh-related articles - Republic of Artsakh
Index of Aruba-related articles - Aruba (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Index of Ascension Island–related articles - Ascension Island (Dependency of the UK overseas territory of Saint Helena)
Index of Australia-related articles - Commonwealth of Australia
Index of Austria-related articles - Republic of Austria
Index of Azerbaijan-related articles - Republic of Azerbaijan
B
Outline of the Bahamas - Commonwealth of The Bahamas
Outline of Bahrain - Kingdom of Bahrain
List of Bangladesh-related topics - People's Republic of Bangladesh
Index of Barbados-related articles - Barbados
List of Belarus-related topics - Republic of Belarus
Index of Belgium-related articles - Kingdom of Belgium
List of Belize-related topics - Belize
Outline of Benin - Republic of Benin
List of Bermuda-related topics - Bermuda (UK overseas territory)
Index of Bhutan-related articles - Kingdom of Bhutan
List of Bolivia-related topics - Republic of Bolivia
Outline of Bosnia and Herzegovina - Bosnia and Herzegovina
List of Botswana-related topics - Republic of Botswana
List of British Virgin Islands-related topics - British Virgin Islands (UK overseas territory)
List of Brunei-related topics - Negara Brunei Darussalam
Outline of Bulgaria - Republic of Bulgaria
Index of Burkina Faso-related articles - Burkina Faso
Outline of Burundi - Republic of Burundi
C
Index of Cambodia-related articles - Kingdom of Cambodia
Index of Cameroon-related articles - Republic of Cameroon
Index of Canada-related articles - Canada
Index of Cape Verde–related articles - Republic of Cape Verde
Index of Cayman Islands-related articles - Cayman Islands (UK overseas territory)
List of Central African Republic-related topics - Central African Republic
Outline of Chad - Republic of Chad
List of Chile-related topics - Republic of Chile
Index of China-related articles - People's Republic of China
Index of Christmas Island–related articles - Territory of Christmas Island (Australian overseas territory)
Index of Cocos (Keeling) Islands-related articles - Territory of Cocos (Keeling) Islands (Australian overseas territory)
Index of Colombia-related articles - Republic of Colombia
Index of Comoros-related articles - Union of the Comoros
Index of Democratic Republic of the Congo-related articles - Democratic Republic of the Congo
Index of Republic of the Congo–related articles - Republic of the Congo
Index of Cook Islands–related articles - Cook Islands (Self-governing in free association with New Zealand)
Index of Costa Rica-related articles - Republic of Costa Rica
Index of Croatia-related articles - Republic of Croatia
Index of Cuba-related articles - Republic of Cuba
Index of Curaçao-related articles - Curaçao
Index of Cyprus-related articles - Republic of Cyprus
List of Czech Republic-related topics - Czech Republic
D
Index of Denmark-related articles - Kingdom of Denmark
Index of Akrotiri and Dhekelia-related articles - Sovereign Base Areas of Dhekelia (UK overseas territory)
Index of Djibouti-related articles - Republic of Djibouti
Index of Dominica-related articles - Commonwealth of Dominica
Index of Dominican Republic-related articles - Dominican Republic
E
List of East Timor-related topics - Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
Index of Ecuador-related articles - Republic of Ecuador
Index of Egypt-related articles - Arab Republic of Egypt
Index of El Salvador–related articles - Republic of El Salvador
Outline of England - England
Index of Equatorial Guinea–related articles - Republic of Equatorial Guinea
Index of Eritrea-related articles - State of Eritrea
Index of Estonia-related articles - Republic of Estonia
Index of Ethiopia-related articles - Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
F
List of Falkland Islands-related topics - Falkland Islands (UK overseas territory)
Outline of the Faroe Islands - Faroe Islands (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark)
Index of Fiji-related articles - Republic of the Fiji Islands
List of Finland-related topics - Republic of Finland
Outline of France - French Republic
Index of French Guiana-related articles - French Guiana (French overseas department)
Index of French Polynesia-related articles - French Polynesia (French overseas community)
G
Index of Gabon-related articles - Gabonese Republic
Index of Gambia-related articles - Republic of the Gambia
Index of Georgia (country)-related articles - Georgia
Index of Germany-related articles - Federal Republic of Germany
Index of Ghana-related articles - Republic of Ghana
Outline of Gibraltar - Gibraltar
Index of Greece-related articles - Hellenic Republic
Index of Greenland-related articles - Greenland (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of Denmark)
Index of Grenada-related articles - Grenada
Index of Guadeloupe-related articles - Guadeloupe (French overseas department)
Index of Guam-related articles - Territory of Guam (US overseas territory)
Index of Guatemala-related articles - Republic of Guatemala
Index of Guernsey-related articles - Bailiwick of Guernsey (British Crown dependency)
Index of French Guiana-related articles - French Guiana (French overseas department)
Index of Guinea-related articles - Republic of Guinea
Index of Guinea-Bissau-related articles - Republic of Guinea-Bissau
Index of Guyana-related articles - Co-operative Republic of Guyana
H
Index of Haiti-related articles - Republic of Haiti
List of Honduras-related topics - Republic of Honduras
Index of Hong Kong-related articles - Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (a highly autonomous territory)
Index of Hungary-related articles - Republic of Hungary
I
Index of Iceland-related articles - Republic of Iceland
List of Indonesia-related topics - Republic of Indonesia
List of Iran-related topics - Islamic Republic of Iran
List of Ireland-related topics - Ireland
See Index of Falkland Islands-related articles for Islas Malvinas
Outline of the Isle of Man - Isle of Man (British Crown dependency)
Index of Israel-related articles - State of Israel
Index of Italy-related articles - Italian Republic
Index of Ivory Coast–related articles - Republic of Ivory Coast
J
Index of Jamaica-related articles - Jamaica
Index of Japan-related articles - Japan
Outline of Jersey - Bailiwick of Jersey (British Crown dependency)
Index of Jordan-related articles - Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
K
Index of Kazakhstan-related articles - Republic of Kazakhstan
Index of Kenya-related articles - Republic of Kenya
Outline of Kiribati - Republic of Kiribati
Index of North Korea–related articles - Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Index of South Korea–related articles - Republic of Korea
Outline of Kosovo - Republic of Kosovo
Index of Kuwait-related articles - State of Kuwait
Index of Kyrgyzstan-related articles - Kyrgyz Republic
L
List of Laos-related topics - Lao People's Democratic Republic
Outline of Latvia - Republic of Latvia
Index of Lebanon-related articles - Lebanese Republic
Index of Lesotho-related articles - Kingdom of Lesotho
Index of Liberia-related articles - Republic of Liberia
Index of Libya-related articles - Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Outline of Liechtenstein - Principality of Liechtenstein
Outline of Lithuania - Republic of Lithuania
Outline of Luxembourg - Grand Duchy of Luxembourg
M
Index of Macau-related articles - Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (Area of special sovereignty)
Index of Madagascar-related articles - Republic of Madagascar
List of Malaysia-related topics - Malaysia
List of Maldives-related topics - Republic of Maldives
Index of Mali-related articles - Republic of Mali
Index of Malta-related articles - Republic of Malta
Index of Marshall Islands-related articles - Republic of the Marshall Islands
Index of Martinique-related articles - Martinique (French overseas department)
Index of Mauritania-related articles - Islamic Republic of Mauritania
List of Mauritius-related topics - Republic of Mauritius
List of Mayotte-related topics - Mayotte (French overseas community)
Index of Mexico-related articles - United Mexican States
Index of Federated States of Micronesia-related articles - Federated States of Micronesia
Outline of Moldova - Republic of Moldova
Outline of Monaco - Principality of Monaco
Index of Mongolia-related articles - Mongolia
Outline of Montenegro - Republic of Montenegro
Index of Montserrat-related articles - Montserrat (UK overseas territory)
Outline of Morocco - Kingdom of Morocco
Index of Mozambique-related articles - Republic of Mozambique
N
Index of Artsakh-related articles - Republic of Artsakh
Index of Namibia-related articles - Republic of Namibia
Index of Nauru-related articles - Republic of Nauru
Outline of Nepal - Kingdom of Nepal
Outline of the Netherlands - Kingdom of the Netherlands
Index of Netherlands Antilles-related articles - Netherlands Antilles (Self-governing country in the Kingdom of the Netherlands)
Outline of New Caledonia - Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies (French community sui generis)
Outline of New Zealand - New Zealand
Index of Nicaragua-related articles - Republic of Nicaragua
Outline of Niger - Republic of Niger
Index of Nigeria-related articles - Federal Republic of Nigeria
Outline of Niue - Niue (Self-governing in free association with New Zealand)
Index of North Korea–related articles - Democratic People's Republic of Korea
Outline of North Macedonia - Republic of North Macedonia
Outline of Norfolk Island - Territory of Norfolk Island (Australian overseas territory)
Outline of Northern Cyprus - Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
List of Northern Ireland-related topics - Northern Ireland
Index of Northern Mariana Islands-related articles - Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (US overseas commonwealth)
Outline of Norway - Kingdom of Norway
O
Index of Oman-related articles - Sultanate of Oman
P
Index of Palau-related articles - Republic of Palau
Index of Panama-related articles - Republic of Panama
Outline of Papua New Guinea - Independent State of Papua New Guinea
Index of Paraguay-related articles - Republic of Paraguay
Index of Peru-related articles - Republic of Peru
List of Philippines-related topics - Republic of the Philippines
Outline of the Pitcairn Islands - Pitcairn, Henderson, Ducie, and Oeno Islands (UK overseas territory)
Outline of Poland - Republic of Poland
Index of Portugal-related articles - Portuguese Republic
Outline of Transnistria - Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
Index of Puerto Rico-related articles - Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (US overseas commonwealth)
Q
List of Qatar-related topics - State of Qatar
R
Outline of Romania - Romania
Outline of Russia - Russian Federation
Outline of Rwanda - Republic of Rwanda
S
Outline of the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic - Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
Index of Saint Barthélemy-related articles - Saint Barthélemy (French overseas collectivity)
Outline of Saint Helena - Saint Helena (UK overseas territory)
Index of Saint Kitts and Nevis-related articles - Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis
Index of Saint Lucia-related articles - Saint Lucia
Index of the Collectivity of Saint Martin-related articles - Saint Martin (French overseas collectivity)
Index of Saint Pierre and Miquelon-related articles - Saint Pierre and Miquelon (French overseas collectivity)
Index of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines-related articles - Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Outline of Samoa - Independent State of Samoa
Index of San Marino–related articles - Most Serene Republic of San Marino
List of São Tomé and Príncipe-related topics - Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe
Index of Saudi Arabia-related articles - Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Outline of Scotland - Scotland
Index of Senegal-related articles - Republic of Senegal
Outline of Serbia - Republic of Serbia
Outline of Seychelles - Republic of Seychelles
Index of Singapore-related articles - Republic of Singapore
Outline of Slovakia - Slovak Republic
Outline of Slovenia - Republic of Slovenia
Outline of the Solomon Islands - Solomon Islands
Index of Somalia-related articles - Somalia
Outline of Somaliland - Republic of Somaliland
List of South Africa-related topics - Republic of South Africa
Index of South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands-related articles - South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (UK overseas territory)
Index of South Korea–related articles - Republic of Korea
Index of Soviet Union-related articles - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Outline of Spain - Kingdom of Spain
Outline of Sri Lanka - Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Outline of Sudan - Republic of the Sudan
Outline of Svalbard - Svalbard (Territory of Norway)
List of Sweden-related topics - Kingdom of Sweden
Index of Switzerland-related articles - Swiss Confederation
Index of Syria-related articles - Syrian Arab Republic
T
Index of Taiwan-related articles - Republic of China
List of East Timor-related topics - Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste
Outline of Tokelau - Tokelau (Overseas territory of New Zealand)
Outline of Tonga - Kingdom of Tonga
Outline of Transnistria - Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic
List of Trinidad and Tobago-related topics - Republic of Trinidad and Tobago
Outline of Tristan da Cunha - Tristan da Cunha (Dependency of the UK overseas territory of Saint Helena)
Outline of Tunisia - Tunisian Republic
Index of Turkey-related articles - Republic of Turkey
Index of Turkmenistan-related articles -Turkmenistan
Index of Turks and Caicos Islands-related articles - Turks and Caicos Islands (UK overseas territory)
Outline of Tuvalu - Tuvalu
U
Index of Uganda-related articles - Republic of Uganda
Outline of Ukraine - Ukraine
List of United Arab Emirates-related topics - United Arab Emirates
Outline of the United Kingdom - United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
Index of United States-related articles - United States of America
Index of Uruguay-related articles - Eastern Republic of Uruguay
V
Index of Vatican City-related articles - State of the Vatican City
Index of Venezuela-related articles - Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela
Index of Vietnam-related articles - Socialist Republic of Vietnam
List of British Virgin Islands-related topics - British Virgin Islands (UK overseas territory)
Index of United States Virgin Islands-related articles - United States Virgin Islands (US overseas territory)
W
Outline of Wales - Wales
Outline of Wallis and Futuna - Territory of Wallis and Futuna Islands (French overseas community)
Y
List of Yemen-related topics - Republic of Yemen
Z
Outline of Zambia - Republic of Zambia
Index of Zimbabwe-related articles - Republic of Zimbabwe
See also
List of sovereign states | [
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215791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erythrocyte%20sedimentation%20rate | Erythrocyte sedimentation rate | The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR or sed rate) is the rate at which red blood cells in anticoagulated whole blood descend in a standardized tube over a period of one hour. It is a common hematology test, and is a non-specific measure of inflammation.
To perform the test, anticoagulated blood is traditionally placed in an upright tube, known as a Westergren tube, and the distance which the red blood cells fall is measured and reported in mm at the end of one hour.
Since the introduction of automated analyzers into the clinical laboratory, the ESR test has been automatically performed.
The ESR is governed by the balance between pro-sedimentation factors, mainly fibrinogen, and those factors resisting sedimentation, namely the negative charge of the erythrocytes (zeta potential). When an inflammatory process is present, the high proportion of fibrinogen in the blood causes red blood cells to stick to each other. The red cells form stacks called rouleaux which settle faster, due to their increased density. Rouleaux formation can also occur in association with some lymphoproliferative disorders in which one or more paraproteins are secreted in high amounts. While abnormal in humans, rouleaux formation can be a normal physiological finding in horses, cats, and pigs.
The ESR is increased in inflammation, pregnancy, anemia, autoimmune disorders (such as rheumatoid arthritis and lupus), infections, some kidney diseases and some cancers (such as lymphoma and multiple myeloma). The ESR is decreased in polycythemia, hyperviscosity, sickle cell anemia, leukemia, chronic fatigue syndrome, low plasma protein (due to liver or kidney disease) and congestive heart failure. Although increases in immunoglobulins usually increase the ESR, very high levels can reduce it again due to hyperviscosity of the plasma. This is especially likely with IgM-class paraproteins, and to a lesser extent, IgA-class. The basal ESR is slightly higher in females.
Stages
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) is the measure of ability of erythrocytes (red blood cell) to fall through the blood plasma and accumulate together at the base of container in one hour.
There are three stages in erythrocyte sedimentation:
Rouleaux formation
Sedimentation or settling stage
Packing stage - 10 minutes (sedimentation slows and cells start to pack at the bottom of the tube)
In normal conditions, the red blood cells are negatively charged and therefore repel each other rather than stacking. ESR is also reduced by high blood viscosity, which slows the rate of fall.
Causes of elevation
The rate of erythrocyte sedimentation is affected by both inflammatory and non-inflammatory conditions.
Inflammation
In inflammatory conditions, fibrinogen, other clotting proteins, and alpha globulin are positively charged, thus increasing the ESR. ESR begins to rise at 24 to 48 hours after the onset of acute self-limited inflammation, decreases slowly as inflammation resolves, and can take weeks to months to return to normal levels. For ESR values more than 100 mm/hour, there is a 90% probability that an underlying cause would be found upon investigation.
Non-inflammatory conditions
In non-inflammatory conditions, plasma albumin concentration, size, shape, and number of red blood cells, and the concentration of immunoglobulin can affect the ESR. Non-inflammatory conditions that can cause raised ESR include anemia, kidney failure, obesity, ageing, and female sex. ESR is also higher in women during menstruation and pregnancy. The value of ESR does not change whether dialysis is performed or not. Therefore, ESR is not a reliable measure of inflammation in those with kidney injuries as the ESR value is already elevated.
Causes of reduction
An increased number of red blood cells (polycythemia) causes reduced ESR as blood viscosity increases. Hemoglobinopathy such as sickle-cell disease can have low ESR due to an improper shape of red blood cells that impairs stacking.
Medical uses
Diagnosis
ESR can sometimes be useful in diagnosing diseases, such as multiple myeloma, temporal arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica, various auto-immune diseases, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease and chronic kidney diseases. In many of these cases, the ESR may exceed 100 mm/hour.
It is commonly used for a differential diagnosis for Kawasaki's disease (from Takayasu's arteritis; which would have a markedly elevated ESR) and it may be increased in some chronic infective conditions like tuberculosis and infective endocarditis. It is also elevated in subacute thyroiditis also known as DeQuervain's.
In markedly increased ESR of over 100 mm/h, infection is the most common cause (33% of cases in an American study), followed by cancer (17%), kidney disease (17%) and noninfectious inflammatory disorders (14%). Yet, in pneumonia the ESR stays under 100.
The usefulness of the ESR in current practice has been questioned by some, as it is a relatively imprecise and non-specific test compared to other available diagnostic tests.
Disease severity
It is a component of the PCDAI (pediatric Crohn's disease activity index), an index for assessment of the severity of inflammatory bowel disease in children.
Monitoring response to therapy
The clinical usefulness of ESR is limited to monitoring the response to therapy in certain inflammatory diseases such as temporal arteritis, polymyalgia rheumatica and rheumatoid arthritis. It can also be used as a crude measure of response in Hodgkin's lymphoma. Additionally, ESR levels are used to define one of the several possible adverse prognostic factors in the staging of Hodgkin's lymphoma.
Normal values
Note: mm/h. = millimeters per hour.
Westergren's original normal values (men 3 mm/h and women 7 mm/h) made no allowance for a person's age. Later studies from 1967 confirmed that ESR values tend to rise with age and to be generally higher in women.
Values of the ESR also appear to be slightly higher in normal populations of African-Americans than Caucasians of both genders. Values also appear to be higher in anemic individuals than non-anemic individuals.
Adults
The widely used rule calculating normal maximum ESR values in adults (98% confidence limit) is given by a formula devised in 1983 from a study of ≈1000 individuals over the age of 20: The normal values of ESR in men is age (in years) divided by 2; for women, the normal value is age (in years) plus 10, divided by 2.
Other studies confirm a dependence of ESR on age and gender, as seen in the following:
ESR reference ranges from a large 1996 study of 3,910 healthy adults (NB. these use 95% confidence intervals rather than the 98% intervals used in the study used to derive the formula above, and because of the skewness of the data, these values appear to be less than expected from the above formula):
Children
Normal values of ESR have been quoted as 1 to 2 mm/h at birth, rising to 4 mm/h 8 days after delivery, and then to 17 mm/h by day 14.
Typical normal ranges quoted are:
Newborn: 0 to 2 mm/h
Neonatal to puberty: 3 to 13 mm/h, but other laboratories place an upper limit of 20.
Relation to C-reactive protein
C-reactive protein (CRP) is an acute phase protein. Therefore, it is a better marker for acute phase reaction than ESR. While ESR and CRP generally together correlate with the degree of inflammation, this is not always the case and results may be discordant in 12.5% of the cases. Cases with raised CRP but normal ESR may demonstrate a combination of infection and some other tissue damage such as myocardial infarction, and venous thromboembolism. Such inflammation may not be enough to raise the level of ESR. Those with high ESR usually do not have demonstrable inflammation. However, in cases of low grade bacterial infections of bone and joints such as coagulase negative staphylococcus (CoNS), and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), ESR can be a good marker for the inflammatory process. This may be due to the production of Interferon type I that inhibits the CRP production in liver cells during SLE. CRP is a better marker for other autoimmune diseases such as polymyalgia rheumatica, giant cell arteritis, post-operative sepsis, and neonatal sepsis. ESR may be reduced in those who are taking statins and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).
History
The test was invented in 1897 by the Polish pathologist Edmund Biernacki. In some parts of the world the test continues to be referred to as Biernacki's Reaction (, OB). In 1918, Dr Robert Fåhræus noted that ESR differed only during pregnancy. Therefore, he suggested that ESR could be used as an indicator of pregnancy. In 1921, Dr Alf Vilhelm Albertsson Westergren used ESR to measure the disease outcome of tuberculosis. He defined the measurement standards of ESR which is still being used today. Robert Fåhræus and Alf Vilhelm Albertsson Westergren are eponymously remembered for the 'Fahraeus-Westergren test' (abbreviated as FW test; in the UK, usually termed Westergren test), which uses sodium citrate-anti-coagulated specimens.
Research
According to a study released in 2015, a stop gain mutation in HBB gene (p. Gln40stop) was shown to be associated with ESR values in Sardinian population. The red blood cell count, whose values are inversely related to ESR, is affected in carriers of this SNP. This mutation is almost exclusive of the inhabitants of Sardinia and is a common cause of beta thalassemia.
According to a 2010 study, there is a reverse correlation between ESR and general intelligence (IQ) in Swedish males aged 18–20
References
External links
Mediscuss on ESR
ESR at Lab Tests Online
Blood tests
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]
|
215792 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedimentation%20rate | Sedimentation rate | Sedimentation rate may refer to:
Sedimentation rate of particles in a liquid, described by Stokes' law
Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, a medical test for inflammation
Rates | [
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|
215793 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X%20Clan | X Clan | X Clan (formerly stylized as XCLAN and often incorrectly spelled X-Clan) is a hip hop group from Brooklyn, New York, originally consisting of Grand Verbalizer Funkin' Lesson Brother J, Professor X the Overseer, Paradise the Architect, and Sugar Shaft the Rhythm Provider. The current incarnation of the group features leader Brother J, Master China, Kumu, "Ultraman" Ra Hanna, ACL, Lord Cza, DJ Fat Jack and Zulu.
Biography
Known for its Afrocentrism and militant activism as member of the Blackwatch movement, X Clan soon gained fame for the controversy its music aroused, though commercial success was sporadic. X Clan's debut was To the East, Blackwards (1990), followed by Xodus (1992) and a temporary break-up. Both albums peaked at #11 on Billboard's Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart in the United States.
Other artists who were affiliated with X Clan and Blackwatch include Isis, Queen Mother Rage, and YZ. X Clan's affiliates released a string of titles throughout the early 1990s: Professor X released a solo album titled Years of the 9, on the Blackhand Side in 1991 and a second solo album titled Puss N' Boots: The Struggle Continues in 1993; Queen Mother Rage released Vanglorious Law in 1991 (vanglorious is a word that the group made up—not to be confused with “vainglorious”); Isis released Rebel Soul in 1990; and YZ released his debut Sons of The Father (noted for the song "Thinking of a Master Plan"), in 1989, followed by The Ghetto's Been Good to Me (which included his modest hit "Return of the Holy One") in 1993. YZ became affiliated with the group after releasing his first album, and that Isis is also the MC known as Linque Ayoung, who at one point was a member of the Wu-Tang Clan-affiliated group Deadly Venoms.
Later projects
In 1994 Brother J formed a new group, Dark Sun Riders, that released the full-length Seeds of Evolution in 1996. In 1995, long-time group member Sugar Shaft died from complications of AIDS. Brother J was an early and valued member of the worldwide Hip Hop organization called Ill Crew Universal. X Clan reunited in the late 1990s but did not release any new material. Brother J assembled a new crew that he calls X Clan Millennium Cipher and released a vinyl single for "The One/Blackwards Row" in 2004. Professor X died from complications of spinal meningitis on March 17, 2006.
A new X Clan album, titled Return from Mecca (originally titled The Trinity), was released in 2007, featuring Damian "Jr Gong" Marley, Chali 2na of Jurassic 5, RBX, KRS-One, Daddy X of Kottonmouth Kings, and Jacoby Shaddix, lead vocalist of the rock band Papa Roach. Also, Tech N9ne is featured on a hidden bonus track titled "Respect."
X Clan opened for Insane Clown Posse's Tempest Tour and, in January 2009, released an album titled Mainstream Outlawz.
Discography
References
External links
Hoodstars Magazine talks to Brother J (January 2007)
blackelectorate.com: Vibes of the Pro Black: A Conversation With Brother J. of X-Clan Part I
blackelectorate.com: Vibes of the Pro Black: A Conversation With Brother J. of X-Clan Part II
blackelectorate.com: At The Crossroads: A Conversation With Brother J of X Clan Following The Transition of Professor X.
American hip hop groups
Suburban Noize Records artists
Island Records artists
Polydor Records artists
Five percenters | [
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|
215805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam%27ron | Cam'ron | Cameron Ezike Giles (born February 4, 1976), better known by his stage name Cam'ron, is an American rapper, record executive, and actor from Harlem, New York City. Beginning his career in the mid-1990s as Killa Cam, Giles signed to Lance "Un" Rivera's Untertainment under the aegis of Epic and released his first two studio albums Confessions of Fire and S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment) in 1998 and 2000 respectively; the former achieved gold status by the RIAA. After demanding his release from Epic, Giles signed to Roc-A-Fella Records in 2001 and released his third studio album Come Home with Me the following year; it achieved platinum status by the RIAA, and also contained Cam'ron's highest-charting singles to date; "Oh Boy" and "Hey Ma", which peaked at No. 4 and No. 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 respectively. His fourth studio album and final release on Roc-A-Fella, Purple Haze was released in 2004 to critical acclaim and commercial success, being certified gold by the RIAA.
After separating his label, Diplomat Records from Roc-A-Fella in 2005 due to disagreements between himself and label-head Jay-Z, Cam'ron signed the label to a distribution deal with Asylum Records. In 2006, Cam'ron released his fifth studio album, Killa Season, which contained a film of the same name, in which Cam'ron made his director-screenwriter debut and starred as the main character. In 2009, after taking a hiatus due to his mother's health, Cam'ron returned to music and released his sixth studio album Crime Pays. It reached number 3 on the Billboard 200.
Aside from his solo career, Cam'ron is the leader of the Diplomats (also known as Dipset), a group he formed in 1997 with his childhood friend Jim Jones and his cousin Freekey Zekey. He was also one half of the duo U.N. (Us Now), and a founding member of the Children of the Corn before they disbanded in 1997. Giles has also occasionally worked as an actor, starring in the Roc-A-Fella films Paper Soldiers and Paid in Full in 2002.
Biography
1976–1997: Early life and career beginnings
Giles was born on February 4, 1976, and raised in Harlem, New York City. He was raised by his mother, Fredericka Giles. He went to school at the Manhattan Center for Science and Mathematics, where he met his longtime friends Mase and Jim Jones. He was a promising basketball player alongside Mase, however, he was unable to take advantage of scholarship offers due to his poor academic standing. Instead, he enrolled in a college in Texas, without even graduating from high school, but soon dropped out and returned to Harlem where he began selling drugs before starting his rap career. Giles was eventually introduced to The Notorious B.I.G. through his childhood friend Mase. BIG introduced Giles to Lance Rivera, who signed him to his label, Untertainment.
He began his musical career in the mid-1990s, rapping alongside Big L, Mase, and his cousin Bloodshed, in a group called Children of the Corn. After Bloodshed's death in a car accident on March 2, 1997, the group disbanded and the remaining members pursued solo careers.
1998–2002: Confessions of Fire, S.D.E. and Come Home with Me
Two years before Big L's murder in 1999, Cam'ron was introduced to The Notorious B.I.G. by Mase who was signed to Bad Boy Records at the time. Biggie was so impressed by Cam'ron that he introduced him to his partner Lance "Un" Rivera who signed Cam'ron to his Untertainment label, distributed by Epic Records. His debut album, Confessions of Fire, was released a year later in July 1998 and included singles such as "3-5-7" (which was also featured in the movie Woo), and "Horse and Carriage" featuring Mase, which reached the R&B Top Ten. The album achieved gold status and made the Top 10 of both the pop and R&B charts.
In 2000, Cam'ron was working with music executive Tommy Mottola and released his second album S.D.E. (Sports Drugs & Entertainment) on Sony/Epic Records. With features from Destiny's Child, Juelz Santana, Jim Jones, N.O.R.E., and producer Digga, it included the relatively successful singles, "Let Me Know" and "What Means The World To You". The album reached Number 2 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, and Number 14 on the Billboard 200.
After demanding a release from Sony/Epic Records, Cam'ron signed with his childhood friend and new manager Damon Dash to Roc-A-Fella Records in 2001, alongside artists such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, Freeway and Memphis Bleek. A reported $4.5 million record deal was agreed upon with and Damon Dash and his Roc-A-Fella partners Kareem Biggs and Jay-Z in the form of a record advance. His third and most successful album Come Home with Me was released in 2002 featuring guests such as Jay-Z, Beanie Sigel, and Memphis Bleek, and production from Just Blaze, Kanye West and The Heatmakerz. It included the hit singles "Oh Boy" and "Hey Ma", which both featured the Diplomats newest member Juelz Santana. The album achieved platinum status and served as a stepping stone for Cam'ron's group the Diplomats to sign with Roc-A-Fella.
In 2002, Cam'ron went on to appear in the Damon Dash produced film, Paid in Full, in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006 he started shooting his movie for his album titled Killa Season; the film would mark both Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debuts, as well as his return to acting. Killa Season was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.
2003–2009: Purple Haze, Killa Season and Crime Pays
In March 2003, Cam'ron teamed up with his fellow Diplomats Members Jim Jones, Juelz Santana, and Freekey Zeeky to release the Diplomats' debut double disc album, Diplomatic Immunity, under Roc-A-Fella/Diplomat Records, which was quickly certified gold by the RIAA. The album featured the lead single "Dipset Anthem", a remix to Cam'rons hit "Hey Ma", and the (street anthem) single "I Really Mean It", as well as featuring production from Kanye West, Just Blaze, and The Heatmakerz. A year later, the Diplomats released their second album, Diplomatic Immunity 2.
On December 7, 2004, Cam'ron's fourth studio album, Purple Haze, was released on Def Jam/Roc-A-Fella Records. It featured collaborations with Kanye West, Jaheim, Twista, Juelz Santana, and various other artists and ultimately reached gold status. The album was also a critical success, being ranked 114th on Pitchfork Media's Top 200 Albums of the first decade of the 21st century List, and 10th on Rhapsody's Hip Hop's Best Albums Of The Decade List. However, after feeling that the album was poorly promoted and that his projects were not receiving enough attention, Cam'ron requested his release from Roc-A-Fella Records.
On April 28, 2005, Cam'ron officially joined the Warner Music Group under the Asylum Records imprint. He began work on what would be his first project for the new label. Cam'ron's fifth studio album, titled Killa Season, was released on May 16, 2006, featuring production from long-term collaborators The Heatmakerz, Charlmagne and Ty Fyffe, as well as others such as Alchemist and I.N.F.O.. Along with the album, Cam'ron released his first film, in which he wrote, directed and starred in, also titled "Killa Season". Despite selling 112,000 units in the first week and debuting at number 2 on the charts, Killa Season failed to have the same sales strength as his two previous releases, but Killa Season became certified gold.
After the release of Killa Season and his feud with 50 Cent in 2007, Cam'ron took a three-year hiatus from music after his mother suffered three strokes which left her paralyzed on her left side. He moved to Florida with her to set up her rehabilitation and therapy, and stayed there until she had fully recovered. Cam'ron's 2009 album, Crime Pays was released on Asylum/Diplomat Records, featuring the majority of the production handled by Skitzo and AraabMuzik. Although none of the singles from the album managed to chart, the album still reached number 3 on the Billboard 200 but only sold 150,000 units, making it the lowest selling album of his career. In 2009 Cam'ron formed a new label, Dipset West and new group the U.N..
2010–present: Mixtapes, EPs and collaborations
In late 2009–early 2010, Cam'ron released a series of mixtapes hosted by DJ Drama called Boss of All Boses which featured his new upcoming artist Vado. Cam'ron also released a collaboration album with his new group the U.N. which included himself and fellow Harlem rapper Vado titled Heat in Here Vol. 1; the first single off the album was "Speaking Tongues" which peaked at No. 82 on the U.S. R&B charts. Cam'ron announced that he would be releasing a joint album with rapper Vado called Gunz n' Butta; on April 19, 2011, the album was released on E1 Music. In 2013, Vado signed with We the Best Music Group after his personal friendship with Cam'ron eroded, although Vado maintained at the time that they still worked on a business level and had no animosity towards him. After three years Cam'ron and Jim Jones decided to mend their differences and start working together again for the third installment of the Diplomatic Immunity album along with fellow Diplomat members Juelz Santana and Freekey Zekey. Cam'ron announced that The Diplomat album's release would take place around Christmas 2010. The first promotional single featuring the reunited Diplomat members was titled "Salute"; it was produced by AraabMuzik and would later appear on Jim Jones album Capo.
In 2012 Cam'ron was featured on rapper/singer Wiz Khalifa's second studio album O.N.I.F.C. on a song titled "The Bluff". Also In 2012 Cam'ron would be featured on rapper/singer Nicki Minaj's second studio album Pink Friday: Roman Reloaded on a song titled "I Am Your Leader" along with rapper Rick Ross.
In 2013 during an interview Cam'ron discussed his seventh upcoming studio album Killa Season 2 stating that it will feature guest appearances from Dipset, T.I., Nicki Minaj, and Wiz Khalifa. On October 1, 2013, Cam'ron released his promotional mixtape for the album titled Ghetto Heaven Vol 1.
In January 2014, according to Complex Magazine, Cam'ron and A-Trak were to team up for a collaborative EP to be titled Federal Reserve which would be executive-produced by Dame Dash and have featured appearances by Juelz Santana and Jim Jones. In May, they put out the first single from the album, titled "Dipsh*ts", featuring commentary from Dame Dash and Juelz Santana on the hook and an accompanying official video. On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron along with fashion designer Mark McNairy revealed their "Cape line" during New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram Cam'ron revealed and released his "Ebola mask" stating on the caption "Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled "Dipset USA" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records. On July 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 1 EP. On August 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 2 EP, it included the single "So Bad" featuring Nicki Minaj. On September 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 3 EP. On October 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 4 EP. On November 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 5 EP. On December 1, 2014, Cam'ron released his 1st of the Month, Vol. 6 EP. On December 11, 2014, Cam'ron announced that his next studio album will not be a sequel to his fifth album Killa Season but will be a sequel to his critically acclaimed fourth studio album Purple Haze titled Purple Haze 2; Cam'ron also announced that this would be his final album. On December 16, 2014, Cam'ron would release his compilation 1st of the Month: Box Set (Deluxe Edition).
On January 1, 2015, well known DJ Funkmaster Flex announced via his Instagram that he had spoken to fellow Diplomat members Cam'ron, Jim Jones and Juelz Santana about an upcoming Diplomat's mixtape which included fellow member Freekey Zeekey. He also confirmed and stated that he will be hosting the mixtape along with DJ's/Rappers/Producers DJ Khaled, Swizz Beatz and DJ Mustard.
In July 2016, he announced that he will release an album called Killa Pink and he promoted his line of signature the Reebok Flea 2's, and announced that the shoe will be released in combination with the album.
Other ventures
Directing and acting
In 2002, Cam'ron went on to appear in the Damon Dash produced film, Paid in Full, in which he played one of three main characters alongside Mekhi Phifer and Wood Harris. In 2006, started shooting his movie for his album titled Killa Season, the film would mark both Cam'ron's screenwriting and directorial debuts, as well as his return to acting. Killa Season was released to DVD on April 25, 2006, after a special two-day theatrical release.
Fashion designing
On February 11, 2014, Cam'ron, along with fashion designer Mark McNairy, revealed their "Cape line" during the New York fashion week. On October 20, 2014, via his Instagram, Cam'ron revealed and released his "Ebola mask", stating on the caption: "Ebola is no joking matter, so if u have to be safe, be fashionable". Cam'ron also has a fashion clothing line titled "Dipset USA" which is branded off his former label Diplomat Records.
Controversies
Jay-Z
Although there had been rumors of a feud between the two emcees, Cam'ron went public first with a track on "Killa Season" called "You Gotta Love It (Jay-Z Diss)" featuring ex-Dipset member Max B. In the song, Cam'ron takes jabs at Jay-Z's age, his alleged "biting" (stealing) of lyrics, and his current girlfriend. He references Jay-Z using The Notorious B.I.G.'s rhymes, rapping "You ain't the only one with big wallets got it my shit's brolick but ya publishing should go to Miss Wallace." He then released another song "Swagger Jacker (Biter Not a Writer)" to highlight the many songs Jay-Z has borrowed lines from. In the next issue of XXL, Cam'ron explained the beef originated when Jay-Z became CEO and President of Roc-A-Fella Records. In 2010, Cam'ron stated he does not have any issues with Jay-Z anymore.
In 2013, on "Pound Cake", a song by Drake, Jay-Z mentioned Cam'ron again by rapping (in the middle of a verse):
Cam replied briefly on "Come and Talk to Me" off of Ghetto Heaven Vol. 1:
On April 26, 2019, he and Jay-Z ended their feud at the re-opened Webster Hall.
50 Cent
On February 1, 2007, Cam'ron and 50 Cent had a live argument on The Angie Martinez Show on Hot 97 radio. 50 Cent commented that he felt Koch Entertainment was a "graveyard", meaning major record labels would not work with their artists. Cam'ron then ridiculed the record sales of G-Unit members Lloyd Banks and Mobb Deep by pointing out that Dipset member Jim Jones outsold both of their albums despite not being signed to a major label, and also went on to clarify that his group, The Diplomats, had a distribution deal from several labels. Both rappers released diss songs with videos on YouTube. 50 Cent released "Funeral Music", and suggested in the song that Cam'ron is no longer able to lead The Diplomats and that Jim Jones should take his place. Cam'ron responded with "Curtis" and "Curtis Pt. II", in which he makes fun of 50 Cent's appearance, calling him "a gorilla, with rabbit teeth". 50 Cent responded by releasing "Hold On" with Young Buck. Since 2009, the feud slowly died down, and they eventually reconciled in 2016.
Jim Jones
Cam'ron revealed in 2007 that he was no longer speaking to his fellow Diplomat members Juelz Santana and Jim Jones, leading to speculation that the group had officially broken up. However, despite admitting that he did not want to contact Jim Jones, he said that he had no hard feelings towards him. In an interview with Miss Info, Cam'ron said: "I still haven't spoken to Jim. But Jim ran with me for over 10 years, he worked hard, and I wish him the best of luck. Everybody thinks I'm mad at Jim. Why am I mad? I told people for years that Jimmy was gonna be a star. So it's better on my resume. I wish him the best." After three years of not speaking, Cam'ron and Jim Jones mended their differences in April 2010. In late 2011, both appeared together on Wolfgang Gartner's album Weekend in America, on the track "Circus Freaks".
Stop Snitchin'
On April 22, 2007, Cam'ron was interviewed on 60 Minutes as part of a piece on the Stop Snitchin' movement. He also stated that he would "not help the police" try to locate the shooter saying he is "not a snitch" and helping the police would probably hurt his record sales. He stated in the interview, "Because with the type of business I'm in, it would definitely hurt my business. And the way that I was raised, I just don't do that. I was raised differently, not to tell... It's about business but it's still also a code of ethics" When asked by Anderson Cooper if he would tell the police if a serial killer was living next to him, Cam'ron replied "I would probably move" but would not inform the police.
Cam'ron later issued an apology for his comments, calling them an "error in judgement": "Where I come from, once word gets out that you've cooperated with the police that only makes you a bigger target of criminal violence. That is a dark reality in so many neighborhoods like mine across America. I'm not saying its right, but its reality. And it's not unfounded. There's a harsh reality around violence and criminal justice in our inner cities." Cam'ron has had contact with the police in the past. According to The Smoking Gun, New York Police Department records indicate that Giles filed a report with police after he was assaulted at a park in Harlem in 1999.
Kanye West
Both Cam'ron and Jim Jones took out their frustrations on former label-mate Kanye West in defense of former CEO Dame Dash (due to their longtime friendship dating back to growing up in Harlem) by releasing a song titled "Toast" rhyming over Kanye West's song "Runaway". The feud eventually ended, evidenced by Cam'ron, Jim Jones, and Kanye West collaborating on a song called "Christmas in Harlem".
Personal life
On October 23, 2005, Cam'ron was leaving a nightclub in Washington D.C., having performed the day before at Howard University. While stopped at a traffic light at the intersection of New York and New Jersey Avenue shortly after midnight, a passenger of a nearby car threatened Cam'ron to "give up" his 2006 Lamborghini. Cam'ron resisted, and the man then shot him. Cam'ron was struck at least once as he was holding the steering wheel, but he was able to drive, going the wrong way on streets and flashing his lights, until a fan drove him to Howard University Hospital. The gunman and passenger drove off, crashed into a parked car, and fled the scene. D.C. Metro Police recovered a cell phone from the scene of the crash, which they tried to use to trace the suspects. He stated that he does not know who shot him, although later, in the song "Gotta Love It" featuring Max B, Cam'ron claims that he saw the gunman throw up the Roc-A-Fella Records diamond hand signal before shots were fired.
Discography
Studio albums
Confessions of Fire (1998)
S.D.E. (2000)
Come Home with Me (2002)
Purple Haze (2004)
Killa Season (2006)
Crime Pays (2009)
Purple Haze 2 (2019)
Collaboration albums
Heat in Here Vol. 1 (2010)
Gunz n' Butta (2011)
Filmography
Paid in Full (2002)
State Property 2 (2005)
Killa Season (2006)
First Of The Month (2012)
Percentage (2013)
Love & Hip Hop: New York (2012; 2016–2017)
Honor Up (2018)
Queens (2021)
References
External links
1976 births
Living people
Male actors from New York City
American male film actors
African-American male rappers
American male rappers
American shooting survivors
East Coast hip hop musicians
Epic Records artists
Roc-A-Fella Records artists
People from Harlem
Rappers from Manhattan
The Diplomats members
African-American male actors
Gangsta rappers
Hardcore hip hop artists
21st-century American rappers | [
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|
215806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTNU | NTNU | NTNU may refer to:
National Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan
Nigerian Turkish Nile University, Abuja, Nigeria
Norwegian University of Science and Technology (Norges teknisk-naturvitenskapelige universitet), Trondheim, Ålesund and Gjøvik, Norway | [
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|
215814 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zo%C3%AB%20Porphyrogenita | Zoë Porphyrogenita | Zoë Porphyrogenita ( "life"; 978 – 1050) was Byzantine Empress from 11 November 1028 until her death in 1050, briefly ruling in her own right from April to June 1042, alongside her sister Theodora Porphyrogenita.
Zoë was born when her father Constantine was nominal co-emperor to his brother, Basil II. Basil died in 1025 when Zoë was 47. Her father ascended the Byzantine throne as Constantine VIII. As he had no sons, Constantine hoped to continue the dynasty by marrying off one of his daughters. Zoë, aged 50, was married to Romanos Argyros. They took the throne the next day on her father's death.
The marriage of Zoë and Romanos III was troubled, and Romanos was found dead in his bath in 1034. His death has been variously attributed to Zoë, her young lover, or both. They were married on the same day as the supposed murder, and he was crowned Emperor Michael IV on the following day. In 1041, Zoë was persuaded to adopt her dying husband's nephew, Michael Kalaphates.
Once Michael V became emperor, he promptly exiled Zoë. This action sparked a popular revolt which dethroned him and installed Zoë and her sister Theodora as joint empresses. After a two-month joint reign, Zoë married a former lover who was installed as Constantine IX, transferring power to him. However, she continued to rule the empire as its heir and as the Byzantine empress. Eight years later, Zoë died aged 72. Her reign saw the decline of the Roman army, and the first incursions by the Turks into eastern Anatolia.
Early life: 978–1028
Zoë was Porphyrogenita, "born into the purple"; this was the appellation for a child born in the capital to a reigning emperor. She was the second daughter of Constantine VIII and his wife Helena. Her father became co-emperor, at the age of two, in 962. His brother Basil II, the senior co-ruler, prevented his nieces from marrying any of the Byzantine nobility, as this would have given their husbands a claim on the imperial throne. As women they were unable to exercise any state authority; their only say in this was in choosing, or more likely accepting or not, a husband who would acquire their authority upon marriage. Consequently, Zoë lived a life of virtual obscurity in the imperial gynaeceum (women's quarters) for many years.
As an eligible imperial princess Zoë was considered a possible bride for the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto III, in 996. A second embassy sent in 1001, headed by Arnulf II, Archbishop of Milan, was tasked with selecting Otto's bride from among Constantine's three daughters. The eldest, Eudocia, was disfigured by smallpox, while the youngest, Theodora, was a very plain girl. Arnulf, therefore, selected the attractive 23-year-old Zoë, to which Basil II agreed. In January 1002 she accompanied Arnulf back to Italy, only to discover when the ship reached Bari that Otto had died, forcing her to return home.
When Basil II died, Constantine VIII took the throne. His reign as sole emperor lasted less than three years, from 15 December 1025 to 11 November 1028. Another opportunity for Zoë to marry arose in 1028 when an embassy from the Holy Roman Empire arrived in Constantinople with a proposal for an imperial marriage. Constantine and Zoë rejected the idea out of hand when it was revealed that the intended groom, Henry, the son of Conrad II, was only ten years old. Constantine determined that the ruling house would be continued by one of his daughters being married to an appropriate aristocrat. The first potential match was the distinguished noble Constantine Dalassenos, the former dux of Antioch. The emperor's advisors preferred a weak ruler whom they could control and they persuaded him to reject Dalassenos after he had already been summoned to the capital. Romanos Argyros, the urban prefect of Constantinople, was the next to be considered as a match. Theodora defied her father by refusing to marry Romanos, arguing that he was already marriedhis wife having been forced to become a nun to allow Romanos to marry into the imperial familyand that as third cousins they had too close a blood relationship for marriage to occur. Consequently, Constantine VIII chose Zoë to be Romanos's wife. Zoe and Romanos married on 10 November 1028 in the imperial chapel of the palace. The next day Constantine died and the newlyweds were seated on the imperial throne.
From Romanos III to Michael V: 1028–1042
Spending years in the same restrictive quarters with her sister, Zoë had come to loathe Theodora. Zoë convinced Romanos to appoint one of his own men as the chief of Theodora's household, with orders to spy on her. Shortly afterwards, Theodora was accused of plotting to usurp the throne, first with Presian in 1030, followed by Constantine Diogenes, the governor of Sirmium, in 1031. Zoë accused her of being part of the conspiracy, and Theodora was forcibly confined in the monastery of Petrion. Zoë later visited her sister and forced her to take religious vows.
Zoë was obsessed with continuing the Macedonian dynasty. Almost immediately upon marrying Romanos the fifty-year-old Zoë tried desperately to become pregnant. She used magic charms, amulets, and potions, all without effect. This failure to conceive helped alienate the couple, and soon Romanos refused to share the marriage bed with her. Romanos limited his wife's spending and paid her little attention.
Zoë, furious and frustrated, engaged in a number of affairs. Romanos tolerated these and took a mistress himself. In 1033 Zoë became enamoured of a low-born servant called Michael. She flaunted her lover openly and spoke about making him emperor. Hearing the rumours, Romanos was concerned and confronted Michael, but he denied the accusations.
In early 1034 Romanos became ill and it was widely believed that Zoë and Michael were conspiring to have him poisoned. On 11 April Romanos was found dying in his bath. According to court official and later chronicler Michael Psellus some of his retinue had "held his head for a long time beneath the water, attempting at the same time to strangle him". John Scylitzes writes as a simple fact that Romanos was drowned on Michael's orders. Matthew of Edessa's account has Zoë poisoning Romanos.
Zoë and Michael were married on the same day that Romanos III died. The next day they summoned the Patriarch Alexios I to officiate at the coronation of the new emperor. Although he initially refused to co-operate, the payment of 50 pounds of gold helped change his mind. He proceeded to crown Michael as the new emperor of the Romans, to reign as Michael IV until his death in 1041.
Although Zoë believed Michael would prove to be a more devoted husband than Romanos, she was mistaken. Michael IV was concerned about Zoë turning on him the way she had turned on Romanos, so he excluded Zoë from politics by placing all power in the hands of his brother, the eunuch John the Orphanotrophos. Zoë was confined again to the palace gynaeceum, and kept under strict surveillance. The disgruntled empress conspired against John but in vain.
By 1041 it was obvious that Michael IV was dying. Eager to ensure that power remained in his hands, John the Eunuch forced Zoë to adopt Michael, the son of his and Michael IV's sister. On 10 December 1041, Michael IV died, refusing to the last to see his wife who begged that she be allowed to visit him one more time, and his nephew Michael V was crowned emperor.
Although he had pledged to respect Zoë, Michael V promptly banished her to a monastery on Principus, an island in the Sea of Marmara, on charges of attempted regicide. She was forcibly tonsured and sworn into a religious order. This treatment of the legitimate heir to the Macedonian Dynasty caused a popular uprising in Constantinople. Michael V, desperate to keep his throne, brought Zoë back from Principus and displayed her to the people, but his insistence that he continue to rule alongside her was in vain. On 19 April 1042, the mob revolted against Michael V in support of not only Zoë but also Theodora.
A delegation headed by Patrician Constantine Cabasilas went to the monastery at Petrion to convince Theodora to become co-empress alongside her sister. Accustomed to a life of religious contemplation Theodora rejected them and sought sanctuary in the convent chapel. In the event she was carried forcibly back to the capital. At an assembly in Hagia Sophia the people escorted a furious Theodora and proclaimed her empress along with Zoë. They were both crowned on 21 April and Michael V was forced to take refuge in a monastery.
Ruling with Theodora and Constantine IX: 1042–1050
Zoë immediately assumed power and tried to force Theodora back to her monastery, but the Senate and the people demanded that the sisters should jointly reign. As her first act Theodora was called upon to deal with Michael V. Zoë wanted to pardon and free Michael, but Theodora was clear and adamant. She initially guaranteed Michael's safety, but then ordered him to be blinded and to spend the rest of his life as a monk.
Officially Zoë was the senior empress, and her throne was situated slightly in front of Theodora's on all public occasions. In practice Theodora was the driving force behind the joint administration. The sisters proceeded to administer the empire, focusing on curbing the sale of public offices and on the administration of justice. Although contemporary historian Michael Psellus claimed the joint reign was a complete failure, John Scylitzes stated that they were very conscientious in rectifying the abuses of the previous reigns.
Theodora and Zoë appeared together at meetings of the Senate and gave public audiences, but it was soon apparent that their joint reign was under strain. Zoë was still jealous of Theodora and had no desire to administer the empire; but she would not allow Theodora to conduct public business alone. The court began to split, with factions forming behind each empress. After two months of increasing acrimony, Zoë decided to search for a new husbandthereby denying Theodora the opportunity to increase her influence. By the rules of the Orthodox Church her next marriage, her third, was the last she was permitted.
Her preference was for Constantine Dalassenos, who had been her father's first choice as her husband back in 1028. He was brought for an audience before the Empress, but during their conversation his independent and forceful manner displeased Zoe, and he was dismissed from her presence. Her next choice was the married Constantine Atroklines, a court official with whom it was rumoured that she had had an affair during the reign of Romanos III. He died under mysterious circumstances a few days before the wedding was to take place, possibly poisoned by his own soon to be ex-wife.
Zoë then remembered the handsome and urbane Constantine Monomachos, another former lover. The pair were married on 11 June 1042, without the participation of Patriarch Alexios, who refused to officiate over a third marriage (for both spouses). Constantine was crowned by the patriarch the next day.
Zoë got more than she bargained for when Constantine decided to bring with him to his new station his long-standing mistress Maria Skleraina. Not content with bringing her to court, he insisted that he be allowed to publicly share his life with her, and that she obtain some official recognition. The 64-year-old Zoë did not object to sharing her bed and her throne with Skleraina. Skleraina was given the title of sebaste, ranking behind Zoë and Theodora, and was addressed as mistress or empress, like them. At official events Skleraina took position immediately behind the sisters.
In the eyes of the public however, Constantine IX's preferential treatment of Skleraina was a scandal, and eventually rumours began to spread that Skleraina was planning to murder Zoë, and possibly Theodora. This led to a popular uprising by the citizens of Constantinople in 1044, which came dangerously close to actually harming Constantine who was participating in a religious procession along the streets of Constantinople. The mob was only quieted by the appearance on a balcony of Zoë and Theodora, who reassured the people that they were not in any danger of assassination.
It is said that Zoë was stunningly beautiful, and Michael Psellos in his Chronographia commented that "every part of her was firm and in good condition". Zoë recognised her own beauty and its use as a tool of statecraft. Attempting to maximise and prolong its effect she had a variety of creams and treatments prepared in the gynaeceum, and was said to have carried out experiments attempting to improve their efficacy. She operated a cosmetics laboratory in her rooms in the palace, where perfumes and unguents were constantly being prepared. Psellus reports that her face looked youthful into her sixties. Zoë died in 1050, aged 72.
See also
List of Byzantine emperors
References
Sources
Primary sources
Secondary sources
970s births
1050 deaths
Macedonian dynasty
10th-century Byzantine people
11th-century Byzantine emperors
11th-century women rulers
10th-century Byzantine women
11th-century Byzantine women
Remarried royal consorts
Byzantine Empresses regnant
Porphyrogennetoi
Burials at the Church of the Holy Apostles
1040s in the Byzantine Empire | [
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|
215816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norge | Norge | Norge is Norwegian (bokmål), Danish and Swedish for Norway.
It may also refer to:
People
Kaare Norge (born 1963), Danish guitarist
Norge Luis Vera (born 1971), Cuban baseball player
Places
11871 Norge, asteroid
Toponyms:
Norge, Oklahoma
Norge, Virginia
Vehicles
, Danish passenger ship
Norge (airship)
Norge motorcycle, produced by Moto Guzzi
Norwegian watercraft:
, naval ship
, royal yacht
Companies
Norge (appliance manufacturer), part of BorgWarner
Radio Norge, station in Norway
TVNorge, Norwegian broadcaster
See also
Norge Luis Vera (born 1971), Cuban baseball player
Norgay (disambiguation)
Norway (disambiguation)
Norwegian (disambiguation) | [
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|
215817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp | Stamp | Stamp or Stamps or Stamping may refer to:
Official documents and related impressions
Postage stamp, used to indicate prepayment of fees for public mail
Ration stamp, indicating the right to rationed goods
Revenue stamp, used on documents to indicate payment of tax
Rubber stamp, device used to apply inked markings to objects
Passport stamp, a rubber stamp inked impression received in one's passport upon entering or exiting a country
National Park Passport Stamps
Food stamps, tickets used in the United States that indicate the right to benefits in the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
Collectibles
Trading stamp, a small paper stamp given to customers by merchants in loyalty programs that predate the modern loyalty card
Eki stamp, a free collectible rubber ink stamp found at many train stations in Japan
Places
Stamp Creek, a stream in Georgia
Stamps, Arkansas
People
Stamp or Apiwat Ueathavornsuk (born 1982), Thai singer-songwriter
Stamp (surname), people surnamed Stamp or Stamps
Stamps family, American surname
Manufacturing
Stamping (metalworking), a process in which metal is formed with a press
Stamps, the heavy weights used to crush ore in a stamp mill
Leather stamping, a leatherworking process
Progressive stamping, a manufacturing process
Stamp sand, a by-product of stamp mills
Other uses
Stamps (album), a 1979 album by saxophonist Steve Lacy
"Stamp", a song by the Rural Alberta Advantage from the 2011 album Departing
BASIC Stamp, a microcontroller
Stamps, a nickname for the Calgary Stampeders football team
Stomp (strike), a downwards kick using the heel that outside North America is called a stamp
STAMP (accident analysis), System Theoretic Accident Modeling and Process, an accident analysis framework developed by Nancy Leveson | [
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215822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islands%20District | Islands District | The Islands District is one of the 18 districts of Hong Kong. It is part of the New Territories. It had a population of 170,900 in 2018.
Hong Kong consists of a peninsula and 263 islands. The Islands District consists of some twenty large and small islands which lie to the south and southwest of Hong Kong. Notable areas that are part of the Islands District include Chek Lap Kok, the reclaimed island on which Hong Kong International Airport is located, Tung Chung on northern Lantau near the airport, and Discovery Bay, a large private residential area on eastern Lantau.
Islands of Hong Kong
Many islands of Hong Kong are actually not part of the district. Most notably, Hong Kong Island contains four districts itself. The term Outlying Islands tends to refer to the islands of the Islands District. The northeast point of Lantau and Ma Wan traditionally belong to Tsuen Wan District owing to their administration and transportation dependence of Tsuen Wan. Tsing Yi Island once was administrated by Tsuen Wan District and now by Kwai Tsing District. Whilst the Sai Kung Islands are part of the Sai Kung District, and the Tolo Channel Islands part of Tai Po District.
Demographics
With an area that is 16% of Hong Kong and a population that is 2% of Hong Kong, the Islands District is the largest in terms of area and also the least populated. It is therefore the district with by far the lowest population density of 783 per km2. The outlying islands are notable for a more relaxed way of life than that of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon Peninsula. The district has the third-youngest residents.
Collectively, Mui Wo and Tai O on Lantau, Cheung Chau, Lamma Island and Peng Chau are more populated than the rest of the area of the district.
Islands of the district
Cha Kwo Chau
Chek Lap Kok (Hong Kong International Airport is built here)
Cheung Chau
Hei Ling Chau
Sunshine Island (Chau Kung To)
Peaked Hill (Kai Yek Kok)
Kau Yi Chau
Siu Kau Yi Chau
Lamma Island
Luk Chau (George Island)
Lantau Island (The largest part of the district)
Discovery Bay
Mui Wo
Tai O
Tung Chung
Peng Chau
Tai Lei
Po Toi Islands
Lo Chau (Beaufort Island)
Mat Chau
Po Toi
Sung Kong
Waglan Island
Shek Kwu Chau
Soko Islands
Cheung Muk Tau
Ma Chau
Siu A Chau
Tai A Chau
Tau Lo Chau
Yuen Chau
Yuen Kong Chau
Transport
Most of the islands in the Islands District have ferry services linking them with each other and the remainder of the territory, along with Macau and nearby cities in the Pearl Delta, including Guangzhou and Shenzhen. Public ferry piers are located at Tai O (Wing Hong Street, Shek Tsai Po), Tung Chung, Hong Kong International Airport, Cheung Chau Wan, Mui Wo (Silvermine Bay), Lamma Island (Yung Shue Wan, Sok Kwu Wan), Discovery Bay, Chi Ma Wan, and Peng Chau.
However, only Lantau Island has a fixed link to the New Territories and the rest of Hong Kong. This is via the North Lantau Highway and the Lantau Link, part of the Airport Core Programme completed in 1998. Most recently, since 2018, Lantau is the location of the Hong Kong Port of Entry for the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge.
Lantau is also the only island in the Islands District with a well-developed public transport network on land. It has the only MTR stations within the district; they are Tung Chung on the Tung Chung line and two on the Airport Express serving the airport and AsiaWorld Expo (Sunny Bay and Disneyland Resort on the Disneyland Resort line administratively lie in Tsuen Wan District). Finally, Lantau is the only island with franchised taxis and buses, the latter mainly provided by New Lantao Bus (although other operators serve the northern shore, the airport, Disneyland, and Discovery Bay).
See also
List of islands and peninsulas of Hong Kong
List of places in Hong Kong
References
External links
Islands District Council
List and map of electoral constituencies (large PDF file)
https://web.archive.org/web/20041203114950/http://www.islandsdc.gov.hk/ | [
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|
215824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambas | Gambas | Gambas is the name of an object-oriented dialect of the BASIC programming language, as well as the integrated development environment that accompanies it. Designed to run on Linux and other Unix-like computer operating systems, its name is a recursive acronym for Gambas Almost Means Basic. Gambas is also the word for prawns in the Spanish, French, and Portuguese languages, from which the project's logos are derived.
History
Gambas was developed by the French programmer Benoît Minisini, with its first release coming in 1999. Benoît had grown up with the BASIC language, and decided to make a free software development environment that could quickly and easily make programs with user interfaces.
The Gambas 1.x versions featured an interface made up of several different separate windows for forms and IDE dialogues in a similar fashion to the interface of earlier versions of the GIMP. It could also only develop applications using Qt and was more oriented towards the development of applications for KDE. The last release of the 1.x versions was Gambas 1.0.19.
The first of the 2.x versions was released on January 2, 2008, after three to four years of development. It featured a major redesign of the interface, now with all forms and functions embedded in a single window, as well as some changes to the Gambas syntax, although for the most part code compatibility was kept. It featured major updates to existing Gambas components as well as the addition of some new ones, such as new components that could use GTK+ or SDL for drawing or utilize OpenGL acceleration. Gambas 2.x versions can load up and run Gambas 1.x projects, with occasional incompatibilities; the same is true for Gambas 2.x to 3.x, but not from Gambas 1.x to 3.x.
The next major iteration of Gambas, the 3.x versions, was released on December 31, 2011. A 2015 benchmark published on the Gambas website showed Gambas 3.8.90 scripting as being faster to varying degrees than Perl 5.20.2 and the then-latest 2.7.10 version of Python in many tests. Version 3.16.0 released on April 20, 2021, featured full support for Wayland using the graphical components, as well as parity between the Qt 5 and GTK 3 components.
Features
Gambas is designed to build graphical programs using the Qt (currently Qt 4.x or 5.x since 3.8.0) or the GTK toolkit (GTK 3.x also supported as of 3.6.0); the Gambas IDE is written in Gambas. Gambas includes a GUI designer to aid in creating user interfaces in an event-driven style, but can also make command line applications, as well as text-based user interfaces using the ncurses toolkit. The Gambas runtime environment is needed to run executables.
Functionality is provided by a variety of components, each of which can be selected to provide additional features. Drawing can be provided either through Qt and GTK toolkits, with an additional component which is designed to switch between them. Drawing can also be provided through the Simple DirectMedia Layer (originally version 1.x, with 2.x added as of 3.7.0), which can also be utilized for audio playback through a separate sound component (a component for the OpenAL specification has also been added). GPU acceleration support is available through an OpenGL component, as well as other hardware functionally provided by various other components. There are also components for handling other specialized tasks.
With Gambas, developers can also use databases such as MySQL or PostgreSQL, build KDE (Qt) and GNOME GTK applications with DCOP, translate Visual Basic programs to Gambas and run them under Linux, build network solutions, and create CGI web applications. The IDE also includes a tool for the creation of installation packages, supporting GNU Autotools, slackpkg, pacman, RPM, and debs (the latter two then tailored for specific distributions such as Fedora/RHEL/CentOS, Mageia, Mandriva, OpenSUSE and Debian, Ubuntu/Mint).
Gambas since version 3.2 IDE has integrated profiler and it started to use Just-in-time compilation technology.
Differences from Visual Basic
Gambas is intended to provide a similar experience as developing in Microsoft Visual Basic, but it is not a free software clone of the popular proprietary program. The author of Gambas makes it clear that there are similarities to Visual Basic, such as syntax for BASIC programs and the integrated development environment; Gambas was written from the start to be a development environment of its own and seeks to improve on the formula.
Its object model, each class being represented in a file, as well as the archiver to package the program is all inspired by the Java programming language. Gambas is intended to be an alternative for former Visual Basic developers who have decided to migrate to Linux. There are also other important distinctions between Gambas and Visual Basic. One notable example is that in Gambas array indexes always start with 0, whereas Visual Basic indexes can start with 0 or 1. Gambas also supports the += and -= shorthand not found in classic Visual Basic. Both of these are features of Visual Basic .NET however.
Adoption
Several programs and many forms of example code have been written using and for Gambas. , Freecode (formerly Freshmeat) listed 23 applications that were developed using Gambas, while the Gambas wiki listed 82; several other specialized sites list Gambas applications and code. A Gambas written application, named Gambas3 ShowCase, acted as a software center to download or install Gambas 3 applications. It has since been discontinued following the launch of the first party Gambas Software Farm integrated into the IDE since 3.7.1, which contains nearly 500 applications and demos. Several community sites, including community forums and mailing lists, also exist for Gambas. A notable application written in Gambas is Xt7-player-mpv, a GUI frontend for mpv player contained in a number of Linux software repositories.
Availability
Gambas is included in the repositories of a number of Linux distributions, such as Debian, Fedora, Mandriva Linux and Ubuntu. A Microsoft Windows version of Gambas was run under the Cygwin environment, although this version was significantly less tested than its Linux counterparts and was command-line only; Cooperative Linux and derivatives have also been used, as well as specialized Linux virtual machines. An independent contributor, François Gallo, also worked on porting Gambas 3.x to Mac OS X and FreeBSD, based on using local versions of the X11 system. Gambas from version 3.2 can run on Raspberry Pi, and offers just-in-time compilation there from version 3.12.
In November 2013, the future portability of Gambas was discussed, listing the main concerns being Linux kernel features utilized in the interpreter, components using Linux specific software and libraries, and primarily X11-tying in the Qt, GTK and desktop integration components. However, partly due to the need to upgrade to newer toolkits such as GTK 3 (added as of 3.6.0) and Qt 5 (as of 3.8.0), future versions would be less X11 tied, making projects like Cygwin or utterly native versions on other platforms more possible. Benoît Minisini stated that he intended to "encapsulate" X11 specific code to aid in any attempt to replace it, with the X11 support in the desktop component moved to its own component as of 3.6.0.
On October 27, 2016, a screenshot and setup guide was released from the main page for running Gambas fully through Cygwin, including most components, graphical toolkits, and the complete IDE. The relevant patches were mainlined as of version 3.9.2. This replaces the prior recommended method of using freenx forwarding from a Linux server. It has also been successfully run using the Windows Subsystem for Linux., this is usually done using an X terminal emulator such Mobaxterm on Windows as WSL does not support X11 graphics directly.
Example code
A "Hello, World!" program with graphical user interface.
Public Sub Main()
Message("Hello, World!")
End
Program that computes a 100-term polynomial 500000 times, and repeats it ten times (used for benchmarking).
Private Sub Test(X As Float) As Float
Dim Mu As Float = 10.0
Dim Pu, Su As Float
Dim I, J, N As Integer
Dim aPoly As New Float[100]
N = 500000
For I = 0 To N - 1
For J = 0 To 99
Mu = (Mu + 2.0) / 2.0
aPoly[J] = Mu
Next
Su = 0.0
For J = 0 To 99
Su = X * Su + aPoly[J]
Next
Pu += Su
Next
Return Pu
End
Public Sub Main()
Dim I as Integer
For I = 1 To 10
Print Test(0.2)
Next
End
See also
List of BASIC dialects
Comparison of integrated development environments#BASIC
GNAVI
Lazarus
References
Further reading
Mark Alexander Bain (Apr 28, 2006) An Introduction to Gambas, Linux Journal, issue 146, June 2006 (in print)
Mark Alexander Bain (Dec 3, 2004) Gambas speeds database development, Linux.com
Mark Alexander Bain (Dec 12, 2007) Creating simple charts with Gambas 2.0, Linux.com
Fabián Flores Vadell (Nov, 2010) How to Program with Gambas
External links
Gambas source code
Gambas Documentation
Gambas Mailinglist
Gambas Almost Means Basic
Gambas Magazine — Linux Software Development with Gambas
BASIC compilers
BASIC interpreters
BASIC programming language family
Free integrated development environments
Free software
Free software programmed in BASIC
Linux integrated development environments
Linux programming tools
Object-oriented programming languages
Procedural programming languages
Programming languages created in 1999
Self-hosting software
Software that uses Qt
Software using the GPL license
User interface builders | [
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215829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashanti%20%28singer%29 | Ashanti (singer) | Ashanti Shequoiya Douglas (born October 13, 1980) is an American singer, songwriter, and actress. She was first discovered as a teenager and later signed to Murder Inc. Records in 2002. That year, she was featured on Fat Joe's "What's Luv?" and Ja Rule's "Always on Time", both of which became two of the biggest hit songs of 2002. She became the first female artist to occupy the top two positions on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart simultaneously with "Foolish" and "What's Luv?" at numbers one and two, respectively.
In 2002, Ashanti released her eponymous debut album, which sold over 505,000 copies throughout the U.S. in its first week of release. The album earned her many awards, including eight Billboard Music Awards, two American Music Awards, and a Grammy Award in 2003 for Best Contemporary R&B Album. The album has since been certified triple platinum in the United States and sold six million copies worldwide by the end of 2003. The lead single for the album, "Foolish", was a critical and commercial success; it reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100. With "Foolish", she became the second artist (after The Beatles) to have their first three chart entries in the top ten of the Billboard Hot 100 simultaneously. Ashanti wrote and sang for Jennifer Lopez's "Ain't It Funny (Murder Remix)", which also reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100.
In 2003, Ashanti released her second album, Chapter II, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 326,000 copies in the U.S. The album went platinum, selling over 1.5 million copies in U.S. since its release. The album's singles, "Rock wit U (Awww Baby)" and "Rain on Me", were both commercial successes, peaking at number two and number seven on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, respectively. Chapter II was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album, and "Rock wit U (Awww Baby)" and "Rain on Me" were each nominated in the categories of Best R&B Song and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. In November 2003, Ashanti released a Christmas album titled Ashanti's Christmas, which was a modest commercial success.
In 2004, Ashanti released her third studio album, Concrete Rose, the title of which took on Tupac Shakur's pseudonym "The Rose That Grew from Concrete". The album debuted at number seven in the U.S., with first-week sales of 254,000 copies, and became her third platinum certified album. The first single, "Only U", reached number thirteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and became her biggest hit in the United Kingdom, peaking at number two. A second single, the ballad "Don't Let Them", garnered little chart success after Def Jam refused to fund a music video due to Irv Gotti's legal troubles during his money laundering trial. Her subsequent albums, including The Declaration (2008) and Braveheart (2014), the latter of which was released independently, were less successful.
Aside from music, Ashanti has also acted in various productions. In 2005, she made her feature film debut in Coach Carter alongside Samuel L. Jackson, as well as starring as Dorothy Gale in the made-for-television film The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, which attracted nearly 8 million viewers when it premiered. She has since appeared in the films John Tucker Must Die (2006) and Resident Evil: Extinction (2007). Throughout her career, Ashanti has sold over 27 million records worldwide.
Early life
Ashanti Douglas was born on October 13, 1980 in Glen Cove, New York. Her mother, Tina Douglas, is African American and a former dance teacher, her father, Ken-Kaide Thomas Douglas, is also African American and a former singer. She is the oldest of her parents' children. Ashanti's younger sister is Kenashia "Shia" Douglas. Ashanti's mother named her after the Ashanti Empire in Ghana; in this nation, women had power and influence, and Tina wanted Ashanti to follow that model. Her grandfather, James, was a civil rights activist who was associated with Martin Luther King Jr. in the 1960s.
Ashanti's mother discovered her full singing potential when she overheard Ashanti singing Mary J. Blige's "Reminisce" at age 12 (the song was also released on Ashanti's birthday). While attending high school, she began to write songs. As a teenager, she performed in a local talent show and at several small festivals. She got her first taste of acting as a child extra in Spike Lee's Malcolm X (1992) and in Ted Demme's Who's the Man?. She also had a couple of minor appearances in music videos, such as KRS-One's "MC's Act Like They Don't Know" as well as 8-Off's "Ghetto Girl".
Ashanti struggled to find success as a singer after being courted by several record labels, including Bad Boy and Jive. Despite this, she continued to perform in and around New York and began hanging out at the Murder Inc. recording studio, hoping for a big break.
Career
2001–2003: Ashanti, Chapter II and Ashanti's Christmas
Ashanti was first noticed by Irv Gotti because of her vocal skills. He asked her to pen hooks for his rap artists and to perform with them in duets. Ashanti provided the melodic response to their call. Ashanti was first featured as a background vocalist on rapper Big Pun's song "How We Roll". In the same year, Ashanti was featured on fellow labelmate Cadillac Tah's singles "Pov City Anthem" and "Just Like a Thug". She also appeared on the 2001 The Fast and the Furious soundtrack as a featured artist on Vita's 2001 hip hop remake of Madonna's "Justify My Love" and on the solo track "When a Man Does Wrong". She was featured on Fat Joe's "What's Luv?" and Ja Rule's "Always on Time". "What's Luv?" and "Always on Time" were released simultaneously and became two of the biggest hit songs of 2002. Ashanti became the first female to occupy the top two positions on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart simultaneously when "Always on Time" and "What's Luv?" were at numbers one and two, respectively.
Following the success of her collaborations with Ja Rule and Fat Joe, Ashanti released her debut single, "Foolish", which contains a sample of the 1983 song "Stay with Me" by DeBarge (also used by The Notorious B.I.G. in his 1995 single "One More Chance", and by Big L in "MVP"). This is her biggest success to date, spending ten weeks atop the Billboard Hot 100. She became the second artist (after The Beatles) to have their first three chart entries in the top ten of the Hot 100 simultaneously. Ashanti's self-titled debut album, Ashanti, was released on Irv Gotti's Murder Inc. record label in April 2002. It debuted at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart. The album has been certified triple platinum in the United States and sold six million copies worldwide. Ashanti wrote the album's twelve tracks, most of which were written on the spot in the studio. Ashanti's follow-up singles, "Happy" and "Baby", were not as successful as her debut single but peaked inside the top ten and top twenty in the U.S., respectively. Ashanti's debut album earned her many awards, including eight Billboard Music Awards, two American Music Awards, and a Grammy Award in 2003 for Best Contemporary R&B Album. Ashanti was the first artist to win Best Contemporary R&B Album before the category was last awarded in 2011. She was nominated as Best New Artist and "Foolish" was nominated in the Best Female R&B Vocal Performance category. She also received a Comet Award and two Soul Train Music Awards that same year.
Ashanti became the subject of controversy when it was announced that she would receive the Soul Train Aretha Franklin Award for "Entertainer of the Year", a high school student took offense and started an on-line petition against her, explaining to The Seattle Times that she was too new to deserve the award. Nearly 30,000 people agreed with him, signing the petition. Many said that established artists such as Mary J. Blige and Missy "Misdemeanor" Elliott or critically acclaimed singers like Alicia Keys and India.Arie were more deserving of an award that carries the name of a musical legend. Despite the petition, the Soul Train committee and Don Cornelius stuck by their decision. Ashanti was applauded by her musical peers as she entered the Pasadena Civic Auditorium to accept her award and she was supported onstage by Patti LaBelle, who stated "she's a baby and we have to support our babies."
Just before the release of her second album, Ashanti headlined VH1 Divas Duets alongside Whitney Houston, Chaka Khan, Beyoncé and Lisa Marie Presley. During the concert, she performed duets with the Isley Brothers and Stevie Wonder, and participated in the all-star finale performance of Wonder's "Higher Ground."
In July 2003, Ashanti released her second album, Chapter II, which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, with first-week sales of 326,000 copies in the U.S. The album went platinum, selling over 1.5 million copies in the U.S. Chapter IIs first single, "Rock wit U (Awww Baby)", became a hit, peaking at number two on the Billboard Hot 100. Its video, which showed Ashanti in a bikini frolicking on a beach and riding an elephant, was nominated for two 2003 MTV Video Music Awards. A remix of the song contains interpolations of Michael Jackson's "Rock with You". The second single, "Rain on Me", reached the number-seven spot on the Hot 100 and number two on the Hot 100 R&B Songs chart. Chapter II was nominated for a 2004 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R&B Album, and "Rock wit U (Awww Baby)" and "Rain on Me" were nominated in the categories of Best R&B Song and Best Female R&B Vocal Performance, respectively. In the "Rain on Me" mini-movie music video—directed by Hype Williams and co-starring Larenz Tate—Ashanti portrays a troubled young woman in an abusive relationship. She received a Lifetime Channel Achievement Award for her message speaking out against domestic violence. That same year, she began dating rapper Nelly.
In November 2003, Ashanti released a Christmas album titled Ashanti's Christmas. It contained 10 Christmas songs and was a modest commercial success and sold just around 100,000 units in the U.S. The album peaked at No. 160 in the Billboard charts.
2004–2007: Concrete Rose, Collectibles by Ashanti and acting
Before Concrete Rose was released, Ashanti did some major promotion for her single "Only U", when she premiered it at the 2004 Vibe Music Awards. She featured on "Wonderful"—with Ja Rule and R. Kelly—that year, which peaked at number five in the U.S. and at number one in the UK. In December 2004, Ashanti released her third studio album, Concrete Rose, the title of which took on Tupac Shakur's pseudonym "The Rose That Grew from Concrete". The album debuted at number seven in the U.S., with first-week sales of 254,000 copies, and eventually became her third platinum certified album. The first single, "Only U", reached number thirteen on the Billboard Hot 100 and became her biggest hit in the United Kingdom, peaking at number two. A second single, the ballad "Don't Let Them", garnered little chart success after Def Jam refused to fund a music video due to Irv Gotti's legal troubles during his money laundering trial. The single was released only in the U.S., where it failed to chart, and the UK, where it reached the lower end of the top forty. After the release of Concrete Rose, Ashanti released the DVD Ashanti: The Making of a Star, which was available only for a limited time. The deluxe DVD includes exclusive photo and video shoot footage, music from the albums Ashanti, Chapter II and Concrete Rose, special concert footage, unreleased childhood school performances and behind-the-scenes interviews with family, friends, and fans.
In 2005, Ashanti focused more on her acting career, making her feature film acting debut in the film Coach Carter alongside Samuel L. Jackson, as well as starring as Dorothy Gale in the made-for-television film The Muppets' Wizard of Oz, which pulled in nearly 8 million viewers when it premiered. She sung "When I'm with You" for the film which was nominated for a Primetime Emmy in the Outstanding Music and Lyrics category. In Coach Carter, she played a pregnant teenager named Kyra who has to decide whether or not to abort her unborn child. The movie opened at number-one at the U.S. box office, eventually grossing $67 million domestically. Later in 2005, Ashanti was invited to Oprah Winfrey's Legends Ball, which honored some of the most influential and legendary African American women of the twentieth century in the fields of art, entertainment, and civil rights. In December 2005, Ashanti released a remix album of Concrete Rose titled Collectables by Ashanti. The album was an opportunity for her to fulfill her contract with Def Jam (and have the option of working with another label), and did not fare well on the charts.
In 2006, she starred in the teen comedy John Tucker Must Die, which opened and peaked at number three at the U.S. box office (competing with Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest and Miami Vice) and grossed $68,818,076 worldwide. In 2007, she played a supporting role in the action film Resident Evil: Extinction (2007).
2008–2010: The Declaration, departure from The Inc. and The Wiz
Her fourth studio album, The Declaration, was released on June 3, 2008 and sold 86,000 units its first week of release, which were the lowest first week sales for any of Ashanti's studio albums. In mid-2007, MTV News reported that the first single from The Declaration was "Switch", which was produced by Shy Carter and released digitally in the United States on July 24, 2007. It was later reported that "Switch" may not be included on the album's track listing, and that the first single would be "Hey Baby (After the Club)" it was released to radio and digital outlets on October 16. The song, which does not appear on the U.S. editions of the album, peaked at number eighty-seven on the Billboard Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart. "The Way That I Love You", was released to radio and digital outlets in January 2008, was referred to as the "first single" in press material and media reports. It reached number two on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart and number thirty-seven on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Ashanti's first song to reach the top forty since "Only U" in 2004. "Body On Me" was recorded not only for Ashanti's The Declaration, but also for Nelly's fifth studio album Brass Knuckles. The track is produced by Akon and Giorgio Tuinfort. It went to number one on Billboard's Hot Videoclip Tracks chart in its first week, becoming the first number one single from Nelly's album."Good Good" was released to urban radio stations on July 16, 2008. The song contains elements of Elton John's 1974 single "Bennie and the Jets", and has the same melody arrangement as Michael Jackson's "The Girl Is Mine". In July 2008, Ashanti was named an ambassador of tourism for Nassau County, Long Island.
In May 2009, Irv Gotti announced that he was officially releasing Ashanti from The Inc. Records, stating that "The relationship has run its course. The chemistry of what's needed — we're in two totally different places. You're talking to somebody that took her and shaped and molded her and put her out there for the world, and it blew up. We [hold the record] for the [fastest] selling debut by a female R&B artist — 503 [thousand]. We did it! My views and philosophies and her views and philosophies are not meeting up." Gotti also admitted that he and Ashanti have not spoken to each other in a long time. A representative for Ashanti did not respond. On September 24, 2009, Ashanti announced her fifth studio album would be released from her new label, Written Entertainment.
Ashanti headlined the cast of The Wiz in the New York City Center Encores! Summer Stars staging from June 12 to July 5, 2009. Ashanti's role as Dorothy has since received mixed reviews from critics as most praised her vocals but was less pleased with her acting ability. BET and Entertainment Weekly both praised the singer's performance as The New York Post and New York Times gave lukewarm reviews. Though the first night was sold out, some of the other shows were unable to follow its success. On October 27, 2008, Ashanti took part in The Yellow Brick Road Not Taken, a one night only concert to celebrate the fifth anniversary of Wicked, featuring songs written by Stephen Schwartz, that were cut from the show.
2011–2014: Hiatus and Braveheart
After a four-year hiatus, Ashanti released the song "Never Too Far Away", which was featured in Morgan Creek's film Dream House starring Daniel Craig, Rachel Weisz with Naomi Watts. The lead single from her fifth studio album, "The Woman You Love" featuring American rapper Busta Rhymes, was released online on December 15, 2011. Ashanti teamed up with Meek Mill and French Montana for the second single "No One Greater", which was produced by 7 Aurelius, Irv Gotti and Chink Santana. In April 2013, she released another single called "Never Should Have", which later won "Best Independent R&B/Soul Performance" at the 2013 Soul Train Awards. A music video for the track was also released.
In November 2012, it was reported that she had landed her first series regular role in the seventh season of Army Wives in which she played Latasha Montclair. The series was cancelled on September 24, 2013. In the fall of 2013, she appeared in a guest spot on Law & Order: Special Victims Unit alongside Clay Aiken and Taylor Hicks. She starred in the Lifetime film Christmas in the City which premiered on December 7, 2013.
In August 2013, Ashanti announced her plans to work with Ja Rule again, who'd been released from prison in July of that year after a six-year sentence stemming from a gun charge. On January 8, 2014, she revealed the official cover art and release date for Braveheart, her fifth album, which was released on March 4, 2014. In January 2014, Ashanti shot the video for the official first single from Braveheart titled "I Got It" featuring Rick Ross. The video was shot in Miami, Florida, and was directed by Eif Rivera. In July, Ashanti announced that the second official single from BraveHeart would be "Early in the Morning" featuring French Montana. Upon release, the album garnered favorable reviews, with music critics describing Braveheart's sound as an "evolution of R&B" and praising the themes of empowerment, but criticizing the romantic clichés and lack of interesting moments on the album. On the charts, Braveheart opened at number ten on the U.S. Billboard 200, becoming Ashanti's fifth consecutive top-ten album, as well as her first Independent Albums chart topper. It also debuted in the top-thirty of the UK R&B Albums Chart and top-forty of the UK Indie Albums Chart.
2015–present: Current activities and upcoming seventh studio album
In 2015, she announced that she had worked on new music for her seventh album, with an unknown release date. Ashanti collaborated with Michelle Obama for her #Let'sMove campaign to spread awareness of drinking water with her new video and song "Let's Go" released in 2015. In 2016 she collaborated on the song "Seven Day Love" included in the album "Inzombia" by Canadian singer Belly. She has also worked with numerous artists, including Sia, Alicia Keys, John Legend, Queen Latifah, Usher and Kelly Clarkson to interpret the songs of the Broadway musical "Hamilton" for the compilation "The Hamilton Mixtape".
In 2017, Ashanti announced her seventh studio album, which would be released in 2018, but it was denied in June 2018, confirming a future release of an album in collaboration with rapper Ja Rule. Between 2017 and 2018 she returned to the music scene with several collaborations including the single "Say Less" with Ty Dolla Sign, the track "The Road" by Machel Montano and collaborated on the album "Tha Carter V" by Lil Wayne on the track "Start This Shit Off Right" with Mack Maine.
Ashanti released the single "Floating" and the collaboration "Pretty Little Thing" with Afro B in August 2019.Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: She is also present in the soundtrack of the film she produced, Stuck. In November, Ashanti guest-starred as herself in two episodes of the third season of The CW's Dynasty reboot, "Mother, I'm At La Mirage" and "Something Desperate".
Artistry
Ashanti has a lyric soprano voice type. Critics have referred to her voice as "pretty" and her soprano as "sultry" and "sweet but slight". Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic noted her reputation for using her "swooning voice" in duets with Big Pun, Fat Joe, and Ja Rule. As a young girl Ashanti was influenced by Ella Fitzgerald, Whitney Houston, Michael Jackson, Prince, and Tupac Shakur, but she cites Mary J. Blige as the main reason she wanted to pursue a singing career and cites Janet Jackson, Mariah Carey, Madonna, Smokey Robinson, Donna Summer, and Blue Magic as further musical influences.
Philanthropy
In 2003, Ashanti partnered with LidRock and the San Francisco-based Family Violence Prevention Fund (FVPF) to raise awareness about the issue of domestic violence during National Domestic Violence Awareness Month and to distribute the "Rain on Me" mini-movie using LidRock's unique platform. Proceeds from the $5 mini-disc went towards helping to stop domestic violence. Ashanti also recorded a public service announcement that appeared in more than 4,000 film screens and reached millions of people. Ashanti also gives back by raising money for sickle cell research and she is active in helping the Make-A-Wish Foundation stating, "I'll go and do just about anything for them." In 2005, Ashanti helped by recording public service announcement and raising money for the Southeast Asia tsunami disaster. Later that year she helped raise money for the Hurricane Katrina victims and storm evacuees.
In 2008, Ashanti, along with others celebrities, taped a PSA to help stop violence and discrimination towards the LGBT community in response to the death of Lawrence King, an eighth-grader at E.O. Green Junior High School who was shot because of his sexual orientation and gender expression. That same year, she launched a special on-line campaign called "I Declare Me..." with Wal-Mart. The campaign's core is a very personal focus on the self-definition and empowerment of women across the United States, with its home base at Ashanti's official website. The campaign creates a safe and inclusive on-line space to for women to share testimonies on the site. Participants are able to openly declare their own breakthroughs, revelations, struggles and victories in every life area they choose: career, birth, death, relationships, and personal situations. "I Declare Me..." also invites women to a virtual discussion with Ashanti on such issues as voter registration, teen obesity, and other concerns facing women today.
In September 2009, Ashanti, along with other artists Mariah Carey, Beyoncé, Mary J. Blige, Rihanna, Fergie, Sheryl Crow, Miley Cyrus, Melissa Etheridge, Natasha Bedingfield, Keyshia Cole, Ciara, Leona Lewis, LeAnn Rimes and Carrie Underwood, teamed up for the song "Just Stand Up!". The charity tune for cancer was conceived by Antonio "L.A." Reid, who produced it with longtime creative colleague Babyface. All 15 singers (along with Nicole Scherzinger) shared the stage to perform the song live on September 5, 2008, during the "Stand Up to Cancer" television special, which aired simultaneously on ABC, NBC and CBS, and helped raise $100 million for cancer research. As a result of SU2C fund raising endeavors, the SU2C scientific advisory committee, overseen by the American Association for Cancer Research was able to award 73.6 million dollars towards novel, groundbreaking cancer research in 2009.
In November 2009, Ashanti joined the crew of ABC's Extreme Makeover: Home Edition. The singer assisted in the rebuilding of the Powell Family home in Buffalo, New York. The efforts from the show expanded significantly to include not just the family home but the entire neighborhood surrounding it. The episode aired January 24, 2010. Ashanti is featured on the 19-track compilation album "Songs For a Healthier America", a collaborative project by the Partnership for a Healthier America, whose honorary chair First Lady Michelle Obama, and Hip Hop Public Health. Her song "Just Believe" also features Artie Green, Gerry Gunn, Robbie Nova and Chauncey Hawkins. She is affiliated with the Jumpstart reading program, Tupperware Brand and Boys and Girls Club of America.
Personal life
Ashanti met rapper Nelly at a press conference for the 2003 Grammy Awards on January 1, 2003, and they began dating in February 17. Ashanti and Nelly ended their eleven-year relationship in March 6, 2014.
Discography
Studio albums
Ashanti (2002)
Chapter II (2003)
Ashanti's Christmas (2003)
Concrete Rose (2004)
The Declaration (2008)
Braveheart (2014)
Filmography Other credits "Helpless": The Hamilton Mixtape (2016)
See also
List of awards and nominations received by Ashanti
References Other sources'
External links
1980 births
Living people
21st-century American actresses
21st-century American singers
21st-century American women singers
Actresses from New York (state)
African-American actresses
African-American female dancers
African-American female models
African-American record producers
African-American women singers
African-American women singer-songwriters
American child actresses
American contemporary R&B singers
American dance musicians
American dancers
American female dancers
American female hip hop musicians
American female hip hop singers
American female models
American film actresses
American hip hop record producers
American hip hop singers
American people of Chinese descent
American people of Dominican Republic descent
American philanthropists
American sopranos
American soul singers
American television actresses
American women record producers
American women singer-songwriters
Dancers from New York (state)
Def Jam Recordings artists
Epic Records artists
Female models from New York (state)
Grammy Award winners
Jive Records artists
Murder Inc. Records artists
People from Glen Cove, New York
People from Old Westbury, New York
People from Roslyn, New York
Record producers from New York (state)
Singer-songwriters from New York (state)
Universal Motown Records artists
Women hip hop record producers | [
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|
215836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye%20for%20an%20eye | Eye for an eye | "An eye for an eye" (, ) is a commandment found in the Book of Exodus 21:23–27 expressing the principle of reciprocal justice measure for measure. In Roman civilization, the law of retaliation () bears the same principle that a person who has injured another person is to be penalized to a similar degree by the injured party. In softer interpretations, it means the victim receives the [estimated] value of the injury in compensation. The intent behind the principle was to restrict compensation to the value of the loss.
Definition and methods
The term lex talionis does not always and only refer to literal eye-for-an-eye codes of justice (see rather mirror punishment) but applies to the broader class of legal systems that specifically formulate penalties for specific crimes, which are thought to be fitting in their severity. Some propose that this was at least in part intended to prevent excessive punishment at the hands of either an avenging private party or the state. The most common expression of lex talionis is "an eye for an eye", but other interpretations have been given as well. Legal codes following the principle of lex talionis have one thing in common: prescribed 'fitting' counter punishment for a felony. In the famous legal code written by Hammurabi, the principle of exact reciprocity is very clearly used. For example, if a person caused the death of another person, the killer would be put to death.
The simplest example is the "eye for an eye" principle. In that case, the rule was that punishment must be exactly equal to the crime. Conversely, the Twelve Tables of Rome merely prescribed particular penalties for particular crimes. The Anglo-Saxon legal code substituted payment of wergild for direct retribution: a particular person's life had a fixed value, derived from his social position; any homicide was compensated by paying the appropriate wergild, regardless of intent. Under the English Common Law, successful plaintiffs were entitled to repayment equal to their loss (in monetary terms). In the modern tort law system, this has been extended to translate non-economic losses into money as well. The meaning of the principle Eye for an Eye is that a person who has been injured by another person returns the offending action to the originator in compensation, or that an authority does so on behalf of the injured person. The exact Latin (lex talionis) to English translation of this phrase is "The law of retaliation." The root principle of this law is to provide equitable retribution.
In Babylonian and Roman law
Various ideas regarding the origins of lex talionis exist, but a common one is that it developed as early civilizations grew and a less well-established system for retribution of wrongs, feuds and vendettas, threatened the social fabric. Despite having been replaced with newer modes of legal theory, lex talionis systems served a critical purpose in the development of social systems—the establishment of a body whose purpose was to enact the retaliation and ensure that this was the only punishment. This body was the state in one of its earliest forms. The earliest known use of the principle appears in the Code of Hammurabi, which predates the Hebrew Bible.
The principle is found in Babylonian Law. If it is surmised that in societies not bound by the rule of law, if a person was hurt, then the injured person (or their relative) would take vengeful retribution on the person who caused the injury. The retribution might be worse than the crime, perhaps even death. Babylonian law put a limit on such actions, restricting the retribution to be no worse than the crime, as long as victim and offender occupied the same status in society. As with blasphemy or lèse-majesté (crimes against a god or a monarch), crimes against one's social betters were punished more severely.
Roman law moved toward monetary compensation as a substitute for vengeance. In cases of assault, fixed penalties were set for various injuries, although talio was still permitted if one person broke another's limb.
In Torah Law
In the Hebrew Law, the "eye for eye" was to restrict compensation to the value of the loss. Thus, it might be better read 'only one eye for one eye'. The idiomatic biblical phrase "an eye for an eye" in Exodus and Leviticus (, ayin tachat ayin) literally means 'an eye under/(in place of) an eye' while a slightly different phrase (עַיִן בְּעַיִן שֵׁן בְּשֵׁן, literally "eye for an eye; tooth for a tooth") is used in another passage (Deuteronomy) in the context of possible reciprocal court sentences for failed false witnesses. The passage in Leviticus states, "And a man who injures his countrymanas he has done, so it shall be done to him [namely,] fracture under/for fracture, eye under/for eye, tooth under/for tooth. Just as another person has received injury from him, so it will be given to him." (Lev. 24:19–21). For an example of being used in its regular sense of under, see Lev. 22:27 "A bull, sheep or goat, when it is born shall remain under its mother, and from the eighth day..."
The Bible allows for kofer (a monetary payment) to take the place of a bodily punishment for any crime except murder. It is not specified whether the victim, accused, or judge had the authority to choose kofer in place of bodily punishment.
Exodus 21:22-24 states: If men strive, and hurt a woman with child, so that her fruit depart from her, and yet no mischief follow: he shall be surely punished, according as the woman's husband will lay upon him; and he shall pay as the judges determine. And if any mischief follow, then thou shalt give life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot.
Judaism
Isaac Kalimi said that the lex talionis was "humanized" by the Rabbis who interpreted "an eye for an eye" to mean reasonable pecuniary compensation. As in the case of the Babylonian 'lex talionis', ethical Judaism and humane Jewish jurisprudence replaces the peshat (literal meaning) of the written Torah. Pasachoff and Littman point to the reinterpretation of the lex talionis as an example of the ability of Pharisaic Judaism to "adapt to changing social and intellectual ideas."
Talmud
The Talmud interprets the verses referring to "an eye for an eye" and similar expressions as mandating monetary compensation in tort cases and argues against the interpretations by Sadducees that the Bible verses refer to physical retaliation in kind, using the argument that such an interpretation would be inapplicable to blind or eyeless offenders. Since the Torah requires that penalties be universally applicable, the phrase cannot be interpreted in this manner.
However, the Torah also discusses a form of direct reciprocal justice, where the phrase ayin tachat ayin makes another appearance. Here, the Torah discusses false witnesses who conspire to testify against another person. The Torah requires the court to "do to him as he had conspired to do to his brother". Assuming the fulfillment of certain technical criteria (such as the sentencing of the accused whose punishment was not yet executed), wherever it is possible to punish the conspirators with exactly the same punishment through which they had planned to harm their fellow, the court carries out this direct reciprocal justice (including when the punishment constitutes the death penalty). Otherwise, the offenders receive lashes.
Since there is no form of punishment in the Torah that calls for the maiming of an offender (punitary amputation) there is no case where a conspiratorial false witness could possibly be punished by the court injuring to his eye, tooth, hand, or foot. There is one case where the Torah states "…and you shall cut off her hand…" The sages of the Talmud understood the literal meaning of this verse as referring to a case where the woman is attacking a man in potentially lethal manner. This verse teaches that, although one must intervene to save the victim, one may not kill a lethal attacker if it is possible to neutralize that attacker through non-lethal injury. Regardless, there is no verse that even appears to mandate injury to the eye, tooth, or foot.
discusses the only form of remotely reciprocal justice not carried out directly by the court, where, under very limited circumstances, someone found guilty of negligent manslaughter may be killed by a relative of the deceased who takes on the role of "redeemer of blood". In such cases, the court requires the guilty party to flee to a designated city of refuge. While the guilty party is there, the "redeemer of blood" may not kill him. If, however, the guilty party illegally forgoes his exile, the "redeemer of blood", as an accessory of the court, may kill the guilty party.
According to traditional Jewish Law, application of these laws requires the presence and maintenance of the biblically designated cities of refuge, as well as a conviction in an eligible court of 23 judges as delineated by the Torah and Talmud. The latter condition is also applicable for any capital punishment. These circumstances have not existed for approximately 2,000 years.
Objective of reciprocal justice in Judaism
The Talmud discusses the concept of justice as measure-for-measure retribution (middah k'neged middah) in the context of divinely implemented justice. Regarding reciprocal justice by court, however, the Torah states that punishments serve to remove dangerous elements from society ("…and you shall eliminate the evil from your midst") and to deter potential criminals from violating the law ("And the rest shall hear and be daunted, and they shall no longer commit anything like this evil deed in your midst"). Additionally, reciprocal justice in tort cases serves to compensate the victim (see above).
The ideal of vengeance for the sake of assuaging the distress of the victim plays no role in the Torah's conception of court justice, as victims are cautioned against even hating or bearing a grudge against those who have harmed them. The Torah makes no distinction between whether or not the potential object of hatred or a grudge has been brought to justice, and all people are taught to love their fellow Israelites.
Social hierarchy and reciprocal justice
In Exodus 21, as in the Code of Hammurabi, the concept of reciprocal justice seemingly applies to social equals; the statement of reciprocal justice "life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, stripe for stripe" is followed by an example of a different law: if a slave-owner blinds the eye or knocks out the tooth of a slave, the slave is freed but the owner pays no other consequence. On the other hand, the slave would probably be put to death for the injury of the eye of the slave-owner.
However the reciprocal justice applies across social boundaries: the "eye for eye" principle is directly followed by the proclamation "You are to have one law for the alien and the citizen." This shows a much more meaningful principle for social justice, in that the marginalized in society were given the same rights under the social structure. In this context, the reciprocal justice in an ideal functioning setting, according to Michael Coogan, "to prevent people from taking the law into their own hands and exacting disproportionate vengeance for offenses committed against them."
Christianity
In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus urges his followers to turn the other cheek:
According to Israeli scholar David Flusser, with this declaration Jesus did not intend to negate Exod. 21:24, rather his instruction to "turn the other cheek" was a daring new interpretation of this verse. Some interpret this as an admonition not to seek legal steps for any compensation that corresponds in kind and degree to the injury. Others interpret it as Jesus simply teaching his followers not to take personal vengeance, rather than commenting on any specific legal practice. However, the Epistle to the Romans suggests that neither interpretation is correct, suggesting that vengeance is to be left to God's wrath.
Christian interpretation of the biblical passage has been heavily influenced by the Church father Augustine of Hippo. He already discussed in his Contra Faustum, Book XIX, the points of 'fulfilment or destruction' of the Jewish law. George Robinson characterizes the passage of Exodus ("an eye for an eye") as one of the "most controversial in the Bible". According to Robinson, some have pointed to this passage as evidence of the vengeful nature of justice in the Hebrew Bible. Similarly, Abraham Bloch speculates that the "lex talionis has been singled out as a classical example of biblical harshness." Harry S. Lewis points to Lamech, Gideon and Samson as biblical heroes who were renowned for "their prowess in executing blood revenge upon their public and private enemies." Lewis asserts that this "right of 'wild' justice was gradually limited." Stephen Wylen asserts that the lex talionis is "proof of the unique value of each individual" and that it teaches "equality of all human beings for law."
Islam
The Quran (Q5:45) mentions the "eye for an eye" concept as being ordained for the Children of Israel. The principle of Lex talionis in Islam is Qiṣāṣ (Arabic: قصاص) as mentioned in : "O you who have believed, prescribed for you is legal retribution (Qisas) for those murdered – the free for the free, the slave for the slave, and the female for the female. But whoever overlooks from his brother anything, then there should be a suitable follow-up and payment to him with good conduct. This is an alleviation from your Lord and a mercy. But whoever transgresses after that will have a painful punishment." Muslim countries that use Islamic Sharia law, such as Iran or Saudi Arabia, apply the "eye for an eye" rule literally.
Applications
The death penalty is applied to murderers in some jurisdictions.
The group Nakam sought to kill six million Germans as revenge for the six million Jews killed during the Holocaust.
In 2017, an Iranian woman wounded in an acid attack was given the opportunity to have her attacker blinded with acid per sharia law.
Notable criticism
Coretta Scott King used this phrase in the context of racial violence: "The old law of an eye for an eye leaves everyone blind."
Notes
References
Bibliography
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External links
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: the author of "Eye for an Eye", about the Lex talionis.
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& Part 2
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Book of Exodus
Biblical phrases
Christian terminology
Codes of conduct
Criminal law
English-language idioms
Human eyes in culture
Islamic terminology
Law and morality
Legal history
Revenge
Proverbs
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|
215839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charli%20Baltimore | Charli Baltimore | Tiffany Lane (born August 16, 1974), better known as Charli Baltimore, is an American rapper, reality television personality, and occasional actress. Her stage name is taken from Geena Davis's character in the film The Long Kiss Goodnight.
Career
Charli Baltimore began her musical career when she met The Notorious B.I.G. in the summer of 1995, and they became involved in a romantic relationship. Several months into their relationship, she left him a voicemail of a rap verse that she had written and he began encouraging her to pursue a career in rap music.
Following the death of B.I.G., Charli continued her career in the industry, booking several modeling jobs and creating a number of hip-hop and R&B songs including "Money", with Gamble and Huff, and "Stand Up", which rose to the top ten of Billboard Magazine's Hot Rap Singles Chart.
Despite her moderate success on the charts, Baltimore's first studio album Cold as Ice was never released yet she continued to be in the rap industry and joined Irv Gotti's label Murder Inc in 2002. It was here that Baltimore made appearances in songs such as; "Down 4 U", "We Still Don't Give a Fuck", and "No One Does It Better" from Irv Gotti Presents The Inc, Ja Rule tracks "Down Ass Bitch" and "The Last Temptation", the Christina Milian track "Spending Time", and Ashanti's "Rain on Me" (remix). In 2003, she earned a Grammy Award nomination for Best Female Rap Solo Performance, for her single "Diary".
Baltimore parted ways with Gotti and Murder Inc in 2004.
Discography
Studio albums
Cold as Ice (1999)
Unreleased albums
The Diary (You Think You Know) (2003)
Mixtapes
Natural Born Khronicles (2012)
Hard 2 Kill (2013)Singles
"Money" (1998)
"Stand Up" (featuring Ghostface Killah) (1999)
"Feel It" (1999)
"Horse and Carriage (Remix)" (1999)
"Everybody Wanna Know" (2000)
"Charli" (2000)1
"Nobody Does It Better" (featuring Ashanti) (2002)
"Diary" (2002)
"Hey Charli" (2002)
"Come Test Us" (featuring Lil Wayne) (2007)
"Lose It" (2008)
"P.S." (2008)
"Machine Gun (Remix)" (featuring Sally Anthony) (2011)
"All Lies " (featuring Maino) (2012)
"Philly Stand Up" (featuring Dutch) (2012)
"B.M.B" (featuring Trick Trick) (2013)
"Hunnids" (featuring Trick Trick and Cash Paid) (2013)
"Bed Full of Money" (2015)
Featured singles
Guest appearances
1998: "Me & My Boo" Cam'ron – Confessions of Fire 1998: "Walk On By" Fat Joe – Don Cartagena 2000: "Blak is Blak" – Bamboozled soundtrack
2001: "Spending Time" – Christina Milian – Christina Milian 2002: "We Still Don't Give a Fuck", "No One Does It Better" – Irv Gotti Presents: The Inc. 2002: "I'm So Happy (Remix)" – Irv Gotti Presents: The Remixes 2002: "Last Temptation" Ja Rule – The Last Temptation 2007: "I Am" Mýa – Liberation''
References
External links
1974 births
Living people
American women rappers
African-American women rappers
Rappers from Philadelphia
Peirce College people
American hip hop singers
African-American women singer-songwriters
Hardcore hip hop artists
East Coast hip hop musicians
Murder Inc. Records artists
21st-century American rappers
21st-century American women musicians
American female hip hop singers
21st-century African-American women
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people
20th-century African-American women
Singer-songwriters from Pennsylvania | [
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|
29344147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhonny%20Arteaga | Jhonny Arteaga | Jhonny Alexandre Arteaga (born 24 November 1986, in Cali) is a Colombian former footballer and current football coach.
Career
Youth and College
Arteaga grew up in Stamford, Connecticut, where he attended Westhill High School before playing college soccer at Dominican College (New York). In 2005, 2006 and 2007, Arteaga received All CACC Honors, and NSCAA All Region Honors in 2006 and 2007. During his Senior Year, Arteaga Led the CACC in Points (38) & in Goals (16). Following his Senior Year, Arteaga was Honored CACC Player of the Year, Daktronic's 1st Team All Region and 1st Team All American.
During his college years, Arteaga also played with the Albany BWP Highlanders in the USL Premier Development League.
Professional
Arteaga turned professional in 2008 playing with the Western Mass Pioneers in the USL Second Division, and made his professional debut on 19 April 2008 in the Pioneers' 3–0 opening day defeat to the Richmond Kickers. He left the club mid-season, and briefly played back in the PDL for Westchester Flames, before leaving for Europe to attempt to secure a professional contract.
Arteaga was trialed with Polish Ekstraklasa club Lechia Gdańsk in early 2010, before signing with Łomża. He played 14 games for Łomża in 2010 and scored 8 goals, before returning to the United States at the end of the season.
Arteaga signed with F.C. New York in the USL Professional Division in 2011. He scored his first goal for New York on 30 May 2011 in a 2–1 victory over Rochester Rhinos. He recorded his first professional hat trick on 15 June 2011 in a 3–0 victory over former club Western Mass Pioneers in New York's 2011 U.S. Open Cup debut. Arteaga ended the season playing in 21 league games for New York in 2011, and was the league's top scorer with 13 goals setting a single-season scoring record (16 in all competitions).
On 5 March 2012 it was announced that Arteaga had agreed to terms with New York Red Bulls of Major League Soccer. On 19 November 2012, the Red Bulls announced it declined options for an additional 6 players, having released 4 a week earlier, with Arteaga included in the mix.
On 22 February 2013, it was announced that Arteaga signed a 2-year contract with the Pittsburgh Riverhounds.
Coaching
On 5 July 2016 Arteaga was named assistant coach of the Iona Gaels Men's Soccer program which competes in the NCAA Division I.
Jhonny Arteaga is the Owner and Coaching Director of JA Elite Soccer Academy LLC which he founded in 2011. JA Elite Soccer Academy is a youth soccer training company based out of Stamford, CT.
Honors
USL Pro Golden Boot: 2011
USL Pro Scoring Champion: 2011
USL Pro All-League First Team: 2011
References
External links
Colombian footballers
Major League Soccer players
Western Mass Pioneers players
Westchester Flames players
Albany BWP Highlanders players
ŁKS Łomża players
F.C. New York players
New York Red Bulls players
Pittsburgh Riverhounds SC players
USL League Two players
USL Second Division players
USL Championship players
Expatriate footballers in Poland
Expatriate soccer players in the United States
Colombian expatriate sportspeople in Poland
1986 births
Living people
Association football forwards
Footballers from Cali | [
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|
215843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam%20Ranh%20Bay | Cam Ranh Bay | Cam Ranh Bay () is a deep-water bay in Vietnam in Khánh Hòa Province. It is located at an inlet of the South China Sea situated on the southeastern coast of Vietnam, between Phan Rang and Nha Trang, approximately 290 kilometers (180 miles) northeast of Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon).
Cam Ranh is considered the finest deepwater shelter in Southeast Asia. The continental shelf of Southeast Asia is relatively narrow at Cam Ranh Bay, bringing deep water close to land.
Since 2011-2014, Vietnamese authorities have hired Russian consultants and purchased Russian technologies to re-open Cam Ranh Bay (a former United States and later Soviet military base) as the site of a new naval maintenance and logistics facility for foreign warships.
Overview
Historically, the bay has been significant from a military standpoint. The French used it as a naval base for their forces in Indochina. It was also used as a staging area for the 40-ship Imperial Russian fleet under Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky prior to the Battle of Tsushima in 1905, and by the Japanese Imperial Navy in preparation for the invasion of British Malaya and British Borneo (today Malaysia) in 1942. In January 1945 U.S. Naval Task Force 38 destroyed most Japanese facilities in an action called Operation Gratitude, after which the bay was abandoned.
In 1964, United States Seventh Fleet reconnaissance aircraft, the seaplane tender Currituck, and Mine Flotilla 1 units carried out hydrographic and beach surveys and explored sites for facilities ashore. This preparatory work proved fortuitous when a North Vietnamese trawler was discovered landing munitions and supplies at nearby Vũng Rô Bay in February 1965; the incident led the United States to develop Cam Ranh as a major base.
The United States Air Force operated a large cargo/airlift facility called Cam Ranh Air Base, which was also used as a tactical fighter base. It was one of three aerial ports where United States military personnel entered or departed South Vietnam for their 12-month tour of duty.
The United States Army operated a major port facility and depot at Cam Ranh. Vietnam War Handbook
The United States Navy flew various aircraft from Cam Ranh and other bases, conducting aerial surveillance of South Vietnam's coastal waters.
The APO for Cam Ranh Air Base was APO San Francisco 96326.
In May 1972, Cam Ranh facilities were turned over to the South Vietnam government.
Construction
In 1963, Admiral Harry D. Felt, the U.S. Commander in Chief, Pacific (CINCPAC) foresaw that pier facilities at the natural deep-water bay at Cam Ranh might be useful in the future. At the direction of the Navy's Officer in Charge of Construction RVN (OICC RVN), the American construction consortium RMK was directed to begin construction of a long pier and causeway. This project was completed in mid-1964.
In mid-1965, military engineers of the U.S. Army 35th Engineer Construction Group debarked at Cam Ranh Bay via LST's to set up camp and start building roads for the Cam Ranh Base. They started by establishing a quarry and then building a road leading from the quarry to the base through the desert sand using red laterite soil for a base and crushed granite rock for a topping. Once the roads were in place to carry heavy equipment, the engineers lengthened the existing pier to to provide an additional berth for deep-water freighters. By the end of the year, the Army engineers had added equipment storage platforms, a petrol-oil-lubricants storage area, and port cantonment and support facilities.
Also in mid-1965, the American construction consortium RMK-BRJ and engineers of the Navy Officer in Charge of Construction RVN returned to construct a new airfield starting with a temporary runway with 2.2 million square feet (200,000 square meters) of AM-2 aluminum matting to accommodate jet fighter-bombers. By September, they had employed 1,800 Vietnamese workers for the work, over half of whom were women. The Army engineers and the civilian constructors shared equipment and expertise. The runway was completed in 50 days, with Admiral U.S.G. Sharp, CINCPAC, laying the last AM-2 plank on 16 October 1965. A 1.3 million square feet (120,000 square meters) cargo apron using pierced steel planking, airport facilities and utilities, mess halls, and 25,000 square feet (2,300 square meters) of living quarters were also prepared for use by the U.S. Air Force.
In 1966, four DeLong piers were added to the port. In January 1966, the OICC RVN tasked RMK-BRJ with construction of the Army Ammunition and Logistic Support Facility, consisting of thirty by concrete slabs for warehouses and six by slabs, 122 ammunition hardstands, and of roads. This work was completed by June 1966, and then RMK-BRJ turned to construction of a new concrete runway and taxiway at the air base. Later in 1966, RMK-BRJ filled in swamp land with sand at the southern end of the peninsula and constructed a naval base for Operation Market Time coastal patrols.
On 1 January 1966, the 20th and 39th Engineer Battalions and the 572nd Light Equipment Company arrived at Cam Ranh Bay to construct another pier at the port, and added a DeLong pier to the causeway at the ammunition depot.
Cam Ranh Air Base
Army use of Cam Ranh Bay
During the Vietnam War, the U.S. Army maintained the 6th Convalescent Center (6th CC) at Cam Ranh Bay enabling most wounded soldiers to be treated in country. Only those who required advanced treatment not available in Vietnam got sent out of country. Injured and wounded soldiers whose injuries had received initial treatment, usually at an evacuation hospital unit, but who could not immediately return to duty, were sent to the 6th CC where they could recover and, if needed, receive further treatment which did not require hospitalization. The "wards" were typical wooden US Army Vietnam-type barracks. Some patients, based on the status of their injuries, were initially admitted to an Intensive Care ward. They were nothing like what one would view as an Intensive Care ward in a regular hospital. They were the normal barracks type "wards," but the patients were more closely monitored. When well enough, patients were moved to a regular ward, from which they were ultimately discharged when recovered enough to return to duty with their units.
Shortly after midnight on 7 August 1969 a Viet Cong sapper attack on the base penetrated the north perimeter and the sappers threw Satchel charges into the 6th CC killing 2 Americans and wounding 98 and damaging 19 buildings for no VC losses.
The Cam Ranh Support Command was the logistical organization controlling the port and depot at Cam Ranh. As of 31 July 1970, its authorized strength was 7,927, assigned 7,848. The 124th Transportation Command ran the port and truck transportation units. The port had 5 piers, 4 for general cargo (including one with Sea-Land cranes) and one further north for ammunition, and one jetty for a tankers. Sea-Land installed its cranes on pier 4 in 1967; the first Sea-Land ship arrived in November 1967. In January 1970, the port received its first containerized shipment of ammunition on Sea-Land's "Azalea City". The depot was operated by the 504th Army Depot. Power ships anchored in the lower harbor provided electricity to the Support Command facilities.
Naval use of Cam Ranh Bay
Cam Ranh Bay became the center of coastal air patrol operations with the establishment in April 1967 of the U.S. Naval Air Facility, Cam Ranh Bay, and the basing there of P-2 Neptune and P-3 Orion patrol aircraft. That summer, the commander of the coastal surveillance force and his staff moved their headquarters from Saigon to Cam Ranh Bay and set up operational command post to control the Operation Market Time effort. Country wide coordination also was enhanced with establishment of the Naval Communications Station.
In the beginning the shore facilities at Cam Ranh Bay were extremely limited, requiring interim measures to support assigned naval forces. Army depots provided common supplies, while Seventh Fleet light cargo ships and delivered Navy-peculiar items from Subic Bay in the Philippines. Until mid-1966 when shore installations were prepared to take over the task, messing and quartering of personnel were handled by APL-55, anchored in the harbor. Also, a pontoon dock was installed to permit the repair of the coastal patrol vessels. Gradually the Naval Support Activity Saigon, Detachment Cam Ranh Bay, improved the provision of maintenance and repair, supply, finance, communications, transportation, postal service, recreation, and security support.
While the concentration at Cam Ranh Bay of Market Time headquarters and forces during the summer of 1967, the demand for base support became extraordinary. Accordingly, the Naval Support Activity Saigon, Detachment Cam Ranh Bay, was redesignated the Naval Support Facility, Cam Ranh Bay, a more autonomous and self-sufficient status. A greater allocation of resources and support forces to the shore installation resulted in an improved ability to cope with the buildup of combat units. In time, the Cam Ranh Bay facility accomplished major vessel repair and dispensed a greater variety of supply items to the anti-infiltration task force. In addition the naval contingent at the Joint Service Ammunition Depot issued ammunition to the coastal surveillance, river patrol and mobile riverine forces as well as to the Seventh Fleet's gunfire support destroyers and landing ships. Seabee Maintenance unit 302 provided public works assistance to the many dispersed Naval Support Activity, Saigon detachments.
As a vital logistic complex, Cam Ranh Bay continued to function long after the Navy's combat forces withdrew from South Vietnam as part of the Vietnamization of the war. However, between January and April 1972 the Naval Air Facility, and the Naval Communications Station turned over their installations to the Republic of Vietnam Navy and were duly disestablished.
Capture of Cam Ranh Bay
By the early spring of 1975 North Vietnam realized the time was right to conquer South Vietnam, so they launched a series of small ground attacks to test U.S. reaction.
With the fall of the Central Highlands and the northern provinces of South Vietnam, a general panic had set in. By 30 March, order in the city of Da Nang and in Da Nang harbor had completely broken down. Forward North Vietnamese forces fired on American vessels in Da Nang harbor and sent sappers ahead to destroy port facilities, and refugees sought to board any boat or craft afloat.
Initially, Cam Ranh Bay was chosen as the safe haven for these South Vietnamese troops and civilians transported by boat from Da Nang. But, even Cam Ranh Bay was soon in peril. Between 1 and 3 April, many of the refugees just landed at Cam Ranh reembarked for further passage south and west to Phú Quốc Island in the Gulf of Siam, and ARVN forces pulled out of the facility.
On 3 April 1975, North Vietnamese forces captured Cam Ranh Bay and all of its military facilities.
Soviet and Russian naval base
Four years after the fall of Saigon and the unification of North and South Vietnam, Cam Ranh Bay became an important Cold War naval base for the Soviet Pacific Fleet.
In 1979, the Soviet government signed an agreement with Vietnam for a 25-year lease of the base. Cam Ranh Bay was the largest Soviet naval base outside the Soviet Union, allowing it to project increased power in the East Sea. By 1987, they had expanded the base to four times its original size and often made mock attacks in the direction of the Philippines, according to intelligence of the United States Pacific Fleet. Analysts suggested that the Vietnamese side also saw the Soviet presence there as a counterweight against any potential Chinese threat. The Soviet Union and Vietnam officially denied any presence there. However, as early as 1988, then-Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze had discussed the possibility of a withdrawal from Cam Ranh Bay, and concrete naval reductions were realised by 1990.
The Russian government continued the earlier 25-year arrangement in a 1993 agreement that allowed for the continued use of the base for signal intelligence, primarily on Chinese communications in the South China Sea. By this time, most personnel and naval vessels had been withdrawn, with only technical support for the listening station remaining. As the original 25-year lease was nearing its end, Vietnam demanded $200 million in annual rent for the continued operation of the base. Russia balked at this, and decided to withdraw all personnel. On May 2, 2002, the Russian flag was lowered for the last time. Vietnamese officials have considered turning the base into a civilian facility, similar to what the Philippines government did with the U.S. Subic Naval Base. On October 7, 2016 Russia indicated it was reconsidering its departure from naval facilities in Vietnam.
Today
After the Russian withdrawal, the United States negotiated with Vietnam to open Cam Ranh Bay to calls by foreign warships, as it previously had done with the ports of Haiphong in northern Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh City in the south. In a move that security commentators say is aimed at countering China's build-up of naval power in the South China Sea, Prime Minister Nguyen Tan Dung announced on October 31, 2010 that the bay would reopen to foreign navies after a three-year project to upgrade the port's facilities. Vietnam has hired Russian consultants to direct the construction of new ship-repair facilities, which are scheduled to be available to foreign warships.
The United States Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta visited Cam Ranh Bay in June 2012, the first visit by an American official of cabinet rank to Vietnam since the Vietnam War.
On 2 October 2016, US Navy ships and made the first port visit to Cam Ranh Bay since 1975.
Cam Ranh remains a major base of the Vietnam People's Navy, being the headquarter of the 4th Regional Command, headquarter of Vietnam Naval Air Force and home to Vietnam's only submarine base.
Ba Ngoi Port
Ba Ngoi Port is an international commercial port located within Cam Ranh Bay, which has advantageous natural conditions and potential for developing seaport services, such as: the depth of anchorage area, airtight and wide bay, nearby International Marine route (about 10 km), Cam Ranh Airport (about 25 km), National Highway No.1A (about 1.5 km) and National Railway (about 3 km). Therefore, it has been an important centre of marine traffic covering the economic zone of south Khanh Hoa and neighbouring provinces for a long time.
References
External links
Cam Ranh Bay Photo Album
Steve Lentz's Cam Ranh and Nha Trang Pictures 1968/1969
Coastal bays in Vietnam and potential use. Publisher. Science & Technology. Hanoi. 295 pages
Media
Videos of Cam Rahn's development can be found at:
Part 1
Part 2
Part 3
Ghost town
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pkqb44X18XI and https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7Qhj7gxdo78
Ports and harbours of Vietnam
Bays of Vietnam
Russian and Soviet Navy bases
Military installations of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Cam Ranh
Landforms of Khánh Hòa province
Soviet Union–Vietnam relations
Landforms of Ninh Thuận province | [
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215844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp%20%28paper%29 | Pulp (paper) | Pulp is a lignocellulosic fibrous material prepared by chemically or mechanically separating cellulose fibers from wood, fiber crops, waste paper, or rags. Mixed with water and other chemical or plant-based additives, pulp is the major raw material used in papermaking and the industrial production of other paper products.
History
Before the widely acknowledged invention of papermaking by Cai Lun in China around 105 AD, paper-like writing materials such as papyrus and amate were produced by ancient civilizations using plant materials which were largely unprocessed. Strips of bark or bast material were woven together, beaten into rough sheets, dried, and polished by hand. Pulp used in modern and traditional papermaking is distinguished by the process which produces a finer, more regular slurry of cellulose fibers which are pulled out of solution by a screen and dried to form sheets or rolls. The earliest paper produced in China consisted of bast fibers from the paper mulberry (kozo) plant along with hemp rag and net scraps. By the 6th century, the mulberry tree was domesticated by farmers in China specifically for the purpose of producing pulp to be used in the papermaking process. In addition to mulberry, pulp was also made from bamboo, hibiscus bark, blue sandalwood, straw, and cotton. Papermaking using pulp made from hemp and linen fibers from tattered clothing, fishing nets and fabric bags spread to Europe in the 13th century, with an ever-increasing use of rags being central to the manufacture and affordability of rag paper, a factor in the development of printing. By the 1800s, production demands on the newly industrialized papermaking and printing industries led to a shift in raw materials, most notably the use of pulpwood and other tree products which today make up more than 95% of global pulp production.
The use of wood pulp and the invention of automatic paper machines in the late 18th- and early 19th-century contributed to paper's status as an inexpensive commodity in modern times. While some of the earliest examples of paper made from wood pulp include works published by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1765 and Matthias Koops in 1800, large-scale wood paper production began in the 1840s with unique, simultaneous developments in mechanical pulping made by Friedrich Gottlob Keller in Germany and by Charles Fenerty in Nova Scotia. Chemical processes quickly followed, first with J. Roth's use of sulfurous acid to treat wood, then by Benjamin Tilghman's U.S. patent on the use of calcium bisulfite, Ca(HSO3)2, to pulp wood in 1867. Almost a decade later, the first commercial sulfite pulp mill was built, in Sweden. It used magnesium as the counter ion and was based on work by Carl Daniel Ekman. By 1900, sulfite pulping had become the dominant means of producing wood pulp, surpassing mechanical pulping methods. The competing chemical pulping process, the sulfate, or kraft, process, was developed by Carl F. Dahl in 1879; the first kraft mill started, in Sweden, in 1890. The invention of the recovery boiler, by G.H. Tomlinson in the early 1930s, allowed kraft mills to recycle almost all of their pulping chemicals. This, along with the ability of the kraft process to accept a wider variety of types of wood and to produce stronger fibres, made the kraft process the dominant pulping process, starting in the 1940s.
Global production of wood pulp in 2006 was 175 million tons (160 million tonnes). In the previous year, 63 million tons (57 million tonnes) of market pulp (not made into paper in the same facility) was sold, with Canada being the largest source at 21 percent of the total, followed by the United States at 16 percent. The wood fiber sources required for pulping are "45% sawmill residue, 21% logs and chips, and 34% recycled paper" (Canada, 2014). Chemical pulp made up 93% of market pulp.
Wood pulp
The timber resources used to make wood pulp are referred to as pulpwood. While in theory any tree can be used for pulp-making, coniferous trees are preferred because the cellulose fibers in the pulp of these species are longer, and therefore make stronger paper.
Some of the most commonly used softwood trees for paper making include spruce, pine, fir, larch and hemlock, and hardwoods such as eucalyptus, aspen and birch. There is also increasing interest in genetically modified tree species (such as GM eucalyptus and GM poplar) because of several major benefits these can provide, such as increased ease of breaking down lignin and increased growth rate.
A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fibre source into a thick fiberboard which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods (kraft and sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on the customer requirements.
Wood and other plant materials used to make pulp contain three main components (apart from water): cellulose fibers (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibres together) and hemicelluloses (shorter branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the fibre source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibres.
Chemical pulping achieves this by degrading the lignin and hemicellulose into small, water-soluble molecules which can be washed away from the cellulose fibres without depolymerizing the cellulose fibres (chemically depolymerizing the cellulose weakens the fibres). The various mechanical pulping methods, such as groundwood (GW) and refiner mechanical pulping (RMP), physically tear the cellulose fibres one from another. Much of the lignin remains adhering to the fibres. Strength is impaired because the fibres may be cut. There are a number of related hybrid pulping methods that use a combination of chemical and thermal treatment to begin an abbreviated chemical pulping process, followed immediately by a mechanical treatment to separate the fibres. These hybrid methods include thermomechanical pulping, also known as TMP, and chemithermomechanical pulping, also known as CTMP. The chemical and thermal treatments reduce the amount of energy subsequently required by the mechanical treatment, and also reduce the amount of strength loss suffered by the fibres.
Harvesting trees
Most pulp mills use good forest management practices in harvesting trees to ensure that they have a sustainable source of raw materials. One of the major complaints about harvesting wood for pulp mills is that it reduces the biodiversity of the harvested forest. Pulp tree plantations account for 16 percent of world pulp production, old-growth forests 9 percent, and second- and third- and more generation forests account for the rest. Reforestation is practiced in most areas, so trees are a renewable resource. The FSC (Forest Stewardship Council), SFI (Sustainable Forestry Initiative), PEFC (Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification), and other bodies certify paper made from trees harvested according to guidelines meant to ensure good forestry practices.
The number of trees consumed depends on whether mechanical processes or chemical processes are used. It has been estimated that based on a mixture of softwoods and hardwoods 12 metres (40 ft) tall and 15–20 centimetres (6–8 in) in diameter, it would take an average of 24 trees to produce 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of printing and writing paper, using the kraft process (chemical pulping). Mechanical pulping is about twice as efficient in using trees, since almost all of the wood is used to make fibre, therefore it takes about 12 trees to make 0.9 tonne (1 ton) of mechanical pulp or newsprint.
There are roughly two short tons in a cord of wood.
Preparation for pulping
Wood chipping is the act and industry of chipping wood for pulp, but also for other processed wood products and mulch. Only the heartwood and sapwood are useful for making pulp. Bark contains relatively few useful fibers and is removed and used as fuel to provide steam for use in the pulp mill. Most pulping processes require that the wood be chipped and screened to provide uniform sized chips.
Pulping
There are a number of different processes which can be used to separate the wood fiber:
Mechanical pulp
Manufactured grindstones with embedded silicon carbide or aluminum oxide can be used to grind small wood logs called "bolts" to make stone pulp (SGW). If the wood is steamed prior to grinding it is known as pressure ground wood pulp (PGW). Most modern mills use chips rather than logs and ridged metal discs called refiner plates instead of grindstones. If the chips are just ground up with the plates, the pulp is called refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) and if the chips are steamed while being refined the pulp is called thermomechanical pulp (TMP). Steam treatment significantly reduces the total energy needed to make the pulp and decreases the damage (cutting) to fibres. Mechanical pulps are used for products that require less strength, such as newsprint and paperboards.
Thermomechanical pulp
Thermomechanical pulp is pulp produced by processing wood chips using heat (thus "thermo-") and a mechanical refining movement (thus "-mechanical"). It is a two-stage process where the logs are first stripped of their bark and converted into small chips. These chips have a moisture content of around 25–30 percent. A mechanical force is applied to the wood chips in a crushing or grinding action which generates heat and water vapour and softens the lignin thus separating the individual fibres. The pulp is then screened and cleaned, any clumps of fibre are reprocessed. This process gives a high yield of fibre from the timber (around 95 percent) and as the lignin has not been removed, the fibres are hard and rigid.
Chemi-thermomechanical pulp
Wood chips can be pre-treated with sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate and other chemicals prior to refining with equipment similar to a mechanical mill. The conditions of the chemical treatment are much less vigorous (lower temperature, shorter time, less extreme pH) than in a chemical pulping process since the goal is to make the fibers easier to refine, not to remove lignin as in a fully chemical process. Pulps made using these hybrid processes are known as chemi-thermomechanical pulps (CTMP).
Chemical pulp
Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood chips and chemicals in large vessels called digesters. There, heat and chemicals break down lignin, which binds cellulose fibres together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibres. Chemical pulp is used for materials that need to be stronger or combined with mechanical pulps to give a product different characteristics. The kraft process is the dominant chemical pulping method, with the sulfite process second. Historically soda pulping was the first successful chemical pulping method.
Recycled pulp
Recycled pulp is also called deinked pulp (DIP). DIP is recycled paper which has been processed by chemicals, thus removing printing inks and other unwanted elements and freed the paper fibres. The process is called deinking.
DIP is used as raw material in papermaking. Many newsprint, toilet paper and facial tissue grades commonly contain 100 percent deinked pulp and in many other grades, such as lightweight coated for offset and printing and writing papers for office and home use, DIP makes up a substantial proportion of the furnish.
Organosolv pulping
Organosolv pulping uses organic solvents at temperatures above 140 °C to break down lignin and hemicellulose into soluble fragments. The pulping liquor is easily recovered by distillation. The reason for using a solvent is to make the lignin more soluble in the cooking liquor. Most common used solvents are methanol, ethanol, formic acid and acetic acid often in combination with water.
Alternative pulping methods
Research is under way to develop biopulping (biological pulping), similar to chemical pulping but using certain species of fungi that are able to break down the unwanted lignin, but not the cellulose fibres. In the biopulping process, the fungal enzyme lignin peroxidase selectively digests lignin to leave remaining cellulose fibres. This could have major environmental benefits in reducing the pollution associated with chemical pulping. The pulp is bleached using chlorine dioxide stage followed by neutralization and calcium hypochlorite. The oxidizing agent in either case oxidizes and destroys the dyes formed from the tannins of the wood and accentuated (reinforced) by sulfides present in it.
Steam exploded fibre is a pulping and extraction technique that has been applied to wood and other fibrous organic material.
Bleaching
The pulp produced up to this point in the process can be bleached to produce a white paper product. The chemicals used to bleach pulp have been a source of environmental concern, and recently the pulp industry has been using alternatives to chlorine, such as chlorine dioxide, oxygen, ozone and hydrogen peroxide.
Alternatives to wood pulp
Pulp made from non-wood plant sources or recycled textiles is manufactured today largely as a speciality product for fine-printing and art purposes. Modern machine- and hand-made art papers made with cotton, linen, hemp, abaca, kozo, and other fibers are often valued for their longer, stronger fibers and their lower lignin content. Lignin, present in virtually all plant materials, contributes to the acidification and eventual breakdown of paper products, often characterized by the browning and embrittling of paper with a high lignin content such as newsprint. 100% cotton or a combination of cotton and linen pulp is widely used to produce documents intended for long-term use, such as certificates, currency, and passports.
Today, some groups advocate using field crop fibre or agricultural residues instead of wood fibre as a more sustainable means of production.
There is enough straw to meet much of North America's book, magazine, catalogue and copy paper needs. Agricultural-based paper does not come from tree farms. Some agricultural residue pulps take less time to cook than wood pulps. That means agricultural-based paper uses less energy, less water and fewer chemicals. Pulp made from wheat and flax straw has half the ecological footprint of pulp made from forests.
Hemp paper is a possible replacement, but processing infrastructure, storage costs and the low usability percentage of the plant means it is not a ready substitute.
However, wood is also a renewable resource, with about 90 percent of pulp coming from plantations or reforested areas. Non-wood fibre sources account for about 5–10 percent of global pulp production, for a variety of reasons, including seasonal availability, problems with chemical recovery, brightness of the pulp etc. In China, as of 2009, a higher proportion of non-wood pulp processing increased use of water and energy.
Nonwovens are in some applications alternatives to paper made from wood pulp, like filter paper or tea bags.
Market pulp
Market pulp is any variety of pulp that is produced in one location, dried and shipped to another location for further processing. Important quality parameters for pulp not directly related to the fibres are brightness, dirt levels, viscosity and ash content. In 2004 it accounted for about 55 million metric tons of market pulp.
Air dry pulp is the most common form to sell pulp. This is pulp dried to about 10 percent moisture content. It is normally delivered as sheeted bales of 250 kg. The reason to leave 10 percent moisture in the pulp is that this minimizes the fibre to fibre bonding and makes it easier to disperse the pulp in water for further processing to paper.
Roll pulp or reel pulp is the most common delivery form of pulp to non traditional pulp markets. Fluff pulp is normally shipped on rolls (reels). This pulp is dried to 5–6 percent moisture content. At the customer this is going to a comminution process to prepare for further processing.
Some pulps are flash dried. This is done by pressing the pulp to about 50 percent moisture content and then let it fall through silos that are 15–17 m high. Gas fired hot air is the normal heat source. The temperature is well above the char point of cellulose, but large amount of moisture in the fibre wall and lumen prevents the fibres from being incinerated. It is often not dried down to 10 percent moisture (air dry). The bales are not as densely packed as air dry pulp.
Environmental concerns
The major environmental impacts of producing wood pulp come from its impact on forest sources and from its waste products.
Forest resources
The impact of logging to provide the raw material for wood pulp is an area of intense debate. Modern logging practices, using forest management seek to provide a reliable, renewable source of raw materials for pulp mills. The practice of clear cutting is a particularly sensitive issue since it is a very visible effect of logging. Reforestation, the planting of tree seedlings on logged areas, has also been criticized for decreasing biodiversity because reforested areas are monocultures.
Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10 percent of wood pulp, but is one of the most controversial issues.
Effluents from pulp mills
The process effluents are treated in a biological effluent treatment plant, which guarantees that the effluents are not toxic in the recipient.
Mechanical pulp is not a major cause for environmental concern since most of the organic material is retained in the pulp, and the chemicals used (hydrogen peroxide and sodium dithionite) produce benign byproducts (water and sodium sulfate (finally), respectively).
Chemical pulp mills, especially kraft mills, are energy self-sufficient and very nearly closed cycle with respect to inorganic chemicals.
Bleaching with chlorine produces large amounts of organochlorine compounds, including polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs). Many mills have adopted alternatives to chlorinated bleaching agents thereby reducing emissions of organochlorine pollution.
Odor problems
The kraft pulping reaction in particular releases foul-smelling compounds. The hydrogen sulfide reagent that degrades lignin structure also causes some demethylation to produce methanethiol, dimethyl sulfide and dimethyl disulfide. These same compounds are released during many forms of microbial decay, including the internal microbial action in Camembert cheese, although the kraft process is a chemical one and does not involve any microbial degradation. These compounds have extremely low odor thresholds and disagreeable smells.
Applications
The main applications for pulp are paper and board production. The furnish of pulps used depends on the quality on the finished paper. Important quality parameters are wood furnish, brightness, viscosity, extractives, dirt count and strength.
Chemical pulps are used for making nanocellulose.
Speciality pulp grades have many other applications. Dissolving pulp is used in making regenerated cellulose that is used textile and cellophane production. It is also used to make cellulose derivatives. Fluff pulp is used in diapers, feminine hygiene products and nonwovens.
Paper production
The Fourdrinier Machine is the basis for most modern papermaking, and it has been used in some variation since its conception. It accomplishes all the steps needed to transform pulp into a final paper product.
Economics
In 2009, NBSK pulp sold for $650/ton in the United States. The price had dropped due to falling demand when newspapers reduced their size, in part, as a result of the recession.
See also
Nanocellulose
Paper chemicals
Pulp mill
Pulpwood
Versuche und Muster ohne alle Lumpen oder doch mit enem geringen Zusatze derselben Papier zu machen by Jacob Christian Schäffer on Google Books
Johan Richter, developer of the process for continuous cooking of pulp
World Forestry Congress
References
Bibliography
.
Wood products
Papermaking
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|
215848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jook-sing | Jook-sing | Jook-sing or zuk-sing (竹升) is a Cantonese term for an overseas Chinese person who was born in a Western environment or a Chinese person who more readily or strongly identifies with Western culture than traditional Chinese culture.
Etymology
The term jook-sing evolved from zuk-gong (竹杠; zhugang in Mandarin) which means a "bamboo pole" or "rod". Since gong (杠) is a Cantonese homophone of the inauspicious word 降 which means "descend" or "downward", it is replaced with sing (升), which means "ascend" or "upward".
The stem of the bamboo plant is hollow and compartmentalized; thus water poured in one end does not flow out of the other end. The metaphor is that jook-sings are not part of either culture; water within the jook-sing does not flow and connect to either end. The term may or may not be derogatory. Use of the term predates World War II.
Modern term
North American usage
In the United States and Canada, the term is pejorative and refers to fully Westernized American-born or Canadian-born Chinese. The term originates from Cantonese slang in the United States. Jook-sing persons are categorized as having Western-centric identities, values and culture. The term also refers to similar Chinese individuals in Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, and New Zealand.
Related colloquialisms
Banana () (referencing the yellow skin and white insides of the fruit when fully matured) and Twinkie (based on the snack produced by American company Hostess - again, it denotes something that is "yellow" on the outside and "white" on the inside); may be used as a pejorative term or as a non-pejorative term.
FOB (Fresh Off the Boat): antonym of jook-sing. Typically meant to indicate a Chinese-born person who propagates excessively Chinese stereotypes while living in the West.
See also
Lost Years: A People's Struggle for Justice
Overseas ChineseAmerican ChineseBritish ChineseChinese CanadianChinese AustralianChinese New Zealander
American-born Chinese
Third culture kid
References
Bibliography
External links
Pilgrimage to China by Beth Boswell Jacks
Lost Years
Strained Relations by Julie D. Soo
Cantonese words and phrases
Chinese diaspora
Ethnic and religious slurs | [
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|
215849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody%20Bible%20Institute | Moody Bible Institute | Moody Bible Institute (MBI) is a private evangelical Christian bible college founded in the Near North Side of Chicago, Illinois, US by evangelist and businessman Dwight Lyman Moody in 1886. Today, MBI operates undergraduate programs and Moody Theological Seminary at the Chicago campus. Moody Theological Seminary also operates a satellite campus in Plymouth, Michigan; and Moody Aviation operates a flight school in Spokane, Washington.
History
Early years
Emma Dryer organized the "May Institute", a weekly meeting for prayer and fellowship, with Moody's permission in 1883. Participants in the May Institute encouraged Moody to found a school to train young people for evangelism to carry on the Christian revival tradition.
On January 22, 1886, Moody addressed church members: "I tell you what, and what I have on my heart, I believe we have got to have gap-men: men to stand between the laity and the ministers; men who are trained to do city mission work. Take men that have the gifts and train them for the work of reaching the people." As a result of this meeting, held at Farwell Hall, the group founded the Chicago Evangelization Society for the "education and training of Christian workers, including teachers, ministers, missionaries, and musicians who may completely and effectively proclaim the gospel of Jesus Christ." The society was renamed "Moody Bible Institute" after Moody died in 1899.
Before 1900, Moody played a significant role in fund-raising to support MBI. After Moody died, however, the institute struggled financially. James M. Gray, the president of the school, invited Henry Parsons Crowell to financially restructure the institute. Crowell established the school on business principles of productivity and performance. The MBI Executive Committee met nearly every Tuesday for the next 40 years. An administration building took years to complete, but when the building was dedicated there was no mortgage and only $50,000 left to pay.
21st century
In November 2017, the institution announced the closure of its campus in Spokane, Washington, and reductions in other programs and services in response to continued drops in enrollment. Faculty were distressed by impending job losses, and penned an anonymous letter to the administration in the student newspaper expressing concerns about faculty layoffs when the administration had just committed $22 million for a new campus building. Two months later the president and Chief Operating Officer both resigned and the provost retired all at the same time. In its announcement of these changes, the institution cited "widespread concerns over the direction" of the institution. Multisite church pastor Mark Jobe became the new president in January 2019.
Since 2012, MBI has received federal financial assistance, which means the religious institution is subject to federal rules, including Title IX which prohibits sex-based discrimination. After several female students complained of being denied access to the, at the time, male-only pastoral ministry program, the institute changed its policy in 2016. However, professor Janay Garrick, who helped the students file Title IX complaints, found that her employment contract would not be renewed at the end of 2017.
Academics
MBI's stated mission is to train students for full-time ministry in churches and parachurch organizations. Since 1989 it has been accredited by The Higher Learning Commission. It is also accredited by the Association for Biblical Higher Education and the National Association of Schools of Music.
Undergraduate
In addition to a Bachelor of Arts degree, which is available in over two dozen fields including theology, the Bible, and ministries of various emphases, MBI offers a Bachelor of Science degree in Biblical Studies, a Bachelor of Science degree in Missionary Aviation Technology, a two-year Associates of Biblical Studies degree (ABS), and a five-year Bachelor of Music degree (BMus) in Sacred Music. Furthermore, non-degree TESOL and Biblical Studies one-year certificates are offered.
Graduate
The Moody Theological Seminary offers a Master of Divinity, Master of Arts in Biblical Studies, and a Master of Counseling/Psychology. A one-year graduate certificate is also offered.
In November 2009, Moody Bible Institute and Michigan Theological Seminary jointly announced plans for Michigan Theological Seminary to merge with Moody Bible Institute's Moody Theological Seminary and Graduate School. In January 2010, Michigan Theological Seminary became Moody Theological Seminary–Michigan located in Plymouth, Michigan.
Media Ministries
In addition to its educational programs, Moody runs two Christian media ministries: Moody Radio and Moody Publishers.
In 1894, Moody Publishers was founded under the name Bible Institute Colportage Association. In 1926 the Institute expanded its reach beyond education and publishing by sponsoring the first non-commercial Christian radio station in America, WMBI. Over time, MBI's radio outreach grew to the Moody Broadcasting Network, which now owns and operates 36 commercial-free stations and provides programming via satellite to more than 700 outlets.
The former Moody magazine ceased publication in 2003 as part of a larger restructuring of Moody in an effort to buttress the institution's core education mission.
See also
List of Moody Bible Institute people
References
Further reading
Gloege, Timothy E. W. Guaranteed Pure: The Moody Bible Institute, Business, and the Making of Modern Evangelicalism. (Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press, 2015).
External links
Official website
Moody Bible Institute
Evangelical seminaries and theological colleges
Association for Biblical Higher Education
Nondenominational Christian universities and colleges in the United States
Universities and colleges in Chicago
Bible colleges
Educational institutions established in 1886
Seminaries and theological colleges in Illinois
1886 establishments in Illinois | [
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|
215850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juelz%20Santana | Juelz Santana | LaRon Louis James (born February 18, 1982), better known by his stage name Juelz Santana, is an American rapper and member of East Coast hip hop group The Diplomats, also known as Dipset. He is best known for his appearances on Cam'ron's 2002 singles, "Oh Boy" and "Hey Ma", which peaked at numbers 4 and 3 on the Billboard Hot 100 respectively, as well as Chris Brown's 2005 triple-platinum single, "Run It!", which topped the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks.
His albums, From Me to U (2003) and What the Game's Been Missing! (2005) peaked at number 8 and number 9 on the Billboard 200 respectively, the latter containing the platinum single, "There It Go (The Whistle Song)".
In December 2018, Santana was sentenced to 27 months in prison for carrying an unconcealed weapon in his bag at an airport. He was released early from prison on August 5, 2020, after serving 19 of his 27 month sentence.
Early life
LaRon James was born in New York City to a mother of African-American and Afro-Dominican descent and a father of Taino Dominican descent. He was raised in the Harlem section of Manhattan and began rapping at the age of 5.
Career
Beginnings (1994–2001)
At 12, James formed the rap duo, Draftpick, with Malik, a neighbourhood friend. The group first gained recognition after several performances around New York City, including Amateur Night at the Apollo Theater, where they won two weeks in a row. The two got signed to Priority Records when James was 15 years old. They released one single on the label, "Play Ruff", with Memphis Bleek and Tracey Lee.
In 1998, James was introduced to Cam'ron through his cousin, Tobe, and shortly thereafter, took on the name Juelz Santana and became a member of his hip hop collective, The Diplomats, alongside Jim Jones and Freekey Zekey. Santana's first collaboration with the group was the Trackmasters remix of "What Means the World to You", followed by the tracks "Double Up" and "All the Chickens", on Cam'ron's second studio album, S.D.E., released on September 19, 2000 through Epic Records.
From Me to U (2002–2003)
In 2001, Cam'ron signed to Roc-a-Fella Records and released his third studio album, Come Home with Me, on May 14, 2002, which featured further collaborations with Santana, including "Welcome to New York City", "Hey Ma" and "Oh Boy", which earned Santana his first Grammy Award nomination for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 2003 Grammy Awards.
The album's success led to Santana and the remaining Diplomats also signing deals with Roc-a-Fella, under the imprint Diplomat Records. After four mixtapes, the group released their first album on Diplomatic Immunity on March 25, 2003, which debuted at number 8 on the Billboard 200, selling 92,000 copies in its first week and eventually being certified Gold by the RIAA. Santana caused a minor controversy before the album's release when he described himself as a "young Mohammed Atta" on a leaked version of the track "I Love You", just months after the September 11 attacks. In a retrospective, Complex named the album one of the classic albums of the decade.
On August 19, 2003, Santana released his debut album, From Me to U, which peaked at number 8 in the Billboard 200. The album was preceded by the mixtape, Final Destination, released on June 17, 2003, and the single "Dipset (Santana's Town)", which peaked at number 70 on the Billboard Top 100, received a nomination for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 46th Grammy Awards.
What the Game's Been Missing! (2004–2006)
Following disputes at the label between Cam'ron and Roc-A-Fella Records head Jay-Z, the Diplomats severed ties with Roc-A-Fella and Def Jam and signed to independent label Koch Records. The group released their second album, Diplomatic Immunity 2, on November 23, 2004, with new members Hell Rell, 40 Cal., and J. R. Writer.
On December 23, 2004, Santana released "Mic Check", the lead single from his sophomore album. The single peaked at number 35 on the Billboard Hot 100.
In April 2005, Santana announced that he had returned to Def Jam and signed a new joint-venture deal with them. On May 29, 2005, Santana released the album second single, "There It Go (The Whistle Song)", which became his highest charting single to date, peaking at number 6 on the Hot 100 and number 3 on the Hot Rap tracks charts. A third single, "Oh Yes", reached number 56 on the Hot 100 and number 8 on the Rap charts, and a fourth, "Clockwork" peaked at number 68. On June 30, 2005, Santana was featured on Chris Brown's "Run It!", which went to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for five weeks.
On November 22, 2005, Santana released What the Game's Been Missing!, his second album. Both the album and the single "There It Go" were certified Gold by the RIAA.
Unreleased Born to Lose, Built to Win album, Skull Gang, collaborations, mixtapes and Love & Hip Hop: New York appearances (2007–16)
In 2007, rifts and disagreements between the various Dipset members was beyond repair and the group disbanded. In August 2008, it was reported that Cam'ron had sold his contract to Def Jam, leaving Santana to form the hip hop collective Skull Gang and label imprint Skull Gang Entertainment. The group released the mixtapes Takeover on September 19, 2008, and the Christmas-themed A Tribute to Bad Santa Starring Mike Epps with Jim Jones on November 25, 2008, before their debut album, Skull Gang, was released on May 5, 2009.
In 2008, Santana began working on his third album, Born to Lose, Built to Win. Despite several single releases, including 2007's "The Second Coming" with Just Blaze, 2009's "Mixin' Up the Medicine" with Yelawolf and "Back to the Crib" with Chris Brown, the album was never released. During this time, Juelz' contributions to Lil Wayne's Tha Carter III led to his third Grammy Award nomination, Album of the Year at the 2009 Grammy Awards.
In April 2010, Cam'ron and Jim Jones officially announced the end of their feud, and the Diplomats reunited for several singles after signing with Interscope Records. In 2011 and 2012, Santana made brief appearances on the first two seasons of VH1 reality series Love & Hip Hop: New York, alongside other Dipset group members and their significant others.
On December 21, 2012, Santana announced the release of the mixtape God Will'n, his first solo project in eight years. It was released on January 14, 2013, with XXL later naming it the 9th best mixtape of the year. It was preceded by the singles "Bodies" featuring Lil Reese, and "Soft" featuring Fabolous, Rick Ross and Meek Mill. Santana also released music videos for "Nobody Knows" featuring Future, "Awesome" featuring Wale, and "Everything Is Good" featuring Wiz Khalifa, saying that he had shot music videos for every song on the tape. A month later, Santana announced his collaboration with Queens-based clothing brand collective, S.B.O.E (Slow Bucks Over Everything), with the release of the mixtape All We Got Is Us.
In November 2016, Santana joined the supporting cast of Love & Hip Hop: New York in its seventh season, releasing the freestyle "Up In The Studio Gettin Blown".
Dipset reunion and Love & Hip Hop: New York comeback (2017–present)
On November 21, 2017, Santana, Cam'ron, Jim Jones and Freekey Zekey reunited onstage for a performance at the Hammerstein Ballroom. In 2018, the group went on a national tour, Dipset Forever, and released their third album, Diplomatic Ties on November 22, 2018.
In November 2018, Santana returned to Love & Hip Hop: New York as a main cast member for its ninth season, which chronicled his ongoing legal struggles.
Personal life
On November 23, 2018, Santana proposed to urban model and video vixen Kimbella Vandehee during the Diplomats show at the Apollo Theater. They married on January 10, 2019.
Santana and Vanderhee were in an on-again, off-again relationship since 2009 and have three children together, Juelz James, Bella Monroe James, and Santana James.
Santana also has a son from a previous relationship, LaRon Jr., born in 2003.
Legal issues
In January 2011, Santana's recording studio in Bergenfield, New Jersey, was raided after a 10-month investigation by the Bergen County Prosecutor's Office and Gang Unit. They discovered two loaded 9mm handguns, boxes of ammunition and of marijuana.
On February 2, 2011, Santana was arrested and charged with possession of a firearm, possession of a handgun without a permit, possession of a controlled dangerous substance and possession with intent to distribute a controlled substance within 1,000 feet of a school. On March 22, 2011, Santana missed a performance at Chris Brown's record release party when he was stopped and searched by police. In November 2011 he was charged with making terrorist threats and disorderly conduct.
In March 2018, Santana fled Newark Liberty International Airport, leaving his passport, identification and luggage behind after Transportation Security Administration agents examining his carry-on luggage found a loaded .38-caliber handgun inside of his bag, as well as eight oxycodone pills. After going on the run for three days, Santana turned himself into the custody of the Port Authority Police Department on March 12. On March 26, Santana was denied bail. Santana was released from custody on April 6, 2018, when his mother posted $500,000 bail after putting her house up. He was ordered to remain in the custody of his mother and remained on house arrest at his mother's residence in New Jersey while he awaited a federal trial. He was later allowed to travel and perform with the rest of The Diplomats on their 2018 reunion tour, under the condition that his mother accompanied him at all times. On December 18, Santana was sentenced to 27 months in prison followed by one year of supervised release. Santana began serving his sentence at the medium security FCI Petersburg in Hopewell, Virginia on March 1, 2019. Santana was released from prison early on August 5, 2020, after serving 17 of his 27 month sentence.
Discography
Studio albums
From Me to U (2003)
What the Game's Been Missing! (2005)
Filmography
State Property 2 (2005)
Killa Season (2006)
Kiss and Tail: The Hollywood Jumpoff (2009)
The Project (2011)
Video Girl (2011)
Love & Hip Hop: New York (2016–2019)
References
1982 births
Living people
African-American male actors
African-American male rappers
American prisoners and detainees
American rappers of Dominican Republic descent
Def Jam Recordings artists
East Coast hip hop musicians
Gangsta rappers
Hispanic and Latino American male actors
Hispanic and Latino American rappers
Male actors from New Jersey
People from Teaneck, New Jersey
People from Totowa, New Jersey
People from Harlem
Rappers from New Jersey
Rappers from Manhattan
Roc-A-Fella Records artists
The Diplomats members
Participants in American reality television series
21st-century American rappers | [
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|
215851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country%20Music%20Association | Country Music Association | The Country Music Association (CMA) was founded in 1958 in Nashville, Tennessee. It originally consisted of 233 members and was the first trade organization formed to promote a music genre. The objectives of the organization are to guide and enhance the development of Country Music throughout the world; to demonstrate it as a viable medium to advertisers, consumers, and media; and to provide a unity of purpose for the Country Music industry. However the CMA may be best known to most country music fans for its annual Country Music Association Awards broadcast live on network television each fall (usually October or November).
About
Initially, CMA's Board of Directors included nine directors and five officers. Wesley Rose, president of Acuff-Rose Publishing, Inc., served as CMA's first chairman of the board. Broadcasting entrepreneur and executive Connie B. Gay was the founding president. Mac Wiseman served as its first secretary and was also the CMA's last surviving inaugural member. The CMA was founded, in part, because of widespread dismay on Music Row about the rise of rock and roll and its influence on country music.
Originally there were nine individual membership categories. The current 15 categories represent all facets of the music industry. Organizational memberships are also available. CMA membership is composed of those persons or organizations that are involved in Country Music, directly and substantially.
Harry Stone served as the first executive director from 1958 to 1960 before resigning. Jo Walker-Meador, the first full-time employee of the CMA, replaced Stone as executive director in 1962 and served until 1991.
The first CMA Awards ceremony was held in 1967 in Nashville. Sonny James and Bobbie Gentry hosted the event, which was not televised. The winner of the first "Entertainer of the Year" award was singer Eddy Arnold. "Male Vocalist of the Year" went to Jack Greene and "Female Vocalist of the Year" to Loretta Lynn.
In 1968, Roy Rogers and Dale Evans hosted the awards, which were presented at the Ryman Auditorium in Nashville. (The ceremony was filmed and televised on NBC a few weeks later.) The first live telecast of the show was in 1969.
Annual awards are given in the following twelve categories: Entertainer of the Year, Male Vocalist, Female Vocalist, New Artist of the Year (formerly the Horizon Award), Vocal Group, Vocal Duo, Single, Album, Song, Music Event, Music Video, and Musician.
The CMA also gives a "CMA Broadcast Award" to country-formatted radio stations each year. Broadcast Awards are segmented based on market size, major market (Arbitron Ranking 1–25), large market (Arbitron Ranking 26–50), medium market (Arbitron Ranking 51–100), and small market (All other Markets). A single station cannot win the award in consecutive years.
In honor of the CMA Awards 50th anniversary, MCA Nashville released a song called "Forever Country".
In 2017, days before the 51st Annual Country Music Association Awards, the association announced that reporters that covered “the Las Vegas tragedy, gun rights, political affiliations or topics of the like” at the awards show would have their credentials revoked. Following criticism from Brad Paisley, journalists, and others, the association apologized and rescinded the restrictions on the press.
In June 2021, the CMA announced that they would extend its broadcast contract with ABC through 2026.
List of CMA Award winners
Events
The cornerstone of the CMA is "Country Music's Biggest Week", which includes the aforementioned CMA Awards in early November, followed two days later by a CMA Country Christmas concert.
CMA Country Christmas
CMA Country Christmas is a holiday concert event featuring holiday songs performed by country artists. The concert is usually not aired live, as it is re-edited for later broadcast by CMA broadcast partner ABC.
CMA Music Festival
The CMA Music Festival is considered one of the largest country music festivals in the world, takes place in Nashville, TN every summer. Hundreds of thousands of fans flock to downtown Nashville, TN to listen to hundreds of artists perform on 11+ stages. All day long fans have a chance to meet their favorite country music artists at Fan Fair X. The four days of events are later re-edited into a three-hour special, also aired on ABC during the summer months.
See also
Academy of Country Music – a separate organization from the CMA
Academy of Country Music Awards
CMT – Country Music Television, owned by Viacom Media Network
Grand Ole Opry
References
External links
CMA Awards
American country music
Music industry associations
Organizations based in Nashville, Tennessee
Organizations established in 1958
1958 establishments in Tennessee
Music of Tennessee
Music organizations based in the United States | [
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|
215853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbana%20%28conference%29 | Urbana (conference) | Urbana is a major Christian student missions conference sponsored by InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. The event is designed to inform Christian students about global issues and issues around the world that missionaries face. The conference also encourages students to explore the biblical mandate for cross-cultural missions and encourages them to participate in missions.
Each Urbana lasts for 5 days at the end of December and ends with a final communion on New Year's Eve. In addition to the main speakers, participants are offered a choice of dozens of seminars offered throughout the week, relating to specific topics within the general theme of the university and international missions. Worship is also a major highlight of the convention; special attention is paid to incorporating diverse worship styles, even including songs in foreign languages.
The first/precursor “Urbana” Student Missions Convention was held in 1946 in Toronto, and since then, it has generally been held every three years. From 1948 to 2003, Urbana took place at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, with the primary venue after 1963 being the Assembly Hall (now State Farm Center), the school's basketball arena.
Because of insufficient space at the University of Illinois campus, Urbana 06 was moved to St. Louis, Missouri, at The Americas Center and the Edward Jones Dome.
The most recent Urbana Conference was held from December 27–31, 2018.
In 2022, Urbana will move to Indianapolis, Indiana.
Conference Elements
Each conference is filled with a variety of activities and seminars for students to engage in. Highlights include an exhibit hall in which students are encouraged to network with leaders from 250+ missions organizations and seminaries. Furthermore, each morning and evening all participates gather in the Edward Jones Dome to hear from engaging and relevant world mission speakers and worship, with a focus specifically on multi-ethnic worship. The conference concludes with the conference participants welcoming in the New Year and participating in communion. Students are also encouraged to participate in a variety of seminars and "tracks", which specialize in specific topics. For example, topics are known to include Business and technology, global issues, healthcare, justice, proclamation, and world religions. Students participating in a "track" allows them to complement their experience by focusing on particular issues during the afternoons at Urbana. Topics have been known to include the role of technology, business, International Students, Poverty, and Pastors/Church Leaders. In addition to the seminars offered, students are encouraged to participate in Bible Studies.
History
1940s
The first Urbana was held in 1946 at the University of Toronto in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 151 colleges, universities, and seminaries from across North America were represented, along with 100 missionaries. L. E. Maxwell, president of Prairie Bible Institute, and other noted Christian leaders in academia spoke at the December event. The second Urbana was held in 1948, this time at the University of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana. Jim Elliot, known for his missionary work and martyrdom in Ecuador, attended this Urbana as a student. The slogan for this Urbana was "From Every Campus to Every Country." 1,300 students from 154 campuses participated. Speakers included Frank Houghton, V. Raymond Edman, and Billy Graham.
1950s
The 1954 Urbana had the theme "Changing World; Changeless Christ" and hosted 2,000 students from 263 schools. A. W. Tozer preached on Bible characters, and Alan Redpath and were among others who also spoke at this Urbana. The number of students attending Urbana grew to 3,500 in 1957, and the theme that year was "One Lord—One Church—One World." Billy Graham returned to speak at this conference, and was joined by the likes of Donald Barnhouse and Harold Ockenga. Urbana 57 was held in a gymnasium with poor acoustics, and with the University of Illinois set to finish building a new assembly room by 1961, the next Urbana was postponed until then.
1960s
Urbana 61 had a change in format from previous conferences. It featured a "plenary panel" about mission work, a "plenary forum" that involved a question-and-answer time with various Christian leaders, elective courses on specific topics related to missions, missionary sessions, and a pastoral group. The theme was "Commission—Conflict—Commitment." 5,400 students participated in this conference. Eugene Nida, Arthur Glasser, and Urbana veterans David Howard Adeney and Billy Graham were speakers. Festo Kivengere preached on Jacob and Esau.
1970s
Urbana 76 was themed "Declare His Glory Among the Nations." John Stott spoke on the biblical basis for mission, Elisabeth Elliot on the will of God, and Helen Roseveare on Declaring His Glory in Suffering. 17,000 students participated in 1,700 small groups, meeting each morning for Bible study and every evening for prayer. "That All Nations Might Believe and Obey Jesus Christ" was the theme for Urbana 79. Many speakers made repeat appearances, including John Stott, Billy Graham, and Elisabeth Elliot. Joining them were Luis Palau, David Howard Adeney, and others. Urbana 79 experienced capacity issues due to so many students wanting to attend that the next conference would be held just two years later.
1980s
Urbana 81 was themed "Let Every Tongue Confess That Jesus Christ Is Lord" and 14,000 attended. One unusual characteristic of this Urbana was that it came only two years after the previous one. Speakers included Wycliffe Bible translator Ed Beach, Eric Alexander from a church in Scotland, Gordon MacDonald, Isabelo Magalit, Marilyn Laszlo, Billy Graham, George McKinney, and author Rebecca Manley Pippert.
Urbana 84 attracted 18,000 participants. Eric Alexander spoke on the conference theme "Faithful in Christ Jesus" from the book of Ephesians. Other notable speakers: Ada Lum, Billy Graham, Cliffe Knechtle, David Bryant, George McKinney, Joanne Shelter, John Kyle, Luis Palau, Mariano DiGangi, Ray Bakke, and Tokunboh Adayemo.
Urbana 87 took its theme from the Book of Jonah: "Should I not be concerned?" Nearly 19,000 participants came to hear Harvie Conn, Ray Bakke, Floyd McClung, Billy Graham, Helen Roseveare, Rebecca Manley Pippert, Roberta Hestenes, and Tony Campolo. Nearly 6,000 attendees indicated they felt they were being called by God to serve in overseas missions.
1990s
Throughout the 90s, Urbana was hosted at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, but the large numbers in attendance meant that the conference was pushing that venue's capacity. In these years, the conference was updated in significant ways.
Urbana 90 was InterVarsity's 16th triennial student mission convention, was themed "Jesus Christ: Lord of the Universe, Hope of the World." Almost 20,000 people met December 27–31, 1990. Featured speakers included Joni Eareckson Tada, Ada Lum, Ajith Fernando, Caesar Molebatsi, George Otis, Glandion Carney, Isaac Canales, Luis Bush, M. Fisher, Paul Tokunaga, Peter Kuzmic and Philemon Choi. It was the first Urbana featuring a full 'contemporary' worship band and a prayer ministry team composed of campus staff members.
Urbana 93 (entitled "God So Loves the World") attracted over 17,000 attendees. Featured speakers included Neil Anderson, Lindsay Brown, Isaac Canales, Peter Cha, Margarita Petrovna Dvorzhetskaya, Ajith Fernando, Mary Fisher, Steve Hayner, David Zac Niringiye and Ravi Zacharias. Bruce Kuhn offered dramatic presentations of Bible passages.
Urbana 96 (entitled "You Are My Witnesses") was the 50th anniversary of Urbana (counting back to the original InterVarsity student mission convention in Toronto in 1946). Over 19,600 were in attendance, making it the largest student missions gathering in the world. Featured speakers: Tokunboh Adeyemo, Rebecca Atallah, Jorge Atiencia, Robbie Castleman, Alex Gee, Steve Hayner, Jacqueline Huggins, Daniel Oh, Mac Pier, T.V. Thomas, and George Verwer. Bruce Kuhn returned to offer dramatic enactments of Scripture.
2000s
The 2000s marked the move of Urbana from its long-time home at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign and into St. Louis in 2006—a much larger venue for a conference that seemed to be maxing out every year. The new venue allowed nearly all of the convention to be held under one roof, with students staying in different hotels within the city and walking or transiting to the conference.
Urbana 2000, InterVarsity's 19th triennial student missions convention (themed "Because God First Loved Us"), was an unusual Urbana in that it was scheduled four years (vs. the traditional three) after the previous conference, to avoid possible Y2K complications. Over 20,000 participated. Featured speakers included: Vinoth Ramachandra, Ken Fong, Steve Hayner, George Verwer, Jimmy McGee, Paul Borthwick, Marta Bennett, Barney Ford, and Alex Gee. Over 5,000 committed their lives to cross-cultural missions as their vocation.
The last Urbana to be held at UIUC, Urbana 2003, was also the first to offer an "International Student Track", providing special housing options and electives to international students interested in spending time with other students from their respective countries. Urbana 06 again held a track for international students, as well as tracks that focused on the global HIV–AIDS pandemic, the growing business as mission movement, and the needs of the world's largest slum communities in the developing world. Major and tracks at Urbana 09 included International Students, Arts and Media, Advocacy and Poverty, Business as Mission, Evangelism, Jesus and Justice, The Mission of Healthcare, and The Church Around the World.
At Urbana 2006, nearly 22,500 participants attended. Urbana 06 speakers included Rick Warren, pastor and author of The Purpose Driven Life; Ray Bakke, a professor and specialist in urban ministry; Bono from the band U2 (via video); and Ajith Fernando, a well-respected Bible teacher who is the director of Youth for Christ in Sri Lanka.
Urbana 09 speakers included Ramez Atallah, General Secretary of the Bible Society of Egypt; Shane Claiborne of The Simple Way in Philadelphia; Ruth Padilla DeBorst, General Secretary of the Latin American Theological Fellowship; Sunder Krishnan, Senior Pastor of the Rexdale Alliance Church in Ontario, Canada; and Patrick Fung, General Director of OMF International. Oscar Muriu, Senior Pastor of Nairobi Chapel, Nairobi, Kenya, spoke at both Urbana 06 and Urbana 09. Worship at Urbana 09 was led by Sandra Maria Van Opstal.
2010s
Urbana 12 speakers included Calisto Odede, David Platt, Chai Ling, Daniel Bourdanne, Ziel Machado, Geri Rodman, and Terry LeBlanc. Sandra Maria Van Opstal, Executive Pastor of Grace and Peace Community in Chicago, was the Director of Worship in 2009 and 2012 with a focus on the integration of multiethnic worship and mission. Urbana 12 also included a Caregiver Kit Build: the 15,000 attendees assembled 32,000 Caregiver Kits which were then shipped to volunteer caregivers who work with AIDS patients in Swaziland and other African countries.
Notable Speakers
Tony Campolo, 1987
Shane Claiborne, 2009
Joni Eareckson Tada, 1990
Elisabeth Elliot, 1973, 1976, 1979, 1984, 1996
Billy Graham, 1948, 1957, 1961, 1964, 1976, 1979, 1981, 1984, 1987
John Stott, 1967, 1970, 1973, 1976, 1979
A.W. Tozer, 1954
Rick Warren, 2006
Ravi Zacharias, 1993
Francis Chan, 2015
George Verwer, 1967, 1987, 1996, 2000
Helen Roseveare, 1976, 1981, 1987
Luis Palau, 1973,1976, 1979, 1984
Steve Hayner, 1993, 2000
David Platt, 2012, 2015
See also
College religious organizations
International Fellowship of Evangelical Students
Disciple (Christianity)
Passion Conferences
World Student Christian Federation
Christian Camp and Conference Association
The gospel
References
External links
Urbana
InterVarsity
Inter-Varsity Canada
Urbana Gets Radical
Christian missions
Evangelical Christian conferences
Evangelicalism in North America | [
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|
215857 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%8Dsuke%20Fujishima | Kōsuke Fujishima | is a Japanese manga artist.
Born in Chiba, Japan, he first came to public attention as an editor of Puff magazine, his first job after completing high school. Fujishima originally intended to be a draftsman, but took the editorial role after failing to get a drafting apprenticeship. He later became assistant to manga artist Tatsuya Egawa in the production of the Making Be Free! manga, and in 1986 began his first original manga series You're Under Arrest. His second manga series Oh My Goddess!, also translated as Ah! My Goddess, is Fujishima's most famous work, which made him a household name in Japan. He is also well known as the character designer for several games in the Tales series and Sakura Wars.
He is known for his love of automobiles and motorcycles, and several of his series and their characters reflect this, such as in éX-Driver and Oh My Goddess!.
On June 29, 2016, the famous 20-year-old cosplayer Nekomu Otogi announced her marriage to Fujishima as well as her pregnancy on her Twitter page. Both of them had known each other on Twitter approximately since 2014.
On July 7, 2016, Fujishima confirmed the marriage on his Twitter account.
Works
References
"Ah! Megami-sama: Tatakau Tsubasa". Newtype USA 6 (12) 15. December 2007. .
Nakagami, Yoshikatsu et al. "You're Under Arrest: Full Throttle". Newtype USA 6 (12) 48–49. December 2007. .
External links
1964 births
Living people
Manga artists
Japanese illustrators
Anime character designers
People from Chiba (city)
Manga artists from Chiba Prefecture | [
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|
215861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence%20of%20property | Defence of property | The defence of property is a common method of justification used by defendants who argue that they should not be held liable for any loss and injury that they have caused because they were acting to protect their property.
English law
Generally, see self-defence in English law. In addition to the right of self-defence at common law, section 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 states that
A person may use such force as is reasonable in the circumstances in the prevention of crime or in arresting offenders or suspects.
Insofar as an attack on property is a crime, reasonable force may be used to prevent the crime or to arrest the offender, whether it be theft of a sum of money or the damage of an object. In many cases of robbery and burglary, the threat will be to both a person and property, and this combination can be a powerful defence. In AG's Reference (No 2 of 1983) (1984) 1 AER 988 Lane CJ. held that a defendant who manufactured ten petrol bombs to defend his shop during the Toxteth Riots could set up the defence of showing that he possessed an explosive substance "for a lawful purpose" if he could show he acted to protect himself or his family or property by means he believed reasonably necessary to meet the attack. In theory, the defence of property by itself cannot reasonably provide a justification for inflicting serious injury, but there are a number of cases approving considerable violence to arrest criminals threatening property.
Although R v Scully (1824) 171 ER 1213 held that it was not justifiable to shoot an intruder merely to arrest him, on the facts, "the life of the prisoner was threatened, and if he considered his life in actual danger, he was justified in shooting the deceased as he had done; but if, not considering his own life in danger, he rashly shot this man, who was only a trespasser, he would be guilty of manslaughter." See self-defence (Australia) for a comparative view on whether the use of excessive force causing death should give rise to a mitigatory defence and "Reform" below. In Mead and Belt's Case (1823) 68 ER 1006. Holroyd J. instructed a jury that violence could not be used against a civil trespasser, adding: "But, the making an attack upon a dwelling, and especially at night, the law regards as equivalent to an assault on a man's person; for a man's house is his castle and therefore, in the eye of the law, it is equivalent to an assault."
One recent case on using force against a burglar is Anthony Martin v R (2001) EWCA 2245, which resulted in the householder being convicted. As the law currently stands, a person in possession can use no more force than they reasonably believe necessary to remove a trespasser from the premises. Further, where the threat to the land or its possession is not immediate, and other measures could be taken that would make force unnecessary (e.g., calling the police or seeking remedies through the courts) the defence will normally be lost. But in Chamberlain v Lindon (1998) 1 WLR 1252 Lindon demolished a wall to protect a right-of-way, honestly believing that it was a reasonable means of protecting his property (and, incidentally, avoiding litigation). It was held that it was not necessary to decide whether Lindon's action was justified as a matter of civil law.
For the purpose of the criminal law, what mattered was whether Lindon believed that his actions were reasonable. Although this case is on the specific interpretation of the statutory defence under s5 Criminal Damage Act 1971, the fact that the defendant was not out of time after nine months of inaction is interesting. On a similar statutory defence, DPP v Bayer and Others (2004) 1 Cr. App. R. 493 dealt with defence of private property as a defence to aggravated trespass under section 68 of the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994.
The court held that if defendants argued they had used reasonable force to defend property from actual or imminent damage that would constitute a criminal act, then the court had to consider whether, on the facts as the defendants honestly believed them to be, the force used was reasonable in all the circumstances.
Reform
The defence of "private defence" or "protective force," when unlawful force is used or threatened against a person who may use proportionate force to defend persons or property, is distinguished from the line of authority concerned with a similar defence against trespassers. In the Law Commission's Report No. 218 Offences Against the Person and General Principles (1993) at pp 106–110) these defences are set out (so far as they relate to defence of property) as follows:
27(i) The use of force by a person for any of the following purposes, if only such as is reasonable in the circumstances as he believes them to be, does not constitute an offence:
(c) to protect his property... from trespass;
(d) to protect property belonging to another from . . . damage caused by a criminal act or (with the authority of the other) from trespass...
29(i) For the purposes of s 27...
(a) a person uses force in relation to... property not only where he applies force to, but also where he causes an impact on,... that property;"
See also
Castle Doctrine
References
Law Commission, Partial Defences to Murder: Overseas Studies Consultation Paper No 173 (Appendices)
Criminal defenses
Tort law
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|
215864 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-defense | Self-defense | Self-defense (self-defence primarily in British English) is a countermeasure that involves defending the health and well-being of oneself from harm. The use of the right of self-defense as a legal justification for the use of force in times of danger is available in many jurisdictions.
Physical
Physical self-defense is the use of physical force to counter an immediate threat of violence. Such force can be either armed or unarmed. In either case, the chances of success depend on various parameters, related to the severity of the threat on one hand, but also on the mental and physical preparedness of the defender.
Unarmed
Many styles of martial arts are practiced for self-defense or include self-defense techniques. Some styles train primarily for self-defense, while other martial or combat sports can be effectively applied for self-defense. Some martial arts train how to escape from a knife or gun situation or how to break away from a punch, while others train how to attack. To provide more practical self-defense, many modern martial arts schools now use a combination of martial arts styles and techniques, and will often customize self-defense training to suit individual participants.
Armed
A wide variety of weapons can be used for self-defense. The most suitable depends on the threat presented, the victim or victims, and the experience of the defender. Legal restrictions also greatly influence self-defense options.
In many cases there are also legal restrictions. While in some jurisdictions firearms may be carried openly or concealed expressly for this purpose, many jurisdictions have tight restrictions on who can own firearms, and what types they can own. Knives, especially those categorized as switchblades, may also be controlled, as may batons, pepper spray and personal stun guns and Tasers although some may be legal to carry with a license or for certain professions.
Non-injurious water-based self-defense indelible dye-marker sprays, or ID-marker or DNA-marker sprays linking a suspect to a crime scene, would in most places be legal to own and carry.
Everyday objects, such as flashlights, baseball bats, newspapers, keyrings with keys, kitchen utensils and other tools, and hair spray aerosol cans in combination with a lighter, can also be used as improvised weapons for self-defense.
Verbal self-defense
Verbal self-defense is defined as using words "to prevent, de-escalate, or end an attempted assault."
Women's self-defense
According to Victims of Sexual Violence: Statistics on Rainn, about "80 percent of juvenile victims were female and 90 percent of rape victims were adult women". In addition, women from ages 18 to 34 are highly at risk to experience sexual assault. According to historian Wendy Rouse in Her Own Hero: The Origins of Women's Self-Defense Movement, women's self-defense training emerged in the early twentieth century in the United States and the United Kingdom paralleling the women's rights and suffrage movement. These early feminists sought to raise awareness about the sexual harassment and violence that women faced on the street, at work, and in the home. They challenged the notion that men were their "natural protectors" noting that men were often the perpetrators of violence against women. Women discovered a sense of physical and personal empowerment through training in boxing and jiu-jitsu. Interest in women's self-defense paralleled subsequent waves of the women's rights movement especially with the rise of Second-wave feminism in the 1960s and 1970s and Third-wave feminism in the 1990s. Today's Empowerment Self-Defense (ESD) courses focus on teaching verbal and psychological as well as physical self-defense strategies. ESD courses explore the multiple sources of gender-based violence especially including its connections with sexism, racism, and classism. Empowerment Self-Defense instructors focus on holding perpetrators responsible while empowering women with the idea that they have both the right and ability to protect themselves.
Self-defense education
Self-defense techniques and recommended behavior under the threat of violence is systematically taught in self-defense classes. Commercial self-defense education is part of the martial arts industry in the wider sense, and many martial arts instructors also give self-defense classes. While all martial arts training can be argued to have some self-defense applications, self-defense courses are marketed explicitly as being oriented towards effectiveness and optimized towards situations as they occur in the real world. Many systems are taught commercially, many tailored to the needs of specific target audiences (e.g. defense against attempted rape for women, self-defense for children and teens). Notable systems taught commercially include:
Civilian versions of modern military combatives, such as Krav Maga, Defendo, Spear, Systema
Jujutsu and arts derived from it, such as Aikijujutsu, Aikido, Bartitsu, German ju-jutsu, Kodokan Goshin Jutsu.
Model Mugging
Traditional unarmed fighting styles like Karate, Kung fu, Hapkido, Pencak Silat, Taekkyon, etc. These styles can also include competing.
Traditional armed fighting styles like Kali/Eskrima/Arnis. These include competing, as well as armed and unarmed combats.
Street Fighting oriented, unarmed systems, such as Jeet Kune Do, Kajukenbo, Won Sung Do ®, and Keysi Fighting Method
Martial sports, such as boxing, kickboxing, Muay Thai, savate, shoot boxing, Sanshou, Taekwondo, judo, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, Sambo, and wrestling.
Legal aspects
Application of the law
In any given case, it can be difficult to evaluate whether force was excessive. Allowances for great force may be hard to reconcile with human rights.
The Intermediate People's Court of Foshan, People's Republic of China in a 2009 case ruled the killing of a robber during his escape attempt to be justifiable self-defense because "the robbery was still in progress" at this time.
In the United States between 2008 and 2012, approximately 1 out of every 38 gun-related deaths (which includes murders, suicides, and accidental deaths) was a justifiable killing, according to the Violence Policy Center.
In Canada, self-defence, in the context of criminal law, is a statutory defence that provides a full defence to the commission of a criminal act. It operates as a justification, the successful application of which means that owing to the circumstances in which the act was produced, it is not morally blameworthy. There are three elements an accused must demonstrate to successfully raise self-defence.
First, the accused must demonstrate that she or he believed on reasonable grounds that force was going to be used against her or him or another person or that a threat of force is being made against her or him or another person. The reasonableness of the belief is assessed through both a subjective and objective lens. Certain beliefs, including racist beliefs and beliefs induced by self-intoxication are prima facie unreasonable. Other beliefs related to the subjective experience of the accused may, however, be reasonable. These include any relevant military training (R v Khill), heightened awareness of patterns of cyclical violence in intimate relationships (R v Lavallée) and whether the accused has autism (R v Kagan).
Second, the act that constitutes the offence is committed for the purpose of defending or protecting themselves or the other person from that use or threat of force.
Third, the act that constitutes the offence must have been reasonable in the circumstances. There are a number of indicia which factor into whether the act was reasonable in the circumstances. For one, was the violence or threat of violence imminent? Usually, if there is a significant time interval between the original unlawful assault and the accused’s response, it undermines the contention that there were no other means available to respond to the potential use of force and one tends to suspect that the accused was motivated by revenge rather than self-defence. However, R v Lavalleé accepted expert evidence demonstrating that people experiencing battered women’s syndrome have special knowledge about the cyclical nature of violence in a way allows them to foresee when harm is coming. Second, it's relevant whether there was a reasonable avenue of escape available to the accused. Under the old self-defence provision, there was a requirement for the accused to have believed on reasonable grounds that there was no alternative course of action open to him at the time, so that he reasonably thought that he was obliged to kill in order to preserve himself from death or grievous bodily harm. Now, even though 34(2)(b) is only one consideration in a non-exhaustive list, the mandatory role it used to play in the common law suggests it carries considerable weight in determining the reasonableness of the act in the circumstances under 34(1)(c)
As such, while there is no absolute duty to retreat, it is a prerequisite to the defence that there were no other legal means of responding available. In other words there may be an obligation to do retreat where there is an option to do so (R v Cain). However, there is an exception to the obligation to retreat which is there is no requirement to flee from your own home to escape an assault to raise self-defence (R v Forde). Moreover, evidence of the accused suffering from battered women's syndrome may evince that the accused reasonably perceived there to have been no means of escape (R v Lavalleé). Third, the accused's role in the incident may play into the reasonableness of her or his act. Consideration of the accused’s role is not limited to whether he did any provocative or unlawful acts at it was under the old self-defence provisions (R v Khill). Fourth, the nature and proportionality of the accused's response will factor into whether it was reasonable. While a person is not expected to weigh to a nicety the measure of force used to respond to violence or a threat thereof, grossly disproportionate force will tend to be unreasonable (R v Kong).
See also
Unarmed self-defense
Anti-theft system
Armored car
Body armor
Bodyguard
Cyber self-defense
Digital self-defense
Door security
Gated community
GPS tracking unit
Guard dog
Hand to hand combat
Intrusion alarm
Peroneal strike
Personal alarms
Physical security
Safe room
Secure telephone
Video surveillance systems
Armed self-defense
Airgun
Ballistic knife
Baton (law enforcement) / Tonfa (martial arts)
Boot knife
Brass knuckles
Club (weapon)
Crossbow
CS gas
Defense wound
Defensive gun use
Electroshock weapon
Gun safety
Handgun
Hiatt speedcuffs
Hollow-point bullet
Knife / Combat knife
Laser pointer
Laser sight
Mace (spray)
Millwall brick
Nunchuku
Offensive weapon
Paintball gun
PAVA spray
Pepper spray
Personal defense weapon
Riot shotgun
Self-defence in international law
Slapjack (weapon)
Slingshot
Stun grenade
Switchblade
Taser
Throwing knife
Tranquilizer gun
Weighted-knuckle glove
Legal and moral aspects
Battered woman defense
Castle doctrine
Concealed carry
Duty to retreat
Gun-free zone
Gun laws in the United States (by state)
Gun politics
Gun politics in the United States
Justifiable homicide
Non-aggression principle
Open Carry
Reasonable force
Self-defence in international law
Self-preservation
Sell your cloak and buy a sword
Stand-your-ground law
Use of force
Turning the other cheek
References
External links | [
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|
215865 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dukat%20%28Star%20Trek%29 | Dukat (Star Trek) | Dukat is a fictional character from the television series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine. A member of the fictional Cardassian species, he is introduced as the former overseer of the series' namesake space station but goes on to become the leader of his species' governing body, the Cardassian Union. At times an enemy while at others an ally of Benjamin Sisko, Dukat appears in 35 of the series' 176 episodes. He was portrayed by Marc Alaimo throughout. Dukat became a fan favorite among Star Trek fans and he is widely considered to be one of the most iconic villains in the Star Trek franchise.
Creation and role
The Cardassians were introduced to the Star Trek universe in the Next Generation episode "The Wounded". In that episode, Marc Alaimo played a Cardassian named Macet. While the similarities between Macet and Dukat were never explained when Dukat was cast for Deep Space Nine, the Star Trek: Deep Space Nine relaunch novel Demons of Air and Darkness features Macet, who explains to Kira Nerys, "Skrain Dukat was my cousin."
Dukat played a versatile role throughout the series and was often a nuanced character. In the words of Deep Space Nine co-executive producer Ronald D. Moore, "I don't think of him as being completely evil through and through ... He can be charming. He can be generous. He can do the right thing. All of that somehow makes his 'evil' actions all the more despicable, because we know that there was the potential in there for him to be a better person." Ultimately, despite the character's versatility, "Dukat is a bad guy. A very bad guy." Indeed, StarTrek.com describes him as "the most complex and fully developed villain in Star Trek history".
Appearances
Prior to the start of the series, Dukat held the military title of Legate (Admiral) and was the head of the Cardassian occupation government of the planet Bajor as well as commander of the Cardassian-built station originally named Terok Nor (which would become known as Deep Space Nine under the Federation). When the Cardassians are forced to withdraw, he is demoted to Gul (equivalent to Captain). Due to this background, Dukat's early appearances range from being anti-heroic to antagonistic. In his debut appearance in the pilot episode "Emissary", he takes a Cardassian warship to Deep Space Nine to demand from the new Starfleet-appointed commander Benjamin Sisko one of the recently discovered Orbs of the Bajoran Prophets.
In "Cardassians", Dukat is at the center of a conspiracy which his exiled Cardassian enemy Elim Garak and Dr. Julian Bashir are trying to unravel. In "Civil Defense" he tries to blackmail the crew of Deep Space Nine when they cannot disarm an accidentally-triggered Cardassian counter-insurgency program. He is allied with the main Starfleet characters against the Maquis rebels in "The Maquis" and "Defiant" and against the Klingons when they invade Cardassia in "The Way of the Warrior".
In the season 4 episode "Indiscretion", Kira Nerys accompanies Gul Dukat on a search for a lost Cardassian starship, where it is revealed he is trying to track down and kill his illegitimate half-Bajoran daughter Tora Ziyal. He ultimately resolves to take her home with him. The follow-up episode "Return to Grace" shows Dukat being disgraced with the Cardassian military as a result of this move, reduced to commanding a freighter with Ziyal and his deputy Damar. With Kira's help, Dukat commandeers a Klingon Bird Of Prey and sends his government their battle plans. When he hears that the Cardassian government still wants to negotiate with the Klingons, he decides to use his new ship to launch a one-man war against the Klingon Empire, leaving Ziyal with Kira at Deep Space Nine. In this capacity he helps Sisko, Miles O'Brien, Odo, and Worf infiltrate the Klingon Empire in the season five premiere "Apocalypse Rising".
Dukat's character returned to being a more antagonistic role in season five's "By Inferno's Light", where he is revealed to have negotiated Cardassia's joining The Dominion, becoming head of the Union's government in the process. He leads an invasion force which recaptures Deep Space Nine in the season finale "Call to Arms", effectively starting the Dominion War and retaking his old command.
Dukat loses the station again in the sixth season episode "Sacrifice of Angels", where Damar kills Ziyal in retaliation for having helped the Federation. Mentally broken, Dukat is easily captured by Starfleet. He escapes their custody when he and Sisko are marooned in "Waltz", during which Dukat experiences hallucinations of Kira, Damar, and Weyoun, comes to accept his hatred for the Bajorans, and swears vengeance on all Bajor before escaping. Toward this end, Dukat allies himself with—and is for a short time possessed by—the Pah-wraiths, archenemies of the Bajoran Prophets, and renders the latter's Orbs useless, killing series character Jadzia Dax in "Tears of the Prophets".
Dukat returns in season seven at the head of the cult of the Pah-wraiths in "Covenant", but he is quickly disgraced in front of his followers by Kira and goes into hiding again. In "Penumbra", he seeks Damar's help to find a surgeon to make him look like a Bajoran. In this guise, he convinces Kai Winn to join him in his efforts to free the Pah-wraiths from their imprisonment in the Bajoran Fire Caves in "Strange Bedfellows", even when she discovers his true identity in "The Changing Face of Evil." Their plan is put into action in the series finale "What You Leave Behind", where the Pah-wraiths choose him as their emissary instead of Winn. Sisko, emissary of the Prophets, arrives to stop him and at Winn's advice shoves himself, the Pah-wraiths' holy book, and Dukat into the burning fire caves, sealing Dukat in the Fire Caves with the Pah-wraiths forever.
Reception
In 2009, IGN ranked Dukat as the 15th best character of Star Trek overall, calling the character a complicated and nuanced "bad guy". They note the character's morality in "Indiscretion" as well as his introduction in the Deep Space Nine premiere, "Emissary".
In 2016, Screen Rant rated Dukat as the 8th best character in Star Trek overall as presented in television and film. Time magazine rated Gul Dukat the fourth best villain of the Star Trek franchise in 2016.
In 2018, CBR ranked Gul Dukat the 3rd best recurring character of all Star Trek.
References
External links
Gul Dukat at StarTrek.com
Cardassians
Extraterrestrial supervillains
Television supervillains
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional cult leaders
Fictional dictators
Fictional warlords
Fictional mass murderers
Fictional rapists
Star Trek: Deep Space Nine characters
Fictional characters who have made pacts with devils | [
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|
215867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasian%20Psychosis | Caucasian Psychosis | Caucasian Psychosis is a compilation album of Babyteeth and Pleasure Death by the rock band Therapy?. It was released on 13 April 1992 via Quarterstick Records in North America. Southern Records released the album in Europe. Both mini-albums had been previously released in Europe on Wiiija Records.
The album was released on 12" vinyl, CD, and cassette. The European vinyl came with a poster.
Track listing
All songs written by Therapy?
Personnel
Therapy?
Andy Cairns – vocals, guitar
Fyfe Ewing – vocals, drums
Michael McKeegan – bass
with:
Keith Thompson – saxophone on "Loser Cop"
Technical
Mudd and Therapy? - producer (tracks 1-7)
Harvey Birrell, John Loder and Therapy? - producer (tracks 8-13)
Lori Barbero – photography
Trish O'Callaghan – cover art
Trivia
The sample in "Meat Abstract" ("Wake up, time to die") is taken from the 1982 movie Blade Runner and is spoken by actor Brion James.
The sample in "Loser Cop" ("All we represent to them man, is somebody who needs a haircut") is taken from the 1969 movie Easy Rider and is spoken by actor Dennis Hopper.
The sample in "Loser Cop" ("You little punk") is taken from the 1989 movie Drugstore Cowboy.
The sample in "Loser Cop" ("Good morning, you fascists, you pigs, you bigots, you pinkos, you fags, you bastards, fuzz. This indoctrination of vocal harassment was compiled by our own Juvenile Division is preparation for the concert this weekend") is taken from the 1973 movie Electra Glide in Blue and is spoken by actor Joe Samsil.
The sample in "Innocent X" (at 2:25) is taken from the 1988 movie Dead Ringers and is spoken by actor Jeremy Irons.
The sample in "Innocent X" ("My voice is nothing, my thoughts are nothing, in many respects I'm like you… nothing") is taken from the 1973 porn movie The Devil in Miss Jones and is spoken by actor John Clemens.
The sample in "Dancin' With Manson" ("Take a knife on up the hill, lover, and kiss the girl goodbye") is taken from the 1978 movie Magic and is spoken by actor Anthony Hopkins.
The sample in "Skinning Pit" ("Every once in a while I had to take a beating. Back then, I didn't care. The way I saw it, everyone takes a beating sometimes") is taken from the 1990 movie Goodfellas and is spoken by actor Ray Liotta.
The sample in "Potato Junkie" ("Don't you ever feel attracted to the girls you photograph…") is taken from the 1981 Ozploitation movie Centrespread.
"Meat Abstract" is named after a piece of art by British avant-garde artist Helen Chadwick.
"Innocent X" is named after a painting by Irish painter Francis Bacon.
Andy Cairns plays piano (un-credited) on "Loser Cop".
The noise at the beginning of "Meat Abstract" is Fyfe Ewing drinking a can of beer in the vocal booth.
The breathing at the beginning of "Innocent X" belongs to Michael McKeegan.
References
Therapy? albums
Quarterstick Records albums
1992 compilation albums | [
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215873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch%20Me%20If%20You%20Can | Catch Me If You Can | Catch Me If You Can is a 2002 American biographical crime film directed and produced by Steven Spielberg from a screenplay by Jeff Nathanson and starring Leonardo DiCaprio, Tom Hanks, Christopher Walken, Martin Sheen, and Nathalie Baye. The film is based on the autobiography of Frank Abagnale, who allegedly, before his 19th birthday, successfully performed cons worth millions of dollars by posing as a Pan American World Airways pilot, a Georgia doctor, and a Louisiana parish prosecutor. The truth of his story is questionable.
Development for the film began in 1980 but dragged on until 1997, when Spielberg's DreamWorks bought the film rights to Abagnale's 1980 book of the same name. David Fincher, Gore Verbinski, Lasse Hallström, Miloš Forman, Tony Scott, Peter Berg, and Cameron Crowe were all considered to direct the film before Spielberg decided to direct it himself. Filming took place from February to May 2002.
The film opened on December 25, 2002, to critical and commercial success. At the 75th Academy Awards, Christopher Walken and John Williams were nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Score, respectively.
Plot
In 1963, teenager Frank William Abagnale Jr. lives in New Rochelle, New York with his father Frank Abagnale Sr. and his French mother Paula. When Frank Sr. encounters tax problems with the Internal Revenue Service, the family is forced to move from their large home to a small apartment. One day, Frank discovers that his mother is having an affair with his father's friend Jack Barnes. When his parents divorce, Frank runs away. Needing money, he turns to confidence scams to survive and his cons grow bolder. He impersonates a Pan Am pilot and forges the airline's payroll checks. Soon, his forgeries are worth millions of dollars. News of the crimes reach the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and agent Carl Hanratty begins tracking Frank. Carl finds Frank at a hotel, but Frank cons Carl into believing he is Secret Service agent Barry Allen. He escapes before Carl realizes that he was fooled.
Frank begins to impersonate a doctor. As Dr. Frank Conners, he falls in love with Brenda, a naive young hospital worker. Frank asks Brenda's attorney father for permission to marry her and also wants his help with arranging to take the Louisiana State Bar exam, which Frank passes. Carl tracks Frank to his and Brenda's engagement party, but Frank escapes through a bedroom window. Before escaping, Frank asks Brenda to meet him at Miami International Airport two days later. At the airport, Frank sees Brenda, but also spots plainclothes agents and realizes she has given him up, then drives away. He then re-assumes his pilot identity and stages a false recruiting drive for stewardesses at a local college. He recruits eight women as stewardesses, conceals himself from Carl and the other agents walking through the airport with the stewardesses, and escapes on a flight to Adolfo Suárez Madrid–Barajas Airport, Spain.
In 1967, Carl tracks down Frank in his mother's hometown of Montrichard, France. Frank is incarcerated in a French prison in Marseille where he almost dies due to its poor conditions. Carl takes Frank on a flight back to the United States. As they make their approach, Carl informs Frank that his father has died. Grief-stricken, Frank escapes from the plane and reaches the house of his now re-married mother who has a daughter. Frank surrenders to Carl and spends 12 years in a maximum-security prison.
Carl occasionally visits Frank. During one visit, Carl shows him a fraud check from a case he is working on. Frank immediately figures out that the bank teller was involved in the fraud. Impressed, Carl convinces the FBI to allow Frank to serve the remainder of his sentence working for the FBI bank fraud unit. Frank agrees but soon grows restless of the tedious office work. One weekend, he prepares to impersonate a pilot again and is intercepted by Carl, who allows him to carry on his act, assuring Frank that no one is chasing him. As Frank returns to work and discusses another fraud case with Carl, the post-script indicates that Frank has lived for 26 years in the Midwestern United States with his wife, with whom he has had three sons, remains friends with Carl, and has built a successful living as one of the world's leading experts on bank fraud and forgery.
Cast
Leonardo DiCaprio as Frank Abagnale, a teenager who turned into a con artist.
Tom Hanks as Carl Hanratty, an FBI agent who is based on Joseph Shea.
Christopher Walken as Frank Abagnale Sr., the father of Frank Abagnale.
Martin Sheen as Roger Strong, an attorney.
Nathalie Baye as Paula Abagnale, the French mother of Frank.
Amy Adams as Brenda Strong, a young hospital worker ("candy striper") and the daughter of Roger.
James Brolin as Jack Barnes, the friend of Frank Abagnale Sr. who had an affair with Paula.
Nancy Lenehan as Carol Strong, the mother of Brenda.
Candice Azzara as Darcy
Malachi Throne as Abe Penner
Alfred Dennis as Ira Penner
Amy Acker as Miggy Acker, one of the eight women that Frank recruits to be his stewardesses.
Guy Thauvette as Warden Garren, the prison warden of the unnamed Marseille prison.
Maggie Mellin as the unnamed French teacher who Frank impersonates.
Thomas Kopache as Principal Evans, the principal of Frank's school who busts him for impersonating a substitute teacher.
James Morrison as Pilot
Robert Symonds as Mr. Rosen
Dave Hager as Judge
Jasmine Jessica Anthony as the unnamed daughter of Paula and Jack
Brian Howe, Frank John Hughes and Chris Ellis portray FBI agents Earl Amdursky, Tom Fox, and Special Agent Witkins, respectively. John Finn portrays FBI Assistant Director Marsh. Jennifer Garner cameos as a call girl named Cheryl Ann. Ellen Pompeo, Elizabeth Banks, and Kaitlin Doubleday have supporting roles as Marci, Lucy, and Joanna. The real Frank Abagnale appears in a cameo as a French police officer arresting his onscreen counterpart.
Production
Development
Frank Abagnale sold the film rights to his autobiography in 1980. According to Abagnale, producers Norman Lear and Bud Yorkin purchased the film rights after seeing him on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson. Two years later, they sold the rights to Columbia Pictures, who in turn sold the rights to producer Hall Bartlett. Bartlett and business partner Michael J. Lasky hired Steven Kunes to write the screenplay, but Bartlett died before the project found a distributor. The rights were then sold to Hollywood Pictures, a division of Disney, and when the project went into turnaround, the rights were again sold to Bungalow 78 Productions, a division of TriStar Pictures. From there, the project was presented to Steven Spielberg at DreamWorks Pictures. According to Daily Variety, executive producer Michel Shane purchased the film rights in 1990 for Paramount Pictures. By December 1997, Barry Kemp purchased the film rights from Shane, bringing the project to DreamWorks, with Jeff Nathanson writing the script. By April 2000, David Fincher was attached to direct over the course of a few months, but dropped out in favor of Panic Room. In July 2000, Leonardo DiCaprio had entered discussions to star, with Gore Verbinski to direct. Spielberg signed on as producer, and filming was set to begin in March 2001.
Casting
Verbinski cast James Gandolfini as Carl Hanratty, Ed Harris as Frank Abagnale, Sr., and Chloë Sevigny as Brenda Strong. Verbinski dropped out because of DiCaprio's commitment on Gangs of New York. Lasse Hallström was in negotiations to direct by May 2001, but dropped out in July 2001. At this stage, Harris and Sevigny left the film, but Gandolfini was still attached. Spielberg, co-founder of DreamWorks, offered the job of director to Miloš Forman, and considered hiring Cameron Crowe. During this negotiation period, Spielberg began to consider directing the film himself, eventually dropping projects such as Big Fish and Memoirs of a Geisha. Spielberg officially committed to directing in August 2001. That same month, Tom Hanks was cast to replace Gandolfini, who had exited due to scheduling conflicts with The Sopranos.
The search for Sevigny's replacement as Brenda Strong lasted months, but Amy Adams was eventually cast. Spielberg "loved" her tape, and producer Walter F. Parkes commented that she was "as fresh and honest as anyone we'd seen," which was an important element in the role. Christopher Walken was cast as Frank Abagnale, Sr. following Parkes' suggestion. Martin Sheen played Roger Strong, as he had "intimidating presence". Spielberg wanted a French actress to portray Paula Abagnale to stay true to the facts. He asked for the help of Brian De Palma, who was living in Paris, and he did tests with several actresses such as Nathalie Baye. Spielberg had seen Jennifer Garner on Alias and offered her a small role in the film.
Filming
Filming was scheduled to begin in January 2002, but was pushed to February 7 in Los Angeles, California. Locations included Burbank, Downey, New York City, LA/Ontario International Airport (which doubled for Miami International Airport), Quebec City and Montreal. The film was shot in 147 locations in only 52 days. DiCaprio reflected, "Scenes that we thought would take three days took an afternoon." Filming ran from April 25–30 on Park Avenue, just outside the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. Production moved to Orange, New Jersey and returned to Brooklyn for bank and courthouse scenes. Shooting also took place at the TWA Flight Center at John F. Kennedy International Airport. Quebec City was chosen for its European character and French feel. Place Royale, within Old Quebec, stands in for Montrichard, and the church in the background of the arrest scene is Notre-Dame-des-Victoires. Filming ended on May 12 in Montreal.
Music
The film's soundtrack was released on December 10, 2002 by DreamWorks Records. The original score was composed and conducted by John Williams.
Historical accuracy
Abagnale had little involvement with the film, but believed Spielberg was the only filmmaker who "could do this film justice," despite the various changes from real-life events. In November 2001, Abagnale said:
I am not a consultant on the film. I've never met nor spoken to Steven Spielberg and I have not read the script. I prefer not to. I understand that they now portray my father in a better light, as he really was. Steven Spielberg has told the screenplay writer (Jeff Nathanson) that he wants complete accuracy in the relationships and actual scams that I perpetrated. I hope in the end the movie will be entertaining, exciting, funny and bring home an important message about family, childhood and divorce.
The real Abagnale never saw his father again after he ran away from home, but Spielberg "wanted to continue to have that connection where Frank kept trying to please his father; by making him proud of him; by seeing him in the uniform, the Pan-American uniform."
In a presentation for "Talks at Google" in November 2017, Abagnale commented extensively about the accuracy of Spielberg's film:
I've only seen the movie twice. So when the media asked me what I thought about the movie, and what was right and what was wrong, I said: First of all I have two brothers and a sister; he portrayed me as an only child. In real life, my mother never remarried; there's a scene in the movie where she's remarried, and has a little girl. That didn't really happen. In real life I never saw my father after I ran away; in the movie they keep having him come back to Christopher Walken in the film. That didn't really happen. ... I escaped off the aircraft through the kitchen galley where they bring the food and stuff onto the plane; and there they had me escape through the toilet. ... I thought he stayed very close to the story, but pretty much all of that. He was very concerned about being accurate, first of all because it was the first time he made a movie about a real person living. Second the Bureau had an information officer on the set for all the shooting of the entire film to make sure that what he said about the FBI ... was accurate. ... And then of course, as he later said, 'I really got most of my information from those three retired agents.' ... So I thought he did a good job of staying very, very accurate at the movie.
In addition, the real name of the actual FBI agent who tracked and later worked with Abagnale was Joseph Shea; Abagnale has stated that because Shea did not want his name to be used in the film, the character was renamed as Carl and given the surname Hanratty, based on a football player of the same name.
Despite his claim that Spielberg "stayed very close to the story", records show Abagnale was in the Great Meadow Prison in Comstock, New York between the ages of 17 and 20 (July 26, 1965 to Dec 24, 1968, inmate #25367), and before that, he was in the United States Navy (December 1964 to February 1965). Six weeks after his release from Great Meadow, on February 14, 1969, he was re-arrested in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He was jailed locally, and in June 1969, he was convicted of stealing from a local family and small business in Baton Rouge. Abagnale did dress as a Pan American Airlines pilot for a brief period in the fall of 1970. He was arrested in Cobb County, Georgia on November 2, 1970. Federal court records associated with his conviction show he cashed only 10 personal checks dressed up with a Pan American Airlines logo, totalling less than $1,500 USD. The facts behind many of Abagnale's exaggerated claims, and their inclusion or omission from the film, have been the subject of media reporting in 2021. His claim that he passed the Louisiana bar exam and worked for Attorney General Jack P. F. Gremillion was debunked by several journalists in 1978. Journalist Ira Perry was unable to find any evidence that Abagnale worked with the FBI; according to one retired FBI Special agent in charge, Abagnale was caught trying to pass personal checks in 1978 several years after he claimed that he began working with the FBI.
Themes
Catch Me if You Can deals with themes of broken homes and troubled childhoods. Spielberg's parents divorced when he was a teenager, similar to Frank Abagnale's situation. In the film, Carl Hanratty is also divorced from his wife, who lives with their daughter in Chicago. "Some of my films have had to do with broken homes and people on the run from their sad pasts," Spielberg stated. But there are those strands that got me to say: you know, there's something also about me that I can say through the telling of this kind of lighthearted story.Spielberg also wanted to create a film that sympathized with a crook. He explained, Frank was a 21st century genius working within the innocence of the mid '60s, when people were more trusting than they are now. I don't think this is the kind of movie where somebody could say, 'I have a career plan.'
Release
DreamWorks was careful to market the film as "inspired by a true story" to avoid controversy similar to that surrounding A Beautiful Mind (2001) and The Hurricane (1999), both of which deviated from history. The premiere took place at Westwood, Los Angeles, California, on December 18, 2002.
Game Show Network has aired the 1977 episode of the television game show To Tell the Truth that featured Frank Abagnale. Segments were shown on December 29, 2002, and January 1, 2003, as promotion.
Home media
Catch Me If You Can was released on DVD and VHS on May 6, 2003. It included special features including never-before-seen footage by director Steven Spielberg as well as interviews. A Blu-ray version was released on December 4, 2012.
Reception
Box office
Catch Me If You Can was released on December 25, 2002, earning slightly above $30 million in 3,225 theaters during its opening weekend, in second place behind The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers. The film went on to gross $164.6 million in North America and $187.5 million in foreign countries, with a worldwide total of $352.1 million. The film was a financial success, recouping the $52 million budget seven times over. Catch Me If You Can was the eleventh highest-grossing film of 2002; Minority Report, also a Spielberg film, was the tenth highest.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, Catch Me If You Can has a "certified fresh" rating of 96% based on 203 reviews, with an average rating of 7.90/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "With help from a strong performance by Leonardo DiCaprio as real-life wunderkind con artist Frank Abagnale, Steven Spielberg crafts a film that's stylish, breezily entertaining, and surprisingly sweet." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 75 out of 100, based on 39 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A-" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert heavily praised DiCaprio's performance, and concluded "This is not a major Spielberg film, although it is an effortlessly watchable one." Mick LaSalle said it was "not Spielberg's best movie, but one of his smoothest and maybe his friendliest. The colorful cinematography, smart performances and brisk tempo suggest a filmmaker subordinating every other impulse to the task of manufacturing pleasure." Stephen Hunter believed DiCaprio shows "the range and ease and cleverness that Martin Scorsese so underutilized in Gangs of New York."
James Berardinelli observed, "Catch Me if You Can never takes itself or its subjects too seriously, and contains more genuinely funny material than about 90% of the so-called 'comedies' found in multiplexes these days." Berardinelli praised John Williams' film score, which he felt was "more intimate and jazzy than his usual material, evoking (intentionally) Henry Mancini." Peter Travers was one of few who gave the film a negative review; he considered the film to be "bogged down over 140 minutes. A film that took off like a hare on speed ends like a winded tortoise."
Accolades
At the 75th Academy Awards, Christopher Walken and John Williams were nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Score. Walken won the same category at the 56th British Academy Film Awards, while Williams, costume designer Mary Zophres and screenwriter Jeff Nathanson received nominations. DiCaprio was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama. Williams also earned a Grammy Award nomination. Elements of the film were later parodied in The Simpsons episode "Catch 'Em If You Can".
Musical adaptation
A musical adaptation of the same name premiered at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle, Washington in July 2009, starring Aaron Tveit and Norbert Leo Butz. It began previews on Broadway at the Neil Simon Theatre on March 11, 2011 and officially opened April 10, 2011. The musical was nominated for four Tony Awards, including Best Musical.
See also
The Great Impostor, a 1961 film based on the story of an impostor named Ferdinand Waldo Demara
The Pretender, a TV series
VIPs, a 2010 film based on the story of Brazilian businessman, consultant, speaker, and former embezzler, Marcelo Nascimento Rocha
References
Frank Abagnale Jr. and Stan Redding. Catch Me If You Can: The Amazing True Story of the Youngest and Most Daring Con Man in the History of Fun and Profit. ().
External links
An Interview with Leonardo DiCaprio - Movies Feature at IGN
2002 films
English-language films
2000s biographical films
2000s chase films
2000s crime films
American films
American biographical films
American chase films
American crime films
BAFTA winners (films)
Biographical films about fraudsters
Crime films based on actual events
Cultural depictions of American men
Cultural depictions of fraudsters
Amblin Entertainment films
DreamWorks Pictures films
Films about con artists
Films about fraud
Films adapted into plays
Films based on autobiographies
Films directed by Steven Spielberg
Films produced by Steven Spielberg
Films scored by John Williams
Films set in Atlanta
Films set in California
Films set in Florida
Films set in France
Films set in Louisiana
Films set in New York City
Films set in Westchester County, New York
Films set in the 1960s
Films shot in California
Films shot in Montreal
Films shot in New Jersey
Films shot in New York City
Films with screenplays by Jeff Nathanson
Films produced by Walter F. Parkes
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|
215875 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bleach%20%28Nirvana%20album%29 | Bleach (Nirvana album) | Bleach is the debut studio album by American rock band Nirvana, released on June 15, 1989, by Sub Pop. After the release of their debut single "Love Buzz" on Sub Pop in November 1988, Nirvana rehearsed for two to three weeks in preparation for recording a full-length album. The main recording sessions for Bleach took place at Reciprocal Recording in Seattle, Washington between December 1988 and January 1989. It is the only Nirvana album released on the Sub Pop label and their only album to feature drummer Chad Channing.
Bleach did not chart upon initial release, but was well received by critics. When reissued internationally by Geffen Records in 1992 following the success of Nirvana's second album, Nevermind, Bleach peaked at number 89 on the Billboard 200, peaked at number 33 on the UK Albums Chart and number 34 on the Australian albums chart. In 2009, Sub Pop released a 20th anniversary edition of Bleach featuring a live recording of a 1990 Nirvana performance in Portland, Oregon as bonus material.
Bleach had sold 40,000 copies in North America before the release of Nevermind. It has since been certified platinum by the RIAA and has sold more than 1.9 million copies in the United States alone. It is Sub Pop's best-selling album to date and is unlikely to be surpassed by competitors. Frontman Kurt Cobain's death in April 1994 also led to a resurgence in the album's popularity, reaching number one on the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart. In April 2019, Bleach was ranked No. 13 on Rolling Stones 50 Greatest Grunge Albums list.
Recording
After the release of its debut single "Love Buzz" on Sub Pop in November 1988, Nirvana practiced for two to three weeks in preparation for recording a full-length album, even though Sub Pop had only requested an EP. The main sessions for Bleach took place at Reciprocal Recording Studios in Seattle, with local producer Jack Endino.
Nirvana began recording with a five-hour session on December 24, 1988. The band recorded again on December 29–31, and on January 14 and 24. Three of the album's songs – "Floyd the Barber", "Paper Cuts", and "Downer" – were recorded during a previous session at Reciprocal Studios in January 1988, featuring Dale Crover on drums. Despite attempts to re-record them with new drummer Chad Channing, the band ultimately decided to remix the versions recorded with Crover for the final version of Bleach. "Big Long Now" was omitted from the album because vocalist/guitarist Kurt Cobain felt "there was already enough slow heavy stuff on Bleach, and he 'didn't want that song to go out'", according to Endino. The album was edited and sequenced, but Sub Pop head Bruce Pavitt ordered that the album be completely re-sequenced. The record was further delayed for several months until Sub Pop was able to secure sufficient funds to issue it.
Lead singer Kurt Cobain felt pressured to create music for Bleach that conformed to the grunge music style favored by his record label and the contemporary Seattle music scene. The album is regarded as quite negative and bleak; Cobain claimed that most of the lyrics were written the night before recording while he was feeling "pissed off", and that he did not regard them highly.
Endino billed the band thirty hours of recording at $606.17. Jason Everman, a guitarist who was impressed by Nirvana's demo with Dale Crover, supplied the money. He briefly joined the group as second guitarist. Everman was credited as a guitarist on the album sleeve, and is the other guitarist on the cover of the album, even though he did not perform on the album. Bassist Krist Novoselic explained, "We just wanted to make him feel at home in the band."
Music
According to Cobain, the music on Bleach conformed with the grunge genre Sub Pop heavily endorsed. "There was this pressure from Sub Pop and the grunge scene to play 'rock music'", Cobain said, and noted that he "[stripped] it down and [made] it sound like Aerosmith." Cobain also felt he had to fit the expectations of the grunge sound to build a fanbase, and hence suppressed his arty and pop songwriting traits while crafting the record. Krist Novoselic said in a 2001 interview with Rolling Stone that the band had played a tape in their tour van that had an album by the Smithereens on one side and one by the extreme metal band Celtic Frost on the other, and noted that the combination probably played an influence as well. The songs were described as "deliberately bleak, claustrophobic, and lyrically sparse, with none of the manic derangement or sense of release of the live performance". Cobain said that the song structures were "one–dimensional", and said that he sought to present a more "polished and urbane side of himself".
Bleach was heavily influenced by the Seattle-based sludge metal scene of the late 1980s and early 1990s, pioneered by Melvins. Author Gillian G. Gaar wrote that Bleach "[has] its share – some would say more than its share – of dirty sludge", and Sub Pop describes the single Love Buzz/Big Cheese to be "heavy pop sludge."
Describing the various songs on Bleach, Christopher Sandford wrote: "'Paper Cuts' includes a folk-influence melody and ponderous rhythm of an early Led Zeppelin number; 'Mr. Moustache' addressed itself to Nirvana's male fans; 'Downer' showed the same exceptional contempt for the group's audience". Sandford felt "School" – which features only four lines of lyrics – was memorable for its chorus that "served as the rip". While "Scoff" is "a parting salvo at [Cobain's parents]", "Negative Creep" was written by Cobain about himself. According to Sandford, "About a Girl" has a "chiming melody and ironic chorus". In Sounds magazine, Keith Cameron said the song "was exhilarating and it was exciting because that was the nature of the music, but there was also an almost palpable sense of danger, that this whole thing could fall apart any second. There was never any relaxation from the first note to the last". In his book Nirvana: The Stories Behind Every Song, Chuck Crisafulli writes that the song "stands out in the Cobain canon as a song with a very specific genesis and a very real subject".
In one of his first interviews, Cobain told Sounds journalist John Robb, "When I write a song the lyrics are the least important thing. I can go through two or three different subjects in a song and the title can mean absolutely nothing at all. Sometimes I try to make things harder for myself, just to try to make myself a bit more angry. I try out a few subconscious things I suppose, like conflicts with other people. Most of the lyrics on the Bleach album are about my life in Aberdeen."
In 1993, Cobain told Spin that on Bleach he "didn't give a flying fuck what the lyrics were about" and claimed that 80 percent of the lyrics were written the night before recording. He was often still working on the words on the drive to the recording studio. He explained: "It was like I'm pissed off. Don't know what about. Let's just scream negative lyrics, and as long as they're not sexist and don't get too embarrassing it'll be okay. I don't hold any of those lyrics dear to me." Nirvana biographer Michael Azerrad noted that, nevertheless, many of the songs on the album reflected Cobain and various incidents in his life. "Mr. Moustache" was inspired by Cobain's dislike of macho behavior, while "School" was a critique of the Seattle music scene, particularly Sub Pop.
Release and promotion
The album cover was photographed by Cobain's then-girlfriend Tracy Marander during a concert at the Reko Muse art gallery in Olympia, Washington. On February 25, 1989, Nirvana played at venues on the west coast, including the University of Washington. The group began its first European tour, a double headliner with the band Tad, at the Riverside venue in Newcastle upon Tyne on October 23, 1989. On December 3, they played a "triumphant" set at the London Astoria. Christopher Sandford related: "when the style pundits noted Cobain's 'patent lumberjack shirts and ugly fifties geometric-patterned jerseys', seeing an example of 'low-couture chic' they missed the point that flannel shirts and sweaters were everyday dress in the marine climate of the Northwest". Cobain took note and said that he never intended to start a fad or act as a role model.
The album's working title was Too Many Humans. It was renamed Bleach after Cobain found an AIDS prevention poster while Nirvana was driving through San Francisco. The poster advised heroin addicts to bleach their needles before use, featuring the slogan "Bleach Your Works". In Australia, Bleach was released on Waterfront Records and re-issued on various colored covers and colored vinyl prior to 1992.
Due to increasing dissatisfaction with Everman over the course of the Bleach tour, Nirvana canceled the last few dates and drove back to Washington. No one told Everman he was fired at the time, while Everman later claimed that he actually quit the group. Although Sub Pop did not promote Bleach as much as other releases, it was a steady seller for a Sub Pop release. However, Cobain was upset by the label's lack of promotion and distribution for the album.
In April 1992, following the success of Nirvana's second album Nevermind, Sub Pop released a remastered version of Bleach on LP, CD and cassette. Geffen Records handled the international release. The CD version was packaged in a cardboard foldout case that included a bonus booklet filled with photos of the band from 1987 to 1990. For the 20th anniversary of the album, Sub Pop released on November 3, 2009 a deluxe reissue of Bleach featuring a March 2009 remastering from the original tapes by George Marino and a live recording of a 1990 show at Portland, Oregon's Pine Street Theatre. Everman is no longer given credit on the album, but can still be seen on the front cover and is given a special thanks in the booklet.
Reception
Bleach did not sell well but received positive reviews from critics when it was first released. NMEs Edwin Pouncey said that the album was the "biggest, baddest sound that Sub Pop have so far managed to unearth. So primitive that they manage to make label mates Mudhoney sound like Genesis, Nirvana turn up the volume and spit and claw their way to the top of the musical garbage heap", and gave it an eight out of ten rating. Thurston Moore of Sonic Youth has said that he "really love[s]" the album, describing it as "primal" and the songwriting as "completely melodious" but also "punk".
In retrospect, Anthony Carew from the About.com Guide said that the album "define[d] the entire decade of the '90s", and awarded it four out of five stars. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave the album three and a half out of five stars, noting that "Kurt Cobain illustrated signs of his considerable songcraft, particularly on the minor-key ballad 'About a Girl' and the dense churn of 'Blew'". He also said that "it's a debut from a band that shows potential but haven't yet achieved it." Bleach was considered by Rolling Stone Magazine as "a moderate hit on college radio and the underground/DIY circuit." Robert Christgau regarded it as possibly an "A–" record in retrospect, and wrote in The New Yorker, "Familiar now with Cobain's extraordinary gift, we can hear it loud and clear on the 1989 debut album, Bleach. Cobain's gigantic, goofy, bass-playing buddy Krist Novoselic added drollery to the band's chaotic irreverence." In 2000, author Dave Thompson stated "history [wouldn't] hear a word against [the album]", but added if "one just came down from a few decades on Mars, 42 minutes of growly, lo-fi probably wouldn't change your life too much".
Before Nevermind was released, Bleach had sold 40,000 copies in North America. The 1992 re-release of the album was more successful on the charts, with Bleach eventually reaching number 89 at the Billboard 200, number 33 on the UK album charts, number 34 on the Australian Recording Industry Association chart, and number 22 on the Finland charts. Kurt Cobain's death in April 1994 also led to a resurgence of popularity, with Bleach entering the Top Pop Catalog chart at number six in the week following his death, and eventually earning the top spot on May 7. The 2009 deluxe edition entered the Catalog Albums chart at number seven. Bleach was certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in February 1995, and had sold an estimated 1.9 million copies in the United States by September 2016. It has also been certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association. It is Sub Pop's best-selling album release to date.
Track listingNotes "Love Buzz" was replaced by "Big Cheese" on the 1989 UK release, but included on the 1992 UK CD reissue.
"Big Cheese" was originally the B-side of "Love Buzz".
"Downer" is included on the 1990 CD, but not the 1990 cassette. Included on both the 1992 CD and 1992 cassette.
The 20th anniversary live bonus track "Spank Thru" was previously released as a b-side on CD versions of the "Sliver" single in 1991.
The 20th anniversary live bonus track "Molly's Lips" was previously released as a single in January 1991.
The 20th anniversary live bonus track version of "About a Girl" was previously released as a b-side on CD and 12" vinyl versions of the "Sliver" single in 1991.
Personnel
Nirvana
Kurt Cobain – vocals, guitar (credited as "Kurdt Kobain")
Krist Novoselic – bass guitar (credited as "Chris Novoselic")
Chad Channing – drumsAdditional Personnel'''
Dale Crover – drums on "Floyd the Barber", "Paper Cuts" and "Downer", backing vocals on "Downer"
Jack Endino – producer
Tracy Marander – photography
Charles Peterson – photography
Lisa Orth – design
Jane Higgins – execution
Jason Everman is pictured in the cover photo and credited as a second guitarist for Nirvana, but he did not perform on the album.
Charts
Original 1989 release
1992 re-release
20th anniversary edition
Certifications
Release history
Notes
References
Azerrad, Michael. Come as You Are: The Story of Nirvana. Doubleday, 1993.
Berkenstadt, Jim; Cross, Charles. Nevermind: Nirvana. Music Sales Group, 2003.
Cross, Charles. Heavier Than Heaven: A Biography of Kurt Cobain. Hyperion, 2001.
Sandford, Christopher. Kurt Cobain. Da Capo Press, 2004.
True, Everett. Nirvana – The True Story. Omnibus Press, 2006.
External links
Bleach'' at Discogs
Live Nirvana Sessions History – Bleach
Live Nirvana Companion to Official Releases – Bleach
1989 debut albums
Nirvana (band) albums
Grunge albums
Sub Pop albums
2009 live albums
Nirvana (band) live albums
Sub Pop live albums
Albums produced by Jack Endino | [
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|
215883 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necessity%20%28criminal%20law%29 | Necessity (criminal law) | In the criminal law of many nations, necessity may be either a possible justification or an exculpation for breaking the law. Defendants seeking to rely on this defense argue that they should not be held liable for their actions as a crime because their conduct was necessary to prevent some greater harm and when that conduct is not excused under some other more specific provision of law such as self defense. Except for a few statutory exemptions and in some medical cases there is no corresponding defense in English law for murder.
For example, a drunk driver might contend that they drove their car to get away from being kidnapped (cf. North by Northwest). Most common law and civil law jurisdictions recognize this defense, but only under limited circumstances. Generally, the defendant must affirmatively show (i.e., introduce some evidence) that (a) the harm they sought to avoid outweighs the danger of the prohibited conduct they are charged with; (b) they had no reasonable alternative; (c) they ceased to engage in the prohibited conduct as soon as the danger passed; and (d) they themselves did not create the danger they sought to avoid. Thus, with the "drunk driver" example cited above, the necessity defense will not be recognized if the defendant drove further than was reasonably necessary to get away from the kidnapper, or if some other reasonable alternative was available to them.
General discussion
As a matter of political expediency, states usually allow some classes of person to be excused from liability when they are engaged in socially useful functions but intentionally cause injury, loss or damage. For example, the fire services and other civil defence organizations have a general duty to keep the community safe from harm. If a fire or flood is threatening to spread out of control, it may be reasonably necessary to destroy other property to form a fire break, or to trespass on land to throw up mounds of earth to prevent the water from spreading. These examples have the common feature of individuals intentionally breaking the law because they believe it to be urgently necessary to protect others from harm, but some states distinguish between a response to a crisis arising from an entirely natural cause (an inanimate force of nature), e.g. a fire from a lightning strike or rain from a storm, and a response to an entirely human crisis. Thus, parents who lack the financial means to feed their children cannot use necessity as a defense if they steal food. The existence of welfare benefits and strategies other than self-help defeat the claim of an urgent necessity that cannot be avoided in any way other than by breaking the law. Further, some states apply a test of proportionality. So the defense would only be allowed where the degree of harm actually caused was a reasonably proportionate response to the degree of harm threatened. This is a legal form of cost–benefit analysis.
Specific jurisdictions
England
Canada
Denmark and Norway
Emergency law/right (nødret, nødrett) is the equivalent of necessity in Denmark and Norway. It is considered related to but separate from self-defence. Common legal examples of necessity includes: breaking windows and other objects in order to escape a fire, commandeering a vehicle to serve as an emergency ambulance, ignoring traffic rules while rushing a dying patient to a hospital, and even killing a person who poses an immediate threat to several other people not including yourself. In the last case self-defense laws are not enough, but the case is covered by nødret. Nødret can only be invoked though when no other option is available.
International law
Customary international law
Under international law, an obligation of customary international law or an obligation granted under a bilateral investment treaty may be suspended under the doctrine of necessity. It is "an exception from illegality and in certain cases even as an exception from responsibility." See Continental Casualty Company v Argentine Republic, ICSID Case No ARB/03/09.
In order to invoke the doctrine of necessity:
The invoking State must not have contributed to the state of necessity,
Actions taken were the only way to safeguard an essential interest from grave and impending danger.
Id. at page 72, paragraph 165.
Switzerland
In two separate cases in 2020, climate activists were not convicted of trespassing and damaging property after holding unauthorized demonstrations in Crédit Suisse branches due to pleading a necessity defense in the face of a climate emergency.
Taiwan, Republic of China
Necessity is a possible defense per the Criminal Code and the Administrative Penalty Act.
United States
Necessity as a defense to criminal acts conducted to meet political ends was rejected in the case of United States v. Schoon. In that case, 30 people, including appellants, gained admittance to the IRS office in Tucson, where they chanted "keep America's tax dollars out of El Salvador," splashed simulated blood on the counters, walls, and carpeting, and generally obstructed the office's operation. The court ruled that the elements of necessity did not exist in this case.
In specific states
Kansas
New York
The Winooski 44 case in Vermont resulted in activists being acquitted of charges after using a necessity defense
Singapore
Necessity is a defence per the Penal Code.
This requires lack of criminal intent, good faith (due care and attention), and the goal of preventing harm. The harm must be sufficiently serious and imminent to justify or excuse the act.
Canada
In Canada, Necessity is recognized as a defence for crimes committed in urgent situations of clear and imminent peril in which the accused has no safe or legal way out of the situation.
Three Requirements for defence of necessity:
(1) Urgent situation of imminent peril or danger
(2) No reasonable legal alternative
(3) Proportionality between harm inflicted and harm avoided
The first and second element are evaluated on the modified objective standard. The third element is evaluated on a purely objective standard. R v Latimer, 2001 SCC 1
In religious law
In Judaism, the principle of pikuach nefesh allows any law to be broken to save a life, except laws against murder, adultery/incest and blasphemy/idolatry.
See also
Competing harms
Opinio juris sive necessitatis
References
Christie, The Defense of Necessity Considered from the Legal and Moral Points of View, (1999) Vol. 48 Duke Law Journal, 975.
Fuller, Lon L. The Case of the Speluncean Explorers, (1949) Vol. 62, No. 4 Harvard Law Review and The Case of the Speluncean Explorers: A Fiftieth Anniversary Symposium, (1999) 12 Harvard Law Review 1834.
Herman, United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyer's Cooperative. Whatever Happened to Federalism? (2002) Vol. 95, No. 1 The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 121.
Travis, M. The Compulsion Element in a Defence of Necessity (2000)
Criminal defenses
Legal doctrines and principles | [
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|
215884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaders%20of%20the%20New%20School | Leaders of the New School | Leaders of the New School was an American hip hop group based in Long Island, New York.
History
The crew was composed of Uniondale, New York, natives Charlie Brown (born Bryan Higgins on September 19, 1970) and Dinco D (born James Jackson on November 4, 1971); North Amityville, New York native Cut Monitor Milo (born Sheldon Scott on July 4, 1970); and Busta Rhymes (born Trevor Smith, Jr. on May 20, 1972), who was originally from Brooklyn, New York but later moved to Uniondale at the age of twelve. The group's big break came when they became an opening act for hip hop group Public Enemy. Public Enemy's Chuck D gave Busta Rhymes and Charlie Brown their stage names. The group wanted to call itself "Leaders of the New School", a name that was sought by a white hip hop group Hank Shocklee was producing. To settle who would get the name, according to Busta Rhymes, Chuck D sent the two groups home to make a track called "Fuck the Old School", and the group that the Bomb Squad "felt the most" would get to use the name. After Rhymes and Brown's group earned the name Leaders of the New School, the white group was named Young Black Teenagers.
Leaders of the New School made its first appearance on an Elektra Records compilation titled Rubáiyát: Elektra's 40th Anniversary, with a song called "Mt. Airy Groove". It was the only hip hop song on that album. LONS soon joined up with popular hip hop collective the Native Tongues, along with the Jungle Brothers, De La Soul, A Tribe Called Quest, and Black Sheep.
In 1991, Busta Rhymes, Dinco D and Charlie Brown made a guest appearance on A Tribe Called Quest's hit single "Scenario", and LONS joined ATCQ on The Arsenio Hall Show to perform the track with the group. The group's debut album, A Future Without a Past..., was also released in 1991. It included the hits "Case of the P.T.A.", "Sobb Story", and "The International Zone Coaster". The group was praised for its light-hearted content and old-school call-and-response deliveries.
The group's second and final album was T.I.M.E. ("The Inner Mind's Eye"), released in 1993, and spawning the fan-favorite singles "What's Next", "Time Will Tell" & "Classic Material".
As time passed, fans and critics began to focus less on LONS as a group and more on Busta Rhymes as a solo artist. During an infamous appearance on the TV show Yo! MTV Raps, the group was seen arguing, with member Charlie Brown becoming upset over Rhymes' show-stealing. The group soon split up, with Charlie Brown, Dinco D and Milo garnering very limited success individually, while Busta Rhymes' popularity continued to increase.
The group made an appearance on Rhymes' 1996 debut album The Coming, on the track "Keep It Movin'" and was the last time they would collaborate as a group. In July 2012, the group reunited on stage during Busta Rhymes' headlining set at the Brooklyn Hip-Hop Festival, to perform "Case of the P.T.A." and "Scenario" in its entirety with A Tribe Called Quest. The group later reunited again in 2015 on the song "We Home" from Busta Rhymes' mixtape The Return Of The Dragon: The Abstract Went On Vacation.
Reunion
The group reunited for two shows in 2012. Dinco D released his debut solo album Cameo Flows on November 4, 2016. The album features appearances by fellow members Charlie Brown and Cut Monitor Milo.
In December 2016, Dinco D and Charlie Brown announced on The Library With Tim Einenkel podcast that the group was working on new material together but did not give any indication to when it would be released. The following month, Busta Rhymes made similar comments on N.O.R.E. & DJ EFN's Drink Champs podcast.
Discography
References
East Coast hip hop groups
Elektra Records artists
Five percenters
Musical groups established in 1986
Musical groups disestablished in 1993
Musical groups from Long Island
Native Tongues Posse
Rappers from New York (state) | [
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|
215889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permanent%20%28mathematics%29 | Permanent (mathematics) | In linear algebra, the permanent of a square matrix is a function of the matrix similar to the determinant. The permanent, as well as the determinant, is a polynomial in the entries of the matrix. Both are special cases of a more general function of a matrix called the immanant.
Definition
The permanent of an matrix is defined as
The sum here extends over all elements σ of the symmetric group Sn; i.e. over all permutations of the numbers 1, 2, ..., n.
For example,
and
The definition of the permanent of A differs from that of the determinant of A in that the signatures of the permutations are not taken into account.
The permanent of a matrix A is denoted per A, perm A, or Per A, sometimes with parentheses around the argument. Minc uses Per(A) for the permanent of rectangular matrices, and per(A) when A is a square matrix. Muir and Metzler use the notation .
The word, permanent, originated with Cauchy in 1812 as “fonctions symétriques permanentes” for a related type of function, and was used by Muir and Metzler in the modern, more specific, sense.
Properties
If one views the permanent as a map that takes n vectors as arguments, then it is a multilinear map and it is symmetric (meaning that any order of the vectors results in the same permanent). Furthermore, given a square matrix of order n:
perm(A) is invariant under arbitrary permutations of the rows and/or columns of A. This property may be written symbolically as perm(A) = perm(PAQ) for any appropriately sized permutation matrices P and Q,
multiplying any single row or column of A by a scalar s changes perm(A) to s⋅perm(A),
perm(A) is invariant under transposition, that is, perm(A) = perm(AT).
If and are square matrices of order n then, where s and t are subsets of the same size of {1,2,...,n} and are their respective complements in that set.
If is a triangular matrix, i.e. , whenever or, alternatively, whenever , then its permanent (and determinant as well) equals the product of the diagonal entries:
Relation to determinants
Laplace's expansion by minors for computing the determinant along a row, column or diagonal extends to the permanent by ignoring all signs. For example, expanding along the first column,
while expanding along the last row gives,
On the other hand, the basic multiplicative property of determinants is not valid for permanents. A simple example shows that this is so.
Unlike the determinant, the permanent has no easy geometrical interpretation; it is mainly used in combinatorics, in treating boson Green's functions in quantum field theory, and in determining state probabilities of boson sampling systems. However, it has two graph-theoretic interpretations: as the sum of weights of cycle covers of a directed graph, and as the sum of weights of perfect matchings in a bipartite graph.
Applications
Symmetric tensors
The permanent arises naturally in the study of the symmetric tensor power of Hilbert spaces. In particular, for a Hilbert space , let denote the th symmetric tensor power of , which is the space of symmetric tensors. Note in particular that is spanned by the Symmetric products of elements in . For , we define the symmetric product of these elements by
If we consider (as a subspace of , the kth tensor power of ) and define the inner product on accordingly, we find that for
Applying the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality, we find that , and that
Cycle covers
Any square matrix can be viewed as the adjacency matrix of a weighted directed graph on vertex set , with representing the weight of the arc from vertex i to vertex j.
A cycle cover of a weighted directed graph is a collection of vertex-disjoint directed cycles in the digraph that covers all vertices in the graph. Thus, each vertex i in the digraph has a unique "successor" in the cycle cover, and so represents a permutation on V. Conversely, any permutation on V corresponds to a cycle cover with arcs from each vertex i to vertex .
If the weight of a cycle-cover is defined to be the product of the weights of the arcs in each cycle, then
implying that
Thus the permanent of A is equal to the sum of the weights of all cycle-covers of the digraph.
Perfect matchings
A square matrix can also be viewed as the adjacency matrix of a bipartite graph which has vertices on one side and on the other side, with representing the weight of the edge from vertex to vertex . If the weight of a perfect matching that matches to is defined to be the product of the weights of the edges in the matching, then
Thus the permanent of A is equal to the sum of the weights of all perfect matchings of the graph.
Permanents of (0, 1) matrices
Enumeration
The answers to many counting questions can be computed as permanents of matrices that only have 0 and 1 as entries.
Let Ω(n,k) be the class of all (0, 1)-matrices of order n with each row and column sum equal to k. Every matrix A in this class has perm(A) > 0. The incidence matrices of projective planes are in the class Ω(n2 + n + 1, n + 1) for n an integer > 1. The permanents corresponding to the smallest projective planes have been calculated. For n = 2, 3, and 4 the values are 24, 3852 and 18,534,400 respectively. Let Z be the incidence matrix of the projective plane with n = 2, the Fano plane. Remarkably, perm(Z) = 24 = |det (Z)|, the absolute value of the determinant of Z. This is a consequence of Z being a circulant matrix and the theorem:
If A is a circulant matrix in the class Ω(n,k) then if k > 3, perm(A) > |det (A)| and if k = 3, perm(A) = |det (A)|. Furthermore, when k = 3, by permuting rows and columns, A can be put into the form of a direct sum of e copies of the matrix Z and consequently, n = 7e and perm(A) = 24e.
Permanents can also be used to calculate the number of permutations with restricted (prohibited) positions. For the standard n-set {1, 2, ..., n}, let be the (0, 1)-matrix where aij = 1 if i → j is allowed in a permutation and aij = 0 otherwise. Then perm(A) is equal to the number of permutations of the n-set that satisfy all the restrictions. Two well known special cases of this are the solution of the derangement problem and the ménage problem: the number of permutations of an n-set with no fixed points (derangements) is given by
where J is the n×n all 1's matrix and I is the identity matrix, and the ménage numbers are given by
where I is the (0, 1)-matrix with nonzero entries in positions (i, i + 1) and (n, 1).
Bounds
The Bregman–Minc inequality, conjectured by H. Minc in 1963 and proved by L. M. Brégman in 1973, gives an upper bound for the permanent of an n × n (0, 1)-matrix. If A has ri ones in row i for each 1 ≤ i ≤ n, the inequality states that
Van der Waerden's conjecture
In 1926 Van der Waerden conjectured that the minimum permanent among all doubly stochastic matrices is n!/nn, achieved by the matrix for which all entries are equal to 1/n. Proofs of this conjecture were published in 1980 by B. Gyires and in 1981 by G. P. Egorychev and D. I. Falikman; Egorychev's proof is an application of the Alexandrov–Fenchel inequality. For this work, Egorychev and Falikman won the Fulkerson Prize in 1982.
Computation
The naïve approach, using the definition, of computing permanents is computationally infeasible even for relatively small matrices. One of the fastest known algorithms is due to H. J. Ryser. Ryser's method is based on an inclusion–exclusion formula that can be given as follows: Let be obtained from A by deleting k columns, let be the product of the row-sums of , and let be the sum of the values of over all possible . Then
It may be rewritten in terms of the matrix entries as follows:
The permanent is believed to be more difficult to compute than the determinant. While the determinant can be computed in polynomial time by Gaussian elimination, Gaussian elimination cannot be used to compute the permanent. Moreover, computing the permanent of a (0,1)-matrix is #P-complete. Thus, if the permanent can be computed in polynomial time by any method, then FP = #P, which is an even stronger statement than P = NP. When the entries of A are nonnegative, however, the permanent can be computed approximately in probabilistic polynomial time, up to an error of , where is the value of the permanent and is arbitrary. The permanent of a certain set of positive semidefinite matrices can also be approximated in probabilistic polynomial time: the best achievable error of this approximation is ( is again the value of the permanent).
MacMahon's Master Theorem
Another way to view permanents is via multivariate generating functions. Let be a square matrix of order n. Consider the multivariate generating function:
The coefficient of in is perm(A).
As a generalization, for any sequence of n non-negative integers, define:
as the coefficient of inMacMahon's Master Theorem''' relating permanents and determinants is:
where I is the order n identity matrix and X is the diagonal matrix with diagonal
Permanents of rectangular matrices
The permanent function can be generalized to apply to non-square matrices. Indeed, several authors make this the definition of a permanent and consider the restriction to square matrices a special case. Specifically, for an m × n matrix with m ≤ n, define
where P(n,m) is the set of all m-permutations of the n-set {1,2,...,n}.
Ryser's computational result for permanents also generalizes. If A is an m × n matrix with m ≤ n, let be obtained from A by deleting k columns, let be the product of the row-sums of , and let be the sum of the values of over all possible . Then
Systems of distinct representatives
The generalization of the definition of a permanent to non-square matrices allows the concept to be used in a more natural way in some applications. For instance:
Let S1, S2, ..., Sm be subsets (not necessarily distinct) of an n-set with m ≤ n. The incidence matrix of this collection of subsets is an m × n (0,1)-matrix A. The number of systems of distinct representatives (SDR's) of this collection is perm(A'').
See also
Computing the permanent
Bapat–Beg theorem, an application of permanents in order statistics
Slater determinant, an application of permanents in quantum mechanics
Notes
References
Further reading
Contains a proof of the Van der Waerden conjecture.
External links
Algebra
Linear algebra
Matrix theory
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215890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local%20H | Local H | Local H is an American rock band originally formed by guitarist and vocalist Scott Lucas, bassist Matt Garcia, drummer Joe Daniels, and lead guitarist John Sparkman in Zion, Illinois in 1990. The members all met in high school in 1987 and founded Local H three years later. They are known for their unorthodox two-piece setup.
After Sparkman's departure in 1991 and Garcia's departure in 1993, Local H signed a record contract with Island Records in 1994 as a duo, where they would go on to release three albums. They became best known for their radio hit "Bound for the Floor", a single from the 1996 album As Good as Dead which peaked at No. 5 on the US Alternative Billboard Chart. The album As Good As Dead was also certified gold. Daniels was replaced by Brian St. Clair in 1999, and the group released four albums and four EPs with St. Clair on drums. Brian St. Clair's last show with Local H was in 2013. In November 2013, Ryan Harding was announced as the new drummer, and the band have since released two albums, Hey, Killer in 2015 and Lifers in 2020.
According to the band's Twitter account in 2015, its name comes from combining two R.E.M. songs: "Oddfellows Local 151" and "Swan Swan H".
History
Joe Daniels era (1987–1999)
Local H formed as a result of a high school band that Scott Lucas and Matt Garcia were in called Rude Awakening, in 1987. In 1987, while attending high school in Zion, Scott Lucas and Joe Daniels began jamming together, along with Matt Garcia and John Sparkman. Local H was formed in 1990, performing their first show on April 20, 1990, at the University of Wisconsin in Whitewater. Sparkman left the band on April 4, 1991. Local H released Drum, their first extended play, in 1991. Garcia left on January 26, 1993, and Lucas and Daniels began looking for a replacement bassist. They eventually decided to carry on as a duo with Lucas handling bass guitar frequencies after having a high school friend, Tobey Flescher, modify his guitar with an added bass pickup and second output. Local H played their first show as a true duo on September 3, 1993.
Local H recorded and released three studio albums through Island Records with the Lucas/Daniels lineup: Ham Fisted (1995), As Good as Dead (1996), and Pack Up the Cats (1998). With As Good as Dead, the band found moderate commercial success with the single "Bound for the Floor" which rose to No. 5 on the US Alternative Billboard Chart and No. 10 on the US Hot Mainstream Rock Billboard Chart. The songs "Eddie Vedder" and "Fritz's Corner" additionally made Top 40 on the Alternative and Mainstream Rock Billboard Charts.
Brian St. Clair era (1999–2013)
In July 1999, after a complicated year with their label, Daniels left the group. He was replaced by former Triple Fast Action drummer Brian St. Clair, who had previously worked as a drum tech for Cheap Trick. Lucas and St. Clair released the band's fourth album Here Comes the Zoo in 2002 under the Palm Pictures record label. The No Fun EP followed in 2003 and their fifth album, Whatever Happened to P.J. Soles?, was released in April 2004 to favorable reviews.
In 2005, the band received a good deal of publicity after recording a cover of the Britney Spears single "Toxic." The track was the only studio recording featured on Alive '05, a 2005 live album that constituted the sixth major release from the band.
In 2008 the band released their sixth studio album Twelve Angry Months, a concept album in which each of the twelve songs represented a stage in a year long process of overcoming a failed relationship.
On April 5, 2011, the ICON release of the band's Island recordings became their first "best-of" compilation. In an April 22 interview with The Delaware County Daily Times, Lucas commented, "It's kinda weird but kinda cool because it doesn’t cover our entire career, so I was like, 'Let's call it The Island Years.'"
In a June 28 guest appearance on the movie review podcast/website "CinemaJaw," Lucas claimed that the next album would be out before the upcoming 2012 elections—mainly because so much of the album's content deals with it directly—expecting it to be released by February 2012. In the same interview, Lucas also suggested that a working title for the album was Hallelujah, I'm a Bum, named for a song from the Depression Era. On July 11, 2012, the band announced that their next studio effort, Hallelujah! I'm a Bum, would be released on September 18. A full track listing was also published.
On August 21, 2013, it was announced that St. Clair would be leaving the band after a brief farewell tour, in order to focus on his tour management company, Tour Time Productions. The departure was described as amicable and a mutual decision between Lucas and St. Clair.
Ryan Harding era (2013–present)
On November 4, 2013, Ryan Harding was announced as the new drummer. Previously, Harding had played with Sullen (Shanna Kiel from Sullen performed on "5th Ave. Crazy" from Here Comes the Zoo in 2001) and Short & Sweet, who had opened for Local H. Nobody else was auditioned or considered, and Harding's first show with the band was on November 8, 2013. On April 22, 2014 the band released a studio single of their cover of the Lorde song "Team". In early 2015, the duo created a Pledgemusic campaign in order to help fund the production of their new album, titled Hey, Killer. The album was released on April 15, 2015 through G&P Records.
On March 29, 2016, Lucas announced on WKQX that the band would celebrate the 20th anniversary of As Good As Dead by playing shows where they perform the entire AGAD album with original drummer Joe Daniels in addition to other songs with Harding on drums.
In April 2017, Local H was announced as the winner of the 'Hit the Stage' contest, gaining the opportunity to open for Metallica on five dates of the WorldWired tour.
In January 2020, the band premiered a new single entitled "Turn the Bow", as well as announced an upcoming studio album entitled LIFERS, set to be released in April of the same year. The album was produced by veteran audio engineers Steve Albini and Andy Gerber, features members of Deer Tick and Naked Raygun, and was mixed by J. Robbins. On March 23, 2020, the band released the live video for their single "Hold That Thought." LIFERS was released on April 10, 2020.
Live shows
Local H is known for their frequent and energetic live shows. The members of the band can usually be found at their own merchandise table after shows, signing autographs and selling band T-shirts.
Local H also has a reputation for creative ideas with regards to its live shows. In addition to playing a show in Chicago every New Year's Eve, the band has also participated in several unconventional concerts over the years, such as allowing one fan to select an album name from a hat, and then playing that album in its entirety. In 2005, Local H performed an "all request tour" in which a ballot containing a breakdown of most of the bands' songs organized into various categories, resembling a traditional sushi menu, was handed out to the audience upon admittance to the venue. Audiences were allowed to pick seven songs from the "menu" and the setlist for each show was derived from these ballots.
In 2003, the band auctioned off a live show to the winner of an eBay auction. The band subsequently performed this concert at Duke O'Briens, a pub in Crystal Lake, IL.
In July 2007, Local H played an early morning show at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago at the conclusion of the Nike Rock 'N Run 5K race, where runners ended the race on the field. Tickets to this show were only available by spotting Scott Lucas in public and speaking the phrase "Attention all planets of the Solar Federation, we have assumed control" directly to him. Later that same year, Local H announced a contest in which fans could make videos of themselves covering Local H songs. The winner would then get to be the opening act for Local H's New Year's Eve show later that year. A band from New York called Kung-Fu Grip won the contest with their cover of a song from Local H's No Fun E.P.
During the spring months of 2010, Local H embarked on their "6 Angry Records" Tour. Each show began with Scott holding a hat filled with slips of paper containing the band's album names. After interviewing members of the audience about which album they'd like to hear, one audience member would choose an album from the hat. The band would then play that album on the spot in its entirety, followed by an encore of other Local H favorites and covers.
In May 2012, the band launched a tour of small clubs and bars in preparation for release of a new album. In September 2016, Local H announced a North American club tour supporting Helmet.
Local H opened for Metallica on select dates during their World Wired tour after winning their "Hit the Stage" contest in 2017.
On January 1, 2018, the band announced a new live album from their 2017 European tour. The album, Live in Europe, was released on February 6, 2018.
On January 6, 2019, the band performed as the halftime entertainment of the Chicago Bears vs. Philadelphia Eagles NFL Wildcard Playoff game.
On October 22, 2021, the band performed at the Shaky Knees Music Festival.
Band members
Current members
Scott Lucas – guitar, lead vocals, percussion, xylophone, synthesizer, organ (1987–present)
Ryan Harding – drums, percussion, backing vocals (2013–present)
Former members
Matt Garcia – bass guitar, vocals (1987–1993)
Toby (Tobey) Flescher – guitar (1987)
John Sparkman – lead guitar (1987–1991)
Joe Daniels – drums, percussion, backing vocals, whistling, live bass, live guitar; performed lead guitar on September 3, 1993 on "Do You Feel Like We Do" (1987–1999, 2016)
Brian St. Clair – drums, percussion, backing vocals (1999–2013)
Touring musicians
Adam McCaffery – guitar, backing vocals (2018–present)
Chad Williams – bass guitar (2018–present)
Gabe Rodriguez – backing vocals, tambourine, kazoo, drums, whistle; performed drums on September 3, 1993 on "Do You Feel Like We Do", 1995 as an unofficial third member, at Edgefest in 1997, on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 1998, and on Alive '05 in 2004 (1997, 1998, 2002, 2004, 2012, 2014, and other miscellaneous years)
Wes Kidd – lead guitar, backing vocals on the Pack Up the Cats tour and on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in 1998 (1998–1999)
Herb Rosen (1999)
Jason Batchko – drums, percussion (2008)
Pete Beeman – drums, percussion (2017)
Timeline
Discography
Studio albums
Extended plays
Live albums
Compilation albums
Demo releases
Concert Films
Singles
Split singles
Music videos
Compilations and soundtracks
The Great White Hype (1996) – "Feed" (featured in film only)
Sling Blade Soundtrack (1996) – "Smothered in Hugs" (Guided by Voices)
Kevin & Bean Present Christmastime In The LBC (1996) – "Disgruntled Christmas"
Royal Flush: Live On-Air (1997) – "Bound for the Floor" (acoustic)
Gravesend Soundtrack (1997) – "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" and "Tag-Along"
93 One: Unplugged & Burnt Out (1998) – "Bound for the Floor" (acoustic)
Q101: Local 101 Volume One (1998) – "Talking Smack"
Q101: Live 101 Volume One (1999) – "All the Kids Are Right" (live)
Where Is My Mind: A Tribute to the Pixies (1999) – "Tame" (Pixies)
Thick Records' Oil Compilation (2002) – "Mellowed" (early version)
Big Nothing (2006) – "Hands on the Bible" and "Bound for the Floor" (both featured in film only)
See also
List of alternative music artists
References
External links
Allmusic entry for Local H
Local H collection at the Internet Archive
Save Me from My Half-life Drive Documentary
1990 establishments in Illinois
Alternative rock groups from Illinois
American musical duos
American post-grunge musical groups
Male musical duos
Musical groups established in 1990
Musical groups from Chicago
Rock music duos
Zion, Illinois | [
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215891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starvation | Starvation | Starvation is a severe deficiency in caloric energy intake, below the level needed to maintain an organism's life. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition. In humans, prolonged starvation can cause permanent organ damage and eventually, death. The term inanition refers to the symptoms and effects of starvation. Starvation may also be used as a means of torture or execution.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), hunger is the single gravest threat to the world's public health. The WHO also states that malnutrition is by far the biggest contributor to child mortality, present in half of all cases. Undernutrition is a contributory factor in the death of 3.1 million children under five every year. Figures on actual starvation are difficult to come by, but according to the Food and Agriculture Organization, the less severe condition of undernourishment currently affects about 842 million people, or about one in eight (12.5%) people in the world population.
The bloated stomach represents a form of malnutrition called kwashiorkor. The exact pathogenesis of kwashiorkor is not clear, as initially it was thought to relate to diets high in carbohydrates (e.g. maize) but low in protein. While many patients have low albumin, this is thought to be a consequence of the condition. Possible causes such as aflatoxin poisoning, oxidative stress, immune dysregulation, and altered gut microbiota have been suggested. Treatment can help mitigate symptoms such as the pictured weight loss and muscle wasting, however prevention is of utmost importance.
Signs and symptoms
The following are some of the symptoms of starvation:
Changes in behaviour or mental status
The beginning stages of starvation impact mental status and behaviours. These symptoms show up as irritable mood, fatigue, trouble concentrating, and preoccupation with food thoughts. People with those symptoms tend to be easily distracted and have no energy.
Physical signs
As starvation progresses, the physical symptoms set in. The timing of these symptoms depends on age, size, and overall health. It usually takes days to weeks, and includes weakness, fast heart rate, shallow breaths that are slowed, thirst, and constipation. There may also be diarrhea in some cases. The eyes begin to sink in and glass over. The muscles begin to become smaller and muscle wasting sets in. One prominent sign in children is a swollen belly. Skin loosens and turns pale in color, and there may be swelling of the feet and ankles.
Weakened immune system
Symptoms of starvation may also appear as a weakened immune system, slow wound healing, and poor response to infection. Rashes may develop on the skin. The body directs any nutrients available to keeping organs functioning.
Other symptoms
Other effects of starvation may include:
Anemia
Gallstones
Hypotension
Stomach disease
Cardiovascular and respiratory diseases
Irregular or absent menstrual periods in women
Kidney disease or failure
Electrolyte imbalance
Emaciation
Oliguria
Stages of starvation
The symptoms of starvation show up in three stages. Phase one and two can show up in anyone that skips meals, diets, and goes through fasting. Phase three is more severe, can be fatal, and results from long-term starvation.
Phase one: When meals are skipped, the body begins to maintain blood sugar levels by producing glycogen in the liver and breaking down stored fat and protein. The liver can provide glycogen for the first few hours. After that, the body begins to break down fat and protein. The body uses Fatty acids as an energy source for muscles but lowers the amount of glucose sent to the brain. Another chemical that comes from fatty acids is glycerol. It can be used as glucose for energy but eventually runs out.
Phase two: Phase two can last for weeks at a time. In this phase, the body mainly uses stored fat for energy. The breakdown occurs in the liver and turns fat into ketones. After fasting for one week, the brain will use these ketones and any available glucose. Using ketones lowers the need for glucose, and the body slows the breakdown of proteins.
Phase three: By this point, the fat stores are gone, and the body begins to turn to stored protein for energy. This means it needs to break down muscle tissues full of protein; the muscles break down very quickly. Protein is essential for our cells to work correctly, and when it runs out, the cells can no longer function.
The cause of death due to starvation is usually an infection or the result of tissue breakdown. This is due to the body becoming unable to produce enough energy to fight off bacteria and viruses. The final stage of starvation includes signals like hair color loss, skin flaking, swelling in the extremities, and a bloated belly. Even though they may feel hunger, people in the final stage of starvation usually cannot eat enough food to recover.
Causes
The body expends more energy than it takes in. This imbalance can arise from one or more medical conditions or circumstantial situations, which can include:
Medical reasons
Anorexia nervosa
Bulimia nervosa
Eating disorder, not otherwise specified
Celiac disease
Coma
Major depressive disorder
Diabetes mellitus
Digestive disease
Constant vomiting
Circumstantial causes
Child, elder, or dependant abuse
Famine for any reason, such as political strife and war
Hunger striking
Excessive fasting
Poverty
Torture
Biochemistry
With a typical high-carbohydrate diet, the human body relies on free blood glucose as its primary energy source. Glucose can be obtained directly from dietary sugars and by the breakdown of other carbohydrates. In the absence of dietary sugars and carbohydrates, glucose is obtained from the breakdown of stored glycogen. Glycogen is a readily-accessible storage form of glucose, stored in notable quantities in the liver and skeletal muscle.
After the exhaustion of the glycogen reserve, and for the next two to three days, fatty acids become the principal metabolic fuel. At first, the brain continues to use glucose. If a non-brain tissue is using fatty acids as its metabolic fuel, the use of glucose in the same tissue is switched off. Thus, when fatty acids are being broken down for energy, all of the remaining glucose is made available for use by the brain.
After two or three days of fasting, the liver begins to synthesize ketone bodies from precursors obtained from fatty acid breakdown. The brain uses these ketone bodies as fuel, thus cutting its requirement for glucose. After fasting for three days, the brain gets 30% of its energy from ketone bodies. After four days, this may increase to 70% or more. Thus, the production of ketone bodies cuts the brain's glucose requirement from 80 g per day to 30 g per day, about 35% of normal, with 65% derived from ketone bodies. But of the brain's remaining 30 g requirement, 20 g per day can be produced by the liver from glycerol (itself a product of fat breakdown). This still leaves a deficit of about 10 g of glucose per day that must be supplied from another source; this other source will be the body's own proteins.
After exhaustion of fat stores, the cells in the body begin to break down protein. This releases alanine and lactate produced from pyruvate, which can be converted into glucose by the liver. Since much of human muscle mass is protein, this phenomenon is responsible for the wasting away of muscle mass seen in starvation. However, the body is able to choose which cells will break down protein and which will not. About 2–3 g of protein has to be broken down to synthesize 1 g of glucose; about 20–30 g of protein is broken down each day to make 10 g of glucose to keep the brain alive. However, this number may decrease the longer the fasting period is continued, in order to conserve protein.
Starvation ensues when the fat reserves are completely exhausted and protein is the only fuel source available to the body. Thus, after periods of starvation, the loss of body protein affects the function of important organs, and death results, even if there are still fat reserves left. In a leaner person, the fat reserves are depleted faster, and the protein, sooner, therefore death occurs sooner.) Ultimately, the cause of death is in general cardiac arrhythmia or cardiac arrest, brought on by tissue degradation and electrolyte imbalances. Conditions like metabolic acidosis may also kill starving people.
Prevention
Starvation can be caused by factors beyond the control of the individual. The Rome Declaration on World Food Security outlines several policies aimed at increasing food security and, consequently, preventing starvation. These include:
Poverty reduction
Prevention of wars and political instability
Food aid
Agricultural sustainability
Reduction of economic inequality
Supporting farmers in areas of food insecurity through such measures as free or subsidized fertilizers and seeds increases food harvest and reduces food prices.
Treatment
Patients that suffer from starvation can be treated, but this must be done cautiously to avoid refeeding syndrome. Rest and warmth must be provided and maintained. Food can be given gradually in small quantities. The quantity of food can be increased over time. Proteins may be administered intravenously to raise the level of serum proteins. For worse situations, hospice care and opioid medications can be used.
Organizations
Many organizations have been highly effective at reducing starvation in different regions. Aid agencies give direct assistance to individuals, while political organizations pressure political leaders to enact more macro-scale policies that will reduce famine and provide aid.
Statistics
According to estimates by the Food and Agriculture Organization, between 720 and 811 million people were affected by hunger globally in 2020. This was a decrease from estimated 925 million in 2010 and roughly 1 billion in 2009. In 2007, 923 million people were reported as being undernourished, an increase of 80 million since 1990–92.
An estimated 820 million people did not have enough to eat in 2018, up from 811 million in the previous year, which is the third year of increase in a row.
As the definitions of starving and malnourished people are different, the number of starving people is different from that of malnourished. Generally, far fewer people are starving than are malnourished.
The proportion of malnourished and starving people in the world has been more or less continually decreasing for at least several centuries. This is due to an increasing supply of food and to overall gains in economic efficiency. In 40 years, the proportion of malnourished people in the developing world has been more than halved. The proportion of starving people has decreased even faster.
Capital punishment
Historically, starvation has been used as a death sentence. From the beginning of civilization to the Middle Ages, people were immured, and died for want of food.
In ancient Greco-Roman societies, starvation was sometimes used to dispose of guilty upper-class citizens, especially erring female members of patrician families. In the year 31, Livilla, the niece and daughter-in-law of Tiberius, was discreetly starved to death by her mother for her adulterous relationship with Sejanus and for her complicity in the murder of her own husband, Drusus the Younger.
Another daughter-in-law of Tiberius, named Agrippina the Elder (a granddaughter of Augustus and the mother of Caligula), also died of starvation, in 33 AD; however, it is unclear if her starvation was self-inflicted.
A son and daughter of Agrippina were also executed by starvation for political reasons; Drusus Caesar, her second son, was put in prison in 33 AD, and starved to death by orders of Tiberius (he managed to stay alive for nine days by chewing the stuffing of his bed); Agrippina's youngest daughter, Julia Livilla, was exiled on an island in 41 by her uncle, Emperor Claudius, and her death by starvation was arranged by the empress Messalina.
It is also possible that Vestal Virgins were starved when found guilty of breaking their vows of celibacy.
Ugolino della Gherardesca, his sons, and other members of his family were immured in the Muda, a tower of Pisa, and starved to death in the thirteenth century. Dante, his contemporary, wrote about Gherardesca in his masterpiece The Divine Comedy.
In Sweden in 1317, King Birger of Sweden imprisoned his two brothers for a coup they had staged several years earlier (Nyköping Banquet). According to legend they died of starvation a few weeks later, since their brother had thrown the prison key in the castle moat.
In Cornwall in the UK in 1671, John Trehenban from St Columb Major was condemned to be starved to death in a cage at Castle An Dinas for the murder of two girls.
The Makah, a Native American tribe inhabiting the Pacific Northwest near the modern border of Canada and the United States, practiced death by starvation as a punishment for slaves.
Concentration camps and ghettos
Many of the prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps were murdered through deliberate maltreatment, disease, starvation, and overwork, or were executed as unfit for labor. Many occupants of ghettos in eastern Europe also starved to death, most notoriously in the Warsaw Ghetto in German-occupied Poland. Prisoners were transported in inhumane conditions by rail freight cars, in which many died before reaching their destination. The prisoners were confined to the cattle cars for days or even weeks, with little or no food or water. Many died of dehydration in the intense heat of summer or froze to death in winter. Nazi concentration camps in Europe from 1933 to 1945 deliberately underfed prisoners, who were at the same time forced to perform heavy labour. Their diet was restricted to watery vegetable soup and a little bread, with little to no dietary fats, proteins or other essential nutrients. Such treatment led to loss of body tissues, and when prisoners became skeletal, the so-called Muselmann were murdered by gas or bullets when examined by camp doctors.
Starvation was also used as a punishment where victims were locked into a small cell until dead, a process which could take many days.
Saint Maximilian Kolbe, a martyred Polish friar, underwent a sentence of starvation in Auschwitz concentration camp in 1941. Ten prisoners had been condemned to death by starvation in the wake of a successful escape from the camp. Kolbe volunteered to take the place of a man with a wife and children. After two weeks of starvation, Kolbe and three other inmates remained alive; they were then executed with injections of phenol.
See also
2007-2008 world food price crisis
Anorexia mirabilis
Cachexia
Global Hunger Index
Starvation mode
Famine scales
Hunger strike
List of famines
List of people who died of starvation
Marasmus
Protein poisoning
References
Further reading
U.N. Chief: Hunger Kills 17,000 Kids Daily - by CNN
Causes of death
Effects of external causes
Execution methods
Famines
Hunger
Malnutrition
Physical torture techniques
Weight loss
Suicide methods | [
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215892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympic%20Mountains | Olympic Mountains | The Olympic Mountains are a mountain range on the Olympic Peninsula of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The mountains, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, are not especially high – Mount Olympus is the highest at ; however, the eastern slopes rise out of Puget Sound from sea level and the western slopes are separated from the Pacific Ocean by the low-lying wide Pacific Ocean coastal plain. The western slopes are the wettest place in the 48 contiguous states. Most of the mountains are protected within the bounds of Olympic National Park and adjoining segments of the Olympic National Forest.
The mountains are located in western Washington in the United States, spread out across four counties: Clallam, Grays Harbor, Jefferson and Mason. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province, which is in turn a part of the larger Pacific Mountain System.
Geography
The Olympics have the form of a cluster of steep-sided peaks surrounded by heavily forested foothills and incised by deep valleys. They are surrounded by water on three sides, separated from the Pacific by the wide coastal plain. The general form of the range is more or less circular, or somewhat horseshoe-shaped, and the drainage pattern is radial.
Rivers radiate outwards to all sides. Clockwise from windward to leeward, the major watersheds are: Satsop, Wynoochee, Humptulips, Quinault, Queets, Hoh, Bogachiel, Sol Duc (all flowing west into the Pacific Ocean; with the Satsop and Wynoochee by way of the Chehalis River, and the Humptulips by way of Grays Harbor at the mouth of the Chehalis River), Lyre, Elwha, Dungeness (all flowing north into the Strait of Juan de Fuca), Big Quilcene, Dosewallips, Duckabush, Hamma Hamma, and Skokomish (all flowing east into Hood Canal).
List of summits
Principal summits:
Mount Olympus – highest point, eight glaciers
Mount Constance – largest peak visible from Seattle
Mount Townsend – highly visible from Seattle at far northeast of the Olympics (technically in the Buckhorn Wilderness)
Mount Anderson – West Peak of Mount Anderson is the hydrographic apex of the Olympic Mountains: From this peak, rivers flow outward to the Pacific Ocean, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, and Hood Canal.
The Brothers – double peak visible from Seattle
Mount Deception
Mount Washington
Mount Angeles
Mount Stone
Mount Ellinor
Other summits:
Boulder Peak – Peak located in the Lake Crescent and Elwha River area
Mount Storm King – located just to the south of Lake Crescent
Hurricane Ridge – road accessible summit near Port Angeles
Other features
Bailey Range
Lost Pass
Protected areas
A large portion of the range is contained within the Olympic National Park. Of this portion, 95% is part of the Daniel J. Evans Wilderness.
The national park is surrounded on the south, east, and northwest sides by the Olympic National Forest, with five wilderness areas, and on the southwest side by the Clearwater State Forest with one Natural Area Preserve (Washington Department of Natural Resources), and the Quinault Indian Reservation. State parks and wildlife areas occur in the lower elevations.
Climate
Precipitation varies greatly throughout the range, from the wet western slopes to the arid eastern ridges. Mount Olympus, nearly tall, is a mere from the Pacific Ocean, one of the steepest reliefs globally and accounting for the high precipitation of the area, as much as of snow and rain on Mount Olympus. of rain falls on the Hoh Rainforest annually, receiving the most precipitation of anywhere in the contiguous United States. Areas to the northeast of the mountains are located in a rain shadow and receive as little as of precipitation. Annual precipitation increases to about on the edges of the rain shadow around Port Townsend, the San Juan Islands, and Everett. 80% of precipitation falls during the winter. On the coastal plain, the winter temperature stays between . During the summer it warms up to stay between .
As a consequence of the high precipitation is the large number of snowfields and glaciers, reaching down to 1,500 m (5,000 ft) above sea level. There are about 184 glaciers crowning the Olympics peaks. The most prominent glaciers are those on Mount Olympus covering approximately . Beyond the Olympic complex are the glaciers of Mount Carrie, the Bailey Range, Mount Christie, and Mount Anderson.
Geology
The Olympics are made up of obducted clastic wedge material and oceanic crust. They are primarily Eocene sandstones, turbidites, and basaltic oceanic crust. Unlike the Cascades, the Olympic Mountains are not volcanic, and contain no granite.
Millions of years ago, vents and fissures opened under the Pacific Ocean and lava flowed forth, creating huge underwater mountains and ranges called seamounts. The Farallon tectonic plate that formed a part of the Pacific Ocean floor (separate from the Pacific plate) inched eastward toward North America about 35 million years ago and most of the sea floor subducted beneath the continental land mass of the North America plate. Some of the sea floor, however, was scraped off and jammed against the mainland, creating the dome that was the forerunner of today's Olympics. In this particular case, the future Olympics were being jammed into a corner created by the Vancouver Island and North Cascades microcontinents attached to the western edge of the North America plate. This is thought to be the origin of the curved shape of the Olympic Basaltic Horseshoe, an arc of basalt running east along the Strait of Juan de Fuca, south along Hood Canal, and then west to Lake Quinault. Thrust-faulting northeast into the Vancouver Island/North Cascades corner pushes Olympic rock upward and southwestward, resulting in strata that appear to be standing on edge and that intermix with strata of different mineral composition. All this occurred under water; the Olympics began to rise above the sea only 10–20 million years ago.
The Olympics were shaped in the Pleistocene era by both alpine and continental glaciers advancing and retreating multiple times. The valleys of the Hoh, Queets, and Quinault rivers are typical U-shaped valleys carved by advancing alpine glaciers. Piles of talus and rockfall were created by retreating alpine glaciers. In the high mountains, the major rivers have their headwaters in alpine glacially carved cirques. During the Orting, followed by the Stuck, the Salmon Springs, and the Fraser glaciations, the vast continental Cordilleran Ice Sheet descended from Alaska south through British Columbia to the Olympics. The ice split into the Juan de Fuca and Puget ice lobes, as they encountered the resistant Olympic Mountains, carving out the current waterways and advanced as far south as present day Olympia. Ice flowed up the river valleys as far as , carrying granitic glacial erratics with it.
Ecology
The mountains support a variety of different ecosystems, varying by elevation and relative east–west location, which influences the local climate, primarily precipitation.
Flora
Olympic forests are coniferous forests, unique among mesic temperate forests in their almost complete dominance by conifers rather than by hardwoods. The hardwood:conifer timber volume ratio is 1:1,000 in the maritime Pacific Northwest.
Another unique feature of Olympic forests is the size and longevity of the dominant tree species. Every coniferous genus represented here is represented by its largest and longest-lived species, and some of its second and third ranked species as well. Biomass accumulations are among the highest in the temperate forest zones.
Dominance of conifers is thought to be a result of the amount and timing of precipitation. The dry summers limit the growth of deciduous trees, such as most hardwoods. Evergreens, such as most conifers, are able to take advantage of the winter precipitation by continuing to photosynthesize through fall, winter and early spring, when deciduous trees are not able to photosynthesize. No deciduous conifers occur in the Olympics; larch trees occur in the much-drier eastern Cascades, but not in the Olympics or western Cascades. There is only one species of evergreen hardwood, the madrone.
The great size and age of conifers here is thought to be a result of the relative lack of frequent windstorms like tropical cyclones.
Along the western flanks of the mountains the increased orographic precipitation supports temperate rain forests in the Quinault, Queets, Hoh, and Bogachiel river valleys at low elevations. Protection by Olympic National Park, has allowed these rain forests to retain old growth trees, which supports a varied ecosystem. The Olympic rain forests are composed primarily of Sitka spruce and western hemlock, as are the surrounding lowland Sitka spruce forests, but are distinct in having a relative abundance of groves of bigleaf maple and vine maple, which support large epiphytic communities of mosses, lichens, ferns, and clubmosses; an abundance of nurse logs on the forest floor; a relatively open forest canopy and sparse shrub layer; and a dense moss layer on the forest floor. The rain forests are the wintering grounds for herds of Roosevelt elk and it is thought that browsing by the elk is responsible for the open shrub layer and the dominance of Sitka spruce over western hemlock.
The rain forests are just one type of forest found in the Olympic Mountains. Franklin and Dyrness set out 5 forest zones: Sitka spruce, western hemlock, silver fir, mountain hemlock, and subalpine parkland. Other authors include a sixth, Douglas-fir zone. Different plant associations are typical of one or more forest zones. For instance, the rain forest plant association described above is a member of the Sitka spruce forest zone.
The Sitka spruce zone is a lowland zone dominated by Sitka spruce and western hemlock. Precipitation is high, winters are mild, elevations are low. This forest zone is typically found at very low elevations on the western coastal plain and not in mountainous areas, although it can be found as high as .
The lower elevations of the Olympic mountains, from roughly up to – , feature the western hemlock zone, so-called because in most of the zone, the climax tree species would be western hemlock, even though much of the area is dominated by Douglas-fir. The reason for this is that Douglas-fir is an early seral species, and reproduces primarily after disturbances such as fire, logging, landslides, and windstorms. Western hemlock does not reproduce well on disturbed, exposed soil but germinates under the canopy of Douglas-fir, eventually overtaking the forest by shading out the Douglas-fir, which cannot reproduce in shade. In this zone, despite the high annual precipitation, drought stress in summer is sufficiently severe to limit growth of many species, such as Sitka spruce. Hardwoods such as bigleaf maple, willows, and red alder are limited to disturbed sites and riparian areas. red-cedar grows in the wettest sites. A very small area of the northeastern rain shadow contains the limited Douglas-fir zone, where it is too dry for western hemlock.
Moving up in elevation and moisture availability is the silver fir zone, up to about . This zone gets more precipitation, and more of it as snow, than the lower, warmer, drier western hemlock zone. The cold and the snowpack combine to limit growth of lower-elevation plants. On the other hand, silver fir is less drought tolerant and less fire tolerant than either Douglas-fir or western hemlock. Slide alder (Alnus viridis sinuata) grows in snow-creep areas and avalanche chutes, along with yellow-cedar. Meadows of thimbleberry also grow in this zone, often intergrading between the slide alder chutes and the silver fir forest.
The next higher forest zone is the mountain hemlock zone, the highest forest zone in the Olympic mountains. In this zone most precipitation falls as snow and the snow-free growing season is very short. In the drier rainshadow side of the mountains, mountain hemlock is largely replaced by subalpine fir. At the higher elevations of the mountain hemlock/subalpine fir zone, tree cover is reduced to isolated stands of trees called tree islands, surrounded by subalpine meadows, in the subalpine parkland zone. Variations in substrate, topography, moisture, and snowpack depth and duration determine the vegetation community. Tree islands form on convex topography, which tends to gather less snow and shed it sooner than surrounding level or concave topography.
In the west, the subalpine zone is dominated by mountain hemlock. It occurs along with subalpine fir from in the Bailey Range; however, the range of this forest type is not extensive and does not extend much west of Mount Olympus, nor is it common in the east. Chamaecyparis nootkatensis|Yellow-cedar is sometimes found in relation to these plants. In the east and other drier areas, the subalpine zone is dominated by subalpine fir. It can occur with other trees, including mountain hemlock, silver fir, and yellow-cedar, but what characterizes these zones is the dominance of subalpine fir. These forests occur on the eastern ridges from .
In the Olympics, the treeline is between and but can be as low as under in some places. Treeline is a function of both elevation and precipitation, particularly the amount of snow that falls each winter. The growing season for trees is relatively short in the higher elevations of the windward Olympics, compared to similar elevations in other mountain ranges, due to the large accumulations of snow that take a long time to melt each year.
Subalpine meadows in the Olympic mountains are of 5 types. Heath shrub meadows are dominated by ericaceous huckleberries and heathers. Lush herbaceous meadows are typified by Sitka valerian and showy sedge. Drier areas or those with longer snow cover grow dwarf sedge (Carex nigricans) or grass (Festuca viridis) meadows. Phlox diffusa typifies the low herbaceous meadows of pumice, talus and scree slopes and other rocky areas. American saw-wort is common in both mountain meadows and lower subalpine parklands in the Olympics.
Above timberline is the Alpine zone, not a forest zone since no trees can grow this high. The alpine zone in the Olympics is much more limited in size than in other temperate mountain ranges, from to . The high precipitation of the Olympics creates permanent snow and ice at lower elevations than is typical for other mountain ranges, cutting off the alpine vegetation zone. Most of the alpine vegetation is on the rain shadow side, in the northeastern Olympics, where there is less permanent snow and ice. Alpine vegetation is low herbaceous, typified by Phlox diffusa and species of Carex. Many of the Olympic Mountain's endemic plants occur here, such as Piper's bellflower (Campanula piperi) and Olympic violet (Viola flettii).
Endemic Plants
Olympic Mountain milkvetch (Astragalus australis var. olympicus)
Piper's bellflower (Campanula piperi)
Spotted coralroot (Corallorhiza maculata var. ozettensis)
Flett's fleabane (Erigeron flettii)
Thompson's wandering fleabane (Erigeron peregrinus ssp. peregrinus var. thompsonii)
Quinault fawn lily (Erythronium quinaultensis)
Olympic rockmat (Petrophylum hendersonii)
Olympic Mountain groundsel (Senecio neowebsteri)
Olympic cut-leaf synthyris (Synthyris pinnatifida var. lanuginosa)
Olympic Mountain dandelion (Taraxacum olympicum)
Olympic violet (Viola flettii)
Fauna
Mammals extirpated from the Olympic Mountains are the fisher (Martes pennanti) and the gray wolf (Canis lupus). The fisher was declared extirpated from Washington State when no fishers were detected during statewide carnivore surveys in the 1990s and 2000s. A reintroduction project was initiated in 2007, in partnership with Olympic National Park. The gray wolf was extirpated from Washington State in the early 20th century. The last wolf documented in the Olympics was trapped in 1920. In the early 21st century, wolves are naturally migrating back into eastern and north-central Washington State, but there is no evidence of wolf migration into the Olympics and no plan to translocate wolves to the Olympics.
Carnivores
The gray wolf is listed as endangered by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the fisher is listed as state endangered by the Washington Fish and Wildlife Commission.
Previous to the extirpation of the gray wolf, coyotes (Canis latrans) occurred in the lowlands of the Olympic peninsula but not in the mountains. With the absence of wolves, coyotes have been moving up into the higher elevations of the mountains and may be responsible for population declines in the Olympic marmot.
American black bear (Ursus americanus) are numerous in the Olympics. Olympic bears eat salmon, rodents, huckleberries, tree bark, insects, and deer or elk carcasses.
Cougar (Felis concolor) is the largest carnivore in the Olympics. Their main prey are deer and elk but they also hunt porcupines and insects. They are rarely seen, but are thought to be widespread and relatively common in the Olympics.
Mountain goats
The mountain goat (Oreamnos americanus) is not native to the Olympic Mountains but was introduced for hunting in the 1920s by a coalition of the Forest Service, the Clallam County Game Warden, and the State Game Commission. Mountain goats in the Olympics have been associated with damage to alpine vegetation and soil erosion.
The goats have also been aggressive towards park visitors. In 1999, a mountain goat gored a hiker at the summit of Mount Ellinor in Olympic National Forest, and in 2010, a mountain goat fatally gored a hiker on the Klahane Ridge trail in Olympic National Park. In 2012, the trail to Mount Ellinor was closed in summer due to aggressive goats, re-opening in the fall.
An airlifting effort by the National Park Service started in September 2018 in an attempt to relocate the goats to the Cascades region. NPS hopes to relocate several hundred goats before starting a lethal removal option. The park service hopes to reduce the goat population to 0-50 animals by 2028.
Elk
Roosevelt elk Cervus canadensis roosevelti range along the Pacific coast from the Russian River to Vancouver Island. Olympic and Vancouver Island elk are some of the last pure Roosevelt elk herds left; those in the Cascades have mixed with Rocky Mountain elk. Olympic National Park has the largest population of Roosevelt elk in the world. Some herds spend winter in lowland valleys, summer in high country, in subalpine meadows. Other herds live year-round in lowland forests and meadows. Elk prefer more humid areas, the Sitka spruce, wet western hemlock, and mountain hemlock zones.
Elk browsing is believed to be responsible for the open park-like structure of the Olympic rainforests; the elk graze on hemlock and shrubs, leaving the Sitka spruce to grow. Elk browsing also increases diversity of grasses and forbs. Elk exclosure experiments in rainforest valleys show more species of vegetation growing outside the exclosures, where elk browse, than inside; while there are more brush and saplings inside exclosures, there are more grasses and forbs outside. Elk browsing improves forage for other herbivores like deer, voles and snowshoe hares. Elk prefer old growth forest and young alder groves over the large, even-aged plantations common on commercial timber land, although they will use small, recent clearcuts where they mimic natural forest openings.
Both the Press and O’Neil expeditions were impressed by the quantity and tameness of the elk. Both expedition leaders prohibited shooting the elk and deer except when the expedition was in need of meat. The Olympic National Monument was formed to protect the elk after the herds were reduced to less than 2000 animals. The population rebounded, and in 1937 a hunting season for elk was opened in the Hoh River valley.
An estimated 2,000–4,000 hunters came for the 1957 hunting season, several times as many as expected; the excess was a logistical nightmare. One hunter was accidentally shot and died. A second hunter drowned in the Hoh River. A pack horse was shot. The Hoh River flooded, stranding hunters and washing away their camps. Forest Service and State Game personnel were overwhelmed with rescue efforts (lost, stranded, or injured hunters) and dispute resolution. Over 800 elk were killed, some left lying in the forest. Proponents of a national park used the 1937 elk hunt as an argument in favor of permanent protection for Olympic's elk herds. Not all the elk herds are protected inside the national park: Some migrate in and out of the park, and others live entirely outside the park. All elk are subject to regulated hunting when outside the national park.
Mule deer
Blacktail deer (Odocoileus hemionus columbianus) prefer drier areas than elk, such as the dry western hemlock, Douglas-fir, and subalpine fir zones. Similar to the elk, blacktail deer winter in lowlands, or along south-facing ridges, and summer in the high country meadows.
Others
Mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) is a large primitive rodent endemic to the Pacific Northwest. They are common in the Olympics, preferring wet scrubby thickets and second growth timber.
Banana slug (Ariolimax columbianus) is another Pacific Northwest endemic. Slugs are abundant in the Olympic forests, outweighing mammals and birds combined. They thrive in the cool damp shade of the forests. The banana slug is the largest and most conspicuous of Olympic slugs.
Northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina) is an old-growth dependent species and is listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The majority of spotted owls on the Olympic peninsula, along with the largest preserve of temperate old-growth forest, live in the national park. Spotted owls prey on flying squirrels and snowshoe hares, and are themselves preyed on by great horned owls Bubo virginianus. The density of the canopy of an old-growth forest gives the spotted owls some protection from the larger, less agile great horned owls.
Rufous hummingbird (Selasphorus rufus) is the only hummingbird in the Olympics. They overwinter in Mexico and southern California, arriving in the Olympics in February or March with the flowering of the Indian plum Oemleria cerasifera.
Harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus) breeds in fast-moving mountain streams in the Olympics. They spend the rest of the year in coastal waters.
Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) fish in Olympic rivers, nesting in large old trees. Both are relatively common, the bald eagle more so along the coast than in the mountains.
Olympic rivers are dominated by Pacific salmonids, the Oncorhynchus. Chinook, coho, pink, rainbow and steelhead, and cutthroat all spawn in Olympic rivers. Chum and sockeye also live in coastal Olympic peninsula rivers but do not reach into the mountains. Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) and Dolly Varden trout (S. malma) also live in Olympic rivers.
Endemic fauna
There are at least 16 endemic animal species.
Mammals
Olympic marmot (Marmota olympus)
Olympic chipmunk (Tamius amoenus caurinus)
Olympic snow mole (Scapanus townsendii olympicus)
Mazama pocket gopher (Thomomys mazama melanops)
Olympic ermine (Mustela richardsonii olympica)
Amphibians
Olympic torrent salamander (Rhyacotriton olympicus)
Fish
Olympic mudminnow (Novumbra hubbsi)
Beardslee rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss irideus)
Crescenti cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki)
Insects
Hulbert's skipper butterfly (Hesperia comma hulbirti)
Olympic grasshopper (Nisquallia olympica)
Mann's gazelle beetle (Nebria dammanni)
Quileute gazelle beetle (Nebria acuta quileute)
Tiger beetle (Cicindela bellissima frechini)
Molluscs
Arionid slug (Hemphillia dromedarius)
Arionid jumping slug (Hemphillia burringtoni)
Near-endemic
Near-endemics, those that occur in the Olympics as well as other parts of a limited range, include the Cope's giant salamander (Dicamptodon copei), and the Van Dyke's salamander (Plethodon vandykei,) both found primarily in the Olympics and other mountainous areas of western Washington; the tailed frog (Ascaphus truei), of Pacific Northwest mountain streams, and the mountain beaver (Aplodontia rufa) of the coastal Pacific Northwest.
History
Prehistory
For the original inhabitants of the Olympic Peninsula, the highest peaks of the mountains were the only refuges during the Great Floods at the beginning of time. For the Elwha Klallam people, that peak was Mount Carrie; for the Skokomish, it was a peak west of Mount Ellinor. The Thunderbird figure of the Hoh tribe lived on Mount Olympus, in a den under Blue Glacier. People in the Skokomish, Quinault, and Elwha watersheds regularly traveled into the high country to hunt elk, gather huckleberries and beargrass, and perform spirit quests. Trails across the mountains allowed members of the various tribes to visit and trade with each other. The cross-Olympic expeditions of the 1890s found tree blazes that they took to mark Indian trails.
Archeological evidence shows that the Olympic Mountains were inhabited by Paleolithic hunters after the retreat of the Cordilleran Ice Sheet. Stone tools in the Deer Park area date to 7600 years ago, prior to the volcanic eruption of Mount Mazama. Similar tools have been found near Lake Cushman and throughout the Olympic subalpine meadows and ridges, as well as in coastal areas. In addition, a fragment of a woven basket found in the Olympic subalpine of Obstruction Point was radiocarbon dated to nearly 3000 years ago.
The mountains were originally called "Sun-a-do" by the Duwamish Indians, while the first European to see them, the Spanish navigator Juan Pérez, named Mount Olympus "Santa Rosalia", in 1774. But the English captain John Meares, seeing them in 1788, thought he would honor the Greek explorer Juan de Fuca who claimed to have found the fabled Northwest passage nearby by naming the mountain after the mythical home of Greek Gods which is "Mount Olympus" in Greece. Various names for the mountains were used based on the name Mount Olympus, including the Olympic Range, the Olympian Mountains, and the Olympus Range. Alternate proposals never caught on, and in 1864 the Seattle Weekly Gazette persuaded the government to make the present-day name official, although other names continued to be used.
First O'Neil Expedition, 1885
Though readily visible from many parts of western Washington, especially Seattle, the interior was almost entirely unexplored until 1885, when 2nd Lt. Joseph P. O'Neil of the 14th Infantry, stationed at Fort Vancouver, led a small expedition into the northern Olympics from Port Angeles. O’Neil led an expedition of 3 enlisted men, 2 civilian engineers, and 8 mules out of Port Angeles in July 1885. The expedition cut a mule trail from Port Angeles up to Hurricane Ridge and camped near the current site of the national park visitor center. From there, they explored and built trail to the east and south, exploring the upper Dungeness and Dosewallips River watersheds, and to Cameron Basin near Mount Cameron. O’Neil was recalled by the Army in August to be transferred to Fort Leavenworth in Kansas, and the expedition had to return to Fort Townsend. The Obstruction Peak Road and portions of the Hurricane Ridge Road and the Klahane Ridge, Grand Pass and Lost Pass trails in Olympic National Park originated with the mule trails built by this expedition.
In late 1889, Charles A. Gilman and his son Samuel explored the East Fork Quinault up to its headwaters, but chose to return the way they came rather than cross over the mountains.
Press Expedition 1889–1890
The first crossing of the Olympic Mountains was done from November 1889 through May 1890 by the Press Expedition, a group of 5 men led by Canadian James H. Christie, sponsored by the Seattle newspaper Press, which ascended the Elwha River and descended the North Fork Quinault River. The Press party included 2 mules, which both died in separate incidents, and 4 dogs, 1 of which was killed by an elk.
The Press Expedition crossed in winter, in order to beat O'Neil's planned expedition for the summer of 1890. Initially the expedition built a boat on the Elwha to tow their cargo upriver, but the icy water and deep snow covering boulders and fallen trees made this mode of transportation very slow – after 2 weeks, the men had towed the boat . It did, however, carry cargo where the mules could not. Christie and his men abandoned the boat and switched to the mules when they reached the head of navigation on the Elwha, but the mules both died in separate incidents fairly early in the expedition. Deep snow, steep slopes, and fallen trees made travel extremely difficult for the mules, along with lack of forage.
The expedition carried minimal food, expecting to find game. In the lowlands, game and fish were plentiful, but the heavy snow that winter drove game out of the mountains and for long stretches in the high mountains, the men were reduced to eating ‘flour soup’. Unlike O’Neil's military expeditions, the Press Expedition had no resupply line. Once into the high mountains and the deep snow, with no game, they went weeks with no meat and little to eat besides flour and beans. The men carried all the cargo on their own backs through one of the roughest and most labyrinthine sections of the high mountains, through snow deep.
On climbing a peak to get a view of the area, Christie estimated the snow at the peak to be deep. Avalanches occurred on a daily basis. Crossing Low Divide between the upper Elwha and the headwaters of the North Fork Quinault, the men climbed a vertical cliff, requiring Christie to climb to a ledge and then lower a rope to the men below. Packs, dogs, and men were hauled up the cliff by rope. Once on the Quinault side of the divide, the men shot and ate a bear, the first meat they had had for several weeks of strenuous winter mountain travel.
Deep snow prevented proper trail building for much of their route, although they did cut a rough trail along the lower reach of the Elwha River, and blazed trees along their route. They used elk trails wherever possible, and walked in the river when there was no other way through due to steep terrain or dense brush. It took the expedition four months of slogging through dense brush and windthrows, swamps, steep canyons and deep, wet, slushy snow just to reach the inner mountains. Once in the high mountains, the relief was so precipitous that the men estimated they traveled up and down as much as to cover horizontal miles.
Once on the mainstem Quinault River, the men built a raft, but it wrecked on a logjam. The men saved the dogs and the one pack that contained their maps, photographs, and records made along the route, but lost all their food, armaments, utensils, fishing tackle, shelter, and the few mineral and plant specimens and animal skins they had collected; and the men were split on opposite sides of the river, unable to reach each other. They continued walking down the river, eating salmonberry shoots and spruce bark, until a settler and a Quinault Indian guide canoeing to Lake Quinault rescued them. When the O’Neil expedition of 1890 reached the mainstem Quinault River a few months later, they found some of the items the Press Expedition had lost in the wreck. The settler and neighboring Indians took the expedition across Lake Quinault and down the lower river to the coast in mid May, nearly six months after they left Port Angeles. From the mouth of the Quinault they traveled to Aberdeen and then to Seattle. Their account of their expedition, along with photographs and a full-page map, was printed in a special edition of the Press on 16 July 1890.
The Elwha River and North Fork Quinault trails in Olympic National Park follow the route of the Press Expedition, with a detour through the highest mountains and around the vertical cliff at Low Divide.
Second O'Neil Expedition, 1890
O'Neil returned to Washington in 1887 and started planning another expedition. The Olympic Exploring Expedition, led by O’Neil, crossed the southern Olympics in the summer of 1890, ascending the North Fork Skokomish River and descending the East Fork Quinault River, building a mule trail the entire distance. This expedition was larger than the 1885 expedition, and would be resupplied by mule train from Hoodsport on Hood Canal, allowing time for scientific exploration of the area. The expedition consisted of 10 soldiers, 1 civilian mule packer, 4 civilian scientists from the Oregon Alpine Club, 11 mules, 1 bell mare to lead the mule train, and up to 4 dogs. The scientists collected specimens of plants, animals, and minerals, which they shipped back to Portland by way of the mule train to Hoodsport. The majority of the party was assigned to cutting the mule trail, while 2 or 3 man exploring parties fanned out and scouts went ahead. The scouts and side exploring parties scrambled up slopes on all fours, pulling themselves up by grabbing onto vegetation; descended similar slopes by sliding, deliberately or inadvertently; hacked and crawled through dense brush and windthrow; waded up rivers and streams when there was no other way through; felled trees to bridge ravines and rivers; and traversed narrow ridges of crumbling vertically oriented shale. Hornet and yellow jacket wasp attacks were a daily occurrence, sending men scrambling and mules stampeding, one over a cliff to her death. Where the men crossed swamps, devils club thorns impaled the men and broke off in their skin, creating painful inflammations.
Once camped in the central mountains, O’Neil sent out small exploring parties to the Duckabush, Dosewallips, South Fork Skokomish, Wynoochee and Humptulips rivers, and to Mount Olympus and the Queets River. One party of 3 men climbed what they thought was Mount Olympus but was in reality one of the neighboring peaks, Athena II. A fourth member of the summit party became separated on the climb and ended up descending the Queets River alone, and was taken in by a Quinault Indian family. They were reluctant to believe that he had crossed the Olympics, not believing it was possible to do so; but they accepted his story when he was able to point out reference points on a map. (Many members of this expedition spoke Chinook jargon.) From their settlement, he was able to rejoin the expedition in Hoquiam. O'Neil's reports on his explorations resulted in his recommendation that the region be declared a national park.
20th century
Mount Olympus itself was not ascended until 1907, one of the first successes of The Mountaineers, which had been organized in Seattle just a few years earlier. A number of the more obscure and least-accessible peaks in the range were not ascended until the 1970s.
President Grover Cleveland protected the forests of the Olympic Peninsula with the Olympic Forest Reserve in 1897. Initially the reserve consisted of over 2 million acres, nearly the entire peninsula. Forest Service surveyors Dodwell and Rixon spent three years surveying, timber cruising, and mapping the new reserve. Their report, published in 1902, reported that most of the land was not suited to agriculture, but local politicians had already convinced President William McKinley to remove the most valuable lowland timber from the reserve, claiming it should be open to homesteading. Private timber companies paid ‘homesteaders’ to file claims on land that they then sold to the timber company. At the same time, commercial hunters reduced the Olympic elk herds to fewer than 2000 animals, prompting the state legislature to impose a temporary moratorium on elk hunting in the Olympics. The Forest Reserve was reorganized under Gifford Pinchot as the Olympic National Forest in 1905, with an emphasis on commercial utilization of timber and minerals and fire protection, as well as hunting and trapping. With the passing of the Antiquities Act in 1906, which allowed the president to designate national monuments, Mount Olympus National Monument, administered by the Forest Service, was proclaimed by Theodore Roosevelt in 1909 in order to protect the elk herds. In 1914, the new supervisor of the Forest Service, Henry Graves, made a trip to the Olympics to determine if commercial timber and minerals were being tied up in the national monument. As a result of Grave's report, President Woodrow Wilson removed a third of a million acres from the monument.
The Elwha River was dammed in 1910 with construction of the Elwha Dam. A second dam was built a few miles upstream in 1927. Neither dam had any fish passage for the salmonid runs, eliminating salmonids from over 70 miles of river. Congress authorized removal of these dams in 1992, and work began in 2011.
The North Fork Skokomish River was dammed in the 1920s by the city of Tacoma, enlarging the original Lake Cushman by 600%. A settlement was reached in 2009 with the Skokomish Indian Tribe over damages to fisheries and game habitat, damages to tribal lands through flooding, and trespass on tribal lands for the power transmission line. As part of the settlement, migrating salmon will be trucked around the dam.
The Wynoochee River was dammed in the late 1960s by the Army Corps of Engineers for flood control, but in 1994 the dam was taken over by the city of Tacoma for power generation. Migrating salmon are trucked around the dam, and Tacoma Public Utilities funds mitigation for Roosevelt elk wintering habitat that was lost under the reservoir.
With the building of the Spruce Railroad during World War I and the completion of the Olympic Highway in 1931, logging in the Olympics intensified, along with demand for recreational facilities. During this period the Forest Service built roads and campgrounds and encouraged private businesses with special use permits to build tourist facilities such as a winter sports facility at Deer Park and the chalets in Enchanted Valley and at Low Divide. Special use permits were also issued for private summer cabins at Lakes Cushman and Quinault, and the Olympic Hot Springs resort. During the Great Depression, the Olympic National Forest used the Civilian Conservation Corps to build logging roads and railroads, bridges, campgrounds, shelters, fire lookouts, ranger stations, and a fish hatchery. They also fought fires and planted tree seedlings.
Pressure for a national park built with the acceleration of logging and road building. The Forest Service campaigned in peninsula logging and mill towns against the national park, and both the Forest Service and the Park Service jockeyed for public support and endorsement from various conservation groups for administration of the monument. In 1935, a special committee was convened on the national park proposal. The majority reported that the Olympics fully rated protection as a national park, but one member issued a minority report stating that public pressure for recreational facilities would require the Park Service to build roads, campgrounds, and chalets, thus negating any benefit from national park status. Both the Forest Service and the Park Service sponsored backcountry trips through the high Olympics that summer to promote their stewardship of the mountains.
In 1937, President Franklin D. Roosevelt visited the Olympics to determine their suitability as a national park, and was greeted in Port Angeles by more than 3000 local school children asking him to ‘give us our Olympic National Park’. He signed Olympic National Park into law in 1938. In 1953, the park was enlarged with the addition of the coastal strip, and more coastal areas along Lake Ozette were added in 1976. Also that year, UNESCO named the park an International Biosphere Reserve, and a World Heritage Site in 1981. In 1984, Congress designated 5 wilderness areas in the Olympic National Forest, and declared 95% of Olympic National Park a wilderness area in 1988.
See also
List of mountain ranges in Washington
References
Available online through the Washington State Library's Classics in Washington History collection
Olympic Mountain Rescue, Climber's Guide to the Olympic Mountains (Seattle: The Mountaineers, 1979)
Wood, R.L., Across the Olympic Mountains: The Press Expedition, 1889–90 (Mountaineering Books, 1989)
External links
Park History
ONP Info
Early Explorations
The Mountaineers Collection Photographic albums and text documenting the Mountaineers official annual outings undertaken by club members from 1907 to 1951, primarily on the Olympic Peninsula. Includes 7 Mount Olympus albums (c. 1905–1951).
Pacific Coast Ranges
Physiographic sections
Mountain ranges of Washington (state)
Landforms of Jefferson County, Washington
Landforms of Clallam County, Washington | [
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215895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%20hip%20hop | Christian hip hop | Christian hip hop (originally gospel rap, also known as Christian rap, gospel hip hop or holy hip hop) is a subgenre of hip hop music characterized by a Christian worldview, with the general purposes of evangelization (Christian mission work), edifying some members of the church and/or simply entertaining. Christian hip hop music emerged from urban communities in the United States in the 1980s, when it existed almost exclusively in small underground scenes, with minimal formal industry promotion and little mainstream attention. It emphasizes the use of positive and uplifting messages to promote faith and belief.
Christian hip hop music, blending rhythmic music and faith-based lyrics, first emerged on record in 1982 with a track entitled "Jesus Christ (The Gospel Beat)" by Queens, New York artist McSweet. The first full-length, Christian hip hop album, Bible Break, by Oklahoma artist Stephen Wiley, was released in 1985 with the title track becoming a hit on Christian radio in 1986. Other early Christian hip recording artists from the mid-1980s included P.I.D. (Preachas in Disguise), who recorded to funky rock rhythms, as well as JC & the Boys and Michael Peace.
The most prominent Christian rappers have been TobyMac, who was the first rapper to have success in the mainstream Christian music scene, Lecrae, NF, KB & Emcee N.I.C.E. who have emerged recently on the mainstream rap scene, and Kanye West, who began making Christian hip hop and gospel music in 2019. Christian rap has almost exclusively come out of Protestant traditions in the United States, although there is a small Catholic rap scene that has recently emerged, and there are also small Christian rap scenes in the UK, Australia, Brazil, Canada and many other countries where Christians reside and where hip hop music is popular.
History
The first commercially released and distributed Gospel hip hop record was by Queens, New York MC Pete Harrison, under the recording name 'McSweet', The Gospel Beat: Jesus-Christ (1982), written and arranged by Harrison and produced by Mac Sulliver on Lection Records of PolyGram. The first notable full album released was Stephen Wiley's Bible Break (1985), written by Wiley and produced by Mike Barnes on Brentwood Records. In the same year by David Guzman founded JC & The Boyz. Some of America's premiere Christian rappers, such as: Michael Peace, SFC, Dynamic Twins, MC Peace, and T-Bone came out of this crew. A more commercially successful crew known as P.I.D. (Preachers in Disguise) released five recordings. Michael Peace is an American rapper and one of Christian rap's first solo artists.
In the late 1980s, other crews emerged, including dc Talk, E.T.W. (End Time Warriors) and S.F.C. (Soldiers for Christ). ETW was led by producer/artist Mike Hill who went on to pastor one of the largest inner city youth groups in the country out of Tulsa Oklahoma. S.F.C. was led by Chris Cooper who originally rapped as Super C (short for Super Chris / Super Christian) and later became Sup the Chemist and then finally Soup the Chemist. Christian emcee Danny "D-Boy" Rodriguez was another well-known early Gospel rap artist, but was murdered in 1990 in Texas. Prior to his death, he helped launch the career of his sister, Genie Rodriguez-Lopez, known as MC GeGee - one of the first female Christian rap artists, by collaborating on her first album I'm for Real. She would go on to release a second album in 1991, titled And Now the Mission Continues.
The 1990s saw the continuing trend of funky rap artists blending faith and rap, such as D.O.C. (Disciples of Christ) who emerged from Oklahoma as well as the Gospel Gangstaz from Compton and South Central Los Angeles. In 1991, JC Crew emerged featuring Maximillian (West Coast beat box champion) and T-Bone.
Other Christian rap artists include Dynamic Twins, Freedom of Soul, IDOL King, Apocalypse, 12th Tribe, and Holy Alliance. 12th Tribe and Holy Alliance were produced by Scott Blackwell of MYX Records. S.F.C.'s (Sup, QP, DJ Dove) 1992 album Phase III was DJed and produced by DJ Dove, whose credits also include the Gang Affiliated, Gospel Gangstas' 1993 debut album. Around the same time as Phase III, Dynamic Twins (Robbie and Noel) came out with their 1993 album No Room To Breathe. Freedom of Soul (MC Peace, DJ Cartoon) followed with their second album, The Second Coming (Caught in a Land of Time was their first), also their last album as a group.
Gotee Records formed in 1994, co-founded by dc Talk member Toby McKeehan, better known as TobyMac, making it the first record label marketed explicitly for Christian hip hop and R&B that was backed by a major label. The label was among the first to market the Contemporary Christian music market through distribution at Christian bookstores and playing on Christian radio. This trend continued with other labels such as Tooth & Nail's Uprok Records and others that gave an outlet to hip hop artists who identified themselves as Christian and wanted a broader market. A number of artists and labels such as Reach Records, Cross Movement Records, Grapetree Records, Deepspace5 Records have purposely marketed to people outside of churches.
In addition, many major Gospel stars were getting in on the hip hop & rap genre. Kirk Franklin joined with the 1 Nation Crew in the album Kirk Franklin Presents 1NC.
Most recently Christian rap artists like Lecrae and his label-mates from Reach Records have been setting records with sales and award-winning albums.
Artists and style
Although generally described to be Christian rappers, artists such as Lecrae, Andy Mineo, KB, Trip Lee, Tedashii, Social Club Misfits, NF, John Givez, Derek Minor and Propaganda describe themselves hip hop artists who are expressing themselves, and are openly Christian. Just like in Christian rock and other Christian music genres, some artists welcome being called Christian artists while others do not want to be labeled as "Christian music", as to not limit their music to the Christian music market.
The record label Ministers of the Underground was one of the few labels to showcase underground hip hop with the group, Secta 7. Members included Apocalypse, Optixs, Blackseed, Lord Metatron, Righteous Knight, Kaoticgal (who later was known as Keturah Ariel), O.N.E., The Final Chapter, A.T.O.M. the Immortal and Stress. Ministers of the Underground had a small-time show on Christian television, but was taken off the networks when Christian television opted for more orthodox style programming. The Ministers of Underground hosted events at a series of venues under the name CRU VENTION, or the convention of Underground Hip Hop for Christ, until around the year 2001.
A few Christian rappers have emerged from Atlanta, including Remnant Militia and D.I.R.T.
While many notable studios and artists share influence in holy hip hop, not one style dominates. Christian hip hop features all conventional hip hop styles, such as Midwest (Hostyle Gospel), West Coast (T-Bone) and East Coast (BB Jay), and Dirty South (Pettidee) and King Wes. Some, such as DC Talk, include a mixture of hip hop, rock, and gospel music in their songs.
Christian hip hop is also embraced and performed in the United Kingdom, by Gospel rappers including, Jahaziel, Dwayne Tryumf, Guvna B, Triple O, Sammy G, Simply Andy, MpFree and Just C.
In the UK, Christian hip-hop is often merged with a music style known as grime, which gives the music a different sound from American hip hop. Many would agree that grime music originated in London's black community and is predominately described as a secular genre. Although British, grime music has a strong Jamaican influence as many of the artists are of British-Caribbean heritage. The GL Live music event 2010, held in the United Kingdom, saw a fusion of Christian rappers both American and British celebrate their faith together whilst demonstrating their own unique styles. The event was attended by Trip Lee and Tedashii, who performed several songs during the event including "Jesus Muzik" and "No Worries".
Reaction and acceptance
Industry
Christian music awards shows such as the GMA Dove Awards and Stellar Awards have added rap and hip hop categories. With the notable exceptions of tobyMac and his label Gotee Records, and Lecrae, no Christian rapper or hip-hop group has garnered the attention of the mainstream Christian music industry. The nominal sales of Christian rap labels have been almost exclusively to white church-going Christians. Christian rap exists almost exclusively underground.
Markets
There is no identifiable Christian hip hop market, as the majority of Christian hip hop has been underground, or marketed towards the mainstream Christian music scene.
In Australia, a multi-denominational group of Christian hip hop artists, led by Mistery from Brethren, have started a hip hop church, Krosswerdz. The church has been modeled on Crossover Church in Tampa, Florida.
A small Christian hip hop scene has also emerged in the UK.
Festivals
Rap Fest is an all-day, outdoor, evangelistic outreach concert which takes place every summer. 2011 marked the 18th year for this event held annually in South Bronx area of New York City.
Flavor Fest Urban Leadership Conference is held yearly at Crossover Church in Tampa, Florida, founded by Pastor Tommy Kyllonen, lead pastor of Crossover Church of Tampa.
Fire Fest International Ministries was founded by Charles Onley (a.k.a. King C) in conjunction with Terence A. Townsend, "Apostle T", founder of Save Our City Crusades and Conferences (SoCity) to reach the international community of holy hip hop with a message of encouragement, enrichment, education and unity. Fire Fest conducts artist retreats, artists/industry conferences and new artists showcases, and is a traveling music festival organized to encourage and enrich holy hip hop artists in their ministries, while giving them insight on navigating the music industry.
"God's House of Hip Hop 20/20 Summer Fest" featuring 75 Christian Hip Hop, Latin Christian Hip Hop & Gospel Hip Hop Music. in Los Angeles, California Founded by Emcee N.I.C.E. and Chantal Grayson of God's House of Hip Hop Radio. Although postponed to July 2021 due to the COVID-19 Corona Virus pandemic, 20/20 Summer Fest gained national attention securing one of Los Angeles's most premium venue's Banc of California Stadium.
Crossover
Holy hip hop has enjoyed some crossover acceptance as well. One of the early accepted artists were Disciples of Christ (D.O.C.).
One of the most notable mainstream reactions to Gospel rap was to KJ-52 (pronounced "five-two") and his single "Dear Slim", which was written to Eminem in an attempt to reach him with the message of Christ. The song became famous and controversial among Eminem fans when it was featured on the hit show Total Request Live. began to receive hate mail (including death threats) from Eminem's fans, though claimed that the song was not a "diss". This also led to the single being disparaged by VH1 as No. 26 on their "Top 40 Worst Moments in Hip Hop", an issue the artist addressed in "Washed Up". In contrast, the GRITS song "Ooh Ahh" received positive exposure on various TV Shows and movies, such as The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift and Big Momma's House 2. It was also featured as the theme song for the second season of MTV's hit show The Buried Life.
Christian symbols and themes have also been invoked by rap artists who do not consider themselves "Christian Rappers", and do not claim to represent any particular set of religious beliefs. Examples include MC Hammer's No. 2 single "Pray"; Richie Rich and his first single "Don't Do It"; many of Tupac's lyrics and his first posthumous record, The Don Killuminati: The 7 Day Theory, the image of Tupac nailed to a cross pinned him as a hip hop martyr; and even recent hip hop/rap artists like Jay-Z with Kingdom Come, DMX with "Walk With Me Now and You'll Fly With Me Later", Nas with God's Son and Kanye West with "Jesus Walks" and Jesus Is King. However, these artists, although they may profess to be Christians, are not generally considered to be part of the Christian hip hop movement. Some Christians believe that hip hop culture in any form conflicts with biblical teachings, while others consider hip hop to be a way of reaching the youth and mainstream culture.
Mainstream success
On September 9, 2014, Lecrae released his album Anomaly, through Reach Records. The album achieved mainstream success as it debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart, with first-week sales of over 88,000 copies in the United States. On October 6, 2017, Christian Hip-hop artist NF released his third studio album, Perception, through Capitol CMG alongside NF's newly launched label NF Real Music LLC. Perception debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with 55,000 album-equivalent units, including 38,000 pure album sales.
Acceptance
Various prominent mainstream hip hop artists who profess through some of their music to be Christians, including Kanye West, Nas, DMX, and others, have incorporated Christian symbols and messages into their music and videos through images, lyrical content, and overarching themes. The 2002 Nas hit recording and video "One Mic" featured obvious references to his Christianity in the song, including the chorus "Yo all I need is... One God to show me how to do things his Son did..." Kanye West's 2004 hit recording and music video "Jesus Walks" has received a notable amount of attention for its Christian content. DMX incorporated prayers in many of his albums, and his 2006 recording and video, "Lord Give Me a Sign", was highlighted by not only strong Christian lyrical content but actual scriptural quotes ("no weapon formed against me shall prosper and every tongue that rises up against me in judgment, Thou shall condemn") from the Holy Bible. Prominent Christian Rapper Lecrae, whose 2014 album "Anomaly" reached number 1 on the Billboard 200 and received numerous other accolades, expresses an explicitly Christian message in the majority of his music. However, while generally categorized as a Gospel or Christian rapper, he distances himself from the genre of Gospel Rap saying, "Christian is my faith not my genre."
The use of religious themes in music that is otherwise regarded as illicit has sparked controversy over the validity of the religious messages expressed through the music. Some Christian listeners hold that "rap music, because of what it inherently communicates, is incompatible with the Christian Gospel", and attack the use of Christian themes and symbols in mainstream music as being disingenuous. On the other hand, "since the mid-1990s Michael Eric Dyson and others have pointed to some cultural sensibilities shared by Christian churches and hip hop music; namely male privilege, middle-class biases, sexism, and homophobia." Some analysts believe that the suffering expressed through rap music manifests itself in a certain spirituality that can be compatible with mainstream religious messages, although it approaches religious ideas in a much less direct way than most forms of religious expression. "Just as the MC slides into notes and dances around beats, "spirit" is not attacked straight on; it is courageously approached from below, from the margins, from youth, from uncertainty, through the structures of capitalism and mainstream media." Some think that the use of mainstream religious symbols in predominately African-American music has increased the extent to which that music has disseminated through predominately white American culture.
The 2007 Holy Hip Hop Music Awards received a written endorsement letter from the mayor of Atlanta acknowledging the event's support by the City of Atlanta and recognizing its 7th year. However, EX Ministries and other churches contested the incorporation of secular hip hop culture into the Christian rap genre, holding that "Holy Hip-Hop" is still associated with the mainstream hip hop culture that they view as incompatible with Christianity's teachings. Whereas many Christians hold that holy hip hop can be used to evangelize, others disagree, arguing that the use of this style distorts the gospel message.
From December 2013 well into 2014, Scott Aniol and Christian hip hop artist Shai Linne had a lengthy exchange about Christian rap (rap being the core element of hip hop), with Dr. Aniol arguing that the style is sinful and inadequate for Christian messages, and Shai Linne responding that the musical messaging of hip hop is relative, being interpreted differently by people from different backgrounds.
Radio
In 2019 Christian Hip Hop had a historic breakthrough in radio, when Los Angeles based radio station God's House of Hip Hop Radio powered by Dash Radio curated by CHH artist Emcee N.I.C.E., became the first Christian Hip Hop station in history to win one of gospel music's coveted trophies, The Stellar Award at the 34th Annual Stellar Awards. The win signaled a shift not only in gospel but radio as a whole, with more artists outside of Lecrae such as Andy Mineo, Gawvi, Wande, Shepherd, 1K Phew, Swoope, Bizzle, Derek Minor and more... receiving commercial notoriety in film, television and gaming. The Stellar Awards did something unprecedented at its radio awards main show when it opened up with hip hop and featured performances with DJ Dwight Stone who won "Gospel Announcer of the Year", Miz Tiffany (first CHH female nominated for a Stellar Award), Emcee N.I.C.E. & Jor'Dan Armstrong.
Forms and subgenres
Catholic hip hop
In the early 2000s, rap artists of the Roman Catholic faith began emerging. Today, a number of active Catholic rappers and DJs are involved in what is known as the "Catholic hip hop scene". Fr. Stan Fortuna is the most notable in the scene.
Gospel rap in Brazil
In Brazil, gospel rap comes out of Pentecostal and Charismatic Evangelical Protestant movements, and emphasizes the message of the Gospel and salvation through faith over black politics and identity. Gospel rappers view their music as divinely ordained, and believe their lyrics are a manifestation of the Holy Spirit speaking through them. The Brazilian gospel rap movement sees itself as divinely favored over the fallen state of rap in the US and other parts of the world, and sees its origins in the Bronx which they see as similar to their own tough neighborhoods. This reflects the gospel rap movement's emphasis on neighborhood and seeking God and opportunities for their neighborhoods.
See also
List of Christian performers of hip hop and rap
Rapzilla
God's House of Hip Hop Radio
References
External links
Rapzilla, a Christian Hip-Hop Magazine
Hip hop
Hip hop genres
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|
215896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcore%20hip%20hop | Hardcore hip hop | Hardcore hip hop (also hardcore rap) is a genre of hip hop music that developed through the East Coast hip hop scene in the 1980s. Pioneered by such artists as Run-DMC, Schoolly D, Boogie Down Productions and Public Enemy, it is generally characterized by anger, aggression and confrontation.
History
Music experts have credited Run-DMC as the first hardcore hip hop group. Other early artists to adopt an aggressive style were Schoolly D in Philadelphia and Too $hort in Oakland, California. Before a formula for gangsta rap had developed, artists such as Boogie Down Productions and Ice-T wrote lyrics based on detailed observations of "street life", while the confrontational and aggressive lyrics and chaotic, rough production style of Public Enemy's records set new standards for hardcore hip hop and hip hop production. Though initially a largely East Coast phenomenon, by the late 1980s, hardcore rap increasingly became largely synonymous with West Coast gangsta rap, with artists like N.W.A infusing "gangsta" themed stories of gritty gang life.
In the early 1990s, hardcore hip hop again became associated with the East Coast as Wu-Tang Clan emerged with minimalistic beats and piano-driven sampling, which became widely popular among other hardcore hip hop artists of the time. In the early, late 90s and early 2000s, other New York based artists like Onyx, DMX and M.O.P. incorporated yelling in their lyrics. In the 2010s, punk rap combined elements of hardcore hip hop and hardcore punk, with artists like Denzel Curry at the forefront.
Characteristics
Gangsta rap has often been associated with the hardcore hip hop style, and gangsta rap is generally considered a subgenre or offshoot of hardcore hip hop; however, not all hardcore hip hop revolves around "gangsta" lyrical themes, despite the considerable overlap between the two genres, especially within hardcore rappers of the 1990s. Hardcore hip hop is characterised by aggression and confrontation and generally describes violence or anger. Russell Potter wrote that while hardcore rap has been associated with a "monolithic 'gangsta' outlook" by the popular press, hardcore rappers have "laid claim to a wide variety of ground".
See also
The Dozens
References
Hip hop genres
History of hip hop
1980s in hip hop music | [
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|
215899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith%20set | Smith set | In voting systems, the Smith set, named after John H. Smith, but also known as the top cycle, or as Generalized Top-Choice Assumption (GETCHA), is the smallest non-empty set of candidates in a particular election such that each member defeats every candidate outside the set in a pairwise election. The Smith set provides one standard of optimal choice for an election outcome. Voting systems that always elect a candidate from the Smith set pass the Smith criterion and are said to be 'Smith-efficient' or to satisfy the Smith criterion.
A set of candidates each of whose members pairwise defeats every candidate outside the set is known as a dominating set.
The Smith set can be seen as defining a voting method (Smith's method) which is most often encountered when extended by an IRV tie-break as Smith/IRV or as Tideman's Alternative, or by minimax as Smith/minimax.
Properties of Smith sets
The Smith set always exists and is well defined (see next section).
The Smith set can have more than one candidate, either because of pairwise ties or because of cycles, such as in Condorcet's paradox.
The Condorcet winner, if one exists, is the sole member of the Smith set. If weak Condorcet winners exist then they are in the Smith set.
The Smith set is always a subset of the mutual majority-preferred set of candidates, if one exists.
Properties of dominating sets
Theorem: Dominating sets are nested; that is, of any two dominating sets in an election, one is a subset of the other.
Proof: Suppose on the contrary that there exist two dominating sets, D and E, neither of which is a subset of the other. Then there must exist candidates such that and But by hypothesis d defeats every candidate not in D (including e) while e defeats every candidate not in E (including d), which is a contradiction. ∎
Corollary: It follows that the Smith set is the smallest non-empty dominating set, and that it is well defined.
Theorem: If D is a dominating set, then there is some threshold θD such that the elements of D are precisely the candidates whose Copeland scores are at least θD. (A candidate's Copeland score is the number of other candidates whom he or she defeats plus half the number of other candidates with whom he or she is tied.)
Proof: Choose d as an element of D with minimum Copeland score, and identify this score with θD. Now suppose that some candidate has a Copeland score not less than θD. Then since d belongs to D and e doesn't, it follows that d defeats e; and in order for es Copeland score to be at least equal to ds, there must be some third candidate f against whom e gets a better score than does d. If then we have an element of D who does not defeat e, and if then we have a candidate outside of D whom d does not defeat, leading to a contradiction either way. ∎
Schwartz set comparison
The Schwartz set, known as the Generalized Optimal-Choice Axiom or GOCHA, is closely related to and is always a subset of the Smith set. The Smith set is larger if and only if a candidate in the Schwartz set has a pair-wise tie with a candidate that is not in the Schwartz set.
The Smith set can be constructed from the Schwartz set by repeatedly adding two types of candidates until no more such candidates exist outside the set:
candidates that have pairwise ties with candidates in the set,
candidates that defeat a candidate in the set.
Note that candidates of the second type can only exist after candidates of the first type have been added.
The Smith criterion
The Smith criterion is satisfied by any voting method whose winner always belongs to the Smith set. Any method which satisfies the Smith criterion must also satisfy the Condorcet criterion; hence any method
(such as IRV) which is not Condorcet consistent must also fail the Smith criterion. Minimax is the best known Condorcet method which does not satisfy the Smith criterion.
Computing the Smith set
The logical properties of dominating sets stated above can be used to construct an efficient algorithm for computing the Smith set. We have seen that the dominating sets are nested by Copeland score. It follows that by adjusting the Copeland threshold it is possible to work through the nested sets in increasing order of size until a dominating set is reached; and this set is necessarily the Smith set. Darlingon sketches this method.
Testing whether a set is a dominating set at each stage might repeat some calculations, but this can fairly easily be avoided leading to an algorithm whose work factor is quadratic in the number of candidates.
Detailed algorithm
The algorithm can be presented in detail through an example. Suppose that the results matrix is as follows:
Here an entry in the main table is 1 if the first candidate was preferred to the second by more voters than preferred the second to the first; 0 if the opposite relation holds; and if there is a tie. The final column gives the Copeland score of the first candidate.
The algorithm to compute the Smith set is agglomerative: it starts with the Copeland set, which is guaranteed to be a subset of it but will often be smaller, and adds items until no more are needed. The first step is to sort the candidates according to score:
We look at the highest score – 5 – and consider the candidates (the Copeland winners) whose score is at least this high, i.e. {A,D}. These certainly belong to the Smith set, and any candidates whom they do not defeat will need to be added. To find undefeated candidates we look at the cells in the table below the top-left 2×2 square containing {A,D} (this square is shown with a broken border): the cells in question are shaded yellow in the table. We need to find the lowest (positionally) non-zero entry among these cells, which is the cell in the G row. All candidates as far down as this row, and any lower rows with the same score, need to be added to the set, which expands to {A,D,G}.
Now we look at any new cells which need to be considered, which are those below the top-left square containing {A,D,G}, but excluding those in the first two columns which we have already accounted for. The cells which need attention are shaded pale blue. As before we locate the positionally lowest non-zero entry among the new cells, adding all rows down to it, and all rows with the same score as it, to the expanded set, which now comprises {A,D,G,C}.
We repeat the operation for the new cells below the four members which are known to belong to the Smith set. These are shaded pink, and allow us to find any candidates not defeated by any of {A,D,G,C}. Again there is just one, F, whom we add to the set.
The cells which come into consideration are shaded pale green, and since all their entries are zero we do not need to add any new candidates to the set, which is therefore fixed as {A,D,G,C,F}. And by noticing that all the entries in the black box are zero, we have confirmation that all the candidates above it defeat all the candidates within it.
The following C function illustrates the algorithm by returning the cardinality of the Smith set for a given doubled results matrix r and array s of doubled Copeland scores. There are n candidates; ri j is 2 if more voters prefer i to j than prefer j to i, 1 if the numbers are equal, and 0 if more voters prefer j to i than prefer i to j ; si is the sum over j of the ri j . The candidates are assumed to be sorted in decreasing order of Copeland score.
int smithset(int **r,int *s,int n)
{ int row,col,lhs,rhs ;
for(rhs=1,lhs=0;lhs<rhs;lhs=rhs,rhs=row+1)
{ for(;rhs<n&&s[rhs]==s[rhs-1];rhs++) ; /* this line optional */
for(col=rhs,row=n;col==rhs&&row>=rhs;row--) for(col=lhs;col<rhs&&r[row-1][col]==0;col++) ;
}
return lhs ;
}
Smith's method
The Smith set can be seen as defining a ranked voting method in which...
All members of the Smith set are winners. Usually combined with another method.
A notable example of Smith's method in combination is Smith/IRV, which reduces the field of candidates to the Smith set and then uses instant-runoff voting to break the tie if this set has more than one element. A more complicated method (also invoking IRV) is Tideman's Alternative, whose article contains a table listing important properties of the two methods. Smith/minimax''' uses a significantly different procedure for breaking ties.
Elimination ties
The IRV component of both Smith/IRV and Tideman's Alternative will occasionally encounter a tie for bottom place amongst first preferences (the probability of this becomes arbitrarily small as the number of voters increases). When such a tie arises it may be broken in various ways. For Smith/IRV, the set of all candidates with the fewest first-order votes whose votes together total less than any other candidate's can be eliminated without changing the outcome; Tideman's Alternative recalculates the Smith Set after each single elimination, and cannot be optimized in this manner.
Instant-runoff voting cannot accept ballots with two candidates at the same rank, but reducing the field to the Smith set is possible even if voters have indicated ties between candidates. Ballots with equal first-choice rankings after'' eliminating non-Smith candidates must then be discarded.
See also
Condorcet criterion
Condorcet method
Landau set
Preorder
Partial order
References
Further reading
In an analysis of serial decision making based on majority rule, describes the Smith set and the Schwartz set.
Introduces a version of a generalized Condorcet Criterion that is satisfied when pairwise elections are based on simple majority choice, and for any dominating set, any candidate in the set is collectively preferred to any candidate not in the set. But Smith does not discuss the idea of a smallest dominating set.
Narrows Smith's generalized Condorcet Criterion to the smallest dominating set and calls it Smith's Condorcet Principle.
Discusses the Smith set (named GETCHA) and the Schwartz set (named GOTCHA) as possible standards for optimal collective choice.
Somdeb Lahiri (nd), "Group and multi-criteria decision making". Outlines some properties of choice sets.
External links
Example algorithms to calculate the Smith set
Voting theory | [
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|
215900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20J.%20Carty | Donald J. Carty | Donald J. Carty, (born July 23, 1946) is a Canadian-American businessman who serves as chairman of Porter Airlines and eRewards. In addition to these chairmanships, Carty is also a director of EMC Corporation, Dell, Barrick Gold, Talisman Energy, CN Rail, and Gluskin Sheff. He was previously chairman and chief executive officer (CEO) of AMR Corporation, the parent company of American Airlines, from 1998 to 2003. Carty is a past director of Hawaiian Airlines, Sears, Placer Dome, CHC Helicopters, and Brinker. He is a past chairman of Big Brothers Big Sisters of America, a former member of the Board of Trustees of Southern Methodist University and of the board of directors of the Dallas Center for the Performing Arts Foundation and the Dallas Theater Center. He currently serves on the Executive Board of the SMU Cox School of Business, In January 2007. Carty became the Vice Chairman and chief financial officer of Dell. On June 13, 2008, Carty retired from day-to-day operations, but stayed on as a director.
Biography
Born in Toronto, Ontario, on July 23, 1946, Carty attended Queen's University and Harvard Business School. He took US citizenship during the 1980s. He worked for Air Canada and the Canadian Pacific Railway before joining American, although he served as CEO for CP Air from 1985 to 1987. At American, he served as controller, and later as executive vice president for finance and planning under CEO Robert Crandall, before becoming CEO of American himself in 1998.
In April 2003, in the long wake of the September 11 attacks and facing an industry beset by terrorism and hard times, Carty and his executive board were forced to strike a cost-cutting deal with American's labor unions, intended to mitigate AMR's upcoming $1 billion first-quarter loss. The deal—the largest corporate restructuring outside of bankruptcy in American history—almost unraveled several days later, when unions learned that AMR executives were keeping $41 million in retention bonuses. Although many other airlines had similar retention bonus arrangements, several AMR board members—most notably University of Oklahoma president David L. Boren—called for Carty's resignation.
Carty was terminated by the AMR Board on April 24, 2003. He was replaced as CEO by Gerard Arpey, and as chairman by Edward A. Brennan.
Carty was appointed as Chairman of Virgin America on February 6, 2006. On February 2 of that year, Toronto-based Porter Airlines, in the process of starting up a small regional service out of the downtown Toronto island airport, announced that Carty would simultaneously serve as its chairman. Carty has served on Hawaiian Airlines Board of Directors three times; 2004-2007, 2008-2011, and currently since 2016.
In 1999, Board Alert named him one of the year’s Outstanding Directors.In 2002, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In September 2002, Carty was appointed by President Bush to the National Infrastructure Advisory Council where he served until the summer of 2005. He is a recipient of an Honorary Doctor of Law from Queen’s University.
References
External links
1946 births
Living people
American Airlines people
Barrick Gold
Canadian airline chief executives
Dell people
Harvard Business School alumni
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Officers of the Order of Canada
Businesspeople from Toronto
Sears Holdings people
Chief financial officers
Hawaiian Airlines people | [
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|
215902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Hue | Robert Hue | Robert Georges Auguste Hue (born 19 October 1946) is a French politician who was National Secretary of the French Communist Party (PCF) from 1994 to 2001 and President of the PCF from 2001 to 2002. He served as a Deputy in the National Assembly of France from 1997 to 2002, and he has served in the Senate of France since 2004.
Hue was a candidate in the 1995 presidential election, in which he received 8.7% of the vote, and in the 2002 presidential election, in which he won 3.37%.
He is married to Marie-Edith, and he is father of two (Charles and Cécilia).
Early activities
Hue was born at Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val-d'Oise in 1946. His family professed Communist beliefs, and Hue, as a child, sold issues of the Party newspaper, L'Humanité. He studied at the technical school in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, sang in a rock band called Les Rapaces under the alias Willy Barton, and practiced judo (winning an intercollegiate medal and receiving a black belt nidan).
Age sixteen (1962), he entered the youth section of the PCF, and then the Party itself. After studying in Paris and becoming an orderly, he was employed in a psychiatrical institution in Argenteuil.
Close to Georges Marchais, Hue climbed the steps in the Party hierarchy, being also elected mayor of Montigny-lès-Cormeilles in 1977. He was to be reelected for all possible terms, until 2001. In February 1981, he was brought briefly under the spotlight, by starting a campaign against a family of immigrants, whom he had accused of selling drugs (a "charge" that was based mainly on hearsay). This seemed strange to the public opinion in France, as Hue had been (and was to remain) a strict follower of the Party lines.
In 1987, Hue joined the Party's Central Committee and, in 1990, its Politburo. At that time, he presided the National association of Communist elects. In 1994, while still largely unknown, Hue was appointed successor by Georges Marchais. Hue changed renamed the office of Secretary General "National Secretary" in an effort to refresh the party's image. He did become quite well known only a few hours later, when he uttered a famous lapsus linguae: I'm not nobody's pawn.
Hue and Party reform
After the fall of the Berlin Wall, faced with the rapid erosion of his party, Robert Hue started a series of political transformations: openness to other political movements, discarding of several doctrines, a double-headed Party executive (with Hue as president and Marie-George Buffet as national secretary), etc. He made his approach public through his book, Communisme : la mutation.
Robert Hue's low percentage in 1995 is explained by the competition from Workers' Struggle, but it was still more than André Lajoinie's result in 1988. In 1997, he stood by the idea of Gauche Plurielle ("Pluralist Left") which brought the leftist politics back in power with Lionel Jospin; Hue became a deputy, and the government included a number of Communists.
However, the Party was falling out of favor with the public: from over 200,000 members in 1998, it dropped to 138,000 in 2001. The Party lost a good deal of allegiances during the 2001 municipal elections.
Hue created and assumed in 2001 the title of President of the Party. His successor as National secretary of the party was Marie-George Buffet.
The poor result in 2002 made the far-right leader Jean-Marie Le Pen cheer the death of Communist strength. In fact, the outcome was so bad that the Party did not have anything to show for the money it had invested in its campaign, and verged on financial collapse. Hue resigned the Presidency while the Party appealed to the generosity of its members. The Presidency was abolished, the National Secretary (Buffet) remaining as the Party's sole leader.
Political career
European Parliament
Member of European Parliament : 1999-2000 (Resignation). Elected in 1999.
National Assembly of France
Member of the National Assembly of France for Val d'Oise : 1997–2002. Elected in 1997.
Senate of France
Senator of Val d'Oise : Since 2004. Elected in 2004.
Regional Council
Regional councillor of Ile-de-France : 1986-1988 (Resignation) / 1992-1993 (Resignation). Reelected in 1992.
General Council
General councillor of Val d'Oise : 1988-1998 (Resignation). Reelected in 1994.
Municipal Council
Mayor of Montigny-lès-Cormeilles : 1977-2009 (Resignation). Reelected in 1983, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2008.
Municipal councillor of Montigny-lès-Cormeilles : 1977-2009 (Resignation). Reelected in 1983, 1989, 1995, 2001, 2008.
Political functions
President of the French Communist Party : 2001–2002.
National Secretary of the French Communist Party : 1994–2001.
Works
Histoire d'un village du Parisis des origines à la Révolution (1981)
Du village à la ville (1986)
Montigny pendant la Révolution (1989)
Communisme : la mutation (1995)
Il faut qu'on se parle (1997)
Communisme : un nouveau projet (1999)
References
1946 births
Living people
People from Cormeilles-en-Parisis
French Communist Party politicians
Candidates for President of France
Politicians of the French Fifth Republic
Candidates in the 2002 French presidential election
Senators of Val-d'Oise | [
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215903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo%20soul | Neo soul | Neo soul (sometimes called progressive soul) is a genre of popular music. As a term, it was coined by music industry entrepreneur Kedar Massenburg during the late 1990s to market and describe a style of music that emerged from soul and contemporary R&B. Heavily based in soul music, neo soul is distinguished by a less conventional sound than its contemporary R&B counterpart, with incorporated elements ranging from funk, jazz fusion, hip hop, and African music to pop, rock, and electronic music. It has been noted by music writers for its traditional R&B influences, conscious-driven lyrics, and strong female presence.
Neo soul developed during the 1980s and early 1990s, in the United States and United Kingdom, as a soul revival movement. It earned mainstream success during the 1990s, with the commercial and critical breakthroughs of several artists, including D'Angelo, Erykah Badu, Lauryn Hill, and Maxwell. Their music was marketed as an alternative to the producer-driven, digitally approached R&B of the time, although many of them were ambivalent about the term.
Since its initial mainstream popularity and impact on the sound of contemporary R&B, neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both American and international artists. Its mainstream presence declined during the 2000s, although newer artists emerged through more independent means of marketing their music. In his book The Essential Neo Soul (2010), music journalist and culture critic Chris Campbell writes that, while the genre has been "woefully misunderstood and its artists mis-marketed", there is "a historical and social relevance that validates its designation as the current face of alternative progressive soul music (in both underground and overground circles), complete with a distinct origin and developmental evolution". According to Mark Anthony Neal, "neo-soul and its various incarnations has helped to redefine the boundaries and contours of black pop."
Etymology
As a term, neo soul was coined by Kedar Massenburg of Motown Records in the late 1990s as a marketing category following the commercial breakthroughs of artists such as D'Angelo, Erykah Badu, Lauryn Hill, and Maxwell. The success of D'Angelo's 1995 debut album Brown Sugar has been regarded by several writers and music critics as inspiration behind the term's origin. While some artists have ignored the label, others have received the designation with controversy because it may seem contrived to music audiences and imply that soul music had ended at some point in time. In a 2002 interview for Billboard, Massenburg said that genre classifications are often unpopular because they may be suggestive of a short-lived trend. However, although he said neo soul is still essentially soul music, Massenburg felt there was a need to market artists of the genre for listeners to have an understanding of what they were buying.
In a 2010 article for PopMatters, music writer Tyler Lewis said that neo soul has been received with much controversy: "Given the way black music has been named by (usually) outsiders ever since the blues, the reaction to the name by artists who ostensibly fit into the 'neo-soul' category represents a wonderful example of black self-determination in an industry that is still defiantly wedded to narrow definitions and images of black folks." Jason Anderson of CBC News compares the etymology of neo soul to that of "new wave" and comments: "As imperfect as the term may be, neo-soul is still an effective tag to describe the mix of chic modernity and time-honoured tradition that distinguished the genre's best examples. Neo-soul artists tried to look both backward and forward, acting in the belief that a continuum might exist."
Characteristics
Despite some ambivalence from artists, the term received widespread use by music critics and writers who wrote about artists and albums associated with the musical style. African American studies professor Mark Anthony Neal has described neo soul as "everything from avant-garde R&B to organic soul ... a product of trying to develop something outside of the norm in R&B". According to music writers, the genre's works are mostly album-oriented and distinguished by its musicianship and production, incorporating "organic" elements of classic soul music with the use of live instrumentation, in contrast to the more single-oriented, hip hop-based, and producer-driven sampling approach of contemporary R&B. Neo soul also incorporates elements of electronic music, jazz fusion, funk, rap, gospel, rock, reggae, and African music. In her book Musical Rhythm in the Age of Digital Reproduction, music author Anne Danielsen wrote that neo soul toward the end of the 1990s exhibited a musical development that was part of "a remarkable increase in musicians' experimentation with and manipulation of grooves at the microrhythmic level – that is, the level in played music that is usually understood in terms of phrasing and timing."
Noting that most of the genre's artists are singer-songwriters, writers have viewed their lyrical content as more "conscious-driven" and having a broader range than most other R&B artists. AllMusic calls it "roughly analogous to contemporary R&B". Dimitri Ehrlich of Vibe said that they "emphasize a mix of elegant, jazz-tinged R&B and subdued hip hop, with a highly idiosyncratic, deeply personal approach to love and politics". Music writers have noted that neo soul artists are predominantly female, which contrasts the marginalized presence of women in mainstream hip hop and R&B. Jason Anderson of CBC News called neo soul a "sinuous, sly yet unabashedly earnest" alternative and "kind of haven for listeners turned off by the hedonism of mainstream hip-hop and club jams." Neo soul artists are often associated with alternative lifestyles and fashions, including organic food, incense, and knit caps.
According to music writer Peter Shapiro, the term itself refers to a musical style that obtains its influence from older R&B styles, and bohemian musicians seeking a soul revival, while setting themselves apart from the more contemporary sounds of their mainstream R&B counterparts. In a 1998 article on neo soul, Time journalist Christopher John Farley wrote that singers such as Hill, D'Angelo, and Maxwell "share a willingness to challenge musical orthodoxy". Miles Marshall Lewis commented that 1990s neo soul "owed its raison d'être to '70s soul superstars like Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder", adding that "in concert, Erykah Badu and D'Angelo regularly covered Chaka Khan, the Ohio Players, and Al Green, to make the lineage crystal clear." In citing Tony! Toni! Tone! as progenitors of the genre, Tony Green of Vibe viewed that the group pioneered the "digital-analog hybrid sound" of neo soul and "dramatically refreshed the digitalized wasteland that was R&B in the late '80s". Neo soul artists during the 1990s were heavily inspired by the eclectic sound and mellow instrumentation of Gil Scott-Heron's and Brian Jackson's collaborative work in the 1970s. All About Jazz cited Jackson as "one of the early architects" of the sound and his early work with Scott-Heron as "an inspirational and musical Rosetta stone for the neo-soul movement".
History
1980s–early 1990s: Stylistic origins
Neo soul originated in the 1980s and early 1990s, with the work of musical acts such as Prince, Tony! Toni! Toné!, Terence Trent D'Arby, Joi, and Mint Condition, whose music deviated from the conventions of most contemporary R&B at the time. Tony! Toni! Toné!-member Raphael Saadiq later embarked on a solo career and produced various works of other neo soul artists. Influential to neo soul, UK act Sade achieved success in the 1980s with music that featured a smooth jazzy style of pop rock called sophisti-pop. The band was part of a new wave of British R&B-oriented artists during the late-1980s and early 1990s that also included Soul II Soul, Caron Wheeler, The Brand New Heavies, Jamiroquai, and Lisa Stansfield. AllMusic's Alex Henderson writes that, "Many of the British artists who emerged during that period had a neo-soul outlook and were able to blend influences from different eras". Other British progenitors of the neo soul movement at the time included Young Disciples and Omar Lye-Fook, the latter of whom has been cited as "the father of British neo-soul" and an influence on many future artists.
According to Christopher John Farley, Prince had been "carrying a torch for neo soul for decades, refusing to make R&B that played by the rules or fit into comfortable formats. In the mid-'90s, he was suddenly joined by a host of other soul artists who also wanted to break boundaries". American artists during the early 1990s included Zhané, Groove Theory, Joi, Tony Rich, and Me'Shell NdegéOcello.
NdegéOcello's 1993 debut album Plantation Lullabies was later credited as the beginning of neo soul; according to Renee Graham of The Boston Globe, it was "arguably the first shot in the so-called 'neo-soul' movement". The success of Tony! Toni! Toné!'s 1993 album Sons of Soul was also viewed as a precursor to the soul music revival in the mid-1990s. Cheo Hodari Coker said in 1997 that the album "largely sparked the soul music revival that has opened the door for a new generation of singers who build on the tradition of Marvin Gaye and Stevie Wonder". Allmusic editor Leo Stanley wrote that by the release of Tony! Toni! Toné!'s follow-up album House of Music in 1996, "their influence was beginning to be apparent, as younger soul singer-songwriters like Tony Rich and Maxwell began reaching the R&B charts. Like Tony! Toni! Toné!, Rich and Maxwell relied on traditional soul and R&B values of songwriting and live performances, discarding the synth-heavy productions of the late '80s and early '90s".
A few hip hop groups are cited as well. Malcolm Venable of Vibe highlights the early work of hip hop band The Roots, who used live instrumentation, as a precursor to neo soul's commercial breakthrough in the mid-1990s. Kierna Mayo, former editor-in-chief of Ebony, said that alternative hip hop group A Tribe Called Quest's early 1990s albums The Low End Theory and Midnight Marauders "gave birth to neo-everything ... That entire class of D'Angelo, Erykah Badu, Maxwell, and Lauryn Hill".
Mid–late 1990s: Mainstream breakthrough
In 1995, former corporate marketer turned artist manager Kedar Massenburg established the record label Kedar Entertainment Inc., through which he released the breakthrough neo soul recordings of artists such as Badu, D'Angelo, and Chico DeBarge. Music journalists have specifically credited the successes of D'Angelo's Brown Sugar (1995), Maxwell's Urban Hang Suite (1996), Badu's Baduizm (1997), and Hill's The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998) with shaping and raising the neo soul movement to commercial visibility into the late 1990s. According to Farley, D'Angelo's album "gives a nod to the past, ... mints his own sound, with golden humming keyboards and sensual vocals and unhurried melodies ... His songs were polished without being slick and smart without being pretentious", while Badu "brought an iconoclastic spirit to soul music, with her towering Afrocentric headwraps, incense candles, and quirky lyrics". Baduizm sold nearly three million copies and won Badu two Grammy Awards. Hill's Miseducation album featured her singing and rapping, with deeply personal lyrics, and was one of neo soul's primary successes, achieving massive sales, critical acclaim, and five Grammy Awards. The 1997 film Love Jones capitalized on neo soul's success at the time with its soundtrack album, which impacted the Billboard charts and featured artists such as Hill, Maxwell, The Brand New Heavies, Me'Shell NdegéOcello, Groove Theory, and Dionne Farris.
After a brief marketing downturn, neo soul gained more mainstream popularity in 1999 with commercial successes by Hill, Maxwell, Eric Benét, Saadiq, and Les Nubians. It impacted mainstream radio while influencing contemporary R&B acts, such as R. Kelly and Aaliyah, to incorporate some of its textural and lyrical elements. In Kelly's song "When a Woman's Fed Up" (1998), the singer incorporated a more soul-based sound and referenced Badu's 1997 song "Tyrone" in the lyrics. Other female artists broke through with their debut albums, including Macy Gray, Angie Stone, and Jill Scott. Although Scott's album Who Is Jill Scott? Words and Sounds Vol. 1 would not see release until 2000, she co-wrote and sang on "You Got Me" (the 1999 hit single by hip hop band The Roots) and received further exposure as a supporting performer on the band's tour that year. "Thanks to her stint on 'You Got Me' and subsequent live shows", Joel McIver wrote, "Scott can be credited as the first female artist to emerge in Erykah Badu's wake who could seriously claim to have challenged her superiority at the top of the neo-soul tree".
During the late 1990s and early 2000s, the musical collective Soulquarians—consisting of such artists as D'Angelo, The Roots, Erykah Badu, Bilal, Mos Def, Common, James Poyser, and Q-Tip—contributed significantly to the neo soul movement with what Greg Kot described as its members' "organic soul, natural R&B, boho-rap". The collective developed through the production work of The Roots' drummer and producer Questlove.
Early 2000s: Height of hype
In 2000, D'Angelo released his second album Voodoo, serving as a further alternative to the mainstream of late 1990s R&B and hip hop, as neo soul reached its apex in the new decade. A production of the Soulquarians, it was an exemplary creative milestone of neo soul. Ben Ratliff of The New York Times called the album "the succes d'estime that proves the force of this new music: it is a largely unslick, stubbornly idiosyncratic and genuinely great album that has already produced two hit singles". The year also saw Badu's second album Mama's Gun, by which time the singer had been dubbed by writers as "the queen of neo-soul", although she said of the honorific title, "I hated that because what if I don't do that anymore? What if I change? Then that puts me in a penitentiary." Scott's first album Who Is Jill Scott? sold millions worldwide and proved one of the genre's significant releases.
Other successful performers marketed as neo soul at this time included Bilal, Musiq Soulchild, India.Arie, and Alicia Keys, who broke through to broader popularity with her debut album Songs in A Minor (2001). According to AllMusic biographer Andy Kellman, although Bilal may have been the "one R&B artist for whom the neo-soul categorization seemed limiting", his 2001 debut album 1st Born Second was an "exemplary" release for the genre and a top-10 R&B chart success. Hip hop acts such as The Roots and Common, also associated with the Soulquarians, released albums that incorporated neo soul: Phrenology (2002) and Electric Circus (2003). Commenting on neo soul's hype, Daphne Brooks wrote in 2004, "The increasing attention paid to heavily hyped 'neo-soul' artists such as Jill Scott and Indie.arie ... suggest[s] that cultural memory is now recognized as a marketable aesthetic strategy of expression in contemporary pop."
Mid–late 2000s: Mainstream decline
The 2000s later featured a decline in output by neo soul artists, with many of them failing to make a commercial impact after previous successes or not releasing a follow-up album. Badu's commercial viability decreased as each of her releases following her debut Baduizm departed further from that album's music. Hill followed-up her 1998 debut—considered the best-selling neo soul album—with a combative, confessional live album (2002's MTV Unplugged No. 2.0) in which she expresses her misgivings about fame, and her recording career diminished soon after. Melena Ryzik of The New York Times wrote in a retrospective piece on that "era of left-of-center black singer-songwriters", stating "many of them struggled to keep their creative momentum, conflicted about their early mainstream success." Producer and Soulquarians member Questlove elaborated on the artists' regression from the mainstream, saying "I think most of us went through our psychosomatic, quasi-self-saboteur stage. Once we got that first taste of success, I think just the pressure of reacting got to all of us. Some of us released some of the craziest records of our career." Other artists such as D'Angelo and Hill went on indefinite hiatus from the music scene. Tyler Lewis from PopMatters attributed the decline to "the downside of [the] rejection of the term ['neo soul']", going on to say:
The Boston Globes Renée Graham wrote of the artists' ambivalence towards the term in a 2003 article on neo soul's standing, "Despite its critical success, if neo-soul had an initial failing, it was the media-created label itself – a term that the artists, whom it was meant to represent, generally rejected". In a 2003 interview, music publicist John Constanza said that "The neo-soul movement is still there, but it's been underground, and it's trying to get the attention of the mainstream again". Mark Edward Nero of About.com stated, "In general, neo-soul has remained almost exclusive to R&B outlets such as urban radio and Black Entertainment Television ... the majority of neo-soul artists have yet to crossover to mainstream American music listeners, partially because the music's sound generally focuses on artist expression, rather than popular appeal".
After D'Angelo and Hill's withdrawal from the mainstream, Bilal appeared to be another artist from "the soul music vanguard" of the late 1990s and early 2000s to succumb to professional setbacks and fade from the public view, after his heavily bootlegged album Love for Sale was shelved in 2006, although it developed an underground following in subsequent years. Smash Gordon, of the Fabric club's blog, later called the leak "one of the biggest mysteries in neo-soul history".
In the latter part of the decade, emerging artists such as Heather Headley, Anthony David, J Davey, Eric Roberson, and Ledisi signed to independent soul labels and received exposure through independent retailers, neo soul-oriented web sites, college and public radio stations, city club venues, cable networks such as Music Choice and BET J, and publishing deals as writers and producers for major label-recording artists. Erykah Badu and Maxwell returned from their respective hiatuses and released well-received albums, her New Amerykah albums and his 2009 album BLACKsummers'night, and they subsequently toured together. VH1 Soul's series Soulstage, which began in 2007, showcased new music by artists such as Badu, Jill Scott, India.Arie, Q-Tip, and Saadiq.
2010s–present: Late period
Since its original popularity, neo soul has been expanded and diversified musically through the works of both American and international artists. The more popular neo soul artists of the 2010s included Scott, Maxwell, John Legend, Anthony Hamilton, Amy Winehouse, Chrisette Michele, Leela James, and Raheem DeVaughn. DeVaughn has described himself as an "R&B Hippy Neo-Soul Rock Star", viewing it as a reference to his eclectic musical style. In its 2010 issue on critical moments in popular music, Spin cited D'Angelo's Voodoo and its success as a turning point for neo soul: "D'Angelo's pastiche of funk, carnal ache, and high-minded, Afrocentric rhetoric stands as neo-soul's crowning achievement. So unsurpassable that it'd be eight years before we'd hear from Erykah Badu and Maxwell again, while Hill and D'Angelo remain missing. But Alicia Keys, John Legend, and Cee-Lo picked up D's mantle and ran with it". Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club discerns "a line of revelatory, late-period neo-soul albums" with the releases of Maxwell's BLACKsummers'night (2009), Badu's New Amerykah Part Two (Return of the Ankh) (2010), Bilal's Airtight's Revenge (2010), and Frank Ocean's Channel Orange (2012). In the 2010s, other neo soul acts included Fitz and the Tantrums, Mayer Hawthorne, Nathaniel Rateliff & the Night Sweats, and Amos Lee.
In August 2019, Okayplayer journalist Keith Nelson Jr. published a piece highlighting 11 recording artists who are "on the precipice of pushing neo-soul forward" into its third decade of existence: Steve Lacy ("cut from the abstract neo-soul cloth of Frank Ocean where you’re just as likely to have a jam session as you are to hear philosophical quips"), Mahalia ("singer-songwriter, with honeyed vocals … songs of love and anguish typically exist in narratives, similar to Jill Scott, who paved her path"), Adrian Daniel ("experimentation and vulnerability that is reminiscent of fellow Brooklynite Maxwell"), VanJess ("sister duo float between the soulful chemistry of Floetry and the unapologetically assertive of City Girls … artful sexual empowerment"), Donovan ("avant-garde singer and instrumentalist … bedroom intimate vocals and [emotive] production"), Ari Lennox ("can make Tinder plights sound rich with soul … akin to Erykah Badu"), Marco McKinnis ("Anthony Hamilton meets D'Angelo … hazy ambient sounds"), Baby Rose ("exquisitely guttural voice makes [love] palpable"), Kyle Dion ("a register so high it sounded like tearful begging"), Lucky Daye ("his love odes are imbued with a Raphael Saadiq-esque adventurousness"), and Iman Omari ("a faint Bilal tinge … music that leans heavy on a jazz/hip-hop").
See also
African-American music
Alternative R&B
References
Further reading
African-American music
Contemporary R&B genres
Soul music genres
American styles of music
British styles of music | [
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|
215905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Five-Percent%20Nation | Five-Percent Nation | The Five-Percent Nation, sometimes referred to as the Nation of Gods and Earths (NGE/NOGE) or the Five Percenters, is a Black nationalist movement influenced by Islam that was founded in 1964 in the Harlem section of the borough of Manhattan, New York City, by Allah the Father, who was previously known as Clarence 13X and, before that, Clarence Edward Smith.
Members of the group call themselves Allah's Five Percenters, which reflects the concept that ten percent of the people in the world know the truth of existence, and those elites and their agents opt to keep eighty-five percent of the world in ignorance and under their controlling thumb; the remaining five percent are those who know the truth and are determined to enlighten the eighty-five percent.
The Nation of Gods and Earths teaches the belief that Black people are the original people of the planet Earth and are therefore the fathers ("Gods") and mothers ("Earths") of civilization. The Nation teaches that Supreme Mathematics and Supreme Alphabet, a set of principles created by Allah the Father, is the key to understanding humankind's relationship to the universe. The Nation believe in teaching a form of God and his proper name is "Allah", the Arabic word for "God".
History
Founding
The Nation of Gods and Earths was founded by Clarence 13X after he left the Nation of Islam's Temple Number Seven in Harlem, New York, the same temple where Malcolm X was a minister from 1960 to 1963. Multiple stories exist as to why Allah and the NOI parted ways: Some state he refused to give up gambling; others state he questioned the unique divinity of Wallace Fard Muhammad, whom the NOI deified as the true and living God in person; or that he questioned Fard's godhood due to the fact that Fard was born of a Caucasian mother. One story states that he was disciplined by the NOI and excommunicated in 1963, but another version of events says that he left of his own free will.
After leaving the NOI, he renamed himself "Allah the Father". He was joined by Abu Shahid (formerly John 37X), who agreed with Allah's questioning of Wallace Fard Muhammad. Allah the Father and Shahid were nicknamed "High Scientists" due to their intense study of lessons. Allah was also joined by Justice (formerly James 109X, and before that, James Howell) who would become one of Allah's closest associates until his death.
Allah proselytized the streets of Harlem to teach others his views based on his interpretation of NOI teachings. After failing to reach elder adults whom he saw as already set in their ways, he found success with street youth. On October 10, 1964, this young group formed the First Nine Born of what became known as the Five-Percent Nation, or later the Nation of Gods and Earths.
Allah taught his Black male students that they were Gods, just as he was. He taught them that the astral twin of the Black man is the Sun. In Supreme Mathematics, the Black man is symbolized as "Knowledge." The Black women who came into Father Allah's growing movement to study along with the males were taught they were symbolic of the planet Earth because women produce and sustain human existence as does the Earth. Female Five Percenters are also referred to as "Wisdom." The Nation of Gods and Earths' Supreme Wisdom states: "Wisdom is the Original Woman because life is continued through her cipher (womb)." The NGE does not consider itself a religion; its position is that it makes no sense to be religious or to worship or deify anyone or anything outside of oneself because adherents, themselves, are the highest power in the known universe, both collectively and individually. Allah the Father developed a curriculum of eight lessons that included the Supreme Alphabets and Mathematics, which he devised, as well as lessons developed by the Nation of Islam's Elijah Muhammad and Wallace Fard Muhammad. The eight lessons were taught in this order, which follows below:
Supreme Mathematics (1-10)
Supreme Alphabets (1-26)
Student Enrollment (1-10)
English Lesson C-1 (1-36)
Lost-Found Muslim Lesson No. 1 (1-14)
Lost-Found Muslim Lesson No. 2 (1-40)
Actual Facts (13)
Solar Facts (9)
Each Five Percenter was required to fully "master" each lesson and was expected to be able to "think and reason by forming profound relationships between the lessons and significant experiences within life." Five Percenters were also required to share what they had learned with others, and thereby recruit new members.
Social and political influence
The FBI opened a file on the Five Percenters in 1965, the height of the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements in the United States. In "Disturbance by Group Called 'Five Percenters,'" the FBI refers to the organization as a "loosely knit group of Negro youth gangs. ... These particular gangs emanate from New York City Public School Number 120 which is a junior high school." The FBI file stated that the organization's name meant "The five percent of the Muslims who smoke and drink." 1965 New York newspaper articles referred to the Five Percenters as a "gang," "hoodlums," and "terror group." Allah the Father and the Five Percenters "had a reputation for being unreachable, anti-white criminals." With the goal of preventing New York from having a race riot or uprising, New York Mayor John V. Lindsay sent Barry Gottehrer, the head of the mayor's Urban Task Force, to meet with the organization the FBI had called a "gang" and "terror group." Gottehrer stated Allah the Father was non-violent, "but was dedicated to his community's well-being." Gottehrer and Allah began organizing picnics and airplane rides for the Five Percenters that were funded by New York City through the Urban Task Force. Wakeel Allah's book In the Name of Allah includes a photo captioned: "Allah (in background) along with Mayor Lindsay (holding baby) on airplane ride with Five Percenters." In 1967, Father Allah, with Gottehrer's assistance, opened the Urban League Street Academy, which would become known as the Allah School in Mecca.
In 1967, shortly after Allah and Justice started holding classes at the Street Academy, Civil Rights leader Bayard Rustin and Massachusetts Senator Edward Brooke visited Father Allah at the Academy. In an article titled "The Five Percenters," published in The New Amsterdam News, Rustin wroteWe might all applaud the Street Academy as one of the most constructive contributions to the maintenance of stability in the Harlem Community, as well as creating an effective instrument for the rehabilitation of young men who might otherwise have no choice but the streets. ... Besides their academic and social activities, the Five Percenters told me that they pursue a spiritual ideal of "helping others discover a true knowledge of themselves." They said they are "neither anti-white nor pro-black." Allah the Father stated that he was "neither pro-black nor anti-white." In his "National Statement" given at Brookdale College in Monmouth County, New Jersey, in 1998, Dumar Wa'de Allah, National Spokesman for the NGE, stated "we are not anti-white, nor pro-black. In fact, we have white Five Percenters." NGE websites and articles state, "We as a collective are not anti-white nor pro-black. We are pro-righteous and anti-devilishment."
There have been from the organization's inception Five Percenters of various ethnicities. The most well-known Caucasian Five Percenter is John Michael Kennedy, who met Allah in 1965. Allah proclaimed Kennedy a "righteous man" and renamed him Azreal. Michael M. Knight's The Five Percenters includes a photo of a gathering of Five Percenters that includes Barkim, who Knight describes as "one of the earliest white Five Percenters" and his siblings. Knight's book also includes two photos of Allah with Gottehrer, who Allah called "Moses." Dr. Sujan Dass, who is better known as Supreme Understanding, is a Bangladeshi-American Five Percenter and an influential and prolific writer. His book How to Hustle and Win: A Survival Guide for the Ghetto has been described as having the same impact on the hip hop generation as The Autobiography of Malcolm X and Alex Haley's Roots: The Saga of an American Family had on previous generations of African Americans.
In 2018 members of the Five Percent Nation and Harlem community members applied to the Transportation/Historic Preservation & Landmarks Committee of Manhattan Community Board 10 to have the northwest corner of 126th Street & Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Blvd in Harlem, New York co-named “Allah, Justice & The Five Percenters Square.” The application and subsequent proposal were approved by Manhattan Community Board 10 and the New York City Council. In March 2019 the intersection of 126th Street & Adam Clayton Powell Jr. Blvd in New York was officially co-named "Allah, Justice & The Five Percenters Square."
Conflicts
After the founding of the Allah School, the Gods and Earths became more influentialupon the April 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., it quelled a potential rebellion in Harlem. Allah was assassinated 13 June 1969 at 21 West 112th Street in Harlem, the residence of his wife and children. There have been rumors and theories about assailants and motives, but the murder remains unsolved. The murder was a blow to the movement, but according to the direct orders of Allah before his death, some of his earliest disciples, a group of nine men who were called the First Nine Born carried on the teachings, and his friend Justice assumed an acting leadership role.
The FBI's labeling the Five Percenters as a "gang" in 1965 has caused much trouble for Gods and Earths in the United States. The "gang" label has caused individuals with even remote NGE affiliation to be designated as security threats in jails and prisons in Michigan, New Jersey, New York, and South Carolina. NGE literature has been banned from penal institutions in these and other states, and inmates have been denied privileges enjoyed by those of other persuasions. Such rules were relaxed in 2004 in New York to allow registered "sincere adherent(s)" to study teachings personally but not share with unregistered inmates during their incarceration.
Its newspaper The Five Percenter condemns the states who impose restrictions on their practice as those who "attempt to define us in ways that seek to criminalize us." In Michigan, the Nation challenged a ban on the group's literature among prison inmates after an inmate was designated a security threat until he renounced his membership. Judge Steven Whalen found no evidence that the group advocated violence and recommended that it be recognized as a legitimate belief system.
Beliefs
Basis
The men of the Five Percent Nation view themselves as Gods (both individually and collectively as the Original Man). According to the Five Percenter Newspaper, "God first means that it is no longer a judicial argument; centered means everything we do is about God. Culture is the practices and principles of a people at any given time." Gods and Earths sometimes refer to themselves as scientists, implying their search for knowledge and proof.
The teachings of the Nation of Gods and Earths are passed on through a modern oral tradition. The advancement of a God or Earth is based on his or her memorization, recitation, comprehension, and practical application of the Supreme Mathematics and the Supreme Alphabet and also the 120 Lessons, sometimes referred to as degrees, a revised version of the Supreme Wisdom lessons of the NOI, originally written by Wallace Fard Muhammad and Elijah Muhammad. The anthology Knowledge of Self: A Collection of Wisdom on the Science of Everything in Life by Supreme Understanding details the teachings of the Nation of Gods and Earths. Wakeel Allah has written In the Name of Allah: A History of Clarence 13X and the 5 Percenters and The Naked Truth: From the Goal Mind of Abu Shahid, the Elder of the Nation of Gods and Earths.
"Five Percent"
The term "Five Percenter" is taken directly from the "Five Percent" who are described in "Lost-Found Muslim Lesson No. 2" of the Nation of Islam. The lesson groups the people of the world into three categories. Eighty-five percent of the world's population are described as "uncivilized people; poison animal eaters; slaves from mental death and power, people who do not know the Living God or their origin in this world, and they worship that which they do not know. ... [They] are easily led in the wrong direction, but hard to lead into the right direction." Ten percent of the world's population are described as "The rich; the slave-makers of the poor; who teach the poor lies—to believe that the Almighty, True and Living God is a spook and cannot be seen by the physical eye. Otherwise known as: The Blood-Suckers of the Poor." Five Percent of the world's population are described as "the poor, righteous Teachers, who do not believe in the teachings of the 10%, and are all-wise; and know who the Living God is; and Teach that the Living God is the Sun of man, the supreme being, the (Black man) of Asia; and Teach Freedom, Justice and Equality to all the human family of the planet Earth."
The Universal Language
The Supreme Mathematics and Supreme Alphabet are key concepts in the Five Percent Nation. The Supreme mathematics is a system of understanding numerals alongside concepts and qualitative representations that are used along with the Supreme Alphabet. The Supreme Mathematics is thought to be the highest system of numerology in the NGE, used to give qualitative value to numbers in addition to quantity. How the values associated with each number were derived are currently unknown. The numerals are as follows:
1. Knowledge
2. Wisdom
3. Understanding
4. Culture or Freedom
5. Power or Refinement
6. Equality
7. God
8. Build or Destroy
9. Born (Birth)
0. Cipher
The Supreme Alphabet is a system of interpreting text and finding deeper meaning from the NOI Lessons by assigning actual meanings to the letters of the Latin script. For example, the first letter, A, stands for Allah; the 12th letter, L, stands for Love, Hell, or Right; and the 13th letter, M, stands for Master. The Supreme Alphabet was developed by Allah the Father and Justice. The method by which letters were associated with certain values is unknown.
Customs
The Five-Percent Nation holds events known as Universal Parliaments in various cities—usually once a month—to build on their interpretation of the Supreme Mathematics, lessons, and to discuss business concerning the NGE. These meetings usually take place in public areas and can be held anywhere.
The Show and Prove is an annual event that takes place in the Harlem section of Manhattan every second weekend in June. Gods and Earths converge from all over the world at Harriet Tubman Elementary School for this gathering, which includes a marketplace, performances, and speeches in the school's auditorium and a science fair in which children participate.
Because the NGE defines itself as a way of life and not a religion, the Nation generally does not observe religious holidays, including those associated with Christianity or Islam. Many Five Percenters honor Allah the Father's birthday (February 22) and/or the official founding of the Nation (October 10) with special events and parliaments.
Similar to adherents of denominations of traditional Islam, Five Percenters abstain from eating pork or any pork-based by-products. According to Five Percenter Universal Shaamguadd, Allah the Father stated Five Percenters should avoid eating "small scavengers, such as shrimp," and also avoid "lobsters, crabs, clams, and oysters." Some Five Percenters take further steps and eschew meat altogether, often opting for "strict" vegetarianism. Allah the Father advocated "eating one meal a day, every other day or every third days, as prescribed in the Nation of Islam." Allah was also a proponent of fasting and many new adherents fast as part of "an induction process."
Teachings on race
The teachings of Five-Percent Nation have been accused of promoting black supremacy. As in the Nation of Islam, Five Percenters believe that the original inhabitants of the world were Black (which they refer to as the "Asiatic Blackman" and believe had inhabited the earth for "66 trillion years") who ultimately descended from the Tribe of Shabazz, while the White race are evil "devils" who were created 6,000 years ago on what is today the Greek island of Patmos by a 'rogue bigheaded scientist' named Yakub (the Biblical and Qur'anic Jacob) who was of the Meccan branch of the tribe. After the Whites attempted to rise up against their creators, they were exiled to the caves of "West Asia" - what would later be known as Europe. The Yakub origin story is the basis for all Five Percenter racial understanding.
Gender perceptions
Some Five Percenters have been accused of promoting male chauvinism and misogyny. According to Prince Allah Cuba, since the death of Allah the Father, some Gods have grown preoccupied with male supremacy, and this preoccupation has resulted in the minimization of all things female: from the crescent moon on the nation's flag being made smaller and eventually placed under the number seven, to the lack of parity in the God-Earth dyad. According to the Five Percent Nation, each member constitutes a divine being in his or her own right. Some males promote the minimization of women, as with Lord Jamar's lyric that woman is "secondary but most necessary." Others describe the Black woman as the Black man's equal: In X Clan's song "Wiz Degrees," Five Percenter Brother J describes his partner as "Wisdom and the Goddess manifest." Ladybug Mecca, a Five Percenter and the female member of the hip hop group Digable Planets, offers her explication of gender and divinity: We need to know that there is a feminine and masculine principal or consciousness that is considered the God or the Creator. It's not a male, like religion will tell you. It's a mother/father principle, a masculine/feminine principle. /. . . ./ The feminine principle is what gives birth to the universe. It's what brings creation forth, so there has to be an acknowledgement and respect for her in order to bring back the balance. In religion, in Christianity and in Islam, in all religions ... it's a perverted piece of the truth, when it doesn't hold the woman on a pedestal.
Five Percenter Just I C Equality Allah asserts that gender equality is an inherent aspect of ALLAH: "How can woman not be God as well as man? First of all, we are the Arm Leg Leg Arm Head (Allah). There is no gender type, we all have the components that make the physical. We all have the components that make the physical. Allah is the all in all. How can we be the all in all if "all" isn't included?" When Allah the Father was alive, some female Five Percenters referred to themselves as Goddesses. A Five Percent female named Tawanna referred to herself as God. When challenged by some male Five Percenters, Tawanna defended her position and was declared by Justice to be "more God than some of the men!"
Hip hop
The majority of allusions to Islam in American hip-hop, either conscious or otherwise, spawn from adherents of the Five Percenters. In its article on Five Percenter Jay Electronica, Vice Magazine stated in regard to the Five Percent Nation: "It's a movement that's been affiliated with hip-hop from the very beginning, coining terms like 'ciphers' and 'dropping science' and influencing everyone, World's Famous Supreme Team, Big Daddy Kane, Jay-Z, Method Man, Rakim, Wu-Tang Clan, Brand Nubian, Nas, Common, Poor Righteous Teachers, Erykah Badu, and AZ. With these artists, and any others associated with the Five Percenters, music was more than just a message."
The Nation of Gods and Earth has propagated its teachings throughout the United States and abroad. In the early 1980s, this spread was in part due to early adherents teaching when away at college or in the military and, more famously, because of the rise of hip hop music. The main theme of the NGE doctrine spoken on hip hop records were the teachings that black people were the original or first human life to walk the planet, that the Blackman is God, the Blackwoman is Earth, and through the inner esoteric powers of the Gods and Earths, the youth can transform and possess its true potential, which aspires to overthrow the overbearing oligarchy by becoming just rulers of themselves. This especially meshed well with conscious themes found in other golden-age hip hop recordings.
Early hip-hop acts affiliated with the Five Percenters, and who spread its teachings through hip hop, include two MCs of the late 1980s–early '90s conscious-rap era—Rakim of Eric B. & Rakim and Big Daddy Kane. These two acts, as well as some of their other contemporaries, infused Five-Percent teachings and symbolism throughout their music and videos. This reputation brought fans of Rakim in particular to refer to him as the God MC. After Rakim and Kane's heyday rose acts that were even more explicit with allegiance to the NGE, most notably Brand Nubian, Poor Righteous Teachers, Wu-Tang Clan, Killarmy, Sunz of Man, Gravediggaz and Busta Rhymes. The popularity of these acts sparked a boom of new NGE students. The hip hop group 3rd Bass, whose MC's Prime Minister Pete Nice and MC Serch were white and Jewish, respectively, cited NGE lessons in the song "Triple Stage Darkness" and other songs.
Five Percenters were the innovators behind early hip-hop slang, including "word is bond," "break it down," "peace," "droppin' science," and "represent." Many MCs employ the technique and terminology of the Supreme Alphabet to create acrostics, acronyms and backronyms in their rhymes. For example, in the song "Wildflower," Ghostface Killah rhymes, "I'm God Cipher Divine," spelling G-O-D in the Supreme Alphabet. Furthermore, RZA directly rhymes the Twelve Jewels of life's objectives on his later work with Gravediggaz, rhyming in succession: knowledge, wisdom, understanding, freedom, justice, equality, food, clothing, shelter, love, peace, happiness. He regularly wears an eight-pointed star pendant with a number seven and a crescent, which can be seen on the cover of his album The World According to RZA.
Five Percenters in New York City were a visible presence at parties during hip hop's formative years of the 1970s. Scene pioneer DJ Kool Herc recalled that while there was a heavy gang presence in attendance, the Five Percenters were also there as a de facto peace-keeping element.
Other examples of hip hop and R&B acts who are (or have been) associated with Five Percent teachings include Killah Priest, Digable Planets, J-Live, Nas, Erykah Badu, Queen Latifah, SZA, Planet Asia, and Guru.
Notable current and former members and associates
Allah Mathematics – Hip hop producer and DJ of Wu-Tang Clan
AZ
Big Daddy Kane
Brother J – frontman and lyricist of X Clan
Busta Rhymes
Black Sheep
Brand Nubian
Cipha Sounds – DJ and radio personality
DJ Kay Slay
Digable Planets – Grammy Award-winning jazz-rap group
Erykah Badu – her Grammy Award-winning song "On & On" features teachings of the Five-Percent Nation
God Shammgod – former NBA player
Guru – emcee of the hip-hop group Gang Starr
Gravediggaz
Rakim
Jay-Z – has teachings but not confirmed member
Just-Ice
Nas was influenced by the Five-Percent Nation but does not claim to represent the culture.
Wu-Tang Clan – GZA The Genius ,Ghostface Killah and Raekwon have since converted to traditional Islam
Lakim Shabazz
Freedom Williams – Lead vocalist of the group C+C Music Factory
Jus Allah – Member of the rap duo Jedi Mind Tricks
The World's Famous Supreme Team
MC Shan
Planet Asia
Poor Righteous Teachers
Large Professor
Positive K
St. Lunatics
Supreme Understanding – author and historian, PhD
J-Live
John Forté – Fugees-affiliated emcee
GQ – an R&B and disco group, best known for its 1979 hit "Disco Nights (Rock Freak)"
Tragedy Khadafi
LL Cool J – Stated in his autobiography that he joined the Five-Percent Nation in school and took the name "Lord Supreme Shalik", but he also said, "At [the Five Percent Nation's] core there is a strict religious doctrine, but we weren't following that. We were just using the Five Percenter label as a shield to do our dirty work – fighting and eventually robbing."
Carmelo Anthony – NBA player for the Los Angeles Lakers
PHASE 2 – Graffiti writer, originator of the "bubble letter" style
Kase2 – Graffiti writer and innovator featured in the documentary Style Wars
Rammellzee – Graffiti writer, Hip-Hop musician and emcee featured in the film Wild Style
Raz Fresco – Canadian emcee and music producer (associated, not true and living)
References
Sources
External links
The official Web site of the Nation of Gods and Earths (archived)
A paper presented at the American Anthropological Association's Annual Meeting (Nov 1996) about Five Percenters and its influence on hip hop music, as well as its divergence from traditional Islam
FBI files on the Five Percenters
The Five Percent Solution – By Spin
The Daily Show with Trevor Noah Interviews Talib Kweli and Five Percenters – The Daily Show with Trevor Noah Interviews Talib Kweli
Official YouTube Channel
Five percenters
Islamic organizations established in 1964
African and Black nationalist organizations in North America
History of hip hop
Philosophical movements
20th-century philosophy
African-American Islam
1964 establishments in New York City
New religious movements
Black supremacy
Religious belief systems founded in the United States
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|
215906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstreet | Blackstreet | Blackstreet (often stylized as BLACKstreet) is an American R&B group founded in 1991 by record producers Chauncey "Black" Hannibal, and Teddy "Street" Riley. The group has released four albums with Interscope Records until 2003. They achieved relative success leading up to the single "No Diggity" (featuring Dr. Dre and Queen Pen), which peaked at number 1 for four weeks in November 1996.
Formation
After the breakup of Guy, Riley came up with the idea to start a new group featuring himself. Originally, the group was to be named Stonestreet, but it was later decided to combine Stonestreet with Chauncey's nickname "Black". The group became Blackstreet Featuring Teddy Riley, with an original lineup of Riley, Chauncey Hannibal, Levi Little, and Joseph Stonestreet. However, Stonestreet was replaced with Dave Hollister before the first self-titled album was released.
Career
In 1993, their first single "Baby Be Mine" was released on the soundtrack to the Universal Pictures comedy CB4 (starring Chris Rock). The song was written by Riley and Stonestreet and produced by Riley.
Their debut album, Blackstreet, featured the singles "Booti Call", "Before I Let You Go" and "Joy". "Booti Call" and "Before I Let You Go" were both Top 40 hits, with "Before I Let You Go" hitting the Top 10. In 1996, they released their second album Another Level. It was a breakthrough success due to the top single "No Diggity" (with Dr. Dre), which was a No. 1 hit on the Billboard Hot 100 in November 1996. In 1998, Blackstreet won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals.
Another Level eventually went four times platinum in the United States and peaked at No. 3 on the Billboard chart. "No Diggity" was later ranked at No. 91 on Rolling Stone and MTV: 100 Greatest Pop Songs. Another Level featured Mark Middleton and Eric Williams in place of Dave Hollister and Levi Little. Both Middleton and Williams were in groups prior to joining Blackstreet. Middleton was part of the short-lived Motown Records group Brik Citi. Williams was part of the trio The Flex, a group that sang on songs produced by their mentor Marley Marl. The success of Another Level landed them a guest appearance on Jay-Z's "The City Is Mine" and they teamed with Mýa and Mase for the hit "Take Me There" from the Rugrats soundtrack. The success of Another Level would also land them a spot on New Edition's 1997 Home Again reunion tour.
Blackstreet had a top ten album with Finally. The first single from the album, "Girlfriend/Boyfriend", was a collaboration with Janet Jackson featuring Ja Rule and Eve. Riley recorded a reunion album with Guy in 2000 and subsequently began working on material for his first solo record. Riley had second thoughts about disbanding Blackstreet and patched things up with Hannibal. Middleton and Williams returned to restore the Another Level lineup, and Riley's solo project became a Blackstreet reunion. After rumors of legal action and a preemptive countersuit, the group re-banded and released Level II.
After several failed attempts to keep Blackstreet together, all members eventually continued with solo careers for a time. However, in 2014 it was announced that past members Black, Little, Middleton, and Williams were back together under the Blackstreet moniker. They continued to perform with this lineup currently, and embarked on their second Australian tour in April 2015.
In 2015, three ex-members, Mark Middleton, Eric Williams and Jeremy Hanna were backing vocals for Eurovision Song Contest 2015 North Macedonia entry "Autumn Leaves" performed by Daniel Kajmakoski.
Members
Current
Chauncey "Black" Hannibal
Levi Little
Mark Middleton
Eric Williams
Blackstreet featuring Teddy Riley
Teddy Riley
Dave Hollister
Sherman Tisdale "J-Stylz"
Rodney Poe
Past members
Joseph Stonestreet (Original member only appeared on single "Baby Be Mine")
Terrell Phillips (Appeared on the album Finally)
Kermit Quinn (performed during live shows, does not appear on album)
Lenny Harold
Sherman Tisdale
Tony Tyler
Discography
Blackstreet (1994)
Another Level (1996)
Finally (1999)
Level II (2003)
References
Grammy Award winners
Interscope Records artists
American soul musical groups
African-American musical groups
New jack swing music groups
Musical groups established in 1991
1991 establishments in New York City
American contemporary R&B musical groups
MTV Europe Music Award winners | [
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215908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr.%20Octagon | Dr. Octagon | Dr. Octagon is a persona created and used by American rapper Keith Matthew Thornton, better known as Kool Keith. First appearing on Thornton's 1996 debut solo album, Dr. Octagonecologyst. The album examines the impersonal/delusional/authoritarian aspects of institutions/bureaucracies using the general hospital and psych ward as main metaphor.
The hyper-love of new technologies is also a theme. Thornton performed and released two albums under the alias. The character was murdered by Dr. Dooom on Thornton's 1999 album First Come, First Served, and was briefly revived before once again being killed on Thornton's 2008 album Dr. Dooom 2, in response to the release of The Return of Dr. Octagon, an album largely produced without Thornton's involvement. Kool Keith reunited with Dan the Automator and DJ Qbert to release Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation on April 6, 2018.
Biography
Dr. Octagon is an extraterrestrial surgeon from Jupiter who uses space technology and primitive tools to perform medical procedures on his patients, some of whom die as he conducts his rounds, while others are murdered by his careless, barbaric acts. Octagon also practices as an orthopedic gynecologist and seduces and engages in sexual intercourse with his female patients and nurses.
Octagon, who dubs himself the "paramedic fetus of the east," is from the church of the operating room and was born on the planet Jupiter. His physical features include having yellow eyes, green and silver skin which also changes to blue and brown, a pink-and-white Afro, and a brain that glows yellow, black, red, green, and purple. Octagon also states that he can change his face with the press of a button, disappear, and wears a 7XL which has not yet been invented, X Ray sunglasses, hard shoes with razor blades, and a white suit and stethoscope.
Octagon specifies a few of the services he offers, such as treatment of chimpanzee acne and moosebumps, and performs rectal rebuilding surgery and relocates saliva glands. Octagon also performs medical experiments at night when the moon is out. Proclaiming that his hammer is dull and his drill is broken, Dr. Octagon tells patients that he doesn't have tools. Instead, he states that he'll rip out a stomach, dissect open rectums, put needles in kneecaps, apply Clorox to vocal boxes, and watch his patients vomit green. Dr. Octagon's office number is 1-800-pp51-doodoo, and his patients often wait in a waiting room for long periods of time before he dismisses the ones that have been waiting since morning. Octagon's hospital also houses mental patients that dance in the halls. Octagon has fed green fly soup to his patients on occasion, and has given patients a mixture of Pepsi cola, Pepto-Bismol, bugs, and pop rocks to watch them cough until they turn blue. One of Octagon's patients dies in room number 105 with cirrhosis of the eye while there is a horse loose in the hospital. Another patient is taken by Dr. Octagon out of the bathroom into water to touch the submerged electric wires. Octagon claims to hide the dead bodies of his patients in Beverly Hills, CA. Octagon's 208-year-old uncle, Mr. Gerbik, is described as being half shark, having the skin of an alligator, and carrying a dead walrus.
According to Kool Keith's "R.I.P. Dr. Octagon", Dr. Dooom stabbed Dr. Octagon over 17 times after he'd come back to life from being drowned under water. Multiple music critics and record producers made attempts to keep him alive, but Dooom returned to finally kill Octagon by electrocuting him with an electric razor. However, Kool Keith has continued to make appearances as Dr. Octagon.
History
The earliest instance of Thornton's Dr. Octagon character appears on the unreleased Ultramagnetic MC's demo "Smoking Dust", recorded in 1993 and included in the 1994 compilation album The Basement Tapes 1984-1990. On this demo, Thornton refers to himself as "Doctor Oc" and raps in a deeper cadence, with lyrics that intertwine grotesque pornographic imagery with science-fiction.
Thornton and KutMasta Kurt recorded two songs under the alias Dr. Octagon, "Dr. Octagon" and "Technical Difficulties." Thornton mailed the songs to radio stations as a teaser, as well as giving copies to several DJs, as well as producer Dan "The Automator" Nakamura, resulting in the production of Dr. Octagonecologyst. The album was recorded in Automator's studio in the basement of his parents' San Francisco home. Dr. Octagonecologyst featured the work of turntablist DJ Qbert and additional production by KutMasta Kurt. An instrumental version of the album was released under the title Instrumentalyst (Octagon Beats). KutMasta Kurt later pursued legal action against Automator because Kurt's demos had initiated the project. Kurt told the AV Club, “I got the whole [Dr. Octagon] thing started and really got nothing directly out of it. [Automator] ran with it, but he never gave credit to the person who threw the ball. At the end of the day, I actually had to sue the guy."
In promotion of the album, Thornton toured under the Dr. Octagon billing. These performances featured a full live band, an on-stage breakdancer and appearances by Invisibl Skratch Piklz. Nakamura has referred to Dr. Octagon as a three-person group rather than an alias of Thornton, and these claims were reported by the press.
Thornton later expressed some frustration with the "Dr. Octagon" nickname, saying, "Octagon wasn't my life...I've done a lot of things that were totally around different things other than Octagon. Are some people just afraid to venture off into my life and see that I do other things which are great? I think people stuck me with something."
In 2002, Thornton announced The Resurrection of Dr. Octagon, a proposed sequel to Dr. Octagonecologyst, that would reintroduce the character.
Los Angeles-based producer Fanatik J was chosen to create the music for the album. Thornton himself took part in the production of early material for the project, playing bass, guitar, and keyboards on many of the tracks.
After shopping around demos for the proposed album, Thornton signed a contract with CMH Records to release the album.
On July 23, 2002, Rolling Stone reported that a new Dr. Octagon album would be released in February 2003. As production on the album was underway, Thornton had a falling out with Fanatik J over contract rights, and the One-Watt Sun production team was hired to create the album's music. After completing three vocal tracks with the label, based upon rough sonic themes created by the production team, Thornton had a falling out with the label, and gave the label recordings he had made two years previously, consisting of Thornton rapping and goofing off, in order to complete his contract. The resulting album, The Return of Dr. Octagon, was largely produced without Thornton's involvement, and did not resemble the direction Thornton had initially intended for the album.
Promotional materials, including music videos, were produced without Thornton's involvement. Thornton states that he was "shocked" by the label's misrepresentation. Following the release of the album, Thornton performed under the Dr. Octagon billing, but did not promote the album. Dr. Dooom 2, Thornton's 2008 follow-up to First Come, First Served, was produced in response to The Return of Dr. Octagon. In the music video for "R.I.P. Dr. Octagon", the appearance of Dr. Octagon resembles the character design used in promotional materials by CMH Records.
In 2013, Dr. Octagon made a guest appearance on the Yeah Yeah Yeahs song "Buried Alive", which was featured on their album Mosquito.
Once again performing as Dr. Octagon, Kool Keith reunited with Dan The Automator and DJ Qbert to release Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation on Bulk Recordings. The album was released on streaming services on April 6, 2018, with the physical release scheduled for Record Store Day, April 21, 2018. The Record Store Day release includes both vinyl and CD copies. Using his Deltron persona, Del the Funky Homosapien guests on "3030 Meets the Doc, Pt. 1". NPR offered a first look at the album on March 29, 2018. 2020's Space Goretex features Dr. Octagon and two of Thornton's other personas, Dr. Dooom and Black Elvis.
Discography
Studio albums
1996 – Dr. Octagonecologyst
2006 – The Return of Dr. Octagon
2018 – Moosebumps: An Exploration Into Modern Day Horripilation
2020 - Space Goretex
References
External links
Talkin Back to Back: Dr. Octagon at Metal Lungies
Octagon, Dr.
Octagon, Dr.
Fictional obstetricians and gynaecologists
Octagon, Dr.
Octagon, Dr.
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215909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electricity%20market | Electricity market | In economic terms, electricity is a commodity capable of being bought, sold, and traded. An electricity market, also power exchange or PX, is a system enabling purchases, through bids to buy; sales, through offers to sell. Bids and offers use supply and demand principles to set the price. Long-term contracts are similar to power purchase agreements and generally considered private bi-lateral transactions between counterparties.
Wholesale transactions (bids and offers) in electricity are typically cleared and settled by the market operator or a special-purpose independent entity charged exclusively with that function. Market operators do not clear trades but often require knowledge of the trade in order to maintain generation and load balance.
The commodities within an electric market generally consist of two types: power and energy. Power is the metered net electrical transfer rate at any given moment and is measured in megawatts (MW). Energy is electricity that flows through a metered point for a given period and is measured in megawatt hours (MWh).
Markets for energy-related commodities trade net generation output for a number of intervals usually in increments of 5, 15 and 60 minutes. Markets for power-related commodities required and managed by (and paid for by) market operators to ensure reliability, are considered ancillary services and include such names as spinning reserve, non-spinning reserve, operating reserves, responsive reserve, regulation up, regulation down, and installed capacity.
In addition, for most major operators, there are markets for transmission congestion and electricity derivatives such as electricity futures and options, which are actively traded. These markets developed as a result of the restructuring of electric power systems around the world. This process has often gone on in parallel with the restructuring of natural gas markets.
History
One controversial introduction of energy market concepts and privatization to electric power systems took place in Chile in the early 1980s, in parallel with other market-oriented reforms associated with the Chicago Boys. The Chilean model was generally perceived as successful in bringing rationality and transparency to power pricing. Argentina improved on the Chilean model by imposing strict limits on market concentration and by improving the structure of payments to units held in reserve to assure system reliability. One of the principal purposes of the introduction of market concepts in Argentina was to privatize existing generation assets (which had fallen into disrepair under the government-owned monopoly, resulting in frequent service interruptions) and to attract capital needed for rehabilitation of those assets and for system expansion. The World Bank was active in introducing a variety of hybrid markets in other Latin American nations, including Peru, Brazil, and Colombia, during the 1990s, with limited success.
A quantum leap in electricity pricing theory occurred in 1988 when four professors at MIT and Boston University (Fred C. Schweppe, Michael C. Caramanis, Richard D. Tabors, and Roger E. Bohn) published a book entitled, "Spot Pricing of Electricity". It presented the concept that prices at each location on a transmission system should reflect the marginal cost of serving one additional unit of demand at that location. It then proposed quantifying these prices by solving a systemwide cost minimization problem while complying with all of the system's operational constraints, such as generator capacity limits, locational loads, line flow limits, etc. using linear programming software. The locational marginal prices then emerged as the shadow prices for relaxing the load limit at each location.
A key event for electricity markets occurred in 1990 when the United Kingdom government under Margaret Thatcher privatised the UK electricity supply industry. The process followed by the British was then used as a model (or at least a catalyst) for the restructuring of several other Commonwealth countries, notably the National Electricity Markets of Australia and New Zealand and the Alberta Electricity Market in Canada.
In the United States the traditional vertically integrated electric utility model with a transmission system designed to serve its own customers worked extremely well for decades. As dependence on a reliable supply of electricity grew and electricity was transported over increasingly greater distances, wide area synchronous grid interconnections developed. Transactions were relatively few and generally scheduled well in advance.
However, in the last decade of the 20th century, some United States policy makers and academics asserted that the electric power industry would ultimately experience deregulation and independent system operators (ISOs) and regional transmission organizations (RTOs) were established. They were conceived as the way to handle the vastly increased number of transactions that take place in a competitive environment. About a dozen states decided to deregulate but some pulled back following the California electricity crisis of 2000 and 2001.
In different deregulation processes the institutions and market designs were often very different but many of the underlying concepts were the same. These are: separate the potentially competitive functions of generation and retail from the natural monopoly functions of transmission and distribution; and establish a wholesale electricity market and a retail electricity market. The role of the wholesale market is to allow trading between generators, retailers and other financial intermediaries both for short-term delivery of electricity (see spot price) and for future delivery periods (see forward price).
Some states exempt non investor-owned utilities from some aspects of deregulation such as customer choice of supplier. For example, some of the New England states exempt municipal lighting plants from several aspects of deregulation and these municipal utilities do not have to allow customers to purchase from competitive suppliers. Municipal utilities in these states can also opt to function as vertically-integrated utilities and operate generation assets both inside and outside of their service area to supply their utility customers as well as sell output to the market.
Nature
Electricity is by its nature difficult to store and has to be available on demand. Consequently, unlike other products, it is not possible, under normal operating conditions, to keep it in stock, ration it or have customers queue for it. Furthermore, demand and supply vary continuously.
There is therefore a physical requirement for a controlling agency, the transmission system operator, to coordinate the dispatch of generating units to meet the expected demand of the system across the transmission grid. If there is a mismatch between supply and demand the generators speed up or slow down causing the system frequency (either 50 or 60 hertz) to increase or decrease. If the frequency falls outside a predetermined range the system operator will act to add or remove either generation or load.
The proportion of electricity lost in transmission and the level of congestion on any particular branch of the network will influence the economic dispatch of the generation units.
Markets may extend beyond national boundaries.
Wholesale electricity market
A wholesale electricity market exists when competing generators offer their electricity output to retailers. The retailers then re-price the electricity and take it to market. While wholesale pricing used to be the exclusive domain of large retail suppliers, increasingly markets like New England are beginning to open up to end-users. Large end-users seeking to cut out unnecessary overhead in their energy costs are beginning to recognize the advantages inherent in such a purchasing move. Consumers buying electricity directly from generators is a relatively recent phenomenon.
Buying wholesale electricity is not without its drawbacks (market uncertainty, membership costs, set up fees, collateral investment, and organization costs, as electricity would need to be bought on a daily basis), however, the larger the end user's electrical load, the greater the benefit and incentive to make the switch.
For an economically efficient electricity wholesale market to flourish it is essential that a number of criteria are met, namely the existence of a coordinated spot market that has "bid-based, security-constrained, economic dispatch with nodal prices". These criteria have been largely adopted in the US, Australia, New Zealand and Singapore.
Bid-based, security-constrained, economic dispatch with nodal prices
The system price in the day-ahead market is, in principle, determined by matching offers from generators to bids from consumers at each node to develop a classic supply and demand equilibrium price, usually on an hourly interval, and is calculated separately for subregions in which the system operator's load flow model indicates that constraints will bind transmission imports.
The theoretical prices of electricity at each node on the network is a calculated "shadow price", in which it is assumed that one additional kilowatt-hour is demanded at the node in question, and the hypothetical incremental cost to the system that would result from the optimized redispatch of available units establishes the hypothetical production cost of the hypothetical kilowatt-hour. This is known as locational marginal pricing (LMP) or nodal pricing and is used in some deregulated markets, most notably in the Midcontinent Independent System Operator (MISO), PJM Interconnection, ERCOT, New York, and ISO New England markets in the United States, New Zealand, and in Singapore.
In practice, the LMP algorithm described above is run, incorporating a security-constrained (defined below), least-cost dispatch calculation with supply based on the generators that submitted offers in the day-ahead market, and demand based on bids from load-serving entities draining supplies at the nodes in question.
Due to various non-convexities present in wholesale electricity markets, in the form of economies of scale, start-up and/or shut-down costs, avoidable costs, indivisibilities, minimum supply requirements, etc., some suppliers may incur losses under LMP, e.g., because they may fail to recover their fixed cost through commodity payments only. To address this problem, various pricing schemes that lift the price above marginal cost and/or provide side-payments (uplifts) have been proposed. Liberopoulos and Andrianesis (2016) review and compare several of these schemes on the price, uplifts, and profits that each scheme generates.
While in theory the LMP concepts are useful and not evidently subject to manipulation, in practice system operators have substantial discretion over LMP results through the ability to classify units as running in "out-of-merit dispatch", which are thereby excluded from the LMP calculation. In most systems, units that are dispatched to provide reactive power to support transmission grids are declared to be "out-of-merit" (even though these are typically the same units that are located in constrained areas and would otherwise result in scarcity signals). System operators also normally bring units online to hold as "spinning-reserve" to protect against sudden outages or unexpectedly rapid ramps in demand, and declare them "out-of-merit". The result is often a substantial reduction in clearing price at a time when increasing demand would otherwise result in escalating prices.
Researchers have noted that a variety of factors, including energy price caps set well below the putative scarcity value of energy, the effect of "out-of-merit" dispatch, the use of techniques such as voltage reductions during scarcity periods with no corresponding scarcity price signal, etc., results in a "missing money" problem. The consequence is that prices paid to suppliers in the "market" are substantially below the levels required to stimulate new entry. The markets have therefore been useful in bringing efficiencies to short-term system operations and dispatch, but have been a failure in what was advertised as a principal benefit: stimulating suitable new investment where it is needed, when it is needed.
In LMP markets, where constraints exist on a transmission network, there is a need for more expensive generation to be dispatched on the downstream side of the constraint. Prices on either side of the constraint separate giving rise to congestion pricing and constraint rentals.
A constraint can be caused when a particular branch of a network reaches its thermal limit or when a potential overload will occur due to a contingent event (e.g., failure of a generator or transformer or a line outage) on another part of the network. The latter is referred to as a security constraint. Transmission systems are operated to allow for continuity of supply even if a contingent event, like the loss of a line, were to occur. This is known as a security constrained system.
In most systems the algorithm used is a "DC" model rather than an "AC" model, so constraints and redispatch resulting from thermal limits are identified/predicted, but constraints and redispatch resulting from reactive power deficiencies are not. Some systems take marginal losses into account. The prices in the real-time market are determined by the LMP algorithm described above, balancing supply from available units. This process is carried out for each 5-minute, half-hour or hour (depending on the market) interval at each node on the transmission grid. The hypothetical redispatch calculation that determines the LMP must respect security constraints and the redispatch calculation must leave sufficient margin to maintain system stability in the event of an unplanned outage anywhere on the system. This results in a spot market with "bid-based, security-constrained, economic dispatch with nodal prices".
Many established markets do not employ nodal pricing, examples being the UK, EPEX SPOT (most European countries), and Nord Pool Spot (Nordic and Baltic countries).
Risk management
Financial risk management is often a high priority for participants in deregulated electricity markets due to the substantial price and volume risks that the markets can exhibit.
A consequence of the complexity of a wholesale electricity market can be extremely high price volatility at times of peak demand and supply shortages. The particular characteristics of this price risk are highly dependent on the physical fundamentals of the market such as the mix of types of generation plant and relationship between demand and weather patterns. Price risk can be manifest by price "spikes" which are hard to predict and price "steps" when the underlying fuel or plant position changes for long periods.
Volume risk is often used to denote the phenomenon whereby electricity market participants have uncertain volumes or quantities of consumption or production. For example, a retailer is unable to accurately predict consumer demand for any particular hour more than a few days into the future and a producer is unable to predict the precise time that they will have plant outage or shortages of fuel. A compounding factor is also the common correlation between extreme price and volume events. For example, price spikes frequently occur when some producers have plant outages or when some consumers are in a period of peak consumption. The introduction of substantial amounts of intermittent power sources such as wind energy may affect market prices.
Electricity retailers, who in aggregate buy from the wholesale market, and generators who in aggregate sell to the wholesale market, are exposed to these price and volume effects and to protect themselves from volatility, they will enter into "hedge contracts" with each other. The structure of these contracts varies by regional market due to different conventions and market structures. However, the two simplest and most common forms are simple fixed price forward contracts for physical delivery and contracts for differences where the parties agree a strike price for defined time periods. In the case of a contract for difference, if a resulting wholesale price index (as referenced in the contract) in any time period is higher than the "strike" price, the generator will refund the difference between the "strike" price and the actual price for that period. Similarly a retailer will refund the difference to the generator when the actual price is less than the "strike price". The actual price index is sometimes referred to as the "spot" or "pool" price, depending on the market.
Many other hedging arrangements, such as swing contracts, virtual bidding, Financial Transmission Rights, call options and put options are traded in sophisticated electricity markets. In general they are designed to transfer financial risks between participants.
Wholesale electricity markets
Argentina – see Electricity sector in Argentina
Australia – see Electricity sector in Australia
Western Australia (WEM) – Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO)
East Coast (NEM) – Australian Energy Market Operator (AEMO)
Austria – see EPEX SPOT and EXAA Energy Exchange
Belgium – see APX Group
Brazil – see Electricity sector in Brazil
Canada – see Electricity sector in Canada
Chile – see Electricity sector in Chile
Colombia – see Electricity sector in Colombia
Czech Republic – Czech electricity and gas market operator and Power Exchange Central Europe (PXE)
Croatia - Croatian Power Exchange (CROPEX)
France – see Electricity sector in France and EPEX SPOT
Germany – see Electricity sector in Germany, European Energy Exchange AG (EEX) and EPEX SPOT
Hungary – Hungarian Power Exchange HUPX and Power Exchange Central Europe (PXE)
India – see Indian Energy Exchange and Power Exchange India Limited (PXIL)
Ireland – Single Electricity Market Operator (SEMO)
Italy – GME
Japan – see Electricity sector in Japan and Japan Electric Power Exchange (JEPX)
Korea – Korea Power Exchange (KPX)
Mexico – Centro Nacional de Control de Energía (CENACE)
Netherlands – see APX-ENDEX
New Zealand – see Electricity sector in New Zealand and New Zealand Electricity Market
Philippines – Philippine Wholesale Electricity Spot Market
Poland – Polish Power Exchange (POLPX)
Portugal – OMI-Polo Español, S.A. (OMIE), OMIP, Sociedad Rectora del Mercado de Productos Derivados, S.A. (MEFF), and European Energy Exchange AG (EEX)
Scandinavia – see Nord Pool Spot
Slovakia – Power Exchange Central Europe (PXE)
Spain – OMI-Polo Español, S.A. (OMIE), OMIP, Sociedad Rectora del Mercado de Productos Derivados, S.A. (MEFF), and EEX
Sultante of Oman – Oman Electricity Market
Russian Federation – Trade System Administrator (ATS)
Singapore – Energy Market Authority of Singapore (EMA) and Energy Market Company (EMC)
Turkey – see Electricity sector in Turkey, Turkish Electricity Market
United Kingdom – see APX-ENDEX and Elexon
United States – summarized by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC).
California – California ISO
ERCOT Market in Texas
Midwest – Midcontinent Independent System Operator, Inc (MISO Energy)
New England market
New York – New York Independent System Operator (NYISO)
PJM Interconnection for all or parts of Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, and the District of Columbia.
Southwest – Southwest Power Pool, Inc
Vietnam – Vietnam wholesale electricity market (VWEM). Operated by EVN
Electric power exchanges
An electric power exchange is a commodities exchange dealing with electric power:
Indian Energy Exchange
APX Group
Energy Exchange Austria
European Energy Exchange
European Power Exchange
HUPX Hungarian Power Exchange
Nord Pool AS
Powernext
Retail electricity market
A retail electricity market exists when end-use customers can choose their supplier from competing electricity retailers; one term used in the United States for this type of consumer choice is 'energy choice'. A separate issue for electricity markets is whether or not consumers face real-time pricing (prices based on the variable wholesale price) or a price that is set in some other way, such as average annual costs. In many markets, consumers do not pay based on the real-time price, and hence have no incentive to reduce demand at times of high (wholesale) prices or to shift their demand to other periods. Demand response may use pricing mechanisms or technical solutions to reduce peak demand.
Generally, electricity retail reform follows from electricity wholesale reform. However, it is possible to have a single electricity generation company and still have retail competition. If a wholesale price can be established at a node on the transmission grid and the electricity quantities at that node can be reconciled, competition for retail customers within the distribution system beyond the node is possible. In the German market, for example, large, vertically integrated utilities compete with one another for customers on a more or less open grid.
Although market structures vary, there are some common functions that an electricity retailer has to be able to perform, or enter into a contract for, in order to compete effectively. Failure or incompetence in the execution of one or more of the following has led to some dramatic financial disasters:
Billing
Credit control
Customer management via an efficient call centre
Distribution use-of-system contract
Reconciliation agreement
"Pool" or "spot market" purchase agreement
Hedge contracts – contracts for differences to manage "spot price" risk
The two main areas of weakness have been risk management and billing. In the United States in 2001, California's flawed regulation of retail competition led to the California electricity crisis and left incumbent retailers subject to high spot prices but without the ability to hedge against these. In the UK a retailer, Independent Energy, with a large customer base went bust when it could not collect the money due from customers.
Competitive retail needs open access to distribution and transmission wires. This in turn requires that prices must be set for both these services. They must also provide appropriate returns to the owners of the wires and encourage efficient location of power plants.
There are two types of fees, the access fee and the regular fee. The access fee covers the cost of having and accessing the network of wires available, or the right to use the existing transmission and distribution network. The regular fee reflects the marginal cost of transferring electricity through the existing network of wires.
New technology is available and has been piloted by the US Department of Energy that may be better suited to real-time market pricing. A potential use of event-driven SOA (service-oriented architecture) could be a virtual electricity market where home clothes dryers can bid on the price of the electricity they use in a real-time market pricing system. The real-time market price and control system could turn home electricity customers into active participants in managing the power grid and their monthly utility bills. Customers can set limits on how much they would pay for electricity to run a clothes dryer, for example, and electricity providers willing to transmit power at that price would be alerted over the grid and could sell the electricity to the dryer.
On one side, consumer devices can bid for power based on how much the owner of the device were willing to pay, set ahead of time by the consumer. On the other side, suppliers can enter bids automatically from their electricity generators, based on how much it would cost to start up and run the generators. Further, the electricity suppliers could perform real-time market analysis to determine return-on-investment for optimizing profitability or reducing end-user cost of goods. The effects of a competitive retail electricity market are mixed across states, but generally appear to lower prices in states with high participation and raise prices in states that have little customer participation.
Event-driven SOA software could allow homeowners to customize many different types of electricity devices found within their home to a desired level of comfort or economy. The event-driven software could also automatically respond to changing electricity prices, in as little as five-minute intervals. For example, to reduce the home owner's electricity usage in peak periods (when electricity is most expensive), the software could automatically lower the target temperature of the thermostat on the central heating system (in winter) or raise the target temperature of the thermostat on the central cooling system (in summer).
Electricity market experience
In the main, experience in the introduction of wholesale and retail competition has been mixed. Many regional markets have achieved some success and the ongoing trend continues to be towards deregulation and introduction of competition. However, in 2000/2001 major failures such as the California electricity crisis and the Enron debacle caused a slow down in the pace of change and in some regions an increase in market regulation and reduction in competition. However, this trend is widely regarded as a temporary one against the longer term trend towards more open and competitive markets.
Notwithstanding the favorable light in which market solutions are viewed conceptually, the "missing money" problem has to date proved intractable. If electricity prices were to move to the levels needed to incentivize new merchant (i.e., market-based) transmission and generation, the costs to consumers would be politically difficult.
The increase in annual costs to consumers in New England alone were calculated at $3 billion during the recent FERC hearings on the NEPOOL market structure. Several mechanisms that are intended to incent new investment where it is most needed by offering enhanced capacity payments (but only in zones where generation is projected to be short) have been proposed for NEPOOL, PJM and NYPOOL, and go under the generic heading of "locational capacity" or LICAP (the PJM version is called the "Reliability Pricing Model", or "RPM"). There is substantial doubt as to whether any of these mechanisms will in fact incent new investment, given the regulatory risk and chronic instability of the market rules in US systems, and there are substantial concerns that the result will instead be to increase revenues to incumbent generators, and costs to consumers, in the constrained areas.
Capacity market
Turkey
The capacity mechanism is claimed to be a mechanism for subsiding coal in Turkey, and has been criticised by some economists, as they say it encourages strategic capacity withholding.
United Kingdom
The Capacity Market is a part of the British government's Electricity Market Reform package. According to the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy "the Capacity Market will ensure security of electricity supply by providing a payment for reliable sources of capacity, alongside their electricity revenues, to ensure they deliver energy when needed. This will encourage the investment we need to replace older power stations and provide backup for more intermittent and inflexible low carbon generation sources".
Auctions
Two Capacity Market Auctions are held each year. The T-4 auction buys capacity to be delivered in four years’ time and the T-1 auction is a top-up auction held just ahead of each delivery year.
The following Capacity Market Auction results have been published:
2014, for delivery in 2018
2015, for delivery in 2019/20
2016, for delivery in 2020/21
Definitions
The National Grid 'Guidance document for Capacity Market participants' provides the following definitions:
"CMU (Capacity Market Unit) – this is the Generating Unit(s) or DSR Capacity that is being prequalified and will ultimately provide Capacity should they secure a Capacity Agreement".
"A Generating CMU is a generating unit that provides electricity, is capable of being controlled independently from any other generating unit outside the CMU, is measured by 1 or more half hourly meters and has a connection capacity greater than 2MW".
"A DSR CMU is a commitment by a person to provide an amount of capacity by a method of Demand Side Response by either reducing the DSR customers import of electricity, as measured by one or more half hourly meters, exporting electricity generated by one or more permitted on site generating units or varying demand for active power in response to changing system frequency".
Frequency control market
Within many electricity markets, there are specialised markets for the provision of frequency control and ancillary services (FCAS). If the electricity system has supply (generation) in excess of electricity demand, at any instant, then the frequency will increase. By contrast, if there is insufficient supply of electricity to meet demand at any time then the system frequency will fall. If it falls too far, the power system will become unstable.
Frequency control markets are in addition to, and separate from, the wholesale electricity pool market. These markets serve to incentivise the provision of frequency raise services or frequency lower services. Frequency raise involves rapid provision of extra electricity generation, so that supply and demand can be more closely matched.
See also
Ancillary services
Availability based tariff
CEGB
Competition law
Cost of electricity by source
Distributed generation
Local flexibility markets
Energy demand management
Future energy development
Independent system operator
Load profile
Negawatt Power
NERC Tag
North American Electric Reliability Corporation
Open Energy Modelling Initiative
Power quality
Power purchase agreement
Vehicle-to-grid
References
Further reading
A 2006 World Bank report on Water, Electricity, and the effect of utility subsidies on the poor
Insight into the historic performance of the Reserve Capacity Mechanism – Independent Market Operator of Western Australia Reserve Capacity Mechanism Review Report
The EU energy sector inquiry that shows up current impediments for competition in the electricity industry in Europe The EU energy sector inquiry – final report 10 January 2007
Article by Severin Borenstein on the Trouble with Electricity Markets
David Cay Johnston, "Competitive Era Fails to Shrink Electric Bills", NYT October 15, 2006
Lewis Evans, Richard B Meade, "Alternating Currents or Counter-Revolution? Contemporary Electricity Reform in New Zealand", Victoria University Press, 2006.
Freedom Energy Logistics
Czech electricity market overview – Year report on the electricity market (technical report) and Expected balance report Annual Report
EDW Technology – Energy Wholesale Market Review
Report of the European Energy Market Prices for the month of June 2016
List of Power and Energy exchanges worldwide
Electric power distribution
Electricity markets
Governmental auctions | [
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|
215910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain%20Madelin | Alain Madelin | Alain Madelin (born 26 March 1946) is a French politician.
Politician
Madelin was minister of Industry in Prime Minister Jacques Chirac's cabinet from 1986 to 1988, a minister of Business in Prime Minister Édouard Balladur's cabinet from 1993 to 1995, and a minister of Economy and Finances in Prime Minister Alain Juppé's cabinet. He resigned after only three months, citing economic policy differences with Alain Juppé.
He was a member of the National Assembly from 1978 to 2007 as representative for Ille-et-Vilaine's fourth constituency. The district includes the town of Redon, where he was mayor from 1995 until 2000.
Madelin unsuccessfully ran in 1996 for president of the Union for French Democracy (UDF), and was defeated by François Léotard. He was elected as leader of the Parti Républicain, a part of the UDF coalition, which he renamed Démocratie Libérale. In 1998, Démocratie Libérale split from the UDF. Madelin's obtained slightly less than 4% of the vote in the 2002 presidential election and merged his party into the UMP. After 2002, although his former supporter Jean-Pierre Raffarin became Prime minister, and as a result of the end of Démocratie Libérale, Madelin's influence in French national politics dwindled.
As a classical liberal, he was a strong supporter of laissez-faire economics and was also a candidate in the 2002 French presidential election as the leader of the Liberal Democracy party, where he scored 3.91% on the first round. Following the election, he became a member of the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP).
Madelin is the French major politician the most in favor of the international policies of the United States, and supported the United States-led 2003 invasion of Iraq. Because of this, he has, in the past, generally been considered with favor by the US press.
He did not seek reelection in the 2007 elections, ending his involvement in partisan politics.
Political career
Governmental functions
Minister of Industry and Tourism : 1986–1988.
Minister of Enterprise and Economic Development, small and medium enterprises, Trade and Crafts : 1993–1995.
Minister of Economy and Finance : May–August 1995 (Resignation).
Electoral mandates
European Parliament
Member of European Parliament: June–November 1989 (Resignation) / 1999–2002 (Resignation). Elected in 1989, reelected in 1999.
National Assembly of France
Member of the National Assembly of France for Ille-et-Vilaine : 1978–1986 (Became minister in 1986) / 1988–1993 (Became minister in 1993) / 1995–2007. Elected in 1978, reelected in 1981, 1986, 1988, 1993, 1997, 2002.
Regional Council
Vice-president of the Regional Council of Brittany: 1992–1998.
Regional councillor of Brittany: 1986–1998. Reelected in 1992.
General Council
General councillor of Ille-et-Vilaine: 1994–1995 (Resignation).
Municipal Council
Mayor of Redon: 1995–2001.
Municipal councillor of Redon : 1995–2001.
Political functions
President of Liberal Democracy (France): 1997–2002.
Vice-president of the Union for French Democracy: 1991–1996.
Vice-president of the Republican Party (France): 1986–1997.
"Honorary member" of the Club de l'horloge.
Books
Madelin wrote several books and essays including:
Freeing Schools (Editions Robert Laffont, 1984)
My Fellow Countryman (Editions Lattès, 1994)
When the Ostriches Raised Their Heads (Editions Robert Laffont, 1995)
The Origins of the French Liberal Model (Editions Plon-Perrin, 1997)
The Right of the weakest (1999)
When the ostrich will take their retirement (Editions du Seuil, 2003)
Should we delete the school map? (Magnard, 2009)
References
External links
Alain Madelin official site
1946 births
Living people
Politicians from Paris
Independent Republicans politicians
Republican Party (France) politicians
Liberal Democracy (France) politicians
Mayors of places in Brittany
French Ministers of Commerce and Industry
French Ministers of Posts, Telegraphs, and Telephones
French Ministers of Finance
Deputies of the 6th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 7th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 8th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 9th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 10th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 11th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Deputies of the 12th National Assembly of the French Fifth Republic
Candidates in the 2002 French presidential election
Union for French Democracy MEPs
Liberal Democracy (France) MEPs
Republican Party (France) MEPs
MEPs for France 1989–1994
MEPs for France 1999–2004
French anti-communists
Carrefour de l'horloge people
Paris 2 Panthéon-Assas University alumni | [
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|
215912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isao%20Takahata | Isao Takahata | was a Japanese director, screenwriter and producer. A co-founder of Studio Ghibli, he has earned international critical acclaim for his work as a director of Japanese animated feature films. Born in Ujiyamada, Mie Prefecture, Takahata joined Toei Animation after graduating from the University of Tokyo in 1959. He worked as an assistant director, holding various positions over the years and collaborating with colleague Hayao Miyazaki, eventually directing his own film, The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun (1969). He continued his partnership with Miyazaki, notably directing the television series Heidi, Girl of the Alps (1974), 3000 Leagues in Search of Mother (1976), and Anne of Green Gables (1979). Takahata, Miyazaki and others formed Studio Ghibli in 1985, where he would direct Grave of the Fireflies (1988), Only Yesterday (1991), Pom Poko (1994), and My Neighbors the Yamadas (1999). His last film as director was The Tale of the Princess Kaguya (2013), which was nominated for an Oscar in the category of Best Animated Feature Film at the 87th Academy Awards.
Life and career
Early career
Takahata was born in Ujiyamada (now Ise), Mie Prefecture, Japan, on October 29, 1935, as the youngest of seven siblings and third son in the family. His father, Asajirō Takahata (1888–1984), was a junior high school principal, who became the education chief of Okayama prefecture after the war. On June 29, 1945, when Takahata was nine years old, he and his family survived a major United States air raid on Okayama City.
Takahata graduated from the University of Tokyo in 1959 with a degree in French literature. During this time at the school, he had seen the French film Le Roi et l'Oiseau (The King and the Mockingbird), which led him to become interested in animation. Takahata was more interested in animation as a medium, and wanted to write and direct for animated works rather than create animations himself. A friend suggested he apply for a directing job at Toei Animation; Takahata passed their entrance exam, and was hired as an assistant director for several of Toei's animated television shows and films—including Wolf Boy Ken, on which he was mentored by Yasuo Ōtsuka. Ōtsuka eventually asked Takahata to direct an animated feature film of his own; his directorial debut was The Great Adventure of Horus, Prince of the Sun (1968). Ōtsuka served as Animation Director on the film, while another Toei employee, Hayao Miyazaki, served as key animator. Though it would later be recognized as one of the first defining works of modern Japanese animation, the film was a commercial failure, and Takahata was demoted.
Unable to further improve his standing at Toei, Takahata left the studio in 1971, along with Miyazaki and Yōichi Kotabe. Takahata and Miyazaki came up with the idea of creating an animated feature film based on the stories of Pippi Longstocking. They developed the idea along with "A Production", an animated studio formed by another former Toei animator, Daikichiro Kusube (the company became Shin-Ei Animation). Takahata and Miyazaki had developed a number of storyboards and had flown out to Sweden for location shots, to meet with the books' author, Astrid Lindgren, and secure the rights for the character. However they could not reach an agreement with the rightsholders, and were forced to drop the project. Takahata and Miyazaki remained collaborators in several other animation projects through the 1970s, including taking over production of the anime series Lupin III at Ōtsuka's request, due to its poor ratings. They also made Panda! Go, Panda! for TMS around this time, which utilized some of the designs and concepts developed for the Longstocking project.
Not long afterward, Takahata, Kotabe, and Miyazaki were approached by the studio Zuiyo Enterprise to create an animated series based on the novel Heidi, which resulted in Heidi, Girl of the Alps (this also incorporated some of their work from the Pippi Longstocking concept). The animation production section of Zuiyo was established as a subsidiary company named Zuiyo Eizo, later becoming Nippon Animation, which Takahata and Miyazaki joined. Takahata continued to work at Nippon for about a decade; his work there included a World Masterpiece Theater adaptation of Anne of Green Gables in 1979, another project which had thematic similarities with the Pippi Longstocking concept.
Around 1981, Takahata left Nippon to join Telecom Animation Film Co., Ltd. (a subsidiary of Tokyo Movie Shinsha or TMS Entertainment), where he led production of an animated feature based on the manga Jarinko Chie, and a subsequent television spinoff. Around 1982, Telecom came up with the idea of an animated feature film Little Nemo: Adventures in Slumberland which adapted the Little Nemo comic, which was to feature joint direction between Japanese and American animation techniques. While both Takahata and Miyazaki were originally involved, they opted to leave the project and Telecom itself due to discord between the Japanese and American project directions.
Studio Ghibli
Concurrent to these events, Miyazaki had made his own directorial debut in the Lupin III feature film The Castle of Cagliostro in 1979, which was a critical success. Inspired by this, Miyazaki then began developing his own manga, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, and directing its 1984 film adaption, which also was commercially and critically successful. Miyazaki approached Takahata with the idea of co-founding their own animation studio based on the success of Nausicaä; Studio Ghibli was subsequently formed in 1985 by Miyazaki, Takahata, and Miyazaki's collaborators Toshio Suzuki and Yasuyoshi Tokuma.
The studio primarily released animated feature films that were directed by Miyazaki, with Takahata serving as producer or in other roles. Takahata did direct several Studio Ghibli films as well. His first, Grave of the Fireflies, released in 1988, was based on the semi-autobiographical short story of the same name written by Akiyuki Nosaka, but Takahata was also partially inspired by his own experiences from the bombing of Okayama City. Grave of the Fireflies received critical acclaim for its emotional impact and anti-war themes, and is considered the film that established the international esteem of Studio Ghibli. Other Ghibli films which Takahata served as director included Only Yesterday (1991), Pom Poko (1994) and My Neighbors the Yamadas (1999). In addition to directing and producing, he also served as music director for Miyazaki's Kiki's Delivery Service (1989).
Later life and death
Takahata announced that he would direct one last film for Studio Ghibli, The Tale of the Princess Kaguya (Kaguya-hime no Monogatari, 2013), around the same time that Miyazaki also announced his plans to retire from the studio. "Someday we should make a Japanese Heidi", Takahata and Miyazaki had both agreed after making Heidi noting its similarities to the Princess Kaguya story. Heidi's carefree depiction, Takahata had told one journalist, "stems from my ideal image of what a child should be like". When the film arrived in Western markets the following year, it was nominated for the Best Animated Feature at the 87th Academy Awards. Takahata continued to work at Ghibli, serving as an artistic producer for The Red Turtle (2016), the first feature film of Dutch animator and director Michaël Dudok de Wit in collaboration with Ghibli. The film premiered in September 2016.
Takahata had been diagnosed with lung cancer, and died on April 5, 2018, at a hospital in Tokyo, at the age of 82. On May 15, 2018, a farewell ceremony for Takahata was held at the Ghibli Museum in Tokyo. Hayao Miyazaki publicly spoke for the first time about Takahata's death, saying "I was convinced that Paku-san [Takahata's nickname] would live to be 95 years old, but he unfortunately passed away. It makes me think my time is also limited...Thank you, Paku-san."
Influences and style
Takahata was influenced by the works of Paul Grimault, a French animator, as well as French New Wave directors, including Jean-Luc Godard. He was also influenced by French-born Canadian director Frédéric Back, including his works Crac and The Man Who Planted Trees. He felt it was important to be able to achieve trompe-l'œil, the illusion of three dimensions using a two-dimensional medium.
Takahata's films had a major influence on Hayao Miyazaki, prompting animator Yasuo Ōtsuka to suggest that Miyazaki learned his sense of social responsibility from Takahata and that without him, Miyazaki would probably have been interested in comic book material. As with Miyazaki, Takahata and Michel Ocelot were great admirers of each other's work. Ocelot names Takahata's Grave of the Fireflies and Pom Poko among his favorite films.
TV works
Filmography
References
Further reading
External links
Takahata information at nausicaa.net
GhibliWorld.com: a Personal Conversation with Isao Takahata
Isao Takahata anime at Media Arts Database
1935 births
2018 deaths
Anime directors
Deaths from cancer in Japan
Deaths from lung cancer
Fantasy film directors
Japanese animators
Japanese film directors
People from Ise, Mie
Recipients of the Medal with Purple Ribbon
Studio Ghibli people
Topcraft
University of Tokyo alumni
World Masterpiece Theater series | [
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215913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meriwether%20Lewis | Meriwether Lewis | Meriwether Lewis (August 18, 1774 – October 11, 1809) was an American explorer, soldier, politician, and public administrator, best known for his role as the leader of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, also known as the Corps of Discovery, with William Clark.
Their mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade with, and sovereignty over the natives near the Missouri River, and claim the Pacific Northwest and Oregon Country for the United States before European nations. They also collected scientific data, and information on indigenous nations. President Thomas Jefferson appointed him Governor of Upper Louisiana in 1806. He died of gunshot wounds in what was either a murder or suicide, in 1809. The Louisiana Purchase was not made official until July 1803, Jefferson still requested Congress to fund the expedition in January of the same year.
Life and work
Meriwether Lewis was born on Locust Hill Plantation in Albemarle County, Colony of Virginia, in the present-day community of Ivy. He was the son of William Lewis, of Welsh ancestry, and Lucy Meriwether, of English ancestry. After his father died of pneumonia in November 1779, he moved with his mother and stepfather Captain John Marks to Georgia. They settled along the Broad River in the Goosepond Community within the Broad River Valley in Wilkes County (now Oglethorpe County).
Lewis had no formal education until he was 13 years of age, but during his time in Georgia he enhanced his skills as a hunter and an outdoorsman. He would often venture out in the middle of the night in the dead of winter with only his dog to go hunting. Even at an early age, he was interested in natural history, which would develop into a lifelong passion. His mother taught him how to gather wild herbs for medicinal purposes.
In the Broad River Valley, Lewis first dealt with American Indians. This was the traditional territory of the Cherokee, who resented encroachment by the colonists. Lewis seems to have been a champion for them among his own people. While in Georgia, he met Eric Parker, who encouraged him to travel. At age 13, Lewis was sent back to Virginia for education by private tutors. His father's older brother Nicholas Lewis became his guardian. One of his tutors was Parson Matthew Maury, an uncle of Matthew Fontaine Maury.
He joined the Virginia militia, and in 1794 he was sent as part of a detachment that was involved in putting down the Whiskey Rebellion. In 1795, Lewis joined the United States Army, commissioned as an ensign—an army rank that was later abolished and was equivalent to a modern-day second lieutenant. By 1800 he rose to captain, and ended his service there in 1801. Among his commanding officers was William Clark, who would later become his companion in the Corps of Discovery.
On April 1, 1801, Lewis was appointed as Secretary to the President by President Thomas Jefferson, whom he knew through Virginia society in Albemarle County. Lewis resided in the presidential mansion, and frequently conversed with various prominent figures in politics, the arts and other circles. He compiled information on the personnel and politics of the United States Army, which had seen an influx of Federalist officers as a result of "midnight appointments" made by outgoing president John Adams in 1801. Meriwether was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1802.
When Jefferson began to plan for an expedition across the continent, he chose Lewis to lead the expedition. Meriwether Lewis recruited Clark, then aged 33, to share command of the expedition.
Expedition west
After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Thomas Jefferson wanted to get an accurate sense of the new land and its resources. The president also hoped to find a "direct and practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce with Asia". In addition, Jefferson placed special importance on declaring U.S. sovereignty over the Native Americans along the Missouri River.
The two-year exploration by Lewis and Clark was the first transcontinental expedition to the Pacific Coast by the United States; however, Lewis and Clark reached the Pacific 12 years after Sir Alexander Mackenzie had done so overland in Canada. When they left Fort Mandan in April 1805 they were accompanied by the 16-year-old Shoshone woman, Sacagawea, the wife of the French-Canadian fur trader, Toussaint Charbonneau. The Corps of Discovery made contact with many Native Americans in the Trans-Mississippi West and found them accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets.
After crossing the Rocky Mountains, the expedition reached the Oregon Country (which was disputed land beyond the Louisiana Purchase) and the Pacific Ocean in November 1805. They returned in 1806, bringing with them an immense amount of information about the region as well as numerous plant and animal specimens. They demonstrated the possibility of overland travel to the Pacific Coast. The success of their journey helped to strengthen the American concept of "manifest destiny" – the idea that the United States was destined to reach all the way across North America from Atlantic to Pacific.
Return and gubernatorial duties
After returning from the expedition, Lewis received a reward of of land. He also initially made arrangements to publish the Corps of Discovery journals, but had difficulty completing his writing. In 1807, Jefferson appointed him governor of the Louisiana Territory; he settled in St. Louis.
Lewis's record as an administrator is mixed. He published the first laws in the Upper Louisiana Territory, established roads and furthered Jefferson's mission as a strong proponent of the fur trade. He negotiated peace among several quarreling Indian tribes. His duty to enforce Indian treaties was to protect the western Indian lands from encroachment, which was opposed by the rush of settlers looking to open new lands for settlements. But due to his quarreling with local political leaders, controversy over his approvals of trading licenses, land grant politics, and Indian depredations, some historians have argued that Lewis was a poor administrator.
That view has been reconsidered in recent biographies. Lewis's primary quarrels were with his territorial secretary Frederick Bates. Bates was accused of undermining Lewis to seek Lewis's dismissal and his own appointment as governor. Because of the slow-moving mail system, former president Jefferson and Lewis's superiors in Washington got the impression that Lewis did not adequately keep in touch with them.
Bates wrote letters to Lewis's superiors accusing Lewis of profiting from a mission to return a Mandan chief to his tribe. Because of Bates' accusation, the War Department refused to reimburse Lewis for a large sum he personally advanced for the mission. When Lewis's creditors heard that Lewis would not be reimbursed for the expenses, they called Lewis's notes, forcing him to liquidate his assets, including land he was granted for the Lewis and Clark Expedition. One of the primary reasons Lewis set out for Washington on this final trip was to clear up questions raised by Bates and to seek a reimbursement of the money he had advanced for the territorial government.
The U.S. government finally reimbursed the expenses to Lewis's estate two years after his death. Bates eventually became governor of Missouri. Though some historians have speculated that Lewis abused alcohol or opiates based upon an account attributed to Gilbert C. Russell at Fort Pickering on Lewis's final journey, others have argued that Bates never alleged that Lewis suffered from such addictions and that Bates certainly would have used them against Lewis if Lewis suffered from those conditions.
Freemasonry
Lewis was a Freemason, initiated, passed and raised in the "Door To Virtue Lodge No. 44" in Albemarle, Virginia, between 1796 and 1797. On August 2, 1808, Lewis and several of his acquaintances submitted a petition to the Grand Lodge of Pennsylvania requesting dispensation to establish a lodge in St. Louis. Lewis was nominated and recommended to serve as the first Master of the proposed Lodge, which was warranted as Lodge No. 111 on September 16, 1808.(See List of Notable Freemasons)
Lewis and slavery
Although Lewis attempted to supervise enslaved people while running his mother's plantation before the westward expedition, he left that post and had no valet during the expedition, unlike William Clark, who brought his slave York. Lewis made assignments to York but allowed Clark to supervise him; Lewis also granted York and Sacagawea votes during expedition meetings. Later, Lewis hired a free African-American man as his valet, John Pernia. Pernia accompanied Lewis during his final journey, although his wages were considerably in arrears. After Lewis's death, Pernia continued to Monticello and asked Jefferson to pay the $240 owed him, but was refused. Pernia later committed suicide.
Death
On September 3, 1809, Lewis set out for Washington, D.C. He hoped to resolve issues regarding the denied payment of drafts he had drawn against the War Department while serving as governor of the Upper Louisiana Territory, leaving him in potentially ruinous debt. Lewis carried his journals with him for delivery to his publisher. He intended to travel to Washington by ship from New Orleans, but changed his plans while floating down the Mississippi River from St. Louis. He disembarked and decided instead to make an overland journey via the Natchez Trace and then east to Washington (the Natchez Trace was the old pioneer road between Natchez, Mississippi, and Nashville, Tennessee). Robbers preyed on travelers on that road and sometimes killed their victims. Lewis had written his will before his journey and also attempted suicide on this journey, but was restrained.
Circumstances
According to a lost letter from October 19, 1809, to Thomas Jefferson, Lewis stopped at an inn on the Natchez Trace called Grinder's Stand, about southwest of Nashville on October 10. After dinner, he retired to his one-room cabin. In the predawn hours of October 11, the innkeeper's wife (Priscilla Grinder) heard gunshots. Servants found Lewis badly injured from multiple gunshot wounds, one each to the head and gut. He bled out on his buffalo hide robe and died shortly after sunrise. The Nashville Democratic Clarion published the account, which newspapers across the country repeated and embellished. The Nashville newspaper also reported that Lewis's throat was cut. Money that Lewis had borrowed from Major Gilbert Russell at Fort Pickering to complete the journey was missing.
While Lewis's friend Thomas Jefferson and some modern historians have generally accepted Lewis's death as a suicide, debate continues, as discussed below. No one reported seeing Lewis shoot himself. Three inconsistent somewhat contemporary accounts are attributed to Mrs. Grinder, who left no written account or testimony—some thus believe her testimony was fabricated, while others point to it as proof of suicide. Mrs. Grinder claimed Lewis acted strangely the night before his death: standing and pacing during dinner and talking to himself in the way one would speak to a lawyer, with face flushed as if it had come on him in a fit. She continued to hear him talking to himself after he retired, and then at some point in the night, she heard multiple gunshots, a scuffle, and someone calling for help.
She claimed to be able to see Lewis through the slit in the door crawling back to his room. However, she never explained why she never investigated further at the time, but only the next morning sent her children to look for Lewis's servants. Another account claimed the servants found Lewis in the cabin, wounded and bloody, with part of his skull gone, but he lived for several hours. In the last account attributed to Mrs. Grinder, three men followed Lewis up the Natchez Trace, and he pulled his pistols and challenged them to a duel. In that account, Mrs. Grinder said that she heard voices and gunfire in Lewis's cabin about 1:00 am. She found the cabin empty and a large amount of gunpowder on the floor. Thus, in this account, Lewis's body was found outside the cabin.
Lewis's mother and relatives always contended it was murder. A coroner's jury held an inquest immediately after Lewis's death as provided by local law; however, they did not charge anyone with murdering Lewis. The jury foreman kept a pocket diary of the proceedings, which disappeared in the early 1900s. When William Clark and Thomas Jefferson were informed of Lewis's death, both accepted the conclusion of suicide. Based on their positions and the never-found Lewis letter of mid-September 1809, historian Stephen Ambrose dismissed the murder theory as "not convincing".
Later analysis
The only doctor to examine Lewis's body did not do so until 40 years later, in 1848. The Tennessee State Commission, including Dr. Samuel B. Moore, charged with locating Lewis's grave and erecting a monument over it, opened Lewis's grave. The commission wrote in its official report that though the impression had long prevailed that Lewis died by his own hand, "it seems to be more probable that he died by the hands of an assassin." In the book The History of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, first printed in 1893, the editor Elliott Coues expressed doubt about Thomas Jefferson's conclusion that Lewis committed suicide, despite including the former president's Memoir of Meriwether Lewis in his book.
From 1993–2010, about 200 of Lewis's kin (through his sister Jane, as he had no children) sought to have the body exhumed for forensic analysis, to try to determine whether his death was a suicide or murder. A Tennessee coroner's jury in 1996 recommended exhumation. However, since Lewis's gravesite is in a national monument, the National Park Service must approve. The agency refused the request in 1998, citing possible disturbance to the bodies of more than 100 pioneers buried nearby. In 2008, the Department of the Interior approved the exhumation, but rescinded that decision in 2010, stating that the decision is final. It is nonetheless improving the grave site and visitor facility.
Historian Paul Russell Cutright wrote a detailed rebuttal of the murder/robbery theory, concluding that it "lacks legs to stand on". He stressed Lewis's debts, heavy drinking, possible morphine and opium use, failure to prepare the expedition's journals for publication, repeated failure to find a wife, and the deterioration of his friendship with Thomas Jefferson. This refutation was countered by Dr. Eldon G. Chuinard, (physician), who argued for the murder hypothesis on the basis that Lewis's reported wounds were inconsistent with his reported two-hour survival after the shooting. This theory has been challenged by Dr. David J. Peck (physician), with support from Forensic Pathology and Trauma Surgery. Leading Lewis scholars Donald Jackson, Jay H. Buckley, Clay S. Jenkinson and others, have stated that, regardless of their leanings or beliefs, the facts of his death are not known, there are no eyewitnesses, and the reliability of reports of those in the place or vicinity cannot be considered certain. Author Peter Stark believes that post-traumatic stress disorder may have been a contributor to Meriwether Lewis's condition after spending months traversing hostile Indian territory, particularly because travelers coming afterward exhibited the same symptoms.
Memorials
Lewis was buried near present-day Hohenwald, Tennessee, near his place of death. His grave was located about 200 yards from Grinder's Stand, alongside the Natchez Trace (that section of the 1801 Natchez Trace was built by the U.S. Army under the direction of Lewis's mentor Thomas Jefferson, during Lewis's lifetime).
At first, the grave was unmarked. Alexander Wilson, an ornithologist and friend of Lewis who visited the grave in May 1810 during a trip to New Orleans to sell his drawings, wrote that he gave the innkeeper Robert Griner money to erect a fence around the grave to protect it from animals.
The State of Tennessee erected a monument over Lewis's grave in 1848. Lemuel Kirby, a stonemason from Columbia, Tennessee, chose the design of a broken column, commonly used at the time to symbolize a life cut short.
An iron fence erected around the base of the monument was partially dismantled during the Civil War by Confederate detachments under General John Bell Hood marching from Shiloh toward Franklin; they forged the iron into horseshoes.
A September 1905 article in Everybody's Magazine called attention to Lewis's abandoned and overgrown grave. A county road worker, Teen Cothran, took the initiative to open a road to the cemetery. Thereafter, a local Tennessee Meriwether Lewis Monument Committee was soon formed to push for restoring Lewis's gravesite. In 1925, in response to the committee's work, President Calvin Coolidge designated Lewis's grave as the fifth National Monument in the South.
In 2009, the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation organized a commemoration for Lewis in conjunction with their 41st annual meeting from October 3–7, 2009. It included the first national memorial service at his grave site. On October 7, 2009, near the 200th anniversary of Lewis's death, about 2,500 people (National Park Service estimate) from more than 25 states gathered at his grave to acknowledge Lewis's life and achievements. Speakers included William Clark's descendant Peyton "Bud" Clark, Lewis's collateral descendants Howell Bowen and Tom McSwain, and Stephanie Ambrose Tubbs (daughter of Stephen Ambrose, who wrote Undaunted Courage, an award-winning book about the Lewis and Clark Expedition). A bronze bust of Lewis was dedicated at the Natchez Trace Parkway for a planned visitor center at the gravesite. The District of Columbia and governors of 20 states associated with the Lewis and Clark Trail sent flags flown over state capital buildings to be carried to Lewis's grave by residents of the states, acknowledging the significance of Lewis's contribution in the creation of their states.
The 2009 ceremony at Lewis's grave was the final bicentennial event honoring the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Re-enactors from the Lewis and Clark Bicentennial participated, and official attendees included representatives from Jefferson's Monticello. Lewis and Clark descendants and family members, along with representatives of St. Louis Lodge #1, past presidents of the Lewis and Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, and the Daughters of the American Revolution, carried wreaths and led a formal procession to Lewis's grave. Samples of plants which Lewis discovered on the expedition were brought from the Trail states and laid on his grave. The U.S. Army was represented by the 101st Airborne Infantry Band and its Army chaplain. The National Park Service announced that it would rehabilitate the site.
Legacy
For many years, Lewis's legacy was overlooked, inaccurately assessed, and somewhat tarnished by his alleged suicide. Yet his contributions to science, the exploration of the Western U.S., and the lore of great world explorers, are considered incalculable.
Four years after Lewis's death, Thomas Jefferson wrote:
"Of courage undaunted, possessing a firmness & perseverance of purpose which nothing but impossibilities could divert from its direction, careful as a father of those committed to his charge, yet steady in the maintenance of order & discipline, intimate with the Indian character, customs & principles, habituated to the hunting life, guarded by exact observation of the vegetables & animals of his own country, against losing time in the description of objects already possessed, honest, disinterested, liberal, of sound understanding and a fidelity to truth so scrupulous that whatever he should report would be as certain as if seen by ourselves, with all these qualifications as if selected and implanted by nature in one body, for this express purpose, I could have no hesitation in confiding the enterprise to him.
Jefferson wrote that Lewis had a "luminous and discriminating intellect". William Clark's first son Meriwether Lewis Clark was named after Lewis; the senior Meriwether Clark passed the name on to his son, Meriwether Lewis Clark, Jr.
Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant (de facto Co-Captain and posthumously, officially promoted to Captain in advance of the bicentennial) William Clark commanded the Corps of Discovery to map the course of the Missouri River to its source and the Pacific Northwest overland and water routes to and from the mouth of the Columbia River. They were honored with a 3-cent stamp July 24, 1954 on the 150th anniversary. The 1803 Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States. Lewis and Clark described and sketched its flora and fauna and described the native inhabitants they encountered before returning to St. Louis in 1806.
Coins
Both Lewis and Clark appear on the gold Lewis and Clark Exposition dollars minted for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. Among the early United States commemorative coins, they were produced in both 1904 and 1905 and survive in relatively small numbers.
Postage stamps
The Lewis and Clark Expedition was celebrated on May 14, 2004, the 200th anniversary of its outset, by depicting the two on a hilltop outlook: two companion 37-cent USPS stamps showed portraits of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. A special 32-page booklet accompanied the issue in eleven cities along the route taken by the Corps of Discovery. An image of the stamp can be found on Arago online at the link in the footnote.
Flora and fauna
The plant genus Lewisia (family Portulacaceae), popular in rock gardens and which includes the bitterroot (Lewisia rediviva), the state flower of Montana, is named after Lewis, as is Lewis's woodpecker (Melanerpes lewis) and a subspecies of the cutthroat trout, the westslope cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisi).
In 2004, the American elm cultivar Ulmus americana 'Lewis & Clark' (selling name ) was released by North Dakota State University Research Foundation in commemoration of the Lewis & Clark expedition's bicentenary; the tree has a resistance to Dutch elm disease.
Geographic names
Geographic names that honor him include:
Lewis County, Missouri
Lewis County, Idaho
Lewis County, Kentucky
Lewis County, Tennessee
Lewisburg, Tennessee
Lewiston, Idaho
Lewis County, Washington
the U.S. Army fort Fort Lewis, Washington, the home of the US Army 1st Corps (I Corps)
Lewis and Clark County, Montana, the home of the capital city, Helena
Lewis and Clark Pass (Montana)
Lewis and Clark National Forest
Lewistown, Montana
the Lewis Range of Montana's Glacier National Park
Lewis Avenue in Billings, Montana
Gates of the Mountains Wilderness, a day use campground north of Helena, Montana's Meriwether Picnic site
Lewis and Clark Caverns, a cave between Three Forks and Whitehall, Montana
Seaside, Oregon has numerous landmarks, museums, and a "Lewis and Clark Avenue" devoted to both of the explorers. This small city is also known as being the end of their journey to the Pacific Coast.
Vessels
Three U.S. Navy vessels have been named in honor of Lewis: the Liberty ship SS Meriwether Lewis, the Polaris armed nuclear submarine USS Lewis and Clark and the supply ship USNS Lewis and Clark.
Academic institutions
Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.
Lewis-Clark State College, Lewiston, Idaho, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.
Lewis and Clark Community College, Godfrey, Illinois, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. The campus lies about 11 miles upstream from the Corps of Discovery's departure point.
Lewis & Clark High School, Spokane, Washington, was named for Meriwether Lewis and William Clark.
Meriwether Lewis Elementary School, Albemarle County, Virginia was named for Meriwether Lewis, who was born nearby.
Meriwether Lewis Elementary School, Portland, Oregon, was named for Meriwether Lewis.
Popular culture
Meriwether Lewis's relationship with Thomas Jefferson; Lewis's multiple expeditions, journals, and discoveries; and details surrounding Lewis's death play major roles in James Rollins' seventh Sigma Force novel, The Devil Colony.
The mystery surrounding Meriwether Lewis's death played a role in the 2016 book, The Secret History of Twin Peaks, by author Mark Frost and in the 1998 novel by Malcolm Shuman, “The Meriwether Murder.”
In 2013, on the "Nashville" episode of the Comedy Central series Drunk History, Alie Ward and Georgia Hardstark retold the story of Lewis and Clark's expedition and Lewis's death, with Tony Hale portraying Lewis and Taran Killam as Clark.
In 2015, Link Neal alongside long time collaborator Rhett McLaughlin, portrayed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark respectively in the popular web series Epic Rap Battles of History as part of the Season 4 episode "Lewis and Clark vs Bill and Ted"
Halls of fame
In 1965, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
See also
Seaman (dog)
Footnotes
References
Further reading
Peck, David J. Or Perish in the Attempt (2011), Bison Books/University of Nebraska Press, , Lincoln, NB
External links
Meriwether Lewis at nps.gov
Meriwether Lewis on The History Channel
"Writings of Lewis and Clark" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
Lewis and Clark Expedition Maps and Receipt. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
1774 births
1809 deaths
American explorers
American naturalists
American people of Welsh descent
American people of English descent
Deaths by firearm in Tennessee
Explorers of Oregon
Governors of Louisiana Territory
History of Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Lewis and Clark Expedition people
Lewis family
People from Ivy, Virginia
Personal secretaries to the President of the United States
United States Army officers
Military aides to the President of the United States
Burials in Tennessee
Explorers of Montana
Scientists from Virginia | [
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215915 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Clark | William Clark | William Clark (August 1, 1770 – September 1, 1838) was an American explorer, soldier, Indian agent, and territorial governor. A native of Virginia, he grew up in pre-statehood Kentucky before later settling in what became the state of Missouri. Clark was also a planter and slaveholder.
Along with Meriwether Lewis, Clark led the Lewis and Clark Expedition of 1804–1806 across the Louisiana Purchase to the Pacific Ocean, the first major effort to explore and map much of what is now the Western United States and to assert American claims to the Pacific Northwest. Before the expedition, he served in a militia and the United States Army. Afterward, he served in a militia and as governor of the Missouri Territory. From 1822 until his death in 1838, he served as Superintendent of Indian Affairs.
Early life
William Clark was born in Caroline County, Virginia, on August 1, 1770, the ninth of ten children of John and Ann Rogers Clark. His parents were natives of King and Queen County, and were of English and possibly Scots ancestry. The Clarks were planters in Virginia and owned several modest estates and a few slaves. They were members of the Anglican Church.
Clark did not have any formal education; like many of his contemporaries, he was tutored at home. In later years, he was self-conscious about his convoluted grammar and inconsistent spelling—he spelled "Sioux" 27 different ways in his journals of the Lewis and Clark Expedition—and sought to have his journals corrected before publication. The spelling of American English was not standardized in Clark's youth, but his vocabulary suggests he was well read.
Clark's five older brothers fought in Virginia units during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), but William was too young. His oldest brother, Jonathan Clark, served as a colonel during the war, rising to the rank of brigadier general in the Virginia militia years afterward. His second-oldest brother, George Rogers Clark, rose to the rank of general, spending most of the war in Kentucky fighting against British-allied American Indians. After the war, the two oldest Clark brothers made arrangements for their parents and family to relocate to Kentucky.
William, his parents, his three sisters, and the Clark family's slaves arrived in Kentucky in March 1785, having first traveled overland to Redstone Landing in present-day Brownsville, Pennsylvania. They completed the journey down the Ohio River by flatboat. The Clark family settled at "Mulberry Hill", a plantation along Beargrass Creek near Louisville. This was William Clark's primary home until 1803. In Kentucky, his older brother George Rogers Clark taught William wilderness survival skills.
Military career begins
Kentuckians fought the Northwest Indian War against American Indians, who were trying to preserve their territory north of the Ohio River. In 1789, 19-year-old William Clark joined a volunteer militia force under Major John Hardin. Clark kept a detailed journal of the expedition, beginning a lifelong practice. Hardin was advancing against the Wea Indians, who had been raiding settlements in Kentucky, on the Wabash River. In error, the undisciplined Kentucky militia attacked a peaceful Shawnee hunting camp, where they killed a total of eight men, women, and children.
In 1790, Clark was commissioned by General Arthur St. Clair, governor of the Northwest Territory, as a captain in the Clarksville, Indiana militia. One older source says he was sent on a mission to the Creek and Cherokee, whom the US hoped to keep out of the war, in the Southeast. His responsibilities are unclear. He may have visited New Orleans at that time. His travels prevented him from participating in General Josiah Harmar's disastrous campaign into the Northwest Territory that year.
In 1791, Clark served as an ensign and acting lieutenant with expeditions under generals Charles Scott and James Wilkinson. He enlisted in the Legion of the United States and was commissioned as a lieutenant on March 6, 1792, under Anthony Wayne. On September 4, 1792, he was assigned to the 4th Sub-Legion. He was involved in several skirmishes with Indians during the continuing Northwest Indian War. At the Battle of Fallen Timbers in 1794, Clark commanded a company of riflemen who drove back the enemy on the left flank, killing a number of Native Americans and Canadians. This decisive US victory brought the Northwest Indian War to an end. In 1795, Clark was dispatched on a mission to New Madrid, Missouri. Clark also served as an adjutant and quartermaster while in the militia.
Lewis and Clark Expedition
William Clark resigned his commission on July 4, 1796, and retired due to poor health, although he was only 26 years old. He returned to Mulberry Hill, his family's plantation near Louisville.
In 1803, Meriwether Lewis recruited Clark, then age 33, to share command of the newly formed Corps of Discovery, whose mission was to explore the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, establish trade with Native Americans, and consolidate the sovereignty of the US. They were to find a waterway from the US to the Pacific Ocean and claim the Oregon territory for the United States before European nations did. Clark spent three years on the expedition to the Pacific Coast. A slave owner known to deal harshly with his slaves, he brought York, one of his slaves, with him. The indigenous nations treated York with respect, and many of the Native Americans were interested in his appearance, which "played a key role in diplomatic relations".
Although Clark was refused a promotion to the rank of captain when Jefferson asked the Senate to appoint him, at Lewis' insistence, he exercised equal authority, and continued the mission. Clark concentrated chiefly on the drawing of maps, the management of the expedition's supplies, and leading hunting expeditions for game.
Indigenous nations and war
In 1807, President Jefferson appointed Clark as the brigadier general of the militia in the Louisiana Territory, and the US agent for Indian affairs. At the time, trade was a major goal and the US established the factory system. The government and its appointees licensed traders to set up trading posts in Native American territory. Native American relations were handled in what became the War Department. Clark set up his headquarters in St. Louis, Missouri, where he would live for most of the rest of his life.
There he became a member of the Freemasons, a secret fraternal group. The records of his initiation do not exist, but on September 18, 1809, Saint Louis Lodge No. 111 issued a traveling certificate for Clark.
As a reward for their contributions during their expedition to the Pacific Lewis and Clark were given government positions. Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis territorial governor of Upper Louisiana, commander-in-chief of the militia, and superintendent of Indian Affairs. Although he was in charge of Indian affairs, Clark was under the supervision of the Governor of the Louisiana Territory. The governor had final say of all decisions made in the territory. Although Clark had primary duties in dealing with the Native Americans, "the territorial governor held the title of ex officio superintendent of Indian affairs.
Clark's experiences during his cross-continent expedition gave him the tools to be the ideal candidate for a diplomat to the Native Americans. That was Jefferson's motives behind giving Clark these duties, although it would not be until Madison's presidency that Clark's title became official. President James Madison appointed Clark as Missouri territorial governor and thus ex officio superintendent of Indian affairs in that region, during the summers of 1808 and 1813. In the earlier period, Clark performed the same duties that he would have if he held the title. During the years while Clark held position under Governor Lewis, he was continuously involved in decision-making with him. Clark was consulted on affairs on a regular basis. In Louisiana and Missouri, Clark served the United States government for the longest term in history as diplomat to the Native American peoples.
Indian diplomacy occupied much of Clark's time; the dutiful soldier and bureaucrat never wavered in his commitment to an expansionist national agenda that expected Indians to surrender their lands, abandon their traditional ways, and acquiesce to the dictates of the U.S. government. But he was aware of the consequences and he demonstrated genuine concern for the plight of destitute native people increasingly threatened with extinction, so much so that Indian-hating frontier settlers called him an "Indian lover".. Clark's expeditions and frontier settlement gave him unique views and feelings toward Native Americans. He felt as though he held a firm hand when he had to, but at the same time he had passion towards them as people still deserving of rights. At times he was said to be too compassionate. Clark took his position as one of extreme importance to not only the government of the United States, but to the Native American people as well.
Clark recognized Indians' nationalism, their history, language, culture, and territory and negotiated treaties between the various nations and his. He tried to protect Indians and preserve their culture by removing them from the influences of white society, providing life-saving inoculations, having their portraits painted, and assembling a museum of Indian artifacts. At the same time, he removed Indians from their ancestral lands; encouraged federal "civilization" and "education" programs to change native lifestyles, religious beliefs, and cultural practices; and usually promoted the interests of American citizens over Indian needs and desires.
During the War of 1812, Clark led several campaigns, among them in 1814, one along the Mississippi River, up to the Prairie du Chien area. He established the short-lived Fort Shelby, the first post in what is now Wisconsin. Soon, the post was captured by the British. When the Missouri Territory was formed in 1813, Clark was appointed as the governor by President Madison. He was reappointed to the position by Madison in 1816, and in 1820 by President Monroe.
William Clark appeared before Supreme Court Judge John B.C. Lucas in St. Louis on July 6, 1813, to take the oath of office as governor of the Missouri Territory. Clark's road to a gubernatorial appointment was long and complex. Upon Lewis' appointment by Jefferson, Clark backed him and at times filled the role of governor without holding official position, due to Lewis' complications in life, whether it was debt, loneliness, or drinking. Upon the death of Lewis in 1809, Clark declined to take office for varying reasons.
By the time he was appointed governor, Clark appreciated his own capabilities and embraced them rather than turning them away. When he took office, America was involved in the War of 1812 with the British. Clark feared the influence the British would have on the Native Americans. British tactics would include the use of Indians as allies in the fighting against the United States. In return for British victory, Indians would either be able to continue to occupy their current land or receive lands back that were taken from them previously by the United States Government. Clark held office for the next seven years until he was voted out of office in 1820, in the first election after Missouri became a state. He was defeated by Alexander McNair.
In 1822, Clark was appointed Superintendent of Indian Affairs by President James Monroe, a new position created by Congress after the factory system was abolished. Clark served in that position until his death; his title changed with the creation of the Office of Indian Affairs in 1824 and finally the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1829, both within the War Department. From 1824 to 1825, he was additionally appointed surveyor general of Illinois, Missouri, and the Territory of Arkansaw. It was around this time that Clark received a rare smoking pipe or calumet as a gift from a Potowatomi chief in Missouri. The pipe is held in the British Museum's collection.
As the Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Clark was the most important man on Native American matters west of the Mississippi. As superintendent at St. Louis, Clark took on some additional duties: he issued licenses and granted passports to traders and travelers; provided payments for injuries and injustices to both whites and Indians; invoked military force to arrest lawbreakers; prevented or terminated hostilities between tribes; removed unauthorized persons from Indian country or confiscated their property; established, marked, and surveyed boundaries; distributed annuities and made sure that treaty provisions were delivered; and conducted treaty councils. Of the four superintendents of Indian affairs, the others were the governors of Michigan, Florida, and Arkansas territories; Clark had by far the largest superintendency.
Though Clark tried to maintain peaceful relations with indigenous nations and negotiated peace treaties, he was in charge of implementing President Andrew Jackson's Indian removal policy. He managed retaliation against Black Hawk and those allied with him in the Black Hawk War, when hostilities arose between them and the Americans. Clark issued "an extermination order", which he gave to Lewis Cass, a man who played a central role in Jackson's removal policy.
Clark believed in the Jeffersonian ideology in which assimilation would be the best course of action for Native Americans. However, in the end, relocation of the Indians from their native lands became the government's primary goal, and even the assimilated Five Civilized Tribes were moved by force (threat of military action). Clark's government position on Native American affairs kept him at the forefront of countless relocations. He expressed sympathy for those uprooted tribes and promoted their interests as he understood them, nevertheless, he agreed with and implemented the policy of Indian removal, negotiating 37, or one-tenth, of all ratified treaties between American Indians and the United States. Over the course of his career, millions of acres passed from Indian to U.S. ownership through Clark's hand.
Marriage and family
After returning from his cross-country expedition, Clark married Julia Hancock on January 5, 1808, at Fincastle, Virginia. They had five children: Meriwether Lewis Clark, Sr. (1809–1881), named after his friend and expedition partner; William Preston Clark (1811–1840); Mary Margaret Clark (1814–1821); George Rogers Hancock Clark (1816–1858), named after Clark's older brother; and John Julius Clark (1818–1831), named after his oldest brother Jonathan and Clark's wife.
After Julia's death in 1820, William Clark married Julia's first cousin, Harriet Kennerly Radford. They had three children together: Jefferson Kearny Clark (1824–1900), named after the president; Edmund Clark (1826–1827), named after another of his older brothers; and Harriet Clark, named after her mother (dates unknown; died as child). His second wife Harriet died in 1831.
Clark allegedly had a Nez Perce son, Tzi-Kal-Tza/Halahtookit. Clark also served as a guardian to Jean Baptiste Charbonneau, the son of Sacagawea and Toussaint Charbonneau.
Later life and death
William Clark died in St. Louis on September 1, 1838, at age 68. Clark was originally buried at his nephew John O'Fallon's property, in 1838. That area is now known as O'Fallon Park. The funeral procession stretched for more than a mile and cannons fired a military salute. The entire city of St. Louis mourned his passing.
Clark and six of his family members were later buried at Bellefontaine Cemetery on October 23, 1860. The monument that marks their graves, a gray granite obelisk, was dedicated in 1904 on the centennial anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. Clark's son, Jefferson Kearney Clark, designed the monument and paid $25,000 for it ($425,000 in 2005 figures). Jefferson Clark's wife had to complete the building of the monument after Jefferson died in 1900. Many years later, the monument was restored and rededicated on May 21, 2004, to mark the bicentennial of the Corps of Discovery's departure from St. Charles, Missouri. Members of the Shoshone, Osage, and Mandan tribes spoke at the ceremony, marking Clark's service to these Indian nations during the final years of his life.
Legacy and honors
Clark was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814.
In 2001, President Bill Clinton promoted Clark to the rank of captain in the US Army posthumously. Descendants of Clark were there to mark the occasion.
2004 rededication of the obelisk: Although his family had established endowments to maintain his grave site, by the late 20th century, the grave site had fallen into disrepair. His descendants raised $100,000 to rehabilitate the obelisk. They celebrated the rededication with a ceremony May 21, 2004, on the bicentennial of the start of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. The ceremony was attended by a large gathering of Clark's descendants, reenactors in period dress, and leaders from the Osage Nation and the Lemhi band of the Shoshone.
The western American plant genus Clarkia (in the evening primrose family Onagraceae), is named after him, as are the cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki ), and Clark's nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana), a large passerine bird, in the family Corvidae. All were species which Clark identified during the expedition. Clark's grebe (Aechmophorus clarkii ) was not named for William Clark, but for J.H. Clark who collected the first specimen.
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark were honored with a 3-cent stamp July 24, 1954 on the 150th anniversary of their expedition.
Both Lewis and Clark appear on the gold Lewis and Clark Exposition dollars minted for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition. Among the early United States commemorative coins, they were produced in both 1904 and 1905 and survive in relatively small numbers.
The Lewis and Clark expedition was celebrated on May 14, 2004, the 200th anniversary of its outset, depicting the two on a hilltop outlook. Two companion 37-cent stamps showed portraits of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. A special 32-page booklet accompanied the issue in eleven cities along the route taken by the Corps of Discovery.
Clark is included on the St. Louis Walk of Fame.
Counties are named in his honor in six states: Arkansas, Idaho, Kentucky, Missouri, Montana, and Washington.
The city of Clarkston, Washington is named for him.
The Clarks River in western Kentucky is named for him, as is the Clark Fork in Montana and Idaho, and the Clarks Fork Yellowstone River in Montana and Wyoming.
Two U.S. Navy Vessels have been named in honor of Clark; the Polaris nuclear submarine USS Lewis and Clark and the supply ship USNS Lewis and Clark were named for him and Lewis.
The Clark Bridge, a cable-stayed bridge across the Mississippi River between West Alton, Missouri and Alton, Illinois, was named after him.
Lewis and Clark Community College, in the Metro East region of Illinois, was named for the explorers.
Lewis and Clark Law School in Portland, Oregon, was named after Lewis and Clark.
Lewis-Clark State College in Lewiston, Idaho, is named for the two explorers.
Lewis and Clark Elementary School in Mandan, North Dakota, is named for the two explorers.
Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Oregon is named for the two explorers.
Lewis & Clark Elementary School in Fargo, North Dakota is named for the two explorers.
In 1965, Clark was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
See also
York (explorer)
References
General references
Buckley, Jay H. William Clark: Indian Diplomat. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008. .
Foley, William E. Wilderness Journey: The Life of William Clark. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2004. .
Jones, Landon Y. William Clark and the Shaping of the West, New York: Hill and Wang, 2004. .
Further reading
The Unknown Travels and Dubious Pursuits of William Clark by Jo Ann Trogdon, 2015, University of Missouri Press
External links
"The Clarks: The First Family of the Frontier," 8thVirginia.com
Biography from Indiana Historical Bureau
The Journals of Lewis and Clark, hypertext, American Studies at the University of Virginia.
The Journals of William Clark, Missouri History Museum
William Clark documents and images, including records of the St. Louis Superintendency of Indian Affairs on Kansas Memory, digital portal of the Kansas Historical Society
"Writings of Lewis and Clark" from C-SPAN's American Writers: A Journey Through History
The Paradox of Historical Fiction: Finding Truth in the Absence of Fact
Lewis and Clark Expedition Maps and Receipt. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
William Clark Field Notes. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
Louis Starr Collection Concerning the Field Notes of William Clark. Yale Collection of Western Americana, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
1770 births
1838 deaths
American explorers
American naturalists
American Episcopalians
American people of English descent
American people of Scottish descent
Burials at Bellefontaine Cemetery
Explorers of North America
Explorers of Oregon
Governors of Missouri Territory
Lewis and Clark Expedition people
People from Caroline County, Virginia
American people of the Northwest Indian War
United States Army officers
United States Indian agents
Virginia colonial people
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
American slave owners
Explorers of Montana
Military personnel from St. Louis
Scientists from Virginia
People from Louisville, Kentucky | [
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|
215917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company%20Flow | Company Flow | Company Flow was an American hip hop trio from Brooklyn, New York City, consisting of Bigg Jus, El-P and Mr. Len.
The group was at one time associated with the independent record label Rawkus Records. Rapper/producer El-P and DJ/producer Mr. Len founded the group in 1992 in Queens, New York where rapper/producer Bigg Jus later joined.
History
Founding members El-P and Mr. Len met when the latter was hired to perform as a DJ at the former's 18th birthday party. The two quickly became friends and formed Company Flow in 1993. They released their first vinyl single, "Juvenile Techniques". After El-P was introduced to Bigg Jus by underground rapper and indie label owner ANTTEX, the trio then released their follow-up, "8 Steps to Perfection" and then their debut EP, Funcrusher (Official Recordings), in 1996. Subject to a major label bidding war on Libra Records, Company Flow waited until they could get a contract on their own terms. They eventually signed to Rawkus, and helped revitalize underground rap with labelmates like Mos Def. Their full-length debut album Funcrusher Plus was released in 1997 on Rawkus. After two years of pushing the album and touring, group member Bigg Jus decided to strike out on his own and the group amicably dissolved. El-P and Mr. Len followed up their debut with the instrumental album Little Johnny from the Hospitul: Breaks & Instrumentals Vol.1 (Rawkus).
By 2000, the relationship with Rawkus had disintegrated. The label was accused of neglecting the group's talent and being financially dishonest. The staff was fired shortly before Christmas, and Company Flow announced their departure from Rawkus shortly thereafter. Separately, El-P and Mr. Len ended their own deals with Rawkus, effectively severing the relationship between the three and Rawkus. El-P started his own record label (Definitive Jux) and pursued a solo career before eventually forming Run the Jewels with Killer Mike. Mr. Len has done the same with his (Dummy Smacks Records). Bigg Jus has released work on Big Dada and Mush Records.
Bigg Jus stated in 2006 that he was working on material for a new Company Flow album, suggesting the possibility of the group re-forming. Company Flow reunited for a show on October 19, 2007 in Brooklyn, New York City as well as a show on July 16, 2011, and supported Portishead at the inaugural British 'I'll Be Your Mirror' festival on July 23, 2011.
Company Flow performed their final show as a group at Coachella in 2012.
Discography
Albums and EPs
Singles
"Juvenile Techniques" (1994)
"8 Steps to Perfection" (1996)
"Infokill" (1996)
"Blind" (1997)
"End to End Burners...Episode 1" (1998)
"End to End Burners...Episode 2" (1998)
"Patriotism" from Soundbombing 2 (1999)
"D.P.A. (As Seen on TV)" (2000)
Guest appearances
(Compilation - Rawkus Records) - "Lune TNS" from Soundbombing (1997)
Boulevard Connection - "Jonny Rookie Card" from Sut Min Pik (1998)
7 Notas 7 Colores - "NYC-BCN" from 77 (1999)
Mike Ladd - "Bladerunners" from Welcome to the Afterfuture (1999)
The Infesticons - "Night Time Theme" from Gun Hill Road (2000)
DJ Krush - "Vision of Art" from Zen (2001)
Compilation appearances
"Low Key" on Tags of the Times 3 (2001)
References
External links
1992 establishments in New York City
Alternative hip hop groups
Definitive Jux artists
Hip hop groups from New York City
American musical trios
Underground hip hop groups | [
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215918 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Wesley%20Powell | John Wesley Powell | John Wesley Powell (March 24, 1834 – September 23, 1902) was an American geologist, U.S. Army soldier, explorer of the American West, professor at Illinois Wesleyan University, and director of major scientific and cultural institutions. He is famous for his 1869 geographic expedition, a three-month river trip down the Green and Colorado rivers, including the first official U.S. government-sponsored passage through the Grand Canyon.
Powell who was appointed by Republican President James A. Garfield served as second director of the U.S. Geological Survey (1881–1894) and proposed, for development of the arid West, policies that were prescient for his accurate evaluation of conditions. He became the first director of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution during his service as director of the U.S. Geological Survey, where he supported linguistic and sociological research and publications.
Biography
Early life
Powell was born in Mount Morris, New York, in 1834, the son of Joseph and Mary Powell. His father, a poor itinerant preacher, had emigrated to the U.S. from Shrewsbury, England, in 1831. His family moved westward to Jackson, Ohio, then to Walworth County, Wisconsin, before settling in rural Boone County, Illinois.
As a young man he undertook a series of adventures through the Mississippi River valley. In 1855, he spent four months walking across Wisconsin. During 1856, he rowed the Mississippi from St. Anthony, Minnesota, to the sea. In 1857, he rowed down the Ohio River from Pittsburgh to the Mississippi River, traveling north to reach St. Louis. In 1858, he rowed down the Illinois River, then up the Mississippi and the Des Moines River to central Iowa. In 1859, at age 25, he was elected to the Illinois Natural History Society.
Education
Powell studied at Illinois College, Illinois Institute (which would later become Wheaton College), and Oberlin College, over a period of seven years while teaching, but was unable to attain his degree. During his studies Powell acquired a knowledge of Ancient Greek and Latin. Powell had a restless nature and a deep interest in the natural sciences. This desire to learn about natural sciences was against the wishes of his father, yet Powell was still determined to do so. In 1861 when Powell was on a lecture tour he decided that a civil war was inevitable; he decided to study military science and engineering to prepare himself for the imminent conflict.
Civil War and aftermath
Powell's loyalties remained with the Union and the cause of abolishing slavery. On May 8, 1861, he enlisted at Hennepin, Illinois, as a private in the 20th Illinois Infantry. He was elected sergeant-major of the regiment, and when the 20th Illinois was mustered into the Federal service a month later, Powell was commissioned a second lieutenant. He enlisted in the Union Army as a cartographer, topographer and military engineer.
While stationed at Cape Girardeau, Missouri, he recruited an artillery company that became Battery ‘F’ of the 2nd Illinois Light Artillery, with Powell as captain. On November 28, 1861, Powell took a brief leave to marry Emma Dean. At the Battle of Shiloh, he lost most of his right arm when struck by a Minié ball while in the process of giving the order to fire. The raw nerve endings in his arm caused him pain for the rest of his life.
Despite the loss of an arm, he returned to the Army and was present at the battles of Champion Hill, Big Black River Bridge, and in the siege of Vicksburg. Always the geologist, he took to studying rocks while in the trenches at Vicksburg. He was made a major and commanded an artillery brigade with the 17th Army Corps during the Atlanta campaign. After the fall of Atlanta he was transferred to George H. Thomas’ army and participated in the battle of Nashville. At the end of the war he was made a brevet lieutenant colonel but preferred to use the title of “major”.
After leaving the Army, Powell took the post of professor of geology at Illinois Wesleyan University. He also lectured at Illinois State Normal University for most of his career. Powell helped expand the collections of the Museum of the Illinois State Natural History Society, where he served as curator. He declined a permanent appointment in favor of exploration of the American West.
Geologic research
Expeditions
After 1867, Powell led a series of expeditions into the Rocky Mountains and around the Green and Colorado rivers. One of these expeditions was with his students and his wife, to collect specimens all over Colorado. Powell, William Byers, and five other men were the first white men to climb Longs Peak in 1868.
In 1869, he set out to explore the Colorado River and the Grand Canyon. Gathering ten men, four boats and food for 10 months, he set out from Green River, Wyoming, on May 24. Passing through dangerous rapids, the group passed down the Green River to its confluence with the Colorado River (then also known as the Grand River upriver from the junction), near present-day Moab, Utah, and completed the journey on August 30, 1869.
The members of the first Powell expedition were:
John Wesley Powell, trip organizer and leader, major in the Civil War
John Colton “Jack” Sumner, hunter, trapper, soldier in the Civil War
William H. Dunn, hunter, trapper from Colorado
Walter H. Powell, captain in the Civil War, John's brother
George Y. Bradley, lieutenant in the Civil War, expedition chronicler
Oramel G. Howland, printer, editor, hunter
Seneca Howland, soldier who was wounded in the Battle of Gettysburg
Frank Goodman, Englishman, adventurer
W.R. Hawkins, cook, soldier in Civil War
Andrew Hall, Scotsman, the youngest of the expedition
The expedition's route traveled through the Utah canyons of the Colorado River, which Powell described in his published diary as having
... wonderful features—carved walls, royal arches, glens, alcove gulches, mounds and monuments. From which of these features shall we select a name? We decide to call it Glen Canyon.
Frank Goodman quit after the first month, and Dunn and the Howland brothers left at Separation Canyon in the third month. This was just two days before the group reached the mouth of the Virgin River on August 30, after traversing almost . The three disappeared; some historians have speculated they were killed by the Shivwits Band of Paiutes or by Mormons in the town of Toquerville.
Powell retraced part of the 1869 route in 1871–72 with another expedition that traveled the Colorado River from Green River, Wyoming to Kanab Creek in the Grand Canyon. Powell used three photographers on this expedition; Elias Olcott Beaman, James Fennemore, and John K. Hillers. This trip resulted in photographs (by John K. Hillers), an accurate map and various papers. At least one Powell scholar, Otis R. Marston, noted the maps produced from the survey were impressionistic rather than precise. In planning this expedition, he employed the services of Jacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary in southern Utah who had cultivated relationships with Native Americans. Before setting out, Powell used Hamblin as a negotiator to ensure the safety of his expedition from local Indian groups.
After the Colorado
In 1881, Powell was appointed the second director of the U.S. Geological Survey, a post he held until his resignation in 1894, being replaced by Charles Walcott. In 1875, Powell published a book based on his explorations of the Colorado, originally titled Report of the Exploration of the Columbia River of the West and Its Tributaries. It was revised and reissued in 1895 as The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons. In 1889, the intellectual gatherings Powell hosted in his home were formalized as the Cosmos Club. The club has continued, with members elected to the club for their contributions to scholarship and civic activism.
In the early 1900s the journals of the expedition crew began to be published starting with Dellenbaugh's A Canyon Voyage in 1908, followed in 1939 by the diary of Almon Harris Thompson, who was married to Powell's sister, Ellen Powell Thompson. Bishop, Steward, W.C. Powell, and Jones’ diaries were all published in 1947. These diaries made it clear Powell's writings contained some exaggerations and recounted activities that occurred on the second river trip as if they occurred on the first. They also revealed that Powell, who had only one arm, wore a life jacket, though the other men did not have them.
Anthropological research
Powell became the director of the Bureau of Ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution in 1879 and remained so until his death. Under his leadership, the Smithsonian published an influential classification of North American Indian languages. In 1898, Powell was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society.
As an ethnologist and early anthropologist, Powell was a follower of Lewis Henry Morgan. He classified human societies into ‘savagery’, ‘barbarism’, and ‘civilization’. Powell's criteria were based on consideration of adoption of technology, family and social organization, property relations, and intellectual development. In his view, all societies were to progress toward civilization. Powell is credited with coining the word “acculturation”, first using it in an 1880 report by the U.S. Bureau of American Ethnography. In 1883, Powell defined “acculturation” as psychological changes induced by cross-cultural imitation.
Powell published extensive anthropological studies on the Ute people inhabiting the canyon lands around the Colorado River. His views towards these populations, along with his scientific approach, was built on social Darwinist thought; he focused on defining what features distinguished Native Americans as ‘barbaric’, placing them above ‘savagery’ but below ‘civilized’ white Europeans. Indeed, the study of ethnology was a way for scientists to demarcate social categories in order to justify government-sponsored programs that exploited newly appropriated land and its inhabitants. Powell advocated for government funding to be used to ‘civilize’ Native American populations, pushing for the teaching of English, Christianity, and Western methods of farming and manufacture.
In his book The Exploration of the Canyons of the Colorado, Powell is motivated to conduct ethnologic studies because "these Indians are more nearly in their primate condition than any others on the continent with whom I am acquainted." As Wallace Stegner posits in Beyond the 100th Meridian, by 1869, many Native American tribes had been pushed to extinction, and those that were known were considered corrupted by intercultural exchange. Even in 1939, Julian Steward, an anthropologist compiling photographs from Powell's 1873 expedition suggested that: “Fascinated at finding [Native Americans] nearly untouched by civilization, he developed a deep interest in ethnology ... Few explorers in the United States have had a comparable opportunity to study and photograph Indians so nearly in their aboriginal state.”
Powell created Illinois State University’s first Museum of Anthropology which at the time was called the finest in all of North America. Powell held a post as lecturer on the History of Culture in the Political Science department at the Columbian University in Washington, D.C. from 1894 to 1899. Powell's contribution to anthropology and scientific racism is not well known in the geosciences, however a recent article revisited Powell's legacy in terms of his social and political impact on Native Americans.
Environmentalism
In Cadillac Desert, Powell is portrayed as a champion of land preservation and conservation. Powell’s expeditions led to his belief that the arid West was not suitable for agricultural development, except for about 2% of the lands that were near water sources. His Report on the Lands of the Arid Regions of the United States proposed irrigation systems and state boundaries based on watershed areas to avoid disagreements between states. For the remaining lands, he proposed conservation and low-density, open grazing.
The railroad companies owned – vast tracts of lands granted in return for building the railways – and did not agree with Powell’s views on land conservation. They aggressively lobbied Congress to reject Powell’s policy proposals and to encourage farming instead, as they wanted to cash in on their lands. The U.S. Congress went along and developed legislation that encouraged pioneer settlement of the American West based on agricultural use of land. Politicians based their decisions on a theory of Professor Cyrus Thomas who was a protege of Horace Greeley. Thomas suggested that agricultural development of land would change climate and cause higher amounts of precipitations, claiming that ‘rain follows the plow’, a theory which has since been largely discredited.
At an 1883 irrigation conference, Powell would prophetically remark: “Gentlemen, you are piling up a heritage of conflict and litigation over water rights, for there is not sufficient water to supply the land.” Powell's recommendations for development of the West were largely ignored until after the Dust Bowl of the 1920s and 1930s, resulting in untold suffering associated with pioneer subsistence farms that failed because of insufficient rain and irrigation water.
Legacy, honours, and namesakes
In recognition of his national service, Powell was buried in Arlington National Cemetery, Virginia. The John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, signed 12 March 2019, authorizes the establishment of the "John Wesley Powell National Conservation Area", consisting of approximately 29,868 acres of land in Utah. Green River, Wyoming, the embarkation site of both Powell expeditions, commissioned a statue depicting Powell holding an oar, in front of the Sweetwater County History Museum. In Powell's honor, the USGS National Center in Reston, Virginia, was dedicated as the "John Wesley Powell Federal Building" in 1974. In addition, the highest award presented by the USGS to persons outside the federal government is named the John Wesley Powell Award. In 1984, he was inducted into the Hall of Great Westerners of the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum.
The following were named after Powell:
The rare mineral powellite.
Lake Powell, a man-made reservoir on the Colorado River.
Mount Powell, a summit in the Sierra Nevada of California.
Powell Peak.
Powell Plateau, near Steamboat Mountain on the North Rim of the Grand Canyon.
Powell, Wyoming, and the Powell Flats area.
The residential building of the Criminal Justice Services Department of Mesa County in Grand Junction, Colorado.
John Wesley Powell Middle School in Littleton, Colorado.
Powell Junior High School in Mesa, Arizona.
Awards
An article in Scientific American notes the following awards:
1886 – Honorary Ph.D. from University of Heidelberg on 500th anniversary
1886 – Honorary LL.D. from Harvard University on 230th anniversary
elected to National Academy of Sciences
president of Anthropological Society of Washington 1879–1888
1884 – president of Philosophical Society of Washington
1874 – elected member and fellow of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
1875 – vice president of AAAS
Notes
References
Powell, J.W. (1875). The Exploration of the Colorado River and Its Canyons. New York: Dover Press (reprint) .
Ross, John F. (2018). The Promise of the Grand Canyon: John Wesley Powell's perilous journey and his vision for the American West. Viking. .
Aton, James M. (2010). John Wesley Powell: His life and legacy.
Boas, F.; Powell, J.W. (1991) Introduction to Handbook of American Indian Languages plus Indian Linguistic Families of America North of Mexico. University of Nebraska Press, (double book volume).
Darrah, William Culp, Ralph V. Chamberlin, and Charles Kelly. (2009). The Exploration of the Colorado River in 1869 and 1871–1872: Biographical Sketches and Original Documents of the First Powell Expedition of 1869 and the Second Powell Expedition of 1871–1872. University of Utah Press. .
Dolnick, Edward (2002). Down the Great Unknown: John Wesley Powell's 1869 journey of discovery and tragedy through the Grand Canyon. Harper Perennial (paperback) .
Dolnick, Edward (2001). Down the Great Unknown: John Wesley Powell's 1869 journey of discovery and tragedy through the Grand Canyon. (hardcover) Harper Collins Publishers .
Ghiglieri, Michael P.; Bradley, George Y. (2003). First Through Grand Canyon: The secret journals & letters of the 1869 crew who explored the Green and Colorado Rivers. Puma Press (paperback) .
Judd, Neil Merton (1967). The Bureau of American Ethnology: A partial history. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Marston, Otis R. (2014). From Powell to Power: A recounting of the first one hundred river runners through the Grand Canyon, pp. 111–114. Flagstaff, Arizona: Vishnu Temple Press .
Heacox, Kim; Kostyal, K.M.; Walker, Paul Robert (1 September 1999). Exploring the Great Rivers of North America. National Geographic Society (first ed.) , .
Reisner, Marc (1993). Cadillac Desert: The American West and its disappearing water. Penguin Books (paperback) .
Stegner, Wallace (1954). Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the second opening of the West. University of Nebraska Press (and other reprint editions) .
Reisner, Marc (1986). "Cadillac Desert: the American West and its Disappearing Water".
Powell, J.W. (1876). A Report on the Arid Regions of the United States, with a More Detailed Account of the Lands of Utah
External links
Biographical sketch (1903) by Frederick S. Dellenbaugh
NPS John Wesley Powell Photograph Index
John Wesley Powell Student Research Conference at Illinois Wesleyan University
John Wesley Powell Collection of Pueblo Pottery at Illinois Wesleyan University Ames Library
Powell Museum, Page, Arizona
John Wesley Powell River History Museum, Green River, Utah
"John Wesley Powell" by James M. Aton in the Western Writers Series Digital Editions at Boise State University
"A Canyon Voyage, The Narrative of the Second Powell Expedition down the Green-Colorado River from Wyoming, and the Explorations on Land, in the Years 1871 and 1872" (1908) by Frederick Samuel Dellenbaugh at Project Gutenberg.
Powell, J. W., In Fowler, D. D., & In Fowler, C. S. (1971). Anthropology of the Numa: John Wesley Powell's manuscripts on the Numic peoples of Western North America, 1868–1880. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press; for sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off..
Fowler, D. D., Matley, J. F., & National Museum of Natural History (U.S.). (1979). Material culture of the Numa: The John Wesley Powell Collection, 1867–1880. Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press.
John Wesley Powell artifact collections in the Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.
1834 births
1902 deaths
American explorers
Explorers of North America
Explorers of the United States
American geologists
American conservationists
Smithsonian Institution people
Illinois College alumni
Oberlin College alumni
People of Illinois in the American Civil War
Union Army officers
Early Grand Canyon river runners
People from Boone County, Illinois
Wheaton College (Illinois) alumni
Illinois Wesleyan University faculty
Illinois State University faculty
People from Mount Morris, New York
American people of English descent
Linguists from the United States
United States Geological Survey personnel
American civil servants
American amputees
National Geographic Society founders
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
History of the Rocky Mountains
Activists from New York (state)
Linguists of Hokan languages
Members of the American Antiquarian Society
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Linguists of indigenous languages of North America | [
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|
215919 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hi-Tek | Hi-Tek | Tony Cottrell, better known as Hi-Tek (born May 5, 1976), is an American rapper and record producer from Cincinnati, Ohio. He is best known for his work with Talib Kweli. His father is singer Willie Cottrell of the Willie Cottrell Band, whom Hi-Tek featured on his second album, Hi-Teknology 2.
Career
1996-2000
Hi-Tek started his career with hip hop group Mood and had a regional hit with "Hustle on the Side". That song was made for Mood's album Doom, which featured amongst others Brooklyn MC Talib Kweli. Hi-Tek went on to produce most of Talib Kweli and Mos Def's Black Star (1998). In 2000, Tek and Kweli (under the name Reflection Eternal) released Train of Thought (2000) on Rawkus Records, with raps by Kweli and beats by Hi-Tek. It enjoyed moderate crossover radio success with the singles "The Blast" and "Move Somethin'". Reflection Eternal released a follow-up album titled Revolutions Per Minute on May 18, 2010.
2001-current
After signing to Rawkus Records, Hi-Tek produced for a number of the labels projects, including the popular Soundbombing series; a three-record compilation of mostly Rawkus-based artists. In 2001, he released his solo album Hi-Teknology on Rawkus. The album featured appearances by Mos Def, Talib Kweli, Common, Vinia Mojica, Buckshot, and others, with all production handled by Hi-Tek. It received critical acclaim and spawned a minor hit, "Round and Round" with Cincinnati singer Jonell.
Hi-Tek is a staff producer for Aftermath Entertainment and its affiliates, as well as past associates such as Kweli and Mos Def. He has also recorded songs for Dion Jenkins, an R&B singer signed to Aftermath. Hi-Teknology 2 was released October 17, 2006 on Babygrande, and distributed by Koch Entertainment. The producer released the third installment, Hi-Teknology 3: Underground on December 11, 2007.
In November 2015, producer 9th Wonder announced Hi-Tek as the newest member of The Soul Council - the production staff of his record label It's A Wonderful World Music Group.
Discography
Albums
Production
213 - "Twist Yo Body" (Album: The Hard Way) (2004)
50 Cent - "Best Friend" (Album: Get Rich Or Die Tryin' soundtrack) (2005)
50 Cent - "Get In My Car" (Album: The Massacre) (2005)
50 Cent - "Ryder Music" (Album: The Massacre) (2005)
Anderson .Paak - "Come Down" (2016)
Beanie Sigel - "Get That Dough" (2000)
Big L featuring C-Town - "Still Here" (2000)
Bishop Lamont - "Friends" (2009)
Bizarre featuring Obie Trice - "Doctor Doctor" (Album: Hannicap Circus) (2005)
Bizarre featuring Eminem - "Hip Hop" (Album: Hannicap Circus) (2005)
Bizarre - "I'm In Luv Witchu" (Album: Hanni Cap Circus) (2005)
Blackalicious - "It's Going Down" (Album: Blazing Arrow) (2002)
Black Star - 6 tracks from Black Star
Black Star featuring Common - "Respiration"
Boot Camp Clik - "Ice Skate" (2002)
Busta Rhymes featuring Nas - "Rough Around The Edges"
Cassidy featuring Bone Thugs-N-Harmony & Eve - "Cash Rulez" (2007)
King Chip - Sprinkle Me (2009) (The Cleveland Show)
Cocoa Brovaz - "Get Up" (2001)
Cocoa Brovaz featuring Dawn Penn - "Spit Again"
Common featuring Sadat X - "1-9-9-9" (Album: Rawkus presents Soundbombing II) (1999)
Common - "Tekzilla"
Cormega - "Take These Jewels" (2002)
D12 - "Just Like You" (Album: D12 World) (2004)
Dead Prez featuring Talib Kweli - "Sharp Shooters"
Donte - "Heat 4 The Streets"
The Game - Runnin'
G-Unit - "G Unit", "Eye For An Eye" (Album: Beg For Mercy)
Ghostface Killah - "Josephine" (Album: More Fish)
Gym Class Heroes - "New Friend Request (Hi-Tek Remix)" (Album: Snakes On A Plane: The Album)
Hodgy - "Glory" (Album: Fireplace: TheNotTheOtherSide) (2016)
J Dilla - "The Creep (The O)"; "Gangsta Boogie" (Album: The Diary) (2016)
J. Sands - "In Jail"
Jonell - "Don't Stop"; "Round & Round (remix)"
Kurious - "Brand New Day" (featuring Dave Dar & Co Campbell)(2009)
Little Brother - "Step it Up" (featuring Dion) (Album: Getback)
Lloyd Banks featuring Snoop Dogg, 50 Cent - "I Get High" (Album: The Hunger for More)
M-Dot - "Days Are All The Same" (Album: Ego And The Enemy) (2017)
Mood - Doom
Mood - "Illuminated Sunz" (Album: Concealed Revelations) (2016)
Morcheeba featuring Talib Kweli - "Let Me See (remix)"
Mos Def - "Next Universe" (Album: Rawkus presents Soundbombing II)
Outlawz featuring Young Buck & Dion - "Drivin' Down the Freeway" (Album: Godz Plan)
Papoose - "What Makes Me, Me" (Album: Internationally Known)
Phife Dawg - 4 tracks from Ventilation: Da LP
Phife Dawg - "Miscellaneous (remix)"
Planet Asia & Grand Agent - "It's Only Right"
Rick Dolo - Pan Am
Slum Village - "The Set Up" (Album: Villa Manifesto)
Snoop Dogg - "I Believe In You", "I Miss That Bitch" (Album: Paid tha Cost to Be da Boss)
Snoop Dogg - "No Thang On Me" {Album: R&G (Rhythm & Gangsta): The Masterpiece
Soopafly - "Are You Ready"
Soulive featuring Talib Kweli - "Bridge to Bama (remix)"
Styles P featuring Ray J - "Let's Go" (Album: Super Gangster, Extraordinary Gentleman)
Styles P featuring Talib Kweli - "Testify" (Album: Time Is Money)
Syleena Johnson - "Hit On Me (remix)" (Album: Chapter 1: Love, Pain & Forgiveness), "The Voice/Intro", "Outro" (Album: Chapter 2: The Voice)
Talib Kweli - "2000 Seasons", "The Express", "Back Up Offa Me", "Work It Out", "Beautiful Struggle", "More or Less"
Termanology - "In The Streets" (Album: Politics as Usual)
Termanology - ""Where's The Love" (featuring Bun B, Bodega Bamz, and Masspike Miles) (Album: "More Politics")
Tha Eastsidaz "Cool", "Eastside Ridaz" (Album: Duces 'n Trayz: The Old Fashioned Way)
The Game - "Runnin'" (Album: The Documentary), "Ol English" (Album: Doctor's Advocate), "Letter To The King" (Album: L.A.X)
Truth Hurts - "Hollywood"
Xzibit - "Scent of a Woman" (Album: Weapons of Mass Destruction)
Xzibit featuring Busta Rhymes - "Tough Guy" (Album: Weapons of Mass Destruction)
Young Buck - "Don't Need No Help" (Album: Get Rich Or Die Tryin' soundtrack)
Young Buck featuring Snoop Dogg, Trick Daddy - "I Ain't Fuckin' Wit You" (Album: Buck the World)
9th Wonder and Talib Kweli featuring Rapsody - "Every Ghetto" (Album: Indie 500)
References
1976 births
Living people
African-American rappers
Midwest hip hop musicians
American hip hop record producers
Aftermath Entertainment artists
African-American record producers
Rappers from Cincinnati
21st-century American rappers
21st-century African-American musicians
20th-century African-American people | [
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|
215922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay%20S.%20Jenkinson | Clay S. Jenkinson | Clay Straus Jenkinson (born February 4, 1955 in Dickinson, North Dakota) is an American humanities scholar, author and educator. He is currently the director of The Dakota Institute, where he co-hosts public radio's The Thomas Jefferson Hour, and creates documentary films, symposia, and literary projects. He lectures at Dickinson State University and Bismarck State College.
Life
Jenkinson was born in Dickinson, in southwestern North Dakota; his father was a banker and his mother a schoolteacher. Although the family moved quite often when he and his sister were children, Jenkinson grew up mostly in Dickinson. He graduated from Dickinson High School in 1973 and then attended Vanderbilt University and the University of Minnesota. He graduated in 1977 with a degree in English, and was then a Rhodes scholar at Oxford.
In 2005 at the age of 50 Jenkinson returned to North Dakota as a permanent resident; he resides in Bismarck. He is currently the Director of The Dakota Institute through The Lewis & Clark Fort Mandan Foundation, Chief Consultant to The Theodore Roosevelt Center through Dickinson State University, Distinguished Humanities Scholar at Bismarck State College, and a columnist for the Bismarck Tribune. He is James Marsh Professor-at-Large at the University of Vermont.
Jenkinson has one child, Catherine Missouri Walker Jenkinson, from his marriage to Etta L. Walker (they married on 16 March 1986 and divorced in 1997). His daughter was named after the Little Missouri River.
Portrayal of Jefferson
Jenkinson first achieved fame for his portrayal (first-person historical interpretation) of Thomas Jefferson. On April 11, 1994, he was the first public humanities scholar to present a program at a White House-sponsored event when he presented Thomas Jefferson for a gathering hosted by President and Mrs. Clinton. As co-founder of the modern Chautauqua movement, Jenkinson has also portrayed Sir Francis Bacon, Jonathan Swift, J. Robert Oppenheimer, John Wesley Powell, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Theodore Roosevelt, and Meriwether Lewis.
Jenkinson's public portrayals take the form of lengthy monologues followed by Q & A sessions as the character (in costume) featured for that performance. At the end of his performances, he steps out of character and answers questions as himself. Another performance variation is represented by his nationally syndicated radio show, The Thomas Jefferson Hour:
"While staying resolutely in character, Mr. Jenkinson permits Jefferson to answer audience questions on a broad range of historical subjects and comment carefully on contemporary social and political topics."
On November 15, 2006, Clay appeared as Jefferson on The Colbert Report with two other Jefferson impersonators, Bill Barker and Steven Edenbo.
Awards
In 1989, Jenkinson became one of the first winners of the nation's highest award in the humanities, the Charles Frankel Prize, awarded by President George H.W. Bush for his achievements. The National Endowment for the Humanities once described Jenkinson as "A leader in the revival of Chautauqua, a forum for public discussion about the ideas and lives of key figures in American history." He has been awarded the Robert J. Laxalt Writer of the Year Award from University of Nevada-Reno and is a Rhodes scholar and Danforth Scholar. Jenkinson was a senior fellow for the Center for Digital Government, based in California, and was scholar-in-residence at Lewis & Clark College in Portland, Oregon from 2002–2006, and Roosevelt scholar-in-residence at Dickinson State University from 2005-2008. In 2004, Jenkinson was inducted into the Scandinavian-American Hall of Fame, a signature event of Norsk Høstfest.
Selected publications
Books
The Character of Meriwether Lewis: Explorer in the Wilderness
Message on the Wind: A Spiritual Odyssey on the Northern Plains
Becoming Jefferson's People: Re-Inventing the American Republic in the Twenty-First Century
Theodore Roosevelt in the Dakota Badlands: An Historical Guide
A Free and Hardy Life: Theodore Roosevelt's Sojourn in the American West
A Vast and Open Plain: The Writings of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in North Dakota, 1804-1806
For the Love of North Dakota and Other Essays: Sundays with Clay in the Bismarck Tribune
The Bill Of Rights And Beyond Thomas Jefferson's Perspective
Lewis and Clark in Iowa
The Language of Cottonwoods: Essays on the Future of North Dakota
Documentaries
When the Landscape is Quiet again: the Legacy of Art Link
References
External links
Jefferson Hour.com - official site
Dakota Sky Education.com - Jenkinson's informational website
Clay Jenkinson column - The Bismarck Tribune - 02-Oct-2005
Prairie Public.org - Clay Jenkinson at 50 - 04-Feb-2005
Dickinson State University - faculty directory
1955 births
Living people
Historians of the United States
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American Rhodes Scholars
Alumni of University College, Oxford
People from Minot, North Dakota
Lewis & Clark College faculty
National Humanities Medal recipients
People from Dickinson, North Dakota
American male non-fiction writers | [
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|
215923 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organized%20Konfusion | Organized Konfusion | Organized Konfusion (OK) is an alternative hip hop duo from Queens, New York, composed of Prince Po and Pharoahe Monch.
History
Recording career
Group members Prince Po and Pharoahe Monch, began their career under the name Simply II Positive MCs. Originally, Po was the rapper and Pharoahe was a beatboxer, but after realizing his rhyming skill, Monch joined Po as MC. The duo caught the attention of hip hop producer Paul C, who produced a demo for the group in the late 1980s. They signed a record deal with a small record company in Queens named Solid Sound Records. Two producers named Kevin Osborne and Neal Kelley produced two singles for the group. The first was "Memories of Love" in 1987 and the second was "South Side in Effect". In 1987, they released "Memories of Love"; however, it did not receive any radio play. During that time, Def Jam was considering signing the duo, which led to the group changing its name. In an interview with Halftimeonline.net, Monch stated:
Paul C was murdered in 1989, but the duo went on and signed a record deal with Hollywood BASIC. In 1991, the group released its critically acclaimed self-titled debut album, Organized Konfusion. The album was produced entirely by the duo, and featured only one guest appearance, provided by the group's childhood friend, future D.I.T.C. member O.C., who appeared on the single "Fudge Pudge". The album's single, "Walk Into The Sun", became a minor hit for the group, peaking at No. 15 on the Hot Rap Singles chart. The album itself did not make any Billboard chart, despite high praise from numerous sources, including AllMusic, which granted the album a perfect five-star rating, with reviewer Stanton Swihart stating that it is "arguably the underground [hip-hop] album of the 1990s."
The duo returned in 1994 with their second album, Stress: The Extinction Agenda. This album was once more low on guests, featuring another appearance by O.C., and A Tribe Called Quest's Q-Tip, who both appeared on the song "Let's Organize". The album's lead single "Stress" charted on the Hot Rap Singles chart, but the most famous song from the album is arguably "Stray Bullet", a concept track which sees the MCs describing the travels of a stray bullet in first-person narrative.
In 1996, they appeared on the Red Hot Organization's compilation CD, America is Dying Slowly, alongside Biz Markie, Wu-Tang Clan, and Fat Joe, among many other hip hop artists. The CD, meant to raise awareness of the AIDS epidemic among African American men, was heralded as "a masterpiece" by The Source magazine.
Following the release of Stress, Organized Konfusion moved from Hollywood BASIC to Priority Records. The group's third album, The Equinox, was released in 1997. The album featured a concept, complete with numerous storytelling skits. Many saw the concept as a failure, which led to the album receiving less critical acclaim when compared to the group's previous efforts. Led by the single "Somehow, Someway", the album managed to reach higher on the Billboard charts than its last two albums.
Separation
After this release, Prince Po and Pharoahe Monch split to pursue solo careers. In a 2005 interview with MVRemix.com, Prince Po discussed the break-up:
—Prince Po
Solo careers
Pharoahe Monch inked a deal with Rawkus Records after the duo's break up, and released a highly acclaimed solo album, Internal Affairs, in 1999. The album just missed a debut in the Top 40 on the Billboard 200 chart, and spawned the Hot 100 hit single "Simon Says". Pharoahe and Rawkus were met with a lawsuit over a Godzilla sample used in the track, which forced Rawkus to pull the album off the shelves, to be re-released without the single. The album was not re-released and remains out of print. OK partner Prince Po joined Pharoahe for an appearance on the track "God Send". Other album guests included Canibus, M.O.P., Busta Rhymes, Apani B, Common, Talib Kweli, Redman, Method Man, Lady Luck and Shabaam Sahdeeq.
Prince Po released his solo debut The Slickness in 2004 on Lex Records. The album almost completely missed the radar, but received fair reviews. Guests included Jemini, Rell, MF Doom and Raekwon.
Between 2004 and 2005, Pharoahe recorded an album while he was signed to MCA/Geffen Records, which was never released. After a bidding war between prominent labels such as Bad Boy Records, Shady Records and Sony Records, Pharoahe Monch signed a deal with Steve Rifkind's SRC Records in February 2006. He released his second album, Desire, on June 26, 2007. Prince Po released his second solo album Prettyblack on August 8, 2006. Around this time he was also featured on Adverse's album David. Another Po solo LP, Saga of the Simian Samurai, was released in November 2007 and was produced entirely by TOMC3. The two had worked together previously on Kool Keith's Project Polaroid.
Reunion
In 2004, it was announced that the group would be reuniting with a new third member, O.C. who made his debut on Organized Konfusion. But the reunion was called off due to tensions between O.C. and Prince Po.
In interviews conducted during the promotion of Monch's album Desire, questions have repeatedly come up in question to whether or not a reunion would take place. Monch likes to answer the questions with a vague, but optimistic, "Who knows what the future holds". Monch, now signed to a major label, still insists that, if a reunion were to take place, the record would be released on an independent label, citing that the high-end concepts Organized Konfusion deals with and tackles are not heavily supported by major labels.
On March 30, 2009, it was announced that Organized Konfusion would reunite at the 2009 All Points West Festival in Jersey City, New Jersey.
Discography
Albums
Appearances
1992: "The Rough Side Of Town (South Side)" and "Open Your Eyes" (from BASIC Beats Sampler)
1992: "Fat Bottomed Girls (Organized Konfusion Remix)" (from Queen album BASIC Queen Bootlegs)
1994: "Bring It On" (Buckwild Remix)" (from Buckwild: Diggin' in the Crates)
1995: "You Won't Go Far" (from "New Jersey Drive, Vol. 2")
1996: "Decisions" (from America Is Dying Slowly)
1997: "War Games" (from O.C. album Jewelz)
1997: "Metal Thangz" (from Street Smartz)
1997: "Late Night Action" (from "Soul in the Hole (soundtrack)")
1998: "Rekonstruction" (from DJ Spooky album Riddim Warfare)
1998: "Murder by Syntax" (from Deep Concentration, Vol. 2: Deeper Concentration)
1999: "God Send" (from Pharoahe Monch album Internal Affairs)
2000: "Ill Collabo" (from Cella Dwellas album The Last Shall Be First)
2002: "Frontline" (from El Da Sensei album Relax, Relate, Release)
2009: "Then And Now" (from Prince Po EP X Files EP')
2013: "3-O-Clock" (from Marco Polo album PA2: The Director's Cut)
2014: "Smash (featuring O.C.)" (from Prince Po & Oh No album Animal Serum'')
References
External links
African-American musical groups
American hip hop record producers
American musical duos
Hip hop duos
Hip hop groups from New York City
Hollywood Records artists
Musical groups established in 1987
Musical groups disestablished in 1997
Musical groups from Queens, New York
Priority Records artists
Underground hip hop groups
Record producers from New York (state) | [
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215924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chautauqua | Chautauqua | Chautauqua ( ) was an adult education and social movement in the United States, highly popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Chautauqua assemblies expanded and spread throughout rural America until the mid-1920s. The Chautauqua brought entertainment and culture for the whole community, with speakers, teachers, musicians, showmen, preachers, and specialists of the day. Former U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt was quoted as saying that Chautauqua is "the most American thing in America."
History
The First Chautauquas
In 1873, the first Chautauqua, Lakeside Chautauqua on Ohio's Lake Erie, was formed by the Methodists.
The next year, 1874, the New York Chautauqua Assembly, was organized by Methodist minister John Heyl Vincent and businessman Lewis Miller at a campsite on the shores of Chautauqua Lake in the state of New York. Two years earlier, Vincent, editor of the Sunday School Journal, had begun to train Sunday school teachers in an outdoor summer school format. The gatherings grew in popularity. The organization founded by Vincent and Miller later became known as the Chautauqua Institution. Many other independent Chautauquas were developed in a similar fashion.
The educational summer camp format proved to be a popular choice for families and was widely copied by several Chautauquas. Within a decade, "Chautauqua assemblies" (or simply "Chautauquas"), named for the location in New York, sprang up in various locations across North America. The Chautauqua movement may be regarded as a successor to the Lyceum movement earlier in the 19th century. As the Chautauqua assemblies began to compete for the best performers and lecturers, lyceum bureaus assisted with bookings. Today, Lakeside Chautauqua and the Chautauqua Institution, the two largest Chautauquas, still draw thousands each summer season.
Independent Chautauquas
Independent Chautauquas (or "daughter Chautauquas") operated at permanent facilities, usually fashioned after the Chautauqua Institute in New York, or at rented venues such as in an amusement park. Such a Chautauqua was generally built in an attractive semi-rural location a short distance outside an established town with good rail service. At the height of the Chautauqua movement in the 1920s, several hundred of these existed, but their numbers have since dwindled.
Circuit Chautauquas
"Circuit Chautauquas" (or colloquially, "Tent Chautauquas") were an itinerant manifestation of the Chautauqua movement, founded by Keith Vawter (a Redpath Lyceum Bureau manager) and Roy Ellison in 1904. Although Vawter and Ellison were unsuccessful in their initial attempts to commercialize Chautauqua, by 1907 they had found a great amount of success in their adaptation of the concept. The program would be presented in tents pitched "on a well-drained field near town". After several days, the Chautauqua would fold its tents and move on. The method of organizing a series of touring Chautauquas is attributed to Vawter. Among early Redpath comedians was Boob Brasfield.
Reactions to tent Chautauquas were mixed. In We Called it Culture, Victoria and Robert Case wrote of the new itinerant Chautauqua:
The credit–or blame–for devising the Frankenstein mechanism which was both to exalt and to destroy Chautauqua, the tent circuit, must be given to two youths of similar temperament, imagination, and a common purpose. That purpose, bluntly, was to 'make a million'.
Frank Gunsaulus attacked Vawter:
"You're ruining a splendid movement," Gunsaulus roared at Keith Vawter, whom he met at a railroad junction. "You're cheapening Chautauqua, breaking it down, replacing it with something what will have neither dignity nor permanence."
In Vawter's scheme, each performer or group appeared on a particular day of the program. "First-day" talent would move on to other Chautauquas, followed by the "second-day" performers, and so on, throughout the touring season. By the mid-1920s, when circuit Chautauquas were at their peak, they appeared in over 10,000 communities to audiences of more than 45 million; by about 1940 they had run their course.
Lectures
Lectures were the mainstay of the Chautauqua. Prior to 1917, lectures dominated the circuit Chautauqua programs. The reform speech and the inspirational talk were the two main types of lecture until 1913. Later topics included current events, travel and stories, often with a comedic twist.
The most famous speech
The most prolific speaker (often booked in the same venues with three-time presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan) was Russell Conwell who delivered his famous "Acres of Diamonds" speech 5,000 times to audiences on the Chautauqua and Lyceum circuits, which had this theme: Get rich, young man, for money is power and power ought to be in the hands of good people. I say you have no right to be poor.
Other speakers
Maud Ballington Booth, the "Little Mother of the Prisons", was another popular performer on the circuit. Booth's descriptions of prison life would move her audiences to tears and rouse them to reform. Jane Addams spoke on social problems and her work at Hull House. Helen Potter is another notable woman in the Chautauquas. Potter performed a variety of roles, including men and women. As Gentile notes: "Potter's choice of subjects is noteworthy for its variety and for the fact that she was credible in her impersonations of men as well as of women. In retrospect, Potter's impersonations are of special interest as examples of the kind of recycling or refertilization of inspiration that occurs throughout the history of the one-person show." On a lighter note, author Opie Read's stories and homespun philosophy endeared him to audiences. Other well-known speakers and lecturers in Chautauqua events of various forms included Member of the U.S. House of Representatives Champ Clark from Missouri, Missouri Governor Herbert S. Hadley, and "Fighting Bob" La Follette (governor of Wisconsin at the time).
Religious expression
Christian instruction, preaching, and worship were a strong part of the Chautauqua experience. Although the Chautauqua movement was founded by Methodists, nondenominationalism was a Chautauqua principle from the beginning, and prominent Catholics like Catherine Doherty took part. In 1892, Lutheran Church theologian Theodore Emanuel Schmauk was one of the organizers of the Pennsylvania Chautauqua.
Early religious expression in Chautauqua was usually of a general nature, comparable to the later Moral Re-Armament movement. Later on, in the first half of the 20th century, Fundamentalism was the content of an increasing number of Chautauqua sermons and lectures. However, the great number of Chautauquas, as well as the absence of any central authority over them, meant that religious patterns varied greatly among the different Chautauquas. Some were so religiously oriented that they were essentially church camps, while more secular Chautauquas resembled summer school and competed with vaudeville in theaters and circus tent shows with their animal acts and trapeze acrobats.
One example, Lakeside Chautauqua, is privately owned but affiliated with the United Methodist Church. In contrast, the Colorado Chautauqua is entirely nondenominational and mostly secular in its orientation.
Competition with vaudeville
In the 1890s, both Chautauqua and vaudeville were gaining popularity and establishing themselves as important forms of entertainment. While Chautauqua had its roots in Sunday-school and valued morality and education highly, vaudeville grew out of minstrel shows, variety acts, and crude humor, and so the two movements found themselves at odds. Chautauqua was considered wholesome, family entertainment and appealed to middle classes and people who considered themselves to be respectable or aspired to respectability. Vaudeville, on the other hand, was considered by many to be vulgar and appealed to working class men. There was a stark distinction between the two, and neither generally shared performers or audiences.
At the turn of the 20th century, vaudeville managers began a push for more "refinement", as well as a loosening of Victorian-era morals from the Chautauqua side. Over time, as vaudeville became more respectable, Chautauqua became more permissive in what they considered to be acceptable acts. The boundaries between the two began to blur.
Music
Music was important to Chautauqua, with band music in particular demand. John Philip Sousa protégé Bohumir Kryl's Bohemian Band was frequently seen on the circuit. One of the numbers featured by Kryl was the "Anvil Chorus" from Il Trovatore with four husky timpanists in leather aprons hammering on anvils shooting sparks (enhanced through special effects) across the darkened stage. Spirituals were also popular. White audiences appreciated seeing African-Americans performing something other than minstrelsy. Other musical features of the Chautauqua included groups like the Jubilee Singers, who sang a mix of spirituals and popular tunes, and other singers and instrumental groups like American Quartette, who played popular music, ballads, and songs from the "old country". Entertainers on the Chautauqua circuit such as Charles Ross Taggart, billed as "The Man From Vermont" and "The Old Country Fiddler", played violin, sang, performed ventriloquism and comedy, and told tall tales about life in rural New England.
Opera became a part of the Chautauqua experience in 1926 when the American Opera Company, an outgrowth of the Eastman School of Music in Rochester, New York, began touring the country. Under the direction of Russian tenor Vladimir Rosing, the AOC presented five operas in one week at the Chautauqua Amphitheater. By 1929, a permanent Chautauqua Opera company had been established.
Political context
Chautauquas can be viewed in the context of the populist ferment of the late 19th century. Manifestos such as the "Populist Party Platform" voiced a disdain for political corruption and championed the plight of the common people in the face of the rich and powerful. Other favorite political reform topics in Chautauqua lectures included temperance (even prohibition), women's suffrage, and child labor laws.
However, the Chautauqua movement usually avoided taking political stands as such, instead inviting public officials of all the major political parties to lecture, assuring a balanced program for the members of the assembly. For example, during the 1936 season at the Chautauqua Institution, in anticipation of the national election held that year for president, visitors heard addresses by Franklin D. Roosevelt, his Republican challenger Alf Landon, and from two third-party candidates.
Typical Chautauqua circuit
A route taken by a troupe of Chautauqua entertainers, the May Valentine Opera Company, which presented Gilbert and Sullivan's The Mikado during its 1925 "Summer Season," began March 26 in Abbeville, Louisiana, and ended September 6 in Sidney, Montana.
See also
Lyceum Movement
Oregon Lyceum
Lyceum
Lecture circuit
TED Talks
References
Bibliography
Hurlbut, Jesse Lyman (1921): The Story of Chautauqua. New York: G.P. Putman's Sons.
What was Chautauqua? University of Iowa Libraries, accessed: 2006-03-18.
Galey, Mary (1981): The Grand Assembly: The Story of Life at the Colorado Chautauqua. Boulder, Colorado: First Flatiron Press, .
Gentile, John S (1989): Cast of One: One-Person Shows from the Chautauqua Platform to the Broadway Stage. Champaign, Illinois: University of Illinois Press. .
Gould, Joseph Edward (1961): "The Chautauqua Movement". Albany, New York. State University of New York Press, .
Pettem, Silvia (1998): Chautauqua Centennial, a Hundred Years of Programs. http://www.silviapettem.com/books.html
Rieser, Andrew (2003): The Chautauqua Moment: Protestants, Progressives, and the Culture of Modern Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press, .
Merkel, Diane on behalf of the Walton County Heritage Association (2008): Images of America DeFuniak Springs. Arcadia Publishing, .
External links
Chautauqua Institution
The Great Lecture Library
Traveling Culture: Circuit Chautauqua in the Twentieth Century
Colorado Chautauqua, Boulder,CO
Greenville Chautauqua, Greenville, South Carolina
New Piasa Chautauqua, Chautauqua, IL
Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture – Chautauqua
Program catalog, 1905 Chautauqua, Rockford, IL
Evangelical Christian conferences
Evangelicalism
History of education in the United States
Progressive Era in the United States
Adult education in the United States | [
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|
215927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Basin%20National%20Park | Great Basin National Park | Great Basin National Park is an American national park located in White Pine County in east-central Nevada, near the Utah border, established in 1986. The park is most commonly entered by way of Nevada State Route 488, which is connected to U.S. Routes 6 and 50 by Nevada State Route 487 via the small town of Baker, the closest settlement.
The park derives its name from the Great Basin, the dry and mountainous region between the Sierra Nevada and the Wasatch Mountains. Topographically, this area is known as the Basin and Range Province. The park is located about north of Las Vegas and protects .
The park is notable for its groves of ancient bristlecone pines, the oldest known nonclonal organisms, and for the Lehman Caves at the base of Wheeler Peak, as well as Wheeler Peak Glacier.
President Warren G. Harding created Lehman Caves National Monument by presidential proclamation on January 24, 1922. The monument and its surroundings was designated a national park on October 27, 1986, following the advocacy of Congressman Harry Reid.
A number of developed campsites are within the park, as well as backcountry camping opportunities. The Highland Ridge Wilderness lies adjacent to Great Basin National Park. These two protected areas provide contiguous wildlife habitat and protection to of eastern Nevada's basin lands.
Natural history
Flora
Eleven species of conifer trees and over 800 species of plants are found in Great Basin National Park and the neighboring valleys.
The area around the Visitor Center is dominated by plants such as sagebrush, saltbush, single-leaf pinyon, and Utah juniper. Higher elevations are home to mountain meadows, white fir, quaking aspen, Englemann spruce, and large Ponderosa pine. At treeline is an alpine area of low, delicate plants and rocky outcroppings.
The oldest nonclonal organism ever discovered, a Great Basin bristlecone pine tree at least 5,000 years old, grew at the treeline near Wheeler Peak in the national park. It was cut down in 1964 by a graduate student and U.S. Forest Service personnel for research purposes. It was given the nickname Prometheus, after the mythological figure who stole fire from the gods and gave it to man.
Fauna
Sixty-one species of mammals, 18 species of reptiles, 238 species of birds, two species of amphibians, and eight species of fish are in Great Basin National Park and the neighboring valleys.
Mammals
An abundance of wildlife has taken advantage of the habitat zones in Great Basin National Park. Jackrabbits, pygmy rabbits, mountain cottontails, ground squirrels, chipmunks, and various mice live in the low-elevation sagebrush desert. Pronghorns, coyotes, kit foxes, and badgers are less common inhabitants.
In the more rugged areas on the slopes of mountains and in the valley areas nearby, cougars, bobcats, marmots, rock squirrels, and bighorn sheep can occasionally be seen throughout this park. Other animals that can be found here include elk, mule deer, spotted skunks, shrews, ringtail cats, and ermine.
Fish
The Bonneville cutthroat trout is the only fish native to Great Basin National Park. It arrived in the mountain waters naturally and was eventually isolated by changing climatic conditions. Other trout species, such as Lahontan cutthroat trout, rainbow, brook, and brown trout, were stocked in the lakes and streams of the South Snake Range until the park's incorporation in 1986.
Birds
Many species of birds can be found in Great Basin National Park, including Canada geese, hawks, sparrows, bald eagles, tundra swans, barn owls, snow geese, killdeer, golden eagles, woodpeckers, mallards, wrens, greater roadrunners, chickadees, great horned owls, ravens, magpies, and swallows.
Amphibians
Only two species of amphibians have been positively identified in the southern Snake Range and adjacent portions of Snake and Spring Valleys: the western spadefoot toad (Spea hammondii) and the leopard frog (Rana pipiens).
Geology
Many of the rocks formed during the Cambrian, when the region lay at the edge of a continental landmass called Laurentia. These rocks include the Cambrian strata. As the Paleozoic era progressed, several intensified geologic events occurred, including repeated episodes of faulting, and in turn, orogenies which involved upward lifting of a metamorphic core complex, creating mafic and rhyolitic dikes and sills.
Extensive volcanism also occurred during the middle to late Cambrian, contributing further to the uplift of the area. This also contributed to a second round of block faulting, in which conglomerates, ash flows, and tuffs accumulated in the Snake Range.
Both continuous and intermittent fault movements also occurred, with individual fault surfaces on both sides of the Snake Range thinning and stretching.
Glaciation
Glaciation, mostly during a series of ice ages in the Pleistocene, heavily eroded the peaks of the Snake Range, leaving canyon walls, U-shaped valleys, cirques, and moraines throughout the range.
Lehman Caves
The Lehman Cave system began forming around 550 million years ago (during the Cambrian), while it was still submerged in a relatively warm, shallow ocean. The caves are made up of a marble and limestone solution, for the most part, that forms the many cave decorations throughout the caverns.
The cave system became much deeper during the Pleistocene, when a prolonged and increased flow of water eroded through the cave's fracturing bedrock. Eventually, the water level dropped, leaving glare rooms and cavities in the rock, creating the depths of the Lehman Caves system.
Scenic features
The park's scenic features include Lexington Arch, the Lehman Orchard and Aqueduct, Rhodes Cabin, Stella and Teresa Lakes, and Wheeler Peak Glacier.
Lehman Caves
The Lehman Caves were originally protected as a national monument in 1922, which was combined with the national park in 1986.
According to the National Park Service, the caves were, most likely, discovered by Absalom Lehman in 1885.
Several species occupy the Lehman Caves. Bacteria are the most common. Crickets, spiders, pseudoscorpions, mites, and springtails may live their full lifecycles in the cave. They are dependent on organic material packed in by other animals or washed in from the surface.
Other animals use the cave, but must leave to forage for food. These include chipmunks, mice, pack rats, and several species of bats. Only insectivorous bats occur in the Great Basin. At least 10 species of bats have been found in the vicinity of Great Basin National Park, including the Townsend's big-eared bat.
Trails
The park has 12 trails ranging from . Trails range from short nature trails at (Mountain View Nature Trail), to the Wheeler summit trail starting at . The Wheeler Summit trail is quite strenuous, and the altitude presents significant hazards for unprepared or inexperienced hikers. Backcountry routes are occasionally maintained throughout the more remote southern portion of the park. A number of these trailheads are accessible by the road that terminates at the primitive Shoshone campground.
Visitor centers
The Great Basin visitor center is located on Nevada State Route 487 in the town of Baker. The Lehman Caves visitor center is located on Nevada State Route 488, about from Baker, inside the park boundary. The Forgotten Winchester, a rifle manufactured in 1882 that was found leaning against a juniper tree in the park in 2014, is on display inside the Lehman Caves visitor center. Both centers feature exhibits about the park's geology and natural and cultural history, as well as theaters with orientation films.
The park received 168,028 visitors in 2017, and operated with a budget of $2.8 million.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Great Basin National Park has a warm-summer humid continental climate (Dfb). The plant hardiness zone at Lehman Caves Visitor Center is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of -3.8 °F (-19.9 °C).
The park lies in an arid region and receives very little rainfall during most of the year. Most precipitation is winter snow or summer thunderstorms. All precipitation in this region evaporates, sinks underground, or flows into lakes — i.e., it is endorheic. No water reaches the ocean.
Winters are cool and summers are mild to hot. Weather can change quickly, especially in the back country or on Wheeler Peak at high elevations.
Lehman Caves maintain a fairly constant temperature of with 90% humidity year round.
The climate varies throughout the park, depending on elevation and location. The following data are for the Lehman Caves Visitor Center only. Higher elevations are cooler and receive more precipitation, whereas lower elevations are hotter and drier.
See also
Great Basin National Heritage Area
List of national parks of the United States
References
External links
Park photo gallery – National Park Service on Flickr
Johnson Lake Mine – National Park Service
Winchester Model 1873 Rifle Recovered in Great Basin National Park – National Park Service, official press release
National parks in Nevada
Natural history museums in Nevada
Protected areas of White Pine County, Nevada
Protected areas established in 1987
Great Basin National Heritage Area
Cambrian volcanism
Caves of Nevada
Landforms of White Pine County, Nevada
Museums in White Pine County, Nevada | [
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|
215928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La%20Vita%20Nuova | La Vita Nuova | La Vita Nuova (; Italian for "The New Life") or Vita Nova (Latin title) is a text by Dante Alighieri published in 1294. It is an expression of the medieval genre of courtly love in a prosimetrum style, a combination of both prose and verse.
History and context
Referred to by Dante as his libello, or "little book," La Vita Nuova is the first of two collections of verse written by Dante in his life. The collection is a prosimetrum, a piece containing both verse and prose, in the vein of Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy. Dante used each prosimetrum as a means for combining poems written over periods of roughly ten years—La Vita Nuova contains his works from before 1283 to roughly 1293. The collection and its style fit in with the movement called Dolce Stil Novo.
The prose creates the illusion of narrative continuity between the poems; it is Dante's way of reconstructing himself and his art in terms of his evolving sense of the limitations of courtly love (the system of ritualized love and art that Dante and his poet-friends inherited from the Provençal poets, the Sicilian poets of the court of Frederick II, and the Tuscan poets before them). Sometime in his twenties, Dante decided to try to write love poetry that was less centered on the self and more aimed at love itself. He intended to elevate courtly love poetry, many of its tropes and its language, into sacred love poetry. Beatrice for Dante was the embodiment of this kind of love—transparent to the Absolute, inspiring the integration of desire aroused by beauty with the longing of the soul for divine splendor.
The first full translation into English was published by Joseph Garrow in 1846.
Structure
La Vita Nuova contains 42 brief chapters (31 for Guglielmo Gorni) with commentaries on 25 sonnets, one ballata, and four canzoni; one canzone is left unfinished, interrupted by the death of Beatrice Portinari, Dante's lifelong love.
Dante's two-part commentaries explain each poem, placing them within the context of his life. The chapters containing poems consist of three parts: the semi-autobiographical narrative, the lyric that resulted from those circumstances, and brief structural outline of the lyric. The poems present a frame story, recounting Dante's love of Beatrice from his first sight of her (when he was nine and she eight) all the way to his mourning after her death, and his determination to write of her "that which has never been written of any woman."
Each separate section of commentary further refines Dante's concept of romantic love as the initial step in a spiritual development that results in the capacity for divine love (see courtly love). Dante's unusual approach to his piece — drawing upon personal events and experience, addressing the readers, and writing in Italian rather than Latin — marked a turning point in European poetry, when many writers abandoned highly stylized forms of writing for a simpler style.
Elements of autobiography
Dante wanted to collect and publish the lyrics dealing with his love for Beatrice, explaining the autobiographical context of its composition and pointing out the expository structure of each lyric as an aid to careful reading. Though the result is a landmark in the development of emotional autobiography (the most important advance since Saint Augustine's Confessions in the 5th century), like all medieval literature it is far removed from the modern autobiographical impulse. However, Dante and his audience were interested in the emotions of courtly love and how they develop, how they are expressed in verse, how they reveal the permanent intellectual truths of the divinely created world and how love can confer blessing on the soul and bring it closer to God.
The names of the people in the poem, including Beatrice herself, are employed without use of surnames or any details that would assist readers to identify them among the many people of Florence. Only the name "Beatrice" is used, because that was both her actual name and her symbolic name as the conferrer of blessing. Ultimately the names and people work as metaphors.
In chapter XXIV, "I Felt My Heart Awaken" ("Io mi senti' svegliar dentro a lo core", also translated as "I Felt a Loving Spirit Suddenly"), Dante recounts a meeting with Love, who asks the poet to do his best to honour her.
Dante does not name himself in La Vita Nuova. He refers to Guido Cavalcanti as "the first of my friends", to his own sister as "a young and noble lady... who was related to me by the closest consanguinity", to Beatrice's brother similarly as one who "was so linked in consanguinity to the glorious lady that no-one was closer to her". The reader is invited into the very emotional turmoil and lyrical struggle of the unnamed author's own mind and all the surrounding people in his story are seen in their relations to that mind's quest of encountering Love.
La Vita Nuova is helpful for understanding the context of his other works, principally La Commedia.
Influence
Besides its content, La Vita Nuova is notable for being written in Tuscan vernacular, rather than Latin; Dante's work helped to establish Tuscan as the basis for the national Italian language.
American poet Wallace Stevens called the text "one of the great documents of Christianity," noting that the text displays the influence of Christianity in promulgating "the distinctly feminine virtues in place of the sterner ideals of antiquity."
Cultural references
The Henry Holiday painting Dante and Beatrice (1883) is inspired by La Vita Nuova, as was Dante Gabriel Rossetti's The Salutation of Beatrice (1859). Rossetti translated the work into English in 1848 and used the character name Monna Vanna from it as a title for his 1866 painting Monna Vanna.
La vita nuova is a 1902 cantata based on the text by Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari.
Vladimir Martynov's 2003 opera Vita Nuova premiered in the U.S. on February 28, 2009 at the Alice Tully Hall, performed by the London Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Vladimir Jurowski.
A modified version of the opening line of the work's Introduction was used on the television show Star Trek: Voyager in the episode "Latent Image" (1999). The Doctor is concerned with a moral situation and Captain Janeway reads this book and leaves the Doctor to discover the poem.
The author Allegra Goodman wrote a short story entitled "La Vita Nuova", published in the May 3, 2010 issue of The New Yorker, in which Dante's words (in English) are interspersed throughout the piece.
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Dante's Vita Nova: An Introductory Note, a Preface, and an Excerpt by Andrew Frisardi, from Poetry Daily.
, translated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, 1899.
The New Life, translated by A. S. Kline
The New Life, translated by Charles Eliot Norton
La Vita Nuova (PDF)
Vita Nuova
Vita Nuova
Vita Nuova
Vita Nouva
Vita Nouva
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|
215929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volta%20%28dance%29 | Volta (dance) | The volta (plural: voltas) (Italian: "the turn" or "turning") is an anglicised name for a dance for couples that was popular during the later Renaissance period. This dance was associated with the galliard and done to the same kind of music. Its main figure consisted of a turn and lift in a sort of closed position, which could be done either to the right or to the left. It is also called La volta, Volta, Volte. Spelling variants include la volta and levolto; its name is la volte in French and la volta in Italian. Considered at first to be risque and controversial, La volta became a respectable, but never completely dignified, dance after Queen Elizabeth I of England danced it with the Earl of Leicester.
Description
Detailed instructions for voltas were written by Thoinot Arbeau; some brief notes appear in MS Douce 280. These instructions are open to some interpretation, but seem to indicate something like the following.
The dance begins with a galliard. Then the couple makes a transition to a closed position. The leader (the man, according to period custom) lets go of his partner's hand and takes hold of her below her busk with one hand, and places the other hand on her back above the far hip. The follower places her near hand on top of her partner's near shoulder. Now the leader is facing his partner while she faces to one side; both will do the turn with forward steps, and both step with the same foot at the same time.
The turn begins with a small step, springing onto the outside foot and lifting the inside foot forward. On the second beat there is a longer step, stepping smoothly onto the inside foot and staying close to the ground. During this step the follower poises herself for a spring, and just after it she springs up into the air. The leader lifts her with his hands, then holds her up with his hands and with the thigh of his free leg under her thighs. He lets her down to land on both feet on the last beat of the measure. The couple makes an approximate turn during each measure. The turn is repeated ad lib for several measures, and then the galliard is resumed in an open position.
Relations to other dances
It is sometimes hypothesized that the volta was the direct ancestor of the waltz. However, with experience, it can be seen from the above instructions (or from Thoinot Arbeau's instructions) that the dances are fundamentally different. The volta is more similar to the polska, though there again the differences remain large. The most that might reasonably be assumed is that the development of either the waltz or the polska might have been influenced in some way by the volta.
References in modern culture
An inaccurate example of this dance in the movie Elizabeth (1998), where Cate Blanchett (Queen Elizabeth I) and Joseph Fiennes (Lord Robert Dudley) dance it on two occasions.
A somewhat more accurate version of the volta can be seen in the movie Shakespeare in Love (1998), this time with Joseph Fiennes playing William Shakespeare and Gwyneth Paltrow as Viola De Lesseps.
A very accurate version can be seen in Elizabeth: The Golden Age (sequel to Elizabeth) between Elizabeth "Bess" Throckmorton and Sir Walter Raleigh.
In the second season's seventh episode of Showtime's original series The Tudors, Jonathan Rhys Meyers playing Henry VIII and Natalie Dormer as Anne Boleyn perform a dance that is said to be a Volta; but is actually a fragment of the Canticles of Holy Mary, a Spanish medieval compliance of religious hymns.
A version of volta can be seen performed in the 1953 film The Sword and the Rose.
This dance is also performed in the third episode of 1971's Elizabeth R, "Shadow in the Sun" between Queen Elizabeth (Glenda Jackson) and Robert Dudley (Robert Hardy).
On 23 June 2009 the contestants on Big Brother 10 (UK Channel 4) were given the task to perform The Volta, with the performance shown the following evening.
References
Bibliography
Brissenden, Alan. Shakespeare and the Dance. London: The MacMillan Press, 1981.
Arbeau, Thoinot. Orchesography. Langres, 1589. Translated by Mary Stewart Evans; Introduction and Notes by Julia Sutton. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1967.
External links
Elizabeth Movie CLIP - Elizabeth and Robert Dance a Volta (1998)
Partner dance
European dances
Renaissance dance | [
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|
215930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supersonic%20transport | Supersonic transport | A supersonic transport (SST) or a supersonic airliner is a civilian supersonic aircraft designed to transport passengers at speeds greater than the speed of sound. To date, the only SSTs to see regular service have been Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. The last passenger flight of the Tu-144 was in June 1978 and it was last flown in 1999 by NASA. Concorde's last commercial flight was in October 2003, with a November 26, 2003 ferry flight being its last airborne operation. Following the permanent cessation of flying by Concorde, there are no remaining SSTs in commercial service. Several companies have each proposed a supersonic business jet, which may bring supersonic transport back again.
Supersonic airliners have been the objects of numerous recent and ongoing design studies. Drawbacks and design challenges are excessive noise generation (at takeoff and due to sonic booms during flight), high development costs, expensive construction materials, high fuel consumption, extremely high emissions, and an increased cost per seat over subsonic airliners. Despite these challenges, Concorde was claimed to operate profitably.
In 2016, NASA announced it had signed a contract for the design of a modern low-noise SST prototype. The designing team is led by Lockheed Martin Aeronautics.
History
Throughout the 1950s an SST looked possible from a technical standpoint, but it was not clear if it could be made economically viable. Because of differences in lift generation, aircraft operating at supersonic speeds have approximately one-half the lift-to-drag ratio of subsonic aircraft. This implies that for any given required amount of lift, the aircraft will have to supply about twice the thrust, leading to considerably greater fuel use. This effect is pronounced at speeds close to the speed of sound, as the aircraft is using twice the thrust to travel at about the same speed. The relative effect is reduced as the aircraft accelerates to higher speeds. Offsetting this increase in fuel use was the potential to greatly increase sortie rates of the aircraft, at least on medium and long-range flights where the aircraft spends a considerable amount of time in cruise. SST designs flying at least three times as fast as existing subsonic transports were possible, and would thus be able to replace as many as three planes in service, and thereby lower costs in terms of manpower and maintenance.
Serious work on SST designs started in the mid-1950s, when the first generation of supersonic fighter aircraft were entering service. In Britain and France, government-subsidized SST programs quickly settled on the delta wing in most studies, including the Sud Aviation Super-Caravelle and Bristol Type 223, although Armstrong-Whitworth proposed a more radical design, the Mach 1.2 M-Wing. Avro Canada proposed several designs to TWA that included Mach 1.6 double-ogee wing and Mach 1.2 delta-wing with separate tail and four under-wing engine configurations. Avro's team moved to the UK where its design formed the basis of Hawker Siddeley's designs. By the early 1960s, the designs had progressed to the point where the go-ahead for production was given, but costs were so high that the Bristol Aeroplane Company and Sud Aviation eventually merged their efforts in 1962 to produce Concorde.
In the early 1960s, various executives of US aerospace companies were telling the US public and Congress that there were no technical reasons an SST could not be produced. In April 1960, Burt C Monesmith, a vice president with Lockheed, stated to various magazines that an SST constructed of steel weighing could be developed for $160 million and in production lots of 200 or more sold for around $9 million. But it was the Anglo-French development of the Concorde that set off panic in the US industry, where it was thought that Concorde would soon replace all other long range designs, especially after Pan Am took out purchase options on the Concorde. Congress was soon funding an SST design effort, selecting the existing Lockheed L-2000 and Boeing 2707 designs, to produce an even more advanced, larger, faster and longer ranged design. The Boeing 2707 design was eventually selected for continued work, with design goals of ferrying around 300 passengers and having a cruising speed near to Mach 3. The Soviet Union set out to produce its own design, the Tu-144, which the western press nicknamed the "Concordski."
The SST was seen as particularly offensive due to its sonic boom and the potential for its engine exhaust to damage the ozone layer. Both problems impacted the thinking of lawmakers, and eventually Congress dropped funding for the US SST program in and all overland commercial supersonic flight was banned over the US. Presidential advisor Russell Train warned that a fleet of 500 SSTs flying at for a period of years could raise stratospheric water content by as much as 50% to 100%. According to Train, this could lead to greater ground-level heat and hamper the formation of ozone. In relation to stratospheric water and its potential to increase ground temperatures, although not mentioning Concorde as the source of the "recent decline in water vapor is unknown", in 2010 the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration noted that Stratospheric Water Vapor levels in the 1980s and 1990s were higher than that in the 2000s, by approximately 10%, with Susan Solomon of NOAA calculating that it is this change which is responsible for the slow down in the rise in surface temperatures from global warming by about 25 percent when compared to the warming rate in the 1990s. Russell Train's other, water-ozone concern, was however countered by Fred Singer in a letter to the journal Nature in 1971, "which upset those who claimed that supersonic transports might seriously affect stratospheric ozone".
Later, an additional threat to the ozone was hypothesized as a result of the exhaust's nitrogen oxides, a threat that was, in 1974, seemingly validated by MIT. However, while many purely theoretical models were indicating the potential for large ozone losses from SST nitrogen oxides (NOx), other scientists in the paper "Nitrogen Oxides, Nuclear Weapon Testing, Concorde and Stratospheric Ozone" turned to historical ozone monitoring and atmospheric nuclear testing to serve as a guide and means of comparison, observing that no detectable ozone loss was evident from approximately 213 megatons of explosive energy being released in 1962, so therefore the equivalent amount of NOx from "1047" Concordes flying "10 hours a day", would likewise, not be unprecedented. In 1981 models and observations were still irreconcilable. More recent computer models in 1995 by David W. Fahey, an atmospheric scientist at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and others, suggest that the drop in ozone would be at most, "no more" than 1 to 2% if a fleet of 500 supersonic aircraft was operated. Fahey expressed that this would not be a fatal obstacle for an advanced SST development – while "a big caution flag...[it] should not be a showstopper for advanced SST development" because ""removing the sulfur in the fuel of the [concorde]" would essentially eliminate the hypothesized 1–2% ozone-destruction-reaction-pathway.
Despite the model-observation discrepancy surrounding the ozone concern, in the mid-1970s, six years after its first supersonic test flight, Concorde was now ready for service. The US political outcry was so high that New York banned the plane. This threatened the aircraft's economic prospects — it had been built with the London–New York route in mind. The plane was allowed into Washington, D.C. (at Dulles in Virginia), and the service was so popular that New Yorkers were soon complaining because they did not have it. It was not long before Concorde was flying into JFK.
Along with shifting political considerations, the flying public continued to show interest in high-speed ocean crossings. This started additional design studies in the US, under the name "AST" (Advanced Supersonic Transport). Lockheed's SCV was a new design for this category, while Boeing continued studies with the 2707 as a baseline.
By this time, the economics of past SST concepts were no longer reasonable. When first designed, the SSTs were envisioned to compete with long-range aircraft seating 80 to 100 passengers such as the Boeing 707, but with newer aircraft such as the Boeing 747 carrying four times that, the speed and fuel advantages of the SST concept were taken away by sheer size.
Another problem was that the wide range of speeds over which an SST operates makes it difficult to improve engines. While subsonic engines had made great strides in increased efficiency through the 1960s with the introduction of the turbofan engine with ever-increasing bypass ratios, the fan concept is difficult to use at supersonic speeds where the "proper" bypass is about 0.45, as opposed to 2.0 or higher for subsonic designs. For both of these reasons the SST designs were doomed by higher operational costs, and the AST programs vanished by the early 1980s.
Concorde only sold to British Airways and Air France, with subsidized purchases that were to return 80% of the profits to the government. In practice for almost all of the length of the arrangement, there was no profit to be shared. After Concorde was privatized, cost reduction measures (notably the closing of the metallurgical wing testing site which had done enough temperature cycles to validate the aircraft through to 2010) and ticket price raises led to substantial profits.
Since Concorde stopped flying, it has been revealed that over the life of Concorde, the plane did prove profitable, at least to British Airways. Concorde operating costs over nearly 28 years of operation were approximately £1 billion, with revenues of £1.75 billion.
The last regular passenger flights landed at London Heathrow Airport on Friday, October 24, 2003, just past 4 p.m.: Flight 002 from New York, a second flight from Edinburgh, Scotland, and the third which had taken off from Heathrow on a loop flight over the Bay of Biscay.
By the end of the 20th century, projects like the Tupolev Tu-244, Tupolev Tu-344, SAI Quiet Supersonic Transport, Sukhoi-Gulfstream S-21, High Speed Civil Transport, etc. had not been realized.
Realized supersonic airliners
On August 21, 1961, a Douglas DC-8-43 (registration N9604Z) exceeded Mach 1 in a controlled dive during a test flight at Edwards Air Force Base. The crew were William Magruder (pilot), Paul Patten (copilot), Joseph Tomich (flight engineer), and Richard H. Edwards (flight test engineer). This is the first supersonic flight by a civilian airliner.
Concorde
In total, 20 Concordes were built: two prototypes, two development aircraft and 16 production aircraft. Of the sixteen production aircraft, two did not enter commercial service and eight remained in service as of April 2003. All but two of these aircraft are preserved; the two that are not are F-BVFD (cn 211), parked as a spare-parts source in 1982 and scrapped in 1994, and F-BTSC (cn 203), which crashed outside Paris on July 25, 2000, killing 100 passengers, 9 crew members, and 4 people on the ground.
Tupolev Tu-144
A total of sixteen airworthy Tupolev Tu-144s were built; a seventeenth Tu-144 (reg. 77116) was never completed. There was also at least one ground test airframe for static testing in parallel with the prototype 68001 development.
Challenges of supersonic passenger flight
Aerodynamics
For all vehicles traveling through air, the force of drag is proportional to the coefficient of drag (Cd), to the square of the airspeed and to the air density. Since drag rises rapidly with speed, a key priority of supersonic aircraft design is to minimize this force by lowering the coefficient of drag. This gives rise to the highly streamlined shapes of SSTs. To some extent, supersonic aircraft also manage drag by flying at higher altitudes than subsonic aircraft, where the air density is lower.
As speeds approach the speed of sound, the additional phenomenon of wave drag appears. This is a powerful form of drag that begins at transonic speeds (around Mach 0.88). Around Mach 1, the peak coefficient of drag is four times that of subsonic drag. Above the transonic range, the coefficient drops drastically again, although remains 20% higher by Mach 2.5 than at subsonic speeds. Supersonic aircraft must have considerably more power than subsonic aircraft require to overcome this wave drag, and although cruising performance above transonic speed is more efficient, it is still less efficient than flying subsonically.
Another issue in supersonic flight is the lift to drag ratio (L/D ratio) of the wings. At supersonic speeds, airfoils generate lift in an entirely different manner than at subsonic speeds, and are invariably less efficient. For this reason, considerable research has been put into designing wing planforms for sustained supersonic cruise. At about Mach 2, a typical wing design will cut its L/D ratio in half (e.g., Concorde managed a ratio of 7.14, whereas the subsonic Boeing 747 has an L/D ratio of 17). Because an aircraft's design must provide enough lift to overcome its own weight, a reduction of its L/D ratio at supersonic speeds requires additional thrust to maintain its airspeed and altitude.
Engines
Jet engine design shifts significantly between supersonic and subsonic aircraft. Jet engines, as a class, can supply increased fuel efficiency at supersonic speeds, even though their specific fuel consumption is greater at higher speeds. Because their speed over the ground is greater, this decrease in efficiency is less than proportional to speed until well above Mach 2, and the consumption per unit distance is lower.
When Concorde was being designed by Aérospatiale–BAC, high bypass jet engines ("turbofan" engines) had not yet been deployed on subsonic aircraft. Had Concorde entered service against earlier designs like the Boeing 707 or de Havilland Comet, it would have been much more competitive though the 707 and DC-8 still carried more passengers. When these high bypass jet engines reached commercial service in the 1960s, subsonic jet engines immediately became much more efficient, closer to the efficiency of turbojets at supersonic speeds. One major advantage of the SST disappeared.
Turbofan engines improve efficiency by increasing the amount of cold low-pressure air they accelerate, using some of the energy normally used to accelerate hot air in the classic non-bypass turbojet. The ultimate expression of this design is the turboprop, where almost all of the jet thrust is used to power a very large fan – the propeller. The efficiency curve of the fan design means that the amount of bypass that maximizes overall engine efficiency is a function of forward speed, which decreases from propellers, to fans, to no bypass at all as speed increases. Additionally, the large frontal area taken up by the low-pressure fan at the front of the engine increases drag, especially at supersonic speeds, and means the bypass ratios are much more limited than on subsonic aircraft.
For example, the early Tu-144S was fitted with a low bypass turbofan engine which was much less efficient than Concorde's turbojets in supersonic flight. The later TU-144D featured turbojet engines with comparable efficiency. These limitations meant that SST designs were not able to take advantage of the dramatic improvements in fuel economy that high bypass engines brought to the subsonic market, but they were already more efficient than their subsonic turbofan counterparts.
Structural issues
Supersonic vehicle speeds demand narrower wing and fuselage designs, and are subject to greater stresses and temperatures. This leads to aeroelasticity problems, which require heavier structures to minimize unwanted flexing. SSTs also require a much stronger (and therefore heavier) structure because their fuselage must be pressurized to a greater differential than subsonic aircraft, which do not operate at the high altitudes necessary for supersonic flight. These factors together meant that the empty weight per seat of Concorde is more than three times that of a Boeing 747.
However, Concorde and the TU-144 were both constructed of conventional aluminum (Hiduminium in Concorde's case), and (duralumin), whereas more modern materials such as carbon fibre and Kevlar are much stronger in tension for their weight (important to deal with pressurization stresses) as well as being more rigid. As the per-seat weight of the structure is much higher in an SST design, any improvements will lead to a greater percentage improvement than the same changes in a subsonic aircraft.
High costs
Higher fuel costs and lower passenger capacities due to the aerodynamic requirement for a narrow fuselage make SSTs an expensive form of commercial civil transportation compared with subsonic aircraft. For example, the Boeing 747 can carry more than three times as many passengers as Concorde while using approximately the same amount of fuel.
Nevertheless, fuel costs are not the bulk of the price for most subsonic aircraft passenger tickets. For the transatlantic business market that SST aircraft were utilized for, Concorde was actually very successful, and was able to sustain a higher ticket price. Now that commercial SST aircraft have stopped flying, it has become clearer that Concorde made substantial profit for British Airways.
Takeoff noise
One of the problems with Concorde and the Tu-144's operation was the high engine noise levels, associated with very high jet velocities used during take-off, and even more importantly flying over communities near the airport. SST engines need a fairly high specific thrust (net thrust/airflow) during supersonic cruise, to minimize engine cross-sectional area and, thereby, nacelle drag. Unfortunately this implies a high jet velocity, which makes the engines noisy which causes problems particularly at low speeds/altitudes and at take-off.
Therefore, a future SST might well benefit from a variable cycle engine, where the specific thrust (and therefore jet velocity and noise) is low at take-off, but is forced high during supersonic cruise. Transition between the two modes would occur at some point during the climb and back again during the descent (to minimize jet noise upon approach). The difficulty is devising a variable cycle engine configuration that meets the requirement for a low cross-sectional area during supersonic cruise.
Sonic boom
The sonic boom was not thought to be a serious issue due to the high altitudes at which the planes flew, but experiments in the mid-1960s such as the controversial Oklahoma City sonic boom tests and studies of the USAF's North American XB-70 Valkyrie proved otherwise (see Sonic boom § Abatement). By 1964 whether civilian supersonic aircraft would be licensed was unclear, because of the problem.
The annoyance of a sonic boom can be avoided by waiting until the aircraft is at high altitude over water before reaching supersonic speeds; this was the technique used by Concorde. However, it precludes supersonic flight over populated areas. Supersonic aircraft have poor lift/drag ratios at subsonic speeds as compared to subsonic aircraft (unless technologies such as variable-sweep wings are employed), and hence burn more fuel, which results in their use being economically disadvantageous on such flight paths.
Concorde had an overpressure of (133 dBA SPL). Overpressures over (131 dBA SPL) often cause complaints.
If the intensity of the boom can be reduced, then this may make even very large designs of supersonic aircraft acceptable for overland flight. Research suggests that changes to the nose cone and tail can reduce the intensity of the sonic boom below that needed to cause complaints. During the original SST efforts in the 1960s, it was suggested that careful shaping of the fuselage of the aircraft could reduce the intensity of the sonic boom's shock waves that reach the ground. One design caused the shock waves to interfere with each other, greatly reducing sonic boom. This was difficult to test at the time, but the increasing power of computer-aided design has since made this considerably easier. In 2003, a Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration aircraft was flown which proved the soundness of the design and demonstrated the capability of reducing the boom by about half. Even lengthening the vehicle (without significantly increasing the weight) would seem to reduce the boom intensity (see Sonic boom § Abatement).
Need to operate aircraft over a wide range of speeds
The aerodynamic design of a supersonic aircraft needs to change with its speed for optimal performance. Thus, an SST would ideally change shape during flight to maintain optimal performance at both subsonic and supersonic speeds. Such a design would introduce complexity which increases maintenance needs, operations costs, and safety concerns.
In practice all supersonic transports have used essentially the same shape for subsonic and supersonic flight, and a compromise in performance is chosen, often to the detriment of low speed flight. For example, Concorde had very high drag (a lift to drag ratio of about 4) at slow speed, but it travelled at high speed for most of the flight. Designers of Concorde spent 5000 hours optimizing the vehicle shape in wind tunnel tests to maximize the overall performance over the entire flightplan.
The Boeing 2707 featured swing wings to give higher efficiency at low speeds, but the increased space required for such a feature produced capacity problems that proved ultimately insurmountable.
North American Aviation had an unusual approach to this problem with the XB-70 Valkyrie. By lowering the outer panels of the wings at high Mach numbers, they were able to take advantage of compression lift on the underside of the aircraft. This improved the L/D ratio by about 30%.
Skin temperature
At supersonic speeds an aircraft adiabatically compresses the air in front of it. The increased temperature of the air heats the aircraft.
Subsonic aircraft are usually made of aluminium. However aluminium, while being light and strong, is not able to withstand temperatures much over 127 °C; above 127 °C the aluminium gradually loses its properties that were brought about by age hardening. For aircraft that fly at Mach 3, materials such as stainless steel (XB-70 Valkyrie, MiG-25) or titanium (SR-71, Sukhoi T-4) have been used, at considerable increase in expense, as the properties of these materials make the aircraft much more difficult to manufacture.
In 2017 a new carbide ceramic coating material was discovered which could resist temperatures occurring at Mach 5 or above, perhaps as high as 3000 °C.
Poor range
The range of supersonic aircraft can be estimated with the Breguet range equation.
The high per-passenger takeoff weight makes it difficult to obtain a good fuel fraction. This issue, along with the challenge presented by supersonic lift/drag ratios, greatly limits the range of supersonic transports. Because long distance routes were not a viable option, airlines had little interest in buying the jets.
Airline undesirability of SSTs
Airlines buy aircraft as a means of making money, and wish to make as much return on investment as possible from their assets.
Airlines potentially value very fast aircraft, because it enables the aircraft to make more flights per day, providing a higher return on investment. Also, passengers generally prefer faster, shorter-duration trips to slower, longer-duration trips, so operating faster aircraft can give an airline a competitive advantage, even to the extent that many customers will willingly pay higher fares for the benefit of saving time and/or arriving sooner. However, Concorde's high noise levels around airports, time zone issues, and insufficient speed meant that only a single return trip could be made per day, so the extra speed was not an advantage to the airline other than as a selling feature to its customers. The proposed American SSTs were intended to fly at Mach 3, partly for this reason. However, allowing for acceleration and deceleration time, a trans-Atlantic trip on a Mach 3 SST would be less than three times as fast as a Mach 1 trip.
Since SSTs produce sonic booms at supersonic speeds they are rarely permitted to fly supersonic over land, and must fly supersonic over sea instead. Since they are inefficient at subsonic speeds compared to subsonic aircraft, range is deteriorated and the number of routes that the aircraft can fly non-stop is reduced. This also reduces the desirability of such aircraft for most airlines.
Supersonic aircraft have higher per-passenger fuel consumption than subsonic aircraft; this makes the ticket price necessarily higher, all other factors being equal, as well as making that price more sensitive to the price of oil. (It also makes supersonic flights less friendly to the environment and sustainability, two growing concerns of the general public, including air travelers.)
Investing in research and development work to design a new SST can be considered as an effort to push the speed limit of air transport. Generally, other than an urge for new technological achievement, the major driving force for such an effort is competitive pressure from other modes of transport. Competition between different service providers within a mode of transport does not typically lead to such technological investments to increase the speed. Instead, the service providers prefer to compete in service quality and cost. An example of this phenomenon is high-speed rail. The speed limit of rail transport had been pushed so hard to enable it to effectively compete with road and air transport. But this achievement was not done for different rail operating companies to compete among themselves. This phenomenon also reduces the airline desirability of SSTs, because, for very long distance transportation (a couple of thousand kilometers), competition between different modes of transport is rather like a single-horse race: air transport does not have a significant competitor. The only competition is between the airline companies, and they would rather pay moderately to reduce cost and increase service quality than pay much more for a speed increase. Also, for-profit companies generally prefer low risk businesses plans with high probabilities of appreciable profit, but an expensive leading-edge technological research and development program is a high-risk enterprise, as it is possible that the program will fail for unforeseeable technical reasons or will meet cost overruns so great as to force the company, due to financial resource limits, to abandon the effort before it yields any marketable SST technology, causing potentially all investment to be lost.
Environmental impact
The International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) estimates a SST would burn 5 to 7 times as much fuel per passenger.
The ICCT shows that a New York to London supersonic flight would consume more than twice as much fuel per passenger than in subsonic business-class, six times as much as for economy class, and three times as much as subsonic business for Los Angeles to Sydney.
Designers can either meet existing environmental standards with advanced technology or lobby policymakers to establish new standards for SSTs.
If there were 2,000 SSTs in 2035, there would be 5,000 flights per day at 160 airports and the SST fleet would emit ~96 million metric tons of CO₂ per year (like American, Delta and Southwest combined in 2017), 1.6 to 2.4 gigatonnes of CO₂ over their 25-year lifetime: one-fifth of the international aviation carbon budget if aviation maintains its emissions share to stay under a 1.5 °C climate trajectory.
Noise exposed area around airports could double compared to existing subsonic aircraft of the same size, with more than 300 operations per day at Dubai and London Heathrow, and over 100 in Los Angeles, Singapore, San Francisco, New York-JFK, Frankfurt, and Bangkok.
Frequent sonic booms would be heard in Canada, Germany, Iraq, Ireland, Israel, Romania, Turkey, and parts of the United States, up to 150–200 per day or one every five minutes.
Under development
The desire for a second-generation supersonic aircraft has remained within some elements of the aviation industry, and several concepts have emerged since the retirement of Concorde.
In March 2016, Boom Technology revealed that it is in the development phases of building a 40-passenger supersonic jet capable of flying Mach 1.7, claiming that the design simulation shows that it will be quieter and 30% more efficient than the Concorde and be able to fly Los Angeles to Sydney in 6 hours. and will go in service in 2029
For its economic viability, NASA research since 2006 has focused on reducing the sonic boom to allow supersonic flight over land.
NASA should fly a low-boom demonstrator in 2019, reduced from double bangs to soft thumps by airframe shaping, to inquire community response, in support of a prospective FAA and ICAO ban lift in the early 2020s.
The Quiet Supersonic Technology X-plane will mimic the shockwave signature of a Mach 1.6 to 1.8, 80- to 100-seat airliner for 75 PNLdB compared with 105 PNLdB for Concorde.
The market for supersonic airliners costing $200 million could be 1,300 over a 10-year period, worth $260 billion. Development and certification is probably a $4 billion operation.
The TsAGI exhibited at the 2017 MAKS Air Show in Moscow a scale model of its Supersonic Business Jet / Commercial Jet which should produce a low sonic boom permitting supersonic flight over land, optimised for cruise and range.
The scientific research aims to optimise for both Mach 0.8–0.9 transonic and Mach 1.5–2.0 supersonic speeds, a similar design is tested in a wind tunnel while the engines are conceptualised at the Central Institute for Aviation Motors and designs are studied by Aviadvigatel and NPO Saturn.
At the October 2017 NBAA convention in Las Vegas, with NASA supporting only research, various companies faced engineering challenges to propose aircraft with no engine available, variable top speeds and operating models:
the Boom XB-1 Baby Boom third-scale testbed should fly in 2018 as the powerplant is selected for a 45/55-seat trijet airliner reaching Mach 2.2 over water for with one stop for a business-class fare. Aiming for 2023 deliveries, it received 10 commitments from Virgin and 15 from an undisclosed European airline in 2016, totalling 76 from five airlines by June 2017;
The Spike S-512 is a self-funded twinjet design aiming to cruise at Mach 1.6 over water for with 22 passengers in a windowless cabin, with unspecified engines. A SX-1.2-scale model should have made its maiden flight in September 2017 before a manned testbed in 2019 and the prototype in 2021, with market availability for 2023.
Of the four billion air passengers in 2017, over 650 million flew long-haul between , including 72 million in business and first class, reaching 128 million by 2025; Spike projects 13 million would be interested in supersonic transport then.
In October 2018, the reauthorization of the FAA planned noise standards for supersonic transports, giving developers a regulatory certainty for their designs, mostly their engine choice.
Rules for supersonic flight-testing authorization in the U.S and noise certification will be proposed by the FAA by early 2019. The FAA should make a proposition for landing-and-takeoff noise before March 31, 2020 for a rule after 2022; and for overland sonic boom from the end of 2020, while NASA plans to fly the Lockheed Martin X-59 QueSST low-boom flight demonstrator from 2021 for ICAO standards in 2025.
In June 2019, inspired by the NASA quiet supersonic initiative and X-59 QueSST, Lockheed Martin unveiled the Quiet Supersonic Technology Airliner, a Mach 1.8, transpacific airliner concept for 40 passenger.
Lower airport noise and sonic boom are allowed by shaped-boom design; integrated low-noise propulsion; swept-wing supersonic natural laminar flow; and the cockpit external vision system (XVS).
The long design is significantly longer than the Concorde, featuring an almost long nose and a cabin.
The sharply swept delta wing has a span, slightly narrower than the Concorde.
Design goals are a range and a takeoff field length, a 75-80 PLdB sonic boom and a cruise of Mach 1.6-1.7 over land and Mach 1.7-1.8 over water.
Twin tail-mounted nonafterburning engines are located between V-tails.
Integrated low-noise propulsion include advanced plug nozzle designs, noise shielding concepts and distortion-tolerant fan blades.
In August 2020, Virgin Galactic with Rolls-Royce unveiled the concept of a Mach 3 capable twinjet delta wing aircraft that can carry up to 19 passengers.
Previous concepts
In November 2003, EADS—the parent company of Airbus—announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde. In October 2005, JAXA, the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of an airliner designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2 (Next Generation Supersonic Transport, NEXST, then Zero Emission Hyper Sonic Transport). If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020–25.
In May 2008, it was reported that Aerion Corporation had $3 billion of pre-order sales on its Aerion SBJ supersonic business jet. In late 2010, the project continued with a testbed flight of a section of the wing. The Aerion AS2 was proposed as a 12-seat trijet, with a range of at Mach 1.4 over water or at Mach 0.95 over land, although "boomless" Mach 1.1 flight was claimed to be possible. Backed by Airbus and with 20 launch orders from Flexjet, first deliveries were pushed back from 2023 by two years when GE Aviation was selected in May 2017 for a joint engine study. In May 2021 the company announced that they would be ceasing operations due to inability to raise capital.
Supersonic Aerospace International's Quiet Supersonic Transport is a 12-passenger design from Lockheed Martin that is to cruise at Mach 1.6, and is to create a sonic boom only 1% as strong as that generated by Concorde.
The supersonic Tupolev Tu-444 or Gulfstream X-54 have also been proposed.
Hypersonic transport
While conventional turbo and ramjet engines are able to remain reasonably efficient up to Mach 5.5, some ideas for very high-speed flight above Mach 6 are also sometimes discussed, with the aim of reducing travel times down to one or two hours anywhere in the world.
These vehicle proposals very typically either use rocket or scramjet engines; pulse detonation engines have also been proposed.
There are many difficulties with such flight, both technical and economic.
Rocket-engined vehicles, while technically practical (either as ballistic transports or as semiballistic transports using wings), would use a very large amount of propellant and operate best at speeds between about Mach 8 and orbital speeds. Rockets compete best with air-breathing jet engines on cost at very long range; however, even for antipodal travel, costs would be only somewhat lower than orbital launch costs.
At the June 2011 Paris Air Show, EADS unveiled its ZEHST concept, cruising at at and attracting Japanese interest.
The German SpaceLiner is a suborbital hypersonic winged passenger spaceplane project under preliminary development.
Precooled jet engines are jet engines with a heat exchanger at the inlet that cools the air at very high speeds. These engines may be practical and efficient at up to about Mach 5.5, and this is an area of research in Europe and Japan.
The British company Reaction Engines Limited, with 50% EU money, has been engaged in a research programme called LAPCAT, which examined a design for a hydrogen-fueled plane carrying 300 passengers called the A2, potentially capable of flying at Mach 5+ nonstop from Brussels to Sydney in 4.6 hours. The follow-on research effort, LAPCAT II began in 2008 and was to last four years.
STRATOFLY MR3 is an EU research program (German Aerospace Center, ONERA and universities) with the goal of developing a cryogenic fuel 300-passenger airliner capable to fly at about 10,000 Km/h (Mach 8) above 30 km of altitude.
Boeing Hypersonic Airliner
Boeing unveiled at the AIAA 2018 conference a passenger airliner.
Crossing the Atlantic in 2 hours or the Pacific in 3 at would enable same-day return flights, increasing airlines' asset utilization.
Using a titanium airframe, its capacity would be smaller than a Boeing 737 but larger than a long-range business jet.
A reusable demonstrator could be flown as early as 2023 or 2024 for a potential entry into service from the late 2030s.
Aerodynamics would benefit from the Boeing X-51 Waverider experience, riding the leading edge shockwave for lower induced drag.
Flow control would enhance lift at slower speeds, and avoiding afterburners on takeoff would reduce noise.
The Boeing hypersonic airliner would be powered by a turboramjet, a turbofan that transitions to a ramjet at Mach 6 would avoid the need for a ramjet, similar to the SR-71 Blackbird's Pratt & Whitney J58, but shutting off the turbine at higher speeds.
It would be integrated in an axisymmetric annular layout with a single intake and nozzle, and a bypass duct around the turbine engine to a combination afterburner/ramjet at the rear.
It would need advanced cooling technology like the heat exchanger developed by Reaction Engines, maybe using liquid methane and/or jet fuel.
Cruising at makes depressurization a higher risk.
Mach 6 was chosen as the limit achievable with available technology.
It would have a high capacity utilization, being able to cross the Atlantic four or five times a day, up from a possible twice a day with the Concorde.
See also
Supercruise
References
External links
British inventions
Soviet inventions
Emerging technologies
French inventions | [
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215931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristlecone%20pine | Bristlecone pine | The term bristlecone pine covers three species of pine tree (family Pinaceae, genus Pinus, subsection Balfourianae). All three species are long-lived and highly resilient to harsh weather and bad soils. One of the three species, Pinus longaeva, is among the longest-lived life forms on Earth. The oldest of this species is more than 4,800 years old, making it the oldest known individual of any species.
Despite their potential age and low reproductive rate, bristlecone pines, particularly Pinus longaeva, are usually a first-succession species, tending to occupy new open ground. They generally compete poorly in less-than-harsh environments, making them hard to cultivate. In gardens, they succumb quickly to root rot. They do very well, however, where most other plants cannot even grow, such as in rocky dolomitic soils in areas with virtually no rainfall.
Bristlecone pines grow in scattered subalpine groves at high altitude in arid regions of the Western United States. Bristlecones, along with all related species in class Pinopsida, are cone-bearing seed plants commonly known as conifers; the name comes from the prickles on the female cones.
Species and range
There are three closely related species of bristlecone pines:
Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) in Utah, Nevada and eastern California. The famous longest-lived species; often the term bristlecone pine refers to this tree in particular.
Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) in Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. The most populous species; capable of forming closed canopies and, unlike the other two, is commonly cultivated.
Foxtail pine (Pinus balfouriana) with two disjunct populations found in the Klamath Mountains (subspecies balfouriana) and the southern Sierra Nevada (subspecies austrina). A small outlying population was reported in southern Oregon, but was proven to have been misidentified. Forms the thickest groves of the three.
At least some of the three species can hybridize in cultivation, but the ranges of wild populations do not overlap. The Colorado River and Green River produce a gap between the ranges of P. longaeva and P. aristata and the northern Owens Valley provides a gap between the ranges of P. longaeva and P. balfouriana.
Description
Bristlecone pines grow in isolated groves just below the tree line, between elevation on dolomitic soils. The trees grow in soils that are shallow lithosols, usually derived from dolomite and sometimes limestone, and occasionally sandstone or quartzite soils. Dolomitic soils are alkaline, high in calcium and magnesium, and low in phosphorus. Those factors tend to exclude other plant species, allowing bristlecones to thrive. Because of cold temperatures, dry soils, high winds, and short growing seasons, the trees grow very slowly. Even the tree's needles, which grow in bunches of five, can remain on the tree for forty years, which gives the tree's terminal branches the unique appearance of a long bottle brush.
The bristlecone pine's root system is mostly composed of highly branched, shallow roots, while a few large, branching roots provide structural support.
The bristlecone pine is extremely drought tolerant due to its branched shallow root system, its waxy needles, and thick needle cuticles that aid in water retention.
The wood is very dense and resinous, and thus resistant to invasion by insects, fungi, and other potential pests. The tree's longevity is due in part to the wood's extreme durability. While other species of trees that grow nearby suffer rot, bare bristlecone pines can endure, even after death, often still standing on their roots, for many centuries. Rather than rot, exposed wood, on living and dead trees, erodes like stone due to wind, rain, and freezing, which creates unusual forms and shapes.
The bristlecone pine has an intrinsically low rate of reproduction and regeneration, and it is thought that under present climatic and environmental conditions the rate of regeneration may be insufficient to sustain its population. The species are on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) red list. The species are labeled under Least Concern (LC), the justification for this being that no subpopulations for Great Basin bristlecone pines are decreasing. Subpopulations seem to be increasing or remaining stable. Many bristlecone pine habitats have been protected, including the Inyo National Forest's Ancient Bristlecone Pine Forest in the White Mountains of California and the Great Basin National Park in Nevada, where cutting or gathering wood is prohibited.
The green pine needles give the twisted branches a bottle-brush appearance. The needles of the tree surround the branch to an extent of about one foot near the tip of the limb. The name bristlecone pine refers to the dark purple female cones that bear incurved prickles on their surface. The dark color of these cones helps to absorb heat. After maturity, which takes about two years, the cones will become brown in color. These ancient trees have a gnarled and stunted appearance, especially those found at high altitudes, and have reddish-brown bark with deep fissures. As the tree ages, much of its vascular cambium layer may die. In very old specimens, often only a narrow strip of living tissue connects the roots to a handful of live branches. Even though the trees' needles may age, they still remain functional in regulating water and by their ability to photosynthesize.
Oldest living organisms
Bristlecone pines are known for attaining great ages. The oldest bristlecone pine in the White Mountains is Methuselah, which has a verified age of years. It is located in the Inyo National Forest in Eastern California. The specific location of Methuselah is a very closely guarded secret.
The other two species, Pinus balfouriana and Pinus aristata, are also long-lived, though not to the extreme extent of P. longaeva; specimens of both have been measured or estimated to be up to 3,000 years old. The longevity of the trees is believed to be related to the proportion of dead wood to live wood. This high ratio reduces respiration and water loss, thereby extending the life of the tree.
Trees that reproduce by cloning can be considered to be much older than bristlecone pines. A colony of 47,000 quaking aspen trees (nicknamed "Pando"), covering in the Fishlake National Forest in Utah, United States, has been estimated to be 80,000 years old, although tree ring samples date individual, above-ground trees at an average of about 130 years.
Bristlecone pines are invaluable to dendroclimatologists, because they provide the longest continual climatically sensitive tree-ring chronologies on Earth. By cross-dating millennia-old bristlecone pine debris, some chronologies reach beyond 9,000 years before present. In addition, ratios of stable carbon isotopes from bristlecone pine tree rings are sensitive to past variations in moisture availability. This information can be used to reconstruct precipitation changes in the past.
The Rocky Mountain population is severely threatened by an introduced fungal disease known as white pine blister rust, and by mountain pine beetles. Climate change may also affect the species as temperatures increased over a 30-year period throughout the southern Rocky Mountain range. These changes in climate would mostly affect trees in higher elevations. With these problems, the genetic diversity within the species has become a concern; old specimens of bristlecone pine, however, have survived previous warmer periods.
See also
List of longest-living organisms
References
Citations
General sources
External links
Gymnosperm Database – Pinus longaeva, Pinus aristata, Pinus balfouriana
Prometheus: The Martyred One
Pinus
Pinus
Pinus
Pinus
Pinus
Pinus
Balfourianae
Pinus taxa by common names
Plant subsections
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|
215933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Mississippi | List of governors of Mississippi | The governor of Mississippi is the head of state and head of government of Mississippi and the commander-in-chief of the state's military forces. The Governor has a duty to enforce state laws, and the power to either approve or veto bills passed by the Mississippi Legislature, to convene the legislature at any time, and, except in cases of treason or impeachment, to grant pardons and reprieves.
To be elected governor, a person must be at least 30 years old, and must have been a citizen of the United States for twenty years and a resident of Mississippi for at least five years at the time of inauguration. The Constitution of Mississippi, ratified in 1890, calls for a four-year term for the governor, elected via the two-round system since a 2020 referendum. Prior to this, the governor was elected by an electoral college composed of the districts represented in the Mississippi House of Representatives, with a contingent election held in the House in the event no candidate received a majority of district electors. He or she may be reelected once (prior to a 1987 amendment to the state Constitution, governors were limited to one term). The original Constitution of 1817 had only a two-year term for governor; this was expanded to four years in the 1868 Constitution. The lieutenant governor is elected at the same time as the governor and serves as president of the Mississippi Senate. When the office of governor becomes vacant for any reason, the lieutenant governor becomes governor for the remainder of the term.
The governor of Mississippi also appoints the members of the Institutions of Higher Learning Board of Trustees.
History
Since Mississippi became a U.S. state, it has had 64 governors, including 50 Democrats, 7 Republicans and 7 from other parties. Democrats dominated after retaking control of the state legislature; they passed a Constitution in 1890 that disfranchised most African Americans, excluding them from the political system for nearly 70 years, effectively making it a one-party state. The state's longest-serving governor was John M. Stone, who served two terms over ten years (his second term was extended to six years by a transitional provision in the 1890 Constitution). The shortest-serving governor was James Whitfield, who served months from 1851 to 1852. 10 governors (David Holmes, Gerard Brandon, Charles Lynch, John A. Quitman, John J. Pettus, Adelbert Ames, John Marshall Stone, Theodore G. Bilbo, Dennis Murphree, and Hugh L. White) have served non-consecutive terms. The current governor is Republican Tate Reeves, who took office January 14, 2020.
Governors of the Territory of Mississippi (1798–1817)
Prior to the Compact of 1802, parts of what is now Mississippi were claimed by the state of Georgia; see List of governors of Georgia for this period.
Prior to 1813, the panhandle of Mississippi was part of the Mobile District of the Spanish territory of West Florida; see List of Colonial Governors of Florida.
Political parties
Governors of the U.S. state of Mississippi (1817–present)
Political parties
Succession
Other high offices held
This is a table of congressional, confederate, other governorships, and other federal offices held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Mississippi except where noted. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Mississippi
, there are four living former Mississippi governors, the oldest Governor of Mississippi being Haley Barbour (served 2004–2012, born 1947). The most recent Governor of Mississippi to die was William Winter (served 1980–1984, born 1923) on December 18, 2020. The most recently serving governor of Mississippi to die was Kirk Fordice (served 1992–2000) on September 7, 2004.
See also
Mississippi
List of lieutenant governors of Mississippi
Notes
References
General
"Governor Haley Barbour." State of Mississippi. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
"." National Governors Association. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
Constitutions
"Constitution of the State of Mississippi" (current, 1890 with amendments). Mississippi Secretary of State (Education and Publications). Retrieved September 5, 2009.
"Constitution of the State of Mississippi" (1890). Mississippi History Now. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
"Constitution of the State of Mississippi" (1868). Mississippi History Now. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
"Constitution of the State of Mississippi" (1832). Mississippi History Now. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
"Constitution of the State of Mississippi" (1817). Mississippi History Now. Retrieved September 5, 2009.
Specific
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
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|
215934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consent | Consent | Consent occurs when one person voluntarily agrees to the proposal or desires of another. It is a term of common speech, with specific definitions as used in such fields as the law, medicine, research, and sexual relationships. Consent as understood in specific contexts may differ from its everyday meaning. For example, a person with a mental disorder, a low mental age, or under the legal age of sexual consent may willingly engage in a sexual act that still fails to meet the legal threshold for consent as defined by applicable law.
United Nations agencies and initiatives in sex education programs believe that teaching the topic of consent as part of a comprehensive sexuality education is beneficial. Types of consent include implied consent, express consent, informed consent and unanimous consent.
Types
An express consent is one that is clearly and unmistakably stated, rather than implied. It may be given in writing, by speech (orally), or non-verbally, e.g. by a clear gesture such as a nod. Non-written express consent not evidenced by witnesses or an audio or video recording may be disputed if a party denies that it was given.
Implied consent is consent inferred from a person's actions and the facts and circumstances of a particular situation (or in some cases, by a person's silence or inaction). Some examples include unambiguously soliciting or initiating sexual activity or the implied consent to physical contact by participants in a hockey game or being assaulted in a boxing match.
Informed consent in medicine is consent given by a person who has a clear appreciation and understanding of the facts, implications, and future consequences of an action. The term is also used in other contexts, such as in social scientific research, when participants are asked to affirm that they understand the research procedure and consent to it, or in sex, where informed consent means each person engaging in sexual activity is aware of any positive statuses (for sexually transmitted infections and/or diseases) they might expose themselves to.
Unanimous consent, or general consent, by a group of several parties (e.g., an association) is consent given by all parties.
Substituted consent, or the substituted judgment doctrine, allows a decision maker to attempt to establish the decision an incompetent person would have made if they were competent.
Internet and digital services
The concept of end-user given consent plays an important role in digital regulations such as the European General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR (Article 6) defines a set of different legal bases for lawful processing of personal data. End-users’ consent is only one of these possible bases. However, as a result of the GDPR enforcement (in 2018) and other legal obligations, data controllers (online service providers) have widely developed consent-obtaining mechanisms in recent years. According to the GDPR, end-users' consent should be valid, freely given, specific, informed and active. But the lack of enforceability regarding obtaining lawful consents has been a challenge in the digital world. As an example, a 2020 study, showed that the Big Tech, i.e. Google, Amazon, Facebook, Apple, and Microsoft (GAFAM), use dark patterns in their consent obtaining mechanisms, which raises doubts regarding the lawfulness of the obtained consent.
Tort
Consent can be either expressed or implied. For example, participation in a contact sport usually implies consent to a degree of contact with other participants, implicitly agreed and often defined by the rules of the sport. Another specific example is where a boxer cannot complain of being punched on the nose by an opponent; implied consent will be valid where the violence is ordinarily and reasonably to be contemplated as incidental to the sport in question. Express consent exists when there is oral or written agreement, particularly in a contract. For example, businesses may require that persons sign a waiver (called a liability waiver) acknowledging and accepting the hazards of an activity. This proves express consent, and prevents the person from filing a tort lawsuit for unauthorised actions.
In English law, the principle of volenti non fit injuria (Latin: "to a willing person, injury is not done") applies not only to participants in sport, but also to spectators and to any others who willingly engage in activities where there is a risk of injury. Consent has also been used as a defense in cases involving accidental deaths during sex, which occur during sexual bondage. Time (May 23, 1988) referred to this latter example, as the "rough-sex defense". It is not effective in English law in cases of serious injury or death.
As a term of jurisprudence prior provision of consent signifies a possible defence (an excuse or justification) against civil or criminal liability. Defendants who use this defense are arguing that they should not be held liable for a tort or a crime, since the actions in question took place with the plaintiff or "victim's" prior consent and permission.
Medicine
In medical law, consent is important to protect a medical practitioner from liability for harm to a patient arising from a procedure. There are exemptions, such as when the patient is unable to give consent.
Also, a medical practitioner must explain the significant risks of a procedure or medication (those that might change the patient's mind about whether or not to proceed with the treatment) before the patient can give a binding consent. This was explored in Australia in Rogers v Whitaker. If a practitioner does not explain a material risk that subsequently eventuates, then that is considered negligent. These material risks include the loss of chance of a better result if a more experienced surgeon had performed the procedure.
In the UK, a Supreme Court judgment modernized the law on consent and introduced a patient-focused test to UK law: allowing the patient rather than the medical professionals to decide upon the level of risk they wish to take in terms of a particular course of action, given all the information available. This change reflects the Guidance of the General Medical Council on the requirement to consent patients, and removes the rule of medical paternalism.
Social science research
Social scientists are generally required to obtain informed consent from research participants before asking interview questions or conducting an experiment. Federal law governs social science research that involves human subjects, and tasks institutional review boards (IRBs) at universities, federal or state agencies, and tribal organizations to oversee social science research that involves human subjects and to make decisions about whether or not informed consent is necessary for a social scientific study to go forward. Informed consent in this context generally means explaining the study's purpose to research participants and obtaining a signed or verbal affirmation that the study participants understand the procedures to be used and to consent to participate in the study.
Some types of social scientific research, such as psychological experiments, may use deception as part of the study; in these cases, researchers may not fully describe the procedures to participants, and thus participants are not fully informed. However, researchers are required to debrief participants immediately after the experiment is concluded. Certain populations are considered to be vulnerable, and in addition to informed consent, special protections must be made available to them. These include persons who are incarcerated, pregnant women, persons with disabilities, and persons who have a mental disability. Children are considered unable to provide informed consent.
Planning law
Some countries, such as New Zealand with its Resource Management Act and its Building Act, use the term "consent" for the legal process that provide planning permission for developments like subdivisions, bridges or buildings. Achieving permission results in getting "Resource consent" or "Building consent".
Sexual activity
In Canada "consent means… the voluntary agreement of the complainant to engage in sexual activity" without abuse or exploitation of "trust, power or authority", coercion or threats. Consent can also be revoked at any moment.
Sexual consent plays an important role in defining what sexual assault is, since sexual activity without consent by all parties is rape. In the late 1980s, academic Lois Pineau argued that we must move towards a more communicative model of sexuality so that consent becomes more explicit and clear, objective and layered, with a more comprehensive model than "no means no" or "yes means yes". Many universities have instituted campaigns about consent. Creative campaigns with attention-grabbing slogans and images that market consent can be effective tools to raise awareness of campus sexual assault and related issues.
Since the late 1990s, new models of sexual consent have been proposed. Specifically, the development of "yes means yes" and affirmative models, such as Hall's definition: "the voluntary approval of what is done or proposed by another; permission; agreement in opinion or sentiment." Hickman and Muehlenhard state that consent should be "free verbal or nonverbal communication of a feeling of willingness' to engage in sexual activity." Affirmative consent may still be limited since the underlying, individual circumstances surrounding the consent cannot always be acknowledged in the "yes means yes", or in the "no means no", model.
Some individuals are unable to give consent. Children or minors below a certain age, the age of sexual consent in that jurisdiction, are deemed not able to give valid consent by law to sexual acts. Likewise, persons with Alzheimer's disease or similar disabilities may be unable to give legal consent to sexual relations even with their spouse.
Within literature, definitions surrounding consent and how it should be communicated have been contradictory, limited or without consensus. Roffee argued that legal definition needs to be universal, so as to avoid confusion in legal decisions. He also demonstrated how the moral notion of consent does not always align with the legal concept. For example, some adult siblings or other family members may voluntarily enter into a relationship, however the legal system still deems this as incestual, and therefore a crime. Roffee argues that the use of particular language in the legislation regarding these familial sexual activities manipulates the reader to view it as immoral and criminal, even if all parties are consenting. Similarly, some children under the legal age of consent may knowingly and willingly choose to be in a sexual relationship. However the law does not view this as legitimate. Whilst there is a necessity for an age of consent, it does not allow for varying levels of awareness and maturity. Here it can be seen how a moral and a legal understanding do not always align.
Initiatives in sex education programs are working towards including and foregrounding topics of and discussions of sexual consent, in primary, high school and college Sex Ed curricula. In the UK, the Personal Social Health and Economic Education Association (PSHEA) is working to produce and introduce Sex Ed lesson plans in British schools that include lessons on "consensual sexual relationships," "the meaning and importance of consent" as well as "rape myths". In U.S., California-Berkeley University has implemented affirmative and continual consent in education and in the school's policies. In Canada, the Ontario government has introduced a revised Sex Ed curriculum to Toronto schools, including new discussions of sex and affirmative consent, healthy relationships and communication.
Affirmative consent
Affirmative consent (enthusiastic yes) is when both parties agree to sexual conduct, either through clear, verbal communication or nonverbal cues or gestures. It involves communication and the active participation of people involved. This is the approach endorsed by colleges and universities in the U.S., which describe consent as an "affirmative, unambiguous, and conscious decision by each participant to engage in mutually agreed-upon sexual activity." Notably, past research has found that college students generally held unfavorable attitudes toward institutional affirmative consent requirements (e.g., Antioch’s policy), stating issues related to endorsement and practicality of these mandated policies . According to Yoon-Hendricks, a staff writer for Sex, Etc., "Instead of saying 'no means no,' 'yes means yes' looks at sex as a positive thing." Ongoing consent is sought at all levels of sexual intimacy regardless of the parties' relationship, prior sexual history or current activity ("Grinding on the dance floor is not consent for further sexual activity," a university policy reads). By definition, affirmative consent cannot be given if a person is intoxicated, unconscious or asleep.
There are 3 pillars often included in the description of sexual consent, or "the way we let others know what we're up for, be it a good-night kiss or the moments leading up to sex."
They are:
Knowing exactly what and how much I'm agreeing to
Expressing my intent to participate
Deciding freely and voluntarily to participate
To obtain affirmative consent, rather than waiting to say or for a partner to say "no", one gives and seeks an explicit "yes". This can come in the form of a smile, a nod or a verbal yes, as long as it's unambiguous, enthusiastic and ongoing. "There's varying language, but the language gets to the core of people having to communicate their affirmation to participate in sexual behavior," said Denice Labertew of the California Coalition Against Sexual Assault. "It requires a fundamental shift in how we think about sexual assault. It's requiring us to say women and men should be mutually agreeing and actively participating in sexual behavior."
See also
Age of consent
Assumption of risk
Consent of the governed
Saverland v Newton
Sex positive
Sociocracy (decision-making by consent)
Victim blaming
Volenti non fit injuria
References
Tort law
Autonomy
Concepts in ethics
Medical ethics
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]
|
215935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Italian%20musical%20terms%20used%20in%20English | List of Italian musical terms used in English | Many musical terms are in Italian, because in Europe, the vast majority of the most important early composers from the Renaissance to the Baroque period were Italian . That period is when numerous musical indications were used extensively for the first time.
Some of the expressions include:
Italian terms and English translations
Musical instruments
Voices
Tempo
Dynamics – volume
Moods
Musical expression (general)
Patterns within the musical score
Directions
Techniques
Roles
Criticism
Musical direction and staging
See also
Musical terminology
Sheet music
References
External links
8notes glossary
Italian
Musical
Music
Glossaries of music | [
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|
215936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishaq%20Shahryar | Ishaq Shahryar | Ishaq M. Shahryar (January 10, 1936 – April 12, 2009) was the inventor of the low-cost photovoltaic cell and the first Afghan ambassador to the United States since the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. New Scientist named Shahryar "the Sun King," recognizing his virtual invention of solar power as a serious energy source and honoring his dedication to reinventing Afghan villages through solar power and increased business opportunities.
Early life and education
Born in Kabul, Afghanistan, Shahryar received a government scholarship in 1956 to study at UC Berkeley and UC Santa Barbara, where he earned his Bachelor's in Physical Chemistry and his Master's in International Relations.
Technical career
On graduation, Shahryar worked as an engineer and became an integral part of NASA's Jupiter Project. In the early 1970s, Shahryar took a job at Spectrolab, a division of Textron. There, with support from Bill Yerkes, he invented the first terrestrial solar cell in 1972 and developed the process of screen-printing cells on solar panels, which is still used in the market today. The company was purchased by Hughes Aircraft in 1975, and the terrestrial division was closed. Shahryar founded his own company, Solec International, followed by Solar Utility Company and Sun King Solar in Los Angeles.
Shahryar's patents continued to lower the cost of solar energy in order to utilize the energy source more broadly. In 1987, Solec provided the solar cells for an electric racecar being built by the hair care entrepreneur and billionaire John Paul DeJoria, who later became his business partner. The Ferris wheel at the Santa Monica Pier operates on a photovoltaic system designed by Solar Utility Inc. The same system provides power for the parking structure at the Santa Monica Civic Auditorium. Solar-powered emergency call boxes dotting local freeways were designed by Shahryar. So were solar-powered lighting systems used in some bus shelters and billboards. His latest endeavor, Global Energy, aimed to reduce the cost of electricity to 6 or 7 cents a kilowatt in order to develop largely solar-powered model villages in underdeveloped nations.
Political career
While working in solar energy, in 1994, Shahryar was named to the U.S. Presidential Mission on Sustainable Energy and Trade to India and has acted as an adviser to numerous trade and environmental groups in the United States and abroad.
Alongside his achievements in the solar industry, Shahryar remained involved in the plight of Afghan immigrants and in the politics of Afghanistan. Shahryar brought over 60 members of his family to the United States after the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and was a patron to the entire Afghan community throughout his life. Shahryar also served as an advisor to the exiled Afghan King Zahir Shah, and was a delegate at the Bonn Conference of 2001 that established Afghanistan's post-invasion road map.
In 2002, Shahryar was appointed as the Afghan ambassador to the United States. He renounced U.S. citizenship and closed his companies in order to take up the position. It is widely accepted that he served as ambassador for free and used much of his personal fortune to not only work on the embassy, but also on many social and developmental projects inside Afghanistan. Shahryar hosted President Bush's first visit to an embassy in September 2002. Shahryar created important light and warmth in the renewed U.S.-Afghan relationship and acted as a figure of liberalism, modernization, and women's rights in Afghanistan. He was named Ambassador of the Year by the World Affairs Council in 2002. In 2003, Shahryar resigned due to corruption and major road blocks in the Afghan government, saying that " Karzai "has no vision–absolutely no vision, no quality for leadership."
Death
Shahryar died on April 12, 2009, in Pacific Palisades, California. He left behind a wife, Hafizah, a son named Alexander Shahryar and a daughter named Jahan Shahryar. His memorial was held at the Hall of Liberty in Hollywood Hills, where over 1,000 guests celebrated his life.
See also
Afghanistan–United States relations
References
1936 births
2009 deaths
Afghan diplomats
Ambassadors of Afghanistan to the United States
Afghan emigrants to the United States
Former United States citizens | [
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|
215940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie%20Musgrove | Ronnie Musgrove | David Ronald Musgrove (born July 29, 1956) is an American lawyer and Democratic politician who served as the 29th Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi from January 16, 1996 to January 11, 2000 and as the 62nd Governor of Mississippi from January 11, 2000 to January 13, 2004. To date, he is the last Democrat to hold the Mississippi Governorship position.
He was defeated by incumbent Senator Roger Wicker in a 2008 special election for one of Mississippi's seats in the U.S. Senate. Musgrove is a Principal at the public affairs consulting firm Company. Politics. In 2014, he became founding partner of a new law firm in Jackson, Mississippi, Musgrove/Smith Law.
Early life
Born in Tocowa, Mississippi (now a ghost town), Musgrove grew up in the nearby city of Batesville. When Musgrove was seven years old, his father, a road crew worker with the Mississippi Highway Department, caught pneumonia while laboring
during a record snowstorm and died. His mother worked at a Fruit of the Loom factory, tended a garden of and raised him and his four siblings by herself.
After attending Northwest Mississippi Junior College, now Northwest Mississippi Community College and the University of Mississippi, Musgrove went to the
University of Mississippi School of Law, where he became friends with fellow law student, future Mississippi House of Representatives member and future author John Grisham.
Grisham would later campaign for Musgrove in each of his races for lieutenant governor, governor and the U.S. Senate.
Political career
Before being elected governor, Musgrove was a two-term state senator and lieutenant governor under Kirk Fordice.
Shortly after being elected lieutenant governor, Musgrove was seriously injured in a car accident while traveling on official state business. He gained national attention a few months later when he was pressed into service as acting governor after then-Gov. Fordice (a Republican and fierce political opponent) nearly died in his own car accident. While serving as acting governor in Fordice's absence, Musgrove was a model of political restraint, limiting his activities to signing proclamations, processing extraditions, declaring weather-related emergencies and making appointments recommended by Fordice's staff. At the time, Musgrove was quoted as saying, "When we're confronted by these types of matters, politics has to be put on the back burner and we have to do the right thing."
In 1998 Musgrove chaired the National Conference of Lieutenant Governors. A Harvard study listed then Lt. Governor Musgrove as one of the top three most powerful lieutenant governors in the United States.
The 1999 gubernatorial election between Musgrove and Republican Congressman Mike Parker was the closest in Mississippi history. Out of almost three-quarters of a million votes cast, Musgrove had won 8,300 more votes than Parker in a four-way election, but fell 0.38 points short of receiving a majority (as required by the state's 1890 Constitution). Since neither candidate received a majority of the popular vote, and had split the electoral vote 61-61, the Mississippi House of Representatives was required to hold a contingent election select the winner. They chose Musgrove on the first ballot, and was the only time the election of a Mississippi governor was decided by the Mississippi House, as a 2020 referendum abolished the electoral vote requirement and replaced a contingent election with a runoff election between the top two candidates.
As Governor, Musgrove served as chair or vice chair of a number of boards and associations, including the National Governor's Association (vice chair), the Southern Regional Education Board (chair), the Southern States Energy Board (chair elect), the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (chair elect) and the Executive Committee for the Democratic Governors Association (vice chair of policy).
As governor, Musgrove presided over what is still considered the largest economic development project in Mississippi history. In August 2000, he launched the Advantage Mississippi Initiative (AMI) to create new jobs for the state, which brought in a new Nissan Motor Company production plant. The $1.4 billion Nissan Motor Company production plant created 5,300 direct jobs and over 25,000 indirect jobs. Nissan's arrival gave legitimacy to the notion that the Southeastern United States could become an automotive manufacturing leader. Musgrove's AMI economic development package also helped set in motion the mechanics needed to recruit Toyota to Blue Springs.
After losing his bid for re-election in 2003 to Republican challenger Haley Barbour, Musgrove returned to private practice with the law firm of Copeland, Cook, Taylor & Bush, P.A. in Ridgeland, Mississippi. On January 4, 2008, Musgrove confirmed that he would be a candidate in the 2008 United States Senate special election in Mississippi against Republican candidate Roger Wicker, who was appointed to the position by Governor Haley Barbour when Trent Lott resigned. Musgrove lost to Wicker.
Musgrove has remained active in public service since leaving office, continuing to serve on a number of boards and commissions that advocate for quality education and better access to health care for rural and low income families.
Political views
As governor, Musgrove had conservative social views, enacting laws restricting homosexual couples from adopting children and requiring that the motto "In God We Trust" appear in all classrooms in Mississippi. He also had an anti-abortion record as governor.
Education
During his tenure, Musgrove was known as the education governor. The Northeast Mississippi Daily Journal noted that former Gov. William Winter has said the Adequate Education Program is the most significant piece of education legislation in the state's history. "A lot of politicians played major roles in the passage of the legislation, but Adequate Education would not have passed without the leadership of Musgrove as lieutenant governor." Governor Musgrove recognized the importance of building economic capacity through an educated workforce. Always a strong proponent of public education, Governor Musgrove focused his attention while in office on building a solid foundation for economic growth through Mississippi's public schools. In July 2001, Governor Musgrove signed a bill that implemented the largest teacher pay increase in state history—raising teacher's pay in Mississippi to the Southeastern average. Under Governor Musgrove, the Princeton Review reported that school accountability standards in Mississippi went from 50th nationally to the top 20. In 2002, Mississippi was the first state in the nation to have a computer with internet access in every classroom.
Healthcare
When Governor Musgrove took office in January 2000, fewer than 525 Mississippi children were enrolled in Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP). At the time, Mississippi had more than 85,000 children that were eligible to receive health insurance benefits through the Mississippi Health Benefits Program, which provides health insurance to Mississippi's children whose parents are caught in the gap between making too much money to be eligible for Medicaid, but not enough to afford health insurance. Governor Musgrove joined with the Department of Human Services, the Division of Medicaid and the Department of Finance and Administration to develop a new action plan and marketing plan for CHIP. By the time he left office, the number of children covered under CHIP had increased to over 60,000. Governor Musgrove is currently chairman of the National Advisory Committee on Rural Health and Human Services, and co-chairman of the Biomass Research and Development Technical Advisory Committee.
Religion
In August 2003, Musgrove wrote Alabama Supreme Court judge Roy Moore on state letterhead to praise the judge's Ten Commandments monument, inviting the judge to display the monument in the Mississippi State Capitol for a week the following month and announcing his intention to encourage other governors to follow suit. Musgrove further wrote, "It would be my honor to host this monument as a symbol of every Mississippian's dedication to the fundamental principles of the Ten Commandments."
In 2001, Musgrove signed legislation requiring the motto "In God We Trust" to be displayed in every public school classroom, as well as the school auditoriums and cafeterias, throughout the state.
LGBT rights
In 2000, Musgrove signed a bill into law banning same-sex couples from adopting children, making Mississippi only the third state to have done so. The law also says that Mississippi will not recognize adoptions from other states by same-sex couples. However, in 2013, Musgrove wrote an opinion editorial in The Huffington Post expressing his support for both same sex marriage and same sex adoption.
Abortion
Musgrove as governor signed a bill banning public funding of abortions, with exceptions for when the pregnant woman's life is in danger, when the pregnancy is the result of rape or incest, or when a fetal malformation is incompatible with the baby being born alive.
Mississippi state flag
Mississippi's state flag featured the Confederate Battle Flag prominently. In 2000, the Supreme Court of Mississippi ruled that the Mississippi flag, a source of division among white and black Mississippians, was not official. A court ruled the flag was officially adopted in 1894, but the law designating the state flag was not among those carried forward in a 1906 update of the state code. The judges left the decision on whether to adopt the flag to the legislative and executive branches.
In response to the ruling, Musgrove held a press conference to announce that he had issued an executive order creating a 17-member commission to study the flag. In the executive order, Musgrove also called for continuing the use of the flag until the Legislature had received and reviewed the committee's report. During the press conference, flanked by a U.S. flag and the controversial state flag, Musgrove offered no indication of his opinion on the current flag or any possible future design.
The commission eventually came up with a new design that replaced the battle flag in the canton with a circular array of twenty stars (Mississippi is the 20th state) on a blue background. As campaigning for the flags began leading up to a referendum, Musgrove did endorse the new flag. A referendum was held in April 2001 to determine whether the new flag would be adopted. The 1894 flag won by a vote of 65% to 35%.
Personal life
In 1977 Musgrove married Melanie Ballard. In 2001, while Musgrove was governor, the couple divorced after 24 years of marriage. The results and settlement of the divorce were sealed by the judge at the request of the Musgroves. Musgrove married Dr. Melody Bounds on August 4, 2007. The Musgroves are members of Parkway Hills United Methodist in Madison, Mississippi. They have four children ranging in age from 19 to 24. Musgrove volunteers with Habitat for Humanity and Stewpot Community Services. He also teaches classes at his alma mater, the University of Mississippi in Oxford, Mississippi, as well as at Mississippi College School of Law in Jackson, Mississippi.
References
External links
Campaign contributions from OpenSecrets.org
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1956 births
Governors of Mississippi
Lieutenant Governors of Mississippi
Living people
Mississippi Democrats
Mississippi lawyers
Mississippi state senators
People from Batesville, Mississippi
People from Panola County, Mississippi
Southern Baptists
University of Mississippi alumni
University of Mississippi faculty
University of Mississippi School of Law alumni
Mississippi College School of Law faculty
Democratic Party state governors of the United States
People from Madison, Mississippi
Baptists from Mississippi | [
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|
215943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Weinberg%20%28psychologist%29 | George Weinberg (psychologist) | George Weinberg (May 17, 1929 – March 20, 2017) was a Jewish-American psychologist. He was the author of several books. He coined the term "homophobia" in the 1960s, it first appearing in the press in 1969.
Early life
George Weinberg was born on May 17, 1929, to a Jewish family. His father, Frederick Weinberg, was a lawyer while his mother, Lillian Hyman, was a secretary for a law firm. He grew up without his father in the Washington Heights neighborhood of Manhattan.
Weinberg graduated from City College of New York, and went on to earn a master's degree in English from New York University in 1951, where he also studied statistics at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences. He subsequently earned a doctorate in clinical psychology from Columbia University. Weinberg's extensive background in mathematics was reflected in his doctoral thesis, "Clinical versus Statistical Prediction in Psychology", and he later wrote the textbook, Statistics, An Intuitive Approach.
Career
Weinberg coined the term "homophobia". He began contemplating it after remembering having witnessed abhorrence towards a lesbian friend while preparing to deliver a speech in 1965. The word was first printed in Screw on May 5, 1969, followed by Time a few months later. Gay Times stated after his death in 2017 that he invented it in 1965. By 1972, Weinberg explained the use of term in Society and the Healthy Homosexual. He suggested that those who harbor prejudice against homosexuals, and not homosexuals themselves, are suffering from a psychological malady, an irrational state of mind. Weinberg, though heterosexual himself, became a leader in the ultimately successful struggle to have homosexuality removed as a diagnostic category from the DSM, the professional therapeutic handbook. He was instrumental in shifting public perception of homosexuality.
Weinberg's widely read, seminal 1984 book, The Heart of Psychotherapy, described innovative therapeutic methods that de-emphasize traditional therapy's approach. He instead presented immediately practical tools that patients can use to help themselves.
Personal life and death
Weinberg was married to Dianne Rowe. He died of cancer on March 20, 2017.
Bibliography
The Action Approach. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 1969. First printing, July, 1970
The Heart of Psychotherapy: A Journey into the Mind and Office of a Therapist at Work. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1984, reprinted 1996.
Invisible Masters: Compulsions and the Fear that Drives Them. New York: Grove/Atlantic Press, 1993.
Nearer to the Heart's Desire. New York. Grove/Atlantic Press, 1992.
Numberland. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987.
The Pliant Animal: Understanding the Greatest Human Asset. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1981.
Self Creation. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1978.
Shakespeare on Love. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991.
Society and the Healthy Homosexual. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1972, reprinted 1983.
Statistics: An Intuitive Approach. Belmont, California: Brook's/Cole, fourth printing, 1981.
The Taboo Scarf. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990.
Why Men Won't Commit: Getting what you Both Want Without Playing Games. New York: Atria Books, 2003.
Collaborations with Dianne Rowe
The Projection Principle. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1988.
Will Power! Using Shakespeare's Insights to Transform Your Life. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996.
References
External links
Official website
1929 births
2017 deaths
People from Washington Heights, Manhattan
City College of New York alumni
New York University alumni
Teachers College, Columbia University alumni
American psychologists
Psychology writers on LGBT topics
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
20th-century American Jews
21st-century American Jews | [
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|
215944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20governors%20of%20Tennessee | List of governors of Tennessee | This is a list of people who have served as governor of Tennessee.
The governor's term in office is limited by the Tennessee state constitution. The first constitution, enacted in 1796, set a term of two years for the governor and provided that no person could serve as governor for more than 6 years in any 8-year period. The term of office was lengthened to four years, without the possibility of consecutive terms, by constitutional amendments adopted in 1953. Under the current provisions of the state constitution, as amended in 1978, the governor is elected to a four-year term and may serve no more than two terms consecutively. For a period of nearly five decades in the 20th century, the Tennessee Democratic Party held the Tennessee governorship continuously.
Tennessee has had 50 governors, including the incumbent, Bill Lee. Seven governors (John Sevier, William Carroll, Andrew Johnson, Robert Love Taylor, Gordon Browning, Frank G. Clement, and Buford Ellington) have served non-consecutive terms. This tally does not include William Blount (the territorial governor) or Robert L. Caruthers (who never took office), though the Blue Book includes them in its list of governors. All governors are counted only once, regardless of number of terms served (e.g., John Sevier is considered the 1st governor, rather than the 1st and 3rd governor). The Blue Book does not include Edward H. East in its list of governors.
Southwest Territory
The Territory South of the River Ohio, commonly called the Southwest Territory, was formed in 1790 from lands ceded by North Carolina to the United States government. The territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Tennessee in 1796.
Parties
State of Tennessee
Parties
Other high offices held by governors
This is a table of congressional seats, other federal offices, and other governorships held by governors. All representatives and senators mentioned represented Tennessee except where noted. * denotes those offices which the governor resigned to take.
Living former governors of Tennessee
, there are five former governors from Tennessee who are currently living, the oldest being Winfield Dunn (served 1971–1975, born 1927). The most recent and most recently governor to die Ned McWherter (served 1987–1995, born 1930) on April 4, 2011.
References
Specific
General
Vile, John R., and Byrnes, Mark E. Tennessee Government and Politics: Democracy in the Volunteer State. 1998, Vanderbilt University Press. p. 43
External links
Tennessee Blue Book: Historical Listings of Constitutional Officers
Tennessee Blue Book: Past Governors of Tennessee
Lists of state governors of the United States
Governors
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215946 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Coalition%20for%20Sexual%20Freedom | National Coalition for Sexual Freedom | The National Coalition for Sexual Freedom (NCSF) is an American sex-positive advocacy and educational organization founded in 1997. NCSF has over one hundred coalition partners (businesses including law firms, mental health professionals, and clubs), and over sixty supporting members (individuals and businesses). NCSF advocates on behalf of adults involved in alternative lifestyles with respect to sexuality and relationship composition, specifically for tolerance and non-discrimination of those so identified, as well as education for adults involved in such lifestyles. The organization's main office is in Baltimore, Maryland.
Founding
In 1997 the NCSF was founded by Susan Wright, under the auspices of the New York SM Activists. Black Rose, The Eulenspiegel Society, Gay Male S/M Activists, National Leather Association International, and the Society of Janus were its founding coalition partners.
Mission
The NCSF's mission as described on its web page is:
The NCSF's mission has changed since its founding. In 2002 the rights of swingers, polyamorous people, and some other alternative sexuality groups were added to its mission.
On May 14, 2020, the NCSF Board approved its Diversity and Inclusion Vision:NCSF's goal is to better fulfill our mission through a better understanding of a diverse range of voices and experiences in our communities. We recognize the similarities and differences between people that make us all unique. We aim to be inclusive by creating opportunities for more people of various backgrounds to be represented and heard by NCSF.
Programs
NCSF's Education Outreach Program provides education for professionals about the BDSM-Leather-Fetish, Swing and Polyamory communities, information for members of the BDSM-Leather-Fetish, Swing and Polyamory communities concerning consent and legal issues that may affect them, and support in the outreach and education efforts of those communities’ groups, clubs and events to local law enforcement, service agencies and authorities.
The Kink And Poly Aware Professionals Directory, formerly known as the Kink Aware Professionals list (KAP list), has been maintained by the NCSF since January 2006. It is a directory of professionals who have “volunteered to be available to be contacted by people involved in ‘kinky’ sexuality (leather, BDSM, fetish, polyamory, the Lifestyle, etc.)”
NCSF's Media Outreach Program provides sound bites and tactics for its advocates and allies in dealing with the media. It also regularly provides media training and conducts interviews.
Consent Counts: In 2006, NCSF was part of a leather leadership roundtable at the Creating Change conference that discussed the goals of the BDSM-leather-fetish communities, particularly the decriminalization of BDSM. A subsequent town hall meeting at the Leather Leadership Conference was held to further discuss this goal and to establish an outline for a working plan. In 2007, NCSF took a leadership role in the Consent Counts project.
NCSF's Incident Reporting and Response (IRR) program provides educational resources and referrals to professionals, and tracks the types of requests that are received.
Research
From 2005–2013, NCSF's Incident Reporting & Response program collected reports from constituents that the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual DSM-IV-TR paraphilias section was being used in criminal and civil proceedings to informally “diagnose” kink-identified individuals as unable to control their behavior and therefore unfit to retain custody of their children. As a first step in de-pathologizing consensual BDSM, NCSF urged that the APA separate sexual behaviors (paraphilias) from the mental disorders (Paraphilic Disorders). The APA's Paraphilias Subworkgroup posted its proposed revisions to the DSM-5 in February 2010, that differentiated consensual paraphilias from paraphilic disorders, and this was largely successful in changing the way BDSM behavior by a parent is considered by family courts during a child custody hearing, typically removing BDSM behavior as a detrimental factor in those cases. As word spread with the publication of the DSM-5 in May 2013, the number of cases reported to NCSF's IRR dropped significantly, from 124 parents reporting issues with child custody in 2008 down to 15 parents in 2017.
NCSF's 1998 Violence & Discrimination Survey documented incidents of discrimination, harassment, and physical attacks against BDSM-identified individuals and BDSM groups: 36% of the respondents reported suffering some kind of violence or harassment because of their BDSM practices, while 30% reported job discrimination.
NCSF's 2015 Psychological Functioning and Violence Victimization and Perpetration survey found that only 9.8% of the 816 respondents stated they are completely open about their involvement in BDSM, while the rest were closeted to varying degrees due to the stigma that is still associated with kink behavior. The majority of participants reported having been victims of violence (26% reported being assaulted while 42% reported being sexually assaulted) but participants themselves were not prone to perpetrating violence, with low rates of aggression proneness, sexual aggression, and endorsement of rape myths. Defined as being a victim of a crime based on actual or perceived BDSM practitioner/kinky status, 7.7% of participants also reported they had been victims of a BDSM-based hate crime.
Legal
Nitke v. Gonzales: On December 11, 2001, the NCSF filed a lawsuit in New York City's federal court with Barbara Nitke, a New York City artist who has been exploring issues of sexual relationship and desire through photography since 1982. This historic lawsuit against The United States of America challenged the constitutionality of the CDA's obscenity statutes on the grounds that they violate the free speech of Internet content providers and inhibit the discussion of sexual issues on the Internet among consenting adults. The attorney for the case is John Wirenius, author of First Amendment, First Principles: Verbal Acts and Freedom of Speech (Holmes & Meier Publishers, Inc., 2000).
United States, Appellee v. Miles: On December 4, 2014, NCSF successfully motioned for leave to file a brief as amicus curiae in support of appellant's petition for grant of review in a military case involving a marine who engaged in a consensual threesome and because of that was convicted of adultery, attempted consensual sodomy and indecent conduct, a “crime” based solely on undefined sexual conduct inconsistent with “common propriety.” NCSF argued in its amicus curiae that the conviction of LCpl Miles for attempted consensual sodomy under Article 134, UMCJ, violated his constitutional liberty as defined by the U.S. Supreme Court in Lawrence v. Texas, and that the UMCJ provisions concerning consensual, non-injurious sexual conduct are inconsistent with current sexual mores in American society.
Woodhull Freedom Foundation et al v. United States: On February 20, 2019, NCSF joined with allies in filing a Brief in Support of Appellants challenging FOSTA, the Allow States and Victims to Fight Online Sex Trafficking Act of 2017.
Awards
In 1999, 2002, 2005, and 2010, NCSF received the Large Nonprofit Organization of the Year award as part of the Pantheon of Leather Awards.
See also
Woodhull Sexual Freedom Alliance
References
External links
1997 establishments in the United States
BDSM organizations
Human rights organizations based in the United States
Organizations established in 1997
Sex positivism
Sexuality in Maryland
Sexuality in the United States | [
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|
215948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergini | Mergini | The sea ducks (Mergini) are a tribe of the duck subfamily of birds, the Anatinae. The taxonomy of this group is incomplete. Some authorities separate the group as a subfamily, while others remove some genera. Most species within the group spend their winters near coastal waters. Many species have developed specialized salt glands to allow them to tolerate salt water, but these are poorly developed in juveniles. Some of the species prefer riverine habitats. All but two of the 22 species in this group live in far northern latitudes.
The fish-eating members of this group, such as the mergansers and smew, have serrated edges to their bills to help them grip their prey and are often known as "sawbills". Other sea ducks forage by diving underwater, taking molluscs or crustaceans from the sea floor. The Mergini take on the eclipse plumage during the late summer and molt into their breeding plumage during the winter.
Species
There are twenty-two species in ten genera:
Genus Clangula
Long-tailed duck (formerly oldsquaw) (Clangula hyemalis)
Genus Histrionicus
Harlequin duck (Histrionicus histrionicus)
Genus †Camptorhynchus
†Labrador duck (Camptorhynchus labradorius) (extinct)
Genus Polysticta
Steller's eider (Polysticta stelleri)
Genus Somateria, the eiders. These are large marine ducks. The drakes have body plumage showing varying amounts of black and white, and distinctive head patterns. Females are brown.
Spectacled eider (Somateria fischeri)
Common eider (Somateria mollissima)
King eider (Somateria spectabilis)
Genus Melanitta, the scoters. These are stocky marine ducks. The drakes are mostly black and have swollen bills. Females are brown.
Common scoter (Melanitta nigra)
Black scoter or American scoter (Melanitta americana) (sometimes considered a subspecies of M. nigra)
Velvet scoter (Melanitta fusca)
White-winged scoter (Melanitta deglandi) (sometimes considered a subspecies of M. fusca)
Surf scoter (Melanitta perspicillata)
Genus Bucephala, the goldeneyes. These are less marine than some species in this group, and will winter on fresh water. Drakes have white bodies with black backs and distinctive head markings. Females are grey with chestnut heads.
Common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula)
Barrow's goldeneye (Bucephala islandica)
Bufflehead (Bucephala albeola)
Genus Mergellus (sometimes included in Mergus)
Smew (Mergellus albellus)
Genus Lophodytes (sometimes included in Mergus)
Hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus)
Genus Mergus, the typical mergansers. These are the least marine of this group, only red-breasted and common mergansers being common on the sea. These are large saw-billed ducks which dive for fish.
Red-breasted merganser (Mergus serrator)
†New Zealand merganser (Mergus australis)
Common merganser or goosander (Mergus merganser)
Brazilian merganser (Mergus octosetaceus)
Scaly-sided merganser (Mergus squamatus)
Below is a phylogeny based on a mitogenomic study of the placement of the Labrador duck and the diving "goose" Chendytes lawi.
References
SeaDucks.org - Science and Management Reference | [
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|
215953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirk%20Fordice | Kirk Fordice | Daniel Kirkwood "Kirk" Fordice Jr. (February 10, 1934 – September 7, 2004), was an American politician and businessman who served as the 61st Governor of Mississippi from 1992 to 2000. His tenure was marked by racial tensions, an extramarital affair with his high school sweetheart, and a subsequent divorce from his wife of 44 years to marry her. He was the first Republican governor of the state since Reconstruction-era governor Adelbert Ames, who served from 1874 to 1876, and the first governor elected to two consecutive four-year terms (following a 1987 amendment to the state constitution). Fordice was a staunch conservative, running on a pro-business, anti-crime, low-tax, family values platform.
A successful businessman, Fordice took over his father's construction company and became a millionaire. He ran for governor in 1991 as a Republican, championing various conservative causes.
Although initially popular among voters, Fordice gained notoriety for his controversial statements. He opposed affirmative action, championed anti-crime programs, led welfare reform efforts, and proudly touted his conservative Christian views. Many non-white voters and impoverished or disadvantaged Mississippians protested against the Fordice administration. He was also criticized by environmentalists, who viewed Fordice as a denier of science.
Life and career
Born in Memphis, Tennessee, Fordice studied engineering at Purdue University, becoming a member of the Sigma Chi fraternity and earning a BS and MS in 1956 and 1957, respectively. After graduation he served with the United States Army as an engineer officer in the 1st Infantry Division for two years. He remained in the Army Reserve until 1977, retiring with the rank of colonel. Fordice settled in Vicksburg and began a career in heavy construction, eventually taking over the construction company of his father, Daniel Kirkwood Fordice Sr., and becoming a millionaire.
He won the governorship of Mississippi in the 1991 election, first winning the Republican primary against state auditor Pete Johnson and in the general election against Democratic incumbent Ray Mabus, who four years earlier had defeated the Republican businessman Jack Reed of Tupelo, 53 to 47 percent, until that time the best Republican gubernatorial showing in Mississippi during the 20th century.
Fordice was re-elected in 1995 against Democratic Mississippi secretary of state Dick Molpus. His second inauguration was on January 16, 1996. An outspoken conservative, Fordice advocated tax cuts, the abolishment of affirmative action, reductions in the welfare system, expanded capital punishment, tougher prison conditions and the building of more prisons.
Fordice offended Jewish groups such as B'nai B'rith by referring to America as "a Christian Nation" during a Republican governors conference. South Carolina governor Carroll Campbell quickly offered a correction, adding "Judeo-" as a prefix to Christian, but Fordice snapped back that he meant what he said. He later apologized for any offense. Fordice refused to discuss any increase in public school pay rates across the state, even though Mississippi ranked 49th in the nation. When teachers discussed striking he ordered that any teacher who went on strike be immediately fired.
In August 1996, Fordice signed an executive order banning recognition of same-sex marriages in Mississippi. Lawmakers said then that they would back up the executive order with a law. In 2004, Mississippi voters passed a constitutional amendment defining marriage as only between a man and a woman and further banning recognition of same-sex marriages from other states and countries. Both acts were declared unconstitutional by the 2015 Obergefell v. Hodges decision from the Supreme Court of the United States.
Fordice said he would have quit his position of Governor while still in office, except that he did not want to give the Democratic candidate, Lieutenant Governor Ronnie Musgrove, any spot-light time of running the state before the actual election. Musgrove won the election anyway and became Mississippi's next Governor.
Personal life
Extramarital affair
Fordice's tenure was roiled by an extramarital affair with his high school sweetheart Ann G. Creson, which led to his divorce from his wife of forty-four years, Pat Fordice. After leaving office, Fordice married Ann, but they later divorced.
Fordice received much scorn when he suddenly announced that he had "irreconcilable differences" with his wife in 1993; she claimed that she had no intention of getting a divorce, and they remained together. Additionally, in 1996, he was photographed eating lunch with a middle-aged woman. These two scandals were soon overshadowed by Fordice's other actions, and he came to national attention for supporting the impeachment of then-president Bill Clinton on moral grounds. In June 1999, the media reported Fordice's long-running extramarital affair with his high school sweetheart, Ann Creson, who had recently been widowed; they were photographed returning from a vacation together, and journalists reported that Fordice and Creson kissed and massaged each other's shoulders. Outside the governor's mansion, Fordice responded to WLBT reporter Bert Case asking questions in his news car (within the public right of way) with harsh words, while tossing junk mail at Case and threatening harm to him after the end of his term: "you invade my privacy this way, six months from now, I'll whip your ass. You have no damn business playing these games."
Later that year, he announced that he was divorcing his wife of 44 years and the mother of his four children. In the divorce petition, Fordice claimed that he and his wife had been estranged for three years, even though they both lived in the Governor's mansion, and that he planned to marry Creson as soon as the divorce was finalized. Pat Fordice condemned her husband's actions, issuing a formal statement reading "it is not fair for Governor Fordice to call upon her to calm the storms by making or adopting public announcements which run contrary to her true feelings ... [Pat Fordice] apologizes to the people of this state for being a partner in a marriage that has become a source of embarrassment for Mississippi."
Just days after the divorce was finalized in early 2000, Fordice married Creson; they divorced in 2003. Fordice died in 2004, surrounded by his children and former wife; the two are interred beside each other with their own individual grave markers.
Retirement years and death
After retiring, Fordice settled in Madison, Mississippi. He died from leukemia in Jackson on September 7, 2004, at age 70. Kirk and Pat Fordice, who reconciled shortly before his death, are interred with a double marker at Parkway Memorial Cemetery in Ridgeland.
References
Sources
Edsall, Thomas B. "Miss. Governor Ending Historic Tenure", The Washington Post, February 27, 1999; pg. L1
Sansing, David G. Kirk Fordice profile, mshistory.k12.ms.us; accessed February 3, 2017.
External links
1934 births
2004 deaths
20th-century American businesspeople
20th-century American politicians
American construction businesspeople
American Methodists
Burials in Mississippi
Businesspeople from Mississippi
Christians from Mississippi
Deaths from cancer in Mississippi
Deaths from leukemia
Governors of Mississippi
Mississippi Republicans
People from Madison, Mississippi
Politicians from Memphis, Tennessee
Politicians from Vicksburg, Mississippi
Purdue University alumni
United States Army officers
Republican Party state governors of the United States | [
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215956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thad%20Cochran | Thad Cochran | William Thad Cochran (; December 7, 1937 – May 30, 2019) was an American attorney and politician who served as a United States Senator for Mississippi from 1978 until his resignation due to health issues in 2018. A Republican, he previously served in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1973 to 1978.
Born in Pontotoc, Mississippi, Cochran graduated from the University of Mississippi. He served in the United States Navy as an ensign (1959–1961) before graduating from the University of Mississippi School of Law. After practicing law for several years in Jackson, Mississippi, he was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1972. He served three terms in the House representing Jackson and portions of southwest Mississippi.
Cochran won a three-way race for U.S. Senate in 1978, becoming the first Republican to represent Mississippi in the Senate since Blanche Bruce was elected during Reconstruction. He was subsequently reelected to six additional terms by wide margins. He was chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee from 2005 to 2007 and again from 2015 to 2018. He also chaired the Senate Agriculture Committee from 2003 to 2005. With over 45 years of combined House and Senate service, Cochran is the second longest-serving member of Congress ever from Mississippi, only after former Democratic U.S. Representative Jamie L. Whitten.
Early life
William Thad Cochran was born on December 7, 1937, in Pontotoc, Mississippi, the son of Emma Grace (née Berry) and William Holmes Cochran, a teacher and school principal, respectively. His family settled in Hinds County, Mississippi, home of the state capital, Jackson, in 1946 after a few moves around the northern part of the state. He graduated valedictorian from Byram High School near Jackson.
Cochran then received a B.A. degree from the University of Mississippi with a major in psychology and a minor in political science in 1959. There he joined the Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity and was on the cheerleading squad (fellow senator Trent Lott was also an Ole Miss cheerleader). He was elected to the Phi Kappa Phi honor society, and worked as a lifeguard at Livingston Lake in Jackson during the summers.
After a time in the United States Navy (1959–1961), where he was commissioned an ensign aboard the , Cochran received a J.D. degree from the University of Mississippi School of Law in 1965. While in law school, he won the Frederick Hamel Memorial Award for having the highest scholastic average in the first year class and served on the editorial board of the Mississippi Law Journal. Following graduation, Cochran practiced law at the firm of Watkins & Eager in Jackson, Mississippi, where he was promoted to partner.
In 1968, Lamar Alexander recruited Cochran to serve as chairman of Citizens for Nixon-Agnew in Mississippi.
U.S. House of Representatives
In 1972, Jackson lawyer Mike Allred and oilman Billy Mounger, both Republicans, recruited Cochran to run for Congress as a Republican. That year, Democratic Congressman Charles H. Griffin of decided not to run for a third full term. Cochran won the Republican nomination for the Jackson-based district, which was renumbered as the 4th District after redistricting. He defeated Democratic state senator Ellis B. Bodron by 47.9% to 44%. A factor in Cochran's victory was the strong Republican showing in that year's presidential election. Richard Nixon won most of the counties in the 4th district by over 70 percent of the vote. Hinds County, for instance, gave him 77 percent, en route to taking 78 percent of Mississippi's popular vote. The Republican candidate for the U.S. Senate that year, Gil Carmichael, an automobile dealer from Meridian, finished with 38 percent of the vote against James Eastland but was shunned by the statewide Nixon campaign.
That year, Cochran and Trent Lott (who later served alongside him in the U.S. Senate) became the second and third Republicans to be elected to represent Mississippi in the House of Representatives since Reconstruction (Prentiss Walker was the first in 1964).
Cochran quickly became very popular in his district, even though almost none of its living residents had been represented by a Republican before. He was handily re-elected with 70.2% in 1974, a year in which anger over the Watergate scandal caused several Republicans to lose their seats. He was re-elected with an even larger 76% of the vote in 1976.
U.S. Senate
Elections
In 1978, six-term Democratic Senator James Eastland decided to retire. Cochran ran for the seat and won the Republican primary, defeating state senator and former Jones County prosecutor Charles W. Pickering, 69%–31% percent. In the general election, he faced Democrat Maurice Dantin, a former district attorney who had triumphed in a four-way primary with the backing of Eastland, and Independent candidate Charles Evers, the Mayor of Fayette. Evers, the first African American to be elected mayor of a Mississippi town since Reconstruction, split the Democratic vote and Cochran won with a plurality, taking 45.3% to Dantin's 31.8% and Evers' 22.6%. This made Cochran the first Republican to win a statewide election in Mississippi in a century and thus became Mississippi's first new U.S. senator since John C. Stennis in 1947. Eastland resigned on December 26 to give Cochran a seniority advantage over other new incoming U.S. Senators. Governor Cliff Finch appointed Cochran to serve the remaining week of Eastland's term.
Cochran faced an expected strong challenge for re-election from incumbent Democratic governor William Winter in 1984, but he was re-elected easily, 60.9 to 39.1 percent. He was completely unopposed in 1990 and took 71 percent of the vote in 1996; the Democratic nominee, retired factory worker Bootie Hunt, received 27.4 percent. No Democrat ran against Cochran in 2002; he faced only Reform Party candidate Shawn O'Hara, beating him by 84.6 to 15.4 percent. Cochran faced his first serious challenger in twenty-four years in 2008 when the Democrats nominated State Representative Erik R. Fleming. In a year that saw widespread Democratic gains, Cochran was still re-elected, 61.4–37.6 percent.
2014 election
In 2014, Cochran faced a primary challenge from Tea Party-supported candidate Chris McDaniel. Although the primary was initially considered uncompetitive, McDaniel proved a serious challenger. Polling showed the lead swinging between the two and it eventually became a "50%-50% race".
The primary was considered a marquee establishment-versus-Tea Party fight. Cochran's seniority and appropriating skills contrasted with the junior status of the rest of the state's congressional delegation. The primary was described as "nasty" and full of "bizarre" twists.
In May 2014, a scandal emerged when a McDaniel supporter allegedly entered a nursing home where Cochran's bedridden wife was living and took pictures of her. The images were posted to a blog, intending to advance the rumor that Cochran was having affairs while his wife was receiving care. Four people were arrested in connection with the incident. The connection to the McDaniel campaign was disputed. One of the arrested included McDaniel ally Mark Mayfield, who was vice chairman of the state's Tea Party. In response, McDaniel said, "the violation of the privacy of Mrs. Cochran [was] out of bounds for politics and reprehensible."
Neither candidate won a majority in the primary election; McDaniel won 49.46% of the vote, while Cochran received 49.02%. A runoff election between McDaniel and Cochran was held on June 24. Despite trailing in most of the polls, Cochran won with 51.01% of the vote to McDaniel's 48.99%. The Cochran campaign denied allegations of vote-buying made by a blogger regarding his run-off victory. In the aftermath of the runoff, the McDaniel campaign claimed there were indications of voter fraud. McDaniel's legal challenge to the election results failed.
On Election Day, Cochran defeated Democratic former U.S. Rep. Travis Childers, 59.90%-37.89%.
Tenure
Generally, Cochran kept a lower national profile than conventional wisdom would suggest for someone who spent almost half a century in Washington, including seven terms in the Senate. However, he had considerable influence behind the scenes, especially in Mississippi.
In March 1981, after the Senate Agriculture Committee overwhelmingly approved a proposal to enact a temporary freeze on the level of dairy price supports and thereby gave President Ronald Reagan his first congressional victory for his federal spending reductions, Cochran stated that the vote was "a great victory for" Reagan and "a very important first step in having his program adopted by Congress."
In April 1981, along with Bob Packwood, Daniel Patrick Moynihan, John Heinz, David Pryor, Spark M. Matsunaga, Donald W. Riegle Jr., and Bill Bradley, Cochran was one of eight senators to cosponsor a bipartisan six-year experiment in care at home for the elderly and disabled for the purpose of presenting an alternative to expensive hospitals and nursing facilities.
Cochran served as Vice Chairman of the Senate Republican Conference from 1985 to 1991 and as Chairman from 1991 to 1996. He chaired the Senate Agriculture Committee from 2003 to 2005. In 2005, he was appointed as chairman of the powerful Senate Appropriations Committee, making him the first Republican from a former Confederate state to chair the committee. While Chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee, Cochran worked to expedite the process of approving spending bills to minimize partisan skirmishing.
In June 1991, Cochran introduced legislation to establish a commission of three members appointed by the president to oversee recognition of Indian tribes and speed the tribal recognition process. Cochran said he was "supportive of trying to establish a procedure that would permit these matters to be resolved by a commission" and that it was a better alternative to seeking to "call on Congress to make decisions we're really not qualified to make."
In June 1996, Cochran ran for the post of Senate Majority Leader to succeed Republican Bob Dole, who had resigned from the Senate to concentrate on his presidential campaign. Cochran faced his Mississippi colleague Trent Lott, the then-Senate Majority Whip. Cochran cast himself as an "institutionalist" and who would held to rebuild public trust in Congress through compromise over conflict. Lott promised a "more aggressive" style of leadership and courted the younger Senate conservatives. Cochran lost by 44 votes to 8.
On June 13, 2005, the U.S. Senate formally apologized for its failure to enact a federal anti-lynching law in the early 20th century, "when it was most needed". The resolution was passed on a voice vote with 80 Senators cosponsoring. Cochran and fellow Mississippian Trent Lott were among the 20 Senators who did not join as cosponsors. Cochran said, "I'm not in the business of apologizing for what someone else did or didn't do. I deplore and regret that lynching occurred and that those committing them weren't punished, but I'm not culpable".
In April 2006, Cochran was selected by Time as one of "America's 10 Best Senators". He was dubbed "The Quiet Persuader" for his role in winning money for the Gulf Coast in the wake of Hurricane Katrina. Time reported that Cochran managed to wring "$29 billion out of his colleagues, almost double the money [President George W.] Bush and congressional leaders had initially pledged". Earlier, Cochran threatened to derail a defense appropriations bill unless it included funding for installations on the Gulf Coast. The article also noted that Cochran has "gained the trust of the [Bush] Administration and Capitol Hill for his quiet, courtly manner... using his experience and mastery of the issues to persuade his colleagues privately rather than making demands on them in public". The magazine quoted an unnamed "senior GOP Senator" who said "He doesn't get a whole lot of play in terms of coverage, but he is effectively stubborn doing what needs to be done."
In late 2017, questions began to arise over Cochran's apparently deteriorating health. He missed two weeks of the Senate session due to a urological procedure. Upon his return to Washington, Cochran needed assistance locating the Senate chamber and was described by Politico as "frail" and "disoriented". On one occasion, he repeatedly voted "yes" despite being told by aides to vote "no"; he later realized his mistake and changed his vote. However, Cochran sought to defuse rumors that his retirement was imminent, saying, "Don’t believe everything you hear".
On March 5, 2018, Cochran announced that he would retire from the Senate due to ongoing health challenges. Cochran left office on April 1, 2018. He was one of the longest-serving members of Congress in history.
Positions
Cochran was considered to be more moderate than his Republican colleagues. In 2017, The New York Times arranged Republican senators based on ideology and reported that Cochran was the fourth most moderate Republican in their findings. According to GovTrack, Cochran was more moderate than most of his Republican colleagues being to the left of most but to the right of several others. The non-partisan National Journal gave Senator Cochran a composite ideology score of 68% conservative and 33% liberal.
In 2005, he was one of nine senators who voted against the Detainee Treatment Act of 2005, which prohibited "inhumane treatment of prisoners, including prisoners at Guantanamo Bay". The others, all Republicans, were Wayne Allard, Kit Bond, Tom Coburn, Jeff Sessions, Jim Inhofe, Pat Roberts, John Cornyn and Ted Stevens.
On July 18, 2006, Cochran voted, along with 19 Republican senators, for the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act to lift restrictions on federal funding for the research.
In April 2010, it was reported that Cochran finished at the top of the Citizens Against Government Waste's list of congressional earmarks, having requested a total of $490 million in earmarks.
In 2012, Cochran encouraged Mississippians to prepare for the effects of Tropical Storm Isaac, saying "Taking steps now to protect people and property should help lessen the losses that might be associated with Isaac. It is important that everyone stay informed and follow emergency orders. I am confident that Mississippians have learned valuable lessons from previous storms and will work together to prepare for this newest threat, I believe Governor Bryant and others are handling emergency preparedness actions very well."
Environment
In 2017, Cochran was one of 22 senators to sign a letter to President Donald Trump urging the President to have the United States withdraw from the Paris Agreement. According to the Center for Responsive Politics, Cochran had received more than $290,000 from oil, gas and coal interests since 2012.
Gun law
Cochran had an A+ rating from the National Rifle Association (NRA) due to his consistent voting and support of pro-gun legislation. The NRA endorsed Cochran in the 2014 election.
In April 2013, Cochran was one of forty-six senators to vote against the passing of a bill which would have expanded background checks for gun buyers. Cochran voted with 40 Republicans and 5 Democrats to stop the passage of the bill.
Cochran voted to repeal a regulation that made it illegal for certain individuals with specific mental health diagnosis to purchase guns. The original law authorizing such regulation was passed with a unanimous vote in 2007 after the Virginia Tech shooting. Cochran claims the law infringed upon the Second Amendment rights of disabled people.
Healthcare
Cochran opposed President Barack Obama's health reform legislation; he voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in December 2009, and he voted against the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010.
Jefferson Davis
As senior senator of the state of Mississippi, Cochran was given the opportunity to use the desk of Jefferson Davis, the president of the Confederacy, which Cochran accepted. Cochran said that he was "very proud" to have Davis's desk. Cochran opposed attempts to remove a statue of Davis from the U.S. Capitol.
Martin Luther King Jr. Day
In 1983, President Ronald Reagan signed into law: H.R. 3706 (98th) – A bill to amend title 5, United States Code, to make the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr., a legal public holiday. Cochran, a Republican, voted for the act. His colleague in the Senate from Mississippi, Democrat John C. Stennis, voted against the act.
Trade
In January 2018, Cochran was one of thirty-six Republican senators to sign a letter to President Trump requesting he preserve the North American Free Trade Agreement by modernizing it for the economy of the 21st Century.
Staff
Mississippi State University president Mark Keenum served as Cochran's chief-of-staff.
Delta State University president William LaForge served as Cochran's chief-of-staff.
In 1973, Cochran hired Nehemiah Flowers Jr. from WLBT, where he was Mississippi's first black television executive. Flowers was the first African-American congressional staffer in Mississippi since Reconstruction. Flowers remained on Cochran's staff until 2002, when Cochran recommended him and President George W. Bush nominated him to become U.S. Marshal for Mississippi's Southern District. He remained in that position until 2010.
AT&T Mississippi president R. Mayo Flint III formerly served on Cochran's staff.
Sponsored legislation
The Natchez Trace Parkway Land Conveyance Act of 2013 (S. 304; 113th Congress) () is a bill that was sponsored and actively lobbied for by Thad Cochran during the 113th United States Congress. The bill would require the National Park Service (NPS) to convey about 67 acres of property in the Natchez Trace Parkway to the state of Mississippi. The legislation also would adjust the boundaries of the parkway to include 10 additional acres. The two pieces of land in question originally belonged to Mississippi, and were donated to the National Park Service when the NPS was trying to determine where to end the Natchez Trace Parkway. Since the NPS did not choose to use either of the pieces of land, the state would like the land back.
The Bipartisan Sportsmen's Act of 2014 (S. 2363; 113th Congress), a bill related to hunting, fishing, and outdoor recreation in the United States, aimed at improving "the public's ability to enjoy the outdoors." Cochran supported the bill, arguing that the bill "deserves broad support for its policies and reforms that will protect and enhance opportunities to hunt, fish and enjoy the outdoors."
Cochran was the lead sponsor of "The Cochran-Inouye National Missile Defense Act of 1999." The policy sought to counter emerging missile threats from China, North Korea, Iran, and Iraq. The policy was enacted into law on July 22, 1999, as incorporated into a House version of the bill. The act stated: It is the policy of the United States to deploy as soon as is technologically possible an effective National Missile Defense system capable of defending the territory of the United States against limited ballistic missile attack (whether accidental, unauthorized, or deliberate) with funding subject to the annual authorization of appropriations and the annual appropriation of funds for National Missile Defense.
Committee assignments
Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry (Chairman)
Subcommittee on Commodities, Risk Management and Trade
Subcommittee on Conservation, Forestry and Natural Resources
Subcommittee on Rural Development and Energy
Committee on Appropriations (Chairman)
Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies (ex officio)
Subcommittee on Defense (Chairman)
Subcommittee on Energy and Water Development
Subcommittee on Financial Services and General Government (ex officio)
Subcommittee on Homeland Security
Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on Labor, Health and Human Services, Education, and Related Agencies
Subcommittee on the Legislative Branch (ex officio)
Subcommittee on Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies (ex officio)
Subcommittee on State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (ex officio)
Subcommittee on Transportation, Housing and Urban Development, and Related Agencies (ex officio)
Committee on Rules and Administration
Caucus memberships
House/Senate International Education Study Group (Co-Chair)
International Conservation Caucus
Republican Task Force to Study the Energy Crisis
Afterschool Caucuses
Congressional Sportsmen's Caucus
Personal life and death
In 1964, Cochran married Rose Clayton. The couple had two children. Rose Cochran died in 2014.
On May 23, 2015, Cochran married longtime aide Kay Webber in a private ceremony in Gulfport, Mississippi.
Fourteen months after his resignation from the Senate, Cochran died on May 30, 2019 in Oxford, Mississippi. The cause of death was renal failure.
Legacy
The Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2018, which was signed into law on March 23, 2018, named the federal courthouse in Jackson, Mississippi after Cochran. The courthouse-naming provision of the act was included by Senator Patrick Leahy of Vermont, who served as the ranking Democrat on the committee and considered Cochran his closest friend in the Senate. On August 9, 2018, a ceremony was held to recognize the naming of the Thad Cochran United States Courthouse in Jackson, Mississippi.
On May 12, 2018, the University of Mississippi gave Cochran the Mississippi Humanitarian Award, given "to exceptional figures who have played a major role in shaping the state." Previous recipients include Jim and Sally McDonnell Barksdale, former governor William and Elise Winter, and civil rights champion Myrlie Evers-Willams.
In 2018, a report indicated that Cochran's official papers were to be housed in the Modern Political Archives at the University of Mississippi.
Electoral history
U.S. Senate
1978
1984
1990
1996
2002
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| colspan=5 |Republican hold
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2008
2014
References
External links
Articles
An Unlikely Revolutionary, Part I and II, Interview and extensive background to comments by Perry Hicks for GulfCoastNews.com
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1937 births
2019 deaths
21st-century American politicians
Lawyers from Jackson, Mississippi
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Mississippi
Military personnel from Mississippi
Mississippi Republicans
Mississippi state senators
People from Pontotoc, Mississippi
Politicians from Jackson, Mississippi
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Republican Party United States senators
Southern Baptists
United States Navy officers
United States senators from Mississippi
University of Mississippi School of Law alumni
Baptists from Mississippi
People from Oxford, Mississippi
Deaths from kidney failure
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century Baptists
Recipients of the Order of Lakandula | [
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|
215959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smew | Smew | The smew (Mergellus albellus) is a species of duck, and is the only living member of the genus Mergellus. Mergellus is a diminutive of Mergus and albellus is from Latin albus "white". This genus is closely related to Mergus and is sometimes included in it, though it might be closer to the goldeneyes (Bucephala). The smew has hybridized with the common goldeneye (B. clangula).
A seaduck fossil from the Middle Miocene shows that birds similar to smew existed up to 13 million years ago. The extant species dates back to the Late Pleistocene.
Name
The term smew has been used since the 17th century and is of uncertain origin. It is believed to be related to the Dutch smient ("wigeon") and the German Schmeiente or Schmünte, "wild duck." It is probably derived from smee, a dialectal term for a wild duck.
Description
The drake smew, with its 'cracked ice' and 'panda' appearance, is unmistakable, and looks very black-and-white in flight. The females and immature males are grey birds with chestnut foreheads and crowns, and can be confused at a distance with the ruddy duck; they are often known as "redhead" smew. It has oval white wing-patches in flight. The smew's bill has a hooked tip and serrated edges, which help it catch fish when it dives for them.
The smew is long, with a wingspan of 56–69 cm, and a weight 450–650 g.
Distribution and ecology
This species breeds in the northern taiga of Europe and the Palearctic. It needs trees for breeding. The smew lives on fish-rich lakes and slow rivers. As a migrant, it leaves its breeding areas and winters on sheltered coasts or inland lakes of the Baltic Sea, the Black Sea, northern Germany and the Low Countries, with a small number reaching Great Britain (for example, at Dungeness), mostly at regular sites. Vagrants have been recorded in North America. On lakes it prefers areas around the edges, often under small trees. The smew breeds in May and lays 7-11 cream-colored eggs, incubated by the female for 26–28 days. Ducklings leave the nest soon after hatching and learn to fly within about 10 weeks.
It nests in tree holes, such as old woodpecker nests. It is a shy bird and flushes easily when disturbed.
The smew is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. It is not considered threatened on the IUCN Red List, though its population is decreasing.
Fossil history
An unnamed fossil seaduck, known from a humerus found in the Middle Miocene Sajóvölgyi Formation (Late Badenian, 13–12 million years ago) of Mátraszõlõs, Hungary, was assigned to Mergus. However, the authors included the smew therein, and consequently, the bone is more properly assigned to Mergellus—especially as it was more similar to a smew's than to the Bucephala remains also found at the site. It is sometimes argued that the Mátraszõlõs fossil is too old to represent any of the modern seaduck genera, but apparently these were all well-distinct even back then.
Subfossils from this species was also found in England indicate that the living species' range extended there a few hundred years ago.
Gallery
References
External links
Mergansers
Birds of Europe
Birds of Russia
Birds of North Asia
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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215966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amar%27e%20Stoudemire | Amar'e Stoudemire | Amar'e Carsares Stoudemire (; ; born November 16, 1982) is an American-Israeli professional basketball coach and former player. He serves as player development assistant for the Brooklyn Nets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award in 2003 with the Phoenix Suns, who selected him with the ninth overall pick of the 2002 NBA draft. He made six appearances in the NBA All-Star Game and was named to the All-NBA Team five times, including one first-team selection in 2007.
Stoudemire played high school basketball for three different schools, ultimately graduating from Cypress Creek High School in Orlando, Florida, and declaring for the NBA draft as a prep-to-pro player. He won several prep honors, including being selected as Florida's Mr. Basketball. Stoudemire suffered from chronic knee problems during his career and underwent microfracture surgery on both knees. He played for the Suns, the New York Knicks, the Dallas Mavericks, and the Miami Heat before retiring from the NBA in 2016.
Stoudemire won a bronze medal with the United States national team at the 2004 Olympic Games. His off-court ventures include a record label, a clothing line, acting and a series of children's books for Scholastic Press. In addition, Stoudemire owns a significant share of Hapoel Jerusalem, the team he won a championship with in 2017. He was the 2020 Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP.
Early life
Stoudemire was born in Lake Wales, Florida, a small city within an hour's drive of Orlando, Florida. Stoudemire's parents, Hazell and Carrie (née Palmorn), divorced when he was young. Together they had two sons: Hazell Jr. and Amar'e. Stoudemire's mother did agricultural work, picking oranges in Florida and migrating north to upstate New York to pick apples during the fall. Upon divorcing Hazell, she met Artis Wilmore, with whom she had a son, Marwan, Stoudemire's half-brother. His father died of a heart attack when Stoudemire was 12, and his mother was in and out of prison for crimes such as petty theft and forgery during that time. Stoudemire lived in Newburgh, New York "for about five months" in 1994 before relocating to Port Jervis where he lived until 1998. In his parents' absence, Stoudemire had other outside influences to help guide him, including a policeman, Burney Hayes, he occasionally stayed with; he also lived with his Fastbreak USA, AAU squad's coach, Travis King, as well as a minister, Rev. Bill Williams.
High school career
Stoudemire did not start playing organized basketball until he was 14. As a result of moving in-and-out with his mother and her problems with the law, Stoudemire transferred between five high schools in two states six different times. He first attended Lake Wales High School in Lake Wales, Florida, where his freshman season was cut short due to academic ineligibility. He transferred to Mount Zion Christian Academy in Durham, North Carolina, to play for coach Joel Hopkins. Midway through the year, Hopkins founded Emmanuel Christian Academy in a Durham office building basement and took the Mount Zion basketball team to serve as his student body; the school folded before they played a game. Stoudemire returned to Florida where he attended summer school at Dr. Phillips High School in Orlando. He briefly reenrolled at Mount Zion Academy and then sat out a year at West Orange High School in Winter Garden, Florida, due to academic ineligibility that stemmed from his transcripts from Mount Zion. His final move was to Cypress Creek High School in Orlando, Florida, where he graduated in 2002. Due to all the transfers, he missed his entire junior year of basketball and only played two full seasons.
Apart from basketball, Stoudemire excelled in football. He was coached by his father in Pop Warner football and imagined himself a star receiver for the University of Miami, University of Florida or Florida State University. Growing up he rooted for Shaquille O'Neal, center for the hometown Orlando Magic of the NBA.
In his senior year, Stoudemire averaged 29.1 points, 15 rebounds, 6.1 blocked shots, and 2.1 steals per game. Among Stoudemire's high school honors was being selected to play in the 2002 McDonald's All-American Game at Madison Square Garden in New York City, where he played with two future New York Knicks teammates, Carmelo Anthony and Raymond Felton. He was also named Florida's Mr. Basketball, the Orlando Sentinel Florida High School Player of the Year, and to USA Today All-USA Basketball First Team.
Considered a five-star recruit by Scout.com, Stoudemire was listed as the No. 1 player in the nation in 2002. With his biggest goal in high school being making it to the NBA, Stoudemire committed to the University of Memphis. However, he later de-committed and declared for the NBA draft, being taken with the ninth pick in the 2002 NBA draft by the Phoenix Suns. He was the only high school player taken that year in the first round.
Professional career
Phoenix Suns (2002–2010)
2002–05: Early years
In his rookie season, Stoudemire averaged 13.5 points and 8.8 rebounds per game, with a season high of 38 points against the Minnesota Timberwolves on December 30, 2002, the highest score by a prep-to-pro player until broken a year later by LeBron James. Stoudemire was selected to the Rookie squad in the Rookie Challenge. In the game, Stoudemire recorded 18 points, 7 rebounds and 4 steals. Stoudemire won the NBA's Rookie of the Year award, beating out Yao Ming and Caron Butler and becoming the first player drafted out of high school to win the award. Stoudemire also was selected to the NBA All-Rookie First Team. The Suns, led by Stoudemire, Stephon Marbury, Shawn Marion, Anfernee Hardaway and Joe Johnson, made it to the playoffs but were defeated in six games by the eventual champions, the San Antonio Spurs.
During the following season, Stoudemire improved statistically, but his team stumbled to a 29–53 record, and point guard Marbury was traded to the New York Knicks. During the season Stoudemire had a 10-block game against the Utah Jazz; he recorded six blocks in the first quarter alone (both team records as of 2012). During the summer of 2004, Stoudemire was selected to play for the eventual bronze medal-winning 2004 U.S. national team in the Summer Olympics. However, head coach Larry Brown declined to give him significant playing time (6.9 minutes per game).
During the 2004–05 season, Stoudemire teamed up with point guard Steve Nash whom the Suns signed as a free agent, to lead the Suns to a 62–20 record. Averaging 26 points per game that year and achieving a new career high of 50 points against the Portland Trail Blazers on January 2, 2005, he was selected to his first NBA All-Star Game as a reserve forward. Stoudemire and Nash ran a pick-and-roll some have compared to Hall of Famers John Stockton and Karl Malone. In the Western Conference Finals against the San Antonio Spurs, Stoudemire averaged 37 points per game, but the Suns still lost in five games.
2005–06: Knee problems
During the 2005–06 NBA preseason, knee cartilage damage was discovered and Stoudemire underwent microfracture surgery on October 18, 2005. Initially, the Suns thought he would return by mid-February, but his rehab took longer than expected. Stoudemire, however, scored 20 points in his return against the Portland Trail Blazers, but went scoreless his third game against the New Jersey Nets on March 27, 2006. On March 28 it was announced that he would likely miss the rest of the regular season due to ongoing stiffness in both knees. His manager stated that the comeback came a little too soon, and Stoudemire needed to do more rehab. Stoudemire's rehabilitation, which was led by Suns trainer Aaron Nelson and Dr. Micheal Clark, the president and CEO of the National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM), went well as he stated during the rehab that he was explosive and he gradually gained his strength back.
Stoudemire attended the 2006 USA Basketball camp in Las Vegas, although he ultimately did not play in the 2006 FIBA World Championship.
2006–10: Injuries and playoff defeats
Before the 2006–07 season, Stoudemire changed his jersey number from 32 to 1. Dijon Thompson had worn no. 1 the previous season.
On February 18, 2007, Stoudemire appeared in the 2007 NBA All-Star Game, his second All-Star Game appearance. He scored 29 points and grabbed 9 rebounds, and came in second in MVP voting to Kobe Bryant. He had previously announced that he would make the all-star game in his first season back after his knee recovered.
During the 2007 playoffs, in a series against the San Antonio Spurs, Stoudemire accused Manu Ginóbili and Bruce Bowen of being "dirty" players. Stoudemire was suspended for Game 5 for leaving the bench area after an altercation between teammate Steve Nash and Spurs forward Robert Horry. The Suns lost to the Spurs in six games despite Stoudemire averaging 25 points, 12 rebounds and two blocks throughout the series. He finished the 2006–07 regular season averaging 20.4 points and 9.6 rebounds per game. He was selected to the All-NBA First Team.
Stoudemire played in the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, but withdrew from the national team for the 2008 Olympics. Jerry Colangelo, managing director for the national team, said, "Amar'e has pulled himself out of consideration for the roster and that's predicated on, despite the fact that he's had an injury-free year coming back, he's a little hesitant on pushing the envelope too hard." Stoudemire had said in April 2008, "It's more than a year-round grind. It's last year and the year before that and the year before that. It's really been like a three-year-round basketball circuit."
Stoudemire led the Suns in scoring (25.2 per game) and rebounds (9.1 per game) in the 2007–08 season. He made the All-Star team and was named to the All-NBA Second Team. Stoudemire also adjusted well to playing with veteran center Shaquille O'Neal, who the Suns had acquired in February. The Suns, however, faltered in the playoffs, again losing to their rivals the San Antonio Spurs. The Suns blew a big lead in game one of the series, and seemed to never recover, losing the series 4–1 to the Spurs. Stoudemire averaged 23 points in the series. After the season, Suns head coach Mike D'Antoni left the team to coach the New York Knicks.
Under new coach Terry Porter, the Suns struggled early in 2008–09 with his system and lost five games in a row heading into the 2009 All-Star break. Stoudemire was voted a starter for the Western Conference. On February 19, in a game against the Los Angeles Clippers, Stoudemire suffered a detached retina, although he may have injured it earlier as he had been bothered by the same eye even before this game. He had injured the same eye in preseason, although this injury involved a partially torn iris, with no damage to his retina. He said then that he would have to wear protective goggles for the rest of his career, but stopped wearing them after seven games. Stoudemire underwent eye surgery to repair the retina. The recovery took eight weeks, which forced him to miss the remainder of the regular season. He announced that he would wear protective goggles when he returned to play the following season.
In the 2009–10 season, Stoudemire was once again named to the All-Star team. During the season, Paul Coro of The Arizona Republic reported that the Suns and Cleveland Cavaliers discussed a trade that would have sent Stoudemire to Cleveland to pair up with LeBron James; the deal, however, never went through. Another proposed deal during the 2009 NBA draft would have sent Stoudemire to the Golden State Warriors for a package centered around the #7 overall pick, but the Warriors backed out of the deal at the last minute and selected Stephen Curry with the pick. Stoudemire would eventually lead the Suns to a 54–28 record, clinching the third seed in the Western Conference. Stoudemire finished the season averaging 23 points and 9 rebounds on 56% shooting. The Suns would defeat the Portland Trail Blazers 4–2 during the first round of the playoffs and beat the San Antonio Spurs 4–0 in the Conference Semifinals, to meet the defending champion Los Angeles Lakers in the Conference Finals. After dropping the first two games, Stoudemire would score 42 points in game 3 and 21 in game 4, to help the Suns tie the series 2–2. The Suns failed to win any additional games in the series, dropping it 4–2.
Stoudemire finished his tenure with the Suns fourth in franchise history in scoring average (21.4 points per game), third in rebounds, free throws made and attempted, fifth in blocked shots, and single-game records of consecutive free throws in one game (20) and blocked shots (10).
New York Knicks (2010–2015)
2010–11: First season in New York
On June 30, 2010, Stoudemire opted out of his contract with the Phoenix Suns, which made him an unrestricted free agent. On July 5, 2010, Stoudemire and the New York Knicks agreed in principle to a contract estimated to be worth around $99.7 million over five years. On the first day that free agents were allowed to officially sign, the Knicks formally introduced Stoudemire at Madison Square Garden. There Stoudemire proclaimed "the Knicks are back!" referring to the team's lack of success the past few years. With the Knicks, Stoudemire was reunited with head coach Mike D'Antoni, who had coached him with the Suns. On December 15, 2010, in a loss against the Boston Celtics, Stoudemire set a franchise record with his ninth straight 30-point game. On December 17, 2010, Stoudemire set a franchise record with his ninth straight game shooting 50 percent or better from the field. On January 27, 2011, Stoudemire was named a starter on the Eastern Conference All-Star Team alongside LeBron James, Dwyane Wade, Derrick Rose, and Dwight Howard. He became the first Knicks player to start in the game since Patrick Ewing. In the game Stoudemire scored 29 points, which tied him with LeBron James for most on the Eastern Conference team. On February 22, 2011, the Knicks made a three-team trade with the Denver Nuggets and Minnesota Timberwolves that sent Nuggets superstar Carmelo Anthony to the Knicks along with the Nuggets' starting point guard Chauncey Billups. In 2011, the Knicks made the playoffs for the first time since 2004. Stoudemire was injured during the playoffs. In game 3, Stoudemire attempted a Willis Reed-like comeback by playing in the game despite a bad back. In the first round of the playoffs, the Knicks were swept by the Boston Celtics. Stoudemire ended up having one of the best seasons in his career, averaging 25.3 points, 9.1 rebounds, a career-high 2.6 assists and 2 blocks per game. Stoudemire developed a mid-range game and shot a career-high 43% from three-point range. Stoudemire was named to the All-NBA Second Team.
2011–12: Continued success
During the 2011 NBA lockout, Stoudemire served as a player representative for the Knicks. Stoudemire represented the Knicks along with teammates Carmelo Anthony, Chauncey Billups, Toney Douglas, and Roger Mason Jr., who was Vice President of the Players Union. Stoudemire considered playing overseas for Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. due to his possible Hebrew heritage, but instead opted to stay with the players union. In October 2011, Stoudemire appeared on ESPN First Take, where he promoted his new sneaker line, the Nike Air Max Sweep Thru. During the lockout, Stoudemire trained and took history seminars at Florida International University. He also dabbled in acting, appearing in the second-last episode ("Second to Last") of Entourage.
Before the 2011–12 season, the Knicks acquired Tyson Chandler, but released point guard Chauncey Billups via the amnesty clause. Early on in the season, Stoudemire struggled without a point guard to distribute the basketball. In February 2012, Stoudemire missed four games mourning the death of his older brother, Hazell, who had died in a car accident. Later that month, the Eastern Conference All-Stars were announced; Stoudemire was not voted in, nor selected by the coaches to play in the All-Star Game. It was the first year since 2006 that he was not selected to the All-Star Game. Stoudemire was struggling with efficiency and explosiveness and blamed it on the weight he gained during the NBA lockout and so engaged in a weight loss program, losing 10 pounds in 10 days with a goal to reach 245 pounds. The weight loss proved to be beneficial for Stoudemire, as he averaged 18 points per game on 56% shooting March. After a good March, however, Stoudemire suffered a bulging disk in his back. Stoudemire returned with a few games remaining in the regular season. The seventh-seeded Knicks were paired with the defending Eastern Conference champions in the Miami Heat heading into the Eastern Conference Semifinals. After a loss in Game 2, Stoudemire suffered from a self-inflicted cut to his left hand after punching a fire extinguisher box in the visitors' locker room. The wound required stitches to mend. Stoudemire returned for game four and recorded 20 points and 10 rebounds, in a Knicks victory. The victory snapped a record 13 game playoff losing streak for the Knicks. The Knicks would, however, not win another game as they lost the series 4–1 to the Heat. In the Heat's series clinching win in game 5, Stoudemire fouled out after the Heat's Shane Battier drew an offensive foul; this led to the Heat's PA announcer announcing Stoudemire had been extinguished, referring to Stoudemire's hand injury. The Heat later issued an apology to Stoudemire. The 2011–2012 season was a disappointment as Stoudemire's production dropped off in every statistical category from the prior year. Stoudemire averaged 17.5 points, which was down almost 8 points from the prior year, 7.8 rebounds, 1.1 assists and 1.0 blocks.
2012–14: Injury-plagued seasons
Stoudemire missed the first 30 games of the 2012–13 season with a knee injury. On December 18, 2012, he was assigned to the Erie BayHawks of the NBA D-League so that he could practice with that team as he continued his rehab. He was recalled by the Knicks on December 21. Stoudemire made his season debut on January 1, 2013, at home against Portland, playing 17 minutes off the bench, scoring six points and grabbing one rebound. After returning Stoudemire was restricted to playing a maximum of 30 minutes a game.
It was announced on March 9, 2013, that Stoudemire would have a right knee debridement. He missed the rest of the regular season because of that. For the first time in his career, he was not a starter, but a sixth man for the New York Knicks. He only played 29 games during the season, averaging 14.2 points per game and 5 rebounds per game in 23.5 minutes per game. Even without him for most of the time, the Knicks finished 54–28 (second-best in the Eastern Conference), made the playoffs for the third time in a row, and won their first Atlantic Division title since the 1993–94 season. Stoudemire was still out when the New York Knicks defeated the Boston Celtics in six games which would be the Knicks' first playoff victory since 2000. He returned to action on May 11, 2013, in Game 3 during the Knicks' Eastern Conference Semifinals series against the Indiana Pacers. The Knicks ended up losing to the Pacers in 6 games.
After injuries limited him to 47 and 29 games played in the previous two seasons, respectively, Stoudemire bounced back for the Knicks in the 2013–14 season. Not only did he manage to play in 65 games, but he grew stronger as the year progressed. He maintained his offensive efficiency as his workload increased, ultimately forcing his way into the starting five for good on March 3 in Detroit. Once there, he led New York to seven straight wins in games in which he played. In 14 games in March, he averaged 16.9 points and 6.6 rebounds per game, while averaging 28.3 minutes as he proved capable of playing power forward alongside Tyson Chandler or center in small lineups.
With the Knicks' playoff hopes hanging on by a thread with a week to go in the regular season, Stoudemire put together arguably his best performance of the season, lighting up the division-leading Toronto Raptors for 24 points on 10-of-14 shooting and 11 rebounds. However, despite Stoudemire's efforts, the Knicks failed to qualify for the 2014 playoffs, finishing just shy with a 35–47 record and a ninth-place finish in the East.
2014–15: Final year with Knicks
Having played predominantly in a bench role for the Knicks in 2013–14, Stoudemire's role in 2014–15 began much the same, and with it came solid production as he missed just one game over the first 28. He proved to be a solid leader off the bench for a fledgling Knicks team that had won just five games by mid-December, as he averaged 13.4 points and 7.4 rebounds per game up to and including the December 18 loss to Chicago. He went on to miss the next 12 out of 13 games with another knee injury, returning to action on January 15 in London to face Milwaukee, as he went scoreless in eight first-half minutes and did not play after half time.
On February 16, 2015, Stoudemire was waived by the Knicks after an agreement was reached to buy out his contract.
Dallas Mavericks (2015)
On February 18, 2015, Stoudemire signed with the Dallas Mavericks. Four days later, he made his debut for the Mavericks against the Charlotte Hornets and recorded 14 points in just 11 minutes off the bench. Stoudemire went on to play in 23 games for the Mavericks and averaged 10.8 points and 3.7 rebounds per game.
Miami Heat (2015–2016)
On July 10, 2015, Stoudemire signed with the Miami Heat. He played in just one of the Heat's first 10 games of the 2015–16 season, largely due to knee soreness. He played eight minutes of first half action against the Sacramento Kings on November 19, scoring 10 points off the bench to spark the Heat early, as the team went on to win the game 116–109. On January 31, 2016, he recorded season-highs of 13 points and 12 rebounds against the Atlanta Hawks, starting in place of the injured Hassan Whiteside. Two days later, he set a new season-high with 14 points in a loss to the Houston Rockets, starting at center for the Heat in his sixth straight game.
On July 26, 2016, Stoudemire signed a contract with the New York Knicks to retire as a Knick, as he announced his retirement from the NBA later that day after 14 seasons in the league.
Hapoel Jerusalem (2016–2019)
Though he retired from the NBA, Stoudemire did not retire from playing basketball, and on August 1, 2016, he signed a two-year deal with Hapoel Jerusalem, a team he co-owns in the Israeli Basketball Premier League. On October 1, 2016, he helped Hapoel Jerusalem win the Israeli Basketball League Cup. He went on to earn All-EuroCup Second Team honors for the 2016–17 season, as well as Israeli Basketball Premier League All-Star honors. In June 2017, he helped Hapoel Jerusalem win the 2016–17 Israeli Basketball Super League.
On September 1, 2017, Stoudemire announced his retirement from basketball.
In February 2018, Stoudemire joined BIG3 team Tri State as co-captain. Three months later, Stoudemire announced that he was contemplating a return to playing professional basketball in the NBA.
On September 24, Stoudemire came out of retirement to sign with Hapoel Jerusalem for the 2018–19 season. On October 31, Stoudemire recorded a season-high 24 points, shooting 10-of-16 from the field, along with seven rebounds in a 105–75 win over Montakit Fuenlabrada, and was named to the Champions League's Team of the Week. On May 2, 2019, Stoudemire was named Israeli Premier League Player of the Month after averaging 16.3 points and 7.5 rebounds per game in four games played in April.
Fuijan Sturgeons (2019)
On October 30, 2019, Stoudemire signed with the Fujian Sturgeons of the Chinese Basketball Association. He appeared in 11 games for the Sturgeons, averaging 19.3 points and 8.2 rebounds per game. In mid-December 2019, Stoudemire had left the team to return to the United States.
Maccabi Tel Aviv (2020)
On January 22, 2020, Stoudemire returned to Israel for a third stint, signing with Maccabi Tel Aviv for the rest of the season. In July 2020, he helped Maccabi Tel Aviv win the championship while earning Israeli Basketball Premier League Finals MVP honors.
Coaching career
On October 30, 2020, Stoudemire was hired by the Brooklyn Nets as a player development assistant.
Personal life
Stoudemire has four children with his wife, Alexis Welch. Having dated since 2002, the two were engaged in May 2012 and later married on December 12, 2012, atop their Greenwich Village apartment rooftop. Stoudemire filed for divorce from his wife in 2019 but the case was dismissed after he failed to submit the required documents to follow through.
Stoudemire's first name had previously been listed in the Phoenix Suns media guide as Amaré or Amare, but it was changed to Amar'e in October 2008. Stoudemire told NBA.com that his name had always been spelled Amar'e, but the media had been spelling it incorrectly since he joined the NBA.
Stoudemire was raised Baptist. Through his mother, he associated with the Black Hebrew Israelites. In a 2010 interview, he said, "I have been aware since my youth that I am a Hebrew through my mother, and that is something that has played a subtle but important role in my development." Asked if there was a chance he was Jewish, he said "I think through history, I think we all are." He visited Israel that year, saying he intended "to get a better understanding of [his] heritage." He returned for the 2013 Maccabiah Games as assistant coach of the Canadian basketball team; while there he met with Israeli president Shimon Peres, who urged him to join the Israel national basketball team. In April 2018, he reportedly began converting to Rabbinic Judaism. In January 2019, he was granted residency in Israel. In March 2019, he received Israeli citizenship, and adopted the name Yahoshafat Ben Avraham. He formally converted to Judaism with a Rabbinical court on August 26, 2020. In December 2021, Stoudemire told his Instagram followers that he was seeking a new partner, preferably someone Jewish.
In the early morning hours of February 6, 2012, Stoudemire's older brother, Hazell, was killed in a car accident in Polk County, Florida. He was not wearing a seat belt at the time of the crash.
In December 2014, Stoudemire purchased a 185-acre farm in Hyde Park, New York, which includes a 2,066-square-foot log home. Stoudemire said that he intended to use the property as a place where his family can get together on weekends and in the off-season.
Off the court
Philanthropy
Stoudemire started the Each One, Teach One foundation in 2003. Stoudemire also funded his very own AAU team, named Team STAT. Stoudemire played Wheel of Fortune during its NBA week and donated all his winnings to the Boys and Girls Clubs of the Greater Phoenix area. In November 2008, Stoudemire received the NBA's Community Assist Award, for his work with his Each 1, Teach 1 Foundation, and its efforts to provide safe drinking water in Sierra Leone by funding the building of water wells in impoverished villages. Stoudemire visited the country in summer 2008, making visits to water well sites and meeting with President Ernest Bai Koroma and the rest of the cabinet. In 2010 Stoudemire hosted the first Amar'e Stoudemire Basketball Academy in Mali. That same year, he posed shirtless on behalf of PETA's Ink Not Mink campaign, protesting the wearing of animal fur.
Film and television
After guest appearances on Law & Order: SVU, Entourage and Sesame Street in 2011, Amar'e appeared on TV Land's The Exes opposite Kristen Johnston in a January episode. Stoudemire also appeared on Fox's comedy series, The Mindy Project, where Mindy Kaling's character went on an outing with her co-workers to a nightclub, and wound up hanging in the VIP section with the New York big man. Stoudemire's acting roles have not been limited to television. He had a role in the film MacGruber and appeared in the blockbuster romance New Year's Eve. He also appeared as himself in the comedy film Trainwreck, as one of the patients of sports surgeon Dr. Aaron Conners (played by Bill Hader).
Other ventures
In 2011, Stoudemire started his own clothing line, which launched at Macy's in late 2011. It was designed with the help of Rachel Roy. Stoudemire described the line as "courtside apparel for the fashion-forward female". Stoudemire has his own record label named Hypocalypto and has signed rappers from Phoenix to Atlanta.
In August 2011, Stoudemire signed a deal with Scholastic Press to write a series of middle-grade chapter books called STAT: Standing Tall And Talented. The first book in the series, STAT: Home Court (), which Stoudemire described as biographical, was published in August 2012.
In the summer of 2013, Stoudemire became a major shareholder of Hapoel Jerusalem B.C. together with sports agent Arn Tellem and Ori Allon. Later that year, he also became an assistant coach for the Canadian men's national basketball team for the 2013 Maccabiah Games.
In February 2018, Stoudemire launched a kosher, Israeli wine label, called Stoudemire Cellars. The label launched with three wines, all of which are produced at Tulip Winery in Kfar Tikvah.
Awards and honors
Israeli Basketball Premier League champion: 2017, 2020
Israeli Cup winner: 2019
Israeli League Cup winner: 2016
NBA Rookie of the Year: 2003
NBA All-Star: 2005, 2007–2011
All-NBA First Team: 2007
All-NBA Second Team: 2005, 2008, 2010, 2011
NBA All-Rookie First Team: 2003
NBA Rookie Challenge MVP: 2004
Orlando Sentinel Florida High School Player of the Year: 2002
Florida Mr. Basketball: 2002
USA Today All-USA Basketball First Team: 2002
Prep Stars Recruiter's Handbook No. 1 High School Player in the United States: 2002
NBA Community Assist Award: 2008
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 82 || 71 || 31.3 || .472 || .200 || .661 || 8.8 || 1.0 || .8 || 1.1 || 13.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 55 || 53 || 36.8 || .475 || .200 || .713 || 9.0 || 1.4 || 1.2 || 1.6 || 20.6
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 80 || 80 || 36.1 || .559 || .188 || .733 || 8.9 || 1.6 || 1.0 || 1.6 || 26.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 3 || 3 || 16.7 || .333 || .000 || .889 || 5.3 || .7 || .3 || 1.0 || 8.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 82 || 78 || 32.8 || .575 || .000 || .781 || 9.6 || 1.0 || 1.0 || 1.3 || 20.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 79 || 79 || 33.9 || .590 || .161 || .805 || 9.1 || 1.5 || .8 || 2.1 || 25.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 53 || 53 || 36.8 || .539 || .429 || .835 || 8.1 || 2.0 || .9 || 1.1 || 21.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 82 || 82 || 34.6 || .557 || .167 || .771 || 8.9 || 1.0 || .6 || 1.0 || 23.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 78 || 78 || 36.8 || .502 || .435 || .792 || 8.2 || 2.6 || .9 || 1.9 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 47 || 47 || 32.8 || .483 || .238 || .765 || 7.8 || 1.1 || .8 || 1.0 || 17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 29 || 0 || 23.5 || .577 || .000 || .808 || 5.0 || .4 || .3 || .7 || 14.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 65 || 21 || 22.6 || .557 || .000 || .739 || 4.9 || .5 || .4 || .6 || 11.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 36 || 14 || 24.0 || .543 || .000 || .740 || 6.8 || 1.0 || .6 || .9 || 12.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Dallas
| 23 || 1 || 16.5 || .581 || .000 || .678 || 3.7 || .3 || .4 || .2 || 10.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"|Miami
| 52 || 36 || 14.7 || .566 || .000 || .746 || 4.3 || .5 || .3 || .8 || 5.8
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 846 || 696 || 31.0 || .537 || .236 || .761 || 7.8 || 1.2 || .8 || 1.2 || 18.9
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
| 6 || 3 || 19.5 || .571 || .400 || .750 || 7.5 || 1.2 || .7 || .7 || 18.8
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2003
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 6 || 6 || 33.8 || .523 || 1.000 || .571 || 7.8 || 1.2 || 1.7 || 1.5 || 14.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2005
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 15 || 15 || 40.1 || .539 || .000 || .781 || 10.7 || 1.2 || .7 || 2.0 || 29.9
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2007
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 10 || 10 || 34.3 || .523 || .333 || .769 || 12.1 || .6 || 1.3 || 1.9 || 25.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2008
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 5 || 5 || 40.8 || .485 || .250 || .633 || 9.0|| .4 || 1.4 || 2.4 || 23.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2010
| style="text-align:left;"|Phoenix
| 16 || 16 || 36.5 || .519 || .000 || .754 || 6.6|| 1.1 || .7 || 1.5 || 22.2
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2011
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 4 || 4 || 33.5 || .382 || .000 || .667 || 7.8 || 1.8 || .3 || .8 || 14.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2012
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 4 || 4 || 36.5 || .556 || .000 || .750 || 6.5 || .8 || 1.3 || .3 || 15.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2013
| style="text-align:left;"|New York
| 4 || 0 || 8.3 || .385 || 1.000 || 1.000 || 2.3 || .0 || .0 || .0 || 3.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2015
| style="text-align:left;"|Dallas
| 5 || 0 || 15.0 || .429 || .000 || .692 || 3.2 || .6 || .2 || .6 || 7.8
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|2016
| style="text-align:left;"|Miami
| 9 || 2 || 9.1 || .579 || .000 || 1.000 || 1.4 || .0 || .6 || .3 || 3.3
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| 78 || 62 || 30.7 || .512 || .250 || .750 || 7.4 || .8 || .8 || 1.3 || 18.7
See also
List of National Basketball Association single-game blocks leaders
References
External links
Amar'e Stoudemire at eurocupbasketball.com
Video interview with Amare Stoudemire at fiba.com
1982 births
Living people
African-American basketball players
African-American Jews
American men's basketball players
Black Hebrew Israelite people
Israeli people of African-American descent
American emigrants to Israel
American expatriate basketball people in China
American expatriate basketball people in Israel
Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from Orlando, Florida
Big3 players
Centers (basketball)
Dallas Mavericks players
Fujian Sturgeons players
Hapoel Jerusalem B.C. players
Israeli American
Maccabi Tel Aviv B.C. players
McDonald's High School All-Americans
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Miami Heat players
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association high school draftees
New York Knicks players
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in basketball
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
People from Lake Wales, Florida
Phoenix Suns draft picks
Phoenix Suns players
Power forwards (basketball)
United States men's national basketball team players
Converts to Judaism from Baptist denominations
Cypress Creek High School (Florida) alumni
National Basketball Association players from Israel
21st-century African-American sportspeople
20th-century African-American people
American men's 3x3 basketball players | [
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|
215968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uji | Uji | is a city on the southern outskirts of the city of Kyoto, in Kyoto Prefecture, Japan.
Founded on March 1, 1951, Uji is between the two ancient capitals of Nara and Kyoto. The city sits on the Uji River, which has its source in Lake Biwa.
As of October 1, 2015, Uji has an estimated population of 184,726 and is the second largest city in Kyoto Prefecture. It has an area of 67.54 km2, giving it a population density of 2,735 persons per km2.
History
In the 4th century the son of Emperor Ōjin established a palace in Uji.
Three battles of Uji-gawa took place here in 1180, 1184 and 1221.
Shōgun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu (1358–1408) promoted cultivation of Uji tea in the area. Since then Uji has been an important production and distribution center of superior quality green tea. Tsuen tea has been served since 1160 and is still sold in the oldest tea shop in Japan and possibly the world—the Tsuen tea shop.
The final chapters of The Tale of Genji are set in Uji, attracting visiting literature buffs.
In the 15th century, shimamono tea jars destined to be used in the Japanese tea ceremony were brought by the shōgun from Luzon to Uji.
Geography
Uji River
Lake Ogura
Sightseeing and events
Most visitors are attracted to Uji for its centuries-old historic sites, which include many Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Among the most famous are the Ujigami Shrine (built in 1060) and the Byōdō-in that are part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site "Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto". The Byōdō-in, with its Amida (Phoenix) Hall built in 1053, is featured on the obverse side of the 10 yen coin. It was also featured on several Japanese postage stamps, a. o. of 1950, 1957 and 1959.
Other religious sites include the Manpuku-ji, the head temple of the Ōbaku Zen sect, built in Chinese Ming style in 1661 and the Zen temple Kōshō-ji, with its Kotozaka entrance (framed with dense thickets of cherry, kerria, azalea, and maple trees, each of which dramatically changes color with the seasons) constructed in 1648. Noteworthy is the Mimuroto-ji, which is famous for its purple hydrangeas. The city features numerous other small Shinto shrines. With a few exceptions, most of the important historical sites are in walking distance of one another and all are easily accessed by rail.
The last ten chapters of the Japanese classic novel The Tale of Genji take place in Uji, and so there is The Tale of Genji Museum.
Uji has many natural attractions, including its scenic riverside, large parks, and a botanical garden. Slightly upriver from Uji bridge, the Amagase Dam spans the river and day trippers can walk to its base in about an hour. The route, which begins directly across from Keihan Uji Station, is along the river on a paved road and offers access to several grassy open spaces where people can rest and picnic.
The city hosts two major festivals each year. The Agata Festival, held on June 5, begins in the early morning and runs until late at night. Like many cities in Japan, Uji hosts an hours-long fireworks festival on August 10. Both events draw huge crowds and require that the town's main thoroughfare to be shut down.
There is cormorant fishing in summer during the evening, from mid-June to late September.
Media
Kyoto Animation, the story of Sound! Euphonium also takes place in Uji.
FM Uji
Rakunan Times
Jonan Shimpo
Transportation
Rail
Uji is served by three rail companies: JR West, Keihan, and Kintetsu. The Keihan line which runs primarily between Kyoto and downtown Osaka serves the city via the branch Uji Line running from Chushojima station and ending along the river at Keihan Uji Station beside the Uji Bridge. The station is close to Uji's Tale of Genji Town, Uji Bridge, and the Byodoin. All trains on this line stop at every station.
The JR Nara Line runs between Kyoto and Nara. JR Uji station was, until a few years ago, fairly rural but was recently rebuilt to better serve the city. Architecturally it mimics the Byodo-in and is on the opposite side of the Uji river, about 10 minutes' walk from Keihan Uji Station. The clock in front of the station is of special interest and, every hour on the hour, opens to reveal an automated show that celebrates the town's heritage as a center of tea production. Like Keihan Uji Station, JR Uji has easy access to the same sites. The station is served by local and express trains.
Kintetsu serves West Uji with a line between Kyoto and Nara and does not have a station named for the town. The line is primarily used by commuters and includes , , and . No stations are close to the main tourist sites.
Bus
Local buses have routes in the city and public transportation is good. Charter buses to and from the Kansai International (KIX) and Itami airports can be caught at most of the train stations.
Roads
Uji is south of the main Meishin Expressway and is served directly by the Keiji Bypass, a toll road that was completed a few years ago. The Keiji Bypass circumvents Kyoto and Ōtsu which can be subject to traffic jams. The road is notable for its high trestles and series of long tunnels — including one that is approximately six miles long. The Keiji Bypass links to Dai Ni Keihan Road (Number Two Kyoto Osaka Road) which is under construction and usable for at least part of its length.
Non-toll roads include Route 1 which runs between Kyoto and Osaka and Route 24 which runs between Kyoto and Nara. These roads are usually filled with traffic and have many stoplights. Close by is Route 307, which runs east/west along the southern edge of the city between Osaka and Shiga prefecture. This is a fairly rural road that leads through the mountains and, once away from the urban centers, makes a nice day trip.
Of special interest to motorsports enthusiasts is the Ujigawa Line (Uji River Line). This twisty road parallels the Uji River between Uji and Otsu and is a favorite for racers. The road is dangerous and often claims lives. Due to numerous accidents, the route is closed to motorcycles for most of August, when Japanese schools are typically out of session.
Friendship cities
Uji has friendship agreements with three other cities:
Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada
Xianyang, People's Republic of China
Nuwara Eliya, Sri Lanka
Notable people from Uji
Yuka Tsujiyoko, Japanese video game music composer (Real Name: Yuka Bamba, Nihongo: バンバユカ, Banba Yuka)
Shizuka Nakamura, Japanese gravure idol and actress
Kei Shimizu, Japanese comedian (Real Name: Keita Shimizu, Nihongo: 清水 圭太, Shimizu Keita)
Akira Kawashima, Japanese comedian, tarento and actor
Novala Takemoto, Japanese author and fashion designer (Real Name: Toshiaki Takemoto, Nihongo: 嶽本 稔明, Takemoto Toshiaki)
Tetsuya Kanmuri, Japanese heavy metal singer
Ryo Matsumura, Japanese football player for Chiangmai in Thai League 2
Masako Chiba, Japanese long-distance runner
Hiroe Minagawa, Japanese sport wrestler (Freestyle wrestling)
Yusuke Nakatani, former Japanese football player
Takanori An'yōji, Japanese professional shogi player, ranked 6-dan
Mana Nakao, Japanese football player who plays for AS Laranja Kyoto
Yoshiyuki Hasegawa, former Japanese football player
Nana Fujii, Japanese women's professional shogi player ranked 1-dan
Keika Kitamura, Japanese women's professional shogi player ranked 1-dan
Makoto Kakuda, Japanese football player who plays for V-Varen Nagasaki
References
External links
Uji City official website
English guide to sightseeing in Uji
Photos of Uji and its temples
English video introduction to Uji
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|
215971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division%20of%20property | Division of property | Division of property, also known as equitable distribution, is a judicial division of property rights and obligations between spouses during divorce. It may be done by agreement, through a property settlement, or by judicial decree.
Distribution of property is the division, due to a death or the dissolution of a marriage, of property which was owned by the deceased, or acquired during the course of the marriage.
United Kingdom law
In England & Wales, partners in or out of marriage can agree how the joint and severally hold assets will be divided without the intervention of the courts. Where agreement cannot be reached, the courts may be asked to determine a fair and equitable division. The case of Miller v Miller gave the wife a considerable proportion of the husband's recent gains resulting from dealings in the City even though the marriage was short lived.
United States law
In Ferguson v. Ferguson, 639 So.2d 921 (Miss. 1994), the court described equitable distribution of marital property at divorce as more fair, or equitable, than the separate property system. The court may consider such factors as "substantial contribution to the accumulation of the property, the market and emotional value of the assets, tax and other economic consequences of the distribution, the parties' needs, and any other factor relevant to an equitable outcome." Fairness is the prevailing guideline the court will use. Alimony payments, child support obligations and all other property will be considered. Even non-tangible contributions such as a spouse's domestic contributions to the household will be taken into account, whether that spouse has anything titled in their name or not. A spouse who has made non-tangible contributions may claim an equitable interest in the marital property at divorce.
The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act §307 (UMDA §307) also allows for the equitable distribution of property and lists factors the court should consider, e.g. "the duration of the marriage, and prior marriage of either party, antenuptial agreement of the parties [which is the same as a prenuptial agreement or premarital agreement], the age, health, station, occupation, amount and sources of income, vocational skills, employability, estate, liabilities, and needs of each of the parties, custodials provisions..." etc. Marital misconduct is not a factor in the decision-making process.
Another form of property distribution at divorce is called "community property distribution".
Equitable distribution is not the same as equal distribution. For example, upon dissolution of a marriage in which the wife served as a stay-at-home mother for a substantial portion of the marriage, a court may award the wife a more-than-50% share of distributed property as advance compensation for her projected need to return to the work force at a lower wage than she would have been able to command had she spent her time developing outside-the-home work experience rather than laboring inside the home.
References
Divorce law
Property law | [
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|
215972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currency%20substitution | Currency substitution | Currency substitution is the use of a foreign currency in parallel to or instead of a domestic currency. The process is also known as dollarization or euroization when the foreign currency is one of the currencies known as the dollar or is the Euro.
Currency substitution can be full or partial. Full currency substitution can occur after a major economic crisis, such as in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Zimbabwe. Some small economies, for whom it is impractical to maintain an independent currency, use the currencies of their larger neighbours; for example, Liechtenstein uses the Swiss franc.
Partial currency substitution occurs when residents of a country choose to hold a significant share of their financial assets denominated in a foreign currency. It can also occur as a gradual conversion to full currency substitution; for example, Argentina and Peru were both in the process of converting to the U.S. dollar during the 1990s.
Origins
After the gold standard was abandoned at the outbreak of World War I and the Bretton Woods Conference following World War II, some countries sought exchange rate regimes to promote global economic stability, and hence their own prosperity. Countries usually peg their currency to a major convertible currency. "Hard pegs" are exchange rate regimes that demonstrate a stronger commitment to a fixed parity (i.e. currency boards) or relinquish control over their own currency (such as currency unions) while "soft pegs" are more flexible and floating exchange rate regimes. The collapse of "soft" pegs in Southeast Asia and Latin America in the late 1990s led to currency substitution becoming a serious policy issue.
A few cases of full currency substitution prior to 1999 had been the consequence of political and historical factors. In all long-standing currency substitution cases, historical and political reasons have been more influential than an evaluation of the economic effects of currency substitution. Panama adopted the US dollar as legal tender after independence as the result of a constitutional ruling. Ecuador and El Salvador became fully dollarized economies in 2000 and 2001 respectively, for different reasons. Ecuador underwent currency substitution to deal with a widespread political and financial crisis resulting from massive loss of confidence in its political and monetary institutions. By contrast, El Salvador's official currency substitution was a result of internal debates and in a context of stable macroeconomic fundamentals and long-standing unofficial currency substitution. The eurozone adopted the euro (€) as its common currency and sole legal tender in 1999, which might be considered a variety of full-commitment regime similar to full currency substitution despite some evident differences from other currency substitutions. For more on dollarisation, cf. Fields, David, and Matías Vernengo. "Dollarization." The Wiley-Blackwell Encyclopedia of Globalization (2013).
Measures
There are two common indicators of currency substitution. The first measure is the share of foreign currency deposits (FCD) in the domestic banking system in the broad money including FCD. The second is the share of all foreign currency deposits held by domestic residents at home and abroad in their total monetary assets.
Types
Unofficial currency substitution or de facto currency substitution is the most common type of currency substitution. Unofficial currency substitution occurs when residents of a country choose to hold a significant share of their financial assets in foreign currency, even though the foreign currency is not legal tender there. They hold deposits in the foreign currency because of a bad track record of the local currency, or as a hedge against inflation of the domestic currency.
Official currency substitution or full currency substitution happens when a country adopts a foreign currency as its sole legal tender, and ceases to issue the domestic currency. Another effect of a country adopting a foreign currency as its own is that the country gives up all power to vary its exchange rate. There are a small number of countries adopting a foreign currency as legal tender.
Full currency substitution has mostly occurred in Latin America, the Caribbean and the Pacific, as many countries in those regions see the United States Dollar as a stable currency compared to the national one. For example, Panama underwent full currency substitution by adopting the US dollar as legal tender in 1904. This type of currency substitution is also known as de jure currency substitution.
Currency substitution can be used semiofficially (or officially bimonetary systems), where the foreign currency is legal tender alongside the domestic currency.
In literature, there is a set of related definitions of currency substitution such as external liability currency substitution, domestic liability currency substitution, banking sector's liability currency substitution or deposit currency substitution, and credit dollarization. External liability currency substitution measures total external debt (private and public) denominated in foreign currencies of the economy. Deposit currency substitution can be measured as the share of foreign currency deposits in the total deposits of the banking system, and credit currency substitution can be measured as the share of dollar credit in the total credit of the banking system.
Effects
On trade and investment
One of the main advantages of adopting a strong foreign currency as sole legal tender is to reduce the transaction costs of trade among countries using the same currency. There are at least two ways to infer this impact from data. The first is the significantly negative effect of exchange rate volatility on trade in most cases, and the second is an association between transaction costs and the need to operate with multiple currencies. Economic integration with the rest of the world becomes easier as a result of lowered transaction costs and stabler prices. Rose (2000) applied the gravity model of trade and provided empirical evidence that countries sharing a common currency engage in significantly increased trade among them, and that the benefits of currency substitution for trade may be large.
Countries with full currency substitution can invoke greater confidence among international investors, inducing increased investments and growth. The elimination of the currency crisis risk due to full currency substitution leads to a reduction of country risk premiums and then to lower interest rates. These effects result in a higher level of investment. However, there is a positive association between currency substitution and interest rates in a dual-currency economy.
On monetary and exchange rate policies
Official currency substitution helps to promote fiscal and monetary discipline and thus greater macroeconomic stability and lower inflation rates, to lower real exchange rate volatility, and possibly to deepen the financial system. Firstly, currency substitution helps developing countries, providing a firm commitment to stable monetary and exchange rate policies by forcing a passive monetary policy. Adopting a strong foreign currency as legal tender will help to "eliminate the inflation-bias problem of discretionary monetary policy". Secondly, official currency substitution imposes stronger financial constraint on the government by eliminating deficit financing by issuing money. An empirical finding suggests that inflation has been significantly lower in economies with full currency substitution than nations with domestic currencies. The expected benefit of currency substitution is the elimination of the risk of exchange rate fluctuations and a possible reduction in the country's international exposure. Currency substitution cannot eliminate the risk of an external crisis but provides steadier markets as a result of eliminating fluctuations in exchange rates.
On the other hand, currency substitution leads to the loss of seigniorage revenue, the loss of monetary policy autonomy, and the loss of the exchange rate instruments. Seigniorage revenues are the profits generated when monetary authorities issue currency. When adopting a foreign currency as legal tender, a monetary authority needs to withdraw the domestic currency and give up future seigniorage revenue. The country loses the rights to its autonomous monetary and exchange rate policies, even in times of financial emergency. For example, former chairman of the Federal Reserve Alan Greenspan has stated that the central bank considers the effects of its decisions only on the US economy. In a full currency substituted economy, exchange rates are indeterminate and monetary authorities cannot devalue the currency. In an economy with high currency substitution, devaluation policy is less effective in changing the real exchange rate because of significant pass-through effects to domestic prices. However, the cost of losing an independent monetary policy exists when domestic monetary authorities can commit an effective counter-cyclical monetary policy, stabilizing the business cycle. This cost depends adversely on the correlation between the business cycle of the client country (the economy with currency substitution) and the business cycle of the anchor country. In addition, monetary authorities in economies with currency substitution diminish the liquidity assurance to their banking system.
On banking systems
In an economy with full currency substitution, monetary authorities cannot act as lender of last resort to commercial banks by printing money. The alternatives to lending to the bank system may include taxation and issuing government debt. The loss of the lender of last resort is considered a cost of full currency substitution. This cost depends on the initial level of unofficial currency substitution before moving to a full currency substituted economy. This relation is negative because in a heavily currency substituted economy, the central bank already fears difficulties in providing liquidity assurance to the banking system. However, literature points out the existence of alternative mechanisms to provide liquidity insurance to banks, such as a scheme by which the international financial community charges an insurance fee in exchange for a commitment to lend to a domestic bank.
Commercial banks in countries where saving accounts and loans in foreign currency are allowed may face two types of risks:
Currency mismatch risk: Assets and liabilities on the balance sheets may be in different denominations. This may arise if the bank converts foreign currency deposits into local currency and lends in local currency or vice versa.
Default risk: Arises if the bank uses the foreign currency deposits to lend in foreign currency.
However, currency substitution eliminates the probability of a currency crisis that negatively affects the banking system through the balance sheet channel. Currency substitution may reduce the possibility of systematic liquidity shortages and the optimal reserves in the banking system. Research has shown that official currency substitution has played a significant role in improving bank liquidity and asset quality in Ecuador and El Salvador.
Determinants of the currency substitution process
The dynamics of the flight from domestic money
High and unanticipated inflation rates decrease the demand for domestic money and raise the demand for alternative assets, including foreign currency and assets dominated by foreign currency. This phenomenon is called the "flight from domestic money". It results in a rapid and sizable process of currency substitution. In countries with high inflation rates, the domestic currency tends to be gradually displaced by a stable currency. At the beginning of this process, the store-of-value function of the domestic currency is replaced by the foreign currency. Then, the unit-of-account function of the domestic currency is displaced when many prices are quoted in a foreign currency. A prolonged period of high inflation will induce the domestic currency to lose its function as medium of exchange when the public carries out many transactions in foreign currency.
Ize and Levy-Yeyati (1998) examine the determinants of deposit and credit currency substitution, concluding that currency substitution is driven by the volatility of inflation and the real exchange rate. Currency substitution increases with inflation volatility and decreases with the volatility of the real exchange rate.
Institutional factors
The flight from domestic money depends on a country's institutional factors. The first factor is the level of development of the domestic financial market. An economy with a well-developed financial market can offer a set of alternative financial instruments denominated in domestic currency, reducing the role of foreign currency as an inflation hedge. The pattern of the currency substitution process also varies across countries with different foreign exchange and capital controls. In a country with strict foreign exchange regulations, the demand for foreign currency will be satisfied in the holding of foreign currency assets abroad and outside the domestic banking system. This demand often puts pressure on the parallel market of foreign currency and on the country's international reserves. Evidence for this pattern is given in the absence of currency substitution during the pre-reform period in most transition economies, because of constricted controls on foreign exchange and the banking system. In contrast, by increasing foreign currency reserves, a country might mitigate the shift of assets abroad and strengthen its external reserves in exchange for a currency substitution process. However, the effect of this regulation on the pattern of currency substitution depends on the public's expectations of macroeconomic stability and the sustainability of the foreign exchange regime.
Anchor currencies
Australian dollar
(since 1943. Also uses its own coins)
(since 1914)
(since 1892. Also uses its own coins)
Euro
(formerly French franc and Spanish peseta; issues its own euro coins). Has used French and Spanish currency since 1278.
(formerly German mark and Yugoslav dinar)
(formerly French franc since 1865; issues its own euro coins)
(formerly German mark and Yugoslav dinar)
(formerly Italian lira; issues its own euro coins)
(formerly Italian lira; issues its own euro coins)
(Alongside United States dollar, South African rand and Botswana pula)
(along with the Chinese yuan, United States dollar, and North Korean won)
Indian rupee
(Alongside Bhutanese ngultrum, pegged at par with the rupee)
(Alongside the Nepali rupee, pegged at ₹0.625)
(Alongside the United States dollar, Euro, Chinese yuan and Botswana pula)
New Zealand dollar
(issues its own coins and some notes)
(alongside Australian dollar from 25 May 2013)
Pound Sterling
British Overseas Territories using the Pound, or a local currency pegged to the Pound, as their currency:
(alongside the Falkland Islands Pound)
(alongside the Gibraltar Pound)
(Tristan da Cunha; alongside the Saint Helena Pound in Saint Helena and Ascension)
(alongside the Falkland Islands Pound)
(de jure, U.S. dollar used de facto)
Crown Dependencies using a local issue of the Pound as their currency:
(Guernsey Pound)
(Manx Pound)
(Jersey Pound)
Under plans published in the Sustainable Growth Commission report by the Scottish National Party, an independent Scotland would use the Pound as their currency for the first 10 years of independence. This has become known as Sterlingisation.
South African rand
(Alongside Swazi lilangeni)
(alongside Lesotho loti)
(Alongside Namibian dollar)
(Alongside the United States dollar, euro, Chinese Yuan and Botswana pula)
US dollar
Countries/regions using the US dollar exclusively
Caribbean Netherlands (since 1 January 2011)
(since 1944)
(since 1944)
Countries using the US dollar alongside other currencies
(USD is used for major purchases such as buying properties)
(Barbadian dollar pegged at 2:1 but USD is accepted)
(Belizean dollar pegged at 2:1 but USD is accepted)
(Bermudian dollar pegged at 1:1 but USD is accepted)
(uses the Cambodian riel for many official transactions but most businesses deal exclusively in dollars for all but the cheapest items. Change is often given in a combination of US dollars and Cambodian riel. ATMs yield US dollars rather than Cambodian riel.)
(uses its own coins)
(since 2000. Also uses its own coins)
(both the U.S. Dollar and bitcoin are legal tender)
(uses the U.S dollar alongside its domestic currency, the gourde)
(used alongside the Honduran lempira)
(along with the Lebanese pound)
(exclusively used the US dollar during the early PRC period, but the National Bank of Liberia began issuing five dollar coins in 1982; United States dollar still in common usage alongside the Liberian dollar)
(along with the Chinese yuan, euro, and North Korean won)
(since 1904. Also uses its own coins)
(along with the Somali shilling)
(along with the Venezuelan bolívar; due to hyperinflation, USD is used for major purchases such as buying electrical appliances, clothes, spare car parts and food)
since 2020 (alongside South African rand, British pound, Botswana pula, Chinese yuan, and several other currencies)
Others
Armenian dram: (occupied by Armenia, but claimed by Azerbaijan)
Brunei dollar: (Alongside Singapore dollar and vice versa.)
Danish krone: and (the latter issues its own coins and some notes)
Egyptian pound: Gaza Strip (Alongside the New Israeli shekel)
Hong Kong dollar: (Alongside Macanese pataca, pegged at $1.032)
New Israeli shekel: Palestinian territories
Jordanian dinar: West Bank (Alongside the New Israeli shekel)
Russian ruble: and (de facto independent states, but recognized as part of Georgia)
Swiss franc:
Turkish lira: (de facto independent state, but recognized as part of Cyprus by all states but Turkey)
See also
Currency union
Currency board
Domestic liability dollarization
Petrocurrency
Bitcoin, a cryptocurrency
References
Footnotes
Works cited
Dollar
Foreign exchange market
Monetary hegemony
Monetary policy | [
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|
215973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogaionidae | Kogaionidae | Kogaionidae is a family of fossil mammals within the extinct order Multituberculata. Representatives are known from the Upper Cretaceous and the Paleocene of Europe. Having started as island endemics on Hateg Island during the Upper Cretaceous, where they were in fact the dominant mammal group and diverged into rather unique ecological niches, they expanded across Europe in the Paleocene, where they briefly became a major component of its mammal fauna before their extinction. They are considered to be basal members of Cimolodonta.
Classification
This family is part of the suborder Cimolodonta, generally accepted as closely related to Taeniolabidoidea.
These small multituberculates were named by Rădulescu R. and Samson P. in 1996, who stated they
"Share with Taeniolabidoidea the general shape of the skull, with anterior part of zygomatic arches directed roughly transversely and very short basicranial region, which gives the skull a square-like appearance, but differ from them in having a strongly elongated snout and different dentition," (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum 2001, p.418).
Recent studies have favoured a position close to Taeniolabidoidea. A 2021 study found them to be the amongst the most basal members of Cimolodonta, more derived only than Bryceomys, and they probably originated from an eobaatarid-like ancestor.
Biology
Like some modern rodents and shrews, at least some kogaionids had red, iron-pigmented enamel. In Barbatodon this distribution is more similar to that seen in shrews as opposed to the condition seen in rodents, and suggests insectivore habits. This is a unique evolutionary route taken in the isolation of their island environment, almost entirely deprived of competing mammals, and inadvertently resulted in their survival across the KT event.
In Litovoi tholocephalos, there was an extreme brain size reduction, displaying one of the smallest brains in proportion to body size of any derived mammal. Additionally, it bore a small dome in its head, like a pachycephalosaur.
Range
Kogaionids first appear as island endemics on Maastrichtian Romania, then isolated from the rest of Europe. They are in fact the only European multituberculates from the Late Cretaceous, in contrast to the Early Cretaceous' massive multituberculate diversity in Britain and the Iberian Peninsula. A supposed kogaionid is also known from the Campanian of Appalachia, but its identity as a kogaionid is ambiguous and rather unlikely considering the otherwise Hateg Island-restricted range.
Perhaps due to their insectivorous habits, kogaionids managed to survive the KT event. During the Paleocene Hateg Island connected to the rest of Europe, and so these multituberculates dispersed; fossils are known in France, Spain and Belgium, beside Romania's Paleocene deposits at Jisou. For a brief period of time these were among the most common mammals in Europe, but by the Late Paleocene the arrival of other multituberculate groups from North America brought a quick decline, culminating in its extinction at the PETM.
References
Rădulescu and Samson (1996), "The first multituberculate skull from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Europe (Hateg Basin, Romania)". Anuarul Institutului de Geologie al României, Supplement 1 69, p. 177-178.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of Europe
Paleogene mammals of Europe
Paleocene mammals
Maastrichtian first appearances
Paleocene extinctions
Prehistoric mammal families | [
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|
215975 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paternity%20law | Paternity law | Paternity law refers to body of law underlying legal relationship between a father and his biological or adopted children and deals with the rights and obligations of both the father and the child to each other as well as to others. A child's paternity may be relevant in relation to issues of legitimacy, inheritance and rights to a putative father's title or surname, as well as the biological father's rights to child custody in the case of separation or divorce and obligations for child support.
Under common law, a child born to a married woman is presumed to be the child of her husband by virtue of a "presumption of paternity" or presumption of legitimacy. In consideration of a possible non-paternity event (which may or may not include paternity fraud) these presumptions may be rebutted by evidence to the contrary, for example, in disputed child custody and child support cases during divorce, annulment or legal separation.
In the case of a father not married to a child's mother, depending on the laws of the jurisdiction:
a man may accept the paternity of the child in what is called an acknowledgment of paternity, voluntary acknowledgement of paternity or affidavit of parentage,
the mother or legal authorities can file a petition for a determination of paternity against a putative father, or
paternity can be determined by the courts through estoppel over time.
Today, when paternity is in dispute or doubt, paternity testing may be used to conclusively resolve the issue.
Overview
The legal process of determining paternity normally results in the naming of a man to a child's birth certificate as the child's legal father. A paternity finding resolves issues of legitimacy, and may be followed by court rulings that relate to child support and maintenance, custody and guardianship.
Unmarried fathers
Generally, under common law, a biological father has a legal obligation for the maintenance or support of his biological offspring, whether or not he is legally competent to marry the child's mother.
In jurisdictions where there is no presumption of paternity there is a process for fathers to recognise their children and become the legal father of the child.
Married fathers
In the United States, where a child is conceived or born during wedlock, the husband is legally presumed to be the father of the child. Some states have a legal process for a husband to disavow paternity, such that a biological father can be named as the parent of a child conceived or born during a marriage. In most states, any claim of non-paternity by a husband must be heard by a court.
If parents litigate a divorce case without raising the issue of paternity, in most states they will be barred from disputing the husband's paternity in a later court proceeding. Depending upon state law, it may nonetheless be possible for a man claiming to be the child's biological father to commence a paternity case following the divorce.
Legal proceedings
Where paternity of the child is in question, a party may ask the court to determine paternity of one or more possible fathers (called putative fathers), typically based initially upon sworn statements and then upon testimony or other evidence.
Once paternity has been legally established, if the court finds that to do so would be contrary to the best interest of the child, in most U.S. states a court may deny DNA testing or decline to remove a husband from a child's birth certificate based upon DNA testing.
A successful application to the court results in an order assigning paternity to a specific man, possibly including support responsibility and/or visitation rights, or declaring that one or more men (possibly including the husband of the mother) are not the father of the child. A disavowal action is a legal proceeding where a putative father attempts to prove to the court that he is not the father; if successful, it relieves the former putative father of legal responsibility for the child.
On the other hand, it could be the case where several putative fathers are fighting to establish custody. In such case. In the United States, a state may legally bar a third party from disputing the paternity of a child born within an intact marriage.
Some paternity laws assign full parental responsibility to fathers even in cases of women lying about contraception, using deceit (such as oral sex followed by self-artificial insemination) or statutory rape by a woman (Hermesmann v. Seyer).
Paternity and inheritance rights
If the context of inheritance rights, it will be the heirs of the deceased person who are attempting to dispute or establish paternity. In some states, DNA testing will be dispositive to establish paternity. In many jurisdictions, however, there are a variety of rules and time restrictions that can deny inheritance rights to biological children of a deceased father.
See also
Bradley Amendment
Carol Smart
Family law
Filiation
Lord Mansfield's Rule
Parental leave
Parenting plan
Paternity Court
References
Divorce
Family law
Marriage
Parenting
Paternity
Reproductive rights
Men
Law | [
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|
215978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kogaionon%20%28mammal%29 | Kogaionon (mammal) | Kogaionon is a mammal genus from the Upper Cretaceous of Romania. It lived in Transylvania the same time as some of the last non-avian dinosaurs and was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata. It was named after Kogaionon, the holy mountain of the ancient Dacians. It lies within the suborder Cimolodonta and the family Kogaionidae. The genus Kogaionon was named by Rădulescu R. and Samson P. in 1996.
This genus is known from one species, Kogaionon ungureanui, the fossil remains of which have been found in the Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) Sinpetru Beds of the Hateg Formation in Romania. It is a micro-mammal, based on a well-preserved and near complete skull. The species name is in appreciation of the geologist Costin Ungureanu, who found the fossil.
References
Rădulescu & Samson (1996), "The first multituberculate skull from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Europe (Haţeg Basin, Romania)". Anuarul Institutului de Geologie al României, Supplement 1, 69, p. 177-178.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals
Extinct mammals of Europe
Hațeg fauna
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|
215981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbatodon | Barbatodon | Barbatodon is a mammal genus from the Upper Cretaceous period. It lived in Transylvania at the same time as some of the last dinosaurs and was a member of the extinct order of Multituberculata. It is within the suborder of Cimolodonta, and the family Kogaionidae. The genus Barbatodon was named by Rãdulescu R. and Samson P. in 1986.
The primary species, Barbatodon transylvanicum, was also named by Rãdulescu and Samson. It was found in strata dating to the Maastrichtian (Late Cretaceous) of the Sânpetru Formation in Romania.
"Based on comparisons with the m1s from Vãlioara, the holotype of Barbatodon is regarded as a kogaionid m1," Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum (2001) had it placed tentatively in the informal 'Paracimexomys group'.
A new species, B. oardaensis, has been announced in 2014. The species has been discovered in Oarda de Jos, Haţeg Basin, Transylvania. It is characterized by M1 cusp formula 3:4:2 and is much smaller than the two other known species.
Most of Europe was covered by shallow seas during the Upper Cretaceous, which makes remains of terrestrial animals extremely rare. This location is one of the exceptions and the diversity of material is impressive.
Biology
Like modern rodents and shrews - as well as the related taeniolabidoid multituberculates -, Barbatodon displays red iron-pigmentation in its teeth. This distribution is more similar to that seen in shrews than in rodents or taeniolabidoids, suggesting insectivorous habits. In the absence of competing mammals, Barbatodon and similar kogaionids display a clear example of island speciation.
References
Bibliography
Rãdulescu & Samson (1986), Précisions sur les affinités des Multituberculés du Crétacé supérieur de Roumaine. C R Acad Sci II: Mec-Phys, Chim, Sci Terre, Sci Univ 303p, p. 1825-1830.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of Europe
Cretaceous Romania
Maastrichtian life
Fossils of Romania
Hațeg fauna
Fossil taxa described in 2014
Prehistoric mammal genera | [
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215983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20law%20notary | Civil law notary | Civil-law notaries, or Latin notaries, are lawyers of noncontentious private civil law who draft, take, and record legal instruments for private parties, provide legal advice and give attendance in person, and are vested as public officers with the authentication power of the State. As opposed to most notaries public, their common-law counterparts, civil-law notaries are highly trained, licensed practitioners providing a full range of regulated legal services, and whereas they hold a public office, they nonetheless operate usually—but not always—in private practice and are paid on a fee-for-service basis. They often receive generally the same education as attorneys at civil law with further specialized education but without qualifications in advocacy, procedural law, or the law of evidence, somewhat comparable to solicitor training in certain common-law countries.
Civil-law notaries are limited to areas of private law, that is, domestic law which regulates the relationships between individuals and in which the State is not directly concerned. The most common areas of practice for civil-law notaries are in residential and commercial conveyancing and registration, contract drafting, company formation, successions and estate planning, and powers of attorney. Ordinarily, they have no authority to appear in court on their client's behalf; their role is limited to drafting, authenticating, and registering certain types of transactional or legal instruments. In some countries, such as the Netherlands, France, Italy, or Québec (Canada) among others, they also retain and keep a minute copy of their instruments—in the form of memoranda—in notarial protocols, or archives.
Notaries generally hold undergraduate degrees in civil law and graduate degrees in notarial law. Notarial law involves expertise in a broad spectrum of private law including family law, estate and testamentary law, conveyancing and property law, the law of agency, and contract and company law. Student notaries must complete a long apprenticeship or articled clerkship as a trainee notary and usually spend some years as a junior associate in a notarial firm before working as a partner or opening a private practice. Any such practice is usually tightly regulated, and most countries parcel out areas into notarial districts with a set number of notary positions. This has the effect of making notarial appointments very limited.
Notarial instruments
As a lawyer, a civil-law notary draws up and executes legal instruments called notarial instruments (Fr acte notarié, Sp instrumento notarial, It atto notarile, Du notariële akte, Ger notarielle Urkunde, Notariatsurkunde). To be valid, a notarial instrument must be signed contemporaneously (uno contextu) by the (parties to the instrument), sometimes in the presence of attesting witnesses, before the notary who also signs and officiates the signing ceremony.
Status at law
Notarial instruments, if prima facie duly executed, are:
presumed valid and regular;
self-authenticating;
probative (i.e., proof of their contents);
public;
self-executing; and
have a data certa, i.e., a fixed, unalterable effective date.
Traditionally, notarial instruments trigger a entailing two consequences—regularity and probativity. First, being an official act, a presumption of regularity attaches to the instrument, meaning all prescribed formalities have been carried out, including the reading over of the instrument. Second, a notarial instrument is self-authenticating and probative, i.e., it constitutes full proof of the agreement it contains, as against the parties, their heirs, and successors. It also means the notary's firsthand (ex propriis sensibus) narrations of fact are conclusively presumed true and correct, whereas secondhand narrations (appearers' representations) are merely assertio notarii which are rebuttably presumed valid. While all notarial instruments are official documents, they are not all necessarily public; most instruments are in public form, meaning an original is retained in publica custodia by the notary in his or her protocol or recorded with a public registry, but some are in private form, that is, a single original is issued directly to the . In either case, the appearer always walks away with an instrument that is self-executing, that is, it requires no further implementing action to be effective and enforceable, just like a court order. Finally, notarial instruments have a fixed effective or signature date (data certa) that cannot be ante- or postdated, or left blank and filled in after signing.
Secondary effects
Notarial instruments cannot be altered or overridden by prior or subsequent instruments under hand (e.g., simple contracts). In other words, for example, a notarial will could not be amended or superseded by a non-notarial codicil or will. They also estop (preclude) an appearer as contract denier from raising most affirmative defenses as to enforceability, including: (1) non est factum, (2) the contents do not correctly express the appearers' intentions, and (3) defenses against formation (e.g., ultra vires, lack of capacity, improper execution, etc.).
One thing that distinguishes a civil-law notary's instruments from those of a common lawyer is the fact that, under common law legal systems, drafts and non-identical copies are considered separate documents, while under civil law public documents may be proved by secondary evidence. An unexecuted minute is deemed firsthand proof of an instrument and considered the original, whereas the engrossment is not. The minute is, therefore, the authenticum, or original instrument of writing, as distinguished from the self-executing copy, or instrumentum.
Rebuttal
A notarial instrument's “valid” portions are open to direct rebuttal, but the “conclusive” portions can, in some jurisdictions, only be rebutted by an action of improbation (Fr inscription de faux, It querela di falso, Germ Fälschungsklage) in which a challenger must bring a collateral attack against the instrument, proving a willful material error by strong, clear, and positively convincing proof, rather than the ordinary preponderance of evidence standard in civil actions. Legally, a successful challenge must overcome the praesumptio iustae causa which attaches to a notarial instrument, the result of which is that said instrument is presumed to have been made or formed with a iusta causa, that is, sufficient legal consideration (causa). This presumption stems from the fact that a notary is expected to verify the facts, assertions, or events mentioned in his act, thereby assuming liability for and giving warrant to its contents. A successfully improbated instrument is null and set aside.
Forms
Nowadays, a public-form instrument is prepared first as an unexecuted original called a minute (Fr , It , Sp , Du , Ger ). The minute is archived in the draftsman notary's protocol (Fr protocole, It protocollo, Sp protocolo, Ger Urkundenrolle). The instrument's particulars—appearer, fees, subject matter, witnesses, date, and so forth—are noted or minuted in a register or logbook. From the minute the notary extends a fully engrossed execution copy, known as an engrossment (Fr/Du grosse, It rogito, Sp testimonio, copia autorizada, Ger Ausfertigung), which is self-executing since it contains not only the material terms but also solemn and statutory notarial wording and, in some jurisdictions, enacting clauses like those found on court orders. It is also the only copy that has fresh signatures and seals on it. The engrossed copy is issued directly to the . However, appearers are generally only entitled to one engrossment, so any other copy issued thereafter is a notarial exemplified copy which does not contain the appearers' fresh signatures and lacks the formalities of the engrossment; exemplified copies (Fr , It , Sp , , Du , , Ger ) are therefore only for reference purposes.
Certain types of instruments are passed in private form, that is, only one copy—the original—is made and issued to the appearer while the draftsman notary does not retain a copy. Private-form instruments are usually unilateral, have short-term legal effect, and do not benefit third parties, such as certificates of good standing, powers of attorney, certificates of dishonor, statutory declarations, verifications of fact, rent and pay receipts, and pension and annuity arrears documents.
Additionally, some jurisdictions, especially those influenced by the Austrian Civil Code, divide notarial instruments into three types:
operative (Aust Notariatsakt, Du , Sp ): memorializes and effects irrevocable legal business; includes all transactional and governing instruments;
declaratory (Aust Notariatsprotokoll, Du , Sp ): records or notifies legal actions, facts, or rights; includes statutory declarations, company minutes, and registry memorials;
certificatory (Germ , Du , Sp ): attests personal status details; includes life certificates, certificates of good standing, copy certifications, signature attestations.
Distinction from American notaries public
Save for Louisiana, Puerto Rico, and Quebec, a civil-law notary should not be confused with a notary public in the United States and Canada, who has none of the legal powers notaries enjoy at civil law. Rather, notaries public only have the power to administer oaths, take affidavits, declarations or depositions from witnesses, acknowledge and attest signatures, and certify copies, usually in conjunction with some legal process. The same does not apply to notaries public in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and many other Common Law countries. There the notary public is a lawyer and often holds a secondary legal qualification, such as solicitor or barrister. The aspiring Notary Public usually has to take additional exams or undertake post graduate study to become a notary public. In Louisiana, Puerto Rico, and Quebec, private law is traditionally based on the French and Spanish civil codes, giving notaries greater legal powers, including the right to prepare wills, conveyances and generally all contracts and instruments in writing. For this reason, immigrants from civil-law countries where civil-law notaries exist, particularly those from Latin America, are often confused by the office of notary public and have been defrauded by dishonest notaries misrepresenting themselves as having legal powers. Thus, in some states, there have been ongoing efforts to prohibit notaries public from listing themselves as notario público. Such a law has existed for more than fifteen years in California. Similar laws now exist in Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Tennessee and Texas.
Florida (1997) and Alabama (1999) have enacted statutes and regulations, based on the Model Civil Law Notary Act, allowing for the appointment of Florida or Alabama attorneys as civil-law notaries with the power to authenticate documents, facts and transactions. This is not the same as a notary public appointment. Attorneys with a minimum of 5 years of Bar membership are appointed after specialized training and state examination. Acts of Florida and Alabama civil-law notaries are given both domestic and international effect under their enabling statutes.
Italy
Notaries in Italy are independent public officials paid on a fee-for service, or, should they not earn enough money, by the national Notarial Trust (), a public body funded by the notaries themselves, which also manages their pensions upon retirement.
In order to become a notary in Italy an applicant must win a public examination open to all Italian citizens who:
are in possession of their full citizenship rights and have not been convicted of any criminal charges;
have successfully completed a university degree in law ();
have successfully completed an 18 months period of training with a qualified notary (a notary who has served as such for more than 5 years);
have less than 50 years of age;
did not fail 5 previous attempts at the notary public examination.
The public examination is composed of two parts, a written test and an oral examination. The written test consists of the redaction of three full notarial acts (), the explanation of the choices made in those acts () and a theoretical part about the topics covered in the exam ().
The three tests are about the three most important areas of expertise of a notary: a testament (), a contract () and act involving legal persons (). If a candidate achieves a sufficient score in the written test, he or she are then admitted to the oral examination, where other subjects, such as fiscal laws are introduced.
A national score is published afterwards and notaries are assigned to a geographical province based on their choices and their performance on the examination. After receiving the personal seal, which is the symbol of the profession and the legal instrument, alongside the signature, certifying the acts, a notary has to complete a 6 months period of further training with a qualified notary.
Given the difficulty of the national examination, almost all candidates attend special schools, meant to train future notaries. Those schools are fully private institutions and are by no means mandatory, but virtually all successful applicants have at some point attended one or more.
An average person requires about 12 years (5 years of university, 18 months of training, an average of 5 years to pass the national examination and 6 further months of training) of continuous studies in order to become a notary. As such, notaries are among the most trained legal professionals in Italy and are considered in extremely high regard both professionally and socially.
After completed the studies a notary usually opens a private office () in the city assigned by the state. After one year they are allowed to open a second study in the same region. The law mandates a minimum of three half days to be allocated at the primary office but makes no references to a minimum or maximum fee that can be applied.
Given the relatively small number of notaries (about 5000) and the high volume of work they are required to do, notaries are usually very expensive professionals, and consistently rank first among the best paid professional category in Italy.
Notaries are required by law whenever real estate () is donated, whenever a legal person has a change in the statute or whenever relevant property (such as automobiles) is donated. Notary acts are legally binding, publicly available and considered to be certain for any claim unless proven false (). The assumption of legal validity unless proven false and the public availability are the two main aspects of the notarial act as opposed to barrister acts or contracts among private citizens.
Netherlands
Every Dutch civil law notary () is part of the Royal Society of Notaries ( (KNB, , formerly the Royal Brotherhood of Notaries () until 1 October 1997) and occupy a special position relative to other legal practitioners such as attorneys, court bailiffs, and tax advisors. This is apparent first and foremost from the fact that notaries are public officers appointed by the justice minister and provide regulated legal services. As a qualified lawyer, a notary takes on clients, is paid on a fee-for-service basis, and is appointed for life by the Crown. Life appointment is designed to safeguard the independence needed by notaries to discharge their functions.
Notaries are independent and disinterested. Unlike attorneys or legal advisors, a notary does not represent or act in the interest of any one party. Instead, under the Dutch legal system, notaries are required to act impartially on behalf of all parties to a contract or transaction. For example, when real property is conveyed, notaries act for both the seller and buyer, also as an escrow agent. They are subject to legal professional privilege and are therefore duty-bound not to betray client confidentiality, thereby giving them the right to withhold information in court as would an attorney or doctor. In cases where a notary acts as legal advisor to a particular interested party, the advising notary must counsel all parties including third-party beneficiaries.
All notaries are law graduates. Not only are they experts in family, estate, company, and property laws, but they must also stay up-to-date about pertinent cases and certain aspects of tax legislation. If necessary, a Dutch notary will instruct and call on the services of other legal practitioners. However, under no circumstances may a notary represent clients in court.
Apart from advising, a notary also draws, executes, and retains instruments either by statute or at the parties' request. Under Dutch law, a notarially executed instrument is probative as of the data certa (vaste datum) and subscription of the parties. Notaries archive the minute (protocol copy, Dutch minuut) and issue exemplifications (authentiek afschrift) to the parties. The only fully executed copy, known as the engrossment (grosse), is prima facie demonstrative evidence of its contents, similar to a court order. There is, therefore, no need for the party to or custodian of a notarial instrument to provide extraneous evidence to verify the instrument's probativity. And under Dutch law, for instruments to be self-executing they must be drawn up as public instruments, which is why any instrument drafted by a common-law lawyer, which is never public, is not self-executing in the Netherlands.
The new Notaries Act (Wet op het Notarisambt), commenced in October 1999 (156 years after the original act), reinforces the official position of notaries, but also expands on and adds to their traditional services. The consolidation of the notary's official position is, for example, reflected in the way the requirements of impartiality and independence have been enshrined in law, the many regulations a notary and notary's clerk are required to adhere to, and the fact that a notary is prohibited from acting as an attorney. Market forces have widened the possibility for notary's clerks to become notaries and for competition. However, the 1999 Act did not make substantial changes to the profession. While Dutch notaries are public officers and their instruments are public instruments, they are not government employees and instead act as independent private practitioners.
The new law makes it easier for notaries’ clerks to set up a practice and gives notaries more freedom in determining their fees for services. The Act has provided for the establishment of an external committee of experts; if notary's clerks submit a sound business plan to the committee, they have a greater chance to be approved to set up their own practice. Greater freedom in the fees a notary can charge implies that the Royal Society of Notaries no longer fixes fees or prescribes rates. Since July 2003 notaries have been free to establish their own fees. Maximum rate caps fixed by authorities now apply only to family law services in certain circumstances.
Indonesia
Every Indonesian civil law notary (, directly derived from the Dutch) is a member of the Indonesian Union of Notaries (, INI) and are very similar to its Dutch counterparts. However, agrarian reforms which started in the promulgation of a 1960 land law (itself replaced the Dutch East Indian Agrarische Wet of 1870, commonly referred to the act that started the Dutch East Indian liberal period) de jure deprived them from executing all legal affairs related to land. All legal affairs related to land are now de jure executed by land deed-making officers (, PPAT) appointed by the (in comparison, civil law notaries are appointed by the Ministry of Law and Human Rights), however most notaries often have dual-status as PPATs.
France
A French civil-law notary, or notaire, is a highly specialized lawyer in private practice appointed as a public officer by the justice minister. The profession began admitting women in 1948, and by the start of 2008 women numbered 2,104 and accounted for 24.2% of all notaries. A notarial office (étude) usually includes ancillary staff like notaries' clerks (clerc de notaire) of different kinds, e.g., junior (clerc employé), specialist (clerc technicien), and supervisory clerks (clerc cadre). Each level is divided into at least three pay grades, as well as legal secretaries, trainee notaries (notaire stagiaire), and accountants. In smaller offices, succession clerks are kept separate since their work differs significantly from other practice areas; in larger firms, clerks are separated into divisions by specialization. While most clerks are caseworkers, some work as costing specialists or formalities clerks. Secretaries oftentimes go on to pursue clerking.
Education
Notaries and notaries' clerks—a form of paralegal—earn undergraduate law degrees (diplôme de notariat de 1er cycle) from an accredited notarial law school (école de notariat). Managing clerks (principal clerc) must obtain a special graduate clerking degree (diplôme de premier clerc).
Law graduates must then earn a 1-year master's degree in law (MCL) (master 1 en droit) and either continue in a university law school or enroll at a notary institute (centre de formation professionnelle notariale) to earn a second graduate degree in notarial law for which specializations exist, including: conflict of laws, advanced tax law, overseas territories, EU law, struggling businesses, company law, intellectual property, farm tenancy and agri-business, city planning and environmental law, and estate planning.
There are 2 postgraduate options: a university track (voie universitaire) and a vocational track (voie professionnelle).
University track: 1 year of university coursework for a Master's in notarial law (master 2 en droit notarial), followed by a 2-year, in-office traineeship (stage de notaire), supplemented with 4 semester-long practice courses and capped by a Master's thesis. At the end the graduate receives a diplôme supérieur de notariat.
Vocational track: begins with a competitive entrance exam in applied legal studies and is followed by 1 year of institute coursework for a Postgraduate Diploma in Notarial Practice (diplôme d'aptitude aux fonctions de notaire). Students must also complete a 2-year traineeship supplemented with 6 week-long practice seminars.
Formerly, there was a non-degree option involving a lengthy apprenticeship. In addition, notaries' clerks with a minimum of 9 years of in-office experience, with 6 of those spent as a junior clerk, as well as judges and attorneys/solicitors of 6 years standing, may become a notary by passing a professional exam. Notaries are also required to attend regular continuing education courses and seminars.
Practice
In France, notarial instruments, whether in public (en minute) or private form (en brevet), have a high degree of authority and are considered probative instruments (acte authentique), received as firsthand and primary evidence in court, and thereby accorded high evidentiary value and executory force, and deemed to be proof of their contents. A notarial instrument also fixes the date at which its parties are bound without prior delivery and acceptance (as opposed to a deed or contract under common law) and the data certa (date certaine) of the act's execution so as to safeguard against third party claims. To be rebutted or challenged, a notarial act must be subjected to a rescissory action called an improbation action (inscription de faux) to prove the act contains errors or has been maliciously altered, interlineated, edited, or falsified.
Notaries engage in a wide variety of legal activities ranging from contract drafting and legal advising—primarily in company, family, and property law. Roughly 50% of French notarial business involves real estate conveyancing, leasing, and construction. Domestic affairs, e.g., adoptions, marital agreements, divorces, and the like, as well as estate planning account for another 26%. Preparing notarial acts for private parties, informing parties as to the scope of their contractual obligations, ensuring that the instrument or contract is fair and unbiased, and acting as a non-contentious and impartial advocate for the business transaction as a whole, notaries prevent and resolve many potential conflicts beforehand.
Notaries have a monopoly on marital agreements, marital property systems, estate administration, and conveyancing (realty sales, mortgages, etc.). They are also experts in the law of property with exclusive access to France's M.I.N. database which contains all property transfer and conveyance information. This gives notaries a singular advantage in gauging the property market, thus allowing them to appraise property, conduct transactions, and handle taxes and financing.
In France, when a notarial act is passed before one notary subscribing, it is said to be ordinaire, or in simple form, and when before two notaries with the second attesting, then it is solennel, or in solemn form. Acts may be drawn up in public or private form, said en minute and en brevet respectively. When drawn in private form, the single executed original is issued to the client, and its particulars are logged in the notary's register. When in public form, one un-executed minute copy (minute) is retained of record in the notary's protocol, thereby constituting a public instrument, and a fully engrossed execution copy (called a grosse and now termed copie exécutoire) is issued to the client and is headed and footed with the same formule exécutoire or "enactment clause" used on court orders and writs. Minutes and engrossments are only drawn up once, and, should a past client lose their copy or need further copies, by law, said person may only receive exemplifications (expédition, now termed copie authentique) of the act. Notaries also issue detailed or summary abstracts of acts (extrait authentique) and make notarial certified copies (copie collationnée) of documents not in their custody.
Professional organizations
All French notaries are jointly and severally liable for professional errors in the performance of their duties. When liable, damages are paid from a nationwide consolidated indemnity fund. Group liability of this kind is otherwise unprecedented. Notaries are therefore required to take out professional indemnity insurance for the due protection of their clients. French notaries are part of and regulated by a local or county notaries society, or chambre des notaires, on whose advice notaries are appointed and who conduct annual accounting audits of notarial offices, establish and regulate professional and ethical standards, and can censure or temporarily suspend notaries. Notaries are also members of a regional notaries council (conseil des notaires) which acts very much like a common-law college of notaries by providing continuing education and other support services to notaries; they also take disciplinary action against notary misconduct including dismissal, removal from office, and revoking a notary's license to practice. The regional councils are governed and headed by the National Council of Notaries (Conseil supérieur du notariat) which conducts surprise inspections, provides research, outlook, and public relations services, and acts as the profession's administrative head.
Germany
In Germany, the main function of a Notar (pl. Notare, fem. Notarin) is to draw up, execute, and retain legal instruments transacting or governing noncontentious matters in reserved areas of law:
real property (conveyancing, servitudes, real securities)
successions (wills and , estate planning, executorships)
family law (marital agreements, healthcare proxies, alimony & child support agreements)
company law (formation, restructuring, registration, corporate minutes)
Prospective notaries must have the same basic legal education as attorneys/solicitors: first, they must be law graduates who have passed the first legal practice exam (erste juristische Staatsprüfung); then, they must article as a judicial clerk for 2 years and pass the second legal practice exam (zweite juristische Staatsprüfung). In addition, dual-practice notaries (Anwaltsnotar) must have 3 years standing as a practicing attorney/solicitor and pass a competitive notarial practice exam (notarielle Fachprüfung) before being admitted as notaries. Single-practice notaries (Nur-Notar), on the other hand, must article for 3 years as a trainee notary (Notarassessor). German notaries are appointed by authority of their state justice minister, draft notarial instruments (notarielle Urkunde) and retain them of record in their protocol (Urkundenrolle), and provide independent and impartial advice to all interested parties (Beteiligten).
The mode of practice depends on the state, but in all, 1,600 German notaries practice exclusively as a notary versus 6,900 practicing dually as an attorney-notary. In most parts of Germany, notaries maintain independent private practices and do not generally work for the State except in Baden-Württemberg where 500 government notaries (Beamten-Notar) are regularly staffed in government agencies and offices. A notary's instruments are valid statewide, but in some states a notary's jurisdiction (Amtsbereich) is restricted to the judicial district (Amtsgerichtsbezirk) of the notary's appointment, as in Saxony and Württemberg where notaries are district notaries (Bezirksnotar). In Baden, notaries are magisterial notaries (Richternotar) who double as stipendiary magistrates. Single-practice notaries practice as a notary sole (Einzelnotar) or in a 2-person partnership (Zweier-Sozietät), whereas attorney-notaries structure themselves into law firms of varying size. The government notaries in Baden-Württemberg are going to be converted to self-employed private practitioners effective 1 January 2018.
German notaries prepare instruments according to federal statutory guidelines and advise appearers on their legal obligations and consequences. A notary's statutory duties are:
to satisfy himself of the identity of the appearers (Erschienenen or Urkundsparteien);
to verify the parties to contracts are competent to enter into them;
Belehrungspflicht: to rigorously explain to appearers the contents and legal implications of the instrument; and
to have the appearers sign before and with the notary and sometimes in the presence of witnesses.
The notary affixes his official seal (Dienstsiegel) to the instrument and binds it with thin cords (Verbindung, Heftung). If the instrument is prima facie duly executed, courts will enforce it, presume it valid and regular, and admit it as evidence to prove the truth of its contents.
In Germany, notaries are very important in day-to-day business. For example, any real estate sales contract (§ 311(b), German Civil Code), articles of association, alimony or child support agreement, or contract concerning succession () must be in notarial form. Likewise, any share purchase or asset transfer agreement of a private limited company (GmbH) must be notarially executed pursuant to s. 15(3) of the Private Limited Companies Act (GmbHG). Contracts requiring notarial execution can be drafted by the executing notary, the parties, or by an attorney/solicitor.
Québec (Canada)
A Québec notary, or notaire, is a highly specialized attorney in private practice appointed as a public officer that takes part in the administration of justice. A notary is also a legal adviser.
The mission of notaries, in their capacity as a public officer, is to execute acts which the parties wish or are required to endow with the authenticity attaching to acts of public authority, to provide such acts with a fixed date, and to keep all acts executed en minute in their notarial records and issue copies of or extracts from them.
In their role as a public officer, notaries are duty-bound to act impartially and to advise all parties to an act which the parties wish or are required to endow with authenticity.
Notaries have a monopoly on marital property systems, estate administration, and conveyancing (realty sales, mortgages, etc.) and give legal advices regarding noncontentious matters.
Studies
Notaries earn undergraduate law degrees (Baccalauréat en droit (LL.B.) or Licence en droit (LL.L.)) from an accredited Canadian Civil Law school.
Law graduates must then earn a master's degree in notarial law (LL.M.) (Maîtrise en droit notarial) which specialized in contract laws, advanced tax law, business law, conflict of laws, real estate law, city planning and environmental law, dispute prevention and resolution, and estate planning. To graduate, students must complete 54 postgraduate credits, which include an 80-day internship and practice seminars.
LL.M. graduates must then enroll at the notary institute (Chambre des notaires du Québec) and pass professional exams. Notaries are also required to attend regular continuing education courses and seminars.
Spain
In Spain, a notario is both a civil servant and a private and highly specialised lawyer. Thus, although they hold a private practice, depending on the role they professionally exercise they may be acting as public officers (for instance, when working with governmental agencies and departments, or when certifying notarial instruments in a court of law) or as private practitioners (for instance, when paying their own staff's taxes and salaries, or assuming the running costs of their own notarial practice). Spanish notaries are charged with writing and authorising notarial instruments that gather either perceptible facts from which some legal right might be derived (for instance, holding witness, or validating a document), or juridical business of any sort both in private and commercial law that in one way or another require collecting the will of all parties involved, as would be for instance mortgage contracts or powers of attorney (poder notarial).
Notaries are regulated by the Ley de 28 de mayo de 1862 del Notariado de España (Law of May 1862 of Notaries of Spain). Access to the profession is restricted to Spanish and EU citizens over the age of 23, and who hold an undergraduate and a postgraduate degree in Law (or, rarely, a PhD in Law). In order to become a notary, the candidate has to sit a highly competitive public examination consisting of 4 parts covering all legal and practical aspects of Spanish private law. This oposición pública is usually called once a year to cover arising vacancies in the notarial jurisdictions. Because very few openings take place, the success rate for this exam is extremely low (under 1% gain a position), and preparing for the examination typically takes potential candidates 2 to 5 years.
Spanish notaries exercise their notarial instruments (known in general as fe pública notarial) in a dual manner:
When discussing matters of fact, what a Spanish notary sees, hears, or perceives is held to have full evidentiary value and executory force, and is, therefore, proof of the matter of fact.
When discussing matters of the Law, notarial instruments hold the authenticity and probatory force of the wills declared by the parties appearing in it.
As private practitioners, Spanish notaries are also obliged by Law to offer legal counsel to all those that may require or demand it, and advise them on the most appropriate legal means they may need to reach their goals, so long as the latter are licit.
Unlike in common law jurisdictions, Spanish notaries are actively involved in drafting the notarial instruments and contracts, usually (if so needed) as advised by the signing parties. In that manner, they act as private practitioners. However, inasmuch as public officers, notaries are obliged to ensure that the notarial instruments and contracts are law abiding, and upon notarising the instrument (calificación notarial), the instrument has the full power of the law. Because of this, the validity and truthfulness of notarial instruments are a priori held to be true, and therefore had probatory value in the Courts, were disputes to arise.
The three main notarial instruments a Spanish notary holds are:
Escrituras públicas (Public writs), which refer to all contracts and declarations that involve the assent of two or more parties. This includes house deeds,
Actas notariales (Notarial acts). These are notarial statements, whereby the notary bears witness to something he or she has physically been part of. They may be employed by lawyers requiring an independent third party (the notary) to witness something (the presence of some individual somewhere, or the drawing of a specific prize by lot, the validity of a translation...).
Pólizas intervenidas (Intervened policies). These are typically commercial contracts such as mortgage and insurance policies, where one of the parties grants some right (say, a loan) to another.
Finally, Spanish notaries offer testimonies and certifications, for instance when certifying that the copy of a document is a faithful copy to the original. Notaries sign (firman) and stamp (sellan) giving faith (dar fe) on each page of the notarial instrument, which are bound together with their archival number and page, and held in a practice. The notarial instrument is always written in certified paper (papel timbrado), special paper issued and numbered by the Royal Mint, and bound alongside all other notarial instruments yearly to be archived by the notarial practice. The original document is known as the matriz, and must be physically held by the notary. The notary may issue certified copies of the matriz, which have the same validity as the latter.
Notarial practices are limited by law to a specific territorial range, where the notary typically has his or her notaría. Each notaría is held by a single notario, and tends to employ a number of clerks (pasantes) and administrators. These notarías are private practices, and are self-funded with the fees that the notary is allowed to charge. Notarial fees are regulated by law. Each notarial instrument has a moderate cost on its own, added to which the notary charges per page drafted, per copy emitted, etc., a legally set amount. The notary is also obliged to collect whichever taxes may be involved in the transactions they notarise (for instance, the stamp duty or VAT costs).
Latin America
Although regulated in a different manner in each country, notaries in the Spanish Americas operate in a very similar manner to Spanish notaries.
Other countries
As a general rule, countries who formerly were colonies or viceroyalties of Spain, France or Portugal, have retained a civil law tradition and, accordingly, a civil-law notarial profession. This is the case with most Latin American and French-speaking African countries, but not so of Asian countries.
The International Union of Notaries
Most of the countries which have civil-law notaries are members of the International Union of Notaries (UINL). Members include:
Europe (35)
Albania, Andorra, Armenia, Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, the Czech Republic, Estonia, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the United Kingdom (only the City of London), Luxembourg, Malta, Moldova, Monaco, The Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, San Marino, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Macedonia, The Vatican, Turkey and Ukraine.
Americas (24)
Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico (United States), Louisiana (United States), Quebec (Canada), Uruguay, and Venezuela.
Africa (15)
Algeria, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Senegal and Togo.
Asia (3)
Bangladesh, China (People's Republic), Indonesia, Japan.
The members of the union are represented by their respective national councils or by similar national organisations and by notarial districts and regional or provincial societies of notaries.
The UINL has preferential relations with professional legal officers who fulfil notarial duties in various countries (or federated states within a federation) or with the bodies that represent them.
The countries that have asked to join the union are: Georgia, Mauritius, Kazakhstan, Mauritania, Belarus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Cambodia, Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Madagascar, New Zealand, the Philippines, Serbia, the Seychelles, South Korea, Tunisia, and Vietnam.
The federated states that have asked to join the union are: Alabama, British Columbia, Florida, Illinois, Indiana, and Texas.
History
Origins
Scribes have existed since recorded history, but the notary's authentication tools were first invented in the Fertile Crescent where in Babylon the use of signatures and distinct signs in clay tablets was required. Egypt innovated the use of papyrus and the calame, added legalistic formalism to document preparation, and had specialized notary-scribes, called sesh n pero''' "pharaoh's scribe" or sesh n po "scribe of the nome"—agoranomos in Ptolemaic times—who gave authenticity to instruments without the need for witnesses. In Ancient Israel there existed a similar institution of the notary-scribe known as the sofér. Greek city-states lacked uniformity, but, universally, public instruments, usually deeds and conveyances, were kept in official registers and drafted by scribal (or "king's scribes") who were tied to a certain district and whose written acts trumped oral testimony. These innovations would be combined and adopted under the Roman empire.
Roman Empire
In Rome, scribes (scribae) acted as court recorders and copyists of instruments, whereas the notarius took dictation and raw minutes or memoranda (notae) of proceedings in shorthand. Different kinds of notarius existed: some recorded proceedings, others transcribed state papers, some supplied magistrates with legal forms, and others registered judgements and decrees. A number were involved with the noncontentious jurisdiction of the courts by drawing up deeds, wills, and conveyances which could then be sealed before the presiding magistrate and affixed with the official seal of the court, thereby rendering them public and probative acts. Otherwise, most instruments were in private form. One type of notarius was the exceptor who emerged as the official clerk attached to all bureaus and courts and required at all municipal meetings of curiae.
Yet, drawing up private documents was more the preserve of the tabellio, a professional scrivener who held no public office. The tabellio used clerks to take shorthand notes and wrote them out in minute form. This was then engrossed into an extended act, duly attested by witnesses and endorsed with a completio, or eschatocol (docquet). Early on and like the notarius, a tabellio's instrument lacked probativity. Only by attaching copies of the judicial proceedings wherein one party petitions the second party to either contest or accept the act in open court could the instrument be made probative, i.e., imbued with fides publica, "public faith and credit". In later years, it became possible to register and deposit the acts of a tabellio in public archives to make them probative. Both exceptores and tabelliones were organized into civil guilds (collegia, scholae) to ensure the official recording of both public and private acts. Though tabelliones were of lower social status, the position had high mobility, and official posts often drew young nobles.
By the Late Roman period, notarius came to denote registrars attached to the courts of provincial governors, secretaries of emperors, and the highest class of officials in the privy council and the imperial chancery. In the Church, they were administrative secretaries for bishops and monasteries and were important as correspondents in the doctrinal battles of the 3rd and 4th centuries. Constantine himself created guilds of notarii for bishops and their courts. Tabelliones were nicknamed "runners" (cursores) because of their quick drafting speed and their "cursive" minute hand. They were also sometimes known as forenses and publici—from their presence in public places—before being subsumed under the functions of the , or notary-clerk. Lawyers—or or —also often acted as scriveners.
Early Middle Ages
With the degeneration of public administration and its assumption by the Church in the West, as well as the replacement of Roman legal writing culture with a Germanic oral legal system based on witness testimony and open court proceedings, secular scribes and scriveners became obsolete. In a select group of urban areas, such as in northern Italy and southern France, Roman law tended to be preserved, at least for civil matters, and there the secular notarius or tabellio lived on mostly as a scrivener. Ecclesiastical notaries () in the main perfected a number of common notarial devices, namely the use of ribbons, seals, manual signs (signum), and the form of the eschatocol during this time. They also came to be called scrinarius. Pope Gregory the Great (r. 590–604) organized papal notarii or scrinarii into a schola; Gregory's registers show that they were responsible for recording correspondence, ordinations, privileges, donations, synodal acts, and matters related to the Patrimony of Saint Peter, as well as serving as papal advisors, diplomats, and envoys. Similarly, the papal chancery, archive, and library were organized around their efforts.
In northern Italy during the Ostrogothic and Lombard periods, the offices of exceptor and tabellio were carried out by scriptores and notaries. The notarius civitatis, or ‘urban notary’, served Lombard kings and nobles in their courts; continued to aid bishops, abbots, and some of the public. These two kinds of notaries attended the same episcopal schools, and the existence of ecclesiastical notaries led to the demand for secular ones. Unorganized and unregulated publici notarii, or ‘lay notaries’, handled private matters, since the Lombards did not practice insinuation. From the late 7th century on, important notaries’ societies (and probably notarial education) existed in Pavia, Cremona, Milan, Lucca, Rome, and Ravenna.
In Merovingian France, ecclesiastical notaries, continuing Late Imperial practice, were attached to county courts as clerks of court who recorded proceedings and prepared and engrossed instruments and process which were later sealed before the count with the court's official seal to render them public and authentic. Otherwise, it was not until the 9th century, when Charlemagne, in an effort to reform the county court system, began to appoint notaries to accompany itinerant royal commissioners during their assize circuit, which notaries were called royal notaries. By the 10th century, they had become permanent clerks of court and came to greatly outnumber and then absorb the comital notaries into their corps. This system was preserved by the Holy Roman Empire.
Charlemagne also raised ecclesiastical notaries to the status of deacon or priest. As a result, the Office of notary became a stepping-stone to higher church office. They continued to serve the public as well before being made obsolete by the full emergence of a lay notarial profession in the 12th century. Charlemagne ordered that every bishop, abbot, and count employ a notary, appointed by himself if necessary. He therefore accepted and altered Lombard practice, formalized it, and spread it to the rest of the empire. His own notarial secretaries were the cancellarii. One notary in particular, Paul the Deacon, played a pivotal role in the Carolingian Renaissance. Paul was trained at Pavia, was chancellor to the Lombard king Desierius, taught at the Frankish palace school (782–787), and may have been responsible for reforming the notarial system. The famous missi dominici oversaw the work of comital (counts') and episcopal notaries, who, under Louis the Pious, were drawn specifically from the noble class. Under Lothair I, imperial law regulated notarial practice of both episcopal and comital cancellarii and private notaries and limited a notary's geographic jurisdiction.
Byzantine Europe
In the East, however, the tabularius, called symbolaiographos and the juris, the nomikos, continued to thrive. To stem fraud, Justinian reforms codified (cf. 44th and 77th novellae) new precautionary measures for giving a document probativity such as:
the actual presence of the attesting tabellio and the recording of other witnesses' names,
the obligatory presence and signatures of witnesses to an act's signing
dating by regnal and consular year and indiction
inclusion of an eschatocol in which the tabellio claimed responsibility for the document
recitation before a judge before recordation, a process known as insinuatio.
Some measures proved untenable and, with the short supply of administrators and half loss of the Empire (early 7th century), notaries became a primarily urban phenomenon with somewhat relaxed standards of practice. Still, they remained the highest-ranking lawyer and instrumental to the legal and court process as Germanic-type oral proceedings were unknown and Roman legalistic traditions survived intact. From the mid-6th century, a large body of centuries-old legal texts was given force of law and became widely circulated. Similarly, the importance of law court officials declined as did lawsuits in regular civil courts and this, in turn, allowed private settlements mediated by notaries at lower cost to flourish.
In time, all notarial functions (clerical and law officer) were concentrated into the law-trained nomikos, though the Church would provide notarial services in town and rural settings. The Church also retained the old separation between symbolaiographos, or notary-draftsman, notarios, or notary-scribe, and the clerical nomikos, or notary lawyer. By the 10th century, secular nomikoi had been organized into a regulatory guild, were attached to the State, appointed by the Emperor, and ranked among the highest of legal officers. The introductory portions of their acts also tended to invoke God, and crosses and Christian insignia were often applied to the face of an act. Notarial practice would be slightly westernized under Venetian occupation, but remained substantially unchanged until the end of the Empire.
Late Middle Ages
Imperial Ravenna retained separate scholae of imperial notaries, ecclesiastical notaries, and tabelliones. However, with the fall of the Exarchate, imperial notaries disappeared with unauthorized tabelliones absorbing most of their legal jurisdiction and function. During the 11th century and the early 12th century, attempts to bring the tabellionate under imperial purview were resisted and failed at Ravenna, though by the 13th century many professionals styled themselves notarius et tabellio, combining both functions in their practice. By the 13th century, even the Ravennati adopted the title "notary by imperial authority," and the retrograde tabellionate slowly dissolved. The ecclesiastical notariate in Ravenna retained its position until the 12th century, but did not interfere in the sphere of the secular notariate. During the 12th century, the lay tabellionate absorbed most of the functions of the church notary, even running Ravenna's episcopal chancery by 1127. Elsewhere in Italy, where it had survived, the independent ecclesiastical notariate likewise slowly disappeared: in Lucca, the comital notariate replaced it during the Carolingian period; and in Bologna, home of the revived imperial legal tradition, the bishop's last clerical notary died in 1133. Even in Rome, lay notaries gained in importance, and in 1211 Pope Innocent III declared that no notary in a church court could hold major orders.
In southern Italy, when Sicily fell to the Arabs it lost the notarial tradition, while other areas, such as Apulia, Calabria, and Lucania, held on to Greco-Byzantine practices. Areas retaining the Latin-Lombard traditions used the notarius, but he may have been attached to and authorized through a palace, church, monastery, or even city; or sometimes he was itinerant and without official authority. During the 10th century, Naples maintained a clear organization of notaries (curiali) in a collegio under a primarius aided by a tabularius. Documents were often drawn up by discipuli ("apprentices"), but only the notary could apply the eschatocol. Amalfi followed a looser organization: scribae civitatis ("scriveners") were called curiali by c. 1000, many may have worked only part-time, and there was no clear caste of discipuli. Gaeta retained the scriba civitatis, though mixing Greek with Latin traditions and clerical with secular functions and statuses. In the 10th and 11th centuries, titles included presbyter ("priest") et notarius civitatis and Leo greco-latinus presbyter et scriba civitatis, though by the early 12th century a simple notarius civitatis would do. The southern Italian tradition was for the most part replaced by the Carolingian tradition when the region was conquered by the Normans.
As northern Italy came to free itself in the late 11th century from imperial rule and episcopal authority, it established municipal authorities (known as consulates) who, with the increase in literacy, came to rely heavily on the lay notary to produce, archive, and standardize public instruments under municipal seal. In addition, the Venetian pillaging of Byzantine libraries revived bookish learning and led to the founding of law schools, such as at the University of Bologna which trained notaries-at-law. Similarly, as schools for notaries relied on Byzantine law and came to determine the development of the notarial corps, by the 10th century, the Carolingian and the Byzantine traditions were no longer distinguishable. The Italian notarial profession was transmitted from Lombardy to southern France through trade, first to Languedoc, and eventually northward to Bruges (Flemish Belgium), and on to the eastern Mediterranean.
See also
Barrister
Lawyer
Notary public
Solicitor
Notes
Footnotes
References
K.M.M. de Wit & A.A. Tomlow. “National Report: The Netherlands”, Notarius International 7, no. 1–2 (2002): 8–38.
Christian Hertel. “Länderbericht Deutschland”, Notarius International 6, no. 1 (2001): 20–54.
Alfred E. Piombino, Notary Public Handbook: Principles, Practices & Cases. National Edition. East Coast Publishing, 2011.
Helen G. Saradi. Notai e documenti greci dall'età di Giustiniano al XIX secolo, vol. 1: Il sistema notarile bizantino (VI-XV secolo). Milan: Dott. A. Giuffre Editore, 1999.
Μathias Schmoeckel & Werner Schubert, eds. Handbuch zur Geschichte des Notariats der europäischen Traditionen. Baden-Baden: Nomos, 2009.
Peter Zablud. Principles of Notarial Practice''. Melbourne: Psophidian, 2005.
External links
The International Union of (Civil Law) Notaries
Forum of Young Civil Law Notaries – Access to the Civil Law Notary Profession in the UE (in Spanish)
The English page at notaires.fr (French site)
History of Notaries
National Association of Civil-law Notaries (USA)
Latin American Online Notary in the UK and other countries in Europe (in Portuguese)
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|
215987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%28III%29%20oxide | Iron(III) oxide | Iron(III) oxide or ferric oxide is the inorganic compound with the formula Fe2O3. It is one of the three main oxides of iron, the other two being iron(II) oxide (FeO), which is rare; and iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4), which also occurs naturally as the mineral magnetite. As the mineral known as hematite, Fe2O3 is the main source of iron for the steel industry. Fe2O3 is readily attacked by acids. Iron(III) oxide is often called rust, and to some extent this label is useful, because rust shares several properties and has a similar composition; however, in chemistry, rust is considered an ill-defined material, described as Hydrous ferric oxide.
Structure
Fe2O3 can be obtained in various polymorphs. In the main one, α, iron adopts octahedral coordination geometry. That is, each Fe center is bound to six oxygen ligands. In the γ polymorph, some of the Fe sit on tetrahedral sites, with four oxygen ligands.
Alpha phase
α-Fe2O3 has the rhombohedral, corundum (α-Al2O3) structure and is the most common form. It occurs naturally as the mineral hematite which is mined as the main ore of iron. It is antiferromagnetic below ~260 K (Morin transition temperature), and exhibits weak ferromagnetism between 260 K and the Néel temperature, 950 K. It is easy to prepare using both thermal decomposition and precipitation in the liquid phase. Its magnetic properties are dependent on many factors, e.g. pressure, particle size, and magnetic field intensity.
Gamma phase
γ-Fe2O3 has a cubic structure. It is metastable and converted from the alpha phase at high temperatures. It occurs naturally as the mineral maghemite. It is ferromagnetic and finds application in recording tapes, although ultrafine particles smaller than 10 nanometers are superparamagnetic. It can be prepared by thermal dehydratation of gamma iron(III) oxide-hydroxide. Another method involves the careful oxidation of iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4). The ultrafine particles can be prepared by thermal decomposition of iron(III) oxalate.
Other solid phases
Several other phases have been identified or claimed. The β-phase is cubic body-centered (space group Ia3), metastable, and at temperatures above converts to alpha phase. It can be prepared by reduction of hematite by carbon, pyrolysis of iron(III) chloride solution, or thermal decomposition of iron(III) sulfate.
The epsilon (ε) phase is rhombic, and shows properties intermediate between alpha and gamma, and may have useful magnetic properties applicable for purposes such as high density recording media for big data storage. Preparation of the pure epsilon phase has proven very challenging. Material with a high proportion of epsilon phase can be prepared by thermal transformation of the gamma phase. The epsilon phase is also metastable, transforming to the alpha phase at between . It can also be prepared by oxidation of iron in an electric arc or by sol-gel precipitation from iron(III) nitrate. Research has revealed epsilon iron(III) oxide in ancient Chinese Jian ceramic glazes, which may provide insight into ways to produce that form in the lab.
Additionally, at high pressure an amorphous form is claimed.
Liquid phase
Molten Fe2O3 is expected to have a coordination number of close to 5 oxygen atoms about each iron atom, based on measurements of slightly oxygen deficient supercooled liquid iron oxide droplets, where supercooling circumvents the need for the high oxygen pressures required above the melting point to maintain stoichiometry.
Hydrated iron(III) oxides
Several hydrates of Iron(III) oxide exists.
When alkali is added to solutions of soluble Fe(III) salts, a red-brown gelatinous precipitate forms. This is not Fe(OH)3, but Fe2O3·H2O (also written as Fe(O)OH).
Several forms of the hydrated oxide of Fe(III) exist as well. The red lepidocrocite γ-Fe(O)OH, occurs on the outside of rusticles, and the orange goethite, which occurs internally in rusticles.
When Fe2O3·H2O is heated, it loses its water of hydration. Further heating at 1670 K converts Fe2O3 to black Fe3O4 (FeIIFeIII2O4), which is known as the mineral magnetite.
Fe(O)OH is soluble in acids, giving . In concentrated aqueous alkali, Fe2O3 gives [Fe(OH)6]3−.
Reactions
The most important reaction is its carbothermal reduction, which gives iron used in steel-making:
Fe2O3 + 3 CO → 2 Fe + 3 CO2
Another redox reaction is the extremely exothermic thermite reaction with aluminium.
2 Al + Fe2O3 → 2 Fe + Al2O3
This process is used to weld thick metals such as rails of train tracks by using a ceramic container to funnel the molten iron in between two sections of rail. Thermite is also used in weapons and making small-scale cast-iron sculptures and tools.
Partial reduction with hydrogen at about 400 °C produces magnetite, a black magnetic material that contains both Fe(III) and Fe(II):
3 Fe2O3 + H2 → 2 Fe3O4 + H2O
Iron(III) oxide is insoluble in water but dissolves readily in strong acid, e.g. hydrochloric and sulfuric acids. It also dissolves well in solutions of chelating agents such as EDTA and oxalic acid.
Heating iron(III) oxides with other metal oxides or carbonates yields materials known as ferrates (ferrate (III)):
ZnO + Fe2O3 → Zn(FeO2)2
Preparation
Iron(III) oxide is a product of the oxidation of iron. It can be prepared in the laboratory by electrolyzing a solution of sodium bicarbonate, an inert electrolyte, with an iron anode:
4 Fe + 3 O2 + 2 H2O → 4 FeO(OH)
The resulting hydrated iron(III) oxide, written here as FeO(OH), dehydrates around 200 °C.
2 FeO(OH) → Fe2O3 + H2O
Uses
Iron industry
The overwhelming application of iron(III) oxide is as the feedstock of the steel and iron industries, e.g. the production of iron, steel, and many alloys.
Polishing
A very fine powder of ferric oxide is known as "jeweler's rouge", "red rouge", or simply rouge. It is used to put the final polish on metallic jewelry and lenses, and historically as a cosmetic. Rouge cuts more slowly than some modern polishes, such as cerium(IV) oxide, but is still used in optics fabrication and by jewelers for the superior finish it can produce. When polishing gold, the rouge slightly stains the gold, which contributes to the appearance of the finished piece. Rouge is sold as a powder, paste, laced on polishing cloths, or solid bar (with a wax or grease binder). Other polishing compounds are also often called "rouge", even when they do not contain iron oxide. Jewelers remove the residual rouge on jewelry by use of ultrasonic cleaning. Products sold as "stropping compound" are often applied to a leather strop to assist in getting a razor edge on knives, straight razors, or any other edged tool.
Pigment
Iron(III) oxide is also used as a pigment, under names "Pigment Brown 6", "Pigment Brown 7", and "Pigment Red 101". Some of them, e.g. Pigment Red 101 and Pigment Brown 6, are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in cosmetics. Iron oxides are used as pigments in dental composites alongside titanium oxides.
Hematite is the characteristic component of the Swedish paint color Falu red.
Magnetic recording
Iron(III) oxide was the most common magnetic particle used in all types of magnetic storage and recording media, including magnetic disks (for data storage) and magnetic tape (used in audio and video recording as well as data storage). Its use in computer disks was superseded by cobalt alloy, enabling thinner magnetic films with higher storage density.
Photocatalysis
α-Fe2O3 has been studied as a photoanode for solar water oxidation. However, its efficacy is limited by a short diffusion length (2-4 nm) of photo-excited charge carriers and subsequent fast recombination, requiring a large overpotential to drive the reaction. Research has been focused on improving the water oxidation performance of Fe2O3 using nanostructuring, surface functionalization, or by employing alternate crystal phases such as β-Fe2O3.
Medicine
Calamine lotion, used to treat mild itchiness, is chiefly composed of a combination of zinc oxide, acting as astringent, and about 0.5% iron(III) oxide, the product's active ingredient, acting as antipruritic. The red color of iron(III) oxide is also mainly responsible for the lotion's pink color.
See also
Chalcanthum
References
External links
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
E-number additives
Iron oxide pigments
Iron(III) compounds
Transition metal oxides
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|
215990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainina | Hainina | Hainina is an extinct mammal genus from the latest Cretaceous to the Paleocene of Europe.
Genus
The genus Hainina ("from Hainin") was named by Vianey-Liaud M. in 1979. This genus was originally referred to as Cimolomyidae. "We assign Hainina to the Kogaionidae (superfamily incertae sedis); it differs from Kogaionon in having ornamented enamel, while the enamel is smooth in Kogaionon". Material has also been reported from the Upper Cretaceous of Romania.
Species
Fossils have been described as and found in:
Species: Hainina belgica Vianey-Liaud M., 1979
Place: Paleocene Hainin Formation of Hainin, Belgium
Species: Hainina godfriauxi Vianey-Liaud M., 1979
Place: Paleocene of Hainin, Belgium
Species: Hainina pyrenaica Peláez-Campomanes P., Damms R., López-Martinen N. & Àlvarez-Sierra M. A., 2000
Place: Early Paleocene Tremp Formation, in the southern Pyrenees of Spain
Species: Hainina vianeyae Peláez-Campomanes P., Damms R., López-Martinen N. & Àlvarez-Sierra M. A., 2000
Place: Late Paleocene Cernay Formation of Cernay, France
Hainina sp. - Densus-Ciula Formation, Maastrichtian and Jibou Formation, Thanetian, Romania
References
Bibliography
Vianey-Liaud (1979), "Les Mammifères montiens de Hainin (Paléocène moyen de Belgique). Part I. Multituberculés". Paleovertebrata 9, pp. 117–131.
Further reading
Peláez-Campomanes et al. (2000), "The earliest mammal of the European Paleocene: the multituberculate Hainina". J of Paleont 74(4), pp. 701–711.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z. & Hurum J. H. (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, pp. 389–429.
Much of this information has been derived from Dead link MESOZOIC MAMMALS; "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Maastrichtian genus first appearances
Paleocene genus extinctions
Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary
Cretaceous mammals of Europe
Cretaceous Romania
Fossils of Romania
Paleocene mammals of Europe
Paleogene Belgium
Fossils of Belgium
Paleogene France
Fossils of France
Paleogene Spain
Fossils of Spain
Tremp Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1979
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|
215992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Conrad | Tony Conrad | Anthony Schmalz Conrad (March 7, 1940 – April 9, 2016) was an American video artist, experimental filmmaker, musician, composer, sound artist, teacher, and writer. Active in a variety of media since the early 1960s, he was a pioneer of both drone music and structural film. As a musician, he was an important figure in the New York minimalist scene of the early 1960s, during which time he performed as part of the Theatre of Eternal Music (along with John Cale, La Monte Young, Marian Zazeela, and others). He became recognized as a filmmaker for his 1966 film The Flicker. He performed and collaborated with a wide range of artists over the course of his career.
Biography
Early life
Conrad was born in Concord, New Hampshire to Mary Elizabeth Parfitt and Arthur Emil Conrad but raised in Baldwin, Maryland and Northern Virginia. His father worked with Everett Warner during World War II in designing dazzle camouflage for the US Navy. Conrad's high school violin lessons with symphony violist Ronald Knudsen introduced him to just intonation and double stop playing. Conrad graduated from Harvard University in 1962 with a degree in Mathematics. While studying at Harvard, Conrad was exposed to the ideas of John Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen. After graduating, Conrad went to Copenhagen to see a friend, who was a research mathematician working on a computer project at the Physics Chemist Institute. That computer had a memory of 8 kilobytes. Conrad worked on it in machine language during the summer, which helped build his computer skills. He also did work as a computer programmer for a year when he came back to the United States.
After working as a computer programmer, Conrad got into the experimental music scene in New York City.
1960s
After moving to New York, Conrad became an early member of the Theatre of Eternal Music, nicknamed The Dream Syndicate, which included John Cale, Angus MacLise, La Monte Young, and Marian Zazeela, and utilized just intonation and sustained sound (drones) to produce what the group called "dream music" (and is now called drone music). In 1963, he joined his former Harvard classmate Henry Flynt in his anti-art demonstrations against "elitist" New York cultural institutions.
Conrad and John Cale were recruited by Pickwick Records to play as a backing band for a new act, The Primitives, to perform the 1964 single "The Ostrich"/"Sneaky Pete". Conrad and Cale played guitar and bass, the artist Walter de Maria joined on drums, and the only pre-existing member of the band, Lou Reed, sang. Conrad and Cale's instruments were tuned to "Ostrich tuning" – every string to the same pitch. This made them easier to play, and also resonated with the drone music they were playing with the Theatre of Eternal Music. After a few shows, the group disbanded. Cale and Reed went on to form The Velvet Underground. Conrad was indirectly responsible for the name of The Velvet Underground, although he was never a member of the group. After moving into Conrad's old apartment on Ludlow Street in New York City, Reed and Cale found a book titled The Velvet Underground, which had belonged to Conrad, and took the book's name for their group.
1970s
Conrad's first musical release, and only release for many years, was a 1972 collaboration with the German "Krautrock" group Faust, Outside the Dream Syndicate, published by Caroline (UK) in 1973. This remains his best known musical work and is considered a classic of minimalist music and drone music.
One of Conrad's early films was Coming Attractions, which was released in 1970. This film led indirectly to the founding of Syntonic Research and the Environments series of natural sound recordings.
Yellow Movies was a project of Conrad's in 1973 of twenty "movies" consisting of rectangular borders painted in black house paint on large pieces of photographic paper, effectively framing each sizable expanse of emulsion. Conrad's concept came from a continued attempt at pushing the framework of film, and his interest in engaging the audience in long spaces of time. He wanted to make a film that would last fifty years, but knew that "normal materials" and projection could not last that long. So he created an entirely new conceptual stratagem for Yellow Movies whereby the physical aging and transformation of the emulsion itself would constitute a definitively slow-motion moving picture over such an extended period of time.
Conrad began to work in video and performance in the 1970s as a professor at Antioch College in Ohio, where he replaced the filmmaker Paul Sharits. In 1976, Conrad joined the faculty at the Center for Media studies at the University at Buffalo. While in Buffalo, Conrad was part of a scene that included Sharits, as well as Hollis Frampton, Steina and Woody Vasulka, Peter Weibel, James Blue, Cathy Steffan and Gerald O'Grady. Their practices in film, video, performance, and other forms were documented in the 2008 book Buffalo Heads: Media Study, Media Practice, Media Pioneers, 1973–1990, edited by Vasulka and Weibel.
In the mid-1970s, Conrad began performing film. With Sukiyaki Film he decided that the film should be prepared immediately before viewing. Sukiyaki was chosen as the paradigm for the work because it is a dish often cooked immediately before eating, in front of the diners. Conrad cooked sukiyaki in front of an audience: egg, meat, vegetables, and 16mm film; and literally "projected" onto the screen behind him.
Conrad made a piece called Pickled Film.
Later life
Later, Conrad composed more than a dozen audio works with special scales and tuning for solo amplified violin with amplified strings. Releases included Early Minimalism Volume 1, a four-CD set, Slapping Pythagoras in 1995, Four Violins (1964) in 1996, Outside the Dream Syndicate Alive with Faust, from London 1995, and Fantastic Glissando. He also issued two archival CDs featuring the work of late New York filmmaker Jack Smith, with whom he was associated in the 1960s. He released the 1968 recording of Joan of Arc in 2006.
Conrad collaborated with artists such as Charlemagne Palestine, Genesis Breyer P-Orridge, Keiji Haino, Jim O'Rourke, David Grubbs, C Spencer Yeh, Tovah Olson, MV Carbon, and numerous others. Conrad was chosen by Animal Collective to perform at the All Tomorrow's Parties festival that they curated in May 2011. In 2012 Conrad was part of the line-up of the touring avant garde festival Sonic Protest that took place in five cities in France. In 2013 Conrad visited Genoa to open his first solo exhibition in Italy.
Conrad's work has been shown at many museums including the Museum of Modern Art, P.S. 1, and the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City; the Walker Art Center in Minneapolis; the Louvre in Paris; the Museum of Contemporary Art in Los Angeles; and many others. Specifically, his film The Flicker was included in the Whitney Museum of American Art's exhibition, The American Century; he participated in the 2006 Whitney Biennial; and one of his Yellow Paintings was featured in the museum's 2015–2016 exhibition "Collected by Thea Westreich Wagner and Ethan Wagner."
Conrad's artwork is represented by Greene Naftali Gallery in New York City, and by Galerie Buchholz in Germany.
Conrad had been a faculty member in the State University of New York at Buffalo since 1976. He continued to teach there in the Department of Media Study.
Death
Conrad died in Cheektowaga, New York on April 9, 2016, at age 76 after fighting prostate cancer.
Partial discography
Outside the Dream Syndicate (with Faust) (Caroline, 1973)
Slapping Pythagoras (Table of the Elements, 1995)
The Japanese Room at La Pagode / May (split with Gastr del Sol) (Table of the Elements, 1995)
Four Violins (1964) (Table of the Elements, 1996)
Early Minimalism Volume One (Table of the Elements, 1997)
Inside the Dream Syndicate Volume I: Day of Niagara (with John Cale, Angus MacLise, La Monte Young, and Marian Zazeela) (Table of the Elements, [Recorded 1965] 2000)
Fantastic Glissando (Table of the Elements, 2003)
Joan of Arc (Table of the Elements, [Recorded 1968] 2006)
An Aural Symbiotic Mystery (with Charlemagne Palestine) (Sub Rosa, 2006)
Taking Issue (with Genesis Breyer P-Orridge) (Dais Records, 2009)
XXX Macarena (with Jutta Koether and John Miller) (From the Nursery and Primary Information, 2010)
Ten Years Alive on the Infinite Plain (Superior Viaduct, 2017)
References
External links
Tony Conrad at Galerie Buchholz
Tony Conrad Website
Interview with Tony Conrad, 1996
"About Tony Conrad" from the Center for Art and Media (ZKM) in Karlsruhe, Germany
Tony Conrad in the Video Data Bank
{https://film-makerscoop.com/filmmakers/tony-conrad/bio Tony Conrad] at The Film-Makers' Cooperative
Tony Conrad's MySpace Page
Tony Conrad faculty page at University at Buffalo
Yellow Movies via moma.org
Video
PUNKCAST#1143-02 Live @ Swiss Institute NYC on May 2, 2007. (Flash)
1940 births
2016 deaths
American experimental filmmakers
Artists from Baltimore
Harvard College alumni
American noise musicians
People from Concord, New Hampshire
University at Buffalo faculty
American video artists
The Velvet Underground
American avant-garde musicians
American experimental musicians
Deaths from prostate cancer
Deaths from cancer in New York (state)
Dais Records artists | [
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|
215994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hundred%20Days | Hundred Days | The Hundred Days ( ), also known as the War of the Seventh Coalition, marked the period between Napoleon's return from eleven months of exile on the island of Elba to Paris on20 March 1815 and the second restoration of King Louis XVIII on 8 July 1815 (a period of 110 days). This period saw the War of the Seventh Coalition, and includes the Waterloo Campaign, the Neapolitan War as well as several other minor campaigns. The phrase les Cent Jours (the hundred days) was first used by the prefect of Paris, Gaspard, comte de Chabrol, in his speech welcoming the king back to Paris on 8 July.
Napoleon returned while the Congress of Vienna was sitting. On 13March, seven days before Napoleon reached Paris, the powers at the Congress of Vienna declared him an outlaw, and on 25March Austria, Prussia, Russia and the United Kingdom, the four Great Powers and key members of the Seventh Coalition, bound themselves to put 150,000 men each into the field to end his rule. This set the stage for the last conflict in the Napoleonic Wars, the defeat of Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo, the second restoration of the French kingdom, and the permanent exile of Napoleon to the distant island of Saint Helena, where he died in May 1821.
Background
Napoleon's rise and fall
The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars pitted France against various coalitions of other European nations nearly continuously from 1792 onward. The overthrow and subsequent public execution of Louis XVI in France had greatly disturbed other European leaders, who vowed to crush the French Republic. Rather than leading to France's defeat, the wars allowed the revolutionary regime to expand beyond its borders and create client republics. The success of the French forces made a hero out of their best commander, Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799, Napoleon staged a successful coup d'état and became First Consul of the new French Consulate. Five years later, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I.
The rise of Napoleon troubled the other European powers as much as the earlier revolutionary regime had. Despite the formation of new coalitions against him, Napoleon's forces continued to conquer much of Europe. The tide of war began to turn after a disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812 that resulted in the loss of much of Napoleon's army. The following year, during the War of the Sixth Coalition, Coalition forces defeated the French in the Battle of Leipzig.
Following its victory at Leipzig, the Coalition vowed to press on to Paris and depose Napoleon. In the last week of February 1814, Prussian Field Marshal Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher advanced on Paris. After multiple attacks, manoeuvring, and reinforcements on both sides, Blücher won the Battle of Laon in early March 1814; this victory prevented the coalition army from being pushed north out of France. The Battle of Reims went to Napoleon, but this victory was followed by successive defeats from increasingly overwhelming odds. Coalition forces entered Paris after the Battle of Montmartre on 30 March 1814.
On 6 April 1814, Napoleon abdicated his throne, leading to the accession of Louis XVIII and the first Bourbon Restoration a month later. The defeated Napoleon was exiled to the island of Elba off the coast of Tuscany, while the victorious Coalition sought to redraw the map of Europe at the Congress of Vienna.
Exile in Elba
Napoleon spent only 9 months and 21 days in an uneasy forced retirement on Elba (1814–1815), watching events in France with great interest as the Congress of Vienna gradually gathered. As he foresaw, the shrinkage of the great Empire into the realm of old France caused intense dissatisfaction among the French, a feeling fed by stories of the tactless way in which the Bourbon princes treated veterans of the Grande Armée and the returning royalist nobility treated the people at large. Equally threatening was the general situation in Europe, which had been stressed and exhausted during the previous decades of near constant warfare.
The conflicting demands of major powers were for a time so exorbitant as to bring the Powers at the Congress of Vienna to the verge of war with each other. Thus every scrap of news reaching remote Elba looked favourable to Napoleon to retake power as he correctly reasoned the news of his return would cause a popular rising as he approached. He also reasoned that the return of French prisoners from Russia, Germany, Britain and Spain would furnish him instantly with a trained, veteran and patriotic army far larger than that which had won renown in the years before 1814. So threatening were the symptoms, that the royalists at Paris and the plenipotentiaries at Vienna talked of deporting him to the Azores or to Saint Helena, while others hinted at assassination.
Congress of Vienna
At the Congress of Vienna (November 1814 – June 1815) the various participating nations had very different and conflicting goals. Tsar Alexander of Russia had expected to absorb much of Poland and to leave a Polish puppet state, the Duchy of Warsaw, as a buffer against further invasion from Europe. The renewed Prussian state demanded all of the Kingdom of Saxony. Austria wanted to allow neither of these things, while it expected to regain control of northern Italy. Castlereagh, of the United Kingdom, supported France (represented by Talleyrand) and Austria and was at variance with his own Parliament. This almost caused a war to break out, when the Tsar pointed out to Castlereagh that Russia had 450,000 men near Poland and Saxony and he was welcome to try to remove them. Indeed, Alexander stated "I shall be the King of Poland and the King of Prussia will be the King of Saxony". Castlereagh approached King Frederick William III of Prussia to offer him British and Austrian support for Prussia's annexation of Saxony in return for Prussia's support of an independent Poland. The Prussian king repeated this offer in public, offending Alexander so deeply that he challenged Metternich of Austria to a duel. Only the intervention of the Austrian crown stopped it. A breach between the four Great Powers was avoided when members of Britain's Parliament sent word to the Russian ambassador that Castlereagh had exceeded his authority, and Britain would not support an independent Poland. The affair left Prussia deeply suspicious of any British involvement.
Return to France
While the Allies were distracted, Napoleon solved his problem in characteristic fashion. On 26 February 1815, when the British and French guard ships were absent, he slipped away from Portoferraio on board the French brig Inconstant with some 1,000 men and landed at Golfe-Juan, between Cannes and Antibes, on 1 March 1815. Except in royalist Provence, he was warmly received. He avoided much of Provence by taking a route through the Alps, marked today as the Route Napoléon.
Firing no shot in his defence, his troop numbers swelled until they became an army. On 5 March, the nominally royalist 5th Infantry Regiment at Grenoble went over to Napoleon en masse. The next day they were joined by the 7th Infantry Regiment under its colonel, Charles de la Bédoyère, who was executed for treason by the Bourbons after the campaign ended. An anecdote illustrates Napoleon's charisma: when royalist troops were deployed to stop the march of Napoleon's force at Laffrey, near Grenoble, Napoleon stepped out in front of them, ripped open his coat and said "If any of you will shoot his Emperor, here I am." The men joined his cause.
Marshal Ney, now one of Louis XVIII's commanders, had said that Napoleon ought to be brought to Paris in an iron cage, but on 14 March, Ney joined Napoleon with 6,000 men. Five days later, after proceeding through the countryside promising constitutional reform and direct elections to an assembly, to the acclaim of gathered crowds, Napoleon entered the capital, from where Louis XVIII had recently fled.
The royalists did not pose a major threat: the duc d'Angoulême raised a small force in the south, but at Valence it did not provide resistance against Imperialists under Grouchy's command; and the duke, on 9 April 1815, signed a convention whereby the royalists received a free pardon from the Emperor. The royalists of the Vendée moved later and caused more difficulty for the Imperialists.
Napoleon's health
The evidence as to Napoleon's health is somewhat conflicting. Carnot, Pasquier, Lavalette, Thiébault and others thought him prematurely aged and enfeebled. At Elba, as Sir Neil Campbell noted, he became inactive and proportionately corpulent. There, too, as in 1815, he began to suffer intermittently from retention of urine, but to no serious extent. For much of his public life, Napoleon was troubled by hemorrhoids, which made sitting on a horse for long periods of time difficult and painful. This condition had disastrous results at Waterloo; during the battle, his inability to sit on his horse for other than very short periods of time interfered with his ability to survey his troops in combat and thus exercise command. Others saw no marked change in him; while Mollien, who knew the emperor well, attributed the lassitude which now and then came over him to a feeling of perplexity caused by his changed circumstances.
Constitutional reform
At Lyon, on 13 March 1815, Napoleon issued an edict dissolving the existing chambers and ordering the convocation of a national mass meeting, or Champ de Mai, for the purpose of modifying the constitution of the Napoleonic empire. He reportedly told Benjamin Constant, "I am growing old. The repose of a constitutional king may suit me. It will more surely suit my son".
That work was carried out by Benjamin Constant in concert with the Emperor. The resulting (supplementary to the constitutions of the Empire) bestowed on France a hereditary Chamber of Peers and a Chamber of Representatives elected by the "electoral colleges" of the empire.
According to Chateaubriand, in reference to Louis XVIII's constitutional charter, the new constitution—La Benjamine, it was dubbed—was merely a "slightly improved" version of the charter associated with Louis XVIII's administration; however, later historians, including Agatha Ramm, have pointed out that this constitution permitted the extension of the franchise and explicitly guaranteed press freedom. In the Republican manner, the Constitution was put to the people of France in a plebiscite, but whether due to lack of enthusiasm, or because the nation was suddenly thrown into military preparation, only 1,532,527 votes were cast, less than half of the vote in the plebiscites of the Consulat; however, the benefit of a "large majority" meant that Napoleon felt he had constitutional sanction.
Napoleon was with difficulty dissuaded from quashing the 3 June election of Jean Denis, comte Lanjuinais, the staunch liberal who had so often opposed the Emperor, as president of the Chamber of Representatives. In his last communication to them, Napoleon warned them not to imitate the Greeks of the late Byzantine Empire, who engaged in subtle discussions when the ram was battering at their gates.
Military mobilisation
During the Hundred Days both the Coalition nations and Napoleon mobilised for war. Upon re-assumption of the throne, Napoleon found that Louis XVIII had left him with few resources. There were 56,000 soldiers, of which 46,000 were ready to campaign. By the end of May the total armed forces available to Napoleon had reached 198,000 with 66,000 more in depots training up but not yet ready for deployment. By the end of May Napoleon had formed L'Armée du Nord (the "Army of the North") which, led by himself, would participate in the Waterloo Campaign.
For the defence of France, Napoleon deployed his remaining forces within France with the intention of delaying his foreign enemies while he suppressed his domestic ones. By June he had organised his forces thus:
V Corps, – L'Armée du Rhin – commanded by Rapp, cantoned near Strasbourg;
VII Corps – L'Armée des Alpes – commanded by Suchet, cantoned at Lyon;
I Corps of Observation – L'Armée du Jura – commanded by Lecourbe, cantoned at Belfort;
II Corps of Observation – L'Armée du Var – commanded by Brune, based at Toulon;
III Corps of Observation – Army of the Pyrenees orientales – commanded by Decaen, based at Toulouse;
IV Corps of Observation – Army of the Pyrenees occidentales – commanded by Clauzel, based at Bordeaux;
Army of the West, – Armée de l'Ouest (also known as the Army of the Vendee and the Army of the Loire) – commanded by Lamarque, was formed to suppress the Royalist insurrection in the Vendée region of France which remained loyal to King Louis XVIII during the Hundred Days.
The opposing Coalition forces were the following:
Archduke Charles gathered Austrian and allied German states, while the Prince of Schwarzenberg formed another Austrian army. King Ferdinand VII of Spain summoned British officers to lead his troops against France. Tsar Alexander I of Russia mustered an army of 250,000 troops and sent these rolling toward the Rhine. Prussia mustered two armies. One under Blücher took post alongside Wellington's British army and its allies. The other was the North German Corps under General Kleist.
Assessed as an immediate threat by Napoleon:
Anglo-allied, commanded by Wellington, cantoned south-west of Brussels, headquartered at Brussels.
Prussian Army commanded by Blücher, cantoned south-east of Brussels, headquartered at Namur.
Close to the borders of France but assessed to be less of a threat by Napoleon:
The German Corps (North German Federal Army) which was part of Blücher's army, but was acting independently south of the main Prussian army. Blücher summoned it to join the main army once Napoleon's intentions became known.
The Austrian Army of the Upper Rhine, commanded by Field Marshal Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg.
The Swiss Army, commanded by Niklaus Franz von Bachmann.
The Austrian Army of Upper Italy – Austro-Sardinian Army – commanded by Johann Maria Philipp Frimont.
The Austrian Army of Naples, commanded by Frederick Bianchi, Duke of Casalanza.
Other coalition forces which were either converging on France, mobilised to defend the homelands, or in the process of mobilisation included:
A Russian Army, commanded by Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, marching towards France
A Reserve Russian Army to support Barclay de Tolly if required.
A Reserve Prussian Army stationed at home in order to defend its borders.
An Anglo-Sicilian Army under General Sir Hudson Lowe, which was to be landed by the Royal Navy on the southern French coast.
Two Spanish Armies were assembling and planning to invade over the Pyrenees.
A Netherlands Corps, under Prince Frederick of the Netherlands, was not present at Waterloo but as a corps in Wellington's army it did take part in minor military actions during the Coalition's invasion of France.
A Danish contingent known as the Royal Danish Auxiliary Corps (commanded by General Prince Frederik of Hesse) and a Hanseatic contingent (from the free cities of Bremen, Lübeck and Hamburg) later commanded by the British Colonel Sir Neil Campbell, were on their way to join Wellington; both however, joined the army in July having missed the conflict.
A Portuguese contingent, which due to the speed of events never assembled.
War begins
At the Congress of Vienna, the Great Powers of Europe (Austria, Great Britain, Prussia and Russia) and their allies declared Napoleon an outlaw, and with the signing of this declaration on 13 March 1815, so began the War of the Seventh Coalition. The hopes of peace that Napoleon had entertained were gone – war was now inevitable.
A further treaty (the Treaty of Alliance against Napoleon) was ratified on 25 March, in which each of the Great European Powers agreed to pledge 150,000 men for the coming conflict. Such a number was not possible for Great Britain, as her standing army was smaller than those of her three peers. Besides, her forces were scattered around the globe, with many units still in Canada, where the War of 1812 had recently ended. With this in mind, she made up her numerical deficiencies by paying subsidies to the other Powers and to the other states of Europe who would contribute contingents.
Some time after the allies began mobilising, it was agreed that the planned invasion of France was to commence on 1 July 1815, much later than both Blücher and Wellington would have liked, as both their armies were ready in June, ahead of the Austrians and Russians; the latter were still some distance away. The advantage of this later invasion date was that it allowed all the invading Coalition armies a chance to be ready at the same time. They could deploy their combined, numerically superior forces against Napoleon's smaller, thinly spread forces, thus ensuring his defeat and avoiding a possible defeat within the borders of France. Yet this postponed invasion date allowed Napoleon more time to strengthen his forces and defences, which would make defeating him harder and more costly in lives, time and money.
Napoleon now had to decide whether to fight a defensive or offensive campaign. Defence would entail repeating the 1814 campaign in France, but with much larger numbers of troops at his disposal. France's chief cities (Paris and Lyon) would be fortified and two great French armies, the larger before Paris and the smaller before Lyon, would protect them; francs-tireurs would be encouraged, giving the Coalition armies their own taste of guerrilla warfare.
Napoleon chose to attack, which entailed a pre-emptive strike at his enemies before they were all fully assembled and able to co-operate. By destroying some of the major Coalition armies, Napoleon believed he would then be able to bring the governments of the Seventh Coalition to the peace table to discuss terms favourable to himself: namely, peace for France, with himself remaining in power as its head. If peace were rejected by the Coalition powers, despite any pre-emptive military success he might have achieved using the offensive military option available to him, then the war would continue and he could turn his attention to defeating the rest of the Coalition armies.
Napoleon's decision to attack in Belgium was supported by several considerations. First, he had learned that the British and Prussian armies were widely dispersed and might be defeated in detail. Further, the British troops in Belgium were largely second-line troops; most of the veterans of the Peninsular War had been sent to America to fight the War of 1812. And, politically, a French victory might trigger a friendly revolution in French-speaking Brussels.
Waterloo Campaign
The Waterloo Campaign (15 June – 8 July 1815) was fought between the French Army of the North and two Seventh Coalition armies: an Anglo-allied army and a Prussian army. Initially the French army was commanded by Napoleon Bonaparte, but he left for Paris after the French defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Command then rested on Marshals Soult and Grouchy, who were in turn replaced by Marshal Davout, who took command at the request of the French Provisional Government. The Anglo-allied army was commanded by the Duke of Wellington and the Prussian army by Prince Blücher.
Start of hostilities (15 June)
Hostilities started on 15 June when the French drove in the Prussian outposts and crossed the Sambre at Charleroi and secured Napoleon's favoured "central position"—at the junction between the cantonment areas of Wellington's army (to the west) and Blücher's army to the east.
Battles of Quatre Bras and Ligny (16 June)
On 16 June, the French prevailed, with Marshal Ney commanding the left wing of the French army holding Wellington at the Battle of Quatre Bras and Napoleon defeating Blücher at the Battle of Ligny.
Interlude (17 June)
On 17 June, Napoleon left Grouchy with the right wing of the French army to pursue the Prussians, while he took the reserves and command of the left wing of the army to pursue Wellington towards Brussels. On the night of 17 June, the Anglo-allied army turned and prepared for battle on a gentle escarpment, about south of the village of Waterloo.
Battle of Waterloo (18 June)
The next day, the Battle of Waterloo proved to be the decisive battle of the campaign. The Anglo-allied army stood fast against repeated French attacks, until with the aid of several Prussian corps that arrived on the east of the battlefield in the early evening, they managed to rout the French Army. Grouchy, with the right wing of the army, engaged a Prussian rearguard at the simultaneous battle of Wavre, and although he won a tactical victory, his failure to prevent the Prussians marching to Waterloo meant that his actions contributed to the French defeat at Waterloo. The next day (19 June), Grouchy left Wavre and started a long retreat back to Paris.
Invasion of France
After the defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon chose not to remain with the army and attempt to rally it, but returned to Paris to try to secure political support for further action. This he failed to do and was forced to resign. The two Coalition armies hotly pursued the French army to the gates of Paris, during which time the French, on occasion, turned and fought some delaying actions, in which thousands of men were killed.
Abdication of Napoleon (22 June)
On arriving at Paris, three days after Waterloo, Napoleon still clung to the hope of concerted national resistance, but the temper of the chambers and of the public generally forbade any such attempt. Napoleon and his brother Lucien Bonaparte were almost alone in believing that, by dissolving the chambers and declaring Napoleon dictator, they could save France from the armies of the powers now converging on Paris. Even Davout, minister of war, advised Napoleon that the destiny of France rested solely with the chambers. Clearly, it was time to safeguard what remained, and that could best be done under Talleyrand's shield of legitimacy. Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès was the minister of justice during this time and was a close confidant of Napoleon.
Napoleon himself at last recognised the truth. When Lucien pressed him to "dare", he replied, "Alas, I have dared only too much already". On 22 June 1815 he abdicated in favour of his son, Napoleon Francis Joseph Charles Bonaparte, well knowing that it was a formality, as his four-year-old son was in Austria.
French Provisional Government
With the abdication of Napoleon, a provisional government with Joseph Fouché as acting president was formed.
Initially, the remnants of the French Army of the North (the left wing and the reserves) that was routed at Waterloo were commanded by Marshal Soult, while Grouchy kept command of the right wing that had fought at Wavre. However, on 25 June, Soult was relieved of his command by the Provisional Government and was replaced by Grouchy, who in turn was placed under the command of Marshal Davout.
On the same day, 25 June, Napoleon received from Fouché, the president of the newly appointed provisional government (and Napoleon's former police chief), an intimation that he must leave Paris. He retired to Malmaison, the former home of Joséphine, where she had died shortly after his first abdication.
On 29 June, the near approach of the Prussians, who had orders to seize Napoleon, dead or alive, caused him to retire westwards toward Rochefort, whence he hoped to reach the United States. The presence of blockading Royal Navy warships under Vice Admiral Henry Hotham, with orders to prevent his escape, forestalled this plan.
Coalition forces enter Paris (7 July)
French troops concentrated in Paris had as many soldiers as the invaders and more cannons. There were two major skirmishes and a few minor ones near Paris during the first few days of July. In the first major skirmish, the Battle of Rocquencourt, on 1 July, French dragoons, supported by infantry and commanded by General Exelmans, destroyed a Prussian brigade of hussars under the command of Colonel von Sohr (who was severely wounded and taken prisoner during the skirmish), before retreating. In the second skirmish, on 3 July, General Dominique Vandamme (under Davout's command) was decisively defeated by General Graf von Zieten (under Blücher's command) at the Battle of Issy, forcing the French to retreat into Paris.
With this defeat, all hope of holding Paris faded and the French Provisional Government authorised delegates to accept capitulation terms, which led to the Convention of St. Cloud (the surrender of Paris) and the end of hostilities between France and the armies of Blücher and Wellington.
On 4 July, under the terms of the Convention of St. Cloud, the French army, commanded by Marshal Davout, left Paris and proceeded to cross the river Loire. The Anglo-allied troops occupied Saint-Denis, Saint Ouen, Clichy and Neuilly. On 5 July, the Anglo-allied army took possession of Montmartre. On 6 July, the Anglo-allied troops occupied the Barriers of Paris, on the right of the Seine, while the Prussians occupied those upon the left bank.
On 7 July, the two Coalition armies, with Graf von Zieten's Prussian I Corps as the vanguard, entered Paris. The Chamber of Peers, having received from the Provisional Government a notification of the course of events, terminated its sittings; the Chamber of Representatives protested, but in vain. Their President (Lanjuinais) resigned his Chair, and on the following day, the doors were closed and the approaches guarded by Coalition troops.
Restoration of Louis XVIII (8 July)
On 8 July, the French King, Louis XVIII, made his public entry into Paris, amidst the acclamations of the people, and again occupied the throne.
During Louis XVIII's entry into Paris, Count Chabrol, prefect of the department of the Seine, accompanied by the municipal body, addressed the King, in the name of his companions, in a speech that began "Sire,—One hundred days have passed away since your majesty, forced to tear yourself from your dearest affections, left your capital amidst tears and public consternation. ...".
Surrender of Napoleon (15 July)
Unable to remain in France or escape from it, Napoleon surrendered to Captain Frederick Maitland of in the early morning of 15 July 1815 and was transported to England. Napoleon was exiled to the island of Saint Helena where he died in May 1821.
Other campaigns and wars
While Napoleon had assessed that the Coalition forces in and around Brussels on the borders of north-east France posed the greatest threat, because Tolly's Russian army of 150,000 were still not in the theatre, Spain was slow to mobilise, Prince Schwarzenberg's Austrian army of 210,000 were slow to cross the Rhine, and another Austrian force menacing the south-eastern frontier of France was still not a direct threat, Napoleon still had to place some badly needed forces in positions where they could defend France against other Coalition forces whatever the outcome of the Waterloo campaign.
Neapolitan War
The Neapolitan War between the Napoleonic Kingdom of Naples and the Austrian Empire started on 15 March 1815 when Marshal Joachim Murat declared war on Austria, and ended on 20 May 1815 with the signing of the Treaty of Casalanza.
Napoleon had made his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat, King of Naples on 1 August 1808. After Napoleon's defeat in 1813, Murat reached an agreement with Austria to save his own throne. However, he realized that the European Powers, meeting as the Congress of Vienna, planned to remove him and return Naples to its Bourbon rulers. So, after issuing the so-called Rimini Proclamation urging Italian patriots to fight for independence, Murat moved north to fight against the Austrians, who were the greatest threat to his rule.
The war was triggered by a pro-Napoleon uprising in Naples, after which Murat declared war on Austria on 15 March 1815, five days before Napoleon's return to Paris. The Austrians were prepared for war. Their suspicions were aroused weeks earlier, when Murat applied for permission to march through Austrian territory to attack the south of France. Austria had reinforced her armies in Lombardy under the command of Bellegarde prior to war being declared.
The war ended after a decisive Austrian victory at the Battle of Tolentino. Ferdinand IV was reinstated as King of Naples. Ferdinand then sent Neapolitan troops under General Onasco to help the Austrian army in Italy attack southern France. In the long term, the intervention by Austria caused resentment in Italy, which further spurred on the drive towards Italian unification.
Civil war
Provence and Brittany, which were known to contain many royalist sympathisers, did not rise in open revolt, but La Vendée did. The Vendée Royalists successfully took Bressuire and Cholet, before they were defeated by General Lamarque at the Battle of Rocheserviere on 20 June. They signed the Treaty of Cholet six days later on 26 June.
Austrian campaign
Rhine frontier
In early June, General Rapp's Army of the Rhine of about 23,000 men, with a leavening of experienced troops, advanced towards Germersheim to block Schwarzenberg's expected advance, but on hearing the news of the French defeat at Waterloo, Rapp withdrew towards Strasbourg turning on 28 June to check the 40,000 men of General Württemberg's Austrian III Corps at the battle of La Suffel—the last pitched battle of the Napoleonic Wars and a French victory. The next day Rapp continued to retreat to Strasbourg and also sent a garrison to defend Colmar. He and his men took no further active part in the campaign and eventually submitted to the Bourbons.
To the north of Württenberg's III Corps, General Wrede's Austrian (Bavarian) IV Corps also crossed the French frontier, and then swung south and captured Nancy, against some local popular resistance on 27 June. Attached to his command was a Russian detachment, under the command of General Count Lambert, that was charged with keeping Wrede's lines of communication open. In early July, Schwarzenberg, having received a request from Wellington and Blücher, ordered Wrede to act as the Austrian vanguard and advance on Paris, and by 5 July, the main body of Wrede's IV Corps had reached Châlons. On 6 July, the advance guard made contact with the Prussians, and on 7 July Wrede received intelligence of the Paris Convention and a request to move to the Loire. By 10 July, Wrede's headquarters were at Ferté-sous-Jouarre and his corps positioned between the Seine and the Marne.
Further south, General Colloredo's Austrian I Corps was hindered by General Lecourbe's Armée du Jura, which was largely made up of National Guardsmen and other reserves. Lecourbe fought four delaying actions between 30 June and 8 July at Foussemagne, Bourogne, Chèvremont and Bavilliers before agreeing to an armistice on 11 July. Archduke Ferdinand's Reserve Corps, together with Hohenzollern-Hechingen's II Corps, laid siege to the fortresses of Hüningen and Mühlhausen, with two Swiss brigades from the Swiss Army of General Niklaus Franz von Bachmann, aiding with the siege of Huningen. Like other Austrian forces, these too were pestered by francs-tireurs.
Italian frontier
Like Rapp further north, Marshal Suchet, with the Armée des Alpes, took the initiative and on 14 June invaded Savoy. Facing him was General Frimont, with an Austro-Sardinian army of 75,000 men based in Italy. However, on hearing of the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo, Suchet negotiated an armistice and fell back to Lyons, where on 12 July he surrendered the city to Frimont's army.
The coast of Liguria was defended by French forces under Marshal Brune, who fell back slowly into the fortress city of Toulon, after retreating from Marseilles before the Austrian Army of Naples under the command of General Bianchi, the Anglo-Sicilian forces of Sir Hudson Lowe, supported by the British Mediterranean fleet of Lord Exmouth, and the Sardinian forces of the Sardinian General d'Osasco, the forces of the latter being drawn from the garrison of Nice. Brune did not surrender the city and its naval arsenal until 31 July.
Russian campaign
The main body of the Russian Army, commanded by Field Marshal Count Tolly and amounting to 167,950 men, crossed the Rhine at Mannheim on 25 June—after Napoleon had abdicated for the second time—and although there was light resistance around Mannheim, it was over by the time the vanguard had advanced as far as Landau. The greater portion of Tolly's army reached Paris and its vicinity by the middle of July.
Treaty of Paris
Issy was the last field engagement of the Hundred Days. There was a campaign against fortresses still commanded by Bonapartist governors that ended with the capitulation of Longwy on 13 September 1815. The Treaty of Paris was signed on 20 November 1815, bringing the Napoleonic Wars to a formal end.
Under the 1815 Paris treaty, the previous year's Treaty of Paris and the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, of 9 June 1815, were confirmed. France was reduced to its 1790 boundaries; it lost the territorial gains of the Revolutionary armies in 1790–1792, which the previous Paris treaty had allowed France to keep. France was now also ordered to pay 700 million francs in indemnities, in five yearly installments, and to maintain at its own expense a Coalition army of occupation of 150,000 soldiers in the eastern border territories of France, from the English Channel to the border with Switzerland, for a maximum of five years. The two-fold purpose of the military occupation was made clear by the convention annexed to the treaty, outlining the incremental terms by which France would issue negotiable bonds covering the indemnity: in addition to safeguarding the neighbouring states from a revival of revolution in France, it guaranteed fulfilment of the treaty's financial clauses.
On the same day, in a separate document, Great Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia renewed the Quadruple Alliance. The princes and free towns who were not signatories were invited to accede to its terms, whereby the treaty became a part of the public law according to which Europe, with the exception of the Ottoman Empire, established "relations from which a system of real and permanent balance of power in Europe is to be derived".
See also
Malplaquet proclamation issued to French by Wellington on 22 June 1815
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
(also published as: Vers la neutralité et l'indépendance. La Suisse en 1814 et 1815, Berne: Commissariat central des guerres)
Attribution
Further reading
1815 in France
Conflicts in 1815
Napoleonic Wars | [
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|
215999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimolomyidae | Cimolomyidae | Cimolomyidae is a family of fossil mammal within the extinct order Multituberculata. Representatives are known from the Upper Cretaceous and the Paleocene of North America and perhaps Mongolia. The family is part of the suborder Cimolodonta. Other than that, their systematic relationships are hard to define. Some authors have placed the taxon within Taeniolabidoidea. Kielan-Jaworowska and Hurum (2001) expressly don't.
The family Cimolomyidae was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889.
Notes
References
Marsh (1889), "Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia. Part II". Am. J. Sci. 3, 38, p. 81-92.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology '44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Paleocene extinctions
Late Cretaceous first appearances
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|
216000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemimorphite | Hemimorphite | Hemimorphite is the chemical compound Zn4(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O, a component of mineral calamine. It is a silicate mineral which, together with smithsonite (ZnCO3), has been historically mined from the upper parts of zinc and lead ores. Both compounds were originally believed to be the same mineral and classified as calamine. In the second half of the 18th century, it was discovered that these two different compounds were both present in calamine. They closely resemble one another.
The silicate was the rarer of the two and was named hemimorphite because of the hemimorph development of its crystals. This unusual form, which is typical of only a few minerals, means that the crystals are terminated by dissimilar faces. Hemimorphite most commonly forms crystalline crusts and layers, also massive, granular, rounded and reniform aggregates, concentrically striated, or finely needle-shaped, fibrous or stalactitic, and rarely fan-shaped clusters of crystals.
Some specimens show strong green fluorescence in shortwave ultraviolet light (253.7 nm) and weak light pink fluorescence in longwave UV.
Occurrence
Hemimorphite most frequently occurs as the product of the oxidation of the upper parts of sphalerite bearing ore bodies, accompanied by other secondary minerals which form the so-called iron cap or gossan. Hemimorphite is an important ore of zinc and contains up to 54.2% of the metal, together with silicon, oxygen and hydrogen. The crystals are blunt at one end and sharp at the other.
The regions on the Belgian-German border are well known for their deposits of hemimorphite of metasomatic origin, especially Vieille Montagne in Belgium and Aachen in Germany. Other deposits are in Tarnowskie Góry area in Upper Silesia, Poland; near Phoenixville, Pennsylvania; the Missouri lead-zinc district; Elkhorn, Montana; Leadville, Colorado; and Organ Mountains, New Mexico in the United States; and in several localities in North Africa. Further hemimorphite occurrences are the Padaeng deposit near Mae Sod in western Thailand; Sardinia; Nerchinsk, Siberia; Cave del Predil, Italy; Bleiberg, Carinthia, Austria; Matlock, Derbyshire, England.
References
Hurlbut, Cornelius S.; Klein, Cornelis, 1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed.,
Boni, M., Gilg, H.A., Aversa, G., and Balassone, G., 2003, The "Calamine" of southwest Sardinia: Geology, mineralogy, and stable isotope geochemistry of supergene Zn mineralization: Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 731-748.
Reynolds, N.A., Chisnall, T.W., Kaewsang, K., Keesaneyabutr, C., and Taksavasu, T., 2003, The Padaeng supergene nonsulfide zinc deposit, Mae Sod, Thailand: Economic Geology, v. 98, p. 773-785.
Mineral galleries
Sorosilicates
Zinc minerals
Orthorhombic minerals
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216002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic%20drinks%20in%20China | Alcoholic drinks in China | There is a long history of alcoholic drinks in China. They include rice and grape wine, beer, and various liquors including baijiu, the most-consumed distilled spirit in the world.
Name
(jiǔ) is the Chinese character referring to any drink containing appreciable quantities of ethanol. Its Old Chinese pronunciation has been reconstructed as *tsuʔ, at which point it was generally applied to drinks made from fermented millet. By the time of the first certain use of distillation during the Jin and Southern Song dynasties, the Middle Chinese pronunciation was tsjuw. It is often translated in English as "wine", which misrepresents its current usage. In present-day Mandarin, jiǔ most commonly refers to pure alcohol, hard liquors, and strong rice wine, while wine and beer are distinguished as pútáojiǔ (, lit. "grape jiu") and píjiǔ (, "'beer' jiu"), respectively.
Nonetheless, there are many cultural parallels with the use of wine in European culture. Chinese food employs jiǔ in its recipes and formal dining in an analogous manner; likewise, there are many parallels in upper-class etiquette and religious observance. It appears prominently in all of the Chinese classics, including the Rites of Zhou and the Record of Rites, and has been a constant theme of Chinese poetry since its origins, all similar to the treatment of wine in Europe.
History
Ancient China
Chinese alcohol predates recorded history. Dried residue extracted from 9,000-year-old pottery implies that early beers were already being consumed by the neolithic peoples in the area of modern China. Made from rice, honey, grapes, and hawthorn, it seems to have been produced similarly to that of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt.
Within the Yellow River area which gave rise to the Chinese culture, numerous bronze vessels preserved from the later Shang dynasty (whose oracle bones contained the first surviving Chinese characters) include many which were apparently used to warm alcohol. At the time, millet was the area's staple grain and these drinks may have been similar to modern huangjiu. Traditional Chinese historical accounts such as Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian relate various legends and myths concerning the origin of alcohol in China. One account says that the brewer Yidi presented the first alcoholic beverage as a gift to the emperor Yu the Great BC. Another credits its invention to Du Kang.
Chinese alcohol figured prominently in Zhou-era accounts of the removal of the Mandate of Heaven. The final ruler of the Xia dynasty, the emperor Jie, was said to have shown his decadence by constructing an entire lake of jiu to please one of his concubines. The pool was said to have been large enough to navigate with a boat. The story was repeated in accounts of Di Xin, the last emperor of the Shang. Alcoholism was said to have been so rampant among Shang culture that reducing it presented one of the principal difficulties for the new Zhou dynasty.
In the far northwest of modern China, the introduction of the irrigation and grape vines responsible for Xinjiang's raisin and wine production are generally credited to settlers from 4th-century BC Bactria, one of the successor states to the empire of Alexander the Great. However, new research has refuted the notions of a foreign origin for Chinese grape wine and grape vines, because the history of Chinese grape wine has been confirmed and proven to date back 9000 years (7000 BC), including the "(earliest attested use)" of wild grapes in wine as well as "earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world", according to Adjunct Professor of Anthropology Patrick McGovern, the Scientific Director of the Biomolecular Archaeology Project for Cuisine, Fermented Beverages, and Health at the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia.
Professor McGovern explains: “The earliest chemically confirmed alcoholic beverage in the world was discovered at Jiahu in the Yellow River Valley of China (Henan province), ca. 7000-6600 B.C. (Early Neolithic Period). It was an extreme fermented beverage made of wild grapes (the earliest attested use), hawthorn, rice, and honey.”
And, Professor McGovern continues: “The Jiahu discovery illustrates how you should never give up hope in finding chemical evidence for a fermented beverage from the Palaeolithic period. Research very often has big surprises in store. You might think, as I did too, that the grape wines of Hajji Firuz, the Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia would prove to be the earliest alcoholic beverages in the world, coming from the so-called “Cradle of Civilization” in the Near East as they do. But then I was invited to go to China on the other side of Asia, and came back with samples that proved to be even earlier–from around 7000 BC.”
Imperial China
Following the Yangtze's incorporation into the Chinese state during the Qin dynasty, beer progressively disappeared from use over the course of the Han dynasty in favor of the stronger huangjiu and the rice wines of the southern Chinese. By the Tang dynasty, home brewing seems to have been a familiar domestic chore, albeit the poor had to make do with poorly filtered mash (, pēi). The sticky rice-based choujiu dates to at least the Tang and was specially praised by the Chinese poet Li Bai. The Dutch historian Frank Dikötter describes the period between the Han and Tang dynasties as a "golden age" for alcohol, when it was commonly consumed in conjunction with mineral drugs, notably Cold-Food Powder, until the "rise of a tea culture during the Tang was a significant shift away from heavier patterns of intoxication".
As noted in Shen Kuo's 11th-century Dream Pool Essays, much of the socializing among the gentry concerned "drinking guests" (jiuke). A symposium beginning with drinking huangjiu might involve playing the zither and chess, Zen meditation, calligraphy and painting, drinking tea, alchemy, and reciting poetry, as well as general conversation.
Distillation may have been practiced in China as early as the later Han but the earliest evidence so far discovered has been dated to the Jin and Southern Song. A still dating to the 12th century was found during an archaeological dig at Qinglong in Hebei. Despite the popularity of Islam in the Mongol Empire and its growth within China during the Mongolian Yuan dynasty, the common consumption of distilled spirits such as baijiu dates to the same era.
Modern China
Wine was reintroduced to China at Macao by Portuguese traders and missionaries, who produced small batches for communion. This connection is retained in the Chinese transcription of the name Portugal, or , lit. 'grape teeth'. The production and its effect was minor, prior to the opening of the country by the 19th-century First and Second Opium Wars, after which European alcoholic beverages and methods of alcohol production were introduced throughout China. This European influence is particularly marked in the case of beer, whose modern Chinese name is a Qing-era transcription of the English beer and German . Two of the principal brewers in modern China, Tsingtao and Harbin, are named for the sites of the former major German and Russian breweries. Other establishments such as the EWO Brewery Ltd., (now owned by Suntory), grew up to serve demand for western beer in the Shanghai International Settlement.
Wine remained unfamiliar in China until Deng Xiaoping's post-1978 reforms brought the country greater prosperity and greater integration into the world markets. From practically no consumption, it has already grown to either the fifth- or seventh-largest market for wine in the world with sales of 1.6 billion bottles during 2011, annualized growth rates of 20% between 2006 and 2011, and high future growth forecast. 28th Concours Mondial de Bruxelles, which is a global wine competition is scheduled to held during May 2021, at Yinchuan, China. China ranked 7th in the last competition in organic wine segment, which held in 2019.
Types
Huangjiu
Huangjiu or "yellow wine" is a fermented alcoholic beverage brewed directly from grains such as millet, rice, and wheat. It is not distilled but typically has an alcohol content around 15-20%. It is usually pasteurized, aged, and filtered prior to bottling. Despite its name, huangjiu may be clear, beige, or reddish as well as yellow. The Chinese mijiu, the predecessor of Japanese sake, is generally considered a form of huangjiu within China.
Huangjiu is further classified into various types, based on several factors. Among them are the drink's "dryness", the starter used in its production, and the production method.
Baijiu
Baijiu or shaojiu is a Chinese liquor. It is usually sorghum-based, but some varieties are distilled from huangjiu or other rice-based drinks. All typically have an alcohol content greater than 30% and are so similar in color and feel to vodka that baijiu is sometimes known as "Chinese vodka". There are many varieties, classified by their fragrance, but most are only distilled once, permitting stronger flavors and scent than vodka. The prestige brand within China is the "sauce-scented" Moutai or Mao-t'ai, produced in the southern city of Maotai in Guizhou. More common brands include Wuliangye and varieties of erguotou.
Beer
Modern Chinese beers retrieve from the Russian and German breweries established at Harbin and Qingdao. Most are pale lagers, although other styles are available, particularly in brewpubs catering to the expatriate communities in Beijing and Shanghai.
The principal Chinese brands are Tsingtao, Harbin, and Snow. Other major brewers include Yanjing, San Miguel, Zhujiang, and Reeb.
Wine
Domestic production within China is dominated by a few large vinyards, including Changyu Pioneer Wine, China Great Wall Wine, and Dynasty Wine Notable regions include Yantai, Beijing, Zhangjiakou in Hebei, Yibin in Sichuan, Tonghua in Jilin, Taiyuan in Shanxi, and Ningxia. Yantai alone holds over 140 wineries and produces 40% of the country's wine.
Traditional Uyghur wine from Xinjiang is known as museles (Arabic: , lit. "the triangle"). Its production requires crushing the grapes by hand, then straining them through atlas silk and boiling the juice with an equal volume of water, as well as added sugar. This is cooked until the original volume of the juice is reached and then stored in clay urns along with various flavorings.
A controversial drink that is still nowadays sold in the black market of the country is Tiger Bone Wine: this tonic is created crushing and mixing the bones with rice wine, in a long process that lasts for at least 8 years. The drink has a high alcohol concentration, of about 58% and is used in both traditional Chinese Medicine and Martial Arts, and has been on the market for centuries.
Other
Other fermented beverages include choujiu (made from sticky rice), lychee wine, gouqi jiu (made from wolfberries), Qingke jiu (made from Tibetan highland barley), and kumis (made from mare or yak milk). The peach-scented Luzhou Laojiao prides itself on continuous production since 1573 during the Ming dynasty. The ginger-flavored liqueur Canton is no longer produced in China but is instead imported for consumption in the United States from a distillery in France unrelated to its original production.
Culture
Chinese alcoholic beverages have a long history both as a part of diet and ceremonies (both secular and religious), as well as being a part of the productive activities of many households and commercial establishments.
Cuisine
Chinese alcoholic beverages were traditionally warmed before being consumed, a practice going back to the early dynastic period. The temperature to which the liquor may be warmed ranges between approximately 35 and 55 °C, well below the boiling point of ethanol. Warming the liquor allows its aromas to be better appreciated by the drinker without losing too much alcohol. The optimal temperature for warming depends on the type of beverage as well as the preference of the drinker.
Traditionally, also, the drinks are consumed together with food rather than on their own. Neither practice is binding in modern China.
In addition to being used to brew liquor, the seed mash described above can also be made to be eaten or drunk as a sweet dessert.
Medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine frequently employed alcoholic drinks (associated with yin) and alcoholic drinks were likewise used as medicine. Alcohol including extracts of plants, herbs, animal parts, or minerals are not as common as they once were but may still be encountered. One example of such a medicinal alcoholic drink is realgar wine: consumed during the Dragon Boat Festival, realgar wine consisted of huangjiu mixed with realgar, an arsenic sulfide also used as an insecticide. It appears in the Chinese legend of the White Snake as the substance which forces the snake to reveal her true form. The drink was thought to prevent disease and misfortune (particularly snake bites and digestive worms) and to promote health; although modern Chinese authorities discourage the practice, it is still legally available for consumption.
See also
Alcohol Flush Reaction
Chinese cuisine
Eight Immortals of the Wine Cup
History of wine#Ancient China (section on wine in ancient China)
Jiuniang, a mildly-alcoholic sticky-rice porridge
Non-grape-based wine
List of rice wines
Shaoxing wine (a regional yellow wine)
Snake Wine
Shōchū
Soju
Zhang Qian
References
Sources
"Orient Express." Decanter, June 2006, p. 103.
Schafer, Edward H. (1985) The Golden Peaches of Samarkand. Berkeley: University of California Press. .
Wu, K. C. (1982). The Chinese Heritage. New York: Crown Publishers. .
External links
Shrine to Spirits: Chiew and soju
Types of Huangjiu
Wine in China
China
Rice wine
Drinking culture
Chinese cuisine-related lists | [
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216003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment%20law | Entertainment law | Entertainment law, also referred to as media law, is legal services provided to the entertainment industry. These services in entertainment law overlap with intellectual property law. Intellectual property has many moving parts that include trademarks, copyright, and the "Right of Publicity". However, the practice of entertainment law often involves questions of employment law, contract law, torts, labor law, bankruptcy law, immigration, securities law, security interests, agency, right of privacy, defamation, advertising, criminal law, tax law, International law (especially Private international law), and insurance law.
Much of the work of an entertainment law practice is transaction based, i.e., drafting contracts, negotiation and mediation. Some situations may lead to litigation or arbitration.
Overview
Entertainment law covers an area of law that involves media of all different types (e.g. TV, film, music, publishing, advertising, Internet & news media, etc.) and stretches over various legal fields, which include corporate, finance, intellectual property, publicity and privacy, and the First Amendment to the United States Constitution in the United States.
For film, entertainment attorneys work with the actor's agent to finalize the actor's contracts for upcoming projects. After an agent lines up work for a star, the entertainment attorney negotiates with the agent and buyer of the actor's talent for compensation and profit participation. Entertainment attorneys are under strict confidentiality agreements, so the specifics of their job are kept top secret. But, some entertainment attorney's job descriptions have become comparable to those of a star's agent, manager or publicist. Most entertainment attorneys have many other roles as well such as assisting in building a client's career.
History
As the popularity of media became widespread, the field of media law became more popular and needed leaving certain corporate professionals wanting to participate more in media. As a result, many young lawyers fledged into media law for the opportunity to build more connections in media, become a media presenter, or even land an acting role. As technology continues to make huge advancements, many lawsuits have begun to arise, which makes the demand for lawyers extremely necessary.
Categories
Entertainment law is generally sub-divided into the following areas related to the types of activities that have their own specific trade unions, production techniques, rules, customs, case law, and negotiation strategies:
FILM: option agreements, chain of title issues, talent agreements (screenwriters, film directors, actors, composers, production designers), production and post production and trade union issues, distribution issues, motion picture industry negotiations, distribution, and general intellectual property issues especially relating to copyright and, to a lesser extent, trademarks;
INTERNET: Censorship, Copyright, Freedom of information, Information Technology, Privacy, and Telecommunications issues;
MULTIMEDIA: software licensing issues, video game development and production, Information technology law, and general intellectual property issues;
MUSIC: talent agreements (musicians, composers), producer agreements, and synchronization rights, music industry negotiation and general intellectual property issues, especially relating to copyright (see music law);
PUBLISHING and PRINT MEDIA: advertising, models, author agreements and general intellectual property issues, especially relating to copyright;
TELEVISION and RADIO: broadcast licensing and regulatory issues, mechanical licenses, and general intellectual property issues, especially relating to copyright;
THEATRE: rental agreements and co-production agreements, and other performance oriented legal issues;
VISUAL ARTS AND DESIGN: fine arts, issues of consignment of artworks to art dealers, moral rights of sculptors regarding works in public places; and industrial design, issues related to the protection of graphic design elements in products.
Defamation (libel and slander), personality rights and privacy rights issues also arise in entertainment law.
Media law is a legal field that refers to the following:
Advertising
Broadcasting
Censorship
Confidentiality
Contempt
Copyright
Corporate Law
Defamation
Entertainment
Freedom of information
Internet
Information Technology
Privacy
Telecommunications
Cases
Copyright: In Golan v. Holder, the Supreme Court ruled, in a 6–2 vote, the judges dismissed contentions in light of the First Amendment and the Constitution's copyright provision, stating that the general population was not "a class of sacred centrality" and that copyright insurances may be extended regardless of whether they did not strive for new attempts to be made.
Internet: In 2007, Viacom, a media aggregate that possesses MTV and Comedy Central TV, sued YouTube for $1 billion in light of copyright infringement claims for the unapproved posting of Viacom copyrighted material. In May 2008, YouTube began utilizing its advanced fingerprinting innovation to secure copyright-ensured content.
Television: In an 8-0 choice, the Supreme Court held that in light of the fact that the FCC rules at the time did not cover "short lived exclamations," the fines issued against Fox were unethical and subsequently discredited as "illegally unclear".
Music: Kesha v. Dr. Luke – In 2014, singer Kesha filed a civil suit against music producer Lukasz Sebastian Gottwald, also referred to some as Dr. Luke for gender-based hate crimes and emotional distress. This civil suit caused Gottwald to in return sue Kesha for defamation and breach of contract. This case ended with a judge declining to release Kesha from her binding contract that prohibited her from continuing her career effectively. The judge took note that Kesha had entered an agreement after she had sworn under oath that no harassment was taking place. Many celebrities such as Miley Cyrus, Lady Gaga, and Demi Lovato have shown support for Kesha in an attempt to broadcast the injustice contract laws have played in the outcome of this case. Singer-songwriter Taylor Swift donated $250,000 to relieve Kesha of any financial obligations.
Katie Armiger – In 2016, singer/songwriter Katie Armiger claimed that a handful of DJs’ at radio stations across the United States harassed her during her radio tour while her record label, Cold River Records, justified it by telling her that radio programmers are her ticket to fame. Cold River Records caused defamation and false light against Armigers’ character when they challenged her in a court case that played out in the public eye. Cold River Records held Armiger hostage in a lengthy prosecution that forbade her to release new music or perform live by strictly enforcing the terms and legality of her record contract. Because of this, Armiger lost countless fans with her lack of presence on social media and most likely lost credibility as well by not giving her fans an explanation. There is no law created for instances like this where an artist is unable to breach their contract immediately when harassment is involved. Libel per quod can be applied to this case by showing that Armiger’s statements show plenty of proof and negligence on not only Cold Rivers’ behalf but the DJs’ behalf as well. In the end, Armigers’ character was defamed and a false light was shone upon her when Cold River Records’ head Pete O’Heeron claimed that Armigers’ suit was baseless. Defamation, false light and contract laws have played a significant role in Katie Armigers’ reality through her pursuit to breach her contract with Cold River Records.
See also
Communications law
Morals clause
Intellectual property
Media reform
Media regulation
Music law
Engineering law
Sports law
Sunshine in the Courtroom Act
Safe listening
Performing arts education
Performing arts
References
Mass media
Media law
Entertainment
Performing arts | [
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|
216007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cimolomys | Cimolomys | Cimolomys is a mammal genus from the Upper Cretaceous of North America. It was a member of the extinct order Multituberculata within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Cimolomyidae.
The genus Cimolomys was named by Othniel Charles Marsh in 1889.
Species
The species Cimolomys clarki was named by Sahni in 1972. Fossil remains were found in Campanian-Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Texas and Wyoming (United States). Possible remains have also come from New Jersey (USA). It probably weighed about 300 g, the same as a malnourished rat.
The species Cimolomys gracilis was named by Marsh O.C. in 1889, and has also been known as Cimolomys digona (Marsh 1889); Meniscoessus brevis; Ptilodus gracilus (Osborn H.F. 1893); and Selenacodon brevis (Marsh 1889). Remains were found in Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Montana, South Dakota and Wyoming (USA) and Saskatchewan, Canada. This species likely weighed around 415 g, as much as a modern rat.
The species Cimolomys milliensis was named by Eaton J.G. in 1993.. Remains were found in Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of Mill Creek, Utah (USA).
The species Cimolomys trochuus was named by Lillegraven J.A. in 1969. Remains were found in Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) strata of North America. The holotype is in the collection of the University of Alberta.
References
Marsh (1889), "Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia". Am. J. Sci 3, 18 & 38: p. 177-180
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS; "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of North America
Hell Creek fauna
Prehistoric mammal genera | [
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|
216009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buginbaatar | Buginbaatar | Buginbaatar is an extinct genus of mammal from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia. It is a member of the extinct order Multituberculata, within the suborder Cimolodonta and family Cimolomyidae. It lived towards the end of the Mesozoic era.
The genus Buginbaatar was named by Kielan-Jaworowska Z. and Sochava A.V. in 1969 based on the remains of a single species. Remains of this species, dubbed Buginbaatar clarki, were found in Upper Cretaceous strata of Bügiyn Tsav in Mongolia.
This is the only known Upper Cretaceous Mongolian multituberculate not to belong to the family Djadochtatherioidea. Remains are incomplete and the assignment of B. to the Cimolomyidae is tentative, (Kielan-Jaworowska & Hurum 2001, p. 408).
References
Kielan-Jaworowska & Sochava (1969), "The first multituberculate from the uppermost Cretaceous of the Gobi Desert (Mongolia)". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica 14, p. 355-371.
Kielan-Jaworowska Z & Hurum JH (2001), "Phylogeny and Systematics of multituberculate mammals". Paleontology 44, p. 389-429.
Much of this information has been derived from MESOZOIC MAMMALS: "basal" Cimolodonta, Cimolomyidae, Boffiidae and Kogaionidae, an Internet directory.
Cimolodonts
Cretaceous mammals of Asia
Maastrichtian life
Nemegt fauna
Fossil taxa described in 1969
Taxa named by Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska
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|
216015 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Gerogerigegege | The Gerogerigegege | () is a Japanese experimental music project, founded in 1985 by .
Though they are often categorized with Japanese harsh noise acts such as Merzbow and Masonna, The Gerogerigegege has also released albums of more straightforward punk rock (Sexual Behavior in the Human Male), noise (45 RPM Performance), and ambient music (None Friendly, Endless Humiliation), in addition to several seven inch records mixing these styles with found recordings. The group is best known for their 1990 album Tokyo Anal Dynamite. Juntaro Yamanouchi also ran the Vis a Vis record label.
History
Over the years, The Gerogerigegege has included many members, the most notable and consistent other than Yamanouchi being Gero 30 (aka Gero 56, real name Tetsuya Endoh), an exhibitionist known to masturbate onstage during live performances. Male masturbation is called in Japanese and was Gero 30's trademark. Yamanouchi met Gero 30 at an S&M club in 1986. Other members have included Toshinori Fukuda (aka Dynamite Gero) on drums, Hironao Komaki (Dee Dee Gero) on guitar, Junko Katoh (Gero Grace Seijoh), their live manager, and Masatoshi Katsuya (Gero Route 66), the band's driver.
The Gerogerigegege is known for their releasing records with unusual concepts, such as 1989's released after the death of Hirohito, which bookended a recording of people having sex to "Kimigayo", the Japanese national anthem. A special edition of Showa falsely presented itself as a Ramones bootleg called Britzkrieg '75 (Demo Tracks), with no mention of Gerogerigegege or Showa anywhere on the release. The Night 7″ features a recording of a man defecating into a toilet after the usual "one, two, three, four" count. The compilation album Recollections of Primary Masturbation contains 338 songs, including the entirety of Tokyo Anal Dynamite as one track.
There are also some non-musical conceptual releases including Shaking Box Music: You Are the Noise Maker, which consists of 100 blank cassettes in a large metal box. This Is Shaking Box Music Part 2, which is a destroyed copy of the Mother Fellatio EP in a cassette case. Art Is Over consists of a single octopus tentacle housed in a cassette box. These non-music releases were typically released in even smaller quantities than the music releases, in quantities of 50 or less. Similar concepts are rampant throughout the band's catalog, and often, the more ridiculous the theme or packaging of a release is, the more sought after it is by collectors. Copies of some Gerogerigegege records sell for hundreds of US dollars.
Following the release of Saturday Night Big Cock Salaryman in 2001, the Gerogerigegege became inactive. Juntaro Yamanouchi had seemingly disappeared and people who had dealings with Gerogerigegege had no idea on how to contact him. Rumors proliferated on the internet about his fate. On 27 August 2013, a Twitter post from stated that he had been contacted by Juntaro Yamanouchi.
The first Gerogerigegege release in 15 years, , was released on 20 April 2016 by Eskimo Records, Japan.
Discography
Albums
Studio and Live (as The Gero-P) (1985)
Senzuri Champion (1987)
(1988)
Tokyo Anal Dynamite (1990)
Live Greatest Hits (1991)
Senzuri Power Up (1991)
45RPM Performance (1992)
Hotel Ultra (1993)
Nothing to Hear, Nothing to... 1985 (1993)
Endless Humiliation (1994)
Instruments Disorder (1994)
Mort Douce Live (1996)
Hell Driver (1999)
None Friendly (1999)
RRRecycled Music (~1999)
Saturday Night Big Cock Salaryman (2001)
(2016)
Uguisudani Apocalypse (2019)
Piss Shower Girlfriend (2020)
Singles and EPs
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male EP (1988)
All My Best, with Love Juntaro (~1990)
William Bennett Is My Dick (~1990)
No Sound (~1990)
More Shit E.P. (1992)
Senzuri Monkey Metal Action (1992)
(1993)
Night (1993)
Yellow Trash Bazooka EP (1993)
Mother Fellatio EP (1993)
Life Documents (1994)
Senzuri Fight Back (1994)
All You Need Is Audio Shock (1995)
Veel Plezier met de Gerogerigegege! (1995)
Wreck of Rock 'n' Roll Former Self (1995)
Gay Sex Can Be Aids (split with Origami Erotika) (1996)
Seven Inches of Meat (split with Origami Erotika) (1996)
"Ramones" (split with Bastard Noise) (1996)
(1996)
Eternal Energy (split with Psyalpinx) (1997)
HGI (~1998)
Early Dream Exit (2000)
Live in USA (split with Crowd Surfers Must Die) (2001)
The Gerogerigegege (2017)
Compilations
Singles 1985–1993 (1994)
Recollections of Primary Masturbation (1998)
All You Need Is an Audio Shock by Japanese Ultra Shit Band (2012)
References
External links
the gerogerigegege: 56k performance
The Gerogerigegege discography at Rate Your Music
Japanese noise rock groups
Noisecore musical groups
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups from Shinjuku
1985 establishments in Japan | [
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216017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal%20Gear%20Solid%20%281998%20video%20game%29 | Metal Gear Solid (1998 video game) | Metal Gear Solid is a stealth game developed by Konami and released for the PlayStation in 1998. It was directed, produced, and written by Hideo Kojima, and follows the MSX2 video games Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake, which Kojima also worked on. It was unveiled at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show and then demonstrated at trade shows including the 1997 Electronic Entertainment Expo; its Japanese release was originally planned for late 1997, before being delayed to 1998.
Players control Solid Snake, a soldier who infiltrates a nuclear weapons facility to neutralize the terrorist threat from FOXHOUND, a renegade special forces unit. Snake must liberate hostages and stop the terrorists from launching a nuclear strike. Cinematic cutscenes were rendered using the in-game engine and graphics, and voice acting is used throughout.
Metal Gear Solid sold more than copies worldwide and shipped 12million demos. It scored an average of 94/100 on the aggregate website Metacritic. It is regarded as one of the greatest and most important video games of all time and helped popularize the stealth genre and in-engine cinematic cutscenes. It was followed by an expanded version for PlayStation and Windows, Metal Gear Solid: Integral (1999), and a GameCube remake, Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes (2004). It produced numerous sequels, starting with Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty (2001), and media adaptations including a radio drama, comics, and novels.
Gameplay
The player must navigate the protagonist, Solid Snake, through a nuclear weapons facility without being detected by enemies. When Snake moves into an enemy's field of vision, he sets off an "alert mode" that draws enemies. The player must then hide until "evasion mode" begins; when the counter reaches zero, the game returns to "infiltration mode", where enemies are no longer suspicious. The radar cannot be used in alert or evasion mode. In addition to the stealth gameplay, set-piece sequences entail firefights between the player and enemies.
To remain undetected, the player can perform techniques which make use of Snake's abilities and the environment, such as crawling under objects, using boxes as cover, ducking or hiding around walls, and making noise to distract enemies. An on-screen radar provides the player with the location of nearby enemies and their field of vision. Snake can also make use of many items and gadgets, such as infra-red goggles and a cardboard box disguise. The emphasis on stealth promotes a less violent form of gameplay, as fights against large groups of enemies will often result in severe damage to Snake.
Despite the switch to 3D, the game is still played primarily from an overhead perspective similar to the original 2D Metal Gear games. However, the camera angle will change during certain situations, such as a corner view when Snake flattens himself to a wall next to an open space, or into first-person when crawling under tight spaces or when equipping certain items such as the binoculars or a sniper rifle. The player can also use the first-person view while remaining idle to look around Snake's surroundings and see what's ahead of him.
Progress is punctuated by cutscenes and codec, as well as encounters with bosses. To progress, players must discover the weaknesses of each boss and defeat them. Play controls and strategies can also be accessed via the Codec radio, where advice is delivered from Snake's support team; for example, the support team may chastise Snake for not saving his progress often enough, or explain his combat moves in terms of which buttons to press on the gamepad. The Codec is also used to provide exposition on the game's backstory.
In addition to the main story, there is also a VR training mode in which the player can test out their sneaking skills in a series of artificially constructed environments. This mode is divided into three main categories (practice, time attack, and gun shooting), each consisting of ten stages. After completing all 30 stages, a survival mission is unlocked in which the player must sneak their way through ten consecutive stages under a seven-minute limit.
Plot
Setting
Metal Gear Solid takes place in an alternate history in which the Cold War continued into the 1990s, ending at some point near the end of the 20th century. The game's events take place six years after those in downfall of Zanzibarland, and form the third chapter in an overarching plot concerning the character of Solid Snake.
Characters
The protagonist is Solid Snake, a legendary infiltrator and saboteur. During the mission, Snake receives support and advice via codec radio. Colonel Roy Campbell, Solid Snake's former commanding officer, supports Snake with information and tactics. While he initially keeps some secrets from Snake, he gradually reveals them. He is joined by Naomi Hunter, who gives medical advice; Nastasha Romanenko, who provides item and weapon tips; Master Miller, a former drill instructor and survival coach; and Mei Ling, who invented the soliton radar system used in the mission and is also in charge of mission data; the player can call her to save the game.
The main antagonist of the game is Liquid Snake, leader of a now-terrorist splinter cell of the organization FOXHOUND, and genetic counterpart to Solid Snake. An elite special forces unit, FOXHOUND contains experts specializing in different tasks. Members are Revolver Ocelot, a Western-style gunslinger and expert interrogator whose weapon of choice is the Colt Single Action Army; Sniper Wolf, a preternatural sniper; Vulcan Raven, a hulking Alaskan shaman armed with an M61 Vulcan torn from a downed F-16; Psycho Mantis, a psychic profiler and psychokinesis expert; and Decoy Octopus, a master of disguise.
Other characters include Meryl Silverburgh, Colonel Campbell's niece and a rookie soldier stationed in Shadow Moses who did not join the revolt; Dr. Hal Emmerich, the lead developer of Metal Gear REX; and the "Ninja", a mysterious cybernetically enhanced agent who is neither an ally nor an enemy of Snake but does oppose FOXHOUND.
Story
In 2005, renegade genetically enhanced special forces unit FOXHOUND seizes control of a remote island in Alaska's Fox Archipelago codenamed "Shadow Moses", which houses a nuclear weapons disposal facility. FOXHOUND threatens to use the nuclear-capable mecha Metal Gear REX, being secretly tested at the facility, against the US government, if they do not receive the remains of Big Boss and a ransom of $1 billion within 24 hours. Solid Snake is forced out of retirement by Colonel Roy Campbell to infiltrate the island and neutralize the threat.
Snake enters the facility via an air vent and locates the first hostage, DARPA Chief Donald Anderson. Anderson reveals that Metal Gear REX can be deactivated with a secret detonation override code, but dies of a heart attack. Colonel Campbell's niece Meryl Silverburgh, held hostage in a neighboring cell, helps Snake escape. Snake locates another hostage, ArmsTech president Kenneth Baker, but is confronted by FOXHOUND member Revolver Ocelot. Their gunfight is interrupted by a mysterious cyborg ninja who cuts off Ocelot's right hand. Baker briefs Snake on the Metal Gear project and advises him to contact Meryl, whom he gave a PAL card that might prevent the launch, but he too dies of a sudden heart attack.
Over Codec, Meryl agrees to meet in the warhead disposal area on the condition that Snake contacts Metal Gear's designer, Dr. Hal "Otacon" Emmerich. En route, Snake receives an anonymous codec call warning him of a tank ambush. Snake fends off the attack from Vulcan Raven and proceeds to the rendezvous, where he locates Otacon. The ninja reappears, and Snake realizes it is his former ally Gray Fox, believed dead. Devastated over learning REX's true intentions, Otacon agrees to aid Snake remotely using special camouflage to procure information and supplies.
Snake meets Meryl and receives the PAL card. As they head for the underground base, Meryl is possessed by psychic Psycho Mantis and pulls her gun on Snake. He disarms her and defeats Mantis, who informs Snake that he has "a large place" in her heart. After they reach the underground passageway, Sniper Wolf ambushes them, wounds Meryl, and captures Snake. Liquid confirms Snake's suspicion that they are twin brothers. After being tortured by Ocelot, Snake is confused to discover Anderson's body in his cell, seemingly dead for days. He escapes with the help of Otacon, makes his way up the communications tower, and fends off a Hind D helicopter attack from Liquid. As he emerges onto a snowfield, he is confronted again by Sniper Wolf. He kills her, devastating Otacon, who was infatuated with her.
Snake continues to REX's hangar and is ambushed again by Raven. After Snake defeats him, Raven tells Snake that "Anderson" was, in fact, FOXHOUND disguise artist Decoy Octopus. Infiltrating Metal Gear's hangar, Snake overhears Liquid and Ocelot preparing the REX launch sequence and uses the PAL card, but this unexpectedly activates REX. Liquid reveals that he has been impersonating Snake's advisor Master Miller and that FOXHOUND has used Snake to facilitate REX's launch. He and Snake are the product of the Les Enfants Terribles project, a 1970s government program to clone Big Boss. He also reveals to Snake the government's true reason for sending him: Snake is unknowingly carrying a weaponized "FOXDIE" virus that causes cardiac arrest in FOXHOUND members on contact, allowing the government to retrieve REX undamaged.
As Liquid, in REX, battles Snake, Gray Fox appears, destroys REX's radome, and is killed. Snake destroys REX and defeats Liquid, then escapes with Meryl or Otacon via a tunnel, pursued by Liquid in a Jeep. After their vehicles crash, Liquid pulls a gun on Snake but dies from FOXDIE. Colonel Campbell, briefly ousted from command, calls off a nuclear strike to destroy evidence of the operation and has Snake registered as killed in action to stop the US government searching for him. Naomi Hunter, who injected Snake with the FOXDIE virus, tells him that he has an indeterminate amount of time before it kills him. Ocelot calls the US President; he was a double agent whose mission was to steal Baker's disk of Metal Gear specifications.
Development
Kojima originally planned the third Metal Gear game in 1994 for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. Kojima was initially planning Metal Gear Solid while Policenauts (1994) was still in development. Conceptual artwork by Yoji Shinkawa of the characters Solid Snake, Meryl Silverburgh, who was also a character in the adventure game Policenauts, and the FOXHOUND team, were included in the Policenauts: Pilot Disk preceding the release of the full version of the 3DO game in 1995. After the 3DO was discontinued, development shifted to the PlayStation after Policenauts was released.
The game was titled Metal Gear Solid, rather than Metal Gear 3, as Kojima felt that the previous MSX2 games that he worked on were not widely known, due to the fact that they were not released in North America and only the first one was released in Europe (an NES version of the first Metal Gear was released in North America, but Kojima had no involvement with it or its sequel Snake's Revenge). The word "Solid," derived from the codename of series's protagonist Solid Snake (as well as the title of the second MSX2 game), was chosen not only to represent the fact that it was the third entry of the series, but also the transition from 2D to 3D computer graphics.
Considering first person games difficult to control, the team opted to give the gameplay a 2D style by having it predominantly played from an overhead angle, while using 3D graphics and the ability to switch to first person on the fly to make it feel as though the game were taking place in a real 3D world.
Development for Metal Gear Solid began in mid-1995. Developers aimed for accuracy and realism while making the game enjoyable and tense. In the early stages of development, the Huntington Beach SWAT team educated the creators with a demonstration of vehicles, weapons, and explosives. Weapons expert Motosada Mori was also tapped as a technical adviser in the research, which included visits to Fort Irwin and firing sessions at Stembridge Gun Rentals. Kojima stated that "if the player isn't tricked into believing that the world is real, then there's no point in making the game." To fulfill this, adjustments were made to every detail, such as individually designed desks.
The characters and mecha designs were made by artist Yoji Shinkawa based on Kojima's concepts. According to Shinkawa, Solid Snake's physique in this particular installment was based on Jean-Claude Van Damme, while his facial appearance was based on Christopher Walken. The characters were completed by polygonal artists using brush drawings and clay models by Shinkawa. According to Kojima, "the ninja's cloaking effect is the result of a bug. Of course, it wasn't totally coincidence since we wanted that effect anyway, but we did get a somewhat unexpected result." Kojima wanted greater interaction with objects and the environment, such as allowing the player to hide bodies in a storage compartment. Additionally, he wanted "a full orchestra right next to the player"; a system which made modifications such as tempo and texture to the currently playing track, instead of switching to another pre-recorded track. Although these features could not be achieved, they were implemented in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty.
Kojima used Lego building blocks and toy figurines to model 3D areas and see what the planned camera views would look like. The game was developed by a staff of twenty people, a small team for such a major title. Kojima preferred to have a smaller team, so that he gets to know everyone in the team, knows what they are working on, and can know if anyone is sick or unhappy.
A gameplay demo of Metal Gear Solid was first revealed to the public at the 1996 Tokyo Game Show and was later shown at E3 1997 as a short video. The 1997 version had several differences, including a more controllable camera and blue-colored vision cones. The demo generated significant buzz and positive reviews at the event, for its game design emphasizing stealth and strategy (like earlier Metal Gear games), its presentation, and the unprecedented level of real-time 3D graphical detail for the PlayStation. The enthusiastic response to the game at E3 took Kojima by surprise, and increased his expectations for the game's performance in the American market. The game's Japanese release was originally planned for late 1997, but was delayed to 1998.
It was playable for the first time at the Tokyo Game Show in 1998 and released the same year in Japan with an extensive promotional campaign. Television and magazine advertisements, in-store samples, and demo giveaways contributed to a total of $8 million in promotional costs.
Music
The musical score of Metal Gear Solid was composed by Konami's in-house musicians, including Kazuki Muraoka, Hiroyuki Togo, Takanari Ishiyama, Lee Jeon Myung, and Maki Kirioka. Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provided a song called "The Best is Yet To Come" for the game's ending credits sequence. The song is performed in Irish by Aoife Ní Fhearraigh. The main theme was composed by Tappi Iwase from the Konami Kukeiha Club.
Music played in-game has a synthetic feel with increased pace and introduction of strings during tense moments, with a looping style endemic to video games. Overtly cinematic music, with stronger orchestral and choral elements, appears in cutscenes. The soundtrack was released on September 23, 1998, under the King Records label.
Releases
Metal Gear Solid was first released for the PlayStation in Japan on September 3, 1998. The game was available in a standard edition, as well as a limited "Premium Package" edition sold in a large box that also contained a t-shirt, a pair of FOXHOUND-themed dog tags, memory card stickers, an audio CD featuring the soundtracks from the MSX2 Metal Gear games (including a few bonus arranged tracks), and a 40-page booklet, Metal Gear Solid Classified, featuring production notes, interviews with the developers, and a glossary of terminology in the game.
The North American version was released a month later on October 20. Changes and additions were made to this version, such as a choice of three difficulty settings when starting a new game (with a fourth setting that is unlocked after completing the game once), an alternate tuxedo outfit for Snake (which the character wears on every third playthrough on the same save file), and a "demo theater" mode where the player views every cutscene and radio conversations relevant to the main story. Jeremy Blaustein, who previously worked on the English localization of Snatcher for the Sega CD, wrote the English version of the script. One change in the English script was the addition of Western sources and authors to Mei-Ling's pool of motivational quotes; originally the character only cited Chinese proverbs natively, providing an explanation afterward in Japanese, but this proved challenging to adapt during the translation. The games detected by Psycho Mantis when he reads the player's memory card were also changed, due to certain games (such as the Tokimeki Memorial series) not being released outside Japan. This resulted in Kojima's cameo (in which he thanks the player for supporting his work via a voiceover) being cut from the Western versions, as save data from two PlayStation games not available outside Japan, Snatcher and Policenauts, needed to be present on the player's memory card for this Easter egg to appear.
The game was launched in Europe on February 22, 1999, with versions voiced in French, Italian, and German available in addition to English. A Spanish dubbed version was later released on May 1. Like in Japan, a limited edition of the game was released, although the contents of the European limited edition differs from the Japanese counterpart. The European Premium Package comes with the game software itself and its soundtrack album CD, along with a t-shirt, dog tags, memory card stickers, a double sided movie-style poster and a set of postcards.
The Japanese PlayStation version of Metal Gear Solid was reissued twice: once under "The Best" series and later under "PS one Books." Likewise, the American and European versions of Metal Gear Solid were reissued under the "Greatest Hits" and "Platinum" series respectively. The game is included in the Japanese Metal Gear Solid: 20th Anniversary Collection set and in the American Essential Collection set. The original Metal Gear Solid was released on the PlayStation Store for download on the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable on March 21, 2008, in Japan and on June 18, 2009, in North America and on November 19 of the same year in Europe.
Metal Gear Solid is one of the twenty PlayStation games included in the PlayStation Classic released in 2018. The game is included in both the Japanese and western models of the unit in their respective versions.
Integral
Released on June 25, 1999, for the PlayStation in Japan, Metal Gear Solid: Integral is an expanded edition of the game that features the added content from the American and European versions. It replaces the Japanese voices from the original version with the English dub, offering players a choice between Japanese and English subtitles during cutscenes and CODEC conversations (item descriptions, mission logs, and other text are still in Japanese). Further additional content to the main game include an alternate "sneaking suit" outfit for Meryl (which she wears when Snake is dressed in the tuxedo), a "Very Easy" difficulty setting where the player starts the mission armed with a suppressor-equipped MP5 submachine gun with infinite ammo (substituting the FAMAS rifle in Snake's inventory), an eighth Codec frequency featuring commentary from the development team (unvoiced and in Japanese text only) on every area and boss encounter, hidden music tracks, an alternate game mode where the player controls Snake from a first-person perspective (on Normal difficulty only), an option for alternative patrol routes for enemies, and a downloadable PocketStation minigame. The Torture Event was also made easier, reducing the number of rounds to three per session on all five difficulty settings.
The VR training mode is now stored on a separate third disc, known as the "VR Disc", and has been expanded into 300 missions. These new set of missions are divided into four main categories: Sneaking, Weapons, Advanced, and Special. The first three categories feature standard training exercises that test the player's sneaking, shooting, and combat skills, while the fourth category contains less conventional tests involving murder mysteries, giant genome soldiers, and flying saucers. One particular set of missions has the player controlling the Cyborg Ninja, unlocked by either completing a minigame on the PocketStation and uploading the data to the VR Disc or by achieving the Fox rank on the main game. Completing all 300 missions will unlock a concept artwork of Metal Gear RAY, a mech that would later appear in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty. Additional content includes preview trailers of Metal Gear Solid from trade events and a photoshoot mode where the player can take photographs of fully expressive polygonal models of Mei Ling and Dr. Naomi after completing the main game. Famitsu magazine rated Metal Gear Solid: Integral a 34 out of 40.
The VR Disc from Integral was released by itself during the same year in other regions as Metal Gear Solid: VR Missions in North America on September 23 and as Metal Gear Solid: Special Missions in the PAL region on October 29. While the content of both, VR Missions and Special Missions, are virtually identical to the VR Disc, the unlocking requirements for the Ninja missions and the photoshoot mode were changed accordingly, so that save data from the main game was no longer required. The Special Missions version also adds an additional requirement in which the user must also own a copy of the original Metal Gear Solid in PAL format in order to start the game - after booting Special Missions on the console, the player will be asked to switch the disc with the first disc from Metal Gear Solid to load data before asking the player to switch back to the Special Missions disc to proceed through the rest of the game. This requirement renders Special Missions incompatible with PlayStation 2 consoles made before the SCPH-70000 model.
PC version
The PC version of Metal Gear Solid was released in North America, Europe, and Asia in late 2000. This version was published by Microsoft Game Studios and developed by Digital Dialect. It supports the use of a keyboard or a USB game controller with at least six buttons (with the manual recommending the Sidewinder Game Pad Pro). It also supports Direct3D-capable video cards, allowing for a high resolution of up to 1024x768. The PC version is labeled Metal Gear Solid on the packaging, but the actual game uses the Metal Gear Solid: Integral logo, although it has some differences as well from the PlayStation version of Integral and lacks some of its content. The most significant change was reducing the number of discs from three to two, which was done by giving each disc two separate executable files, one for the main game (mgsi.exe) and the other for the VR training portion (mgsvr.exe), thus eliminating the need for a stand-alone third disc.
One notable omission was the removal of the cutscene before the Psycho Mantis battle in which he reads the player's memory card and activates the vibration function of the player's controller if a DualShock is being used, as this scene involved the use of PlayStation-specific peripherals. The method for defeating Mantis was also changed from using the second controller to simply using the keyboard (regardless of whether the player was using a game controller or not up to that point). Other omissions include the removal of the eighth Codec frequency (140.07), which featured written commentaries by the developers, Meryl's alternate sneaking suit outfit, and the mission logs when loading a save file. However, the PC version adds the option to toggle moving and shooting in first-person view mode at any time regardless of difficulty setting, and players can now save their progress at any point without contacting Mei-Ling through the use of quicksaves. On the VR training portion, all 300 missions, as well as the photoshoot mode, are available from the start, although the opening video and the three unlockable preview trailers from the PlayStation version have been removed.
Scoring 83 on Metacritic's aggregate, the game was criticized for "graphic glitches," the aged nature of the port, and being virtually identical to the PlayStation version.
The Twin Snakes
A remake, Metal Gear Solid: The Twin Snakes, was developed by Silicon Knights under the supervision of KCE Japan and released for the GameCube in North America, Japan, and Europe on March 2004. Although Twin Snakes was primarily developed at Silicon Knights, its cutscenes were developed in-house at Konami and directed by Japanese film director Ryuhei Kitamura, reflecting his dynamic signature style, utilizing bullet time photography and choreographed gunplay extensively. While the storyline and settings of the game were unchanged (although a select few lines of dialog were re-written more closely resembling the original Japanese version), a variety of gameplay features from Sons of Liberty were added such as the first-person aiming and hanging from bars on walls. Another change in the English voice acting was the reduction of Mei Ling's, Naomi's and Nastasha's accents, as well as the recasting of Gray Fox from Greg Eagles, who still reprises the role of the DARPA chief, to Rob Paulsen. The graphics were also updated to match those of Metal Gear Solid 2.
Related media
A Japanese radio drama version of Metal Gear Solid, directed by Shuyo Murata and written by Motosada Mori, was produced shortly after the release of the original PlayStation game. 12 episodes were aired, from 1998 to 1999 on Konami's CLUB db program. The series was later released on CD as a two-volume series Drama CD Metal Gear Solid. Set after the events of the PlayStation game, Snake, Meryl, Campbell and Mei Ling (all portrayed by their original Japanese voice actors) pursue missions in hostile third world nations as FOXHOUND. The new characters introduced include Sgt. Allen Iishiba (voiced by Toshio Furukawa), a Delta Force operative who assists Snake and Meryl, Col. Mark Cortez (v.b. Osamu Saka), an old friend of Campbell who commands the fictional Esteria Army Special Forces, and Capt. Sergei Ivanovich (v.b. Kazuhiro Nakata), a former war buddy of Revolver Ocelot from his SVR days.
In September 2004, IDW Publications began publishing a series of Metal Gear Solid comics, written by Kris Oprisko and illustrated by Ashley Wood. The comic was published bimonthly until 2006, lasting 12 issues fully covering the Metal Gear Solid storyline. The comic was adapted into a PlayStation Portable game, Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel (Metal Gear Solid: Bande Dessinée in Japan). It features visual enhancements and two interactive modes designed to give further insight into the publication. Upon viewing the pages, the player can open a "scanning" interface to search for characters and items in a three-dimensional view. Discoveries are added to a database which can be traded with other players via Wi-Fi. The "mission mode" allows the player to add collected information into a library. This information must be properly connected to complete a mission. Metal Gear Solid: Digital Graphic Novel was released in North America on June 13, 2006, Japan on September 21 and the PAL region on September 22. In 2006, the game received IGN's award for Best Use of Sound on the PSP. A DVD-Video version is included with its sequel (Metal Gear Solid 2: Bande Dessinée), which was released in Japan on June 12, 2008. The DVD version features full voice acting.
A novelization based on the original Metal Gear Solid was written by Raymond Benson and published by Del Rey. The American paperback edition was published on May 27, 2008, and the British Edition on June 5, 2008.
A second novelization by Kenji Yano (written under the pen name Hitori Nojima), Metal Gear Solid Substance I, was published by Kadokawa Shoten in Japan on August 25, 2015. This novelization is narrated through a text file written by a young man living in Manhattan in 2009 (the present year of the Plant chapter in Metal Gear Solid 2: Sons of Liberty). The story also acknowledges certain plot elements from Metal Gear Solid V: The Phantom Pain regarding certain characters such as Liquid Snake and Psycho Mantis.
Reception and legacy
Prior to release, the game's demonstrations at several trade shows between 1996 and 1998 had received a positive response. This had generated significant worldwide interest in the game prior to its release in 1998.
Commercial performance
Prior to its North American release, an estimated 12 million demos for the game were distributed in 1998. Upon release, the game was a commercial success. It became one of the most rented games in the United States, and topped sales charts in the United Kingdom. PC Data, which tracked sales in the United States, reported that Metal Gear Solid sold 1.06 million copies and earned in revenue during 1998 alone. This made it the country's fifth-best-selling PlayStation release of 1998, and the third highest-grossing PlayStation title that year. In the United Kingdom, it was the third best-selling video game of 1999. In Germany, it received a Platinum award from the Verband der Unterhaltungssoftware Deutschland (VUD) in June 1999 for sales above 200,000 copies within several months, and it became the year's second best-selling PlayStation game. In Europe, the game grossed €40,034,122 or in 1999, adding up to more than grossed in the United States and Europe by 1999.
By early 2001, it had sold units worldwide, including 1million units in Japan and approximately 5million units in the United States and Europe. It went on to sell more than units worldwide by 2002. By 2004, the original release had sold and Integral had sold for a combined units worldwide. , the game has sold over units worldwide. In the United States, units were sold .
Despite its high success even in sales, Kojima, during an interview with Geoff Keighley in 2014, revealed that Metal Gear Solid sales expectations were low and said: "Neither I nor anyone else expected Metal Gear Solid to sell at all. [...] I didn't think at all of how to make this game sell well, because I didn't expect it to sell."
Critical response
Metal Gear Solid received "universal acclaim", according to review aggregator Metacritic.
PlayStation Official Magazine – UK review called Metal Gear Solid "the best game ever made. Unputdownable and unforgettable". The review by IGN opined Metal Gear Solid came "closer to perfection than any other game in PlayStation's action genre" and called it "beautiful, engrossing, and innovative...in every conceivable category." Computer and Video Games compared it to "playing a big budget action blockbuster, only better." Arcade magazine praised it for "introducing a brand new genre: the sneak-'em-up" and said it would "herald a tidal wave" of "sneak-'em-ups." They called it a "brilliant, technically stunning, well thought through release that's sure to influence action adventure games for many years." GMR called it a "cinematic classic."
GamePro called it "this season's top offering [game] and one game no self-respecting gamer should be without," but criticized the frame rate that "occasionally stalls the eye-catching graphics." GameSpot was critical of how easy it is for the player to avoid being seen, as well as the game's short length, calling it "more of a work of art than ... an actual game."
Next Generation reviewed the PlayStation version of the game, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "rest assured that this is a game no player should miss and the best reason yet to own a PlayStation."
Metal Gear Solid received an Excellence Award for Interactive Art at the 1998 Japan Media Arts Festival. The Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences nominated Metal Gear Solid for its 1998 "Outstanding Achievement in Character or Story Development" award, although the game lost to Pokémon Red and Blue.
In 1999, Next Generation listed Metal Gear Solid as number 27 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "MGS is one of the most vibrant efforts in gaming history to bring serious ideas to games."
Retrospective legacy
Metal Gear Solid is credited with popularizing the stealth game genre. The idea of the player being unarmed and having to avoid being seen by enemies rather than fight them has been used in many games since. It is also sometimes acclaimed as being a film as much as a game due to the lengthy cutscenes and complicated storyline. IGN called it "the founder of the stealth genre."
The game is often considered one of the best games for the PlayStation and was featured in best video games lists by Computer and Video Games in 2000, by Electronic Gaming Monthly and Game Informer in 2001, by Retro Gamer in 2004, by GameFAQs and GamePro in 2005, and by Famitsu. Hyper magazine in 2001 called it "Probably the single best game on the PlayStation."
In 2002, IGN ranked it as the best PlayStation game ever, stating that just the demo for the game had "more gameplay [in it] than in most finished titles." IGN also gave it the "Best Ending" and "Best Villain" awards. In 2005, in placing it 19th on their list of "Top 100 Games", they said that it was "a game that truly felt like a movie." Guinness World Records awarded Metal Gear Solid with a record for the "Most Innovative Use of a Video Game Controller" for the boss fight with Psycho Mantis in the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition 2008 edition. In 2010, PC Magazine ranked it as seventh in the list of most influential video games of all time, citing its influence on "such stealthy titles as Assassin's Creed and Splinter Cell." In 2012, Time named it one of the 100 greatest video games of all time and G4tv ranked it as the 45th top video game of all time.
According to 1UP.com, Metal Gear Solid'''s cinematic style continues to influence modern action games such as Call of Duty. Metal Gear Solid, along with its sequel, Metal Gear Solid 2, was featured in the Smithsonian American Art Museum's exhibition The Art of Video Games in 2012. During August 2015, Eurogamer reanalyzed the game's technical and overall impact and claimed that Metal Gear Solid had been nothing less than "the first modern video game." In September 2015, Metal Gear Solid was voted the best original PlayStation game of all time by PlayStation.Blog's users.
Notes
References
Further reading
- Discusses this game and Battles Without Honor and Humanity'' by Kinji Fukasaku - Published online on May 30, 2019.
External links
Metal Gear Solid official website
Metal Gear Solid: Integral official website
Official PC version website (Waybacked)
Metal Gear Solid at MobyGames
1998 video games
Action-adventure games
Cancelled 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games
Cancelled Game.com games
Comics based on video games
Video games about genetic engineering
Metal Gear Solid Drama CD
Metal Gear video games
PlayStation (console) games
PlayStation Network games
Single-player video games
Stealth video games
Top-down video games
Video games about virtual reality
Video game sequels
Video games designed by Hideo Kojima
Video games developed in Japan
Video games directed by Hideo Kojima
Video games produced by Hideo Kojima
Video games set in 2005
Video games set in Alaska
Video games set in the United States
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games with alternate endings
Video games with expansion packs
Video games scored by Kazuki Muraoka
Video games scored by Hiroyuki Togo
Video games scored by Takanari Ishiyama
Video games scored by Lee Jeon Myung
Video games scored by Maki Kirioka
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|
216021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periscope | Periscope | A periscope is an instrument for observation over, around or through an object, obstacle or condition that prevents direct line-of-sight observation from an observer's current position.
In its simplest form, it consists of an outer case with mirrors at each end set parallel to each other at a 45° angle. This form of periscope, with the addition of two simple lenses, served for observation purposes in the trenches during World War I. Military personnel also use periscopes in some gun turrets and in armoured vehicles.
More complex periscopes using prisms or advanced fiber optics instead of mirrors and providing magnification operate on submarines and in various fields of science. The overall design of the classical submarine periscope is very simple: two telescopes pointed into each other. If the two telescopes have different individual magnification, the difference between them causes an overall magnification or reduction.
Early examples
Johannes Hevelius described an early periscope (which he called a "polemoscope") with lenses in 1647 in his work Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio [Selenography, or an account of the Moon]. Hevelius saw military applications for his invention.
In 1854, Hippolyte Marié-Davy invented the first naval periscope, consisting of a vertical tube with two small mirrors fixed at each end at 45°. Simon Lake used periscopes in his submarines in 1902. Sir Howard Grubb perfected the device in World War I. Morgan Robertson (1861–1915) claimed to have tried to patent the periscope: he described a submarine using a periscope in his fictional works.
Periscopes, in some cases fixed to rifles, served in World War I (1914–1918) to enable soldiers to see over the tops of trenches, thus avoiding exposure to enemy fire (especially from snipers). The periscope rifle also saw use during the war – this was an infantry rifle sighted by means of a periscope, so the shooter could aim fire the weapon from a safe position below the trench parapet.
During World War II (1939–1945), artillery observers and officers used specifically-manufactured periscope binoculars with different mountings. Some of them also allowed estimating the distance to a target, as they were designed as stereoscopic rangefinders.
Armored vehicle periscopes
Tanks and armoured vehicles use periscopes: they enable drivers, tank commanders, and other vehicle occupants to inspect their situation through the vehicle roof. Prior to periscopes, direct vision slits were cut in the armour for occupants to see out. Periscopes permit view outside of the vehicle without needing to cut these weaker vision openings in the front and side armour, better protecting the vehicle and occupants.
A protectoscope is a related periscopic vision device designed to provide a window in armoured plate, similar to a direct vision slit. A compact periscope inside the protectoscope allows the vision slit to be blanked off with spaced armoured plate. This prevents a potential ingress point for small arms fire, with only a small difference in vision height, but still requires the armour to be cut.
In the context of armoured fighting vehicles, such as tanks, a periscopic vision device may also be referred to as an episcope. In this context a periscope refers to a device that can rotate to provide a wider field of view (or is fixed into an assembly that can), while an episcope is fixed into position.
Periscopes may also be referred to by slang, e.g. "shufti-scope".
Gundlach and Vickers 360-degree periscopes
An important development, the Gundlach rotary periscope, incorporated a rotating top with a selectable additional prism which reversed the view. This allowed a tank commander to obtain a 360-degree field of view without moving his seat, including rear vision by engaging the extra prism. This design, patented by Rudolf Gundlach in 1936, first saw use in the Polish 7-TP light tank (produced from 1935 to 1939).
As a part of Polish–British pre-World War II military cooperation, the patent was sold to Vickers-Armstrong where it saw further development for use in British tanks, including the Crusader, Churchill, Valentine, and Cromwell models as the Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV.
The Gundlach-Vickers technology was shared with the American Army for use in its tanks including the Sherman, built to meet joint British and US requirements. This saw post-war controversy through legal action: "After the Second World War and a long court battle, in 1947 he, Rudolf Gundlach, received a large payment for his periscope patent from some of its producers."
The USSR also copied the design and used it extensively in its tanks, including the T-34 and T-70. The copies were based on Lend-Lease British vehicles, and many parts remain interchangeable. Germany also made and used copies.
Periscopic gun-sights
Periscopic sights were also introduced during the Second World War. In British use, the Vickers periscope was provided with sighting lines, enabling front and rear prisms to be directly aligned to gain an accurate direction. On later tanks such as the Churchill and Cromwell, a similarly marked episcope provided a backup sighting mechanism aligned with a vane sight on the turret roof.
Later, US-built Sherman tanks and British Centurion and Charioteer tanks replaced the main telescopic sight with a true periscopic sight in the primary role. The periscopic sight was linked to the gun itself, allowing elevation to be captured (rotation being fixed as part of rotating turret). The sights formed part of the overall periscope, providing the gunner with greater overall vision than previously possible with the telescopic sight.
Modern specialised AFV periscopes
In modern use, specialised periscopes can also provide night vision. The Embedded Image Periscope (EIP) designed and patented by Kent Periscopes provides standard unity vision periscope functionality for normal daytime viewing of the vehicle surroundings plus the ability to display digital images from a range of on-vehicle sensors and cameras (including thermal and low light) such that the resulting image appears "embedded" internally within the unit and projected at a comfortable viewing positions.
Naval use
Periscopes allow a submarine, when submerged at a relatively shallow depth, to search visually for nearby targets and threats on the surface of the water and in the air. When not in use, a submarine's periscope retracts into the hull. A submarine commander in tactical conditions must exercise discretion when using his periscope, since it creates a visible wake (and may also become detectable by radar), giving away the submarine's position.
Marie-Davey built a simple, fixed naval periscope using mirrors in 1854. Thomas H. Doughty of the United States Navy later invented a prismatic version for use in the American Civil War of 1861–1865.
Submarines adopted periscopes early. Captain Arthur Krebs adapted two on the experimental French submarine in 1888 and 1889. The Spanish inventor Isaac Peral equipped his submarine (developed in 1886 but launched on September 8, 1888) with a fixed, non-retractable periscope that used a combination of prisms to relay the image to the submariner. (Peral also developed a primitive gyroscope for submarine navigation and pioneered the ability to fire live torpedoes while submerged.)
The invention of the collapsible periscope for use in submarine warfare is usually credited to Simon Lake in 1902. Lake called his device the "omniscope" or "skalomniscope".
modern submarine periscopes incorporate lenses for magnification and function as telescopes. They typically employ prisms and total internal reflection instead of mirrors, because prisms, which do not require coatings on the reflecting surface, are much more rugged than mirrors. They may have additional optical capabilities such as range-finding and targeting. The mechanical systems of submarine periscopes typically use hydraulics and need to be quite sturdy to withstand the drag through water. The periscope chassis may also support a radio or radar antenna.
Submarines traditionally had two periscopes; a navigation or observation periscope and a targeting, or commander's, periscope. Navies originally mounted these periscopes in the conning tower, one forward of the other in the narrow hulls of diesel-electric submarines. In the much wider hulls of US Navy submarines the two operate side-by-side. The observation scope, used to scan the sea surface and sky, typically had a wide field of view and no magnification or low-power magnification. The targeting or "attack" periscope, by comparison, had a narrower field of view and higher magnification. In World War II and earlier submarines it was the only means of gathering target data to accurately fire a torpedo, since sonar was not yet sufficiently advanced for this purpose (ranging with sonar required emission of an electronic "ping" that gave away the location of the submarine) and most torpedoes were unguided.
21st-century submarines do not necessarily have periscopes. The United States Navy's s and the Royal Navy's s instead use photonics masts, pioneered by the Royal Navy's , which lift an electronic imaging sensor-set above the water. Signals from the sensor-set travel electronically to workstations in the submarine's control center. While the cables carrying the signal must penetrate the submarine's hull, they use a much smaller and more easily sealed—and therefore less expensive and safer—hull opening than those required by periscopes. Eliminating the telescoping tube running through the conning tower also allows greater freedom in designing the pressure hull and in placing internal equipment.
See also
Coincidence rangefinder
Relay lens
Rangefinder
Vickers Tank Periscope MK.IV
References
External links
The Fleet Type Submarine Online: Submarine Periscope Manual United States Navy Navpers 16165, June 1979
Simulation of a Periscope at NTNUJAVA Virtual Physics Laboratory
Optical devices
British inventions
1902 introductions
Submarine components | [
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216027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dusky%20hopping%20mouse | Dusky hopping mouse | The dusky hopping mouse (Notomys fuscus), is a small rodent endemic to Australia, inhabiting desert regions characterised by sand dunes. Populations have experienced significant declines since the arrival of Europeans, and continue to be subject to threatening processes. It is currently listed as a threatened species.
Taxonomy
The dusky hopping mouse, or Wilkinti, is a mammal in the order Rodentia, and suborder Sciurognathi. The species is in the family Muridae and the subfamily Murinae (includes all Australian native rats and mice). The dusky hopping mouse belongs to the genus Notomys, a group of desert-dwelling rodents.
The species was originally described as Ascopharynx fuscus (Wood Jones 1925) from a specimen collected in South Australia. Subsequent collections were described as Notomys fuscus eyreius in 1960. Hopping mice collected in Queensland between 1957 to 1959 were described as a new species, Notomys filmeri, however, later taxonomic investigation revealed these were Notomys fuscus.
Description
The dusky hopping mouse has pale orange-brown upper parts, occasionally with grey tinged streaks. The under parts are grey-white. It grows to 80-115 mm long, with an average weight of 35 g. The tail is between 120-155 mm long, ending in a tuft of dark hairs. They have a well-developed throat pouch, with an opening surrounded by a fleshy margin with inward pointing, coarse white hairs. Its ears are large and furless for dissipating heat, and they have prominent dark eyes, and strong incisor teeth. It has short front legs, and long, elongated hind feet. with only three pads on the sole. Male reproductive anatomy is distinctive. The glans is small and tapered towards the tip. The surface has large dorsally projecting spines, with slightly curved tips. The testes are extremely small compared to other native rodents. Females have two pairs of inguinal teats.
Distribution
The species historically inhabited large areas of central Australia, south-west Queensland, and far west South Australia, and Western Australia. Sub-fossil specimens were found in far-south South Australia, near the Flinders Ranges. Populations were recorded in the Northern Territory, however have not been observed since 1939. It is highly likely to have occurred in western New South Wales. Distribution has shown a marked decline of more than 90% since the arrival of Europeans, with populations now patchy and highly fragmented. It is currently thought to be restricted to the Cobblers Sandhills and Strzelecki Desert in north-east South Australia, south-west Queensland and far north-west New South Wales. The species was presumed to be extinct in New South Wales, before being re-discovered in Sturt National Park in 2003. Since then, a number of sightings have been recorded near Broken Hill, New South Wales.
Ecology
Habitat
The preferred habitat of the dusky hopping mouse is the crests and slopes of stabilised desert sand dunes and ridges, with sand required for digging burrows. Dense populations tend to occur only within the vicinity of major drainage systems. It does not appear to favour a particular vegetation type, occurring in dunes well-vegetated by canegrass (Zygochloa paradoxa), as well as degraded ecosystems dominated by ephemeral herbaceous species. It has also been associated with perennial shrub species such as nitre bush (Nitraria billardierei) and Acacia species.
Behaviour
The dusky hopping mouse is a social species, living in colonies of up to five individuals. They live in burrows consisting of vertical shafts with a series of entrances approximately 3 cm in diameter, leading to a network of horizontal tunnels and chambers extending up to 2m deep. Notomys species dig their burrows from below, resulting in an absence of loose sand surrounding the entrance holes. This species prefers to forage at night in sheltered microhabitats, rather than open areas, to avoid the risk of predation. It is an opportunistic, omnivorous feeder, however is considered a granivore (74% of the diet). Green plant material, insects, and fruits are also eaten. It does not need to drink water. The neck throat pouch is a glandular area, used for marking territories. Females may scent-mark their young, ensuring they acquire a smell that grants them acceptance within the colony.
Life cycle and reproduction
In the wild, lifespan has been recorded as being up to 13 months of age. In captivity, males and females reach reproductive maturity at 70 days of age. This species is likely monogamous, and females may display selectivity in choosing which males will sire offspring. Breeding is non-seasonal, occurring year-round, in both wet and dry conditions. Females are observed to be polyoestrous, with a gestation period of 32 to 38 days, and a litter size of one to five offspring. An average of 42 days occurs between litters, and the maximum reproductive life for females is approximately 24 months, and males 36 months. Subpopulations may persist at low but stable numbers, however others exhibit “boom-and-bust” variation, with numbers increasing and decreasing rapidly in response to rainfall and resource availability.
Dispersal and movement
When travelling slowly, hopping mice move on all fours, however they hop on the hind feet when travelling at speed. Individuals can disperse over large distances to colonise isolated habitats, crossing areas of hard unsuitable substrate. Foraging distances are up to 400m per night, extending up to 1.5km over three nights. Individuals inhabiting degraded habitats with limited vegetation and food resources show lower mobility, whereas those inhabiting highly diverse habitats with a wide variety of resources have wider ranging movement patterns.
Threats
Predation
Introduced predators such as the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis catus) have detrimental impacts on dusky hopping mouse populations. Where cat and fox abundance is high, dusky hopping mouse populations decline. Cats target smaller prey such as rodents, which can make up a large proportion of their diet. Native species, such as the barn owl (Tyto alba), frequently consume this species, as does the dingo. Dingoes may de-populate localised populations of hopping mice within months, particularly under drought conditions. Crest-tailed mulgara (Dasycercus cristicauda) have also been recorded eating this species.
Habitat degradation
Livestock, kangaroos and rabbits overgraze vegetation required for shelter and food sources, leading to scalding, wind and sheet erosion and a shift from perennial, to less productive ephemeral plant species. Livestock also damage habitats by trampling. Reduced food availability limits hopping mice abundance, and the availability of suitable habitat limits their distribution. However, higher annual rainfall and more productive ecosystems may buffer the effects of livestock, by providing more dependable and abundant resources, allowing mice to proliferate.
Competition
Competition for food and habitat occurs with the house mouse (Mus musculus), which increase in abundance more rapidly under favourable conditions, depleting resources and outcompeting the native mice. The rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) also competes with dusky hopping mice for food. Declines in rabbit abundance, and increased resources, following the release of the Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus (RHDV) in Australia in 1995, saw the dusky hopping mouse increased their extent of occurrence by 241 to 365% over 14 years.
Climate Change
This species experiences natural population declines during dry periods, when food resources are limited, and increase strongly following rainfall events. Decreases in rainfall, less frequent rainfall events and more frequent droughts under climate change may cause declines or extinctions. Predation of hopping mice by dingoes intensifies under drought conditions, which may significantly impact populations.
Conservation status
The total remaining population is estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000 individuals.
International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List: Vulnerable
Australia: Vulnerable (Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999)
New South Wales: Endangered (Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016 No 63)
South Australia: Vulnerable (National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972)
Queensland: Endangered (Nature Conservation Act 1992)
Northern Territory: Endangered (Territory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000)
References
Notomys
Rodents of Australia
Mammals described in 1925
Nature Conservation Act endangered biota
Vulnerable fauna of Australia | [
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216033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panzer%20II | Panzer II | The Panzer II is the common name used for a family of German tanks used in World War II. The official German designation was Panzerkampfwagen II (abbreviated PzKpfw II).
Although the vehicle had originally been designed as a stopgap while larger, more advanced tanks were developed, it nonetheless went on to play an important role in the early years of World War II, during the Polish and French campaigns. The Panzer II was the most numerous tank in the German Panzer divisions at the beginning of the war. It was used both in North Africa against the Western Allies and on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union.
The Panzer II was supplanted by the Panzer III and IV medium tanks by 1940/1941. By the end of 1942, it had been largely removed from front line service and it was used for training and on secondary fronts. The turrets of the then-obsolete Panzer Is and Panzer IIs were reused as gun turrets on specially built defensive bunkers, particularly on the Atlantic Wall. Production of the tank itself ceased by January 1944, but its chassis remained in use as the basis of several other armoured vehicles, chiefly self-propelled artillery and tank destroyers such as the Wespe and Marder II respectively.
Development
In 1934, delays in the design and production of the Panzer III and Panzer IV medium tanks were becoming apparent. The Panzer I had no weapons capable of defeating armor and thus no chance of success against enemy tanks. Designs for a stopgap tank were solicited from Krupp, MAN, Henschel, and Daimler-Benz. Design work on the Panzer II began on 27 January 1934. The first experimental model was ready in February 1935. The final design was based on the Panzer I, but larger, and with a turret mounting a 20 mm anti-tank gun. Production began in 1935, but it took another eighteen months for the first combat-ready tank to be delivered.
Design
Armor
The Panzer II was designed before the experience of the Spanish Civil War of 1936–39 showed that protection against armour-piercing shells was required for tanks to survive on a modern battlefield. Prior to that, armour was designed to stop machine gun fire and high-explosive shell fragments.
The Panzer II Ausf. A to C had 14 mm of slightly sloped homogeneous steel armour on the sides, front, and back, with 10 mm of armour on the top and bottom. Most of them were later given increased armour in the front of the vehicle, most noticeable by the changed appearance of the front hull from rounded to boxy shape. Starting with the D model, the front armour was increased to 30 mm. The Model F had 35 mm front armour and 20 mm side armour. This level of protection was still only proof against small arms fire. This amount of armour could be penetrated by towed antitank weapons, such as the Soviet 45mm, the British 2 Pdr and the canon de 47.
Armament
Most tank versions of the Panzer II were armed with a 2 cm KwK 30 L/55 auto-cannon. Some later versions used the similar 2 cm KwK 38 L/55. This auto-cannon was based on the 2 cm FlaK 30 anti-aircraft gun, and was capable of firing at a rate of 600 rounds per minute (280 rounds per minute sustained) from 10-round magazines. A total of 180 shells were carried.
The Panzer II also had a 7.92 mm Maschinengewehr 34 machine gun mounted coaxially with the main gun.
The 2 cm autocannon proved to be ineffective against many Allied tanks, and experiments were conducted with a view to replacing it with a 37 mm cannon, but nothing came of this. Prototypes were built with a 50 mm tank gun, but by then the Panzer II had outlived its usefulness as a tank regardless of armament. Greater success was had by replacing the standard 2 cm armour-piercing explosive ammunition with tungsten cored solid ammunition, but due to shortages of tungsten this ammunition was in chronically short supply.
Mobility
All production versions of the Panzer II were fitted with a 140 PS (138 HP), gasoline-fuelled six-cylinder Maybach HL62 TRM engine and ZF transmissions. Models A, B, and C had a top speed of 40 km/h (25 mph). Models D and E had a torsion bar suspension and a better transmission, giving a top road speed of 55 km/h (33 mph) but the cross country speed was much lower than previous models, so the Model F reverted to the previous leaf spring type suspension. All versions had a range of .
Crew
The Panzer II had a crew of three men. The driver sat in the forward left hull with the gearbox on the right. The commander sat in a seat in the turret, and was responsible for aiming and firing the cannon and co-axial machine gun, while a loader/radio operator sat on the floor of the tank behind the driver. He had a radio on the left and several 20mm ammunition storage bins.
Variants
Development and limited production models
Panzer II Ausf. a (Pz.Kpfw. IIa)
Not to be confused with the later Ausf. A (the sole difference being the capitalization of the letter A), the Ausf. a was the first version of the Panzer II to be built (albeit in limited numbers), and was subdivided into three sub-variants. The Ausf. a/1 was initially built with a cast idler wheel with rubber tire, but this was replaced after ten production examples with a welded part. The Ausf. a/2 improved engine access problems. The Ausf. a/3 included improved suspension and engine cooling. In general, the specifications for the Ausf. a models was similar, and a total of 75 were produced from May 1936 to February 1937 by Daimler-Benz and MAN. The Ausf. a was considered the 1 Serie under the LaS 100 name.
Panzer II Ausf. b (Pz.Kpfw. II b)
Again, not to be confused with the later Ausf. B, the Ausf. b was the second limited production series embodying further developments, primarily a heavy reworking of suspension components resulting in a wider track and a longer hull. Length was increased to 4.76 metres but width and height were unchanged. Additionally, a Maybach HL62 TR engine was used with new drivetrain components to match. Deck armour for the superstructure and turret roof was increased to 10–12 mm. Total weight increased to 7.9 tonnes. Twenty-five were built by Daimler-Benz and MAN in February and March 1937.
Panzer II Ausf. c (Pz.Kpfw. II c)
As the last of the developmental limited production series of Panzer IIs, the Ausf. c came very close to matching the mass production configuration with the replacement of the six small road wheels with five larger independently sprung road wheels and an additional return roller. The tracks were further modified and the fenders widened. Total length increased to and width to ,. At least 25 of this model were produced from March through July 1937.
Main production models
Panzer II Ausf. A, B and C
The first true production model, the Ausf. A, included an armour upgrade to on all sides, as well as a 14.5 mm floor plate, and an improved transmission. It entered production in July 1937 and was superseded by the Ausf. B in December 1937, which introduced only minimal changes.
A few minor changes were made in the Ausf. C version, which became the standard production model from June 1938 through April 1940. A total of 1,113 examples of Ausf. c, A, B, and C tanks were built from March 1937 through April 1940 by Alkett, FAMO, Daimler-Benz, Henschel, MAN, MIAG, and Wegmann. These models were almost identical and were used in service interchangeably. This was the most widespread tank version of the Panzer II. Earlier versions of Ausf. C have a rounded hull front, but many had additional armour plates bolted on the turret and hull front. Some were also retro-fitted with commander's cupolas.
Panzer II Ausf. D and E
With a completely new torsion bar suspension with four road wheels, the Ausf. D was developed as a tank for use in the light divisions. After the invasion of Poland the light divisions were converted to Panzer divisions. Only the turret was the same as the Ausf. C model, with a new hull and superstructure design and the use of a Maybach HL62TRM engine driving a seven-gear transmission (plus reverse). The design was shorter (4.65 m) but wider (2.3 m) and taller (2.06 m) than the Ausf. C. Speed was increased to 55 km/h. A total of 43 Ausf. D tanks were built from October 1938 through March 1939 by MAN, and they served in Poland. They were withdrawn in March 1940 for conversion to the flame tank Panzer II (Flamm). The Ausf. E differed from the Ausf. D by having lubricated tracks; seven chassis were completed.
Panzer II Ausf. F
Continuing the conventional design of the Ausf. C, the Ausf. F superstructure front was made from a single piece of armour plate with a redesigned visor. Also, a dummy visor was placed next to it to confuse enemy gunners. The hull was redesigned with a flat plate on its front, and the armour of the superstructure and turret were built up to on the front with to the sides and rear. There was some minor alteration of the suspension and a new commander's cupola as well. Weight increased to 9.5 tonnes. From March 1941 to July 1942, 509 were built; this was the final major tank version of the Panzer II series.
Panzer II (Flamm)
Based on the same suspension as the Ausf. D and Ausf. E tank versions, the Flamm (also known as "Flamingo") used a new turret mounting a single MG34 machine gun, and two remotely controlled flamethrowers mounted in small turrets at each front corner of the vehicle. Each flamethrower could cover the front 180° arc, while the turret traversed 360°.
The flamethrowers were supplied with 320 litres of fuel and four tanks of compressed nitrogen. The nitrogen tanks were built into armoured boxes along each side of the superstructure. Armour was 30 mm to the front and 14.5 mm to the side and rear, although the turret was increased to 20 mm at the sides and rear.
Total weight was 12 tonnes and dimensions were increased to a length of 4.9 m and width of 2.4 m although it was a bit shorter at 1.85 m tall. A FuG2 radio was carried.
One hundred and fifty-one Panzerkampfwagen II (F) (Flamm) vehicles were built from April 1940 through March 1942. Initial production of Ausf. A vehicles was based on 46 Panzer II Ausf. D/E chassis that were never completed as tanks, in March 1940 the 43 still existing Panzer II Ausf. D were recalled for conversion and from August 1941 until the cancellation in March 1942 a further 62 Ausf. B vehicles were made from new-production Ausf. D chassis (out of an order for 150 vehicles). The Panzer II (F) was deployed in the USSR, but was not very successful due to its limited armor, and survivors were soon withdrawn for conversion to Marder II tank destroyers in December 1941.
Panzer II Ausf. L "Luchs"
A light reconnaissance tank, the Ausf. L was the only Panzer II design with the Schachtellaufwerk overlapping/interleaved road wheels and "slack track" configuration to enter series production, with 100 being built from September 1943 to January 1944 in addition to the conversion of the four Ausf. M tanks. Originally given the experimental designation VK 1303, it was adopted under the alternate name Panzerspähwagen II and given the popular name Luchs ("Lynx"). The Luchs was larger than the Ausf. G in most dimensions (length 4.63 m; height 2.21 m; width 2.48 m). It was equipped with a six speed transmission (plus reverse), and could reach a speed of with a range of . The FuG12 and FuG Spr a radios were installed, while 330 rounds of 20 mm and 2,250 rounds of 7.92 mm ammunition were carried. Total vehicle weight was 11.8 tonnes. It had 30 mm of armour on the front of the hull and 20 mm of armour on the sides and back and the same on the turret. It accommodated four crew members, the commander (gunner), driver, loader and the radio operator.
Self-propelled guns on Panzer II chassis
15 cm sIG 33 auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II (Sf)
One of the first gun mount variants of the Panzer II design was to emplace a 15 cm sIG 33 heavy infantry gun on a turret-less Panzer II chassis. The prototype utilized an Ausf. B tank chassis, but it was quickly realized that it was not sufficient for the mounting. A new, longer chassis incorporating an extra road wheel was designed and built, named the Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II. An open-topped 15 mm thick armored superstructure sufficient against small arms and shrapnel was provided around the gun. This was not high enough to give full protection for the crew while manning the gun, although they were still covered directly to the front by the tall gun shield. Only 12 were built in November and December 1941. These served with the 707th and 708th Heavy Infantry Gun Companies in North Africa until their destruction in 1943.
7.62 cm PaK 36(r) auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II Ausf. D/E (Marder II) (Sd.Kfz. 132)
After a lack of success with conventional and flame tank variants on the Ausf. D/E chassis, it was decided to use the remaining chassis to mount captured Soviet antitank guns. The hull and suspension was unmodified from the earlier models, but the superstructure was built up to provide a large, open-topped fighting compartment with a Soviet 76.2 mm antitank gun, which, while not turreted, did have significant traverse. Only developed as an interim solution, the vehicle was clearly too tall and poorly protected, but had a powerful weapon.
7.5 cm PaK 40 auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II (Marder II) (Sd.Kfz. 131)
While the 7.62 cm PaK 36(r) was a good stopgap measure, the 7.5 cm PaK 40 mounted on the tank chassis of the Ausf. F resulted in a better overall fighting machine. New production amounted to 576 examples from June 1942 to June 1943, as well as the conversion of 75 tanks after new production had stopped. The work was done by Daimler-Benz, FAMO, and MAN. A much improved superstructure for the 7.62 cm mounting was built giving a lower profile. The Marder II served with the Germans on all fronts through the end of the war.
5 cm PaK 38 auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II
Conceived along the same lines as the Marder II, the 5 cm PaK 38 was an expedient solution to mount the 50 mm antitank gun on the Panzer II chassis. However, the much greater effectiveness of the 75 mm antitank gun made this option less desirable. Production quantity is unknown.
Leichte Feldhaubitze 18 auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II (Wespe)
After the development of the Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II for mounting the sIG 33, Alkett designed a version mounting a 10.5 cm leichte Feldhaubitze 18/2 field howitzer in an open-topped superstructure. This was Germany's only widely produced self-propelled 105 mm howitzer. Between February 1943 and June 1944, 676 were built by FAMO, and it served on all major fronts.
Munitions Selbstfahrlafette auf Fahrgestell Panzerkampfwagen II
To support the Wespe in operation, 159 Wespe chassis were completed without installation of the howitzer, instead functioning as ammunition carriers. They carried 90 rounds of 105 mm calibre. These could be converted to normal Wespes by installation of the leFH 18 in the field if needed.
Limited production, experiments and prototypes
Panzerkampfwagen II mit Schwimmkörper
One of Germany's first attempts at developing an amphibious tank, the Schwimmkörper was a device built by Gebr Sachsenberg that consisted of two large pontoons, with one attached to each side of a Panzer II tank. The tanks were specially sealed, some modifications to the engine exhaust and cooling were needed, as was an inflatable rubber ring used to seal the turret during amphibious operation. A propeller linked by a universal joint to an extension was linked to the tank's engine provided motive power, steering in water being effected by a rudder mounted behind the propeller. Speeds of up to 6 mph in dead calm were claimed, as was the ability to cope with conditions up to sea state 4. Once ashore the pontoons were detachable. The modified tanks were issued to the 18th Panzer Regiment, which was formed in 1940. However, with cancellation of Operation Sealion, the plan to invade England, the tanks were used in the conventional manner by the regiment on the Eastern Front.
Panzer II Ausf. G (PzKpfw II G)
The fourth and final suspension configuration used for the Panzer II tanks was the five overlapping road wheel configuration termed Schachtellaufwerk by the Germans. This was used as the basis for the redesign of the Panzer II into a reconnaissance tank with high speed and good off-road performance. The Ausf. G was the first Panzer II to use this configuration, and was developed under the experimental designation VK 9.01. There is no record of the Ausf. G being issued to combat units, and only 12 full vehicles were built from April 1941 to February 1942 by MAN. The turrets were subsequently issued for use in fortifications. Two were converted to use the 50mm Pak 38 and troop-tested on the Eastern Front.
Panzer II Ausf. H (Pz.Kpfw. II H)
Given experimental designation VK 9.03, the Ausf. H was intended as the production model of the Ausf. G, with armor for the sides and rear increased to 20 mm and a new four speed transmission (plus reverse) similar to that of the PzKpfw 38(t) nA. Only two prototypes were ever completed by the time of cancellation in September 1942.
Brückenleger auf Panzerkampfwagen II
After failed attempts to use the Panzer I as a chassis for a bridge layer, work moved to the Panzer II, led by Magirus. It is not known how many of these conversions were made, but four were known to have been in service with the 7th Panzer Division in May 1940.
Panzer II Ausf. J (Pz.Kpfw. II J)
Continued development of the reconnaissance tank concept led to the much up-armoured Ausf. J, which used the same concept as the Panzer I Ausf. F of the same period, under the experimental designation VK 16.01. Heavier armour was added, bringing protection up to 80 mm on the front (similar to the maximum armour found on the KV-1 model 1941 Soviet heavy tank) and 50 mm to the sides and rear, with 25 mm roof and floor plates, increasing total weight to 18 tonnes. Equipped with the same Maybach HL45 P as the Pz.Kpfw. I F, top speed was reduced to . Primary armament was the 2 cm KwK 38 L/55 gun. 22 were produced by MAN between April and December 1942, and seven were issued to the 12th Panzer Division on the Eastern Front.
Bergepanzerwagen auf Panzerkampfwagen II Ausf. J
A single example of an Ausf. J with a jib in place of its turret was found operating as an armoured recovery vehicle. There is no record of an official program for this vehicle.
Panzer II Ausf. M (Pz.Kpfw. II M)
Using the same chassis as the Ausf. H, the Ausf. M replaced the turret with a larger, open-topped turret containing a 5 cm KwK 39/1 gun. Four were built by MAN in August 1942, but did not see service.
Panzerkampfwagen II ohne Aufbau
One use for obsolete Panzer II tanks that had their turrets removed for use in fortifications was as utility carriers. A number of chassis not used for conversion to self-propelled guns were instead handed over to the Engineers for use as personnel and equipment carriers.
Panzer Selbstfahrlafette 1c
Developed in prototype form only, this was one of three abortive attempts to use the Panzer II chassis for mounting a 5 cm PaK 38 gun, this time on the chassis of the Ausf. G. Two examples were produced which had similar weight to the tank version, and both were put in front-line service, but production was not undertaken as priority was given to heavier armed models.
VK 16.02 “Leopard”
The VK 16.02 was intended to be the 5 cm KwK 39-armed replacement for the Ausf. L, with a Maybach HL157 P engine driving an eight speed transmission (plus reverse). While the hull was based on that of the Pz.Kpfw. II J, it was redesigned after the Panzer V Panther, most noticeably with the introduction of fully sloped frontal armour. Was rejected after developers realized that Panzer IVs and Vs could do similar work without the need for a new vehicle.
Users
(uncertain) – two tanks captured at the Ploiești oilfields after King Michael's Coup; they were probably Panzer IIs
Slovak Republic
(Leftover stock)
See also
List of World War II military vehicles of Germany
Comparison of early World War II tanks
List of armoured fighting vehicles of World War II
Footnotes
References
German Light Panzers 1932-42 By Bryan Perrett, Terry Hadler. Osprey Publishing, 1998
Light tanks of Germany
World War II tanks of Germany
Light tanks of the interwar period
Cavalry tanks
World War II light tanks
History of the tank
Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s | [
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216034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20Nations%20System | United Nations System | The United Nations System consists of the United Nations' six principal organs (the General Assembly, Security Council, Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice (ICJ), and the UN Secretariat), the Specialized Agencies and related organizations. The UN System includes subsidiary bodies such as the separately administered funds and programmes, research and training institutes, and other subsidiary entities. Some of these organizations predate the founding of the United Nations in 1945 and were inherited after the dissolution of the League of Nations.
The executive heads of some of the United Nations System organizations and the World Trade Organization, which is not formally part of the United Nations System, have seats on the United Nations System Chief Executives' Board for Coordination (CEB). This body, chaired by the Secretary-General of the United Nations, meets twice a year to co-ordinate the work of the organizations of the United Nations System.
Six principal organs
The United Nations itself has six principal organs established by the Charter of the United Nations:
General Assembly
The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA/GA) consists of all United Nations Member States and meets in regular session once a year under a president elected from among the representatives. Its powers are to oversee the budget of the United Nations, appoint the non-permanent members to the Security Council, receive reports from other parts of the United Nations and make recommendations in the form of General Assembly Resolutions. It has also established a wide number of subsidiary organs.
Security Council
The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action. Its powers are exercised through United Nations Security Council resolutions.
The Security Council held its first ever session on 17 January 1946 at Church House, Westminster, London. Since its first meeting, the council, which exists in continuous session, has travelled widely, holding meetings in many cities, such as Paris and Addis Ababa, as well as at its current permanent home at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City.
There are 15 members of the Security Council, consisting of five veto-wielding permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) and 10 elected non-permanent members with two-year terms. This basic structure is set out in Chapter V of the UN Charter. Security Council members must always be present at UN headquarters in New York so that the Security Council can meet at any time.
Economic and Social Council
The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is responsible for co-ordinating the economic, social, and related work of 15 UN specialized agencies, their functional commissions and five regional commissions. ECOSOC has 54 members; it holds a four-week session each year in July. Since 1998, it has also held a meeting each April with finance ministers heading key committees of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The ECOSOC serves as the central forum for discussing international economic and social issues, and for formulating policy recommendations addressed to member states and the United Nations System.
Secretariat
The United Nations Secretariat is headed by the United Nations Secretary-General, assisted by a staff of international civil servants worldwide. It provides studies, information, and facilities needed by United Nations bodies for their meetings. It also carries out tasks as directed by the UN Security Council, the UN General Assembly, the UN Economic and Social Council, and other U.N. bodies. The United Nations Charter provides that the staff is to be chosen by application of the "highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity," with due regard for the importance of recruiting on a wide geographical basis.
The charter provides that the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any authority other than the UN. Each UN member country is enjoined to respect the international character of the secretariat and not seek to influence its staff. The secretary-general alone is responsible for staff selection.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC)
United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services (UN-OIOS)
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR, formerly UNISDR)
International Court of Justice
The International Court of Justice is the primary judicial organ of the United Nations. It is based in the Peace Palace in The Hague, Netherlands. Its main functions are to settle legal disputes submitted to it by states and to provide advisory opinions on legal questions submitted to it by duly authorized international organs, agencies, and the UN General Assembly.
Trusteeship Council
The United Nations Trusteeship Council, one of the principal organs of the United Nations, was established to ensure that trust territories were administered in the best interests of their inhabitants and of international peace and security. The trust territories—most of them are former mandates of the League of Nations or territories taken from nations defeated at the end of World War II—have all now attained self-government or independence, either as separate nations or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The last was Palau, formerly part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, which became a member state of the United Nations in December 1994.
Funds and programmes, research and training institutes, and other bodies
The separately administered funds and programmes, research and training institutes, and other subsidiary bodies are autonomous subsidiary organs of the United Nations.
Funds and programmes
Throughout its history the United Nations General Assembly has established a number of programmes and funds to address particular humanitarian and development concerns. These are financed through voluntary rather than assessed contributions. These bodies usually report to the General Assembly through an executive board. Only one UN programme has ever closed in the history of the organization, the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), which ceased to exist in 1959 and was subsequently replaced by the UNHCR.
Each of the funds and programmes is headed by an executive director at the under-secretary-general level and is governed by an executive board. One former fund, the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), was merged with other elements of the United Nations System into a new organization, UN Women, in January 2011.
Research and training institutes
Various institutes were established by the General Assembly to perform independent research and training. One former institute, the International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), was merged with other elements of the United Nations System into a new organization, UN Women, in January 2011.
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)
United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)
United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI)
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD)
United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC)
United Nations University (UNU)
Secretariats of Conventions
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
UNCCD – United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
UNFCCC – United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UNCLOS – United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea established bodies:
ISA – International Seabed Authority
ITLOS – International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
Other Entities and Bodies
Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
International Trade Centre (ITC)
United Nations Office for Project Services (UNOPS)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
Specialized agencies
The specialized agencies are autonomous organizations working with the United Nations and each other through the co-ordinating machinery of the Economic and Social Council and the Chief Executives Board for Coordination. Each was integrated into the UN System by way of an agreement with the UN under UN Charter article 57 (except ICSID and MIGA, both part of the World Bank Group).
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
International Labour Organization (ILO)
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
World Bank Group (WBG)
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID)
International Development Association (IDA)
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA)
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
International Refugee Organization (IRO); ceased to exist in 1952
Related organizations
Some organizations have a relationship with the UN defined by an arrangement different from the agreements between the specialized agencies and the UN, which are established under Articles 57 and 63 of the United Nations Charter.
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
The IOM, established in 1951, is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration and works closely with governmental, intergovernmental and non-governmental partners. IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration, to promote international cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the search for practical solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and internally displaced people. In September 2016, IOM joined the United Nations System as a related organization during the United Nations General Assembly high-level summit to address large movements of refugees and migrants.
Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization Preparatory Commission (CTBTO PrepCom)
The CTBTO PrepCom reports to the UN General Assembly.
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
The relationship between the IAEA and the UN was established by a resolution of the UN General Assembly. Unlike the specialized agencies which report to ECOSOC, the IAEA reports to the General Assembly as well as the Security Council. Like the other specialized agency's heads, their executives are part of the United Nations System Chief Executives' Board for Coordination (CEB).
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
The OPCW is not an agency of the United Nations, but cooperates both on policy and practical issues. On 7 September 2000 the OPCW and the UN signed a co-operation agreement outlining how they were to co-ordinate their activities. Under this agreement, the OPCW reports to the UN General Assembly.
World Trade Organization (WTO)
The WTO does not have a formal agreement with the UN. Instead, their relationship is governed by exchanges of letters. Unlike the specialized agencies and the IAEA, the WTO has no reporting obligations towards any of the principal organs of the UN, but provides contribution to the work of the General Assembly and ECOSOC. The WTO has a seat on the CEB.
Chief Executives Board and Senior Management Group
The United Nations Chief Executives' Board for Coordination (CEB) brings together on a regular basis the executive heads of the organizations of the United Nations System, under the chairmanship of the secretary-general of the UN. The CEB aims to further co-ordination and co-operation on a whole range of substantive and management issues facing UN System organizations. In addition to its regular reviews of contemporary political issues and major concerns facing the UN System, the CEB approves policy statements on behalf of the UN System as a whole. Three committees report to the CEB, namely the High-level Committee on Programme (HCLP), the High-level Committee on Management (HCLM) and the United Nations Development Group (UNDG). Each of those bodies has, in turn, developed a subsidiary machinery of regular and bodies on the substantive and managerial aspects of inter-agency co-ordination. The committee structure is supported by a CEB secretariat located in New York and Geneva.
There is also a Senior Management Group, composed of some of the senior officials in the secretariat and the funds and programmes at the Under-Secretary-General and Assistant Secretary-General rank, which serves as the cabinet of the Secretary-General.
United Nations common system
The United Nations, its subsidiary bodies, thirteen of the specialized agencies (ILO, FAO, UNESCO, WHO, ICAO, UPU, ITU, WMO, IMO, WIPO, IFAD, UNIDO, and UNWTO), and one related body (IAEA) are part of the United Nations common system of salaries, allowances, and benefits administered by the International Civil Service Commission. Most, but not all, of the members of the United Nations System are part of the common system; the Bretton Woods institutions (i.e. the World Bank Group and the IMF) are notable exceptions. The WTO utilizes the OECD common system. The UN common system was established to prevent competition amongst organizations of the United Nations System for staff and to facilitate co-operation and exchange between organizations.
Some international organizations that are not part of the United Nations System (and therefore not members of the common system) but who voluntarily follow the policies of the common system in whole or in part include:
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)
Organization of American States (OAS)
See also
League of Nations for a rudimentary model on which the UN System is based
List of United Nations organizations by location
Member states of the United Nations
Outline of the United Nations
Special Service Agreement
Vienna formula
References
External links
Official directory of the UN System
Details of main UN System bodies
UN System Organizational Chart
Global Issues on the UN Agenda
UN System – CEB (Chief Executives Board)
UN – Senior Management Group
United Nations – Official site | [
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|
216035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural%20Municipality%20of%20Gimli | Rural Municipality of Gimli | The Rural Municipality of Gimli is a rural municipality located in the Interlake Region of south-central Manitoba, Canada, on the western shore of Lake Winnipeg. It is about north of the provincial capital Winnipeg. The rural municipality's population in the 2016 Canadian Census was 6,181, making it the 12th largest rural municipality by population. The RM of Gimli has an area of , making it the sixth smallest rural municipality by area.
The unincorporated community of Gimli and the surrounding district were once an Icelandic ethnic block settlement, and the area, known as New Iceland, is home to the largest concentration of people of Icelandic ancestry outside Iceland. It also has significant Ukrainian and German communities, at 12% and 6% respectively.
The Town of Winnipeg Beach lies adjacent to its southeast corner, on the shores of Lake Winnipeg, between it and the Rural Municipality of St. Andrews to the south.
History
The Rural Municipality of Gimli was first settled by a large group of Icelandic settlers who arrived in New Iceland on Lake Winnipeg in the 1870s. Other settlements established beyond the community of Gimli with further fisheries based settlements at Arnes, Hnausa, Beyond the borders of Manitoba as it was then, this settlement fell within the District of Keewatin, until 1881 when Manitoba was enlarged. In 1897, the Gimli area was opened up to homesteaders and saw a surge of settlers from Ukraine, Poland, Hungary and Germany. Originally organized as a self-administering "Icelandic reserve" directly responsible to Ottawa, the settlers of New Iceland developed a unique constitution of by-laws for local government which remained in effect until 1887. The initial status of New Iceland as a "reserve" remained in effect until 1899.
Fishing was always a primary source of income for those in the riding since the arrival of the original settlers of New Iceland. Some of the production of the fish occurred outside of the town of Gimli, such as the now abandoned fish processing plant in Arnes, Manitoba, that was built in 1951.
In the Gimli Glider incident on 23 July 1983, an Air Canada Boeing 767 en route from Montreal to Edmonton ran out of fuel and made an unpowered landing on a decommissioned runway (converted to a drag strip) at Gimli Industrial Park Airport, a former RCAF base near Gimli with no control tower and no fire trucks available. A reenactment of the incident aired on Discovery Channel's Mayday series and on Syfy's Urban Legends series.
The Town of Gimli amalgamated with the Rural Municipality of Gimli on January 1, 2003.
Communities
Arnes
Camp Morton
Gimli
Husavik
Sandy Hook
Silver Harbour
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Gimli recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
In 2016, the average age of RM of Gimli residents was 51.4 years old, this was well over the provincial average of 39.4 The percentage of the population 65 years or older was 33.5% of the population, this was nearly double the provincial average of 15.6% of the population in the age bracket.
RM of Gimli residents claim Icelandic heritage as the fourth largest ethnic background with 20.7% of the entire rural municipality claiming some Icelandic background or 1,250 people, behind English, Scottish, and Ukrainians in the top three.
Economy
Fishing has historically been the main economic driver in the Rural Municipality of Gimli. There are over 100 commercial fishers in the RM of Gimli, catching mainly pickerel in the south basin and white fish in the north basin. During the summer months, tourism is a major industry, as thousands of summer cottagers fill the Rural Municipality of Gimli, especially on weekends. Hotels, restaurants and stores cater to the summer visitors. Agriculture has also been a driver of the economy in the rural municipality.
Arts and culture
With a large and historic Icelandic culture along the shore of Lake Winnipeg from Husavik north to Hnausa, there are many celebrations and recognition of this heritage throughout the year and the communities in the RM of Gimli. Most of these are celebrated in the town of Gimli itself, though others can be found in the other settlements throughout the RM of Gimli. Aside from the Icelandic heritage, there is also a visible Ukrainian cultural history in the rural municipality with a few churches and cemeteries across the landscape.
Notable people
Vilhjálmur Stefánsson, ethnologist and Arctic explorer born in Arnes, Manitoba.
See also
Gimli Industrial Park Airport
References
External links
RM of Gimli Municipal Heritage Advisory Committee
Map of Gimli R.M. at Statcan
Gimli
Places in Canada settled by Icelanders | [
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|
216036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marburg-Biedenkopf | Marburg-Biedenkopf | Marburg-Biedenkopf is a Kreis (district) in the west of Hesse, Germany. Neighboring districts are Waldeck-Frankenberg, Schwalm-Eder, Vogelsbergkreis, Gießen, Lahn-Dill, Siegen-Wittgenstein.
History
The district was created in 1974 when the districts Marburg, Biedenkopf and the former urban district of Marburg were merged.
The district has partnerships with Huntingdonshire in the United Kingdom, the borough of Charlottenburg in Berlin, and the district of Kościerzyna in Poland.
Geography
The main river in the district is the Lahn.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows the lion of Hesse, as Marburg was the seat of the landgraves of Hesse, and also their tomb is located in a church in Marburg. The coat held by the lion shows the black cross of the Counts of the Teutonic Knights, who had a castle in Marburg as well.
Towns and municipalities
References
External links
Official website
Tourism in Marburg-Biedenkopf
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|
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