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215199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis%20media | Otitis media | Otitis media is a group of inflammatory diseases of the middle ear. One of the two main types is acute otitis media (AOM), an infection of rapid onset that usually presents with ear pain. In young children this may result in pulling at the ear, increased crying, and poor sleep. Decreased eating and a fever may also be present. The other main type is otitis media with effusion (OME), typically not associated with symptoms, although occasionally a feeling of fullness is described; it is defined as the presence of non-infectious fluid in the middle ear which may persist for weeks or months often after an episode of acute otitis media. Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is middle ear inflammation that results in a perforated tympanic membrane with discharge from the ear for more than six weeks. It may be a complication of acute otitis media. Pain is rarely present. All three types of otitis media may be associated with hearing loss. If children with hearing loss due to OME do not learn sign language, it may affect their ability to learn.
The cause of AOM is related to childhood anatomy and immune function. Either bacteria or viruses may be involved. Risk factors include exposure to smoke, use of pacifiers, and attending daycare. It occurs more commonly among indigenous peoples and those who have cleft lip and palate or Down syndrome. OME frequently occurs following AOM and may be related to viral upper respiratory infections, irritants such as smoke, or allergies. Looking at the eardrum is important for making the correct diagnosis. Signs of AOM include bulging or a lack of movement of the tympanic membrane from a puff of air. New discharge not related to otitis externa also indicates the diagnosis.
A number of measures decrease the risk of otitis media including pneumococcal and influenza vaccination, breastfeeding, and avoiding tobacco smoke. The use of pain medications for AOM is important. This may include paracetamol (acetaminophen), ibuprofen, benzocaine ear drops, or opioids. In AOM, antibiotics may speed recovery but may result in side effects. Antibiotics are often recommended in those with severe disease or under two years old. In those with less severe disease they may only be recommended in those who do not improve after two or three days. The initial antibiotic of choice is typically amoxicillin. In those with frequent infections tympanostomy tubes may decrease recurrence. In children with otitis media with effusion antibiotics may increase resolution of symptoms, but may cause diarrhoea, vomiting and skin rash.
Worldwide AOM affects about 11% of people a year (about 325 to 710 million cases). Half the cases involve children less than five years of age and it is more common among males. Of those affected about 4.8% or 31 million develop chronic suppurative otitis media. The total number of people with CSOM is estimated at 65–330 million people. Before the age of ten OME affects about 80% of children at some point. Otitis media resulted in 3,200 deaths in 2015 – down from 4,900 deaths in 1990.
Signs and symptoms
The primary symptom of acute otitis media is ear pain; other possible symptoms include fever, reduced hearing during periods of illness, tenderness on touch of the skin above the ear, purulent discharge from the ears, irritability, ear blocking sensation and diarrhea (in infants). Since an episode of otitis media is usually precipitated by an upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), there are often accompanying symptoms like a cough and nasal discharge. One might also experience a feeling of fullness in the ear.
Discharge from the ear can be caused by acute otitis media with perforation of the eardrum, chronic suppurative otitis media, tympanostomy tube otorrhea, or acute otitis externa. Trauma, such as a basilar skull fracture, can also lead to cerebrospinal fluid otorrhea (discharge of CSF from the ear) due to cerebral spinal drainage from the brain and its covering (meninges).
Causes
The common cause of all forms of otitis media is dysfunction of the Eustachian tube. This is usually due to inflammation of the mucous membranes in the nasopharynx, which can be caused by a viral upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), strep throat, or possibly by allergies.
By reflux or aspiration of unwanted secretions from the nasopharynx into the normally sterile middle-ear space, the fluid may then become infected — usually with bacteria. The virus that caused the initial upper respiratory infection can itself be identified as the pathogen causing the infection.
Diagnosis
As its typical symptoms overlap with other conditions, such as acute external otitis, symptoms alone are not sufficient to predict whether acute otitis media is present; it has to be complemented by visualization of the tympanic membrane. Examiners may use a pneumatic otoscope with a rubber bulb attached to assess the mobility of the tympanic membrane. Other methods to diagnose otitis media is with a tympanometry, reflectometry or hearing test.
In more severe cases, such as those with associated hearing loss or high fever, audiometry, tympanogram, temporal bone CT and MRI can be used to assess for associated complications, such as mastoid effusion, subperiosteal abscess formation, bony destruction, venous thrombosis or meningitis.
Acute otitis media in children with moderate to severe bulging of the tympanic membrane or new onset of otorrhea (drainage) is not due to external otitis. Also, the diagnosis may be made in children who have mild bulging of the ear drum and recent onset of ear pain (less than 48 hours) or intense erythema (redness) of the ear drum.
To confirm the diagnosis, middle-ear effusion and inflammation of the eardrum have to be identified; signs of these are fullness, bulging, cloudiness and redness of the eardrum. It is important to attempt to differentiate between acute otitis media and otitis media with effusion (OME), as antibiotics are not recommended for OME. It has been suggested that bulging of the tympanic membrane is the best sign to differentiate AOM from OME, with a bulging of the membrane suggesting AOM rather than OME.
Viral otitis may result in blisters on the external side of the tympanic membrane, which is called bullous myringitis (myringa being Latin for "eardrum").
However, sometimes even examination of the eardrum may not be able to confirm the diagnosis, especially if the canal is small. If wax in the ear canal obscures a clear view of the eardrum it should be removed using a blunt cerumen curette or a wire loop. Also, an upset young child's crying can cause the eardrum to look inflamed due to distension of the small blood vessels on it, mimicking the redness associated with otitis media.
Acute otitis media
The most common bacteria isolated from the middle ear in AOM are Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and Staphylococcus aureus.
Otitis media with effusion
Otitis media with effusion (OME), also known as serous otitis media (SOM) or secretory otitis media (SOM), and colloquially referred to as 'glue ear,' is fluid accumulation that can occur in the middle ear and mastoid air cells due to negative pressure produced by dysfunction of the Eustachian tube. This can be associated with a viral upper respiratory infection (URI) or bacterial infection such as otitis media. An effusion can cause conductive hearing loss if it interferes with the transmission of vibrations of middle ear bones to the vestibulocochlear nerve complex that are created by sound waves.
Early-onset OME is associated with feeding of infants while lying down, early entry into group child care, parental smoking, lack, or too short a period of breastfeeding and greater amounts of time spent in group child care, particularly those with a large number of children. These risk factors increase the incidence and duration of OME during the first two years of life.
Chronic suppurative otitis media
Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is a chronic inflammation of the middle ear and mastoid cavity that is characterised by discharge from the middle ear through a perforated tympanic membrane for at least 6 weeks. CSOM occurs following an upper respiratory tract infection that has led to acute otitis media. This progresses to a prolonged inflammatory response causing mucosal (middle ear) oedema, ulceration and perforation. The middle ear attempts to resolve this ulceration by production of granulation tissue and polyp formation. This can lead to increased discharge and failure to arrest the inflammation, and to development of CSOM, which is also often associated with cholesteatoma. There may be enough pus that it drains to the outside of the ear (otorrhea), or the pus may be minimal enough to be seen only on examination with an otoscope or binocular microscope. Hearing impairment often accompanies this disease. People are at increased risk of developing CSOM when they have poor eustachian tube function, a history of multiple episodes of acute otitis media, live in crowded conditions, and attend paediatric day care facilities. Those with craniofacial malformations such as cleft lip and palate, Down syndrome, and microcephaly are at higher risk.
Worldwide approximately 11% of the human population is affected by AOM every year, or 709 million cases. About 4.4% of the population develop CSOM.
According to the World Health Organization, CSOM is a primary cause of hearing loss in children. Adults with recurrent episodes of CSOM have a higher risk of developing permanent conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.
In Britain, 0.9% of children and 0.5% of adults have CSOM, with no difference between the sexes. The incidence of CSOM across the world varies dramatically where high income countries have a relatively low prevalence while in low income countries the prevalence may be up to three times as great. Each year 21,000 people worldwide die due to complications of CSOM.
Adhesive otitis media
Adhesive otitis media occurs when a thin retracted ear drum becomes sucked into the middle-ear space and stuck (i.e., adherent) to the ossicles and other bones of the middle ear.
Prevention
AOM is far less common in breastfed infants than in formula-fed infants, and the greatest protection is associated with exclusive breastfeeding (no formula use) for the first six months of life. A longer duration of breastfeeding is correlated with a longer protective effect.
Pneumococcal conjugate vaccines (PCV) in early infancy decrease the risk of acute otitis media in healthy infants. PCV is recommended for all children, and, if implemented broadly, PCV would have a significant public health benefit. Influenza vaccination in children appears to reduce rates of AOM by 4% and the use of antibiotics by 11% over 6 months. However, the vaccine resulted in increased adverse-effects such as fever and runny nose. The small reduction in AOM may not justify the side effects and inconvenience of influenza vaccination every year for this purpose alone. PCV does not appear to decrease the risk of otitis media when given to high-risk infants or for older children who have previously experienced otitis media.
Risk factors such as season, allergy predisposition and presence of older siblings are known to be determinants of recurrent otitis media and persistent middle-ear effusions (MEE). History of recurrence, environmental exposure to tobacco smoke, use of daycare, and lack of breastfeeding have all been associated with increased risk of development, recurrence, and persistent MEE. Pacifier use has been associated with more frequent episodes of AOM.
Long-term antibiotics, while they decrease rates of infection during treatment, have an unknown effect on long-term outcomes such as hearing loss. This method of prevention has been associated with emergence of antibiotic-resistant otitic bacteria. They are thus not recommended.
There is moderate evidence that the sugar substitute xylitol may reduce infection rates in those who go to daycare.
Evidence does not support zinc supplementation as an effort to reduce otitis rates except maybe in those with severe malnutrition such as marasmus.
Probiotics do not show evidence of preventing acute otitis media in children.
Management
Oral and topical pain killers are effective to treat the pain caused by otitis media. Oral agents include ibuprofen, paracetamol (acetaminophen), and opiates. Evidence for the combination over single agents is lacking. Topical agents shown to be effective include antipyrine and benzocaine ear drops. Decongestants and antihistamines, either nasal or oral, are not recommended due to the lack of benefit and concerns regarding side effects. Half of cases of ear pain in children resolve without treatment in three days and 90% resolve in seven or eight days. The use of steroids is not supported by the evidence for acute otitis media.
Antibiotics
It is important to weigh the benefits and harms before using antibiotics for acute otitis media. As over 82% of acute episodes settle without treatment, about 20 children must be treated to prevent one case of ear pain, 33 children to prevent one perforation, and 11 children to prevent one opposite-side ear infection. For every 14 children treated with antibiotics, one child has an episode of either vomiting, diarrhea or a rash. If pain is present, pain medications may be used. For people requiring surgery to treat otitis media with effusion, preventative antibiotics may not help reduce the risk of post-surgical complications.
For bilateral acute otitis media in infants younger than 24 months of age, there is evidence that the benefits of antibiotics outweigh the harms. A 2015 Cochrane review concluded that watchful waiting is the preferred approach for children over six months with non severe acute otitis media.
Most children older than 6 months of age who have acute otitis media do not benefit from treatment with antibiotics. If antibiotics are used, a narrow-spectrum antibiotic like amoxicillin is generally recommended, as broad-spectrum antibiotics may be associated with more adverse events. If there is resistance or use of amoxicillin in the last 30 days then amoxicillin-clavulanate or another penicillin derivative plus beta lactamase inhibitor is recommended. Taking amoxicillin once a day may be as effective as twice or three times a day. While less than 7 days of antibiotics have fewer side effects, more than seven days appear to be more effective. If there is no improvement after 2–3 days of treatment a change in therapy may be considered. Azithromycin appears to have less side effects than either high dose amoxicillin or amoxicillin/clavulanate.
Tympanostomy tube
Tympanostomy tubes (also called "grommets") are recommended with three or more episodes of acute otitis media in 6 months or four or more in a year, with at least one episode or more attacks in the preceding 6 months. There is tentative evidence that children with recurrent acute otitis media (AOM) who receive tubes have a modest improvement in the number of further AOM episodes (around one fewer episode at six months and less of an improvement at 12 months following the tubes being inserted). Evidence does not support an effect on long-term hearing or language development. A common complication of having a tympanostomy tube is otorrhea, which is a discharge from the ear. The risk of persistent tympanic membrane perforation after children have grommets inserted may be low. It is still uncertain whether or not grommets are more effective than a course of antibiotics.
Oral antibiotics should not be used to treat uncomplicated acute tympanostomy tube otorrhea. They are not sufficient for the bacteria that cause this condition and have side effects including increased risk of opportunistic infection. In contrast, topical antibiotic eardrops are useful.
Otitis media with effusion
The decision to treat is usually made after a combination of physical exam and laboratory diagnosis, with additional testing including audiometry, tympanogram, temporal bone CT and MRI. Decongestants, glucocorticoids, and topical antibiotics are generally not effective as treatment for non-infectious, or serous, causes of mastoid effusion. Moreover, it is recommended against using antihistamines and decongestants in children with OME. In less severe cases or those without significant hearing impairment, the effusion can resolve spontaneously or with more conservative measures such as autoinflation. In more severe cases, tympanostomy tubes can be inserted, possibly with adjuvant adenoidectomy as it shows a significant benefit as far as the resolution of middle ear effusion in children with OME is concerned.
Chronic suppurative otitis media
Topical antibiotics are of uncertain benefit as of 2020. Some evidence suggests that topical antibiotics may be useful either alone or with antibiotics by mouth. Antiseptics are of unclear effect. Topical antibiotics (quinolones) are probably better at resolving ear discharge than antiseptics.
Alternative medicine
Complementary and alternative medicine is not recommended for otitis media with effusion because there is no evidence of benefit. Homeopathic treatments have not been proven to be effective for acute otitis media in a study with children. An osteopathic manipulation technique called the Galbreath technique was evaluated in one randomized controlled clinical trial; one reviewer concluded that it was promising, but a 2010 evidence report found the evidence inconclusive.
Outcomes
Complications of acute otitis media consists of perforation of the ear drum, infection of the mastoid space behind the ear (mastoiditis), and more rarely intracranial complications can occur, such as bacterial meningitis, brain abscess, or dural sinus thrombosis. It is estimated that each year 21,000 people die due to complications of otitis media.
Membrane rupture
In severe or untreated cases, the tympanic membrane may perforate, allowing the pus in the middle-ear space to drain into the ear canal. If there is enough, this drainage may be obvious. Even though the perforation of the tympanic membrane suggests a highly painful and traumatic process, it is almost always associated with a dramatic relief of pressure and pain. In a simple case of acute otitis media in an otherwise healthy person, the body's defenses are likely to resolve the infection and the ear drum nearly always heals.
An option for severe acute otitis media in which analgesics are not controlling ear pain is to perform a tympanocentesis, i.e., needle aspiration through the tympanic membrane to relieve the ear pain and to identify the causative organism(s).
Hearing loss
Children with recurrent episodes of acute otitis media and those with otitis media with effusion or chronic suppurative otitis media have higher risks of developing conductive and sensorineural hearing loss. Globally approximately 141 million people have mild hearing loss due to otitis media (2.1% of the population). This is more common in males (2.3%) than females (1.8%).
This hearing loss is mainly due to fluid in the middle ear or rupture of the tympanic membrane. Prolonged duration of otitis media is associated with ossicular complications and, together with persistent tympanic membrane perforation, contributes to the severity of the disease and hearing loss. When a cholesteatoma or granulation tissue is present in the middle ear, the degree of hearing loss and ossicular destruction is even greater.
Periods of conductive hearing loss from otitis media may have a detrimental effect on speech development in children. Some studies have linked otitis media to learning problems, attention disorders, and problems with social adaptation. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that individuals with otitis media have more depression/anxiety-related disorders compared to individuals with normal hearing. Once the infections resolve and hearing thresholds return to normal, childhood otitis media may still cause minor and irreversible damage to the middle ear and cochlea. More research on the importance of screening all children under 4 years old for otitis media with effusion needs to be performed.
Epidemiology
Acute otitis media is very common in childhood. It is the most common condition for which medical care is provided in children under five years of age in the US. Acute otitis media affects 11% of people each year (709 million cases) with half occurring in those below five years. Chronic suppurative otitis media affects about 5% or 31 million of these cases with 22.6% of cases occurring annually under the age of five years. Otitis media resulted in 2,400 deaths in 2013—down from 4,900 deaths in 1990.
Etymology
The term otitis media is composed of otitis, Ancient Greek for "inflammation of the ear", and media, Latin for "middle".
References
External links
Otitis
Diseases of middle ear and mastoid
Pediatrics
Audiology
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|
215202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64DD | 64DD | The is a magnetic floppy disk drive peripheral for the Nintendo 64 game console developed by Nintendo. It was announced in 1995, prior to the Nintendo 64's 1996 launch, and after numerous delays was released in Japan on December 13, 1999. The "64" references both the Nintendo 64 console and the 64MB storage capacity of the disks, and "DD" is short for "disk drive" or "dynamic drive".
Plugging into the extension port on the underside of the console, the 64DD allows the Nintendo 64 to use proprietary 64MB magnetic disks for expanded and rewritable data storage, a real-time clock for persistent game world design, and a standard font and audio library for further storage efficiency. Its games and hardware accessories let the user create movies, characters, and animations to use within various other games and shared online. The system could connect to the Internet through a dedicated online service, Randnet, for e-commerce, online gaming, and media sharing. Describing it as "the first writable bulk data storage device for a modern video game console", Nintendo designed the 64DD as an enabling technology platform for the development of new genres of games and applications, dozens of which were in development for several years.
Only ten pieces of software were released until the unit was discontinued in February 2001, with 15,000 Randnet subscribers at the time. It was a commercial failure, with at least 15,000 total units being sold, and was never released outside Japan. Most games once planned for 64DD were released as standard Nintendo 64 games, ported to other consoles such as the GameCube, or canceled.
IGN summarized the 64DD as "an appealing creativity package" which was "targeted at a certain type of user" that "delivered a well-designed user-driven experience"and as a "limited online experiment at the same time", which partially fulfilled Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi's "longtime dream of a network that connects Nintendo consoles all across the nation".
History
Development
With the 1993 announcement of its new Project Reality console, Nintendo explored options for data storage. A Nintendo spokesperson said in 1993 that "it could be a cartridge system, a CD system, or both, or something not ever used before." In 1994, Howard Lincoln, chairman of Nintendo of America said, "Right now, cartridges offer faster access time and more speed of movement and characters than CDs. So, we'll introduce our new hardware with cartridges. But eventually, these problems with CDs will be overcome. When that happens, you'll see Nintendo using CD as the software storage medium for our 64-bit system."
In consideration of the 64DD's actual launch price equivalent of about , Nintendo software engineering manager Jim Merrick warned, "We're very sensitive to the cost of the console. We could get an eight-speed CD-ROM mechanism in the unit, but in the under-$200 console market, it would be hard to pull that off." Describing the final choice of proprietary floppy disks instead of CD-ROM, Nintendo game designer Shigesato Itoi explained, "CD holds a lot of data, DD holds a moderate amount of data and backs the data up, and [cartridge] ROMs hold the least data and process the fastest. By attaching a DD to the game console, we can drastically increase the number of possible genres."
The company also explored the forging of an early online strategy with Netscape, whose founding management had recently come directly from SGI, the company which had designed the core Nintendo 64 hardware. Within its budding online strategy, Nintendo reportedly considered multiplayer online gaming to be of the highest priority, even above that of web browsing. Several third party game developers were developing prominent online gaming features based on 64DD, including Ocean's Mission: Impossible deathmatches and Seta's competitive four-player Ultimate War and online racing game. Nintendo would ultimately retain the core impetus of these ideas, but would drastically alter both plans over the following years, in favor of a floppy-based storage technology and the Randnet online software and service partner—although with no online multiplayer gaming support whatsoever.
Announcement
The 64DD was first announced at Nintendo's 1995 Shoshinkai trade show, at which time Nintendo said it would launch by the end of 1996, although giving virtually no technical specifications yet.
However, its first public appearance wasn't until Nintendo's 8th Shoshinkai show of November 22—24, 1996, where IGN reported that the device nicknamed "Bulky Drive" was one of the biggest items of the show. There, Nintendo of America Chairman Howard Lincoln stated that the device had received its finalized hardware specifications and sported its own show booth. Nintendo's Director of Corporate Communications, Perrin Kaplan, made the company's first official launch window announcement for the peripheral, scheduled for late 1997 in Japan.
Reportedly several developers attended the show to learn how to develop for 64DD, some having traveled from the US for the 64DD presentation and some having received 64DD development kits. The demonstration included an improvised disk conversion of the familiar Super Mario 64 game to demonstrate the drive's operation and performance, and a graphics application mapping the audience's photographical portraits onto live 3D animated avatars—a feature which was ultimately incorporated and released in 2000 as Mario Artist: Talent Studio and the Capture Cassette. Included along with Enix in the early roster of committed 64DD developers, Rare officially discounted any rumors of the peripheral's impending pre-release cancellation.
The event featured Creator, a music and animation game by Software Creations, the same UK company that had made Sound Tool for the Nintendo Ultra 64 development kit. They touted the game's ability to be integrated into other games, allowing a player to replace any such game's textures and possibly create new levels and characters. There was no playable version of Creator available at this show, but the project was later absorbed into Mario Artist: Paint Studio. Nintendo also announced their plans to bundle the 64DD with a RAM expansion cartridge at the show.
Much of the gaming press said the Shoshinkai show did not make as significant a 64DD reveal as Nintendo had promised, leaving the public still in the dark as far as the system's software lineup, practical capabilities, and release date. Zelda 64 (eventually released as the cartridge game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time) was seen as the 64DD's potential killer app in the months following the system's unveiling.
On April 3–4, 1997, Nintendo of America hosted a Developer's Conference in Seattle, Washington, where a surprise overview was delivered by Nintendo Developer Support staff Mark DeLoura about the 64DD.
Delays
The 64DD is notable in part for its multi-year period of many repeated launch delays, which created an interdependent cascade of delays and complications of many other business processes and product launches for Nintendo and its partners.
On May 30, 1997, Nintendo issued a press conference announcing the first in what would become a series of the product's launch delays, saying it had been rescheduled to March 1998, with no comment on an American release schedule. At that time, the delays were reportedly attributed to the protracted development of both the disks and the drive technologies. On June 9, 1997, Nintendo and Alps Electric announced their manufacturing partnership for the still tentatively titled 64DD.
At the pre-E3 press conference on June 18, 1997, the company lacked even a prototype unit to display, while Howard Lincoln stated that the company wouldn't release the device until sufficient numbers of software releases support it. Reportedly featuring at least twenty games in development including Donkey Kong 64 and the sequel to Super Mario 64, the device still retained its projected Japanese launch window of "at least" March 1998, and received its first American launch window of early 1998. Also at the show, Nintendo confirmed that the 64DD would have Internet capability, and Nintendo's main game designer, Shigeru Miyamoto, speculated that the first games to be released for the new system would be SimCity 64, Mario Artist, Pocket Monsters, and Mother 3.
In a December 1997 interview with Shigeru Miyamoto and Shigesato Itoi, Miyamoto confessed the inherent difficulty in repeatedly attempting to describe and justify the long-promised potential of the mysterious peripheral to a curious public. He said that it "would have been easier to understand if the DD was already included when the N64 first came out. It's getting harder to explain after the fact. (laughs)" To illustrate the fundamental significance of the 64DD to all game development at Nintendo, Itoi said, "I came up with a lot of ideas because of the 64DD. All things start with the 64DD. There are so many ideas I wouldn't have been allowed to come up with if we didn't have the 64DD." Miyamoto concluded, "Almost every new project for the N64 is based on the 64DD. ... we'll make the game on a cartridge first, then add the technology we've cultivated to finish it up as a full-out 64DD game." By 1998, IGN optimistically expected all major Nintendo 64 cartridge games to have software support for an impending expansion disk. Known third-party 64DD developers included Konami, Culture Brain, Seta, Japan System Supply, Titus, Infogrames, Rare, Paradigm Entertainment, Ocean, and Factor 5.
More delays were subsequently announced. The American launch was delayed to late 1998. The Japanese launch was delayed to June 1998, later adjusted by the apologetic announcement on April 3, 1998, that it would launch "within the year". The 64DD was notably absent from E3 1998, having been briefly described the day prior as "definitely not" launching in 1998 and "questionable" in 1999, which Next Generation magazine interpreted as being "as close to 'dead' as we can imagine". IGN pessimistically explained that the peripheral's launch delays were so significant, and Nintendo's software library was so dependent upon the 64DD, that this lack of launchable software also caused Nintendo to entirely cancel its Space World 1998 trade show.
On April 8, 1999, IGN announced Nintendo's latest delayed launch date of 64DD and the nearly complete Mario Artist, as being June 1999. Demonstrated at the May 1999 E3 as what IGN called an "almost forgotten visitor", there were no longer any plans for release outside Japan, and its launch there was still withheld by the lack of completed launch games.
As of the Space World 1999 event in August, Nintendo had set Randnet's launch date at December 1, 1999, but reportedly had not yet set a launch date for the 64DD. Earthbound 64, which IGN cynically called "in development for nearly 1,000 years", had been heavily anticipated inside the company and globally as a crucial 64DD launch game, but the announcement of its conversion from 64DD disk to cartridge plus expansion disk was taken by IGN as unsurprising but also a sign of further delay or cancellation of the 64DD altogether.
Launch
The 64DD was launched on December 13, 1999, exclusively in Japan, as a package called the Randnet Starter Kit which included six games bimonthly through the mail, and a year of Internet service.
Anticipating that its long-planned peripheral would become a commercial failure, Nintendo initially sold the Randnet Starter Kit via mail order. Later, very limited quantities of the standalone 64DD and games were made available in stores.
Discontinuation
On August 25, 2000, Space World 2000 was signified by the launches of the GameCube and Game Boy Advance, and by what IGN considered to be the unofficial discontinuation of the 64DD, jokingly calling it "DeaDD". According to IGN, "Nintendo did not speak about 64DD during its opening speech, nor did the hardware itself have any booth presence. In fact, the unofficial 'No 64DD!' policy seemed to be enforced by Nintendo so brutally that had we even muttered the name of the hardware, we would have probably been tossed out of the show."
The official discontinuation of the 64DD and Randnet was announced in October 2000, at a time when there were reportedly 15,000 subscribers. The hardware and online platforms were both discontinued in February 2001. Only nine official disks, including three third-party games and one Internet application suite, were released for it. Most planned 64DD games were either released as cartridge-based Nintendo 64 games as cartridge storage sizes had increased, ported to other consoles like the PlayStation or Nintendo's next-generation GameCube console, or canceled entirely.
Hardware
Nintendo designed the 64DD as an enabling technology for the development of new genres of games, which was principally accomplished by its three main design features: its dual storage strategy of cartridges and disks; its new real-time clock (RTC); and its Internet connectivity. The dual storage strategy of the Nintendo 64 plus the 64DD combines the traditional high speed cartridges, which are low-capacity, non-writable, and expensive but very fast along with the introduction of proprietary mass storage disks, which are large-capacity, rewritable, and cheap but only moderately fast.
Though incompatible in every way with any other consumer electronics product, the 64DD's magnetic storage technology resembles the generic floppy disk, and the large and sturdy shell of the proprietary Zip disk for personal computers. Though various prominent sources have mistakenly referred to the medium as being magneto-optical technology, Nintendo's own developer documentation refers to it in detail as being magnetic. Complementing its proprietary and copy-protected cartridge strategy, the proprietary 64MB disk format was Nintendo's faster, more flexible, and copy-protected answer to the commodity Compact Disc format, which is cheaper to produce but is much slower, read-only, and easier to copy on personal computers. The most advanced CD technology delivered by the contemporaneous Sega Saturn and Sony PlayStation game consoles can hold at least 650 megabytes (MB) of information with a peak 300kB/s throughput and more than 200 ms seek speed. This compares to the Nintendo 64's cartridge's 4 to 64MB size and 5 to 50MB/s of low latency and instantaneous load times, and the 64DD's 64MB disk size and 1MB/s peak throughput with 75 ms average seek latency. The high seek latency and low maximum throughput of a 2x CD-ROM drive contribute to stuttering and to very long loading times throughout a gameplay session in many games, in addition to a much higher production cost, testing cycle, and potential development time for all the potential extra content.
As an example of variable storage strategies, Nintendo determined that the development of The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time would be retargeted from 64DD disk format alone, to the much faster cartridge format, for performance reasons.
Similar in proportion of the historical comparison of Famicom Disk System floppy disks to early Famicom cartridges, this disk format's initial design specifications had been set during a time frame when the initial Nintendo 64 cartridge size was 4MB as with Super Mario 64, and a 32MB size eventually became popular over the years. Nonetheless, the 64DD disk format would serve as significant storage size expansion upon its 1999 launch when 32MB cartridges were the norm and on into future years when only three 64MB cartridges would ever be released for Nintendo 64. The medium's writability, up to 38MB per disk, would yield enduring benefits to game genre and social gaming like that of the Famicom Disk System.
Many released Nintendo 64 cartridge games have been programmed to detect the presence of a 64DD drive and the game's corresponding optional expansion disk, most of which were never fully developed or ever released. Without an expansion disk present, such a standalone game carries on. Depending on the game's specific capabilities, these expansions can provide extra levels, minigames, and can store personal and user-generated content. Any Nintendo 64 game which doesn't actively utilize the 64DD drive has potential access to only the few kilobytes of writable storage on the standard issue Nintendo 64 Controller Pak and on some cartridges' internal battery backed storage, for storing only the player's basic progress and preferences.
In addition to writable storage, the real-time clock enables the existence of persistent game worlds according to a real-world clock and calendar, backed by a battery even when the system's main power is shut off. Nintendo's lead game designer, Shigeru Miyamoto, said this of the four-year development of the ultimately unreleased pet breeding game Cabbage: "We're doing it on the 64DD because I wanted to make a clock function, such that even if the power is cut, can still raise the creature."
A modem cartridge is packaged with the system, allowing Internet connectivity through Randnet, in addition to the service's members-only portal sites.
The 64DD has a chip containing an enhanced font and audio library for all software to share, further saving the potential available space of mass storage on cartridges and disks. The 64DD has a 32-bit coprocessor to help it read disks and to transfer data to the main console. The main Nintendo 64 deck uses its RCP and NEC VR4300 to process data from the top cartridge slot and the I/O devices. Like nearly all disc-based consoles, the 64DD can boot up without a cartridge on the top deck, because it has a boot menu. The 64DD is packaged with the 4MB RAM Expansion Pak, yielding a total of 8MB. The 64DD has its own software development kit that works in conjunction with the Nintendo 64 development kit.
Accessories
The 64DD Randnet bundle includes a modem for connecting to the Randnet network and the 4MB RAM Expansion Pak. Other accessories include a keyboard, a mouse, and an audio-video capture port (female RCA jack, and line in) called the Capture Cassette (or cartridge).
The CPU-powered software modem cartridge was developed in partnership between Nexus Telocation Systems, Ltd. and Surf Communications. It is housed on a special cartridge with a port for the included modular cable, which then connects to the network. It is the Nintendo 64's only official Internet connectivity product, because the early discussions between Surf and Nintendo to have built one directly into the console did not materialize.
Coincidentally, an unlicensed third party alternative was produced by InterAct for America in the form of the SharkWire Online system.
Randnet
In April 1999, Nintendo ended the partnership with St.GIGA which had created the Super Famicom's proprietary Satellaview online service in Japan, broadcasting from April 23, 1995, to June 30, 2000. The company then partnered with Japanese media company Recruit to develop the 64DD's completely new proprietary online service called Randnet (from "Recruit and Nintendo network"). The resulting equity-owned joint Japanese corporation was announced on June 30, 1999, as RandnetDD Co., Ltd. Active only ever in Japan, from December 13, 1999 to February 28, 2001, the Randnet service allowed gamers to surf the Internet including a members-only portal, and to share user-generated game data. The subscription fee included the dialup Internet account, 64DD system hardware, and a delivery schedule of game disks by mail. Reportedly, Nintendo and several third party game developers had originally planned multiplayer online gaming as being more important than even a web browser.
The Randnet Starter Kit comes packaged with the 64DD peripheral and everything needed to have accessed the service.
64DD: The writable 64MB disk drive system.
Nintendo 64 Modem
Expansion Pak: This 4MB RAM expansion upgrades the Nintendo 64's system RAM to a total of 8MB.
Randnet Browser Disk: This let users of the former online service access the "members only" information exchange page as well as the Internet. Once logged on to the service, players could choose from the following options:
Editing Tool: Create custom avatars to interact with other users.
Information Exchange: Use online message boards and share email with other users.
Community: Swap messages with the game programmers and producers.
Internet Surfing: Surf the Internet with the custom web browser, formatted for viewing on a television set.
Postcards: Mario Artist was intended to allow the design and printing of postcards to be sent via postal mail.
E-commerce: The GET Mall service sold CDs, books, 64DD games, and peripherals.
Digital Magazine: The ability to check online sports scores, weather, and news was planned, but only features related to horse racing were released.
Nintendo had originally promised the following, ultimately undelivered, features:
NES games: The emulator was completed for downloadable NES games.
Battle Mode: Play against other gamers and swap scores. Mah-jongg was announced with online multiplayer mode DT Bloodmasters with online card trading, Ultimate War with online multiplayer mode, and Wall Street with daily online stock price updates.
Observation Mode: Watch other players' game sessions.
Beta Test: Download sample levels from upcoming games.
Music Distribution: Listen to music, some of which was yet to be released in stores.
From November 11, 1999 to January 11, 2000, the first round of membership registration for Randnet's Internet service opened to a maximum of 100,000 subscribers on a "first come, first served" basis. The Randnet service was accessible only via a Nintendo 64 and 64DD setup, and the 64DD hardware and games were only purchasable by mail order along with a Randnet subscription; the peripheral was not stocked in any retail stores. It was all purchased at one time by filling out a mail order request form at select retail stores throughout Japan: convenience stores, toy stores, and video game retailers. The hardware was delivered soon and the games delivered as monthly nationwide releases across the following year.
The plan was available in two tiers: a purchase plan for users who want to buy only the 64DD to add to their existing Nintendo 64 system, or a lease-to-own plan for those who want both the 64DD and a special edition translucent black Nintendo 64 console. Randnet was launched with monthly payment plans for the service and hardware bundle: (approximately ) per month for the purchase plan and () per month for rent-to-own for the first year and () per month for Randnet service thereafter. The service was accessed at an additional dialup fee of up to per minute, initially local only to Tokyo. The service later eliminated the monthly payment model in favor of an annual prepaid model, at () for one year for outright purchase and () for the first year of lease-to-own. The 64DD and some later games eventually became available for purchase directly at retail.
As part of the subscription, the game disks were delivered not in the initial package but by mail on a schedule: December 1999 had Doshin the Giant and Mario Artist: Paint Studio; February 2000 had Randnet Disk, SimCity 64, and Mario Artist: Talent Studio; and April 2000 had F-Zero X Expansion Kit and Mario Artist: Polygon Studio. The final Starter Kit subscription title Polygon Studio was suddenly delayed and then released on August 29, 2000.
One of the most substantial series of games to include Randnet support is the Mario Artist series, which allowed online users to swap their artwork creations with others. Contests and other special events occurred periodically. Papercraft was implemented by way of modelling the characters in Mario Artist: Polygon Studio and utilizing Mario Artist: Communication Kit to upload the model data to Randnet's online printing service. The user can then cut, fold, and adhere the resulting colored paper into a full-bodied 3D papercraft figure.
Because the 64DD hardware package was primarily sold with a mandatory subscription to Randnet, the service was fairly popular among the limited 64DD user base. Overall, the service didn't garner enough subscribers to justify its continued existence, and in October 2000, the service's impending closure was announced. The 64 Dream magazine relayed a Nintendo public relations statement that there had been approximately 15,000 Randnet subscribers at the time of this announcement, indicating that there had been at least that many hardware units sold to customers. Nintendo offered to buy back all the Randnet-purchased consumer hardware and to give free service to all users from the announcement of closure, until the day it actually went offline. The Randnet service closed on February 28, 2001 and Nintendo's equity partnership with RandnetDD Co., Ltd. was liquidated from June 30, 2001 to January 31, 2002.
Games
Released
A total of ten disks were released for 64DD, which comprise nine games and one dialup utility disk.
Proposed
More than 60 games were announced for the 64DD that ended up being released on Nintendo 64 cartridge format only, being totally canceled due to the system's delays or commercial failure, or being ported to another console such as Nintendo GameCube, Sony PlayStation, Sega Dreamcast, Sony PlayStation 2, or Microsoft Xbox.
7th Legion
Automobili Lamborghini Add-On
Cabbage (unreleased, influencing Nintendogs and others)
Communication Game (online game by the development team of PostPet, a famous Japanese email application)
Creator (later integrated into the Mario Artist series)
DD Sequencer
Derby Stallion 64 (released on cartridge)
Desert Island: No Man's Island
Dezaemon 3D Expansion Kit
Diablo
Digital Horse Racing Newspaper
Digital Sports Newspaper (canceled)
Doubutsu Banchou (Animal Leader, previewed on Game Pak and released on GameCube as Cubivore: Survival of the Fittest)
Dōbutsu no Mori (Animal Forest, released as a cartridge with an embedded RTC in Japan, and later as Animal Crossing on GameCube)
Dragon Warrior VII (ported and released on the Sony PlayStation instead)
DT Bloodmasters
Far East of Eden: Oriental Blue (canceled, becoming a Game Boy Advance title of the same name)
Fire Emblem 64 (canceled, with some elements of the plot later used on the first Fire Emblem for Game Boy Advance, Fire Emblem: Fūin no Tsurugi)
Gendai Dai-Senryaku: Ultimate War (converted to cartridge in 2000 and canceled)
Hybrid Heaven (released on cartridge)
Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards (released on cartridge)
Mario Artist: Game Maker (canceled)
Mario Artist: Graphical Message Maker (canceled)
Mario Artist: Sound Maker (split out from Paint Studio and then canceled)
Mario Artist: Video Jockey Maker (canceled)
Mario Party 2 (released on cartridge)
Mario no Photopi (cartridge released without 64DD storage option)
Mission: Impossible (released on cartridge)
Mission: Impossible 64DD
Morita Shogi 64 (released on cartridge)
EarthBound 64 (converted to cartridge with expansion disk in 1999, canceled in 2000, then redeveloped and released as Mother 3 for GBA in Japan)
Mother 3.5 (Mother 3 expansion)
Mysterious Dungeon (converted to cartridge in 2000, released on Nintendo DS)
Namco RPG
Ogre Battle Saga (released on cartridge)
(redeveloped and released for GBA)
Pokémon Snap (released on cartridge)
Pokémon 64/Pokémon RPG
Pokémon Stadium (released on cartridge)
Pokémon Stadium Expansion Disk
Pokémon Stadium 2 (released on cartridge)
Project Cairo
Resident Evil Zero (released on GameCube)
Rev Limit (canceled)
Seaman (released on Dreamcast)
SimCopter 64 (canceled)
Snatcher
SnowSpeeder (released on cartridge)
Street Fighter III
Super Mario 64 2
Super Mario RPG 2 or Super Mario Adventure (released on cartridge as Mario Story in Japan and Paper Mario in the rest of the world)
Suul
Teo
Toukon Road: Brave Spirits Add-On
Unreal (canceled)
Wall Street
Ultra Donkey Kong (released on cartridge as Donkey Kong 64)
Ura Zelda (canceled but then released for GameCube as Master Quest)
Yoshi's Island 64 (released on cartridge as Yoshi's Story)
Yousuke Ide's Mah-jongg School (converted to dual disk/cartridge, then canceled)
Zelda 64 (released on cartridge as The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time)
Zelda Gaiden (released on cartridge as The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask)
Reception
Rating the overall system at 6.0 out of 10.0, IGN's Peer Schneider finds the industrial design language of the 64DD and its accessories to perfectly match and integrate with that of the Nintendo 64, with no user-accessible moving parts, a single mechanical eject button, sharing the N64's power button, and child-friendly usability. Installation is said to be "quick and painless", operation is "even simpler", and the whole system "couldn't be easier to use". Software load times are described as "minimal", where the most complex possible point of the system's library reaches about five seconds. The site says that the 64DD popularity was inherently limited, due in part to its limited release in Japan, a country which had a limited adoption of the Nintendo 64 and of dialup Internet connectivity.
Schneider found the combination of the Randnet's web browser and the mouse to provide a "passable surfing experience". He described the portal's private content as "much too limited", where "[a]nyone who has used the Internet would snicker at the lack of up-to-date contents or tools offered on Randnet". He was disappointed in the companies' failure to have ever delivered certain promised online features, such as game beta testing and music distribution. But it provides new users with a "simple network [which] functions as first baby steps into the vast world of the Internet".
Schneider liked the overall product value provided by the Randnet Starter Kit, including hardware, games, accessories, and Internet subscription. However, the platform's abrupt discontinuation proved to limit the appeal to a per item basis rather than as a whole. Because these items were sold only as a soon-discontinued bundle, all with such ultimately limited application, he found the disks' cheaper prices to be aggregated back up to the level of cartridges.
He found the Mario Artist series (especially the 64DD's "killer app", Talent Studio) to be uniquely compelling in creative ways that "couldn't be done on any other gaming console on the market", utilizing the disks' writability and "[leaving] CD systems behind". As a flagship title for the platform, IGN found Paint Studios well-made art creation functionality to be both a low-cost paint program, and edutainment akin to an Adobe Photoshop for kids. Knowing Nintendo's stated plans, he supposed that if the platform hadn't been abruptly canceled, Nintendo would have utilized Paint Studio as a source of user-generated art content for a substantial library of customizable games.
Schneider acknowledges Nintendo's vision, attributing the system's downfall generally upon the drastically changing marketplace during the several years of delays until the system's release. He summarized the 64DD as "an appealing creativity package" "targeted at a certain type of user" "that delivered a well-designed user-driven experience"—and a "limited online experiment at the same time", which partially fulfilled Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi's "longtime dream of a network that connects Nintendo consoles all across the nation".
Nintendo reported that there were 15,000 Randnet subscribers as of the October 2000 announcement of the service's impending closure, implying the sale of at least as many requisite 64DD units.
Legacy
New genres of games were developed due to the advent of 64DD's rewritable mass storage, real-time clock (RTC), and Internet appliance functionality. However, the system's commercial failure required many 64DD games to be released on traditional Nintendo 64 cartridges alone, ported to other consoles, or canceled.
Some of these standalone Nintendo 64 cartridge releases include the equivalent of the 64DD's RTC chip directly on board the cartridge, as with Japan's Animal Forest. The RAM Expansion Pak became a sometimes mandatory staple of Nintendo 64 game development, being packaged along with a few cartridge games. All subsequent Nintendo consoles would directly include RTC functionality.
The concept of the popular multiplatform Animal Crossing series originated with the 64DD's rewritable storage and RTC. The eventual initial release of the series was adapted to utilize only the Nintendo 64 cartridge format with an embedded RTC, in the form of Japan's Animal Forest. That game was cosmetically adapted for GameCube (with the console's built-in RTC and its removable and rewritable memory cards) with the new name of Animal Crossing. All games in the series are played in real time persistent game world, with the passage of time being recorded on writable media. The realtime effect reflects real seasons, real holidays, virtual plant growth, development of virtual relationships, and other events. Interactivity between real human players on different subsequent console generations has been enabled through the swapping of various Nintendo consoles' writable mass storage cards or through online communications.
The legacy of what is now the Nintendogs series originated because of 64DD, in the form of a pet creature breeding prototype called Cabbage. Never released, it had been codeveloped by Shigesato Itoi (designer of EarthBound), Tsunekazu Ishihara (designer of Pokémon), and Shigeru Miyamoto. Its publicized four-year development was fundamentally enabled by the realtime clock and mass writability, where Miyamoto explained, "We're doing it on the 64DD because I wanted to make a clock function, such that even if the power is cut, [the game] can still raise the creature" and with optionally purchasable enhancement data. A subset of creature maintenance functionality is made portable on the Game Boy via the Transfer Pak, to be synchronized back to the 64DD disk. In 2006, Miyamoto concluded that "the conversations and design techniques that popped up when we were making Cabbage are, of course, connected to Nintendogs and other things that we're doing now."
The concept of a personal avatar creator app which had begun with prototypes for the Famicom was solidified in Mario Artist: Talent Studio and then has been seen on all subsequent Nintendo consoles. Those Talent Studio avatars can be imported into select 64DD games including the SimCity 64 game. Nintendo designer Yamashita Takayuki credits his work on Talent Studio as having been foundational to his conception and development of the entire Mii component of the Wii platform a decade later. The game's concepts were reportedly specifically foundational to the characters in Wii Tennis.
The concept of graphical stamps that are seen in various Miiverse-supported games is found in Mario Artist: Paint Studio and Mario Paint.
The user-creation of graphics, animations, levels, and minigames which are seen in the Mario Artist series and F-Zero X Expansion Kit are revisited in later console generations. The idea of minigames was popularized generally during the Nintendo 64's fifth generation of video game consoles. Some early minigames can actually be created in Mario Artist: Polygon Studio in the style that would later be used in the WarioWare series of games. Certain minigames literally originated there, as explained by Goro Abe of Nintendo R&D1's so-called Wario Ware All-Star Team: "In Polygon Studio you could create 3D models and animate them in the game, but there was also a side game included inside. In this game, you would have to play short games that came one after another. This is where the idea for Wario Ware came from."
In 2018, historian Chris Kohler said that as one of Nintendo's "oddest" products, the 64DD is "now a sought-after collectible and a unique piece of the company's long, long history of bold experimentation".
See also
Famicom Modem
Famicom Disk System
Sega CD - A similar peripheral for the Sega Genesis.
Satellaview
Notes
References
1990s toys
2000s toys
Fifth-generation video game consoles
Japan-only video game hardware
Joint ventures
64
Products introduced in 1999
Products and services discontinued in 2001
Video game console add-ons
Video game storage media
Discontinued products | [
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|
215206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bennett | William Bennett | William John Bennett (born July 31, 1943) is an American conservative politician and political commentator who served as secretary of education from 1985 to 1988 under President Ronald Reagan. He also held the post of director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy under George H. W. Bush.
Early life and education
Bennett was born July 31, 1943 to a Catholic family in Brooklyn, the son of Nancy (née Walsh), a medical secretary, and F. Robert Bennett, a banker. His family moved to Washington, D.C., where he attended Gonzaga College High School. He graduated from Williams College in 1965, where he was a member of the Kappa Alpha Society, and received a Ph.D. from the University of Texas at Austin in political philosophy in 1970. He also has a J.D. from Harvard Law School, graduating in 1971.
Career
Educational institutions
Bennett was an associate dean of the College of Liberal Arts at Boston University from 1971 to 1972, and then became an assistant professor of philosophy and an assistant to John Silber, the president of the college, from 1972 to 1976. In May 1979, Bennett became the director of the National Humanities Center, a private research facility in North Carolina, after the death of its founder Charles Frankel.
Federal offices
In 1981 President Reagan appointed Bennett to chair the National Endowment for the Humanities (NEH), where he served until Reagan appointed him secretary of education in 1985. Reagan originally nominated Mel Bradford to the position, but due to Bradford's pro-Confederate views Bennett was appointed in his place. This event was later marked as the watershed in the divergence between paleoconservatives, who backed Bradford, and neoconservatives, led by Irving Kristol, who supported Bennett.
While at NEH, Bennett published "To Reclaim a Legacy: A Report on the Humanities in Higher Education", a 63-page report. It was based on an assessment of the teaching and learning of the humanities at the baccalaureate level, conducted by a blue-ribbon study group of 31 nationally prominent authorities on higher education convened by NEH.
In May 1986, Bennett switched from the Democratic to the Republican Party. In September 1988, Bennett resigned as secretary of education, to join the Washington law firm of Dunnels, Duvall, Bennett, and Porter. In March 1989 he returned to the federal government, becoming the first Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy, appointed by President George H. W. Bush. He was confirmed by the Senate in a 97–2 vote. He left that position in December 1990.
Radio and television
In April 2004, Bennett began hosting Morning in America, a nationally syndicated radio program produced and distributed by Dallas, Texas-based Salem Communications. The show aired live weekdays from 6:00 to 9:00 a.m. Eastern Time, and was one of the only syndicated conservative talk shows in the morning drive time slot. However, its clearances were limited due to a preference for local shows in this slot, and the show got most of its clearances on Salem-owned outlets. Morning in America was also carried on Sirius Satellite Radio, on Channel 144, also known as the Patriot Channel. Bennett retired from full-time radio on March 31, 2016.
In 2008, Bennett became the host of a CNN weekly talk show, Beyond the Politics. The show did not have a long run, but Bennett remained a CNN contributor until he was fired in 2013 by then-new CNN president, Jeff Zucker.
Bennett has been moderating The Wise Guys, a Sunday night show on Fox News, since January 2018. Carried on Fox Nation as well, participants include Tyrus, Byron York, Ari Fleischer, Victor Davis Hanson, and others.
Author, speaker, and pundit
Bennett writes for National Review Online, National Review and Commentary, and is a former senior editor of National Review.
Bennett is a member of the National Security Advisory Council of the Center for Security Policy (CSP). He was co-director of Empower America and was a Distinguished Fellow in Cultural Policy Studies at The Heritage Foundation. Long active in United States Republican Party politics, he is now an author and speaker.
Bennett was the Washington Fellow of the Claremont Institute. He was also a commentator for CNN until 2013.
He is an advisor to Project Lead The Way and Beanstalk Innovation. He is on the advisory board of Udacity, Inc., Viridis Learning, Inc. and the board of directors of Vocefy, Inc. and Webtab, Inc.
In 2017, Bennett launched a podcast, The Bill Bennett Show.
Political views
Bennett tends to take a conservative position on affirmative action, school vouchers, curriculum reform, and religion in education. As education secretary, he asked colleges to better enforce drug laws and supported a classical education. He frequently criticized schools for low standards. In 1987 he called the Chicago Public Schools system "the worst in the nation." He coined the term "the blob" to describe the state education bureaucracy, a term which was later taken up in Britain by Michael Gove.
Bennett is a staunch supporter of the War on Drugs and has been criticized by some for his views on the issue. On Larry King Live, he said that a viewer's suggestion of beheading drug dealers would be "morally plausible." He also "lamented that we still grant them [drug dealers] habeas corpus rights."
Bennett is a member of the Project for the New American Century (PNAC) and was one of the signers of the January 26, 1998 PNAC Letter sent to President Bill Clinton, which urged Clinton to remove Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein from power.
Bennett is a neoconservative.
Bennett was an advocate for the Iraq War.
Controversies
Gambling
In 2003, it became publicly known that Bennett - who had spent years preaching about family values and personal responsibility - was a high-stakes gambler who lost millions of dollars in Las Vegas. Criticism increased in the wake of Bennett's publication, The Book of Virtues, a compilation of moral stories about courage, responsibility, friendship and other examples of virtue. Joshua Green of the Washington Monthly said that Bennett failed to denounce gambling because of his own tendency to gamble. Also, Bennett and Empower America, the organization he co-founded and headed at the time, opposed an extension of casino gambling in the United States.
Bennett said that his habit had not put himself or his family in any financial jeopardy. After Bennett's gambling problem became public, he said he did not believe his habit set a good example, that he had "done too much gambling" over the years, and his "gambling days are over". "We are financially solvent," his wife Elayne told USA Today. "All our bills are paid." She added that his gambling days are over. "He's never going again," she said.
Several months later, Bennett qualified his position, saying "So, in this case, the excessive gambling is over." He explained "Since there will be people doing the micrometer on me, I just want to be clear: I do want to be able to bet the Buffalo Bills in the Super Bowl."
Radio show abortion comment
On September 28, 2005, in a discussion on Bennett's Morning in America radio show, a caller to the show proposed that "lost revenue from the people who have been aborted in the last 30 years" could preserve Social Security if abortion wasn't permitted following Roe v. Wade. Bennett responded that aborting all African-American babies "If you wanted to reduce crime, you could—if that were the sole purpose—you could abort every black baby in this country and the crime rate would go down. That would be an impossible, ridiculous, and morally reprehensible thing to do, but your crime rate would go down."
Bennett responded to the criticism saying, in part:
A thought experiment about public policy, on national radio, should not have received the condemnations it has. Anyone paying attention to this debate should be offended by those who have selectively quoted me, distorted my meaning, and taken out of context the dialogue I engaged in this week. Such distortions from 'leaders' of organizations and parties is a disgrace not only to the organizations and institutions they serve, but to the First Amendment.
Books
Bennett's best-known written work may be The Book of Virtues: A Treasury of Great Moral Stories (1993), which he edited; he has also authored and edited eleven other books, including The Children's Book of Virtues (which inspired an animated television series) and The Death of Outrage: Bill Clinton and the Assault on American Ideals (1998).
Other books:
First Lessons. A Report on Elementary Education in America (co-authored in September 1986, as Secretary of Department of Education)
James Madison High School: A Curriculum For American Students (December 1987, as Secretary of the Department of Education)
James Madison Elementary School: A Curriculum For American Students (August 1988, as Secretary of the Department of Education)
The De-Valuing of America: The Fight for Our Culture and Our Children (1992)
Moral Compass: Stories for a Life's Journey (1995)
Body Count: Moral Poverty ... and How to Win America's War Against Crime and Drugs (1996)
Our Sacred Honor (1997, compilation of writings by the Founding Fathers)
The Index of Leading Cultural Indicators (1999)
The Educated Child: A Parent's Guide from Preschool through Eighth Grade (1999)
The Broken Hearth: Reversing the Moral Collapse of the American Family (2001)
Why We Fight: Moral Clarity and the War on Terrorism (2003)
America: The Last Best Hope (Volume I): From the Age of Discovery to a World at War (2006)
America: The Last Best Hope (Volume II): From a World at War to the Triumph of Freedom (2007)
The American Patriot's Almanac: Daily Readings on America, with John Cribb (2008)
The True Saint Nicholas (2009)
A Century Turns: New Hopes, New Fears (2010)
The Book of Man: Readings on the Path to Manhood (2011)
The Fight of our Lives, co-authored with Seth Leibsohn (2011)
Is College Worth It? with David Wilezol (2013)
Going to Pot: Why the Rush to Legalize Marijuana Is Harming America, with Robert A. White (2015)
Tried by Fire: The Story of Christianity's First Thousand Years (2016)
Personal life
In 1967, as a graduate student, Bennett went on a single blind date with Janis Joplin. He later lamented, “That date lasted two hours, and I’ve spent 200 hours talking about it."
Bennett married his wife, Mary Elayne Glover, in 1982. They have two sons, John and Joseph. Elayne is the president and founder of Best Friends Foundation, a national program promoting sexual abstinence among adolescents.
Bennett is the younger brother of Washington attorney Robert S. Bennett.
See also
Legalized abortion and crime effect
List of U.S. political appointments that crossed party lines
Race and crime in the United States
Roe effect
References
External links
Morning in America
Best Friends Foundation
Interview with Bennett on Book of Virtues, Booknotes, January 9, 1994
Interview with Bennett, In Depth, July 4, 2010
|-
|-
1943 births
Living people
20th-century American non-fiction writers
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American male writers
21st-century American non-fiction writers
21st-century American male writers
American political commentators
American political philosophers
American political writers
American talk radio hosts
Chairpersons of the National Endowment for the Humanities
CNN people
Directors of the Office of National Drug Control Policy
George H. W. Bush administration personnel
Gonzaga College High School alumni
Harvard Law School alumni
The Heritage Foundation
National Review people
New York (state) Democrats
New York (state) Republicans
Politicians from Brooklyn
Reagan administration cabinet members
United States Secretaries of Education
University of Texas at Austin alumni
Washington, D.C. Democrats
Washington, D.C. Republicans
Williams College alumni
Writers from Brooklyn
American male non-fiction writers | [
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215211 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brett%20Gurewitz | Brett Gurewitz | Brett W. Gurewitz (born May 12, 1962), nicknamed Mr. Brett, is an American musician and record producer best known as the lead guitarist of Bad Religion. He is also the owner of the music label Epitaph Records and a number of sister labels. He has produced albums for Bad Religion as well as Epitaph Records labelmates NOFX, Rancid, and Pennywise, among others. Gurewitz also had a project called Error, which also featured Atticus Ross, Leopold Ross, and Greg Puciato. He is also the co-founder of comic book and graphic novel publisher, Black Mask Studios.
Gurewitz founded Bad Religion in 1980 with Greg Graffin, Jay Bentley and Jay Ziskrout. After releasing two albums and one EP, Gurewitz left Bad Religion in 1983, but rejoined three years later, and recorded five more albums with the band before they signed to Atlantic Records in 1993. The success of his record label Epitaph prompted Gurewitz to leave Bad Religion once again in 1994, and run the label on a full-time basis. During his hiatus from Bad Religion, he released the "Hate You" single in 1996 with his one-off project Daredevils, and entered a period of drug addiction. By 1999, Gurewitz had successfully completed drug rehabilitation, and two years later he rejoined Bad Religion, appearing on six more studio albums with them.
Career
Bad Religion
Then-18-year-old Brett Gurewitz formed Bad Religion in Woodland Hills in 1980 with Greg Graffin (vocals), Jay Ziskrout (drums) and Jay Bentley (bass). All four attended El Camino Real High School. Soon after, they began writing songs and played their first ever concert, as warm-up for Social Distortion. In 1981, Bad Religion recorded a six-song self-titled EP, which was initially released in a 7" format, and soon afterward re-issued as a 12". Compact cassettes were also produced, but they are rare.
Bad Religion's first full-length album, How Could Hell Be Any Worse?, was released in 1982. When recording sessions commenced, Ziskrout soon left the band and was replaced by Pete Finestone. Cited as one of Bad Religion's most important works, How Could Hell Be Any Worse? was financed by a $3,000 loan from Gurewitz's father. Its success surprised the band when it sold 10,000 copies in under a year. The sound of the record was vastly improved from the self-titled EP. Although not yet credited as a member of the band, Greg Hetson (of Circle Jerks fame) did a guitar solo on "Part III".
Bad Religion released their second full-length, Into the Unknown, in 1983, but were less successful, due to the album's poor production. It was a major change from their previous style, delving into progressive rock heavy in keyboards. While recording one song, Bentley and Finestone left the band and were replaced by Paul Dedona on bass and Davy Goldman on drums. The album, Into the Unknown is out of print, but is included in their 30th anniversary box set.
After the release of Into the Unknown, Bad Religion broke up, but reformed (without Gurewitz) to produce the 1985 EP Back to the Known. The EP features the return of the band's punk rock roots, although also reflecting influences of then current acts such as Hüsker Dü and The Descendents. Soon after, Bad Religion went on hiatus again.
After the How Could Hell Be Any Worse? line-up (also including Hetson) reunited in 1986, Bad Religion released their highly acclaimed album Suffer in 1988. The album was a comeback for Bad Religion as well as a watershed for the Southern California punk sound popularized by their label Epitaph Records, owned by Gurewitz. The reunion line-up recorded two more highly acclaimed albums, No Control (1989) and Against the Grain (1990), before Finestone left the group in early 1991.
Bad Religion replaced Finestone with Bobby Schayer, then recorded their next album, Generator, which was already completed in the spring of 1991, but was forced to delay its release until a year later. For the album, Bad Religion also filmed their first music video "Atomic Garden", which was also their first song to be released as a single. In 1993, the band left their original label Epitaph Records and signed to Atlantic Records, who released their next album Recipe for Hate. While moderately successful, this was the first Bad Religion album to reach any Billboard charts and two videos for the album, "American Jesus" and "Struck a Nerve", were made.
Bad Religion rose to fame with their next album, 1994's Stranger Than Fiction, including their well-known hits "Infected" and "21st Century (Digital Boy)", which are also often considered concert staples. After the album was completed, Gurewitz soon left Bad Religion to concentrate on the future of Epitaph, citing the increasing amount of time he was spending at Epitaph's offices as The Offspring became one of the biggest bands of the mid-1990s. Gurewitz was replaced by Brian Baker during the Stranger Than Fiction tour and Bad Religion recorded two albums without him.
In 1999, after a five-year hiatus from the band, Gurewitz reunited with Graffin and co-wrote the song "Believe It", which appeared on Bad Religion's 11th album The New America (2000). Two years later, after parting ways with Atlantic Records, Gurewitz was officially back in the band and Bad Religion resigned to Epitaph. Schayer also left the band during the time and was replaced by Brooks Wackerman. Now as a six piece, Bad Religion recorded and released the albums The Process of Belief (2002), The Empire Strikes First (2004), New Maps of Hell (2007), The Dissent of Man (2010), and True North (2013), the latter featuring his only contribution as a lead vocalist on the track Dharma and the Bomb. Due to his commitments with Epitaph Records, Gurewitz rarely performs live with the band and restricts his input to songwriting and recording. He does perform occasional live appearances with the band at shows close to his hometown Los Angeles (e.g. he appears on the band's DVD Live at the Palladium).
Error
In 2003, Gurewitz was recruited by 12 Rounds member and Nine Inch Nails collaborator Atticus Ross and his younger brother Leopold to play guitar and bass in an electro-hardcore project called Error. Their only release to date is a self-titled EP, which was in 2004. Following the release of the EP, Error was reported to be looking for a full-time vocalist for touring and a full-length debut; however, the future of the project has been a topic for discussion on many internet message boards. In 2005, Error recorded one new song, "Wild World", that appears on a tribute album to The Birthday Party called Release the Bats: The Birthday Party as Heard Through the Meat Grinder of Three One G, which was released on April 4, 2006. Error has been on hiatus since and it is unclear whether the project will return anytime in the future.
Personal life
Gurewitz was born in Los Angeles, California and grew up in Woodland Hills, where he was brought up Jewish.
In 1997, Gurewitz temporarily left Epitaph to undergo treatment for addiction.
He is married to Gina Davis, who had worked at Epitaph, and they live in California. He is a deist.
Selected discography
References
External links
Last.fm profile
1962 births
American punk rock guitarists
Rhythm guitarists
American punk rock singers
Record producers from California
Bad Religion members
Epitaph Records
Jewish American musicians
Jewish rock musicians
Living people
Jews in punk rock
American male guitarists
El Camino Real High School alumni
20th-century American guitarists | [
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|
215214 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandate%20of%20Heaven | Mandate of Heaven | The Mandate of Heaven () is a Chinese political philosophy that was used in ancient and imperial China to justify the rule of the King or Emperor of China. According to this doctrine, heaven (天, Tian) – which embodies the natural order and will of the universe – bestows the mandate on a just ruler of China, the "Son of Heaven". If a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy, and had lost the mandate. It was also a common belief that natural disasters such as famine and flood were divine retributions bearing signs of Heaven's displeasure with the ruler, so there would often be revolts following major disasters as the people saw these calamities as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn.
The Mandate of Heaven does not require a legitimate ruler to be of noble birth, depending instead on how well that person can rule. Chinese dynasties such as the Han and Ming were founded by men of common origins, but they were seen as having succeeded because they had gained the Mandate of Heaven. The concept is in some ways similar to the European concept of the divine right of kings; however, unlike the European concept, it does not confer an unconditional right to rule. Retaining the mandate is contingent on the just and able performance of the rulers and their heirs.
Intrinsic to the concept of the Mandate of Heaven was the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler. The Mandate of Heaven was often invoked by philosophers and scholars in China as a way to curtail the abuse of power by the ruler, in a system that had few other checks. Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that Heaven had withdrawn its mandate from the ruler. Throughout Chinese history, times of poverty and natural disasters were often taken as signs that heaven considered the incumbent ruler unjust and thus in need of replacement.
The concept of the Mandate of Heaven was first used to support the rule of the kings of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC), and legitimize their overthrow of the earlier Shang dynasty (1600–1069 BC). It was used throughout the history of China to legitimize the successful overthrow and installation of new emperors, including by non-Han Chinese dynasties such as the Qing (1636–1912).
History
Transition between the Shang and the Zhou
The prosperous Shang dynasty saw its rule filled with multiple outstanding accomplishments. Notably, the dynasty lasted for a considerable time during which 31 kings ruled over an extended period of 17 generations. During this period, the dynasty enjoyed a period of peace and tranquility in which citizens could make a good living. The government was originally able to control most of its internal affairs due to the firm support provided by the people. As time went on, however, the rulers' abuse of the other social classes led to social unrest and instability. The corruption in this dynasty created the conditions necessary for a new ruling house to risethe Zhou dynasty. Rebellion against the Shang was led by Zhou Wu. They created the Mandate of Heaven to explain their right to assume rule and presumed that the only way to hold the mandate was to rule well in the eyes of Heaven. They believed that the Shang ruling house had become morally corrupt and that the Shang leaders' loss of virtue entitled their own house to take over. The overthrow of the Shang Dynasty, they said, was in accordance with the mandate given by Heaven.
After the Zhou became the ruling dynasty, they mostly appointed their own officials. The Zhou Dynasty had its own way of assigning its officials. However, in order to appease some of the citizens, they allowed some Shang beneficiaries to continue governing their small kingdoms in compliance with Zhou rules and regulations. As the empire continued to expand, intermarriage increased because the rulers believed that it was a method of forming strong alliances that enabled them to absorb more countries into the dynasty. In the case of a war, the Zhou dynasty boasted excellent military and technology mostly because of influence from annexed countries. They also excelled in shipbuilding, which, coupled with their discovery of celestial navigation, made them excellent mariners. Intellectually, the Zhou excelled in fields of literature and philosophy while many governmental positions were filled according to the intellectual ability of a candidate. A large amount of literature survives from the Zhou period, including the Book of Changes, Book of History, Book of Etiquette, Book of Song, Book of Odes, and the Book of Rites. Most of these works are commentaries on the progress and political movement of the dynasty. In philosophical terms, Confucius and his followers played an important role in shaping the mentality of the government as defined by the Five Confucian Relationships. These critical thinkers served as a foundation for the government. Their works primarily stressed the importance of the ruling class, respect, and their relationship with the lower class. Due to the growing size of the dynasty, it became apparent that a centralized government would lead to a lot of confusion and corruption because the government would not be able to exert its influence or accede to the needs of everyone. To address this political barrier, the dynasty formed a decentralized government in which the empire was broken down into sections. Within these districts were administrators who were appointed by the government, in return, they had to maintain their allegiance to the main internal government. In effect, the Zhou dynasty became a collection of districts. Consequently, this marked the fall of the dynasty as it became difficult for the central government to exert influence on all other regions of the empire.
Finally, when the Zhou dynasty's power decreased, it was wiped out by the State of Qin, which believed that the Zhou had become weak and their rule unjust. This transition emphasizes the customary trend of the Mandate of Heaven, which provided leeway for the rise of a new power. The Qin initially attempted to capitalize on the errors made by the Zhou, either by eliminating the source of error or reforming it. During this reformation, administrative changes were made and a system of legalism was developed which stated that the law is supreme over every individual, including the rulers. Although significant progress was made during the Qin dynasty, the persecution of scholars and ordinary citizens led to an unstable state.
After the death of Qin Shihuang, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty, a widespread revolt by prisoners, peasants, and unhappy soldiers inevitably led to the fall of the Qin dynasty due to its tyrannical practices. The establishment of the Han dynasty marked a great period in China's history marked by significant changes in the political structure of the country. Under the Han emperors, significant changes were made in which the government introduced entrance examinations known as civil service or imperial examinations for governmental positions. Additionally, the Han dynasty prospered economically through the Silk Road and other trading means.
Five Dynasties period
During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, there was no dominant Chinese dynasty that ruled all of China. This created a problem for the Song dynasty that followed, as they wanted to legitimize their rule by claiming that the Mandate of Heaven had passed on them. The scholar-official Xue Juzheng compiled the Old History of the Five Dynasties (五代史) during the 960s and 970s, after the Song dynasty had taken northern China from the last of the Five Dynasties, the Later Zhou. A major purpose was to establish justification for the transference of the Mandate of Heaven through these five dynasties and thus to the Song dynasty. He argued that these dynasties met certain vital criteria to be considered as having attained the Mandate of Heaven despite never having ruled all of China. One is that they all ruled the traditional Chinese heartland. They also held considerably more territory than any of the other Chinese states that had existed conterminously in the south. When the Mandate of Heaven gave Zhou the ruling authority they had to figure out how to govern.
However, there were certain other areas where these dynasties all clearly fell short. The brutal behavior of Zhu Wen and the Later Liang was a source of considerable embarrassment, and thus there was pressure to exclude them from the Mandate. The following three dynasties, the Later Tang, Later Jin, and Later Han were all non-Han Chinese dynasties, all having been ruled by the Shatuo ethnic minority. There is also the concern that though each of them was the most powerful Chinese kingdom of its respective era, none of them ever really had the ability to unify the entire Chinese realm as there were several powerful states to the south. However, it was the conclusion of Xue Juzheng that the Mandate had indeed passed through each of the Five Dynasties, and thus onto the Song Dynasty when it conquered the last of those dynasties.
Qing invasion
In previous dynasties; the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties reigned for much of the beginning three centuries where the mandate of heaven was questioned heavily between dynastic councils among each emperor. Some emperors were not entirely sure of their validity when it came to claiming the mandate, for it was ambiguous. Especially for the case of the Jurchen Jin, where much of the council was not sure how to discern the validity of their rulers. From
Emperor Gaozong of the Tang Dynasty to the Kangxi Emperor much of the chosen emperors contemplated much of this when they became a contender for the mandate. The reason for this was because of the ambiguity of the Mandate and overwhelmingly unofficial formality when declaring the Mandate of Heaven. However, Kublai Khan was the only indifferent ruler when he claimed the Mandate of Heaven over the Yuan Dynasty since he had a sizable military and was part of the Khitan people, as with many others from the same background since they did not have the same traditions and culture as their Chinese adversaries.
It was said that the peasant group of the Ming dynasty were the real selectors which allowed for the Mandate of Heaven to be claimed by the ruler. As a prospective candidate to the Mandate, they could please the peasantry group in order to win favor amongst the dynasty. It was solely politics from beginning to end and an attempt from the emperor to maintain a favorable act towards Heaven. Many emperors within the Qing dynasty looked immensely within themselves trying to come to terms with their ruling if natural disasters occurred within their time. This was interpreted as a warning of Heaven's displeased wrath towards an emperors ruling, such that the Mandate under their rule was unstable. Furthermore, Qing emperors would take their advisors feedback very seriously when pertaining to ruling and take it upon themselves to reflect on their current decisions of the dynastic overview in hopes that it favors Heaven.
The right to rule and the right of rebellion
Mencius stated that:
Chinese historians interpreted a successful revolt as evidence that the Mandate of Heaven had passed. In China, the right of rebellion against an unjust ruler has been a part of political philosophy ever since the Zhou dynasty, and the successful rebellion was interpreted by Chinese historians as evidence that divine approval had passed on to the successive dynasty. The Right of Rebellion is not coded into any official law. Rather, rebellion is always outlawed and severely punished; but is still a positive right grounded in the Chinese moral system. Often, it is used as a justification for actions to overthrow a previous dynasty after a rebellion has been successful and a new dynastic rule has been established. Since the winner is the one who determines who has obtained the Mandate of Heaven and who has lost it, some Chinese scholars consider it to be a sort of Victor's justice, best characterized in the popular Chinese saying "The winner becomes king, the loser becomes outlaw" (Chinese: “成者爲王，敗者爲寇”). Due to this, it is considered that Chinese historical accounts of the fall of a dynasty and the rise of a new one must be handled with caution. Chinese traditional historical compilation methods produce accounts that tend to fit their account to the theory, emphasizing aspects tending to prove that the old dynasty lost the Mandate of Heaven and the new one gained it, and de-emphasizing other aspects.
In the 20th and 21st centuries, Confucianist elements of student rebellions often claimed the Mandate of Heaven has been forfeited, as demonstrated by their large-scale activism, with notable instances including the 2014 Sunflower Student Movement in Taiwan and the 2014 Hong Kong protests.
Influence
Because of China's influence in medieval times, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven spread to other East Asian countries as a justification for rule by divine political legitimacy. In Korea, the kingdom of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, adopted the Chinese concept of tianxia which was based on Mandate of Heaven, however in Goguryeo it was changed to be based on divine ancestry. The kingdom of Silla is also said to be adopted the Mandate of Heaven, but the earliest records are from Joseon Dynasty, which made the Mandate of Heaven an enduring state ideology.
The ideology was also adopted in Vietnam, known in Vietnamese as Thiên mệnh (Chữ Hán: 天命). A divine mandate gave the Vietnamese emperor the right to rule, based not on his lineage but on his competence to govern. The later and more centralized Vietnamese dynasties adopted Confucianism as the state ideology, which led to the creation of a Vietnamese tributary system in Southeast Asia that was modeled after the Chinese Sinocentric system in East Asia.
In Japan, the Japanese government found the concept ideologically problematic, preferring not to have divine political legitimacy that was conditional and that could be withdrawn. The Japanese Taihō Code, formulated in 703, was largely an adaptation of the governmental system of the Tang dynasty, but the Mandate of Heaven was specifically omitted. In later times, this need was obviated because the Imperial House of Japan claimed to be descended in an unbroken line from the Japanese sun goddess, Amaterasu. Nevertheless, while maintaining this role, the Japanese emperor became politically marginalized in the Nara and Heian periods by powerful regents of the Fujiwara clan who seized executive control of state. Even though the Japanese imperial line itself remained unbroken after the eighth century, actual political authority passed through successive dynasties of regents and shōguns which cycled in a manner similar to that of Chinese dynasties. Even after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, when the emperor was placed back in the center of the political bureaucracy, the throne itself had very little power vis-à-vis the Meiji oligarchy. Actual political power has passed through at least four systems since the Meiji restoration: the Taishō democracy, the militarists, the Occupation of Japan, and postwar democracy. The emperor in the modern era is a political figurehead and not a ruling sovereign.
See also
Monarchy of China
East Asian cultural sphere
Interactions Between Heaven and Mankind
References
Citations
Sources
.
Chinese philosophy
Monarchy
Political history of China
Theories of history | [
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215217 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonin%20Artaud | Antonin Artaud | Antoine Marie Joseph Paul Artaud, better known as Antonin Artaud (; 4 September 1896 – 4 March 1948), was a French writer, poet, dramatist, visual artist, essayist, actor and theatre director, widely recognized as one of the major figures of twentieth-century theatre and the European avant-garde, and known for his raw, surreal and transgressive themes. He conceptualized the Theatre of Cruelty movement with essays and plays and wrote experimental texts with themes of introspection, mysticism, drug use, unorthodox politics, and his experiences with schizophrenia.
Early life
Antonin Artaud was born in Marseille, to Euphrasie Nalpas and Antoine-Roi Artaud. His parents were first cousins—his grandmothers were sisters from Smyrna (modern day İzmir, in Turkey). His paternal grandmother, Catherine Chilé, was raised in Marseille, where she married Marius Artaud, a Frenchman. His maternal grandmother, Mariette Chilé, grew up in Smyrna, where she married Louis Nalpas, a local ship chandler. He was, throughout his life, greatly affected by his Greek ancestry. Euphrasie gave birth to nine children, but four were stillborn and two others died in childhood. Artaud was diagnosed with meningitis at age five, a disease which had no cure at the time. Biographer David Shafer points out, "given the frequency of such misdiagnoses, coupled with the absence of a treatment (and consequent near-minimal survival rate) and the symptoms he had, it’s unlikely that Artaud actually contracted it." After a long struggle including a comatose period, a severely weakened Antonin survived. Artaud's parents arranged a series of sanatorium stays for their temperamental son, which were both prolonged and expensive.:163 This lasted five years, with a break of two months in June and July 1916, when Artaud was conscripted into the French Army. He was discharged due to addiction to laudanum and mental instability. During Artaud's "rest cures" at the sanatorium, he read Arthur Rimbaud, Charles Baudelaire, and Edgar Allan Poe. In May 1919, the director of the sanatorium prescribed laudanum for Artaud, precipitating a lifelong addiction to that and other opiates. He suffered a nervous breakdown at age 19; this was not the end of his mental illness.
Career
In March 1921, Artaud moved to Paris to pursue a career as a writer (against his father's wishes). While training and performing with directors including Charles Dullin and Georges Pitoëff, he continued to write both poetry and essays. At the age of 27, he mailed some of his poems to the journal La Nouvelle Revue Française; they were rejected, but the editor, Jacques Rivière, wrote back seeking to understand him, and a relationship via letters developed. Their compilation into an epistolary work, Correspondance avec Jacques Rivière, was Artaud's first major publication.
His first work in the theatre was with French theatre director Lugné Poe who described Artaud as "a painter lost in the midst of actors".
Apprenticeship with Charles Dullin
Dullin is one of the celebrated French "teacher-directors" with whom Artaud worked, along with Jacques Copeau, André Antoine, and Firmin Gémier. Artaud was taken on as an apprentice by Dullin in 1921, at his Théâtre de l'Atelier.:345 He worked as a member of Dullin's troupe for eighteen months, training ten to twelve hours a day. Artaud was quoted as saying of Dullin, "Hearing Dullin teach I feel that I'm rediscovering ancient secrets and a whole forgotten mystique of production".:351 Artaud came to disagree with many of Dullin's teachings.:352 He left the troupe after a disagreement over his performance of the Emperor Charlemagne in Alexandre Arnoux's Huon de Bordeaux.:22
Work in the cinema (1923–1935)
Artaud cultivated a great interest in cinema as well, working as a critic, actor, and writing film scenarios. Artaud's performance as Jean-Paul Marat in Abel Gance's Napoleon (1927) used exaggerated movements to convey the fire of Marat's personality. He also played the monk Massieu in Carl Theodor Dreyer's The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928). He wrote a number of film scenarios, and ten are listed in his Complete Works. As Ros Murray points out, 'one is a fragment, four were written under a pseudonym, and one was lost altogether.' Only one of Artaud's scenarios was produced, The Seashell and the Clergyman (1928). Directed by Germaine Dulac, it is often considered the first surrealist film. This film influenced Salvador Dalí and Luis Buñuel, two key Spanish surrealists, when they made Un Chien Andalou (1929).
Association with surrealists
Artaud was briefly associated with the surrealists, before being expelled by André Breton in 1927, shortly after the surrealists aligned themselves with the Communist Party in France.: 274 Scholar Ros Murray asserts, 'Artaud was not into politics at all, writing things like: "I shit on Marxism."' Additionally, 'Breton was becoming very anti-theatre because he saw theatre as being bourgeois and anti-revolutionary.' Artaud ends 'The Manifesto for an Abortive Theatre' (1926/27), written for the Theatre Alfred Jarry, with a direct attack on the surrealists, who he calls 'bog-paper revolutionaries' that would 'make us believe that to produce theatre today is a counter-revolutionary endeavour'.:24 He declares they are 'bowing down to Communism',:25 which is 'a lazy man's revolution',:24 and calls for a more 'essential metamorphosis' of society.:25
Theatre Alfred Jarry (1926–1929)
In 1926, Artaud founded the Theatre Alfred Jarry with Robert Aron and expelled surrealist Roger Vitrac. They staged four productions between June 1927 and January 1929. The Theatre was extremely short-lived, but was attended by an enormous range of European artists, including Arthur Adamov, André Gide, and Paul Valéry.:249
Productions at Theatre Alfred Jarry
The theatre's inaugural production was 1 June 1927, and featured Artaud's Ventre brûlé; ou La Mère folle (Burnt Belly, or the Mad Mother), Vitrac's Les Mystères de l’amour (The Mysteries of Love), and Aron's Gigogne.
The second production was 14 January 1928 and 'consisted of a screening of Vsevolod Pudovkin's 1926 film Mat''' (as La Mère), and a performance of the last act of Paul Claudel’s Le Partage de midi.'
The third production, on 2 and 9 June 1928, was August Strindberg's A Dream Play.
The final production was Vitrac's Victor; ou, Le pouvoir aux les enfants, which ran 24 and 29 December 1928 and 5 January 1929.
The theatre advertised that they would produce Artaud's play Jet de sang in their 1926–1927 season, but it was never mounted and was not premiered until 40 years later.
At the Paris Colonial Exposition (1931)
In 1931, Artaud saw Balinese dance performed at the Paris Colonial Exposition. Although he did not fully understand the intentions and ideas behind traditional Balinese performance, it influenced many of his ideas for theatre. Scholar Adrian Curtin has noted the significance of the soundscape that accompanied the event, stating that Artaud was struck by 'the 'hypnotic' rhythms of the gamelan ensemble, its range of percussive effects, the variety of timbres that the musicians produced, and – most importantly, perhaps – the way in which the dancers' movements interacted dynamically with the musical elements instead of simply functioning as a type of background accompaniment.'
Also during this year, Artaud's "First Manifesto for a Theatre of Cruelty" was published in La Nouvelle Revue Française; it would later appear as a chapter in The Theatre and Its Double.
The Cenci (1935)
In 1935 Artaud staged a production of Percy Bysshe Shelley's The Cenci at the Théâtre des Folies-Wagram in Paris.:250 The drama contains themes of abuse, incest, violence, murder and betrayal. In Artaud's stage directions, he described the opening scene as "suggestive of extreme atmospheric turbulence, with wind-blown drapes, waves of suddenly amplified sound, and crowds of figures engaged in 'furious orgy'", accompanied by "a chorus of church bells", as well as the presence of numerous large mannequins. In this scene, which is often referred to as "the banquet scene", Dullin's influence on Artaud is very clear, as both the sounds of bells and the sounds of amplified footsteps were present, along with the strongly emphasized theme of elemental forces. Scholar Adrian Curtin has argued for the importance of the 'sonic aspects of the production, which did not merely support the action but motivated it obliquely.':251 While Shelley's version of The Cenci conveyed the motivations and anguish of the Cenci's daughter Beatrice with her father through monologues, Artaud was much more concerned with conveying the menacing nature of the Cenci's presence and the reverberations of their incest relationship though physical discordance, as if an invisible "force-field" surrounded them.
Artaud's strong interest in oriental theater, specifically Balinese and Chinese, was in part shared by his mentor Dullin, but Dullin, unlike Artaud, did not think Western theater should be adopting oriental language and style. He was quoted as saying of Artaud's influences from oriental theater, "To want to impose on our Western theater rules of a theatre of a long tradition which has its own symbolic language would be a great mistake." Artaud's implementation of Dullin's sensory awareness exercises into the stage production were clearly observable in The Cenci, Jane Goodall writes of the performance, The predominance of action over reflection accelerates the development of events...the monologues...are cut in favor of sudden, jarring transitions...so that a spasmodic effect is created. Extreme fluctuations in pace, pitch, and tone heighten sensory awareness intensify ... the here and now of performance.:119The Cenci was a commercial failure, although it employed innovative sound effects—including the first theatrical use of the electronic instrument the Ondes Martenot—and had a set designed by Balthus.
Travels and institutionalisation
Journey to Mexico
In 1935 Artaud decided to go to Mexico, where he was convinced there was 'a sort of deep movement in favour of a return to civilisation before Cortez'.:11 He received a grant to travel to Mexico, where in 1936 he met his first Mexican-Parisian friend, the painter Federico Cantú, when Cantú gave lectures on the decadence of Western civilization. Artaud also studied and lived with the Tarahumaran people and participated in peyote rites, his writings about which were later released in a volume called Voyage to the Land of the Tarahumara,:14 published in English under the title The Peyote Dance (1976). The content of this work closely resembles the poems of his later days, concerned primarily with the supernatural. Artaud also recorded his horrific withdrawal from heroin upon entering the land of the Tarahumaras. Having deserted his last supply of the drug at a mountainside, he literally had to be hoisted onto his horse and soon resembled, in his words, "a giant, inflamed gum". Artaud would return to opiates later in life.
Ireland and repatriation to France
In 1937, Artaud returned to France, where he obtained a walking stick of knotted wood that he believed belonged not only to St. Patrick, but also Lucifer and Jesus Christ. Artaud traveled to Ireland, landing at Cobh and travelling to Galway in an effort to return the staff. However, speaking very little English and no Irish whatsoever, he was unable to make himself understood. He would not have been admitted at Cobh, according to Irish government documents, except that he carried a letter of introduction from the Paris embassy. Most of his trip was spent in a hotel room he was unable to pay for. He was forcibly removed from the grounds of Milltown House, a Jesuit community, when he refused to leave. Before deportation he was briefly confined in the notorious Mountjoy Prison. According to Irish Government papers he was deported as "a destitute and undesirable alien". On his return trip by ship, Artaud believed he was being attacked by two crew members, and he retaliated. He was arrested and put in a straitjacket.
His return from Ireland brought about the beginning of the final phase of Artaud's life, which was spent in different asylums. It was at this time that his best known work The Theatre and Its Double (1938) was published. This book contained the two manifestos of the Theatre of Cruelty. There, "he proposed a theatre that was in effect a return to magic and ritual and he sought to create a new theatrical language of totem and gesture – a language of space devoid of dialogue that would appeal to all the senses." "Words say little to the mind," Artaud wrote, "compared to space thundering with images and crammed with sounds." He proposed "a theatre in which violent physical images crush and hypnotize the sensibility of the spectator seized by the theatre as by a whirlwind of higher forces." He considered formal theatres with their proscenium arches and playwrights with their scripts "a hindrance to the magic of genuine ritual.":6
In Rodez
In 1943, when France was occupied by the Germans and Italians, Robert Desnos arranged to have Artaud transferred to the psychiatric hospital in Rodez, well inside Vichy territory, where he was put under the charge of Dr. Gaston Ferdière. At Rodez Artaud underwent therapy including electroshock treatments and art therapy.:194 The doctor believed that Artaud's habits of crafting magic spells, creating astrology charts, and drawing disturbing images were symptoms of mental illness. Artaud, at his peak began lashing out at others. Artaud denounced the electroshock treatments and consistently pleaded to have them suspended, while also ascribing to them 'the benefit of having returned him to his name and to his self mastery'.:196 Scholar Alexandra Lukes points out that 'the "recovery" of his name' might have been 'a gesture to appease his doctors' conception of what constitutes health.':196 It was during this time that Artaud began writing and drawing again, after a long dormant period. In 1946, Ferdière released Artaud to his friends, who placed him in the psychiatric clinic at Ivry-sur-Seine.
Career resumed
Artaud was encouraged to write by his friends, and interest in his work was rekindled. He visited an exhibition of works by Vincent van Gogh which resulted in a study Van Gogh le suicidé de la société [Van Gogh, The Man Suicided by Society], published by K éditeur, Paris, 1947 which won a critics' prize. He recorded (To Have Done With the Judgment of God) on 22–29 November 1947. This work was shelved by Wladimir Porché, the Director of French Radio, the day before its scheduled airing on 2 February 1948, partly for its scatological, anti-American, and anti-religious references and pronouncements, but also because of its general randomness, with a cacophony of xylophonic sounds mixed with various percussion elements. While remaining true to his Theatre of Cruelty and reducing powerful emotions and expressions into audible sounds, Artaud had utilized various, somewhat alarming cries, screams, grunts, onomatopoeia, and glossolalia.
As a result, Fernand Pouey, the director of dramatic and literary broadcasts for French radio, assembled a panel to consider the broadcast of Among approximately 50 artists, writers, musicians, and journalists present for a private listening on 5 February 1948 were Jean Cocteau, Paul Éluard, Raymond Queneau, Jean-Louis Barrault, René Clair, Jean Paulhan, Maurice Nadeau, Georges Auric, Claude Mauriac, and René Char. Porché refused to broadcast it even though the panel were almost unanimously in favor of Artaud's work. Pouey left his job and the show was not heard again until 23 February 1948, at a private performance at Théâtre Washington.
Final years
In January 1948, Artaud was diagnosed with colorectal cancer. He died shortly afterwards on 4 March 1948 in a psychiatric clinic in Ivry-sur-Seine, a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris. He was found by the gardener of the estate seated alone at the foot of his bed, and it was suspected that he died from a lethal dose of the drug chloral hydrate, although it is unknown whether he was aware of its lethality.
Twenty years after its recording and production in November 1947, French radio finally broadcast the performance of Influence
Artaud has been cited as a profoundly influential figure in the history of theatre, avant-garde art, literature, and other disciplines. His work proved to be a significant influence on the Theatre of the Absurd, particularly the works of Jean Genet and Samuel Beckett, and helped inspire a movement away from the dominant role of language and rationalism in contemporary theatre. Artaud also had a significant influence on the philosophers Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari, who borrowed Artaud's phrase "the body without organs" to describe their conception of the virtual dimension of the body and, ultimately, the basic substratum of reality in their Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Poet Allen Ginsberg claimed that his introduction to Artaud, specifically "To Have Done with the Judgement of God", by Carl Solomon had a tremendous influence on his most famous poem "Howl". Artaud's ideas were adopted and vividly seen in Barrault's adaptation of Kafka's The Trial (1947).
An extremely important study on the Artaud work comes from Jacques Derrida. According to the philosopher, as theatrical writer and actor, Artaud is the embodiment of both an aggressive and repairing gesture, which strikes, sounds out, is harsh in a dramatic way and with critical determination as well. Identifying life as art, he was critically focused on the western cultural social drama, to point out and deny the double-dealing on which the western theatrical tradition is based; he worked with the whirlpool of feelings and lunatic expressions, being subjugated to a counter-force which came from the act of gesture.
Theatrical practitioner Peter Brook took inspiration from Artaud's "Theatre of Cruelty" in a series of workshops that led up to his Royal Shakespeare Company production of Marat/Sade in 1964, which was performed in New York and Paris as well as London. The Living Theatre was also heavily influenced by Artaud, as was much English-language experimental theatre and performance art; Karen Finley, Spalding Gray, Liz LeCompte, Richard Foreman, Charles Marowitz, Sam Shepard, Joseph Chaikin, and more all named Artaud as one of their influences. In the winter of 1968, Williams College offered a dedicated intersession class in Artaudian theatre, resulting in a week-long "Festival of Cruelty," under the direction of Keith Fowler. The Festival included productions of The Jet of Blood, All Writing is Pig Shit, and several original ritualized performances, one based on the Texas Tower killings and another created as an ensemble catharsis called The Resurrection of Pig Man.
Charles Marowitz's play Artaud at Rodez is about the relationship between Artaud and Dr. Ferdière during Artaud's confinement at the psychiatric hospital in Rodez; the play was first performed in 1976 at the Teatro a Trastavere in Rome. The writer and actor Tim Dalgleish wrote and produced the play 'The Life and Theatre of Antonin Artaud' (originally called 'Pigshit') for the English physical theatre company Bare Bones in 1999. The play told Artaud's story from his early years of aspiration when he wished to be part of the establishment, through to his final years as a suffering, iconoclastic outsider. In Canada, playwright Gary Botting created a series of Artaudian "happenings" from The Aeolian Stringer to Zen Rock Festival, and produced a dozen plays with an Artaudian theme, including Prometheus Re-Bound. The Latin American dramatic novel Yo-Yo Boing! by Giannina Braschi includes a debate between artists and poets concerning the merits of Artaud's "multiple talents" in comparison to the singular talents of other French writers. The band Bauhaus included a song about the playwright, called "Antonin Artaud", on their album Burning from the Inside. Influential Argentine hard rock band Pescado Rabioso recorded an album titled Artaud. Their leader Luis Alberto Spinetta wrote the lyrics partly basing them on Artaud's writings. Composer John Zorn has written many works inspired by and dedicated to Artaud, including seven CDs: "Astronome", "Moonchild: Songs Without Words", "Six Litanies for Heliogabalus", "The Crucible", "Ipsissimus", "Templars: In Sacred Blood" and "The Last Judgment", a monodrama for voice and orchestra inspired by Artaud's late drawings "La Machine de l'être" (2000), "Le Momo" (1999) for violin and piano, and "Suppots et Suppliciations" (2012) for full orchestra. Filmmaker E. Elias Merhige, during an interview by writer Scott Nicolay, cited the writings of Artaud as a key influence for the experimental film Begotten.
Filmography
Bibliography
Selected works
French
English translation
Critical and biographic works
In English
Bataille, George. "Surrealism Day to Day". In The Absence of Myth: Writings on Surrealism. Trans. Michael Richardson. London: Verso, 1994. 34–47.
Barber, Stephen Antonin Artaud: Blows and Bombs (Faber and Faber: London, 1993)
Bersani, Leo. "Artaud, Defecation, and Birth". In A Future for Astyanax: Character and Desire in Literature. Boston: Little, Brown, 1976.
Blanchot, Maurice. "Cruel Poetic Reason (the rapacious need for flight)". In The Infinite Conversation. Trans. Susan Hanson. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993. 293–297.
Deleuze, Gilles. "Thirteenth Series of the Schizophrenic and the Little Girl". In The Logic of Sense. Trans. Mark Lester with Charles Stivale. Ed. Constantin V. Boundas. New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. 82–93.
Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. Anti-Oedipus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans. Robert Hurley, Helen Seem, and Mark Lane. New York: Viking Penguin, 1977.
Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari. "28 November 1947: How Do You Make Yourself a Body Without Organs?". In A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia. Trans. Brian Massumi. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987. 149–166.
Derrida, Jacques. "The Theatre of Cruelty" and "La Parole Souffle". In Writing and Difference. Trans. Alan Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1978.
Esslin, Martin. Antonin Artaud. London: John Calder, 1976.
Ferdière, Gaston. "I Looked after Antonin Artaud". In Artaud at Rodez. Marowitz, Charles (1977). pp. 103–112. London: Marion Boyars. .
Goodall, Jane, Artaud and the Gnostic Drama. Oxford: Clarendon Press; Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
Innes, Christopher Avant-Garde Theatre 1892–1992 (London: Routledge, 1993).
Jamieson, Lee Antonin Artaud: From Theory to Practice (Greenwich Exchange: London, 2007) .
Jannarone, Kimberly, Artaud and His Doubles (Ann Arbor, MI, University of Michigan Press, 2010).
Jannarone, Kimberly, "The Theater Before Its Double: Artaud Directs in the Alfred Jarry Theater," Theatre Survey 46.2 (November 2005), 247–273.
Pireddu, Nicoletta. "The mark and the mask: psychosis in Artaud's alphabet of cruelty," _Arachnē: An International Journal of Language and Literature_ 3 (1), 1996: 43–65.
Koch, Stephen. "On Artaud." Tri-Quarterly, no. 6 (Spring 1966): 29–37.
Plunka, Gene A. (Ed). Antonin Artaud and the Modern Theater. Cranbury: Associated University Presses. 1994.
Rainer, Friedrich. "The Deconstructed Self in Artaud and Brecht: Negation of Subject and Antitotalitarianism", Forum for Modern Language Studies, 26:3 (July 1990): 282–297.
Sontag, Susan. "Approaching Artaud". In Under the Sign of Saturn. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1980. 13–72. [Also printed as Introduction to Antonin Artaud: Selected Writings, ed. Sontag.]
Shattuck, Roger. "Artaud Possessed". In The Innocent Eye. New York: Farrar, Straus, Giroux, 1984. 169–186.
Ward, Nigel "Fifty-one Shocks of Artaud", New Theatre Quarterly Vol.XV Part2 (NTQ58 May 1999): 123–128
In French
Blanchot, Maurice. "Artaud" (November 1956, no. 47): 873–881.
Brau, Jean-Louis. Antonin Artaud. Paris: La Table Ronde, 1971.
, 1969
Florence de Mèredieu, Antonin Artaud, Portraits et Gris-gris, Paris, Blusson, 1984, new edition with additions, 2008.
Florence de Mèredieu, Antonin Artaud, Voyages, Paris, Blusson, 1992.
Florence de Mèredieu, Antonin Artaud, de l'ange, Paris, Blusson, 1992.
Florence de Mèredieu, Sur l'électrochoc, le cas Antonin Artaud, Paris, Blusson, 1996.
Florence de Mèredieu, C'était Antonin Artaud, biography, Fayard, 2006.
Florence de Mèredieu, La Chine d'Antonin Artaud / Le Japon d'Antonin Artaud, Paris, Blusson, 2006.
Florence de Mèredieu, L'Affaire Artaud, journal ethnographique, Paris, Fayard, 2009.
Florence de Mèredieu, Antonin Artaud dans la guerre, de Verdun à Hitler. L'hygiène mentale, Paris, Blusson, 2013.
Florence de Mèredieu, Vincent van Gogh, Antonin Artaud. Ciné-roman. Ciné-peinture, Paris, Blusson, 2014.
Florence de Mèredieu, BACON, ARTAUD, VINCI. Une blessure magnifique, Paris, Blusson, 2019.
Virmaux, Alain. Antonin Artaud et le théâtre. Paris: Seghers, 1970.
Virmaux, Alain and Odette. Artaud: un bilan critique. Paris: Belfond, 1979.
Virmaux, Alain and Odette. Antonin Artaud: qui êtes-vous? Lyon: La Manufacture, 1986.
In German
Seegers, U. Alchemie des Sehens. Hermetische Kunst im 20. Jahrhundert. Antonin Artaud, Yves Klein, Sigmar Polke'' (Köln: Verlag der Buchhandlung Walther König, 2003).
References
External links
an anachronistic film account of Artaud's life.
1896 births
1948 deaths
Male actors from Marseille
French people of Greek descent
20th-century French male actors
20th-century male writers
French acting theorists
French artists
20th-century French dramatists and playwrights
French male film actors
20th-century French poets
French male silent film actors
French male stage actors
Modern artists
Modernist theatre
Poètes maudits
Writers from Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
French surrealist writers
Surrealist dramatists and playwrights
Surrealist poets
Theatre practitioners
People with schizophrenia
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Deaths from cancer in France
French male poets
Prix Sainte-Beuve winners
French military personnel of World War I | [
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|
215220 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandt%27s%20cormorant | Brandt's cormorant | Brandt's cormorant (Urile penicillatus) is a strictly marine bird of the cormorant family of seabirds that inhabits the Pacific coast of North America. It ranges, in the summer, from Alaska to the Gulf of California, but the population north of Vancouver Island migrates south during the winter. Its specific name, penicillatus is Latin for a painter's brush (pencil of hairs), in reference to white plumes on its neck and back during the early breeding season. The common name honors the German naturalist Johann Friedrich von Brandt of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, who described the species from specimens collected on expeditions to the Pacific during the early 19th century. The average size of a Brandt's cormorant is 4.6 pounds. They have a length of about 34 inches and their wingspan is 4 feet.
It was formerly classified in the genus Phalacrocorax, but a 2014 study supported reclassifying it and several other Pacific cormorant species into the genus Urile. The IOC followed this classification in 2021.
Brandt's cormorants feed either singly or in flocks, and are adaptable in prey choice and undersea habitat. It feeds on small fish from the surface to sea floor, obtaining them, like all cormorants, by pursuit diving using its feet for propulsion. Prey is often what is most common: in central California, rockfish from the genus Sebastes is the most commonly taken, but off British Columbia, it is Pacific herring. Brandt's cormorants have been observed foraging at depths of over .
During the breeding season, adults have a blue throat patch. This species nests on the ground or on rocky outcroppings. Año Nuevo Island is an important seabird breeding colony in the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, hosting Brandt’s cormorants among other species of seabirds.
Behavior
Brandt's cormorants live on the Pacific coast of North America, in habitats such as bays, estuaries, and lagoons. They typically live in groups. They breed between March and August, and usually have 4 eggs.Young birds are cared for by both parents.
Diet
Brandt's cormorants mostly eat fish such as herring and rockfish, but their diet can include other fish as well as shrimp and crabs. To hunt, they dive beneath the surface of the ocean to catch fish. They can dive over 200 feet deep. They can hunt either in groups or alone.
References
Brandt's cormorant
Native birds of Western Canada
Native birds of the West Coast of the United States
Birds of Mexico
Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area
Brandt's cormorant
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|
215226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermionic%20emission | Thermionic emission | Thermionic emission is the liberation of electrons from an electrode by virtue of its temperature (releasing of energy supplied by heat). This occurs because the thermal energy given to the charge carrier overcomes the work function of the material. The charge carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older literature are sometimes referred to as thermions. After emission, a charge that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to the total charge emitted is initially left behind in the emitting region. But if the emitter is connected to a battery, the charge left behind is neutralized by charge supplied by the battery as the emitted charge carriers move away from the emitter, and finally the emitter will be in the same state as it was before emission.
The classical example of thermionic emission is that of electrons from a hot cathode into a vacuum (also known as thermal electron emission or the Edison effect) in a vacuum tube. The hot cathode can be a metal filament, a coated metal filament, or a separate structure of metal or carbides or borides of transition metals. Vacuum emission from metals tends to become significant only for temperatures over .
This process is crucially important in the operation of a variety of electronic devices and can be used for electricity generation (such as thermionic converters and electrodynamic tethers) or cooling. The magnitude of the charge flow increases dramatically with increasing temperature.
The term 'thermionic emission' is now also used to refer to any thermally-excited charge emission process, even when the charge is emitted from one solid-state region into another.
History
Because the electron was not identified as a separate physical particle until the work of J. J. Thomson in 1897, the word "electron" was not used when discussing experiments that took place before this date.
The phenomenon was initially reported in 1853 by Edmond Becquerel. It was rediscovered in 1873 by Frederick Guthrie in Britain. While doing work on charged objects, Guthrie discovered that a red-hot iron sphere with a negative charge would lose its charge (by somehow discharging it into air). He also found that this did not happen if the sphere had a positive charge. Other early contributors included Johann Wilhelm Hittorf (1869–1883), Eugen Goldstein (1885), and Julius Elster and Hans Friedrich Geitel (1882–1889).
The effect was rediscovered again by Thomas Edison on February 13, 1880, while he was trying to discover the reason for breakage of lamp filaments and uneven blackening (darkest near the positive terminal of the filament) of the bulbs in his incandescent lamps.
Edison built several experimental lamp bulbs with an extra wire, metal plate, or foil inside the bulb that was separate from the filament and thus could serve as an electrode. He connected a galvanometer, a device used to measure current (the flow of charge), to the output of the extra metal electrode. If the foil was put at a negative potential relative to the filament, there was no measurable current between the filament and the foil. When the foil was raised to a positive potential relative to the filament, there could be a significant current between the filament through the vacuum to the foil if the filament was heated sufficiently (by its own external power source).
We now know that the filament was emitting electrons, which were attracted to a positively charged foil, but not a negatively charged one. This one-way current was called the Edison effect (although the term is occasionally used to refer to thermionic emission itself). He found that the current emitted by the hot filament increased rapidly with increasing voltage, and filed a patent application for a voltage-regulating device using the effect on November 15, 1883 (U.S. patent 307,031, the first US patent for an electronic device). He found that sufficient current would pass through the device to operate a telegraph sounder. This was exhibited at the International Electrical Exposition in Philadelphia in September 1884. William Preece, a British scientist, took back with him several of the Edison effect bulbs. He presented a paper on them in 1885, where he referred to thermionic emission as the "Edison effect." The British physicist John Ambrose Fleming, working for the British "Wireless Telegraphy" Company, discovered that the Edison effect could be used to detect radio waves. Fleming went on to develop the two-element vacuum tube known as the diode, which he patented on November 16, 1904.
The thermionic diode can also be configured as a device that converts a heat difference to electric power directly without moving parts (a thermionic converter, a type of heat engine).
Richardson's law
Following J. J. Thomson's identification of the electron in 1897, the British physicist Owen Willans Richardson began work on the topic that he later called "thermionic emission". He received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1928 "for his work on the thermionic phenomenon and especially for the discovery of the law named after him".
From band theory, there are one or two electrons per atom in a solid that are free to move from atom to atom. This is sometimes collectively referred to as a "sea of electrons". Their velocities follow a statistical distribution, rather than being uniform, and occasionally an electron will have enough velocity to exit the metal without being pulled back in. The minimum amount of energy needed for an electron to leave a surface is called the work function. The work function is characteristic of the material and for most metals is on the order of several electronvolts. Thermionic currents can be increased by decreasing the work function. This often-desired goal can be achieved by applying various oxide coatings to the wire.
In 1901 Richardson published the results of his experiments: the current from a heated wire seemed to depend exponentially on the temperature of the wire with a mathematical form similar to the Arrhenius equation. Later, he proposed that the emission law should have the mathematical form
where J is the emission current density, T is the temperature of the metal, W is the work function of the metal, k is the Boltzmann constant, and AG is a parameter discussed next.
In the period 1911 to 1930, as physical understanding of the behaviour of electrons in metals increased, various theoretical expressions (based on different physical assumptions) were put forward for AG, by Richardson, Saul Dushman, Ralph H. Fowler, Arnold Sommerfeld and Lothar Wolfgang Nordheim. Over 60 years later, there is still no consensus among interested theoreticians as to the exact expression of AG, but there is agreement that AG must be written in the form
where λR is a material-specific correction factor that is typically of order 0.5, and A0 is a universal constant given by
where m and are the mass and charge of an electron, respectively, and h is Planck's constant.
In fact, by about 1930 there was agreement that, due to the wave-like nature of electrons, some proportion rav of the outgoing electrons would be reflected as they reached the emitter surface, so the emission current density would be reduced, and λR would have the value (1-rav). Thus, one sometimes sees the thermionic emission equation written in the form
.
However, a modern theoretical treatment by Modinos assumes that the band-structure of the emitting material must also be taken into account. This would introduce a second correction factor λB into λR, giving . Experimental values for the "generalized" coefficient AG are generally of the order of magnitude of A0, but do differ significantly as between different emitting materials, and can differ as between different crystallographic faces of the same material. At least qualitatively, these experimental differences can be explained as due to differences in the value of λR.
Considerable confusion exists in the literature of this area because: (1) many sources do not distinguish between AG and A0, but just use the symbol A (and sometimes the name "Richardson constant") indiscriminately; (2) equations with and without the correction factor here denoted by λR are both given the same name; and (3) a variety of names exist for these equations, including "Richardson equation", "Dushman's equation", "Richardson–Dushman equation" and "Richardson–Laue–Dushman equation". In the literature, the elementary equation is sometimes given in circumstances where the generalized equation would be more appropriate, and this in itself can cause confusion. To avoid misunderstandings, the meaning of any "A-like" symbol should always be explicitly defined in terms of the more fundamental quantities involved.
Because of the exponential function, the current increases rapidly with temperature when kT is less than W. (For essentially every material, melting occurs well before kT = W.)
The thermionic emission law has been recently revised for 2D materials in various models.
Schottky emission
In electron emission devices, especially electron guns, the thermionic electron emitter will be biased negative relative to its surroundings. This creates an electric field of magnitude F at the emitter surface. Without the field, the surface barrier seen by an escaping Fermi-level electron has height W equal to the local work-function. The electric field lowers the surface barrier by an amount ΔW, and increases the emission current. This is known as the Schottky effect (named for Walter H. Schottky) or field enhanced thermionic emission. It can be modeled by a simple modification of the Richardson equation, by replacing W by (W − ΔW). This gives the equation
where ε0 is the electric constant (also, formerly, called the vacuum permittivity).
Electron emission that takes place in the field-and-temperature-regime where this modified equation applies is often called Schottky emission. This equation is relatively accurate for electric field strengths lower than about 108 V m−1. For electric field strengths higher than 108 V m−1, so-called Fowler-Nordheim (FN) tunneling begins to contribute significant emission current. In this regime, the combined effects of field-enhanced thermionic and field emission can be modeled by the Murphy-Good equation for thermo-field (T-F) emission. At even higher fields, FN tunneling becomes the dominant electron emission mechanism, and the emitter operates in the so-called "cold field electron emission (CFE)" regime.
Thermionic emission can also be enhanced by interaction with other forms of excitation such as light. For example, excited Cs-vapours in thermionic converters form clusters of Cs-Rydberg matter which yield a decrease of collector emitting work function from 1.5 eV to 1.0–0.7 eV. Due to long-lived nature of Rydberg matter this low work function remains low which essentially increases the low-temperature converter's efficiency.
Photon-enhanced thermionic emission
Photon-enhanced thermionic emission (PETE) is a process developed by scientists at Stanford University that harnesses both the light and heat of the sun to generate electricity and increases the efficiency of solar power production by more than twice the current levels. The device developed for the process reaches peak efficiency above 200 °C, while most silicon solar cells become inert after reaching 100 °C. Such devices work best in parabolic dish collectors, which reach temperatures up to 800 °C. Although the team used a gallium nitride semiconductor in its proof-of-concept device, it claims that the use of gallium arsenide can increase the device's efficiency to 55–60 percent, nearly triple that of existing systems, and 12–17 percent more than existing 43 percent multi-junction solar cells.
See also
Space charge
References
External links
How vacuum tubes really work with a section on thermionic emission, with equations, john-a-harper.com.
Thermionic Phenomena and the Laws which Govern Them, Owen Richardson's Nobel lecture on thermionics. nobelprize.org. December 12, 1929. (PDF)
Derivations of thermionic emission equations from an undergraduate lab, csbsju.edu.
Atomic physics
Electricity
Energy conversion
Vacuum tubes
Thomas Edison | [
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215227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-crested%20cormorant | Double-crested cormorant | The double-crested cormorant (Nannopterum auritum) is a member of the cormorant family of water birds. Its habitat is near rivers and lakes as well as in coastal areas, and is widely distributed across North America, from the Aleutian Islands in Alaska down to Florida and Mexico. Measuring in length, it is an all-black bird which gains a small double crest of black and white feathers in breeding season. It has a bare patch of orange-yellow facial skin. Five subspecies are recognized. It mainly eats fish and hunts by swimming and diving. Its feathers, like those of all cormorants, are not waterproof and it must spend time drying them out after spending time in the water. Once threatened by the use of DDT, the numbers of this bird have increased markedly in recent years.
Taxonomy
The double-crested cormorant was described by René Primevère Lesson in 1831. It was formerly classified in the genus Phalacrocorax, but a 2014 study supported reclassifying it and several other American cormorant species into the genus Nannopterum. The IOC followed this classification in 2021.
Its scientific genus name is derived from the Greek words : nános, "small" and : pterón, "wing". This genus name was originally coined for the flightless cormorant (N. harrisi), which does have very small wings; although the double-crested cormorant has normal-sized wings, it (along with the neotropic cormorant, N. brasilianum) was still reclassified into the genus Nannopterum when the relationship between it and the flightless cormorant became apparent. The species name is from the Latin , "eared", referring to its nuptial crests. Its common name refers to the same nuptial crests.
Five subspecies are recognized:
N. a. albociliatum (Ridgway 1884), Farallon cormorant, breeds along the Pacific coast of North America from British Columbia to Bird Island in the state of Sinaloa, Mexico and possibly even further south. Significant colonies of these birds may also be found further inland including areas around the Salton Sea. According to currently available information, this subspecies is the third largest among the subspecies of the double-crested cormorant. Historical records indicate that this species was far more abundant in the past, but due to human persecution and development in their breeding range, the population of this subspecies has declined. The largest colony of cormorants in North America consisted of members of this subspecies at San Martin Island, Baja California Territory, Mexico, and was recorded in 1913. Physically, this subspecies is fairly large and has white to partially white nuptial crests.
N. a. auritum (Lesson, 1831), the nominate subspecies, has the largest and most widespread breeding population. It ranges from the Great Basin and Rocky Mountains east into central and eastern North America. This region includes the Canadian prairies and the Great Lakes. Historically, this subspecies has bred in abundance across most of this region, though there are questions as to whether this bird has always bred in the Great Lakes region. Some evidence indicates that the bird has only begun breeding in the region since the early 20th century while other evidence suggests that it has been breeding in the region much longer. Physically, this subspecies is moderately large and has black nuptial crests.
N. a. cincinnatum (Brandt 1837), white-crested cormorant, currently this is the most geographically restricted subspecies with the smallest population. It is found along the southern coast of Alaska and on the Aleutian Islands, ranging west from Kodiak to Chuginidak in the Aleutians. Historically, the range extended west to the Near Islands, but possibly due to nest predation by introduced foxes, the birds were no longer breeding in the area by the mid-1930s. Physically, this subspecies is the largest and it bears straight, white nuptial crests.
N. a. floridanum (Audubon 1835), Florida cormorant, the smallest of the five subspecies, it is found from southern and central Texas east to the Atlantic and from North Carolina south to Florida. Records indicate that this subspecies was abundant throughout its range before the 20th century, but now is only abundant in Florida. This bird has dark nuptial crests.
N. a. heuretum This subspecies bears straight, white nuptial crests. Physically, it is the smallest. It has bare lores and a greenish gloss on the head and neck. It breeds only in the mangroves surrounding interior lakes of San Salvador in the Bahamas. It may also be resident on other Bahamian islands.
Description
The double-crested cormorant is a large waterbird with a stocky body, long neck, medium-sized tail, webbed feet, and a medium-sized hooked bill. It has a body length of between long, with a wingspan of between . Double-crested cormorants weigh between . Males and females do not display sexual dimorphism.
This species has dark-colored plumage with bare supra-loreal skin and gular skin that is yellow or orange. An adult in breeding plumage will be mostly black with the back and coverts being a dark grayish towards the center. Nuptial crests, for which the species is named, are either white, black or a mix of the two. These are located just above the eyes with the bare skin on the face of a breeding adult being orange. A non-breeding adult will lack the crests and have more yellowish skin around the face. The bill of the adult is dark-colored. The double-crested cormorant is very similar in appearance to the larger great cormorant, which has a more restricted distribution in North America, mainly on the Canadian maritime provinces; it can, however, be separated by having more yellow on the throat and the bill. The neotropic cormorant also looks very similar, and the two species can sometimes be found together where their ranges meet.
The plumage of juvenile double-crested cormorants is more dark gray or brownish. The underparts of a juvenile are lighter than the back with a pale throat and breast that darkens towards the belly. As a bird ages, its plumage will grow darker. The bill of a juvenile will be mostly orange or yellowish.
Distribution and habitat
A very common and widespread species, it winters anywhere that is ice-free along both coasts, as far north as southern Alaska (on the west coast) and southern New England (on the east coast). It can be found as far south as Mexico and the Bahamas. It migrates from the coldest parts of its breeding range, such as eastern Canada, and has occurred in Europe as a very rare vagrant, for example in Great Britain, Ireland, and the Azores.
It is resident on Pacific Coast from Aleutian Islands south to Nayarit, Mexico (but excluding parts of British Columbia and the Southern California Bight) and inland to the Colorado River, resident on Atlantic Coast in Long Island and surrounding areas, southern New England, Florida, Cuba, and Yucatán Peninsula Its breeding range extends north throughout most of north-central North America, from Utah north to Alberta east through the Great Lakes states to Nova Scotia, and south to northern Massachusetts, along with parts of Alaska adjoining Bristol and Kuskowim Bays. Its nonbreeding range extends throughout all coastal plains in the US, including the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains south to Campeche, as well as the Bahamas, Turks and Caicos, and Cayman Islands, along with all areas previously stated to be resident. On the Pacific Coast, range includes all areas previously mentioned to be resident, along with British Columbia and the Southern California Bight.
Behavior
The double-crested cormorant swims low in the water, often with just its neck and head visible, and dives from the surface. It uses its feet for propulsion and is able to dive to a depth of for 30–70 seconds. After diving, it spends long periods standing with its wings outstretched to allow them to dry, since they are not fully waterproofed. This species flies low over the water, with its bill tilted slightly upward, sometimes leaving the colony in long, single-file lines.
Diet
Food can be found in the sea, freshwater lakes, and rivers. Like all cormorants, the double-crested dives to find its prey. It mainly eats fish, but will sometimes also eat amphibians and crustaceans. Fish are caught by diving under water. Smaller fish may be eaten while the bird is still beneath the surface but bigger prey is often brought to the surface before it is eaten. Double-crested cormorants are also considered pests to aquaculturists because of their intense predation on fish ponds which can cause thousands of dollars in losses to farmers.
Cormorants regurgitate pellets containing undigested parts of their meals such as bones. These pellets can be dissected by biologists in order to discover what the birds ate.
Breeding
Breeding occurs in coastal areas as well as near inland rivers and lakes. They build stick nests in trees, on cliff edges, or on the ground on suitable islands. They are gregarious birds usually found in colonies, often with other aquatic birds, and have a deep, guttural grunt call.
Recovery
The double-crested cormorant's numbers decreased in the 1960s due to the effects of DDT. Colonies have also been persecuted from time to time in areas where they are thought to compete with human fishing.
Recently the population of double-crested cormorants has increased. Some studies have concluded that the recovery was allowed by the decrease of contaminants, particularly the discontinued use of DDT. The population may have also increased because of aquaculture ponds in its southern wintering grounds. The ponds favor good over-winter survival and growth.
In 1894, Thomas McIlwraith in his book, Birds of Ontario, concludes his section on double-crested cormorants by saying: "When the young are sufficiently grown, they gather into immense flocks in unfrequented sections, and remain until the ice-lid has closed over their food supply, when they go away, not to return till the cover is lifted up in the spring."
For populations nesting in the Great Lakes region, it is believed that the colonization of the lakes by the non-native alewife (a small prey fish) has provided optimal feeding conditions and hence good breeding success. Double-crested cormorants eat other species of fish besides alewives and have been implicated in the decline of some sport-fish populations in the Great Lakes and other areas. Some anglers and commercial fishing outfits believe that double-crested cormorants may be a factor for some populations and in some locations.
In light of this belief, and because of calls for action by the public, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (the U.S. federal government agency charged with their protection) has recently extended control options to some other government entities. This includes culling of populations and measures to thwart reproduction, in an effort to control their growing numbers. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service retains oversight and the control measures are not extended to the general public (no hunting season).
In May 2008, the Canadian government reduced significantly the number of nests of the birds on Middle Island, a small island in Lake Erie and part of Point Pelee National Park. This is an attempt to keep the small island in balance and preserve its vegetation but opponents to the plan have argued that it is based on faulty information, provided in part by anglers who view cormorants as competitors.
Gallery
References
Further reading
Alsop, Fred J. III; Birds of Texas. Smithsonian Handbooks: DK Publishing, Inc., New York, NY (2002).
US Fish & Wildlife Service
McIlwraith, Thomas; The Birds of Ontario: Being a Concise Account of Every Species of Bird Known to Have Been Found. W. Briggs, Toronto, ON (1894)
Wires, Linda A., and Francesca J. Cuthbert; "Historic Populations of the Double-crested Cormorant (Phalacrocorax auritus): Implications for Conservation and Management in the 21st Century" Waterbirds 29(1): 9–37, 2006.
External links
Double-crested cormorant – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Double-crested cormorant – USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
double-crested cormorant
Birds of North America
Fauna of the San Francisco Bay Area
double-crested cormorant
Taxa named by René Lesson
Extant Pleistocene first appearances
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|
215229 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bashi-bazouk | Bashi-bazouk | A bashi-bazouk ( , , , roughly "leaderless" or "disorderly") was an irregular soldier of the Ottoman army, raised in times of war. The army chiefly recruited Albanians and Circassians as bashi-bazouks, but recruits came from all ethnic groups of the Ottoman Empire including slaves from Europe or Africa. They had a reputation for bravery, but also as an undisciplined group, notorious for looting and preying on civilians as a result of a lack of regulation.
Origin and history
Although the Ottoman armies always contained mercenaries as well as regular soldiers, the strain on the Ottoman feudal system caused mainly by the Empire's wide expanse required heavier reliance on irregular soldiers. They were armed and maintained by the government, but did not receive pay and did not wear uniforms or distinctive badges. They were motivated to fight mostly by expectations of plunder. Though the majority of troops fought on foot, some troops (called akinci) rode on horseback. Because of their lack of discipline, they were incapable of undertaking major military operations, but were useful for other tasks such as reconnaissance and outpost duty. However, their uncertain temper occasionally made it necessary for the Ottoman regular troops to disarm them by force.
The Ottoman army consisted of the following:
The Sultan's household troops, called Kapıkulu, which were salaried, most notable being Janissary corps.
Provincial soldiers, which were fiefed (Turkish Tımarlı), the most important being Timarli Sipahi (lit. "fiefed cavalry") and their retainers (called cebelu lit. armed, man-at-arms), but other kinds were also present
Soldiers of subject, protectorate, or allied states (the most important being the Crimean Khans)
Bashi-bazouks, who usually did not receive regular salaries and lived off loot
Many Afro Turks, Crimean Tatars, Muslim Roma, and Pomaks were bashi-bazouks in Rumelia.
An attempt by Koca Hüsrev Mehmed Pasha to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks in favor of his regular forces began the rioting which led to the establishment of Muhammad Ali's Khedivate of Egypt. The use of bashi-bazouks was abandoned by the end of the 19th century. However, self-organized bashi-bazouk troops still appeared later.
The term "bashibozouk" has also been used for a mounted force, existing in peacetime in various provinces of the Ottoman Empire, which performed the duties of gendarmerie.
Reputation and atrocities
The bashi-bazouk were notorious for being violently brutal and undisciplined, thus giving the term its second, colloquial meaning of "undisciplined bandit" in many languages. A notable example of this use is in the comic series The Adventures of Tintin, where the word is often used as an insult by Captain Haddock.
The Batak massacre (1876) was carried out by thousands of bashi-bazouks sent to quell a local rebellion. Likewise, the bashi-bazouks perpetrated the massacres of Candia and Phocaea in 1898 and 1914. During the 1903 Ilinden-Preobrazhenie Uprising in Ottoman Macedonia, these troops burnt 119 villages and destroyed 8400 houses, and over 50,000 Bulgarian refugees fled into the mountains.
The Bulgarian martyresses (1877) by Konstantin Makovsky is a painting depicting the rape of two Bulgarian women in a church by one African-looking and two Turkish-looking bashi-bazouks, during the April Uprising.
See also
Mercenary
Pindari, irregular horsemen in 18th-century India
Black and Tans, British colonial paramilitaries during the Irish War of Independence
References
Sources
Ottoman warfare, 1500–1700 by Rhoads Murphey. London : UCL Press, 1999.
Özhan Öztürk (2005). Karadeniz (Black Sea): Ansiklopedik Sözlük. 2 Cilt. Heyamola Yayıncılık. İstanbul. .
Montgomery, Viscount Bernard (1968). A History of Warfare, The World Publishing Company. .
Turkish words and phrases
Military units and formations of the Ottoman Empire
Mercenary units and formations
19th century in the Ottoman Empire
Robbers
Outlaws
Ottoman period in the Balkans
Persecution of Christians in the Ottoman Empire | [
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|
215233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phalacrocorax | Phalacrocorax | Phalacrocorax is a genus of fish-eating birds in the cormorant family Phalacrocoracidae. Members of this genus are also known as the Old World cormorants.
Taxonomy
The genus Phalacrocorax was introduced by the French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 with the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) as the type species. Phalacrocorax is the Latin word for a "cormorant".
Formerly, many other species of cormorant were classified in Phalacrocorax, but most of these have been split out into different genera. A 2014 study found Phalacrocrax to be the sister genus to Urile, which are thought to have split from each other between 8.9 - 10.3 million years ago.
Current taxonomy
A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 found that the genus Phalacrocorax contains 12 species. This taxonomy was adopted by the IUCN Red List and BirdLife International, and later by the IOC.
Bank cormorant or Wahlberg's cormorant, Phalacrocorax neglectus
Socotra cormorant, Phalacrocorax nigrogularis
Pitt shag or Featherstone's shag, Phalacrocorax featherstoni
Spotted shag, Phalacrocorax punctatus
Black-faced cormorant, Phalacrocorax fuscescens
Australian pied cormorant or yellow-faced cormorant, Phalacrocorax varius
Little black cormorant, Phalacrocorax sulcirostris
Indian cormorant, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis
Cape cormorant, Phalacrocorax capensis
Japanese cormorant or Temminck's cormorant, Phalacrocorax capillatus
White-breasted cormorant, Phalacrocorax lucidus
Great cormorant or black shag, Phalacrocorax carbo
Alternative taxonomies
Formerly, the genus Phalacrocorax included all members of the genera Poikilocarbo, Urile, Gulosus, Nannopterum, and the rock shag of Leucocarbo, all of which are now understood to belong to different genera.
The taxonomy adopted by the Clements Checklist classifies all cormorants aside from those already in Microcarbo into Phalacrocorax, leaving just two cormorant genera: Phalacrocorax and Microcarbo.
Some proposed classifications considered the socotra cormorant to be in its own monotypic genus Anocarbo in addition to four species native to both Australia and New Zealand to be in a separate genus, Stictocarbo, as well as the little black cormorant grouped with the little pied cormorant into a new genus, Nanocorax.
References
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|
215236 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisces%20Iscariot | Pisces Iscariot | Pisces Iscariot is a compilation album by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released in 1994 through Virgin Records, consisting of B-sides and outtakes. Reaching number 4 in the US upon its 1994 release, Pisces Iscariot was certified platinum by the RIAA on November 23, 1994. The album was initially to be called Neptulius.
The album was re-released by EMI as a deluxe edition CD and LP on July 17, 2012.
Packaging
The CD, LP, and cassette issues were each released with unique cover artwork. The US vinyl release was pressed on amber vinyl, and the first 2,000 copies included a bonus 7" single with "Not Worth Asking" from the original "I Am One" 7", backed with "Honeyspider II". The UK LP has identical artwork to its US counterpart, although the printing is much lighter and the inner sleeve is a heavier stock.
Reception
According to a December 1, 1994 review by Al Weisel, writing for Rolling Stone, "Pisces Iscariot doesn't really sound like the compilation of rejects it actually is. In fact, it's better than a lot of albums that bands labored hard to put together. Although definitely not the Pumpkins' best album, it's more varied, if less cohesive, than Gish or Siamese Dream." Rolling Stone gave 3 out of 5 stars to the album.
Deluxe release
In 2012, EMI released a "Deluxe Edition" that included a cassette tape with the first Smashing Pumpkins demo tape on it. The deluxe version of Pisces Iscariot is listed by Spotify under the band's main "album" section (along with its studio albums), rather than in the "compilations" section. According to Ian Cohen, writing for Pitchfork, "Pisces Iscariot is painstakingly sequenced to maintain a concept record's sonic peaks and valleys, favoring stylistic cohesion over protracted diversity. Its ratio of sweet acoustic strummers, barnstorming riff-rockers, and expansive guitar freakouts is balanced almost exactly akin to that of Siamese Dream or Gish. It still works as an album if you want it to, meaning it's not exactly Incesticide or Masterplan as far as alt-rock cash-ins go."
Legacy
In July 2014, Guitar World placed Pisces Iscariot among its "Superunknown: 50 Iconic Albums That Defined 1994" list. For the 20th anniversary of the album, Ryan Leas, writing for Stereogum, commented that "[e]very now and then, a band releases a collection of B-sides and outtakes and otherwise semi-available material that transcends the notion of an artist emptying the vaults to buy a bit of time between full-fledged albums, or simply trying to cash in a bit.... Of the already anomalous nature of these odds-and-ends turned important touchstones in an artist’s catalog, Pisces Iscariot is amongst an even rarer category: the very early vault emptying that results in a shockingly strong collection of lesser or entirely unknown songs. So shockingly strong, in fact, that an album like Pisces Iscariot is often placed head and shoulders above almost anything Billy Corgan did after, save the following year's monolithic Mellon Collie And The Infinite Sadness."
Track listing
A limited pressing of 2,000 copies of Pisces Iscariot included a free 7" single.
Personnel
The Smashing Pumpkins
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Billy Corgan – vocals, guitar, production, photography, packaging
James Iha – guitar, vocals, production
D'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar
Production
Kerry Brown – production and drums on "Blew Away"
Dale "Buffin" Griffin – production
Ted de Bono – production
Rachel Gutek – design assistant
Michael Meister – photography, packaging
Butch Vig – production
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Single
Certifications
Release history
References
External links
B-side compilation albums
Albums produced by Butch Vig
Albums produced by Billy Corgan
Albums produced by James Iha
The Smashing Pumpkins compilation albums
1994 compilation albums
Virgin Records compilation albums | [
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|
215238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lull%20%28EP%29 | Lull (EP) | Lull is an EP by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released in 1991.
Background
"Rhinoceros" was taken from Gish (but the feedback ending is cut here), "Blue" later appeared on Pisces Iscariot and an acoustic version later appeared on the bonus disc for the 2011 reissue of Gish. A live version of "Slunk" later appeared on Vieuphoria and its soundtrack album Earphoria with alternate lyrics (the line "Sister above" is changed to "You talk shit like a chump"). As well, a demo version of "Slunk" exists with Jimmy Chamberlin on vocals with alternate lyrics called "Chump", (the line "Sister above" is changed to "You suck dick like a chump"). "Blue" and "Slunk" were outtakes from the Gish sessions.
"Bye June" is a 1989 recording from the Reel Time Studio Sessions, originally released on the Moon demo.
The liner notes include partial lyrics for the song "Obscured", written in cake frosting like the album cover. The song would eventually be released as a B-side on the single for "Today" in 1993 and then on the B-side collection Pisces Iscariot in 1994. "Obscured" was originally intended by Billy Corgan to be on Lull but was dropped for reasons that are unclear.
In the liner notes for Pisces Iscariot, Corgan wrote:
Track listing
All songs written by Billy Corgan.
"Rhinoceros" – 5:57
"Blue" – 3:22
"Slunk" – 2:49
"Bye June" – 2:09
Personnel
The Smashing Pumpkins
Billy Corgan – vocals, guitar
James Iha – guitar, vocals
D'arcy Wretzky – bass, vocals
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Production
Butch Vig – production
References
1991 EPs
Albums produced by Billy Corgan
Albums produced by Butch Vig
The Smashing Pumpkins EPs
Virgin Records EPs | [
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|
215239 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20former%20United%20States%20senators | List of former United States senators | This is a complete list of all people who previously served in the United States Senate. , a total of 1,994 different persons have served in the Senate (including those currently serving).
In the party affiliation column, if a senator switched parties and served non-consecutive terms, their affiliation for each term is listed on the corresponding line. If one of these senators also served multiple non-consecutive terms with the same party, a quotation mark indicates that their affiliation did not change between that term and their preceding term.
Classes
Number of years/terms senators have served
6 years – 1 term
12 years – 2 terms
18 years – 3 terms
24 years – 4 terms
30 years – 5 terms
36 years – 6 terms
42 years – 7 terms
48 years – 8 terms
54 years – 9 terms
See also
Classes of United States senators
Seniority in the United States Senate
References
External links
Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress
Senators of the United States 1789 to present
Databases of U.S. and Confederate Senators
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215241 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base64 | Base64 | In computer programming, Base64 is a group of binary-to-text encoding schemes that represent binary data (more specifically, a sequence of 8-bit bytes) in sequences of 24 bits that can be represented by four 6-bit Base64 digits.
Common to all binary-to-text encoding schemes, Base64 is designed to carry data stored in binary formats across channels that only reliably support text content. Base64 is particularly prevalent on the World Wide Web where one of its uses is the ability to embed image files or other binary assets inside textual assets such as HTML and CSS files.
Base64 is also widely used for sending e-mail attachments. This is required because SMTP—in its original form—was designed to transport 7-bit ASCII characters only. This encoding causes an overhead of 33–36% (33% by the encoding itself; up to 3% more by the inserted line breaks).
Design
The particular set of 64 characters chosen to represent the 64 digit values for the base varies between implementations. The general strategy is to choose 64 characters that are common to most encodings and that are also printable. This combination leaves the data unlikely to be modified in transit through information systems, such as email, that were traditionally not 8-bit clean. For example, MIME's Base64 implementation uses A-Z, a-z, and 0-9 for the first 62 values. Other variations share this property but differ in the symbols chosen for the last two values; an example is UTF-7.
The earliest instances of this type of encoding were created for dial-up communication between systems running the same OS, for example, uuencode for UNIX and BinHex for the TRS-80 (later adapted for the Macintosh), and could therefore make more assumptions about what characters were safe to use. For instance, uuencode uses uppercase letters, digits, and many punctuation characters, but no lowercase.
Base64 table from RFC 4648
This is the Base64 alphabet defined in RFC 4648 §4 . See also Variants summary (below).
Examples
The example below uses ASCII text for simplicity, but this is not a typical use case, as it can already be safely transferred across all systems that can handle Base64. The more typical use is to encode binary data (such as an image); the resulting Base64 data will only contain 64 different ASCII characters, all of which can reliably be transferred across systems that may corrupt the raw source bytes.
Here is a well-known idiom from distributed computing:
When the quote is encoded into Base64, it is represented as a byte sequence of 8-bit-padded ASCII characters encoded in MIME's Base64 scheme as follows (newlines and white spaces may be present anywhere but are to be ignored on decoding):
In the above quote, the encoded value of Man is TWFu. Encoded in ASCII, the characters M, a, and n are stored as the byte values 77, 97, and 110, which are the 8-bit binary values 01001101, 01100001, and 01101110. These three values are joined together into a 24-bit string, producing 010011010110000101101110. Groups of 6 bits (6 bits have a maximum of 26 = 64 different binary values) are converted into individual numbers from start to end (in this case, there are four numbers in a 24-bit string), which are then converted into their corresponding Base64 character values.
As this example illustrates, Base64 encoding converts three octets into four encoded characters.
= padding characters might be added to make the last encoded block contain four Base64 characters.
Hexadecimal to octal transformation is useful to convert between binary and Base64. Both for advanced calculators and programming languages, such conversion is available. For example, the hexadecimal representation of the 24 bits above is 4D616E. The octal representation is 23260556. Those 8 octal digits can be split into pairs (), and each pair converted to decimal to yield . Using those four decimal numbers as indices for the Base64 alphabet, the corresponding ASCII characters are TWFu.
If there are only two significant input octets (e.g., 'Ma'), or when the last input group contains only two octets, all 16 bits will be captured in the first three Base64 digits (18 bits); the two least significant bits of the last content-bearing 6-bit block will turn out to be zero, and discarded on decoding (along with the succeeding = padding character):
If there is only one significant input octet (e.g., 'M'), or when the last input group contains only one octet, all 8 bits will be captured in the first two Base64 digits (12 bits); the four least significant bits of the last content-bearing 6-bit block will turn out to be zero, and discarded on decoding (along with the succeeding two = padding characters):
Output padding
Because Base64 is a six-bit encoding, and because the decoded values are divided into 8-bit octets on a modern computer, every four characters of Base64-encoded text (4 sextets = = 24 bits) represents three octets of unencoded text or data (3 octets = = 24 bits). This means that when the length of the unencoded input is not a multiple of three, the encoded output must have padding added so that its length is a multiple of four. The padding character is =, which indicates that no further bits are needed to fully encode the input. (This is different from A, which means that the remaining bits are all zeros.) The example below illustrates how truncating the input of the above quote changes the output padding:
The padding character is not essential for decoding, since the number of missing bytes can be inferred from the length of the encoded text. In some implementations, the padding character is mandatory, while for others it is not used. An exception in which padding characters are required is when multiple Base64 encoded files have been concatenated.
Decoding Base64 with padding
When decoding Base64 text, four characters are typically converted back to three bytes. The only exceptions are when padding characters exist. A single = indicates that the four characters will decode to only two bytes, while == indicates that the four characters will decode to only a single byte. For example:
Decoding Base64 without padding
Without padding, after normal decoding of four characters to three bytes over and over again, fewer than four encoded characters may remain. In this situation, only two or three characters can remain. A single remaining encoded character is not possible, because a single Base64 character only contains 6 bits, and 8 bits are required to create a byte, so a minimum of two Base64 characters are required: The first character contributes 6 bits, and the second character contributes its first 2 bits. For example:
Implementations and history
Variants summary table
Implementations may have some constraints on the alphabet used for representing some bit patterns. This notably concerns the last two characters used in the alphabet at positions 62 and 63, and the character used for padding (which may be mandatory in some protocols or removed in others). The table below summarizes these known variants and provides links to the subsections below.
Privacy-enhanced mail
The first known standardized use of the encoding now called MIME Base64 was in the Privacy-enhanced Electronic Mail (PEM) protocol, proposed by in 1987. PEM defines a "printable encoding" scheme that uses Base64 encoding to transform an arbitrary sequence of octets to a format that can be expressed in short lines of 6-bit characters, as required by transfer protocols such as SMTP.
The current version of PEM (specified in ) uses a 64-character alphabet consisting of upper- and lower-case Roman letters (A–Z, a–z), the numerals (0–9), and the + and / symbols. The = symbol is also used as a padding suffix. The original specification, , additionally used the * symbol to delimit encoded but unencrypted data within the output stream.
To convert data to PEM printable encoding, the first byte is placed in the most significant eight bits of a 24-bit buffer, the next in the middle eight, and the third in the least significant eight bits. If there are fewer than three bytes left to encode (or in total), the remaining buffer bits will be zero. The buffer is then used, six bits at a time, most significant first, as indices into the string: "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/", and the indicated character is output.
The process is repeated on the remaining data until fewer than four octets remain. If three octets remain, they are processed normally. If fewer than three octets (24 bits) are remaining to encode, the input data is right-padded with zero bits to form an integral multiple of six bits.
After encoding the non-padded data, if two octets of the 24-bit buffer are padded-zeros, two = characters are appended to the output; if one octet of the 24-bit buffer is filled with padded-zeros, one = character is appended. This signals the decoder that the zero bits added due to padding should be excluded from the reconstructed data. This also guarantees that the encoded output length is a multiple of 4 bytes.
PEM requires that all encoded lines consist of exactly 64 printable characters, with the exception of the last line, which may contain fewer printable characters. Lines are delimited by whitespace characters according to local (platform-specific) conventions.
MIME
The MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions) specification lists Base64 as one of two binary-to-text encoding schemes (the other being quoted-printable). MIME's Base64 encoding is based on that of the version of PEM: it uses the same 64-character alphabet and encoding mechanism as PEM, and uses the = symbol for output padding in the same way, as described at .
MIME does not specify a fixed length for Base64-encoded lines, but it does specify a maximum line length of 76 characters. Additionally it specifies that any extra-alphabetic characters must be ignored by a compliant decoder, although most implementations use a CR/LF newline pair to delimit encoded lines.
Thus, the actual length of MIME-compliant Base64-encoded binary data is usually about 137% of the original data length, though for very short messages the overhead can be much higher due to the overhead of the headers. Very roughly, the final size of Base64-encoded binary data is equal to 1.37 times the original data size + 814 bytes (for headers). The size of the decoded data can be approximated with this formula:
bytes = (string_length(encoded_string) - 814) / 1.37
UTF-7
UTF-7, described first in , which was later superseded by , introduced a system called modified Base64. This data encoding scheme is used to encode UTF-16 as ASCII characters for use in 7-bit transports such as SMTP. It is a variant of the Base64 encoding used in MIME.
The "Modified Base64" alphabet consists of the MIME Base64 alphabet, but does not use the "=" padding character. UTF-7 is intended for use in mail headers (defined in ), and the "=" character is reserved in that context as the escape character for "quoted-printable" encoding. Modified Base64 simply omits the padding and ends immediately after the last Base64 digit containing useful bits leaving up to three unused bits in the last Base64 digit.
OpenPGP
OpenPGP, described in , describes Radix-64 encoding, also known as "ASCII armor". Radix-64 is identical to the "Base64" encoding described from MIME, with the addition of an optional 24-bit CRC. The checksum is calculated on the input data before encoding; the checksum is then encoded with the same Base64 algorithm and, prefixed by "=" symbol as separator, appended to the encoded output data.
RFC 3548
, entitled The Base16, Base32, and Base64 Data Encodings, is an informational (non-normative) memo that attempts to unify the and specifications of Base64 encodings, alternative-alphabet encodings, and the Base32 (which is seldom used) and Base16 encodings.
Unless implementations are written to a specification that refers to and specifically requires otherwise, RFC 3548 forbids implementations from generating messages containing characters outside the encoding alphabet or without padding, and it also declares that decoder implementations must reject data that contain characters outside the encoding alphabet.
RFC 4648
This RFC obsoletes RFC 3548 and focuses on Base64/32/16:
This document describes the commonly used Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding schemes. It also discusses the use of line-feeds in encoded data, use of padding in encoded data, use of non-alphabet characters in encoded data, use of different encoding alphabets, and canonical encodings.
The URL applications
Base64 encoding can be helpful when fairly lengthy identifying information is used in an HTTP environment. For example, a database persistence framework for Java objects might use Base64 encoding to encode a relatively large unique id (generally 128-bit UUIDs) into a string for use as an HTTP parameter in HTTP forms or HTTP GET URLs. Also, many applications need to encode binary data in a way that is convenient for inclusion in URLs, including in hidden web form fields, and Base64 is a convenient encoding to render them in a compact way.
Using standard Base64 in URL requires encoding of '+', '/' and '=' characters into special percent-encoded hexadecimal sequences ('+' becomes '%2B', '/' becomes '%2F' and '=' becomes '%3D'), which makes the string unnecessarily longer.
For this reason, modified Base64 for URL variants exist (such as base64url in ), where the '+' and '/' characters of standard Base64 are respectively replaced by '-' and '_', so that using URL encoders/decoders is no longer necessary and has no effect on the length of the encoded value, leaving the same encoded form intact for use in relational databases, web forms, and object identifiers in general. A popular site to make use of such is YouTube. Some variants allow or require omitting the padding '=' signs to avoid them being confused with field separators, or require that any such padding be percent-encoded. Some libraries will encode '=' to '.', potentially exposing applications to relative path attacks when a folder name is encoded from user data.
HTML
The atob() and btoa() JavaScript methods, defined in the HTML5 draft specification, provide Base64 encoding and decoding functionality to web pages. The btoa() method outputs padding characters, but these are optional in the input of the atob() method.
Other applications
Base64 can be used in a variety of contexts:
Base64 can be used to transmit and store text that might otherwise cause delimiter collision
Spammers use Base64 to evade basic anti-spamming tools, which often do not decode Base64 and therefore cannot detect keywords in encoded messages.
Base64 is used to encode character strings in LDIF files
Base64 is often used to embed binary data in an XML file, using a syntax similar to <data encoding="base64">…</data> e.g. favicons in Firefox's exported bookmarks.html.
Base64 is used to encode binary files such as images within scripts, to avoid depending on external files.
The data URI scheme can use Base64 to represent file contents. For instance, background images and fonts can be specified in a CSS stylesheet file as data: URIs, instead of being supplied in separate files.
The FreeSWAN IPSec implementation precedes Base64 strings with 0s, so they can be distinguished from text or hexadecimal strings.
Although not part of the official specification for SVG, some viewers can interpret Base64 when used for embedded elements, such as images inside SVG.
Applications not compatible with RFC-4648 Base64
Some application use a Base64 alphabet that is significantly different from the alphabets used in the most common Base64 variants (see Variants summary table above).
Uuencoding alphabet includes no lower case, instead using ASCII 32 (" " (space)) through 95 ("_"), consecutively. Uuencoding uses alphabet " !"#$%&'()*+,-./0123456789:;<=>?@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ[\]^_". Avoiding all lower-case letters was helpful because many older printers only printed uppercase. Using consecutive ASCII characters saved computing power because it was only necessary to add 32, not do a lookup. Its use of most punctuation characters and the space character limits its usefulness.
BinHex 4 (HQX), which was used within the classic Mac OS, excludes some visually confusable characters like '7', 'O', 'g' and 'o'. It's alphabet includes additional punctuation characters. It uses alphabet "!"#$%&'()*+,-012345689@ABCDEFGHIJKLMNPQRSTUVXYZ[`abcdefhijklmpqr".
Several other applications use alphabets similar to the common variations, but in a different order:
Unix stores password hashes computed with crypt in the /etc/passwd file using an encoding called B64. crypt's alphabet puts punctuation . and / before the alphanumeric characters. crypt uses alphabet "./0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz". Padding is not used.
The GEDCOM 5.5 standard for genealogical data interchange encodes multimedia files in its text-line hierarchical file format. GEDCOM uses the same alphabet as crypt, which is "./0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz".
bcrypt hashes are designed to be used in the same way as traditional crypt(3) hashes, but bcrypt's alphabet is in a different order than crypt's. bcrypt uses alphabet "./ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789".
Xxencoding uses a mostly-alphanumeric character set similar to crypt, but using + and - rather than . and /. Xxencoding uses alphabet "+-0123456789ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz".
6PACK, used with some terminal node controllers, uses an alphabet from 0x00 to 0x3f.
Bash supports numeric literals in Base64. Bash uses alphabet "0123456789abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ@_".
See also
8BITMIME
Ascii85 (also called Base85)
Base16
Base32
Base36
Base62
Binary-to-text encoding for a comparison of various encoding algorithms
Binary number
URL
References
Usenet
Email
Internet Standards
Binary-to-text encoding formats
Data serialization formats
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|
215242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siamese%20Dream | Siamese Dream | Siamese Dream is the second studio album by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released on July 27, 1993 on Virgin Records. The album has received widespread acclaim by audiences and critics alike, with the album's musical influences and lyrical material standing out compared to other alternative records released during its time. The album has since been considered "one of the finest alt-rock albums of all time".
Despite recording sessions fraught with difficulties and tensions, Siamese Dream debuted at number ten on the Billboard charts, and eventually was certified 4x Platinum, with the album selling over six million copies worldwide, cementing the Smashing Pumpkins as an important group in alternative rock music. Four singles were released in support of Siamese Dream: "Cherub Rock", "Today", "Disarm", and "Rocket". In addition to receiving widespread critical acclaim upon its release, Siamese Dream has widely been regarded as one of the greatest albums of the 1990s, and one of the greatest albums of all time. Rolling Stone magazine has ranked it between numbers 341 - 362 on various versions of their 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list.
Background
The band's debut album, Gish, was released on Caroline Records in 1991 to unexpected success and acclaim. After the release of Nirvana's Nevermind later that year, the Smashing Pumpkins were hyped as "the next Nirvana". The band was signed to Caroline Records parent Virgin Records and began recording a follow-up album. Frontman Billy Corgan felt "this great pressure to make the next album to set the world on fire". The immense pressure to succeed intensified an already problematic situation: drummer Jimmy Chamberlin was addicted to heroin, guitarist James Iha and bassist D'arcy Wretzky had recently ended their romantic relationship, and Corgan, aside from battles with weight gain and suicidal depression, was struggling with writer's block.
Recording and production
Siamese Dream was recorded mainly between December 1992 and March 1993. The band relocated to Triclops Studios in Marietta, Georgia for the album sessions, so they could avoid local friends and distractions, and to cut Chamberlin off from his known drug connections. Butch Vig reprised his role as producer after working on their debut album Gish. Butch Vig stated "Billy [Corgan] and I raised the bar really high. We wanted to make a very ambitious sounding record. It was all done on analogue tape so it was time consuming. We were working 12 hours a day, six times a week for about three months, and for the last two months we worked seven days a week, 14 or 15 hours a day because we were behind schedule."
After he suffered a nervous breakdown, Corgan began visiting a therapist. Consequently, his lyrics became more explicit about his troubled past and his insecurities. "Today" was one of the first songs written by Corgan for Siamese Dream. He played the self-recorded demo to Vig, and received a positive reaction. Soon afterward, executives from Virgin Records came to observe the band after hearing about their problems, but were pleased with the demo and did not soon return to the studio. The reaction from the executives only served to put more stress on Corgan. Corgan worked overtime, practically living in the studio for the recording of Siamese Dream—he and Vig would sometimes work on a 45-second section of music for two days, working 16-hour days for weeks at a time to achieve the sound Corgan wanted.
Corgan's desire for musical perfection put further strain on the already-frayed relationships between the band members. Vig later recalled, "D'arcy would lock herself in the bathroom, James wouldn't say anything, or Billy would lock himself in the control room". Corgan often overdubbed Iha's and Wretzky's parts with his own playing. Wretzky stated that Corgan only performed most of the guitar and bass parts because he could lay them down more easily in recording and with far fewer takes. Stories of the album's recording had circulated in the music press. Corgan admitted there was some truth to accusations of tyrannical behavior, though he felt the press misunderstood the situation.
While Chamberlin performed all drum parts on the album, he would disappear for days on drug benders that caused everyone to fear for his life. After one incident where the drummer had disappeared for two or three days, Corgan "put the hammer down", according to Vig, and had Chamberlin perform the drum part for "Cherub Rock" until his hands bled. Due to Corgan's urging, Chamberlin checked into a rehab clinic. Corgan told Spin later that year, "You know, I gave them a year and a half to prepare for this record... I'm surrounded by these people who I care about very much, yet they continue to keep failing me." Corgan explained that he began to take the actions of others personally; he said, "If you really think about it, of course, someone doesn't do the job because they're lazy, or they don't think it's important. But I took it as, 'You're not worth going home and working on the song.'"
Meanwhile, Corgan was also going through his own problems. He would admit in 2011 that throughout the recording process he had been planning his own suicide. Stating that he had gotten rid of most of his things and was "fantasizing about my own death, I started thinking what my funeral would be like and what music would be played."
Virgin began to grow impatient with the album's recording as it went over budget and became behind schedule. The band, however, would not let the company cut corners if it meant compromising the sound. By the time recording was completed, Corgan and Vig felt too emotionally exhausted to mix the record. Corgan suggested that engineer Alan Moulder mix the album, due to his work on Loveless by My Bloody Valentine. Moulder booked two weeks in a studio to mix the album; the mix ended up taking 36 days to complete. Eventually, the album was finished after four months and $250,000 over budget.
Composition and lyrics
The album boasts relatively high production values and ornate arrangements compared to other early-1990s alternative albums. Vig said, "Billy wanted to make a record that people would put on and say, 'What the fuck was that?' [...] We wanted to have things going on in the left ear and right ear all the time". One of Corgan's main goals was to create a sense of sonic depth, but, as Corgan said, "without necessarily using delays or reverbs—to use tonalities instead." For the album, the guitars were layered multiple times. Corgan has stated that "Soma" alone contains up to 40 overdubbed guitar parts. Vig stated that as many as 100 guitar parts were compressed into a single song.
The album, generally considered alternative rock, has many different musical influences, including shoegazing, dream pop, and heavy metal, with Rolling Stone noting that the album was "closer to progressive rock than to punk or grunge."
The subjects of Corgan's lyrics on Siamese Dream varied. Corgan noted that most of his lyrics for the album were about his girlfriend and future ex-wife Chris Fabian, with whom he had briefly broken up at the time he wrote the songs. Corgan occasionally wrote about other subjects. In "Cherub Rock", the album's opening track, Corgan attacked the American music industry, and "Today" is about a day that he was experiencing depression and suicidal thoughts. "Spaceboy" was written as a tribute to his autistic half-brother, Jesse.
Artwork and packaging
The artwork for the album was initially going to be created by an outsider artist, but after a series of disagreements with the label, Corgan was forced to step in at the last minute. The album booklet, composed of old photographs of both strangers and Corgan's family members with lyrics handwritten on top, was assembled by Corgan and his wife the day after their wedding. Corgan was not satisfied with the results. The first pressing of the CD contained a 20-page booklet, with a separate page devoted to each song's lyrics and accompanying photograph; later pressings contained a four-panel fold-out liner with thumbnails of each picture. In 1999, Virgin Records reissued the album with the original 20-page booklet.
Shortly after the Pumpkins reformed in 2007, Corgan posted a message to the band's blog saying that they were "[l]ooking for girls from Siamese Dream album cover... As you all know, they were quite young when the photo was taken. They are not conjoined anymore, as far as we know." The band's intentions for the search were never made clear. In February 2011, Billy Corgan announced via Twitter that not only had one of the girls been found, she was the current bassist for the Pumpkins, Nicole Fiorentino. According to Corgan, "Just found out the weirdest news: our bass player Nicole just admitted she is one of the girls on the cover of Siamese Dream." However, according to the assistant photographer for Siamese Dream, the cover photo was probably shot specifically for the album. Given Fiorentino's age at the time of the album, this would make her too old to be on the cover of the album. It was later confirmed that the information was false, and both girls were located in 2008, though Corgan has not commented on this. Pictures exist of Corgan standing with Ali Laenger, the girl on the right side of the photograph, but it is unknown if the girl on the left, identified as LySandra Roberts, met Corgan like Laenger did.
The album was also released as a shaped wooden box set (aka Siamese Dream Collectors Edition) with metal hinges, limited to only 1,000 copies and containing the UK HUT CD album housed in a recess with individually numbered silver metal embossed plate at the side and a 20-page booklet housed in a similar recess in the lid. Though the CD itself and the booklet are official and genuine, the wooden box is not an official Virgin (US) or HUT (UK) release.
Release, reception and legacy
Siamese Dream was released on July 27, 1993 and debuted at number ten on the Billboard 200 the following week. The album was almost universally lauded by music critics. Selects Andrew Perry praised it as "the most grand-scale, expansively-passionate blasts of music you'll hear this year" and remarked that it would be "hard for anyone to top this one". John Harris of NME wrote that Siamese Dream, "for all its air of non-committal blankness and exercise-book psychoanalysis, is a startling, deeply satisfying record". Steve Hochman of the Los Angeles Times predicted that "the scale of its success will likely be tied to how many fans are willing to stop moshing and enter into some rather contemplative, even tender territory", and wrote that "the songs tend to drift in places, and some get a bit long-winded, but the overall balance between the harsh and the sweet makes for a strong and distinctive package". Lorraine Ali of Rolling Stone called the album "a strong, multidimensional extension of Gish that confirms that Smashing Pumpkins are neither sellouts nor one-offs."
Entertainment Weekly critic David Browne praised the band for living up to industry expectations of being the "next Nirvana" and compared Siamese Dream favorably to Nirvana's Nevermind, concluding: "In aiming for more than just another alternative guitar record, Smashing Pumpkins may have stumbled upon a whole new stance: slackers with a vision." Critic Simon Reynolds disagreed; he wrote in his review for The New York Times that "fuzzed-up riffs and angst-wracked vocals are quite the norm these days, and Smashing Pumpkins lacks the zeitgeist-defining edge that made Nirvana's breakthrough so thrilling and resonant." Robert Christgau of The Village Voice cited "Geek U.S.A." and "Today" as highlights while noting the record's strength is "the sonics"; he later rated the album with a three-star honorable mention. Siamese Dream earned the Smashing Pumpkins their first Grammy Award nominations. The album was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Performance, and the group was nominated for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal at the 36th Annual Grammy Awards.
Siamese Dream continues to receive critical praise and has been frequently included in lists of the best albums of the 1990s—the Alternative Press ranked it fourth, Pitchfork ranked it 18th, and Spin ranked it 23rd. In 2003, the album was ranked number 360 on Rolling Stones list of 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, with the album's ranking dropping to number 362 and rising to number 341 in the 2012 and 2020 updates of the list, respectively. In a retrospective review of the album, Greg Prato of AllMusic called Siamese Dream "one of the finest alt-rock albums of all time" and remarked that it "stands alongside Nevermind and Superunknown as one of the decade's finest (and most influential) rock albums." Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot wrote that it "became a soundtrack for a significant portion of [Corgan's] generation" and "did so by tempering some of the first album's extremes; sticky melodies and pretty production can make almost anything radio-friendly, even a desperately sad song like 'Today.'" In a review for Pitchfork, Ned Raggett remarked that while initial reviews of the album singled out Corgan's lyrics for criticism, they were actually "exactly what made the band click even further", commending Corgan's "ear for hooks, metaphors, and deft summaries." The deluxe edition of the album holds a score of 96 out of 100 on review aggregate site Metacritic, indicating "universal acclaim". In April 2019, Rolling Stone ranked Siamese Dream as the twelfth greatest Grunge album of all time. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Track listing
Reissue bonus material
Personnel
The Smashing Pumpkins
Billy Corgan – lead vocals, guitars, bass guitar, Mellotron on "Spaceboy", string arrangements, production, mixing
James Iha – guitars, backing vocals
D'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar, backing vocals
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums
Additional personnel
Mike Mills – piano on "Soma"
Eric Remschneider – string arrangements and cello on "Disarm" and "Luna"
David Ragsdale – string arrangements and violin on "Disarm" and "Luna"
Technical staff
Butch Vig – production, engineering, mixing, string arrangements
Jeff Tomei – engineering
Tim Holbrook – special technical engineering
Alan Moulder – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Len Peltier – sleeve art direction
Steve J. Gerdes – sleeve design
Melodie McDaniel – sleeve photography
Bob Ludwig – mastering (2011 remaster)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
References
External links
Siamese Dream at AllMusic
Siamese Dream at Discogs
Siamese Dream at Cool Album of the Day
Siamese Dream accolades
1993 albums
Albums produced by Billy Corgan
Albums produced by Butch Vig
The Smashing Pumpkins albums
Virgin Records albums | [
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215245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts%20of%20Japan | Districts of Japan | In Japan, a is composed of one or more rural municipalities (towns or villages) within a prefecture. Districts have no governing function, and are only used for geographic or statistical purposes such as mailing addresses. Cities are not part of districts.
Historically, districts have at times functioned as an administrative unit. From 1878 to 1921 district governments were roughly equivalent to a county of the United States, ranking below prefecture and above town or village, on the same level as a city. District governments were entirely abolished by 1926.
History
The bureaucratic administration of Japan is divided into three basic levels: national, prefectural, and municipal. Below the national government there are 47 prefectures, six of which are further subdivided into subprefectures to better service large geographical areas or remote islands. The municipalities (cities, towns and villages) are the lowest level of government; the twenty most-populated cities outside Tokyo Metropolis are known as designated cities and are subdivided into wards. The district was initially called kōri and has ancient roots in Japan. Although the Nihon Shoki says they were established during the Taika Reforms, kōri was originally written . It was not until the Taihō Code that kōri came to be written as (imitating the Chinese division). Under the Taihō Code, the administrative unit of was above district, and the village ( or sato) was below.
As the power of the central government decayed (and in some periods revived) over the centuries, the provinces and districts, although never formally abolished and still connected to administrative positions handed out by the Imperial court (or whoever controlled it), largely lost their relevance as administrative units and were superseded by a hierarchy of feudal holdings. In the Edo period, the primary subdivisions were the shogunate cities, governed by urban administrators (machi-bugyō), the shogunate domain (bakuryō, usually meant to include the smaller holdings of Hatamoto, etc.), major holdings (han/domains), and there was also a number of minor territories such as spiritual (shrine/temple) holdings; while the shogunate domain comprised vast, contiguous territories, domains consisted of generally only one castle and castle town, usually a compact territory in the surrounding area, but beyond that sometimes a string of disconnected exclaves and enclaves, in some cases distributed over several districts in several provinces. For this reason alone, they were impractical as geographical units, and in addition, Edo period feudalism was tied to the nominal income of a territory, not the territory itself, so the shogunate could and did redistribute territories between domains, their borders were generally subject to change, even if in some places holdings remained unchanged for centuries. Provinces and districts remained the most important geographical frame of reference throughout the middle and early modern ages up to the restoration and beyond – initially, the prefectures were created in direct succession to the shogunate era feudal divisions and their borders kept shifting through mergers, splits and territorial transfers until they reached largely their present state in the 1890s.Cities (-shi), since their introduction in 1889, have always belonged directly to prefectures and are independent from districts. Before 1878, districts had subdivided the whole country with only few exceptions (Edo/Tokyo as shogunate capital and some island groups). In 1878, the districts were reactivated as administrative units, but the major cities were separated from the districts. All prefectures (at that time only -fu and -ken) were – except for some remote islands – contiguously subdivided into [rural] districts/counties (-gun) and urban districts/cites (-ku), the precursors to the 1889 shi. Geographically, the rural districts were mainly based on the ancient districts, but in many places they were merged, split up or renamed, in some areas, prefectural borders went through ancient districts and the districts were reorganized to match; urban districts were completely separated from the rural districts, most of them covered one city at large, but the largest and most important cities, the Edo period "three capitals" Edo/Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka comprised several urban districts. (This refers only to the city areas which were not organized as a single administrative unit before 1889, not the prefectures Tokyo, Kyoto and Osaka which had initially been created in 1868 as successor to the shogunate city administrations, but were soon expanded to surrounding shogunate rural domain and feudal holdings and by 1878 also contained rural districts and in the case of Osaka, one other urban district/city from 1881.)
District administrations were set up in 1878, but district assemblies were only created in 1890 with the introduction of the district code (gunsei) as part of the Prussian-influenced local government reforms of 1888–90. From the 1890s, district governments were run by a collective executive council (gun-sanjikai, 郡参事会), headed by the appointed district chief (gunchō) and consisting of 3 additional members elected by the district assembly and one appointed by the prefectural governor – similar to cities (shi-sanjikai, headed by the mayor) and prefectures (fu-/ken-sanjikai, headed by the governor).
In 1921, Hara Takashi, the first non-oligarchic prime minister (although actually from a Morioka domain samurai family himself, but in a career as commoner-politician in the House of Representatives), managed to get his long-sought abolition of the districts passed – unlike the municipal and prefectural assemblies which had been an early platform for the Freedom and People's Rights Movement before the Imperial Diet was established and became bases of party power, the district governments were considered to be a stronghold of anti-liberal Yamagata Aritomo's followers and the centralist-bureaucratic Home Ministry tradition. The district assemblies and governments were abolished a few years later.
Districts today
As of today, towns and villages also belong directly to prefectures; the districts no longer possess any administrations or assemblies since the 1920s, and therefore also no administrative authority – although there was a brief de facto reactivation of the districts during the Pacific War in the form of prefectural branch offices (called chihō jimusho, 地方事務所, "local offices/bureaus") which generally had one district in their jurisdiction. However, for geographical and statistical purposes, districts continue to be used and are updated for municipal mergers or status changes: if a town or village (countrywide: >15,000 in 1889, <1,000 today) is merged into or promoted to a [by definition: district-independent] city (countrywide: 39 in 1889, 791 in 2017), the territory is no longer counted as part of the district. In this way, many districts have become extinct, and many of those that still exist contain only a handful of or often only one remaining municipality as many of today's towns and villages are also much larger than in the Meiji era. The districts are used primarily in the Japanese addressing system and to identify the relevant geographical areas and collections of nearby towns and villages.
Confusing cases in Hokkaidō
Because district names had been unique within a single province and as of 2008 prefecture boundaries are roughly aligned to provincial boundaries, most district names are unique within their prefectures.
Hokkaidō Prefecture, however, came much later to the ritsuryō provincial system, only a few years before the prefectural system was introduced, so its eleven provinces included several districts with the same names:
Three Kamikawa Districts and two Nakagawa Districts in the Hokkaidō Prefecture. Each jurisdiction refers to its geographical position along the river from which the former province, and subsequent subprefecture, takes its name. "Kamikawa" means upper course of the river; "Nakagawa" means middle course.
Kamikawa Dist. (Ishikari), managed by the Kamikawa Subprefecture
Kamikawa Dist. (Teshio), managed by the Kamikawa Subprefecture
Kamikawa Dist. (Tokachi), managed by the Tokachi Subprefecture
Nakagawa Dist. (Teshio), managed by the Kamikawa Subprefecture
Nakagawa Dist. (Tokachi), managed by the Tokachi Subprefecture
Abuta District, Rumoi District, Sorachi District, and Yufutsu District are similar, but each of them is a single district allotted to two subprefectures.
Abuta District, managed by Iburi and Shiribeshi Subprefectures
Sorachi District, managed by Kamikawa and Sorachi Subprefectures
Teshio District, managed by Rumoi and Sōya Subprefectures
Yūfutsu District, managed by Iburi and Kamikawa Subprefectures
See also
List of dissolved districts in Japan
郡, for divisions in other countries written with the same name
Districts of Taiwan during 1920-1945 under Japanese rule
References
Bibliography
Kurt Steiner (Stanford 1965): Local Government in Japan
External links
"Japan's Evolving Nested Municipal Hierarchy: The Race for Local Power in the 2000s," by A.J. Jacobs at Urban Studies Research, Vol. 2011 (2011); doi:10.1155/2011/692764
Historical Development of Japanese Local Governance (bilingual Japanese/English series of papers by the Institute for Comparative Studies in Local Governance, National Graduate Institute for Policy Studies): Volume 1: Akio Kamiko, The Start of Modern Local Government (1868 – 1880), Volume 2: Akio Kamiko, Implementation of the City Law and the Town and Village Law (1881 – 1908) and Volume 3: Hiroshi Ikawa, The Development of the Prewar Local Autonomy System (1909－1929) (Links are to the English versions; English translations of Japanese administrative units and government institutions often vary [even within this series], in this case, one can refer directly to the Japanese articles which are accessible from the main page)
Subdivisions of Japan
Districts of
Lists of places in Japan
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215246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mellon%20Collie%20and%20the%20Infinite%20Sadness | Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness | Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is the third studio album by American alternative rock band the Smashing Pumpkins, released on October 24, 1995, in the United Kingdom and a day later in the United States on Virgin Records. Produced by frontman Billy Corgan with Flood and Alan Moulder, the 28-track album was released as a two-disc CD and triple LP. The album features a wide array of styles, as well as greater musical input from bassist D'arcy Wretzky and second guitarist James Iha.
Propelled by the album's lead single, "Bullet with Butterfly Wings", it debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 with first week sales of 246,500 units. To date it remains the band's only album to top the Billboard 200. It spawned five more singles—"1979", "Zero", "Tonight, Tonight", the promotional "Muzzle", and "Thirty-Three"—over the course of 1996, and was certified diamond by the RIAA, equivalent to more than 10 million units sold. Praised by critics for its ambition and scope, Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned the band seven Grammy Award nominations in 1997, including Album of the Year and Record of the Year ("1979"), as well as nine MTV Music Video Awards nominations, eight of which were for "Tonight, Tonight", including "Video of the Year". Not only did they all become hits on both mainstream rock and modern rock stations, but "Bullet with Butterfly Wings", "1979", "Tonight, Tonight", and "Thirty-Three" also became the band's first Top 40 hits, crossing over to pop radio stations.
The recording sessions saw a wealth of productivity: dozens of fully completed songs were cut from the album, and would turn up on later releases. A box set released in November 1996, titled The Aeroplane Flies High, compiled the promotional singles from the album, and featured approximately 30 fully completed songs from the Mellon Collie sessions which had not made the final cut for the album (including one track, "Pastichio Medley", which contained more than 70 short snippets of songs in various states of completion). Both Mellon Collie and The Aeroplane Flies High later saw reissues which included even more tracks from the sessions.
Recording and production
After the 13-month tour in support of the Smashing Pumpkins' second album Siamese Dream (1993), Billy Corgan immediately began writing songs for the band's next record. From the outset, the band intended the new record to be a double album, partly inspired by The Beatles' self-titled album. Corgan said, "We almost had enough material to make Siamese Dream a double album. With this new album, I really liked the notion that we would create a wider scope in which to put other kinds of material we were writing." Corgan felt that the band's musical approach was running its course, and wanted the band to approach the album as if it were its last. Corgan described the album at the time to the music press as "The Wall for Generation X", a comparison with Pink Floyd's 1979 album, one of the highest selling and best known concept albums of all time.
The band decided to forgo working with Butch Vig, who had produced the group's previous albums, and selected Flood and Alan Moulder as co-producers. Corgan explained, "To be completely honest, I think it was a situation where we'd become so close to Butch that it started to work to our disadvantage... I just felt we had to force the situation, sonically, and take ourselves out of normal Pumpkin recording mode. I didn't want to repeat past Pumpkin work."
Flood immediately pushed the band to change its recording practices. Corgan later said, "Flood felt like the band he would see live wasn't really captured on record". In April 1995, the band began recording in a rehearsal space, instead of entering the studio straight away. At these sessions, the band recorded rough rhythm tracks with Flood. Originally designed to create a rough draft for the record, the rehearsal space sessions ended up yielding much of the new album's rhythm section parts. Flood also insisted the band set aside time each day devoted to jamming or songwriting, practices the band had never engaged in before during recording sessions. Corgan said, "Working like that kept the whole process very interesting—kept it from becoming a grind."
Corgan sought to eliminate the tension that permeated the Siamese Dream recording sessions. Corgan said regarding the problems with recording Siamese Dream, "[T]o me, the biggest offender was the insidious amounts of time that everyone spends waiting for guitar parts to be overdubbed. There were literally weeks where no one had anything to do but sit and wait." The band decided to counter idleness by using two recording rooms at the same time. This tactic allowed Corgan to work on vocals and song arrangements in one room while recording was done in the other. During these sessions, Flood and Corgan would work in one room as Moulder, guitarist James Iha, and bassist D'arcy Wretzky worked in a second. Iha and Wretzky had a much greater role in the recording of the album, unlike the prior albums where Corgan was rumored to have recorded all the bass and guitar parts himself. James Iha commented about the recording sessions,
The big change is that Billy is not being the big 'I do this—I do that'. It's much better. The band arranged a lot of songs for this record, and the song writing process was organic. The circumstances of the last record and the way that we worked was really bad.
Following the rehearsal space sessions, the band recorded overdubs at the Chicago Recording Company. Pro Tools was used for recording guitar overdubs as well as for post-production electronic looping and sampling. Wretzky also recorded numerous backup vocal parts, but all were cut except the one recorded for "Beautiful". When the recording sessions concluded, the band had 57 completed songs which were up for contention to be included on Mellon Collie. The album was originally going to have 32 songs, but this was cut back to 28 songs.
Music
The songs of Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness are intended to hang together conceptually, with the two halves of the album representing day and night. Despite this, Corgan has rejected the term concept album to describe it, and it was at the time described as more "loose" and "vague" than the band's previous records. However, Billy Corgan has also said that the album is based on "the human condition of mortal sorrow". Corgan aimed the album's message at people aged 14 to 24 years, hoping "to sum up all the things I felt as a youth but was never able to voice articulately." He summed up by stating, "I'm waving goodbye to me in the rear view mirror, tying a knot around my youth and putting it under the bed."
Musically, the album has been described as featuring alternative rock, grunge, alternative metal, and art rock. Its sprawling nature resulted in diverse music styles from song to song, contrasting what some critics felt was the "one dimensional flavor" of the previous two albums. A much wider variety of instrumentation is used, such as piano ("Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness"), synthesizers and drum loops ("1979"), a live orchestra ("Tonight, Tonight"), and even salt shakers and scissors ("Cupid de Locke").
All guitars on the album were tuned down a half-step in order to "make the music a little lower", according to Corgan. On some songs, like "Jellybelly", the first string was tuned down an additional whole step to C (referred to by Corgan as "the 'grunge tuning'"). There was a greater variety to the number of guitar overdubs utilized than on previous albums. Iha said, "[I]n the past, everything had to be overdubbed and layered—guitar overkill. That wasn't really the train of thought this time, although we did that too." "To Forgive" consists of only one live guitar take, while "Thru the Eyes of Ruby" contains approximately 70 guitar tracks. The various sections of "Porcelina of the Vast Oceans" were recorded at various times, with different instruments and recording setups, and were digitally composited in Pro Tools. Corgan and Iha shared soloing duties; Iha estimated that the guitar solo duties were divided "half and half" on the record.
Corgan has said that "For the solo in 'Fuck You (An Ode to No One),' I played until my fingers saw blood, You can't play a weak guitar solo in such a propulsive song. It's got to be attack-style." He explains this method by saying "... I put on the headphones and stand one foot away from the amp. I turn the amp up so loud that I literally have to play harder than the feedback, because if I stop playing even for an instant, the whole thing explodes."
All but two songs on the album were written by Corgan. The closing track from the first disc, "Take Me Down", was written and sung by Iha, while the album's final track, "Farewell and Goodnight", features lead vocals by all four band members and, according to the BMI database, was written solely by Iha, despite being credited on the album liner notes as being written by both Iha and Corgan. Iha wrote additional songs during the making of the album, but they did not make the final cut. Corgan said in a 1995 Rolling Stone interview, "[T]here are some B sides that James did that are really good. They just don't fit in the context of the album. And part of me feels bad. But over the seven years we've been together, the least uptight part of the band has been the music."
Packaging and artwork
The artwork and visual design was borne by John Craig (b. 1944), an illustrator native to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, who was living in the state of Wisconsin at the time he began communicating with Corgan about what visual elements could bring the enormous ambition of Mellon Collie to life. A collage artist, Craig had spent most of his career doing editorial commissions for magazines; here, he worked from Corgan's scribbled notes and crude sketches, most of which arrived via fax. Craig made other illustrations that appear throughout the album's packaging — animals smoking pipes, celestial bodies with faces, wayward children walking eerie dreamscapes — all with a vaguely antique quality. The woman on the front cover, who is plopped on top of a star, is actually a collage made from two paintings: the face was taken from a painting entitled The Souvenir (Fidelity), by Jean-Baptiste Greuze, while the rest of the body was taken from Raphael's portrait of Saint Catherine of Alexandria.
Release, reception, and legacy
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was released on October 24, 1995. The night before, the band played a release party show at the Riviera Theater in Chicago and took part in a live FM broadcast across the United States. The following week, Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness debuted at number one on the Billboard 200, an unusual feat for a double-disc album that cost over US$20. The album was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America. Originally 5,000 vinyl triple LP (3xLP) copies were pressed. The vinyl edition has two additional tracks ("Tonite Reprise" & "Infinite Sadness") which are not included in CD and cassette releases. Later re-pressing led up to 23,000 pressed but unnumbered copies. In 2012, a remastered 4xLP vinyl edition was repressed, with the tracklist order was same like the original CD and cassette releases, without the two additional tracks from the original vinyl release.
Critical reception
The album received critical acclaim. Christopher John Farley of Time called the album "the group's most ambitious and accomplished work yet". Farley wrote, "One gets the feeling that the band [...] charged ahead on gut instincts; the sheer scope of the album (28 songs) didn't allow for second-guessing or contrivance." Time selected Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness as the best album of the year in its year-end "Best of 1995" list. Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A rating; reviewer David Browne praised the group's ambition and wrote, "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is more than just the work of a tortured, finicky pop obsessive. Corgan presents himself as one of the last true believers: someone for whom spewing out this much music results in some sort of high art for the ages. He doesn't seem concerned with persistent alterna-rock questions of 'selling out', and good for him: He's aiming for something bigger and all-conquering." IGN gave the album a score of 9.5 out of 10 and said, "As the band's magnum opus it single-handedly changed the face of Alternative Rock. That said, it's not just music, but a work of art." The Music Box gave it all five stars and said, "Indeed, for all its melodramatic self-indulgence, Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is one of the best double albums of new material to be released by anyone in a long time."
Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars. Reviewer Jim DeRogatis praised the album as "one of the rare epic rock releases whose bulk is justified in the grooves". DeRogatis noted that "the 28 songs on Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness aren't linked by a libretto. They're only connected conceptually through the broad theme of being part of a day in the life of a typical, alienated teen." The writer stated that the album's main flaw was Corgan's lyrics, describing the songwriter as "wallowing in his own misery and grousing about everyone and everything not meeting his expectations." DeRogatis contended that while Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness "may even match The Wall in its sonic accomplishments", Corgan's lyrics lacked in comparison. Mojo reviewer Ben Edmunds also praised the music while criticizing Corgan's lyrics. Edmunds wrote, "[Corgan's] lyrics appear to be the repository for the worst aspects of his most treasured influences. He writes with a heavy metal aptitude for wordplay and an inflated prog-rock conviction of its worth, a deadening combination. But there's a sliver of distance in his rage-mongering now that comments as well as expresses." In his Consumer Guide, Village Voice critic Robert Christgau picked "1979" as a "choice cut", indicating "a good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money".
Singles
The album spawned five singles. While Corgan considered issuing "Jellybelly" as the album's first single, he told Chart it was passed over in favor of "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" because "'Bullet's one of those songs where, you know, it's easy to sing along to and [he affects a drawl] ya gotta sell them records." "Bullet with Butterfly Wings" was the Smashing Pumpkins' first single to reach the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 22. "1979", the album's second single, charted at number 12, becoming the band's highest-charting American hit. The "Zero" single was released as an EP with six b-sides. All three of these singles were certified gold by the RIAA. "Tonight, Tonight" and "Thirty-Three", the album's final singles, reached number 36 and number 39 on the Billboard charts, respectively. While it was not commercially released as a single, the song "Muzzle" reached number eight on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and number ten on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart.
Accolades
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned the Smashing Pumpkins nominations in seven categories at the 39th Annual Grammy Awards, the second-highest number of nominations that year. The group was nominated for Album of the Year, Record of the Year ("1979"), Best Alternative Music Performance, Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ("1979"), Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal ("Bullet with Butterfly Wings"), Best Pop Instrumental Performance ("Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness"), and Best Music Video, Short Form ("Tonight, Tonight"). The band won a single award, for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal for "Bullet with Butterfly Wings"; it was the group's first. In 2000 it was voted number 76 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness also ranked at number 14 on the 1995 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics' poll, and 487 on Rolling Stone's 2003 list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. On April 1, 2019 Rolling Stone magazine ranked it 26th greatest Grunge album of all time. In 2015, Spin included it in their list of "The 300 Best Albums of 1985–2014". The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Track listing
Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was intended as a two-record set. The CD and cassette versions of the album are divided into two discs, entitled Dawn to Dusk and Twilight to Starlight. The vinyl version, however, is divided into three records with six sides, entitled Dawn/Tea Time, Dusk/Twilight, and Midnight/Starlight. The vinyl release also features two bonus songs ("Tonite Reprise" and "Infinite Sadness"), and a completely rearranged track order. In 2012 the album was remastered and re-released as a 6 disc edition, with 3 bonus discs of music and a DVD and also on 4 Vinyl LPs which contained the regular CD track order instead of the original LP order.
All songs written by Billy Corgan, except where noted.
Compact disc/cassette version/2012 vinyl reissue
Track 8 is listed as simply "An Ode to No One" on original pressings and later reissues.
Original vinyl version
2012 CD/DVD reissue
As part of EMI Music's extensive reissue campaign, a special edition of the album was released on December 4, 2012. The 5-CD disc set consists of 64 bonus tracks of previously unreleased material, demos and alternate versions of Mellon Collie era songs—including full versions of tracks notably featured as parts of the "Pastichio Medley" from the Zero EP—as well as six new mixes of original album songs.
The package also includes a DVD consisting of footage from two live shows: Tracks 1–11 taken from the group's concert of May 15, 1996 at the Brixton Academy in London, England, originally filmed by MTV Europe, and tracks 12–15 from their show of April 7, 1996 at the Philipshalle in Düsseldorf, Germany that was filmed by the German TV show Rockpalast. The bonus content and special features were curated from the band's archives by Corgan and were remastered from the original master tapes by Bob Ludwig. Electronic Dance Music pioneer BT contributed his own interpretation for five songs from the archives for the release.
Personnel
The Smashing Pumpkins
Jimmy Chamberlin – drums, vocals on "Farewell and Goodnight"
Billy Corgan – lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitar, piano, keyboards, autoharp, production, mixing, string arrangement on "Tonight, Tonight", art direction and design
James Iha – rhythm and lead guitar; vocals, mixing, and additional production on "Take Me Down" and "Farewell and Goodnight"
D'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar, vocals on "Beautiful" and "Farewell and Goodnight"
Additional musicians
Chicago Symphony Orchestra – orchestra in "Tonight, Tonight"
Greg Leisz – pedal and lap steel guitar on "Take Me Down"
Technical
Roger Carpenter – technical assistance
John Craig – illustration
Flood – production, mixer
Andrea Giacobbe – photograph
Barry Goldberg – additional vocal recording, mixing assistance
Adam Green – technical assistance
Dave Kresl – string recording assistance
Tim "Gooch" Lougee – technical assistance
Guitar Dave Mannet – technical assistance
Jeff Moleski – technical assistance
Alan Moulder – production, mixer
Frank Olinsky – art direction and design
Claudine Pontier – recording assistance
Audrey Riley – string arrangement on "Tonight, Tonight"
Chris Shepard – recording
Russ Spice – technical assistance
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Bob Ludwig – mastering (2012 remaster)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of best-selling albums in the United States
References
1995 albums
Albums produced by Alan Moulder
Albums produced by Billy Corgan
Albums produced by Flood (producer)
Concept albums
The Smashing Pumpkins albums
Virgin Records albums | [
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215248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nephron | Nephron | The nephron is the minute or microscopic structural and functional unit of the kidney. It is composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. The renal corpuscle consists of a tuft of capillaries called a glomerulus and a cup-shaped structure called Bowman's capsule. The renal tubule extends from the capsule. The capsule and tubule are connected and are composed of epithelial cells with a lumen. A healthy adult has 1 to 1.5 million nephrons in each kidney. Blood is filtered as it passes through three layers: the endothelial cells of the capillary wall, its basement membrane, and between the foot processes of the podocytes of the lining of the capsule. The tubule has adjacent peritubular capillaries that run between the descending and ascending portions of the tubule. As the fluid from the capsule flows down into the tubule, it is processed by the epithelial cells lining the tubule: water is reabsorbed and substances are exchanged (some are added, others are removed); first with the interstitial fluid outside the tubules, and then into the plasma in the adjacent peritubular capillaries through the endothelial cells lining that capillary. This process regulates the volume of body fluid as well as levels of many body substances. At the end of the tubule, the remaining fluid—urine—exits: it is composed of water, metabolic waste, and toxins.
The interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space, collects the filtrate from the filtering capillaries of the glomerular tuft, which also contains mesangial cells supporting these capillaries. These components function as the filtration unit and make up the renal corpuscle. The filtering structure (glomerular filtration barrier) has three layers composed of endothelial cells, a basement membrane, and podocytes (foot processes). The tubule has five anatomically and functionally different parts: the proximal tubule, which has a convoluted section the proximal convoluted tubule followed by a straight section (proximal straight tubule); the loop of Henle, which has two parts, the descending loop of Henle ("descending loop") and the ascending loop of Henle ("ascending loop"); the distal convoluted tubule ("distal loop"); the connecting tubule, and the last part of nephron the collecting ducts. Nephrons have two lengths with different urine concentrating capacities: long juxtamedullary nephrons and short cortical nephrons.
The four mechanisms used to create and process the filtrate (the result of which is to convert blood to urine) are filtration, reabsorption, secretion and excretion. Filtration or ultrafiltration occurs in the glomerulus and is largely passive: it is dependent on the intracapillary blood pressure. About one-fifth of the plasma is filtered as the blood passes through the glomerular capillaries; four-fifths continues into the peritubular capillaries. Normally the only components of the blood that are not filtered into Bowman's capsule are blood proteins, red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets. Over 150 liters of fluid enter the glomeruli of an adult every day: 99% of the water in that filtrate is reabsorbed. Reabsorption occurs in the renal tubules and is either passive, due to diffusion, or active, due to pumping against a concentration gradient. Secretion also occurs in the tubules and collecting duct and is active. Substances reabsorbed include: water, sodium chloride, glucose, amino acids, lactate, magnesium, calcium phosphate, uric acid, and bicarbonate. Substances secreted include urea, creatinine, potassium, hydrogen, and uric acid. Some of the hormones which signal the tubules to alter the reabsorption or secretion rate, and thereby maintain homeostasis, include (along with the substance affected) antidiuretic hormone (water), aldosterone (sodium, potassium), parathyroid hormone (calcium, phosphate), atrial natriuretic peptide (sodium) and brain natriuretic peptide (sodium). A countercurrent system in the renal medulla provides the mechanism for generating a hypertonic interstitium, which allows the recovery of solute-free water from within the nephron and returning it to the venous vasculature when appropriate.
Some diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis and polycystic kidney disease.
Structure
The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. This means that each separate nephron is where the main work of the kidney is performed.
A nephron is made of two parts:
a renal corpuscle, which is the initial filtering component, and
a renal tubule that processes and carries away the filtered fluid.
Renal corpuscle
The renal corpuscle is the site of the filtration of blood plasma. The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus, and the glomerular capsule or Bowman's capsule.
The renal corpuscle has two poles: a vascular pole and a tubular pole. The arterioles from the renal circulation enter and leave the glomerulus at the vascular pole. The glomerular filtrate leaves the Bowman's capsule at the renal tubule at the urinary pole.
Glomerulus
The glomerulus is the network known as a tuft, of filtering capillaries located at the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle in Bowman's capsule. Each glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. The glomerular blood pressure provides the driving force for water and solutes to be filtered out of the blood plasma, and into the interior of Bowman's capsule, called Bowman's space.
Only about a fifth of the plasma is filtered in the glomerulus. The rest passes into an efferent arteriole. The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than that of the afferent, and this difference increases the hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus.
Bowman's capsule
The Bowman's capsule, also called the glomerular capsule, surrounds the glomerulus. It is composed of a visceral inner layer formed by specialized cells called podocytes, and a parietal outer layer composed of simple squamous epithelium. Fluids from blood in the glomerulus are ultrafiltered through several layers, resulting in what is known as the filtrate.
The filtrate next moves to the renal tubule, where it is further processed to form urine. The different stages of this fluid are collectively known as the tubular fluid.
Renal tubule
The renal tubule is long pipe like structure containing the tubular fluid filtered through the glomerulus. After passing through the renal tubule, the filtrate continues to the collecting duct system.
The components of the renal tubule are:
Proximal convoluted tubule (lies in cortex and lined by simple cuboidal epithelium with brush borders which help to increase the area of absorption greatly.)
Loop of Henle (hair-pin like, i.e. U-shaped, and lies in medulla)
Descending limb of loop of Henle
Ascending limb of loop of Henle
The ascending limb of loop of Henle is divided into 2 segments: Lower end of ascending limb is very thin and is lined by simple squamous epithelium. The distal portion of ascending limb is thick and is lined by simple cuboidal epithelium.
Thin ascending limb of loop of Henle
Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle (enters cortex and becomes the distal convoluted tubule.)
Distal convoluted tubule
Connecting tubule
Blood from the efferent arteriole, containing everything that was not filtered out in the glomerulus, moves into the peritubular capillaries, tiny blood vessels that surround the loop of Henle and the proximal and distal tubules, where the tubular fluid flows. Substances then reabsorb from the latter back to the blood stream.
The peritubular capillaries then recombine to form an efferent venule, which combines with efferent venules from other nephrons into the renal vein, and rejoins the main bloodstream.
Length difference
Cortical nephrons (the majority of nephrons) start high in the cortex and have a short loop of Henle which does not penetrate deeply into the medulla. Cortical nephrons can be subdivided into superficial cortical nephrons and midcortical nephrons.
Juxtamedullary nephrons start low in the cortex near the medulla and have a long loop of Henle which penetrates deeply into the renal medulla: only they have their loop of Henle surrounded by the vasa recta. These long loops of Henle and their associated vasa recta create a hyperosmolar gradient that allows for the generation of concentrated urine. Also the hairpin bend penetrates up to the inner zone of medulla.
Juxtamedullary nephrons are found only in birds and mammals, and have a specific location: medullary refers to the renal medulla, while juxta (Latin: near) refers to the relative position of the renal corpuscle of this nephron - near the medulla, but still in the cortex. In other words, a juxtamedullary nephron is a nephron whose renal corpuscle is near the medulla, and whose proximal convoluted tubule and its associated loop of Henle occur deeper in the medulla than the other type of nephron, the cortical nephron.
The juxtamedullary nephrons comprise only about 15% of the nephrons in the human kidney. However, it is this type of nephron which is most often depicted in illustrations of nephrons.
In humans, cortical nephrons have their renal corpuscles in the outer two thirds of the cortex, whereas juxtamedullary nephrons have their corpuscles in the inner third of the cortex.
Functions
The nephron uses four mechanisms to convert blood into urine: filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion. These apply to numerous substances. The structure and function of the epithelial cells lining the lumen change during the course of the nephron, and have segments named by their location and which reflects their different functions.
Proximal tubule
The proximal tubule as a part of the nephron can be divided into an initial convoluted portion and a following straight (descending) portion. Fluid in the filtrate entering the proximal convoluted tubule is reabsorbed into the peritubular capillaries, including 80% of glucose,more than half of the filtered salt, water and all filtered organic solutes (primarily glucose and amino acids).
Loop of Henle
The loop of Henle is a U-shaped tube that extends from the proximal tubule. It consists of a descending limb and an ascending limb. It begins in the cortex, receiving filtrate from the proximal convoluted tubule, extends into the medulla as the descending limb, and then returns to the cortex as the ascending limb to empty into the distal convoluted tubule. The primary role of the loop of Henle is to enable an organism to produce concentrated urine, not by increasing the tubular concentration, but by rendering the interstitial fluid hypertonic.
Considerable differences aid in distinguishing the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle. The descending limb is permeable to water and noticeably less permeable to salt, and thus only indirectly contributes to the concentration of the interstitium. As the filtrate descends deeper into the hypertonic interstitium of the renal medulla, water flows freely out of the descending limb by osmosis until the tonicity of the filtrate and interstitium equilibrate. The hypertonicity of the medulla (and therefore concentration of urine) is determined in part by the size of the loops of Henle.
Unlike the descending limb, the thick ascending limb is impermeable to water, a critical feature of the countercurrent exchange mechanism employed by the loop. The ascending limb actively pumps sodium out of the filtrate, generating the hypertonic interstitium that drives countercurrent exchange. In passing through the ascending limb, the filtrate grows hypotonic since it has lost much of its sodium content. This hypotonic filtrate is passed to the distal convoluted tubule in the renal cortex.
Distal convoluted tubule
The distal convoluted tubule has a different structure and function to that of the proximal convoluted tubule. Cells lining the tubule have numerous mitochondria to produce enough energy (ATP) for active transport to take place. Much of the ion transport taking place in the distal convoluted tubule is regulated by the endocrine system. In the presence of parathyroid hormone, the distal convoluted tubule reabsorbs more calcium and secretes more phosphate. When aldosterone is present, more sodium is reabsorbed and more potassium secreted. Ammonia is also absorbed during the selective reabsorption. Atrial natriuretic peptide causes the distal convoluted tubule to secrete more sodium.
Connecting tubule
A part of Distal nephron. This is the final segment of the tubule before it enters the collecting duct system.Water, some salts and nitrogenous waste like urea and creatinine are passes out to collecting tubule.
Collecting duct system
Each distal convoluted tubule delivers its filtrate to a system of collecting ducts, the first segment of which is the connecting tubule. The collecting duct system begins in the renal cortex and extends deep into the medulla. As the urine travels down the collecting duct system, it passes by the medullary interstitium which has a high sodium concentration as a result of the loop of Henle's countercurrent multiplier system.
Because it has a different origin during the development of the urinary and reproductive organs than the rest of the nephron, the collecting duct is sometimes not considered a part of the nephron. Instead of originating from the metanephrogenic blastema, the collecting duct originates from the ureteric bud.
Though the collecting duct is normally impermeable to water, it becomes permeable in the presence of antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH affects the function of aquaporins, resulting in the reabsorption of water molecules as it passes through the collecting duct. Aquaporins are membrane proteins that selectively conduct water molecules while preventing the passage of ions and other solutes. As much as three-quarters of the water from urine can be reabsorbed as it leaves the collecting duct by osmosis. Thus the levels of ADH determine whether urine will be concentrated or diluted. An increase in ADH is an indication of dehydration, while water sufficiency results in a decrease in ADH allowing for diluted urine.
Lower portions of the collecting organ are also permeable to urea, allowing some of it to enter the medulla, thus maintaining its high concentration (which is very important for the nephron).
Urine leaves the medullary collecting ducts through the renal papillae, emptying into the renal calyces, the renal pelvis, and finally into the urinary bladder via the ureter.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus
The juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) is a specialized region associated with the nephron, but separate from it. It produces and secretes into the circulation the enzyme renin (angiotensinogenase), which cleaves angiotensinogen and results in the ten amino acid substance angiotensin-1 (A-1). A-1 is then converted to angiotensin-2, a potent vasoconstrictor, by removing two amino acids: this is accomplished by angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). This sequence of events is referred to as the renin–angiotensin system (RAS) or renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS). The JGA is located between the thick ascending limb and the afferent arteriole. It contains three components: the macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, and extraglomerular mesangial cells.
Clinical significance
Diseases of the nephron predominantly affect either the glomeruli or the tubules. Glomerular diseases include diabetic nephropathy, glomerulonephritis and IgA nephropathy; renal tubular diseases include acute tubular necrosis, renal tubular acidosis, and polycystic kidney disease.
Additional images
See also
Nephrology
Urology
References
Kidney anatomy | [
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215250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacGyver%20%281985%20TV%20series%29 | MacGyver (1985 TV series) | MacGyver is an American action-adventure television series created by Lee David Zlotoff and starring Richard Dean Anderson as the title character. Henry Winkler and John Rich were the executive producers. The series follows the adventures of Angus MacGyver, a secret agent armed with remarkable scientific resourcefulness to solve almost any problem out in the field using mundane materials at hand.
The show ran for seven seasons on ABC in the United States and various other networks abroad from 1985 to 1992. The series was filmed in Los Angeles during seasons one, two and seven, and in Vancouver during seasons three through six. The show's final episode aired on April 25, 1992, on ABC (the network aired a previously unseen episode for the first time on May 21, 1992, but it was originally intended to air before the series finale).
The series was a moderate ratings success and gained a loyal following. It was popular in the United States and around the world. Two television films, Lost Treasure of Atlantis and Trail to Doomsday, aired on ABC in 1994. A spin-off series, Young MacGyver, was planned in 2003, but only the pilot was made. Merchandise for MacGyver includes games, toys, print media and an original audio series. A reboot series was broadcast on CBS from 2016 to 2021, which today owns the rights to the series through its acquisition of the original Paramount Television.
Plot
The show follows secret agent Angus MacGyver, played by Richard Dean Anderson, who works as a troubleshooter for the fictional Phoenix Foundation in Los Angeles and as an agent for a fictional United States government agency, the Department of External Services (DXS). Educated as a scientist in Physics at Western Tech ("Hell Week"), MacGyver served in the U.S. Army Special Forces as a Bomb Team Technician/EOD during the Vietnam War ("Countdown"). Resourceful and possessing an encyclopedic knowledge of the physical sciences, he solves complex problems by making things out of ordinary objects, along with his ever-present Swiss Army knife, duct tape, and occasionally matches. He favors non-violent resolutions and prefers not to handle firearms due to the accidental shooting death of one of his friends when he was 12.
His main asset is his practical application of scientific knowledge and inventive use of common items. The clever solutions MacGyver implemented to seemingly unsolvable problemsoften in life-or-death situations requiring him to improvise complex devices in a matter of minuteswere a major attraction of the show, which was praised for generating interest in the applied sciences, particularly engineering, and for providing entertaining storylines. All of MacGyver's exploits on the show were ostensibly vetted by consulting scientists for the show's writers to ensure a basis on scientific principles (even though, the creators acknowledged, in real life one would have to be extraordinarily lucky for most of MacGyver's ideas to succeed). In the few cases where MacGyver used household chemicals to mix up poisons, explosives or other items deemed too dangerous to be accurately described to the public, details were altered or left vague or an essential component or step was omitted.
The show often dealt with social issues, though more so in seasons 4–7 than 1–3, which were mostly about MacGyver's adventures working for the United States government and later for the Phoenix Foundation.
Cast
Richard Dean Anderson as Angus MacGyver, a secret agent who prefers not to carry or use a firearm, due to a childhood accident with a revolver that resulted in the death of a friend. However, MacGyver is willing to use an acquired gun, its parts, or its bullets in non-standard ways, such as a substitute for a wrench. There are three exceptions when he uses a gun for its original intended purpose: in the pilot episode, MacGyver is seen firing an AK-47 on a mission in the opening gambit (7:51 into the episode); he holds two kidnappers at gunpoint in the opening scene of episode 10, season one; and, is seen using a gun in the TV movie Trail to Doomsday. He is often suspicious of militaristic attitudes within the government; he sees the Los Angeles-based Phoenix Foundation, his employer, as an alternative to more conventional (and violent) means of law enforcement.
Dana Elcar as Pete Thornton, MacGyver's boss and best friend. He was an operative at the Department of External Services (DXS), which is where he is impressed by Mac's ingenuity while tracking down Murdoc (Michael Des Barres), an international assassin and master of disguise. When Thornton becomes director of operations at the Phoenix Foundation several years later, he brings MacGyver into the program. In addition to sending Mac out on various tasks for the foundation, Thornton is many times forced to bail MacGyver out of the trouble he gets into. Thornton has a son named Michael. Late in the show, it is learned that Pete has glaucoma, an element written in because of Elcar developing glaucoma in real life. Dana Elcar is first cast in the pilot episode as Andy Colson, the Chief of Operations at the KIVA Laboratories.
Bruce McGill as Jack Dalton, MacGyver's comical best friend. He is a soldier of fortune/bush pilot who periodically gets everyone into a heap of trouble with various get rich quick schemes out of which only MacGyver can rescue them. His left eye twitches when he is lying. Dalton often attempts to romance the women he is introduced to.
Production
Development
While creating the series MacGyver, John Rich was working on the sitcom Mr. Sunshine for ABC, which was short-lived and cancelled quickly. Henry Winkler had just finished off his eleven-year run on Happy Days and was looking for another project. Lee David Zlotoff was working as a producer for Remington Steele, which was airing on NBC. The three got together to form the basis for MacGyver and sold the idea to Paramount, and ABC became interested in the series.
Filming
The series was filmed in Southern California for its first two seasons and again in its final season. From seasons 3 to 6, it was filmed in various locations around Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada. Los Angeles remained as the setting of the show for the entire duration. The move to Vancouver was due to the threat of the series being cancelled due to the high production cost. In seasons 1 and 2, MacGyver was portrayed living in a waterfront apartment in Venice Beach. In season 3, he moved onto a houseboat at an unspecified location, though implied still to be in Los Angeles (the actual shooting took place at Coal Harbour, near downtown Vancouver). Filming returned to Los Angeles for the final season.
Casting
When the series was in pre-production, Winkler and Rich were looking for a suitable actor for the lead. After Richard Dean Anderson's appearance in the American television series The Love Boat, Winkler got Anderson to audition for the part. According to Rich, every auditioning actor "hulked" his way through his audition. When Anderson eventually auditioned for the role, Winkler and Rich felt that he gave the character a human touch which the other actors could not. Both believed that Anderson would become one of the new "breakout" stars on American television.
Anderson is known for having done many of the stunts in the series, though in later seasons he reduced his participation because of accumulating injuries. He injured his back and required foot surgery because of accidents working as a stuntman.
Episodes
Several episodes, including the pilot, begin with a cold open, finding MacGyver already on a mission. MacGyver often narrates a story from his childhood relating to his current situation. He resolves this situation quickly, and the main story commences after the opening credits. The credits refer to such an opening sequence as the "Opening Gambit"it occurs far more commonly in earlier episodes than in later ones. This segment is often written and directed by a different team than the main story of the episode. After the credits, the main story plays out in standard three-act structure. In many episodes, the opening sequence occurs after the opening credits and often does not involve MacGyver on a mission but rather in a situation used for character development. In the same manner as the "Opening Gambit" sequences, these opening segments often do not directly relate to the main story.
Broadcast history
After a slow start in its first season, MacGyver became a sleeper hit for ABC in its second season, during which it began a six-year run as the lead-in to ABC's Monday Night Football (the longest such run in history). During the show's fourth season, Richard Dean Anderson complained that ABC was not marketing the series enough. Saying that the series is "just another action show" for ABC, he further stated that ABC didn't give the series enough promotion.
MacGyver's seventh season was abbreviated. After the twelfth episode of the season aired on December 30, 1991, MacGyver disappeared from the ABC schedule and did not return until April 25, 1992, by which point the series had been canceled. The finale aired that night, with a previously unaired episode following on May 21, 1992. When asked why the series was canceled, Anderson replied: "The only reason it went off the air was that everybody was ready to move on. I was physically exhausted and had no life."
Ratings
TV films
In 1994, the series was released in over 70 different worldwide markets. Because of popular demand, two TV-movies were created, both released in 1994. The first movie MacGyver: Lost Treasure of Atlantis premiered in the United States in May. The film was shot in England and Greece. The second movie was entitled MacGyver: Trail to Doomsday. Anderson served as executive producer for both films, which were filmed in Europe.
Syndication and home media
Reruns of the series still air in North America, Europe, Australia, Asia, Costa Rica and Ethiopia. Alongside local syndication, reruns aired on the USA Network from 1990 to 1997, on WGN America from 1998 to 2002, on TV Land from January 2003 to 2006, on Spike for a brief time in 2005. It is formerly aired on Cloo (2011–2017) with marathon blocks shown on the weekends and on May 13, 2015, Esquire Network started airing reruns of the series. MeTV Network had acquired the rights to air the series as of December 2, 2015. It aired weekday afternoons & weeknights on MeTV from 12/19/16-5/26/17.
On June 15, 2010, Paramount released the two TV movies on DVD in Region1 in a separate single-disc release entitled MacGyver – The TV Movies.
On January 13, 2015, CBS Home Entertainment announced they would release a repackaged version of the complete series set on DVD in Region1, at a lower price, on April 7.
High definition remaster
In June 2018, CBS announced that the original camera negatives, thought to be lost, had been located and a high definition remaster of the series was underway. The June 21 press release confirmed that the first three seasons had been completed, with the remaining four to be remastered before the end of 2018. The press release also included a teaser showcasing the notable improvement in quality.
Impact
The series is referenced in episodes of The Simpsons, primarily detailing the obsession Marge Simpson's sisters (Patty and Selma) have with the show and their crush on the MacGyver character. The sisters' regular viewing of the show is an unalterable element of their daily schedule to the point of death as demonstrated in the episode "Black Widower". The episode featured a fictional scene of MacGyver where he downplays his role in saving a village. ("Don't thank me. Thank the moon's gravitational pull.")
In the first episode of Anderson's later show, Stargate SG-1, Amanda Tapping mentions that the Air Force had to "MacGyver" a Dial Home Device for the Stargate, and a split-second shot following this shows Anderson twitching an eyebrow. (However, this line was removed when this episode was re-released in 2009.)
In 2006, Anderson appeared in a MasterCard television commercial for Super Bowl XL. In it, he manages to cut the ropes binding him to a chair using a pine tree air freshener, uses an ordinary tube sock as the pulley for a zip-line, and somehow repairs and hot-wires a nonfunctional truck using a paper clip, ballpoint pen, rubber band, tweezers, nasal spray, and a turkey baster. In contrast to previous MasterCard commercials showing people making extravagant purchases to accomplish some mundane task, MacGyver is portrayed as escaping from some sort of deathtrap using less than $20 worth of common household items. The commercial ends by showing him purposefully buying an assortment of such things at a department store with his credit card (as a tongue-in-cheek explanation for how he seems to always have items he needs on hand no matter where he goes). Although the commercial implies that Anderson is portraying MacGyver, he is not identified.
In an August 2007 survey commissioned by the McCormick Tribune Foundation, Americans polled voted MacGyver as the favorite fictional hero they would want to have if they were ever caught in an emergency.
In 2008, the phrase "What would MacGyver do?" was used in a New Zealand television commercial for Gregg's "freestyle cooking" range of herbs and spices. The commercial featured the word MacGyver unfolding like a puzzle with a potato peeler and chopping knife opening out like the blades of a Swiss Army knife.
"MacGyver" and "MacGyverism"
MacGyver employs his resourcefulness and his knowledge of chemistry, physics, technology, and sportsmanship to resolve what are often life-or-death crises. He creates inventions from simple items to solve these problems. These inventions became synonymous with the character and were called MacGyverisms by fans. MacGyver was unlike secret agents in other television series and films because, instead of relying on high-tech weapons and tools, he carried only a Swiss Army knife and duct tape but never a gun.
This also led to the verb "to MacGyver". "MacGyverism" was first used by the character Joanne Remmings (played by Pamela Bowen) in the Season 2 episode "Twice Stung". When MacGyver introduces himself to her, she uses the term in a manner that suggests other people had used it before:
In a 1989 interview with Richard Dean Anderson, Arsenio Hall said that he had heard the word MacGyver used as a verb meaning "to do the impossible." Anderson then used it as an adjective meaning "impossible." Anderson stated that his show's producers had just missed out on getting the word "MacGyverism" entered into the Webster's Dictionary and that "we" intended to try to get it in the next update. The word "MacGyver" however entered the Oxford Dictionaries in 2015 as a verb meaning "make or repair (an object) in an improvised or inventive way, making use of whatever items are at hand".
The show's writers based MacGyver's inventions on items they found on location, concepts from scientific advisers John Koivula and Jim Green, and real events. The show offered a monetary prize to people who sent good ideas for the show. A young fan suggested that MacGyver could patch up a vehicle's radiator by cracking an egg into it. The episode "Bushmaster" was constructed around this trick, and the fan was rewarded (producer Henry Winkler said in a 2005 NPR interview that this was his favorite "MacGyverism"). Although staff read every letter, few usable ideas were obtained in this way.
2016 CBS reboot series
In October 2015, the original series' executive producer, Henry Winkler, signed on to produce a reboot series with James Wan and R. Scott Gemmill for CBS.
In May 2016, the network picked up the series, with co-creator/exec producer Peter Lenkov to serve as showrunner. On May 18, 2016, CBS indicated that the new series would air in late 2016. In June 2016, however, the network scrapped the pilot and set Wan to direct the new pilot episode with Till and Eads remaining in the cast. Justin Hires was cast as Wilt Bozer, MacGyver's roommate. In July 2016, Variety reported that Sandrine Holt is cast as Patricia Thornton, an ex-field agent who is now director of operations for the Department of External Services. Also that Tristin Mays was cast as Riley Davis, a highly unpredictable computer hacker with a chip on her shoulder.
The rebooted show ran until 2021, when it was cancelled.
In other media
Mobile game
A 3D puzzle game based on the TV series titled MacGyver: Deadly Descent was released on iOS and Android.
MacGyver and the New Citan
Anderson reprised his role as MacGyver in September 2012 in a new series of short films, created by Mercedes-Benz for the launch of their new MPV Citan in Europe.
Comic book
The comic book was very well received around the world with the first issue selling out within the first two weeks and received mostly favorable reviews through major comic book sites. However, the series' lead author, Tony Lee, confirmed in September 2014 that the series in total did not sell well enough to warrant a second series.
See also
References
External links
MacGyver Globalthe official MacGyver Site of Lee Zlotoff
MacGyver Onlinethe complete MacGyver resource and reference site
1980s American drama television series
1985 American television series debuts
1990s American drama television series
1992 American television series endings
American action adventure television series
American action television series
American adventure television series
American Broadcasting Company original programming
American thriller television series
English-language television shows
espionage television series
repurposing
television shows filmed in Burnaby
television shows filmed in Los Angeles
television shows filmed in Vancouver
television shows set in Los Angeles | [
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215251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delict | Delict | Delict (from Latin dēlictum, past participle of dēlinquere ‘to be at fault, offend’) is a term in civil law jurisdictions for a civil wrong consisting of an intentional or negligent breach of duty of care that inflicts loss or harm and which triggers legal liability for the wrongdoer; however, its meaning varies from one jurisdiction to another. Other civil wrongs include breach of contract and breach of trust. Liability is imposed on the basis of moral responsibility, i.e. a duty of care or to act, and fault (culpa) is the main element of liability. The term is used in mixed legal systems such as Scotland, South Africa, Louisiana and the Philippines, but tort is the equivalent legal term used in common law jurisdictions.
The exact meaning of delict varies between legal systems but it is always centred on the Roman law idea of wrongful conduct.
In Spanish law, delito is any breach of criminal law, i.e. a criminal offence. In Italian law, delitto penale is the same concept, but illecito civile extracontrattuale (or delitto civile), like delict in Scots law, is an intentional or negligent act which gives rise to a legal obligation between parties even though there has been no contract between them, akin to common-law tort. German-speaking countries use the word Delikt for crime and unerlaubte Handlung for delict, but Deliktsrecht is a branch of civil law (similar to tort law). In French law, délit penal is a misdemeanor (between contravention ‘petty offence’ and crime ‘felony; major indictable offence’), while délit civil, again, is a tort. Because of this, French law prefers to speak in terms of responsabilité civile ‘delictual liability’. In the canon law of the Catholic Church, a delict is a crime.
Scots law: delict as a willful wrong
In the most narrowly construed sense, delict is a Latin word (delictum ‘offence, wrong’) and a legal term, which, in some civil law systems, signifies a willful wrong, similar to the common law concept of tort though differing in many substantive ways. The law of delict in civil law countries is usually a general statute passed by the legislature whereas tort law in common law countries arises from case law. In addition, a delict is defined abstractly in terms of infringement of rights whereas in common law, there are many specific types of torts (English terminology).
Delict deals with the righting of legal wrongs in civil law. In modern times much of the literature on delict, and most case law heard before the courts, deals with issues arising from negligence. Insofar as liability for negligent wrongdoing is concerned, the principle of liability is based on reparation for damnum injuria, or loss caused by wrongful conduct. When considering pursuing such a claim, one must prove, in addition to the existence of some recognised form of loss, that three additional criteria have been met: firstly one must demonstrate that the pursuer was owed a duty of care, secondly one must prove that the defender breached this duty of care and lastly one must show a causal link between the defender's breach of the duty of care and the loss complained of by the pursuer.
In addition to comprising rules pertaining to reparation for loss caused by negligent conduct, discussed above, the Scots law of delict is also concerned with affording remedy in cases which concern non-patrimonial injury, wilful interference with property rights and the commission of nominate delicts (such as, e.g., defamation). The rules for establishing liability in such cases differ from the 'duty of care' analysis discussed above, although the principles of reparation for property damage remain based on the general principle that reparation should be afforded where there has been loss caused by wrongful conduct. The requirements to establish liability for nominate delicts will depend on bespoke rules, while reparation for non-patrimonial injury (e.g., affront caused by intentional wrongdoing) is afforded in line with the principles of the Roman actio injuriarum.
German-speaking countries
By contrast, the civil law of German-speaking countries does not differentiate between delict (Delikt) and quasi-delict (Quasidelikt) as do French and Roman law. Under German Deliktsrecht, or ‘law of delict’, claims for damages can arise from either fault-based liability (Verschuldenshaftung), i.e. with intention (Vorsatz) or through negligence (Fahrlässigkeit), or strict liability (Gefährdungshaftung). Under § 823 BGB, damages can be based on harm inflicted either on an erga omnes right (absolute Rechtgut) such as life, bodily autonomy, health, freedom and ownership, or on the violation of a law protecting a certain legal interest.
However, § 826 BGB (and the similar Austrian § 1295(2) ABGB) compare closely to delict. Under this provision, someone who intentionally inflicts harm on another person contra bonos mores (gegen die gute Sitten) is liable for damages. This widens the scope of delictual liability not just to the infringement of rights (as in French law) but also to pure economic loss (echter/reiner Vermögensschaden).
South Africa and Sri Lanka
South African law and Sri Lanka also use the law of delict as opposed to torts. The South African common law elaborates a set of general principles in terms of which liability for loss is allocated. This should be seen in contrast to the Anglo-American common law approach which has distinct tort actions, each with their own peculiar elements which require satisfaction before an action is founded. The delictual elements that have to be satisfied before a claimant can be successful are:
Conduct – which may consist of either a commission (positive action) or an omission (the failure to take required action), though liability for an omission will arise only where there is a duty to act.
Unlawfulness – the conduct complained of must be legally reprehensible. This is usually assessed with reference to the legal convictions of the community.
Fault – save in limited cases where liability is 'strict' (i.e. where neither intention nor negligence is required for liability) once the wrongfulness of the conduct is established, it is necessary to establish whether the person being sued acted intentionally or negligently, either of which is sufficient for liability to attach.
Damage – finally the conduct must have resulted in some form of loss or harm to the claimant in order for them to have a claim. This damage can take the form of patrimonial loss (a reduction in a person's financial position, such as is the case where the claimant incurred medical expenses) or non-patrimonial damages (damages that cannot be related to a person's financial estate, but compensation for something like pain and suffering).
Causation – the conduct that the claimant complains of must have caused damage, in this regard both factual causation and legal causation are assessed. The purpose of legal causation is to limit the scope of factual causation, if the consequence of the action is too remote to have been foreseen by an objective, reasonable person the defendant will escape liability.
It is possible that a single set of facts may give rise to both a contractual and a delictual claim. The definition of animus contrahendi states an intention to contract.
Public policy considerations are evident in the setting of the limits to each of the requirements.
Canon law
In the Canon law of the Catholic Church, a delict is the canonical equivalent of a crime. A delict is distinct from a sin, even a mortal sin. One can be legally guilty of a delict and not be morally culpable for a sin, while one can be culpable for a sin and not legally guilty of a delict.
See also
Delictum gravius
References
Further reading
For more information on the Law of Delict in South Africa, see Neethling et al.: Delict or McKerron: Delict.
Joe Sampson. The Historical Foundations of Grotius’ Analysis of Delict. Leiden/Boston: Brill Nijhoff, 2018.
Civil law legal terminology
Criminal law legal terminology | [
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|
215252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomerulus | Glomerulus | Glomerulus () is a common term used in anatomy to describe globular structures of entwined vessels, fibers, or neurons. Glomerulus is the diminutive of the Latin glomus, meaning "ball of yarn".
Glomerulus may refer to:
the filtering unit of the kidney; see Glomerulus (kidney).
a structure in the olfactory bulb; see Glomerulus (olfaction).
the contact between specific cells in the cerebellum; see Glomerulus (cerebellum).
See also
Glomerulation, a hemorrhage of the bladder | [
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|
215253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-delict | Quasi-delict | Quasi-delict is a French legal term used in some civil law jurisdictions, encompassing the common law concept of negligence as the breach of a non-wilful extra-contractual obligation to third parties.
References
See also
Law of Obligations
Tort
Law of obligations
Tort law
French legal terminology
Law of negligence
Delict
Civil law legal terminology | [
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|
215255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abducens%20nerve | Abducens nerve | The abducens nerve (or abducent nerve) is the sixth cranial nerve (CNVI), in humans, that controls the movement of the lateral rectus muscle, one of the extraocular muscles responsible for outward gaze. It is a somatic efferent nerve.
Structure
The abducens nerve leaves the brainstem at the junction of the pons and the medulla, medial to the facial nerve. It runs upwards and forwards from this position to reach the eye.
The nerve enters the subarachnoid space when it emerges from the brainstem. It runs upward between the pons and the clivus, and then pierces the dura mater to run between the dura and the skull through Dorello's canal. At the tip of the petrous part of the temporal bone it makes a sharp turn forward to enter the cavernous sinus. In the cavernous sinus it runs alongside the internal carotid artery. It then enters the orbit through the superior orbital fissure and innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye.
Nucleus
The abducens nucleus is located in the pons, on the floor of the fourth ventricle, at the level of the facial colliculus. Axons from the facial nerve loop around the abducens nucleus, creating a slight bulge (the facial colliculus) that is visible on the dorsal surface of the floor of the fourth ventricle. The abducens nucleus is close to the midline, like the other motor nuclei that control eye movements (the oculomotor and trochlear nuclei).
Motor axons leaving the abducens nucleus run ventrally and caudally through the pons. They pass lateral to the corticospinal tract (which runs longitudinally through the pons at this level) before exiting the brainstem at the pontomedullary junction.
Development
The human abducens nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic pons.
Function
The abducens nerve supplies the lateral rectus muscle of the human eye. This muscle is responsible for outward gaze. The abducens nerve carries axons of type GSE, general somatic efferent.
Clinical significance
Damage
Damage to the peripheral part of the abducens nerve will cause double vision (diplopia), due to the unopposed muscle tone of the medial rectus muscle. The affected eye is pulled to look towards the midline. In order to see without double vision, patients will rotate their heads so that both eyes are toward the temple. Partial damage to the abducens nerve causes weak or incomplete abduction of the affected eye. The diplopia is worse on attempts at looking laterally.
The long course of the abducens nerve between the brainstem and the eye makes it vulnerable to injury at many levels. For example, fractures of the petrous temporal bone can selectively damage the nerve, as can aneurysms of the intracavernous carotid artery. Mass lesions that push the brainstem downward can damage the nerve by stretching it between the point where it emerges from the pons and the point where it hooks over the petrous temporal bone.
The central anatomy of the sixth nerve predicts (correctly) that infarcts affecting the dorsal pons at the level of the abducens nucleus can also affect the facial nerve, producing an ipsilateral facial palsy together with a lateral rectus palsy. The anatomy also predicts (correctly) that infarcts involving the ventral pons can affect the sixth nerve and the corticospinal tract simultaneously, producing a lateral rectus palsy associated with a contralateral hemiparesis. These rare syndromes are of interest primarily as useful summaries of the anatomy of the brainstem.
Peripheral lesions
Complete interruption of the peripheral sixth nerve causes diplopia (double vision), due to the unopposed action of the medial rectus muscle. The affected eye is pulled medially. In order to see without double vision, patients will turn their heads sideways so that both eyes are looking sideways. On formal testing, the affected eye cannot abduct past the midline – it cannot look sideways, toward the temple. Partial damage to the sixth nerve causes weak or incomplete abduction of the affected eye. The diplopia is worse on attempted lateral gaze, as would be expected (since the lateral gaze muscle is impaired).
Peripheral sixth nerve damage can be caused by tumors, aneurysms, or fractures – anything that directly compresses or stretches the nerve. Other processes that can damage the sixth nerve include strokes (infarctions), demyelination, infections (e.g. meningitis), cavernous sinus diseases and various neuropathies. Perhaps the most common overall cause of sixth nerve impairment is diabetic neuropathy. Iatrogenic injury is also known to occur, with the abducens nerve being the most commonly injured cranial nerve in halo orthosis placement. The resultant palsy is identified through loss of lateral gaze after application of the orthosis.
Rare causes of isolated sixth nerve damage include Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome and Tolosa–Hunt syndrome. Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome is caused by thiamine deficiency, classically due to alcoholism. The characteristic ocular abnormalities are nystagmus and lateral rectus weakness. Tolosa-Hunt syndrome is an idiopathic granulomatous disease that causes painful oculomotor (especially sixth nerve) palsies.
Indirect damage to the sixth nerve can be caused by any process (brain tumor, hydrocephalus, pseudotumor cerebri, hemorrhage, edema) that exerts downward pressure on the brainstem, causing the nerve to stretch along the clivus. This type of traction injury can affect either side first. A right-sided brain tumor can produce either a right-sided or a left-sided sixth nerve palsy as an initial sign. Thus a right-sided sixth nerve palsy does not necessarily imply a right-sided cause. Sixth nerve palsies are infamous as “false localizing signs.” Neurological signs are described as “false localizing” if they reflect dysfunction distant or remote from the expected anatomical location of pathology. Isolated sixth nerve palsies in children are assumed to be due to brain tumors until proven otherwise.
Nuclear lesions
Damage to the abducens nucleus does not produce an isolated sixth nerve palsy, but rather a horizontal gaze palsy that affects both eyes simultaneously. The abducens nucleus contains two types of cells: motor neurons that control the lateral rectus muscle on the same side, and interneurons that cross the midline and connect to the contralateral oculomotor nucleus (which controls the medial rectus muscle of the opposite eye). In normal vision, lateral movement of one eye (lateral rectus muscle) is precisely coupled to medial movement of the other eye (medial rectus muscle), so that both eyes remain fixed on the same object.
The control of conjugate gaze is mediated in the brainstem by the medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF), a nerve tract that connects the three extraocular motor nuclei (abducens, trochlear and oculomotor) into a single functional unit. Lesions of the abducens nucleus and the MLF produce observable sixth nerve problems, most notably internuclear ophthalmoplegia (INO).
Supranuclear lesions
The sixth nerve is one of the final common pathways for numerous cortical systems that control eye movement in general. Cortical control of eye movement (saccades, smooth pursuit, accommodation) involves conjugate gaze, not unilateral eye movement.
Tuberculosis
15–40% of people with tuberculosis have some resulting cranial nerve deficit. The sixth nerve is the most commonly affected cranial nerve in immunocompetent people with tuberculosis.
History
Etymology
The Latin name for the sixth cranial nerve is "nervus abducens". The Terminologia Anatomica officially recognizes two different English translations: "abducent nerve" and "abducens nerve".
“Abducens” is more common in recent literature, while “abducent” predominates in the older literature. The United States National Library of Medicine uses “abducens nerve” in its Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) vocabulary to index the vast MEDLINE and PubMed biomedical databases. The 39th edition of Gray’s Anatomy (2005) also prefers “abducens nerve.”
Other animals
The abducens nerve controls the movement of a single muscle, the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. In most other mammals it also innervates the musculus retractor bulbi, which can retract the eye for protection. Homologous abducens nerves are found in all vertebrates except lampreys and hagfishes.
See also
References
Blumenfeld H. Neuroanatomy Through Clinical Cases. Sinauer Associates, 2002
Brodal A. Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine, 3rd ed. Oxford University Press, 1981
Brodal P. The Central Nervous System, 3rded. Oxford University Press, 2004
Butler AB, Hodos W. Comparative Vertebrate Neuroanatomy, 2nd ed. Wiley-Interscience, 2005
Carpenter MB. Core Text of Neuroanatomy, 4th ed. Williams & Wilkins, 1991.
Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM. Principles of Neural Science, 4th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2000
Martin JH. Neuroanatomy Text and Atlas, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, 2003.
Patten J. Neurological Differential Diagnosis, 2nd ed. Springer, 1996.
Victor, M, Ropper, AH. Adam's and Victor's Principles of Neurology, 7th ed. McGraw-Hill, 2001.
Wilson-Pauwels L, Akesson EJ, Stewart PA. Cranial Nerves: Anatomy and Clinical Comments. Decker, 1998.
Books
Additional images
External links
Animations of extraocular cranial nerve and muscle function and damage (University of Liverpool)
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|
215257 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory%20in%20Europe%20Day | Victory in Europe Day | Victory in Europe Day is the day celebrating the formal acceptance by the Allies of World War II of Germany's unconditional surrender of its armed forces on Tuesday, 8 May 1945, marking the end of World War II in Europe. Several countries observe public holidays on the day each year, also called Victory Over Fascism Day, Liberation Day or Victory Day. In the UK it is often abbreviated to VE Day, or V-E Day in the US, a term which existed as early as September 1944, in anticipation of victory.
Several former Soviet bloc countries including Russia, Belarus and Serbia celebrate on 9 May as the end of all combat actions was specified at 23:01 Central European Time, which was already 9 May in the Soviet Union. Israel also marks VE Day on 9 May, as a result of the large number of immigrants from the former Soviet bloc, but it is not a public holiday.
History
Adolf Hitler, the Nazi leader, had committed suicide on 30 April during the Battle of Berlin and Germany's surrender was authorised by his successor, Reichspräsident Karl Dönitz. The administration headed by Dönitz was known as the Flensburg Government. The act of military surrender was first signed at 02:41 on 7 May in SHAEF HQ at Reims, and a slightly modified document, considered the definitive German Instrument of Surrender, was signed on 8 May 1945 in Karlshorst, Berlin at 21:20 local time.
Upon the defeat of Germany, celebrations erupted throughout the western world, especially in the UK and North America. More than one million people celebrated in the streets throughout the UK to mark the end of the European part of the war. In London, crowds massed in Trafalgar Square and up the Mall to Buckingham Palace, where King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, accompanied by their daughters and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, appeared on the balcony of the palace before the cheering crowds. Churchill went from the palace to Whitehall where he addressed another large crowd:
At this point he asked Ernest Bevin to come forward and share the applause. Bevin said: "No, Winston, this is your day", and proceeded to conduct the people in the singing of For He's a Jolly Good Fellow. Later, Princess Elizabeth (the future Queen Elizabeth II) and her sister Princess Margaret were allowed to wander incognito among the crowds and take part in the celebrations.
In the United States, the event coincided with President Harry Truman's 61st birthday. He dedicated the victory to the memory of his predecessor, Franklin D. Roosevelt, who had died of a cerebral hemorrhage less than a month earlier, on 12 April. Flags remained at half-staff for the remainder of the 30-day mourning period. Truman said of dedicating the victory to Roosevelt's memory and keeping the flags at half-staff that his only wish was "that Franklin D. Roosevelt had lived to witness this day". Later that day, Truman said that the victory made it his most enjoyable birthday. Great celebrations took place in many American cities, especially in New York's Times Square.
Tempering the jubilation somewhat, both Churchill and Truman pointed out that the war against Japan had not yet been won. In his radio broadcast at 15:00 on 8 May, Churchill told the British people that: "We may allow ourselves a brief period of rejoicing (as Japan) remains unsubdued". In America, Truman broadcast at 09:00 and said it was "a victory only half won".
National celebrations
VE Day is celebrated across European nations as public holidays and national observances.
Austria axis
On the eve of the diamond jubilee in 2020, Russian President Vladimir Putin, at the request of Chancellor Sebastian Kurz, gave a live address broadcast on Austrian TV channel ORF. The Festival of Joy is an Austrian event held in honor of VE Day. The Mauthausen Committee Austria (MKÖ) has organised the Festival of Joy since 2013, in cooperation with the Austrian Government and the City of Vienna. The festival is held annually on Heldenplatz.
France
France celebrates VE Day on 8 May, being a national and public holiday. Orléans simultaneously celebrates both VE Day and the anniversary of the Siege of Orléans being lifted by French forces led by Joan of Arc during the Hundred Years War on this date.
Germany
Events in Berlin occur on 8 May to commemorate those who fought against Nazism in the German Resistance and lost their lives in World War II. In 2020, a regional holiday in Berlin occurred on 8 May to mark the 75th anniversary of surrender. East Germany celebrated 8 May as its Tag der Befreiung (Day of Liberation), first celebrated under Walter Ulbricht's government in 1950 and repeated annually until the fall of communism. Between 1975 and 1990, it was Tag des Sieges (Victory Day).
Poland
8 May is known in Poland as "Narodowy Dzień Zwycięstwa" (National Victory Day). Poland officially recognised 9 May from 1945 until 2014, and on 24 April 2015, Poland officially recognised National Victory Day. On 8 May 1945, a meeting of the Council of Ministers was held, debating whether to establish the holiday on 8 May (proposed by Marshal Michał Rola-Żymierski) or 10 May (proposed by the government). Finally, in Poland, the National Day of Victory and Freedom was established by a decree of 9 May. From 1946 to 1989, it was celebrated with Russian traditions being a socialist state at the time. The main celebrations were carried out at Plac Zwycięstwa or Plac Defilad in Warsaw (most notably in 1985). After 1990, no official ceremonies were organized, however many cities and military units together with local governments organized their own festivities. The Russian minority in Poland continues to celebrate 9 May traditions to this date. At the end of March 2015, due to the upcoming 70th anniversary of the end of World War II in Europe, the President of the Institute of National Remembrance Łukasz Kamiński sent a letter to the Speaker of the Sejm requesting the change from 9 to 8 May. On 24 April, the Sejm adopted the Act on National Victory Day celebrated on 8 May, at the same time abolishing the National Day of Victory and Freedom celebrated on 9 May.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom celebrates Victory in Europe Day on 8 May as a national commemorative holiday. VE Day is not an annual public holiday because of the proximity of the May Day bank holiday on the first Monday in May. In 1995 and 2020 the bank holiday was moved from the preceding Monday to 8 May to commemorate the 50th and 75th anniversaries of VE Day, respectively.
Other commemorative events
: In Belgium the commemoration of the termination of World War II since 1974 is part of the Armistice of 11 November 1918 (Dutch: Wapenstilstandsdag), an annual national holiday. Every year on this day there is in presence of the king a truce-ceremony at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier near the Congress Column in Brussels, at first to commemorate the victims of the First world war and subsequently those of World War II and all other wars worldwide.
: Since the Dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, the Czech Republic has officially recognized 8 May as Victory Day (Den vítězství) Liberation Day (Den osvobození). In recent years the liberation of Plzeň by American forces has been commemorated on 5 May. From 1948 to 1993, the communist Czechoslovak Socialist Republic celebrated 9 May, which was then celebrated with a military parade of the Czechoslovak People's Army (ČSLA) on Letná every five years.
: 9 May is Europe Day which celebrates "peace and unity in Europe", on the anniversary of the 1950 Schuman Declaration.
Baltic states: The Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) commemorate 8 May, but do not officially recognize 9 May as a holiday due to their shared occupational past. Despite this, the local Russian communities still informally celebrate the holiday. Diplomats (particularly the ambassadors of Russia, and other nations in the Commonwealth of Independent States) and the local politicians of Russian origin usually take part.
List of associated holidays
Soviet Victory Day
The instrument of surrender signed 7 May 1945 stipulated that all hostilities must cease at 23:01 (CET), 8 May 1945. Since that point in time would be on 9 May in local time in the USSR, most Soviet states including Russia celebrated Victory Day on 9 May.
Gallery
See also
Timeline of World War II
Time of remembrance and reconciliation
Victory Day
Victory Day Parades
Victory over Japan Day
Stunde Null
Bibliography
References
External links
Records from the UK Parliament Collections
WWII: VE Day, May 8, 1945 – slideshow by Life magazine (archived)
Rare audio speeches of the famous historical persons of the USSR, etc.
by Leon Charney on The Leon Charney Report.
Aftermath of World War II
May observances
Victory days
1945 in Europe
Norwegian flag flying days | [
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|
215258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page%20Hamilton | Page Hamilton | Page Hamilton (born May 18, 1960) is an American guitarist, singer, songwriter and record producer, mostly noted for his work with alternative metal band Helmet. Most of his work has been in the hard rock and alternative metal styles, though he trained in jazz guitar and has substantial connections with avant-garde music and film soundtrack composition.
Life and career
Background
Hamilton was born in Portland, Oregon, and raised in Medford, Oregon. He studied guitar at the University of Oregon before moving to New York to study jazz guitar at the Manhattan School of Music. While there he played in avant-garde composer Glenn Branca's guitar orchestra, performing the composer's Symphony No.6 (Devil Choirs at the Gates of Heaven), and joined noise rock band Band of Susans, performing on their Love Agenda album and Peel Sessions, before finally forming his own group, Helmet.
Helmet
Helmet initially signed to Amphetamine Reptile Records, releasing a number of 7" singles and one album, 1990's Strap It On. The band then signed to Interscope Records, releasing Meantime (1992), Betty (1994), Aftertaste (1997) and Size Matters (2004). After leaving Interscope, the band released the albums Monochrome (2006), Seeing Eye Dog (2010) and Dead to the World (2016).
Meantime was the band's principal commercial success, being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album was well received by music critics and is seen as an influential metal record and earning a Grammy nomination in the Best Metal Performance category for 1993.
Gandhi
Following Helmet's temporary dissolution, Hamilton formed another rock band, Gandhi, with former Liege Lord guitarist Anthony Truglio, John Andrews (guitar), Christian Bongers (bass), and Matt Flynn (later the drummer for Maroon 5). Though the band did not release any music officially, several demo songs were leaked. Many of these were later recorded for the Size Matters and Monochrome releases by Helmet.
Movie soundtracks
While still active with Helmet, Hamilton embarked on a career composing and performing music for film, working on movies including Heat, Titus, In Dreams, Catwoman, and Chicago Cab. Helmet also contributed to a number of movie soundtracks, including The Crow, Feeling Minnesota, Johnny Mnemonic, Saw 3, Underworld, and appearing in The Jerky Boys: The Movie (performing a cover of the Black Sabbath song "Symptom of the Universe").
Production
Hamilton has also worked as a record producer, most notably producing the album Distort Yourself by former Bush singer Gavin Rossdale's band Institute. He has also produced albums for the bands Bullets and Octane (In the Mouth of the Young), Classic Case (Losing at Life), and Totimoshi.
David Bowie, collaborations, other work
During Helmet's hiatus, Hamilton performed as lead guitarist for David Bowie's band on the singer's Hours Tour.
He has collaborated with German avant-garde guitarist Caspar Brötzmann on the live improvisational album Zulutime and performed on a number of other artists' works, including trumpeter Ben Neill's Goldbug, alt-country songwriter Joe Henry's Trampoline, Northern Irish rock band Therapy?'s Troublegum and British post-punk group Wire's Object 47.
As a jazz musician, he has performed with his own groups, the Page Hamilton Quintet and the Jazz Wannabes, and with fellow guitarist and mentor John Stowell.
He has also produced a guitar instruction DVD, Sonic Shapes: Expanding Rock Guitar Vocabulary, published by Hal Leonard Corporation.
During the spring of 2008, Page provided guest vocals on post-hardcore band Norma Jean's fourth studio album The Anti Mother as well as contributed to the writing of track 8, "Opposite of Left and Wrong".
In 2014, Hamilton appeared on Linkin Park's sixth studio album The Hunting Party, which he provided additional vocals (on the chorus) and guitars on the album's second track "All for Nothing". The song was self-produced by Mike Shinoda and Brad Delson.
Since 2002 he resides in California.
Equipment
Hamilton endorsed ESP Guitars in the 1990s, and is best known for playing ESP Horizon guitars with either a Floyd Rose or Wilkinson tremolo, and DiMarzio Airzone pickups. In 2006 ESP announced a Page Hamilton signature model, featuring a single DiMarzio Airzone pickup and Wilkinson tremolo. In 2009, ESP announced a further signature model guitar, this time modeled after Page's own ESP Horizon Custom, featuring a distressed magenta finish emulating the original guitar's road wear and character and, again, a single DiMarzio Air Zone pickup. He has also used guitars by PRS and G&L.
For live performances, Page Hamilton uses a Fryette Pittbull Ultra-Lead into a Fryette Fatbottom 4x12 cabinet. In the 1990s, Hamilton used a Harry Kolbe preamp into a Marshall 2204S (small-box head) with its gain all the way up, then into a dummy load, then into a noise gate, then finally into a Mesa Boogie Simul-class 290 power amplifier that fed four Harry Kolbe 4x12 cabinets.
Discography
References
External links
Official Helmet website
Living people
1960 births
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American guitarists
21st-century American male musicians
Alternative metal guitarists
Alternative metal singers
American film score composers
American heavy metal guitarists
American heavy metal singers
American male guitarists
American male singers
Record producers from Oregon
Amphetamine Reptile Records artists
Atavistic Records artists
Band of Susans members
Guitarists from Oregon
Helmet (band) members
Interscope Records artists
Lead guitarists
American male film score composers
Manhattan School of Music alumni
Musicians from Portland, Oregon
Noise rock musicians
North Medford High School alumni
People from Medford, Oregon
Post-hardcore musicians
Singers from Oregon | [
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|
215259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20Justice%20Fairness%20Act | Civil Justice Fairness Act | The Civil Justice Fairness Act (, ) proposed to limit the amount of monetary compensation awardable in civil case to a maximum of either $250,000 or 300% of the economic damage caused by the defendant; whichever was greater. Opponents of this act argued that federal restrictions of this sort would illegally preempt state authority.
The bill was a combination of two preceding bills. First, the Product Liability Fairness Act of 1995 (), was passed by the US Congress, but was vetoed by President Clinton. Second, the Attorney Accountability Act of 1995 () passed the house.
See also
Tort reform
Civil procedure
Lawsuit
References
104th United States Congress
United States proposed federal legislation
105th United States Congress | [
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215260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial%20nerve | Facial nerve | The facial nerve (the labyrinthine segment) is the seventh cranial nerve, or simply CN VII. It emerges from the pons of the brainstem, controls the muscles of facial expression, and functions in the conveyance of taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. The nerves typically travels from the pons through the facial canal in the temporal bone and exits the skull at the stylomastoid foramen. It arises from the brainstem from an area posterior to the cranial nerve VI (abducens nerve) and anterior to cranial nerve VIII (vestibulocochlear nerve).
The facial nerve also supplies preganglionic parasympathetic fibers to several head and neck ganglia.
The facial and intermediate nerves can be collectively referred to as the nervus intermediofacialis.
Structure
The path of the facial nerve can be divided into six segments:
intracranial (cisternal) segment
meatal (canalicular) segment (within the internal auditory canal)
labyrinthine segment (internal auditory canal to geniculate ganglion)
tympanic segment (from geniculate ganglion to pyramidal eminence)
mastoid segment (from pyramidal eminence to stylomastoid foramen)
extratemporal segment (from stylomastoid foramen to post parotid branches)
The motor part of the facial nerve arises from the facial nerve nucleus in the pons, while the sensory and parasympathetic parts of the facial nerve arise from the intermediate nerve.
From the brain stem, the motor and sensory parts of the facial nerve join together and traverse the posterior cranial fossa before entering the petrous temporal bone via the internal auditory meatus. Upon exiting the internal auditory meatus, the nerve then runs a tortuous course through the facial canal, which is divided into the labyrinthine, tympanic, and mastoid segments.
The labyrinthine segment is very short, and ends where the facial nerve forms a bend known as the geniculum of the facial nerve (genu meaning knee), which contains the geniculate ganglion for sensory nerve bodies. The first branch of the facial nerve, the greater petrosal nerve, arises here from the geniculate ganglion. The greater petrosal nerve runs through the pterygoid canal and synapses at the pterygopalatine ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers of the greater petrosal nerve innervate the lacrimal gland.
In the tympanic segment, the facial nerve runs through the tympanic cavity, medial to the incus.
The pyramidal eminence is the second bend in the facial nerve, where the nerve runs downward as the mastoid segment. In the temporal part of the facial canal, the nerve gives rise to the nerve to the stapedius muscle and chorda tympani. The chorda tympani supplies taste fibers to the anterior two thirds of the tongue, and also synapses with the submandibular ganglion. Postsynaptic fibers from the submandibular ganglion supply the sublingual and submandibular glands.
Upon emerging from the stylomastoid foramen, the facial nerve gives rise to the posterior auricular branch. The facial nerve then passes through the parotid gland, which it does not innervate, to form the parotid plexus, which splits into five branches (temporal, zygomatic, buccal, marginal mandibular, and cervical) innervating the muscles of facial expression.
Intracranial branches
The greater petrosal nerve arises at the superior salivatory nucleus of the pons and provides parasympathetic innervation to several glands, including the nasal glands, the palatine glands, the lacrimal gland, and the pharyngeal gland. It also provides parasympathetic innervation to the sphenoid sinus, frontal sinus, maxillary sinus, ethmoid sinus, and nasal cavity. This nerve also includes taste fibers for the palate via the lesser palatine nerve and greater palatine nerve.
The communicating branch to the otic ganglion arises at the geniculate ganglion and joins the lesser petrosal nerve to reach the otic ganglion.
The nerve to stapedius provides motor innervation for the stapedius muscle in middle ear
The chorda tympani provides parasympathetic innervation to the sublingual and submandibular glands, as well as special sensory taste fibers for the anterior two thirds of the tongue.
Extracranial branches
Distal to stylomastoid foramen, the following nerves branch off the facial nerve:
Posterior auricular nerve which controls movements of some of the scalp muscles around the ear
Branch to posterior belly of digastric muscle as well as the stylohyoid muscle
Five major facial branches (at parotid plexus) – from superior to inferior:
Temporal branch
Zygomatic branch
Buccal branch
Marginal mandibular branch
Cervical branch
At the tip of tragus where the nerve is 1 cm deep and inferior
At the posterior belly of digastric by tracing this backwards to the tympanic plate, the nerve can be found between these two structures
By locating the posterior facial vein at the inferior aspect of the gland where the marginal branch would be seen crossing it.
Lateral semicircular canal
Foot of incus
Nucleus
The cell bodies for the facial nerve are grouped in anatomical areas called nuclei or ganglia. The cell bodies for the afferent nerves are found in the geniculate ganglion for taste sensation. The cell bodies for muscular efferent nerves are found in the facial motor nucleus whereas the cell bodies for the parasympathetic efferent nerves are found in the superior salivatory nucleus.
Development
The facial nerve is developmentally derived from the second pharyngeal arch, or branchial arch. The second arch is called the hyoid arch because it contributes to the formation of the lesser horn and upper body of the hyoid bone (the rest of the hyoid is formed by the third arch). The facial nerve supplies motor and sensory innervation to the muscles formed by the second pharyngeal arch, including the muscles of facial expression, the posterior belly of the digastric, stylohyoid, and stapedius. The motor division of the facial nerve is derived from the basal plate of the embryonic pons, while the sensory division originates from the cranial neural crest.
Although the anterior two thirds of the tongue are derived from the first pharyngeal arch, which gives rise to the trigeminal nerve, not all innervation of the tongue is supplied by it. The lingual branch of the mandibular division (V3) of the trigeminal nerve supplies non-taste sensation (pressure, heat, texture) to the anterior part of the tongue via general somatic afferent fibers. Nerve fibers for taste are supplied by the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve via special visceral afferent fibers.
Function
Facial expression
The main function of the facial nerve is motor control of all of the muscles of facial expression. It also innervates the posterior belly of the digastric muscle, the stylohyoid muscle, and the stapedius muscle of the middle ear. All of these muscles are striated muscles of branchiomeric origin developing from the 2nd pharyngeal arch.
Facial sensation
In addition, the facial nerve receives taste sensations from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue via the chorda tympani. Taste sensation is sent to the gustatory portion (superior part) of the solitary nucleus. General sensation from the anterior two-thirds of tongue are supplied by afferent fibers of the third division of the fifth cranial nerve (V-3). These sensory (V-3) and taste (VII) fibers travel together as the lingual nerve briefly before the chorda tympani leaves the lingual nerve to enter the tympanic cavity (middle ear) via the petrotympanic fissure. It joins the rest of the facial nerve via the canaliculus for chorda tympani. The facial nerve then forms the geniculate ganglion, which contains the cell bodies of the taste fibers of chorda tympani and other taste and sensory pathways. From the geniculate ganglion, the taste fibers continue as the intermediate nerve which goes to the upper anterior quadrant of the fundus of the internal acoustic meatus along with the motor root of the facial nerve. The intermediate nerve reaches the posterior cranial fossa via the internal acoustic meatus before synapsing in the solitary nucleus.
The facial nerve also supplies a small amount of afferent innervation to the oropharynx below the palatine tonsil. There is also a small amount of cutaneous sensation carried by the nervus intermedius from the skin in and around the auricle (outer ear).
Other
The facial nerve also supplies parasympathetic fibers to the submandibular gland and sublingual glands via chorda tympani. Parasympathetic innervation serves to increase the flow of saliva from these glands. It also supplies parasympathetic innervation to the nasal mucosa and the lacrimal gland via the pterygopalatine ganglion. The parasympathetic fibers that travel in the facial nerve originate in the superior salivatory nucleus.
The facial nerve also functions as the efferent limb of the corneal reflex.
Functional components
The facial nerve carries axons of type GSA, general somatic afferent, to skin of the posterior ear.
The facial nerve also carries axons of type GVE, general visceral efferent, which innervate the sublingual, submandibular, and lacrimal glands, also mucosa of nasal cavity.
Axons of type SVE, special visceral efferent, innervate muscles of facial expression, stapedius, the posterior belly of digastric, and the stylohyoid.
The axons of type SVA, special visceral afferent, provide taste to the anterior two-thirds of tongue via chorda tympani.
Clinical significance
Palsy
People may suffer from acute facial nerve paralysis, which is usually manifested by facial paralysis. Bell's palsy is one type of idiopathic acute facial nerve paralysis, which is more accurately described as a multiple cranial nerve ganglionitis that involves the facial nerve, and most likely results from viral infection and also sometimes as a result of Lyme disease. Iatrogenic Bell's palsy may also be as a result of an incorrectly placed dental local-anesthetic (inferior alveolar nerve block). Although giving the appearance of a hemiplegic stroke, effects dissipate with the drug. When the facial nerve is permanently damaged due to a birth defect, trauma, or other disorder, surgery including a cross facial nerve graft or masseteric facial nerve transfer may be performed to help regain facial movement. Facial nerve decompression surgery is also sometimes carried out in certain cases of facial nerve compression.
Examination
Voluntary facial movements, such as wrinkling the brow, showing teeth, frowning, closing the eyes tightly (inability to do so is called lagophthalmos), pursing the lips and puffing out the cheeks, all test the facial nerve. There should be no noticeable asymmetry.
In an upper motor neuron lesion, called central seven, only the lower part of the face on the contralateral side will be affected, due to the bilateral control to the upper facial muscles (frontalis and orbicularis oculi).
Lower motor neuron lesions can result in a CN VII palsy (Bell's palsy is the idiopathic form of facial nerve palsy), manifested as both upper and lower facial weakness on the same side of the lesion.
Taste can be tested on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue. This can be tested with a swab dipped in a flavoured solution, or with electronic stimulation (similar to putting your tongue on a battery).
Corneal reflex. The afferent arc is mediated by the general sensory afferents of the trigeminal nerve. The efferent arc occurs via the facial nerve. The reflex involves consensual blinking of both eyes in response to stimulation of one eye. This is due to the facial nerves' innervation of the muscles of facial expression, namely orbicularis oculi, responsible for blinking. Thus, the corneal reflex effectively tests the proper functioning of both cranial nerves V and VII.
Additional images
See also
List of medical mnemonics
References
External links
Cranial nerves
Motor system
Innervation of the face
Autonomic nervous system
Gustatory system
Human mouth anatomy | [
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|
215261 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil%20Code%20of%20Quebec | Civil Code of Quebec | The Civil Code of Quebec (CCQ, ) is the civil code in force in the Canadian province of Quebec, which came into effect on January 1, 1994. It replaced the Civil Code of Lower Canada () enacted by the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1865, which had been in force since August 1, 1866.
Scope
The Code's scope is summarized in its preliminary provision:
The Civil Code is in essence a body of rules and regulations that, in all matters treated by or in the spirit or vein of its provisions, sets forth the jus commune, or the law that applies to all of Quebec, either in express or implied terms. For the matters handled by the Code, it acts as the foundation of all other adjacent laws, although other laws may supplement the Code or make exceptions to it.As the cornerstone of Quebec's legal system, the Civil Code is frequently amended in order to keep in step with the demands of modern society.
Layout and significant changes
The Civil Code of Quebec comprises over 3,000 articles and is structured into major divisions and subdivisions called books, titles, chapters and subsections. The Code is made up of ten books:
Persons
The Family
Successions
Property
Obligations
Prior Claims and Hypothecs
Evidence
Prescription
Publication of Rights
Private International Law
The Code restatement of the civil law in Quebec as of the date of its adoption, including judicial interpretation of codal provisions, that included several significant changes from the former Code:
broad privacy and personality rights protection,
the adoption of rules on patrimonies by appropriation (analogous to, but conceptually different from, the law of trusts in common law jurisdictions),
the introduction of a requirement for parties to conduct themselves in good faith
the ability to create unincorporated associations with the ability to sue and be sued
the ability to create hypothecs on movable property
the introduction of a central register for personal and movable real rights
the codification of the rules relating to private international law
History
Adoption of the Civil Code of Lower Canada
The substantive law of the 1866 Civil Code of Lower Canada was derived primarily from the judicial interpretations of the law that had been in force to that date in Lower Canada. The work of the Commission on codification was also inspired by some of the modernizations found in the 1804 Napoleonic code. At the time of Canadian Confederation, the Civil Code of Lower Canada replaced most of the laws inherited from the Custom of Paris and incorporated some English law as it had been applied in Lower Canada such as the English law of trusts. The former Civil Code was also inspired by the Louisiana Civil Code, the Field Code movement in New York, and the Civil Code of the Canton of Vaud (1819).
Revision process (1955–1991)
In 1955, the Government of Quebec embarked on a reform of the Civil Code. The Civil Code Revision Office was established, headed by Thibaudeau Rinfret, a former Chief Justice of Canada. In 1960, the role of the Office was expanded to include the appointment of four codifiers to work on a definitive draft for the new Code.
In 1961, Rinfret stepped down from the Office, and was replaced by André Nadeau who served until his appointment to the Superior Court of Quebec in 1964. Paul-André Crépeau was subsequently appointed to head the Office, where he served until 1977.
The reform process that led to the replacement of the Civil Code of Lower Canada by the Civil Code of Quebec was one of the largest legislative recodification undertakings in any civil law jurisdiction. The Office produced reports, held consultations, and presented a Draft Civil Code with commentaries to the Quebec National Assembly on 15 August 1977. After further consultations during the 1980s, portions of the Book on the Law of the Family were adopted.An Act ensuring the application of the reform of family law (S.Q. 1982, c. 17) The consultation process continued through to the early 1990s.
Implementation (1991–1994)
The bill to enact the new Code was introduced into the National Assembly of Quebec on 18 December 1990 by Gil Rémillard, who was then Quebec's Minister of Justice. It received royal assent on 8 December 1991. It did not come into force until 1 January 1994, as the necessary legislation to provide transitional rules determining what matters would be subject to the new Code was not passed until 1992.
Harmonization with federal law
The Government of Canada has been undertaking a review of all federal laws that deal with private law to ensure that they take into consideration the terminology, concepts and institutions of Quebec civil law. In that regard, the following Acts have been passed:
Income Tax Amendments Act, 2000 Federal Law—Civil Law Harmonization Act, No. 1 Federal Law—Civil Law Harmonization Act, No. 2 Federal Law—Civil Law Harmonization Act, No. 3As part of the first Harmonization Act, the Federal Law and Civil Law of the Province of Quebec Act was passed, which came into effect on 1 June 2001, which:
repealed the provisions of the CCLC relating to areas under federal jurisdiction (insofar as they had not been already displaced by other federal Acts)
standardized the rules relating to marriage that are to apply in Quebec as though they formed part of the Civil Code''
It is estimated that, as of 2011, the federal harmonization project was 46% complete.
References
Further reading
Books (CCLC)
Books (CCQ)
Articles
External links
Quebec provincial legislation
Quebec
1991 establishments in Quebec | [
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215262 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmet%20%28band%29 | Helmet (band) | Helmet is an American alternative metal band from New York City formed in 1989 by vocalist and lead guitarist Page Hamilton. Helmet has had numerous lineup changes with Hamilton as the only constant member. Since 2010, the band has consisted of Hamilton, drummer Kyle Stevenson, guitarist Dan Beeman and bassist Dave Case.
Helmet has released eight studio albums and two compilation albums. After releasing their debut album, Strap It On (1990), on Amphetamine Reptile, Helmet signed to Interscope Records and released three albums for the label, including the highly successful Meantime (1992). Their next two albums ― Betty (1994) and Aftertaste (1997) ― were also successful, but did not match the critical or popular acclaim of Meantime. Helmet broke up in 1998, but reformed in 2004, and has since released four more albums ― Size Matters (2004), Monochrome (2006), Seeing Eye Dog (2010) and Dead to the World (2016). The band is currently working on their ninth studio album.
History
Formation and early years (1989–1991)
Hamilton formed Helmet in early 1989 after leaving the alternative rock group Band of Susans with whom he had recorded two albums. Having originally moved to New York to study jazz guitar at the Manhattan School of Music, the Oregon born guitarist recruited bassist Henry Bogdan who was also from Oregon, Australian guitarist Peter Mengede and Floridian drummer John Stanier as the group's first official line-up. Before Hamilton had settled on a name, the guitarist Peter Mengede's then-wife Reyne Cuccuro suggested the Germanic name "Helmuth". Hamilton misinterpreted her and mistakenly believed that she was referring to the form of protective gear. Hamilton then thought excitedly that Helmet had "sounded like a pretty cool name for a band" and opted for the Anglicized spelling. Other names taken in consideration were "Cry Ruth" and "Poly Orchids", along with the more esoteric and obscure "Tuna Lorenzo" and "Froth Albumen".
They were spotted by Tom Hazelmyer from the band Halo of Flies guitarist and signed to Hazelmeyer's label, Amphetamine Reptile Records, releasing their first 7 inch single, "Born Annoying", later that year. Amphetamine Reptile released Helmet's debut studio album Strap It On in 1990, selling over 40,000 copies soon thereafter. Hazelmyer once stated that the album kept the label going through the 1990s.
Eschewing the traditional metal image of long hair and black clothing, the band stood out with their preference for simple T-shirts, jeans, and sneakers, and short haircuts. Their atypical look was referenced in an episode of Beavis and Butt-Head, in which the pair's commentary on the video for "Unsung" included the lines "That drummer looks like a regular guy" and "If you, like, saw these guys on the street, you wouldn't even know they were cool."
Commercial successes (1992–1998)
The band achieved mainstream attention after signing to major label Interscope Records in early 1992. It is rumored that the members received in excess of one million dollars at signing, along with an unprecedented amount of control over their work. Their first album for Interscope, Meantime, was released in 1992 and certified gold in 1994. The album has sold over two million copies worldwide and remains Helmet's top-selling album.
Helmet toured the United States, Brazil, Europe, and Asia relentlessly, generally with other AmRep recording artists. Internal tensions rose high at times. In early 1993, guitarist Peter Mengede left the band and formed Handsome which released one sole album in 1997. Mangede was replaced by Rob Echeverria, guitarist from the hardcore band Rest in Pieces. Helmet's third album, Betty, was released in 1994. Despite managing the band's highest-ever chart position on the Billboard 200 at number 45, the album did not sell as many copies as Meantime. In 1995, the band appeared in The Jerky Boys: The Movie, covering Black Sabbath's "Symptom of the Universe" with Ozzy Osbourne making a cameo appearance as the band's manager. Later, after recording and touring in support of Betty, Echeverria made an amicable departure from the band to join Biohazard.
Helmet pushed on to record 1997's Aftertaste as a three-piece. A first version of the album had been withdrawn at the last minute in the fall of 1996 when promotional activities had already begun, delaying the disc's release to March of the following year with a new audio mix. Guitarist Chris Traynor (formerly of Orange 9mm) was recruited for the tour to support the album. The song "Exactly What You Wanted" became a moderate radio hit, the album's did not fare as well as Helmet's prior major label releases, spending a few weeks on the Billboard 200 chart and selling 132,000 copies over the next decade. The Aftertaste Tour in 1997–98 would prove to be the band's last for nearly a decade. Amid long-standing private disputes, the members decided to call it quits. Asked about the breakup, Hamilton replied, "9 years, 1,600 shows, 5 albums, and we found it hard to look at each other anymore"
Aftermath and subsequent projects (1999–2003)
After the dissolution of Helmet, the members went on to different projects.
Hamilton relocated from New York to Los Angeles and became involved in a variety of projects. This included playing guitar for David Bowie, doing sessions for film scores, working with composer Elliot Goldenthal on the 1999 soundtracks to In Dreams and Titus. It was Hamilton's second time working with Goldenthal, the first being the 1995 soundtrack to the movie Heat. When working on film scores, he was part of a "guitar orchestra" called "Deaf Elk" with other guitarists. He periodically returned to New York to work with his band Gandhi, which is where several of the songs appearing on Size Matters began.
Bogdan formed the Moonlighters in New York with Bliss Blood, for whom he played steel guitar, before returning home to Oregon to play for the Midnight Serenaders. Stanier took a break from drumming, but returned to play drums for Tomahawk, The Mark of Cain, Battles and Primer 55.
Reunion (2004–present)
After moving to Los Angeles, Hamilton began working with drummer John Tempesta (formerly of Testament and White Zombie) on a new project. After searching for a record label and a name for the project, Hamilton was urged by Jimmy Iovine of Interscope to release the new project under the established Helmet moniker, to which Interscope held the rights. Hamilton had resisted for some time, but since his relationships with Stanier and Bogdan had not improved since 1998, and his previous offers to reunite had been rebuffed or ignored, he decided to move on and release more music as Helmet without them.
Chris Traynor, still on good terms with Hamilton, soon came on board to cover bass and guitar parts. With Tempesta on drums and Hamilton covering vocals and guitar, the three recorded Size Matters in early 2004. The album featured lyrics which were inspired by Hamilton's brief 2003 relationship with Hollywood actress Winona Ryder, and has been cited by critics as a departure from Helmet's earlier, more experimental sound. Frank Bello was later recruited to play bass on the supporting tour; however, he left before its conclusion to reunite with his original band, Anthrax. Jeremy Chatelain replaced Bello for the duration of the tour. John Tempesta left in early 2006 to join The Cult.
In late 2005, Helmet were dropped by Interscope following lackluster sales for Size Matters. Helmet then signed with Warcon Enterprises and announced that a new album was in the works. Helmet performed at the 2006 SXSW festival in Austin, Texas, with a temporary lineup consisting of Charlie Walker on drums, Chris Traynor on bass, and Anthony Truglio (formerly of Gandhi) on guitar. The new album, Monochrome, was recorded and co-produced by Wharton Tiers, who recorded Helmet's first two albums, Strap It On and Meantime. For the album, Hamilton and Traynor returned to the studio with newly recruited drummer, Mike Jost (formerly of Adair). Helmet headlined the 2006 Warped Tour in support of Monochrome, with Jeremy Chatelain reprising his role from the 2005 Size Matters tour. The band later split with Warcon due to a variety of financial disputes between Hamilton and the label's owners. Hamilton stated "Amphetamine Reptile and Interscope were both fantastic experiences for us, and Warcon was the first time that I’d actually run into any problems with a label. I trusted somebody and got screwed. I’m not bitter about it, but I lost a lot of money. They never paid me tour support that they were contractually obligated to pay. There were a lot of things. I’ve never seen one penny of royalties from them, but I own the record [Monochrome] now, so it’s my record."
In September 2006, Chris Traynor announced that he had left the band after nearly a decade of working with Page Hamilton. A few days later, Mike Jost also left the band to attend to his duties as a new father. Jeremy Chatelain also made other commitments. Hamilton announced in early October 2006 that drum and bass duties would be filled by Kyle Stevenson and Jon Fuller, respectively, both from Milwaukee, and both previously members of Big Collapse. Australian Jimmy Thompson (formerly of Full Scale) also joined the band on guitar in 2006, but was replaced by Dan Beeman by late 2008. Due to line-up changes, Hamilton was forced to cancel many shows scheduled for late 2006 in the U.S. and Europe. Helmet opened up for Guns N' Roses for the remaining dates of their tour in December 2006. The band toured Australia in April and May 2008, playing shows throughout the eastern and southern coasts. Helmet's seventh studio album, Seeing Eye Dog, was released on September 7, 2010.
On November 20, 2011, Helmet announced the European Meantime Anniversary Tour running from March 5 to April 8, 2012, encompassing 28 shows in Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Italy, Germany, Austria, Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium and the UK during which they played the whole of the 'Meantime in its entirety.
On October 28, 2016, Helmet released their eighth studio album, Dead to the World.
The band announced tour dates for May 2018 in the U.S. and July-August in Europe on their official website. Helmet also celebrated their 30th anniversary in 2019 with a European and North American tour.
In November 2019, St. Paul Pioneer Press reported that the band has been working on a new album.
Musical style
Many critics cite Helmet as an alternative metal band; however, the band has been categorized under many genres, including post-hardcore, noise rock, experimental metal and post-metal. Jim Farber of the New York Daily News has jokingly labeled Helmet as "smart rock".
Their music is characterized by repetitive, syncopated, staccato guitar riffs, often in unconventional time signatures, and almost always in a minor key with drop-D or drop-C tuning. The guitar sound is heavily distorted and dissonant, with choruses that often involve guitar feedback waves. Helmet has been described as a "thinking man's metal band"; according to Hamilton, the term came from original drummer John Stanier because he once heard an interviewer say it.
Legacy and influencesThe New York Times called Helmet "a band that made important connections between indie-rock and metal." They have had a large impact on many nu/alternative metal, post-hardcore and heavy metal acts, with bands such as Botch, Chevelle, Deftones, Full Scale, Godsmack, Grinspoon, Korn, Linkin Park, Marilyn Manson, Mastodon, Nine Inch Nails, Pantera, Papa Roach, Pressure 4-5, Primer 55, Norma Jean, Reuben, Shuvel, Silverchair, Staind, System of a Down, Three Days Grace and Tool all having been inspired by Helmet's sound.Official Biography Retrieved October 10, 2012.Milner, Greg (November 2000). "Reviews: Native Sons", Spin 16 (11): 198.The Making of Staind documentary (2011) Music artist Mike Patton has also cited Helmet as having a significant influence on his solo career; with original drummer John Stanier and Patton actually having played in the music project Tomahawk together. Regarding Helmet's influence on the heavy rock world, Hamilton remarked "I hear it all over the place. I've heard Helmet riffs in Evanescence. Kids today have no idea at this point, because they [first] got into, say, Korn or System of a Down. Bands like Mastodon and Norma Jean tell me, 'Oh, we ripped you guys off with this,' or 'We got turned on by that.' Some bands do cool things with it, and there's a bunch of shitty bands that have imitated us too."
Chevelle, Deftones, Faith No More, Pig Destroyer, Primer 55 and Soulfly have covered Helmet songs. In 2016, a tribute album titled Meantime Redux was released. It featured covers of 1990s Helmet songs (including all 10 songs from the Meantime album) by various underground hardcore bands. Late Deftones bassist Chi Cheng remarked "Every band should wish to aspire to the originality and genius of Helmet. An inspiration to fans and musicians-alike" while Norma Jean guitarist Chris Day recalled in 2006 "The first song I ever learned to play on the guitar was a Helmet song. I pretty much just tried to figure the songs out and that's how I learned to play basically. Helmet is a band that I have listened to for years and will always enjoy them because they have the sweetest riffs I have ever heard. I love to air drum to them in the car also. I wouldn't be the same without Helmet in my life."
Helmet is considered a major influence on the nu metal genre, with the band's use of Drop D tuning influencing many in the genre. Hamilton, displeased with this connection, responded "it's frustrating that people write [us] off because we're affiliated with or credited with or discredited with creating nu-metal and rap metal or whatever the fuck it is, which we sound nothing like." Though Hamilton would eventually go on to work with bands Linkin Park and P.O.D.
Discography
Strap It On (1990)
Meantime (1992)
Betty (1994)
Aftertaste (1997)
Size Matters (2004)
Monochrome (2006)
Seeing Eye Dog (2010)
Dead to the World'' (2016)
Band members
Current
Page Hamilton – lead guitar, lead vocals (1989–1998, 2004–present)
Kyle Stevenson – drums, backing vocals (2006–present)
Dan Beeman – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (2008–present)
Dave Case – bass, backing vocals (2010–present)
See also
List of alternative metal artists
References
External links
American alternative metal musical groups
American post-hardcore musical groups
American post-metal musical groups
American noise rock music groups
Amphetamine Reptile Records artists
Heavy metal musical groups from New York (state)
Interscope Records artists
Musical groups established in 1989
Musical groups disestablished in 1998
Musical groups reestablished in 2004
Musical groups from New York City
Musical quartets | [
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|
215265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meantime%20%28album%29 | Meantime (album) | Meantime is the second studio album and major label debut by American alternative metal band Helmet. It was released on June 23, 1992 through Interscope Records.
Despite initially only achieving moderate commercial success, peaking at number 68 on the Billboard 200 chart upon release in 1992, the album influenced multiple bands in its wake, and has been well received by music critics and is considered an influential album of the metal genre. Meantime has continued to sell consistently well in the years since its release, and in 1994 was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. The album has sold over 2 million copies worldwide.
Helmet released one single from Meantime, "Unsung", which was a charting success on the US Modern Rock Tracks chart, and remains their best-known song. Music videos were also made for "Unsung", "Give It" and "In the Meantime".
Recording and production
After the release of their nine-song debut album Strap It On, the band found themselves at the center of a major label bidding war, eventually signing to Interscope for a reported budget of US$1 million. In the wake of the grunge band Nirvana's recent success, many touted Helmet as the next big thing. Regarding the band's label as "the next Nirvana", frontman Page Hamilton said "They were interested in us before Nirvana even broke. And that's good, because we're obviously not it. I actually had an A&R guy at one label tell us that we were the next U2. At a certain point it just becomes ludicrous."
The song "In the Meantime" was recorded by Steve Albini and later remixed by Andy Wallace. Wallace would make additional changes to the album; the contrast between his style of mixing, which involves (among other things) triggered samples and a cleaner, more polished sound (leading to the album's distinctive half-wood, half-metal snare drum sound), irritated Albini. Later, when in negotiations to record Nirvana's In Utero, he stipulated a clause be added to his contract stating that Wallace would not be allowed to remix the album, after he had mixed Nevermind, which was released nine months before Meantime.
Reception
Meantime was Helmet's breakthrough album. Upon its release in June 1992, Meantime peaked at number 68 on Billboards Top 200 Albums chart and number one Top Heatseekers chart. The album granted Helmet international recognition. To date, it is the only Helmet album to go gold in the United States.
The album received positive reviews, John Franck of AllMusic labeled Meantime "arguably one of the most influential and overlooked rock records of the '90s". He praised the music "colored by Teutonic riffs, with only 'Unsung' hinting at a gasp of commercial accessibility". In regards to the album's success, he also claims that Helmet "were curiously touted as the next big thing". Meantime received a rating of four-and-a-half out of five stars, while "Unsung", "Give It" and "In the Meantime" earned Helmet its heaviest airplay on MTV and radio stations. Steffan Chirazi of Kerrang! defined the album "a wall of angry, bitter and agonised New York street cries", giving it maximum ratings.
Legacy
The sound of Meantime, with Page Hamilton's staccato riffs, jazz-influenced chords and solos, and dual-voice singing style, proved influential to nu metal and alternative metal bands. The album, along with Betty and Aftertaste, is considered a definitive influence in post-metal. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked Meantime as 54th on their list of 'The 100 Greatest Metal Albums of All Time'.
On September 16, 2016, Magnetic Eye Records released a compilation called Meantime (Redux) that featured song-for-song covers of the original Helmet album by various artists including KEN mode, Fuck the Facts and Rosetta.
Artwork
The album cover features an image of a man in a white protective suit shoveling some substance on the ground. It is taken from a photograph by David Plowden, "Puddler In Blast Furnace Cast House, Steel Mill, East Chicago, Indiana (1979)".
The album is available with one of two reversely-colored covers; one has a blue background with a white-on-red Helmet logo, and the other has a red background with a white-on-blue Helmet logo (pictured above).
Track listing
Personnel
Credits taken from the CD liner notes.
Helmet
Page Hamilton – vocals, lead guitar
Peter Mengede – rhythm guitar
Henry Bogdan – bass
John Stanier – drums
Technical
Helmet – production
Steve Albini – engineering, "In the Meantime"
Wharton Tiers – engineering, all songs except "In the Meantime"
Andy Wallace – mixing
Steve Sisco – assistant mixing, engineering
Howie Weinberg – mastering
Charts
Album
Singles
References
1992 albums
Helmet (band) albums
Albums produced by Steve Albini
Albums produced by Andy Wallace (producer)
Interscope Records albums | [
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215266 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinnacles%20National%20Park | Pinnacles National Park | Pinnacles National Park is an American national park protecting a mountainous area located east of the Salinas Valley in Central California, about east of Soledad and southeast of San Jose. The park's namesakes are the eroded leftovers of the western half of an extinct volcano that has moved from its original location on the San Andreas Fault, embedded in a portion of the California Pacific Coast Ranges. Pinnacles is managed by the National Park Service and the majority of the park is protected as wilderness.
The national park is divided by the rock formations into East and West Divisions, connected only by foot trails. The east side has shade and water, the west has high walls. The rock formations provide for spectacular pinnacles that attract rock climbers. The park features unusual talus caves that house at least 13 species of bats. Pinnacles is most often visited in spring or fall because of the intense heat during the summer. Park lands are prime habitat for prairie falcons, and are a release site for California condors that have been hatched in captivity.
Pinnacles was originally established as a national monument in 1908 by President Theodore Roosevelt, and was redesignated as a national park by Congressional legislation in 2012 that was then signed into law by President Barack Obama on January 10, 2013.
History
Native Americans in the Pinnacles region comprised the Chalon and Mutsun groups of the Ohlone people, who left stone artifacts in the park. These native people declined with the arrival of the Spanish in the 18th century, who brought novel diseases and changes to the natives' way of life. The establishment of a Spanish mission at Soledad hastened the area's native depopulation through disease and dispersion. Archaeological surveys have found 13 sites inhabited by Native Americans, 12 of which antedate the establishment of the missions. One site is believed to be about 2000 years old. The last Chalon had died or departed from the area by 1810. From 1810 to 1865, when the first Anglo-American settlers arrived, the Pinnacles region was a wilderness without human use or habitation.
By the 1880s the Pinnacles, then known as the Palisades, were visited by picnickers from the surrounding communities who would explore the caves and camp. The first account of the Pinnacles region appeared in print in 1881, describing the Balconies area. Between 1889 and 1891, newspaper articles shifted from describing excursions to the "Palisades" to calling them the "Pinnacles". Interest in the area rose to the point that the Hollister Free Lance sent a reporter to the Pinnacles, followed two months later by a party of local officials. Investors came from San Francisco to consider placing a resort hotel there, but the speculation came to nothing. In 1894, a post office was established in Bear Valley. Schuyler Hain was the postmaster. Since at least one other Bear Valley was in California, the post office was named "Cook" after Mrs. Hain's maiden name. In 1924, the post office was renamed "Pinnacles".
Schuyler Hain was a homesteader who arrived in the Pinnacles area in 1891 from Michigan, following his parents and eight siblings to Bear Valley. His cousin, A.W. White, was a student at Stanford University, and White brought G.K. Gilbert, one of his professors, to see the Pinnacles in 1893. Dr. Gilbert was impressed by the scenery, and his comments inspired Hain to publicize the region. Hain led tours to Bear Valley and through the caves, advocating the preservation of the Pinnacles. Hain's efforts resulted in a 1904 visit by Stanford president David Starr Jordan, who contacted Fresno Congressman James C. Needham. Jordan and Needham, in turn, influenced Gifford Pinchot to advocate the establishment of the Pinnacles Forest Reserve to President Theodore Roosevelt, who proclaimed the establishment on July 18, 1906. Pinchot, who was primarily interested in the management of forests for productive use rather than for preservation, advocated the use of the recently passed Antiquities Act to designate the scenic core of the area as Pinnacles National Monument, which was done by Roosevelt on January 16, 1908. This designation nominally passed control of the Pinnacles from the Department of Agriculture to the Department of the Interior, but the U.S. Forest Service retained effective control of the area until circa 1911.
In his efforts to promote the Pinnacles, Hain became convinced that the Pinnacles were an "extraordinary mountain" described by Captain George Vancouver and pictured by John Sykes in his book Voyage of Discovery, which documented the Vancouver Expedition. Hain began to refer to the mountain as "Vancouver's Pinnacles", a term that was picked up by Sunset in a 1903 article. References to "Vancouver's Pinnacles" persisted until 1955, when analysis of the Sykes picture indicated that the mountain described by Vancouver was actually located near Fort Ord, within easy reach of the day trip described by Vancouver.
National monument
First set aside as part of the Pinnacles Forest Reserve in 1906, Pinnacles has had several different federal management agencies, ranging from the U.S. Forest Service to the General Land Office and ultimately to the National Park Service. In 1908 President Theodore Roosevelt created Pinnacles National Monument with the power given him in the Antiquities Act of 1906. The initial area designated under the Antiquities Act was . The Forest Service relinquished control of the monument circa 1911, but no operating agency yet existed to receive it. No drivable roads existed into the park from communities like Hollister. Hollister boosters campaigned for federal funds for road-building. Congressman Everis A. Hayes made a trip into the Pinnacles in 1913 as part of the campaign for road funds. By 1914, primitive roads extended to Bear Valley.
The National Park Service was finally established in 1916, but Pinnacles was not considered significant enough to command any Park Service resources at that time. In the meantime, a mining claim disrupted access to the traditional picnic grounds. In 1922, following repeated pleas from local residents for Park Service action, W.B. Lewis, superintendent of Yosemite National Park, was directed to visit Pinnacles and report on the circumstances to Park Service director Stephen Mather. Lewis had a difficult trip and stayed only 45 minutes, and his report included a recommendation that the monument be abandoned, since the most scenic sections were in private hands. The General Land Office, which administered lands surrounding the national monument and what was then known as Monterey National Forest, also received complaints, and in December 1922, J.H. Favorite of the GLO made a thorough report which was copied to Mather. Favorite recommended that public-domain lands be consolidated into the monument, and that a caretaker be appointed from a local homestead. In 1923, Herman Hermansen was appointed caretaker, and on May 7, 1923, the monument was enlarged by proclamation of President Warren G. Harding.
Mather finally visited the monument on March 28, 1924. A further proclamation, this time by Calvin Coolidge, enlarged the monument on July 2, 1924, securing water sources and campsites, was followed by a directive for a complete survey of the now- monument. Following a visit by NPS assistant director Horace M. Albright, money was appropriated to build a ranger's cabin, completed in 1929, while facilities within the caves were improved. Frank A. Kittredge, the Park Service chief of engineering, and Thomas Chalmers Vint, Park Service landscape architect, conducted a survey for a five-year improvement plan in 1927. In 1929, condemnation proceedings were filed against private landowners in and around the park, including the mining company, seeking . An expansion proclamation by President Herbert Hoover in 1931 added of land donated by San Benito County. Trail building was expanded in the early 1930s, including a tunnel for the High Peaks Trail.
In 1933, a Civilian Conservation Corps camp was established for about 200 men who worked on additions to the trail network. After lengthy legal proceedings, the old mining claims were incorporated into the monument in 1958. CCC laborers improved the road in Bear Gulch, built tourist cabins, and constructed the dam at the Bear Gulch reservoir. A fire lookout was built by the CCC on Chalone Peak in 1935, but was destroyed by fire in 1951 and replaced by a frame structure the following year. The park's visitor center and headquarters were built in 1936–37 from local stone. A superintendent's residence was started in 1941 and completed in 1949. The Mission 66 project added lands and new projects, with an emphasis on development of the previously undeveloped west side of the park.
In 1975, the park comprised , growing to the present through a series of additions including the Pinnacles Ranch. The most recent addition to the Pinnacles National Monument was president Bill Clinton's Proclamation 7266 that increased the size of the monument by and to include more caves.
National park status
Legislation authored by Rep. Sam Farr (D-California) to make Pinnacles National Monument a national park passed the United States Senate on December 30, 2012, having passed the House on July 31, 2012. The bill also designates the present Pinnacles Wilderness as the Hain Wilderness in commemoration of Schuyler Hain's efforts to establish the national monument. The legislation was signed by President Barack Obama on January 10, 2013. The change in designation did not change the park's status, management, or purpose. The U.S. Congress specified in the 1970 General Authorities Act and the 1978 Redwood Act that all units of the National Park System are to be treated on equal status, regardless of title. Pinnacles is the ninth unit in the National Park System in California to be named a national park.
Geography
Pinnacles National Park lies about inland from the Pacific Ocean and about south of the San Francisco Bay Area. The park is in the southern portion of the Gabilan Range, part of California's Coast Ranges.
Elevation within the boundaries range from at the peak of North Chalone Peak.
Climate
According to the Köppen climate classification system, Pinnacles National Park has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa). According to the United States Department of Agriculture, the Plant Hardiness zone at the Painted Desert Visitor Center (1056 ft / 322 m) is 8b with an average annual extreme minimum temperature of 19.3 °F (-7.1 °C).
The Santa Lucia Mountains lie between the park and Pacific Ocean, blocking the ocean’s moderating influence on diurnal temperature swings. In comparison to the nearby coast, temperatures have a much larger daily range of depending on season. The typical rainfall is about per year. Snow can fall in small amounts at higher elevations between mid-December and January.
The National Weather Service has a cooperative weather station at the park headquarters. January temperatures are a maximum of and a minimum of . July temperatures are a maximum of and a minimum of . The record high temperature of was reached three times, most recently on September 7, 2020. The record low temperature was on January 2, 1960 and December 22 and 24, 1990. Average annual precipitation is . The wettest calendar year was 1983 with and the driest 2013 with . The most precipitation in one month was in February 1998. The most precipitation in 24 hours was on February 3, 1998. The most snowfall in one month was in January 1962.
Geology
The park is located near the San Andreas fault, which had a hand in creating the unique formations the park protects. The Pinnacles are part of the Neenach Volcano which erupted 23 million years ago near present-day Lancaster. The movement of the Pacific Plate along the San Andreas fault split a section of rock off from the main body of the volcano and moved it to the northwest. It is believed that the pinnacles came from this particular volcano because of the unique breccias that are only found elsewhere in the Neenach Volcano formations. Differential erosion and weathering of the exposed rock created the Pinnacles that are seen today. The rock formations are andesite and rhyolite, forming a dropped fault block embedded in the Gabilan Range.
Large-scale earth movement also created the talus caves that can be found in the park. Deep, narrow gorges and shear fractures were transformed into caves by large chunks of rock falling from above and wedging into the cracks, leaving an open area below.
Since the Pinnacles were moved to this area, the San Andreas fault has shifted to the east of the park. The original location of the San Andreas can be seen in the Chalone Creek fault. Two other large faults are known to run through the park, the Miner's Gulch and Pinnacles faults. These faults parallel the San Andreas and were most likely caused by major movements of the main fault. The establishment of the relative movement between the Pinnacles and the Neenach rocks was a significant factor in the acceptance of plate tectonics in geology.
Seismic activity is frequent in the park, and United States Geological Survey maintains two seismometers within the boundaries. Evidence of past and ongoing seismic activity can be seen in offset streams where they cross faults. Valley bottoms and terraces show signs of uplift.
Ecology
Wildlife
Prairie falcons breed in this area in some of the highest densities of anywhere in North America. Peregrine falcons have recently returned to the park to breed, also, but in far fewer numbers. A California condor re-establishment program has been in place since 2003. The first nest since reintroduction was built in 2010, and Pinnacles now manages a population of 25 free-flying condor. Mammals and birds that inhabit this park include prairie falcon, coyote, skunk, great horned owl, bobcat, California quail, raccoon, wild turkey, gray fox, golden eagle, and cougar.
Native animals, now locally extinct from most of central California, included tule elk and pronghorn. Grizzly and black bears were in the area until the end of the 19th century.
Like many parks in central California, Pinnacles has had a problem with wild pigs (a mix of feral domestic pigs and imported wild boars) disturbing the landscape on a regular basis. As of spring 2006, the core of the park was pig-free. The culmination of a twenty-year, $1.6 million effort had succeeded in eradicating pigs from the main area of the park. National Park Service personnel along with IWS worked to remove pigs from inside the park, and establish and monitor an exclusionary fence that runs for approximately around the center core of the park. Outside this fence, wild pigs still roam. Monitoring for potential breaks and breaches in the fence is performed to ensure that the pigs do not return to the park.
Thirteen species of bats have been documented at Pinnacles, with a further three species considered likely. The talus caves provide roosting and breeding habitat for the bats.
In the 1990s, a student biologist, Olivia Messinger, did a census of bees at Pinnacles. She found that the park has more bees per unit area than known anywhere else on earth, around 400 species. Most of these bees are solitary bees, not living in colonies like European honeybees, and most live for only three to four weeks, and since flowers bloom here throughout the growing season, many niches are available for all the bee species.
The diversity of intersecting ecosystems and altitude is hospitable to a great number of animal species.
Vegetation
According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. Potential natural vegetation Types, Pinnacles National Park has a Chaparral (33) potential vegetation type with a California chaparral and woodlands (6) vegetation form. The vegetation is about 80% chaparral with woodlands, riparian, and grasslands merged into the chaparral.
In the warmer portions of the park, large areas of greasewood cover slopes, along with manzanita, gray pine, canyon live oak, and blue oak. Cooler portions of the park have higher proportions of pines and oaks, together with California buckeye, hollyleaf cherry, and coffeeberry. Willows and elderberries are found along the intermittent streams. Fire has been a dominant influence on the region's flora, both from natural causes and from intentional intervention by people. When the region was inhabited by Native Americans, they used fire as a tool to encourage the growth of preferred food sources, and to herd small game during hunting. Since the disappearance of native peoples, the hills have become brushier.
Hain Wilderness
More than 80% () of the park is designated as the Hain Wilderness (known until 2013 as the Pinnacles Wilderness). Wilderness designation provides even higher protection for the rock spires that give Pinnacles its name, as well as South Chalone Peak, the second-highest peak in the park. The wilderness includes the creeks and canyons that are habitat for the endangered California red-legged frog. The United States Congress in 1976 enacted Public Law 94-567, adding Pinnacles Wilderness and several others to the National Wilderness Preservation System.
Activities
Although roads approach the park from the west through Soledad and from the east through empty lands south of Hollister, the roads do not connect in the park. Most of the developed areas are on the east side of the park.
Several trails have been developed for day hikers, some of which are strenuous. Primarily in March and April, a wide variety of wildflowers is on display, except in years of extreme drought. The trails provide views of the surrounding hills and valleys on clear days. The San Andreas Fault is visible from some vantages along the trails. The park includes a well-known hiking portion known among enthusiasts simply as "The Pig Fence". This portion of South Wilderness Trail is a challenging stretch of strenuous hiking that at times requires use of the fence, erected to prevent feral pigs from entering the park, to help oneself to climb the steeply pitched trail. Other trails include lush wildflower-accented views along flat stream beds, trails that bring one into beautiful caves, and trails that involve high vistas of the Pinnacle formations.
The caves at Pinnacles are talus caves, formed when steep, narrow canyons were filled with boulders, leaving passages between the larger rocks. Bear Gulch Cave on the east side of the park and Balconies Cave on the west side are seasonally open to visitors. Trails lead to and through both caves. These caves house breeding colonies for Townsend's big-eared bat and are closed during pupping season. The caves may be flooded at times of high water. The National Park Service maintains a webpage showing the status of the caves.
Camping facilities are available on the east side in the Pinnacles Campground.
The park is popular with advanced rock climbers due to the many difficult and challenging climbs. The park is home to a variety of bouldering, single-pitch, and multi-pitch routes. Rock quality, volcanic breccia, can break while climbing.
See also
State Route 146
State Route 25
List of national parks of the United States
National parks in California
Neenach Volcano
Tres Pinos, California
Trona Pinnacles — in southern California near Ridgecrest and Trona
References
Further reading
Oberg, Reta R. (1979), Administrative History of Pinnacles National Monument, National Park Service
External links
of the National Park Service
Pinnacles National Park maps, U.S. National Park Service
Pinnacles National Park at San Francisco Bay Area National Parks Science and Learning
Condor Watch The Condor Watch crowdsourcing project, started April 2014.
NASA Earth Observatory: Satellite images
California-birding: Bird Watching at Pinnacles National Park
Pinnacles photoblog from bRaNdSboRg.CoM
National parks in California
Parks in Monterey County, California
Parks in San Benito County, California
Gabilan Range
Rock formations of California
Volcanoes of California
Natural history of Monterey County, California
Natural history of San Benito County, California
Protected areas established in 1908
1908 establishments in California
Climbing areas of California
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|
215267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County%20Wexford | County Wexford | County Wexford () is a county in Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the South-East Region. Named after the town of Wexford, it was based on the historic Gaelic territory of Hy Kinsella (Uí Ceinnsealaigh), whose capital was Ferns. Wexford County Council is the local authority for the county. The population of the county was 149,722 at the 2016 census.
History
The county is rich in evidence of early human habitation. Portal tombs (sometimes called dolmens) exist at Ballybrittas (on Bree Hill) and at Newbawn — and date from the Neolithic period or earlier. Remains from the Bronze Age period are far more widespread. Early Irish tribes formed the Kingdom of Uí Cheinnsealaig, an area that was slightly larger than the current County Wexford.
County Wexford was one of the earliest areas of Ireland to be Christianised, in the early 5th century. Later, from 819 onwards, the Vikings invaded and plundered many Christian sites in the county. Vikings settled at Wexford town near the end of the 9th century.
In 1169, Wexford was the site of the invasion of Ireland by Normans at the behest of Diarmuid Mac Murrough, King of Uí Cheinnsealaig and king of Leinster (Laigin). This was followed by the subsequent colonisation of the country by the Anglo-Normans.
The native Irish began to regain some of their former territories in the 14th century, especially in the north of the county, principally under Art MacMurrough Kavanagh. Under Henry VIII, the great religious houses were dissolved, 1536–41; in County Wexford this included Glascarrig Priory, Clonmines Priory, Tintern Abbey, and Dunbrody Abbey.
On 23 October 1641, a major rebellion broke out in Ireland, and County Wexford produced strong support for Confederate Ireland. Oliver Cromwell and his English Parliamentarian Army arrived in 1649 in the county and captured it. The lands of the Irish and Anglo-Normans were confiscated and given to Cromwell's soldiers as payment for their service in the Parliamentarian Army. At Duncannon, in the south-west of the county, James II, after his defeat at the Battle of the Boyne, embarked for Kinsale and then to exile in France.
County Wexford was the most important area in which the Irish Rebellion of 1798 was fought, during which significant battles occurred at The Battle of Oulart Hill during the 1798 rebellion. Vinegar Hill (Enniscorthy) and New Ross. The famous ballad "Boolavogue" was written in remembrance of the Wexford Rising. At Easter 1916, a small rebellion occurred at Enniscorthy town, on cue with that in Dublin. During World War II, German planes bombed Campile. In 1963 John F. Kennedy, then President of the United States, visited the county and his ancestral home at Dunganstown, near New Ross.
Geography and political subdivisions
Wexford is the 13th largest of Ireland's thirty-two traditional counties in area, and 14th largest in terms of population. It is the largest of Leinster's 12 counties in size, and fourth largest in terms of population. The county is located in the south-east corner of the island of Ireland. It is bounded by the sea on two sides—on the south by the Atlantic Ocean and on the east by St. George's Channel and the Irish Sea. The River Barrow forms its western boundary. The Blackstairs Mountains form part of the boundary to the north, as do the southern edges of the Wicklow Mountains. The adjoining counties are Waterford, Kilkenny, Carlow and Wicklow.
Towns and villages
County Town: Wexford
Market Town: Gorey
Adamstown
Arthurstown
Ballycanew
Ballycullane
Ballyedmond
Ballyfad
Ballygarrett
Ballyhack
Ballymitty
Ballywilliam
Bannow
Barntown
Blackwater
Bree
Bridgetown
Broadway
Bunclody
Camolin
Campile
Castlebridge
Castletown
Cleariestown
Clohamon
Clonroche
Coolgreany
Courtown
Craanford
Crossabeg
Cullenstown
Curracloe
Duncannon
Duncormick
Enniscorthy
Ferns
Fethard-on-Sea
Foulkesmill
Gorey
Hollyfort
Inch
Killinierin
Kilmore
Kilmore Quay
Kilmuckridge
Kiltealy
Monamolin
Monaseed
Murrintown
Monageer
Monbeg
Newbawn
New Ross
Oulart
Oylegate
Poulpeasty
Rathangan
Rosslare
Rosslare Harbour
Raheen
Rathnure
Saltmills
Taghmon
Watch House Village
Wellingtonbridge
Wexford
Mountains and hills
Largely low-lying fertile land is the characteristic landscape of the county. The highest point in the county is Mount Leinster at , in the Blackstairs Mountains in the north-west on the boundary with County Carlow.
Other high points:
Black Rock Mountain, . It is located near the Wexford-Carlow border, within County Wexford.
Croghan Mountain (or Croghan Kinsella) on the Wexford-Wicklow border -
Annagh Hill, , near the Wicklow border
Slieveboy,
Notable hills include: Carrigbyrne Hill; Camross (or Camaross) Hill, ; Carrigmaistia, ; Bree Hill, ; Gibbet Hill; Vinegar Hill; Slievecoiltia; Forth Mountain, ; and Tara Hill.
Rivers and lakes
The major rivers are the Slaney and the Barrow. At in length, the river Barrow is the second-longest river on the island of Ireland. Smaller rivers of note are the Owenduff, Pollmounty, Corrock, Urrin, Boro, Owenavorragh (also spelt Ounavarra), Sow and Bann rivers.
There are no significant fresh-water lakes in the county. Small seaside lakes or lagoons exist at two locations – one is called Lady's Island Lake and the other Tacumshin Lake.
The Wexford Cot is a flat-bottomed boat used for fishing on the tidal mudflats in Wexford, also a canoe shaped Punt fitted with a gun, called a Float in Wexford is used traditionally to shoot game birds in the North Slob mud flats.
Islands
The Saltee Islands lie offshore from Kilmore Quay, while the smaller Keeragh Islands are offshore from Bannow.
Climate
County Wexford is known as Ireland's "sunny southeast" because, in general, the number of hours of sunshine received daily is higher than in the rest of the country. This has resulted in Wexford becoming one of the most popular places in Ireland in which to reside. The county has a mild, but changeable, oceanic climate with few extremes. The North Atlantic Drift, a continuation of the Gulf Stream, moderates winter temperatures. There is a meteorological station located at Rosslare Harbour. January and February are generally the coldest months, with temperatures ranging from on average. July and August are generally the warmest months, with average temperatures ranging from in coastal areas and in inland areas. The prevailing winds are from the south-west. Precipitation falls throughout the year. Mean annual rainfall is . Generally, the county receives less snow than more northerly parts of Ireland. Heavy snowfalls are relatively rare, but can occur. The one exception is Mount Leinster, visible from a large portion of the county, which is frequently covered with snow during the winter months. Frost is frequent in winter months, less in coastal areas.
Soil
Most, but not all, of the county was covered with the ice sheet during the last Ice age. As the ice retreated, County Wexford would have been one of the first areas to be covered with glacial drift (a mixture of boulders, clay, sand and gravel) that blanketed the existing bedrock. This has led to high quality soils, suitable for a wide range of agriculture. A very detailed soil survey of the county was published in 1964, as part of the 'National Soil Survey of Ireland'. It classifies each area of the county according to its specific soil type.
Most of the county is covered with soil called brown earths, described as well-drained and having a wide use range. After that, gleys (poorly to imperfectly drained with a limited use range) are the next major soil type, primarily located in the south-east of the county and east of Gorey (along the coast). Gleys are dotted elsewhere around the county in small areas, and where they occur they generally form bogland. The last major soil type is brown podzolics, located mainly near the edges of the Blackstairs Mountain range and around Bunclody and in the baronies of East Shelmalier and South Ballaghkeen. Though there are areas covered with other soil types, these are of limited extent.
Flora
Common species of tree include oak, ash, sycamore, alder, blackthorn, hawthorn, beech and birch. Less common (but plentiful) are wild cherry and Scots pine (also called red deal). Elm is now far less common, due to the devastating effects of Dutch elm disease. Gorse (or furze) is very common. A priority habitat in Wexford is the grey dune, on which many native wild flora grow, including bee orchid and pyramidal orchid. Despite the designation of much of this habitat as a Special Area of Conservation, it remains threatened by destruction for agricultural intensification. There is very little natural forest in the county. Most natural trees and vegetation grow on hedgerows.
Fauna
South-eastern Wexford is an important site for wild birds—the north side of Wexford Harbour, the North Slob, is home to 10,000 Greenland white-fronted geese each winter (roughly one third of the entire world's population), while in the summer Lady's Island Lake is an important breeding site for terns, especially the roseate tern. The grey heron is also seen.
Throughout the county pheasant, woodpigeon and feral pigeons are widespread. Mute swan, mallard, kingfisher, and owls (the long-eared owl, the short-eared owl, and the barn owl) are less common - but plentiful. Red grouse, once common, is now extremely scarce. The species has been in decline for some decades. Threats include habitat degradation, disease, predation and over-hunting. Red grouse in Ireland are now considered threatened. The corncrake, also once very common, is now almost never seen. Smaller birds—such as crows, swallows, robins, wrens and so on—are very common. The first magpies in Ireland were recorded by Robert Leigh, of Rosegarland, County Wexford, as having appeared in the County of Wexford about 1676.
Land mammals include badger, rabbit, otter, hedgehog, red fox, mink, bats, squirrels (red and grey), rats (brown and black - both introduced species), and mice (wood (or field) and house). Two types of hare—the Irish (or mountain) hare and the less common brown (or European) hare—are found. Hare is not nearly as common as rabbit. The stoat (Mustela erminea hibernica) is also reasonably common. Locally the stoat is just as often incorrectly called a weasel.
Only two types of seal are found on County Wexford's coast—Atlantic grey seals are very plentiful in coastal areas, but the slightly smaller common (or harbour) seal is less common, yet plentiful. The small tortoiseshell butterfly (reddish-orange colour, with black markings) is the most common species of butterfly in the county. Various types of moth are also common. The common frog is plentiful, and is the only type of frog found.
Local government
Wexford County Council has thirty-four members. The Wexford constituency is represented by five deputies in Dáil Éireann: James Browne (FF), Paul Kehoe (FG), Brendan Howlin (Lab), Michael W. D'Arcy (FG) and Mick Wallace (Ind).
Demographics
In 2016, the county had a total population of 149,722 people. Of these, 61.4% (91,969 people) lived in rural areas and 38.6% (57,753 people) lived in urban areas. 83.8% of the population stated their religion as Roman Catholic, 7.1% other religions, and 7.5% stated they had no religion. Between 2006 and 2011, the population increased by 10%, slowing to 3% between 2011 and 2016.
Urban areas and populations
Culture
Since 1951, an opera festival, Wexford Festival Opera, takes place every year in the Theatre Royal in Wexford town and runs for several weeks. In 2008, a new Opera House replaced the old one on the same site, once called the Wexford Opera House, but in 2014 being designated as Ireland's National Opera House. It consists of two theatres, the O'Reilly Theatre and the Jerome Hynes Theatre.
There is a renowned singing tradition in County Wexford. Having an abundance of traditional songs, many of which relate to the rebellion of 1798, the county has for many years had a strong presence in the Irish traditional singing scene. Noted singers include All-Ireland Fleadh Champions Paddy Berry, Seamus Brogan and Niall Wall. Paddy Berry has also collected and published a number of songs from Wexford.
Beaches in Curracloe, County Wexford were used to film the opening scenes of the movie Saving Private Ryan, which depicted the D-day assault on Omaha Beach. The Count of Monte Cristo, directed by Kevin Reynolds, was partly filmed in the village of Duncannon in 2000 — Duncannon Fort being used for one of the main scenes. The movie Brooklyn (film) was partially filmed in Enniscorthy and featured some of the locals as extras.
Media
Two radio stations are based in the county: South East Radio and Beat FM.
The county's main newspapers include Wexford People, New Ross Standard, Gorey Guardian, and Enniscorthy Echo.
Places of interest
The scenic Bannow Drive, popular amongst tourists, is a signposted route through four Wexford villages: Duncormick, Cullenstown, Bannow and Wellingtonbridge.
Ballyteigue Burrow, located near Duncormick, is one of the finest protected sand dune systems in Ireland. Rich in wildflowers, wildlife and butterflies, this 9 km (6 mile) coastal stretch is a protected nature reserve by the golden sands of Ballyteigue Bay, with spectacular scenery.
The Hook Peninsula is noted for its many beaches and spectacular scenery. It features the medieval Hook Head lighthouse and the historic townland of Loftus Hall.
Popular beaches are located at Courtown, Curracloe, Carnsore Point, Duncannon and Rosslare Strand.
Other places of interest include:
Ferns Castle and Abbey
Enniscorthy Castle and Museum
Vinegar Hill
National 1798 Visitor Centre
Boolavogue
The Browne-Clayton Monument
Oulart Hill
Castleboro House
The Seven 'Castles' of Clonmines
Johnstown Castle
Dollar Bay
Loftus Hall - Abandoned Haunted House (the first Hall was built on this site in 1350) www.loftushall.ie
Ballyteigue Castle
Bannow Church (dates from the 13th century)
Selskar Abbey, Wexford town
Irish National Heritage Park (Ferrycarrig)
Tacumshin windmill (southeast County Wexford)
St. Mary's Church, New Ross
Dunbrody Abbey
Tintern Abbey
Slade Castle
Ballyhack Castle
J.F. Kennedy homestead and park
Slieve Coilte
Wells House and Gardens
Duncannon Fort
Saltee Islands
Economy
Agriculture
The economy is chiefly agricultural. Cattle, sheep, pig rearing and some horse breeding are the main types of husbandry practised. Poultry rearing, once popular, has very much declined. Wheat, barley, rapeseed, and oats are grown, as are potatoes. Sugar beet is no longer grown due to the withdrawal of EU subsidies. The numbers involved in farming have been declining for many years and many of the seasonal workers are now eastern Europeans. Mushrooms are also grown indoors. Tomatoes are grown under glass, for example at Campile.
Wexford strawberries are famous and can be bought in shops and wayside stalls throughout the summer. Every year, near the end of June, a 'Strawberry Fair' Festival takes place in the town of Enniscorthy, and a Strawberry Queen is crowned. Dairy farming forms an important part of the agricultural industry. Locally produced milk is on sale in many supermarkets. Wexford Irish Cheddar is a brand, and Carrigbyrne, a full-flavoured soft cheese, is produced near New Ross.
Forestry
Evergreen tree species are extensively cultivated, especially in more recent years—Norway spruce and Sitka spruce are the most common varieties planted. These are generally sown on poorer quality soils (mainly in bogs and on hills or mountainsides). A small amount of deciduous trees are also planted, though these require better soils.
Mining
Silver was once mined at Clonmines—primarily in Tudor times. Lead was mined at Caim, 1818 - c. 1850—this mine also contains zinc; the two are usually found together. Copper ore (malachite) is found at Kerloge, just south of the town of Wexford. Iron is found in small quantities at Courtown Harbour. The county is not noted for mineral reserves. No significant mining activity is currently practised, with the exception of quarrying for stone. In 2007, a significant oil find was made off Hook Head in County Wexford.
Energy
Carnsore Point made the national headlines in the late 1970s after a proposal was made to build a nuclear energy plant there; the plans were abandoned after extensive protests from the public, due to environmental and health concerns.
Great Island Power Station opened in 1967 and was operated by the Electricity Supply Board (ESB) until it was sold to Endesa in January 2009. It is an electricity-generating station fueled by heavy fuel oil and rated at 240 MW. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Barrow and Suir, near Campile. Before its sale, the station was scheduled to close by 2010. Endesa propose building a 430 MW combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) gas fired plant on the site. The project would need a new gas pipeline from the existing transmission network at Baunlusk, south of Kilkenny City. A wind farm has now been built on the site, featuring 14 wind turbines generating electricity. It was completed in November 2002 and was the first wind farm on the east coast of Ireland. Wind farms now exist at a few other locations in the county, such as Ballywater Wind Farm, at Cahore (near Kilmuckridge), on the county's east coast, and Richfield wind farm, located in the southeast of the county.
Transport
Bus: Wexford and Dublin are linked by Bus Éireann route 2, while route 5 operates Waterford-New Ross-Enniscorthy-Dublin. There are numerous local bus routes radiating from Wexford town to places such as Kilmore Quay, Lady's Island, Kilmuckridge.
Rail: The Rosslare–Dublin railway line runs through the county, serving Rosslare Europort, Rosslare Strand, Wexford, Enniscorthy and Gorey. Four trains run in each direction daily (three at weekends), with additional commuter services from Gorey. The Rosslare–Limerick railway line which traverses the southern part of the county is now mothballed but being maintained (it served stations at Bridgetown, Wellington Bridge, Ballycullane and Campile).
Ferry: Rosslare Europort, located at Rosslare Harbour, operates a busy ferry service. There are regular sailings to Wales (Pembroke and Fishguard) and France (Cherbourg and in the summer months to Roscoff) for passengers and vehicles. There is also ferry service in operation between Ballyhack and Passage East (County Waterford), crossing the Barrow estuary.
Sport and events
Gaelic games
In recent years the county Football team has been making rapid advances. Camogie, a women's version of hurling, is also played, and Wexford won the All Ireland in 2007, 2010, 2011 and 2012. Wexford Park is the county's main GAA pitch, holding 25,000 supporters. Also, handball is played on a limited basis; there are a number of handball alleys located throughout the county.
As a county, Wexford are most noted for hurling have won the Leinster Senior Hurling Championships a total of 21 times, first in 1890 and most recently in 2019.
In the All Ireland Senior Hurling Championships, Wexford have won 6 times, first in 1910 and most recently in 1996, beating Limerick in the final.
Football
Wexford Youths F.C., formed 2007, renamed as Wexford FC in 2017, is the major football club in the county, currently playing in the League of Ireland First Division.
Golf
There are numerous golf clubs in the county - including Rosslare (a Links course), and Enniscorthy. Two more are located near Gorey - Ballymoney Golf Club and Courtown Golf Club - are 18 hole golf courses. Bunclody Golf and Fishing Club, boasting Europe's only golf lift, is situated just inside County Carlow. There are also a few others. New Ross Golf Club, however, is actually located in County Kilkenny - about 1 km (1,000 yards) from New Ross town.
There are also many par-3 courses in the county, such as Scarke Golf Course & Driving Range, located about east of New Ross, the 'Abbey Par 3' course, at Winningtown, Fethard-on-Sea, Blackwater Par 3 Golf Course, Kilnew, Blackwater, located a few kilometres northeast of Wexford town, Garrylough Golf Course and Driving Range, Screen, and Rathaspeck Manor Golf Course, Rathaspeck, near Rosslare (there are also few Par-4 holes on this course). There are also a number of other Par-3 courses in the county.
Fishing
Much maritime activity takes place - especially at Kilmore Quay and Slade, but also on a smaller scale at many other locations. Common fish species include herring, mackerel, cod, monkfish, whiting, bass, perch, gurnard, haddock, mullet, pollock, John Dory, sole, conger eel, shad, salmon, trout, pike, carp, and tench. Shellfish include mussels, cockles, periwinkles, clams, and oysters.
Racing
Wexford Racecourse (horse racing) is located at Wexford town
and there is a Greyhound Racing track at Enniscorthy.
People
Bunny Ahearne - president of the International Ice Hockey Federation
Michael Balfe - 19th-century composer, grew up in Wexford
John Banville - novelist (2005 Booker Prize and 2013 Austrian State Prize for European Literature)
Major G. E. H. Barrett-Hamilton - zoologist, grew up in Kilmanock
John Barry - Commander United States Navy
Paddy Berry - singer, song collector and folklorist
Wallis Bird - musician
Des Bishop - New York-born comedian, went to school in County Wexford
Jim Bolger ONZ - former Prime Minister of New Zealand.
Jim Bolger (racehorse trainer) - horse trainer.
Myles Byrne - participant in the Irish Rebellion of 1798
Thomas Cloney - participant in the Irish Rebellion of 1798
John Henry Colclough – participant in the Irish Rebellion of 1798
Eoin Colfer - best-selling writer of children's literature
Brendan Corish - Irish Labour Party leader and Tánaiste
Richard Corish - Trade Unionist
Gordon D'Arcy- Rugby player, Leinster & Ireland
Tadhg Furlong- Rugby player, Leinster & Ireland
Francis Danby - 19th-century painter
Chris de Burgh - Argentinian-born singer-songwriter, based in County Wexford
Pádraic Delaney - actor
John Doran (British Army officer)
Anne Doyle - RTÉ newsreader
Kevin Doyle - football player
Mary Fitzgerald (trade unionist)
John French - maternal grandfather of George Harrison
Nicholas French - former RC Bishop of Ferns
Nicholas Furlong - writer, journalist and historian
Eileen Gray - 20th-century Irish furniture designer and architect and a pioneer of the Modern Movement in architecture, raised in Enniscorthy
Anna Maria Hall (Mrs. S.C. Hall) - 19th-century novelist, raised in Bannow
John Harrison - recipient of the Victoria Cross
Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey - participant in the Irish Rebellion of 1798
Edward Hay - writer of a history of the Irish Rebellion of 1798
Herbert Hore - historian
Patrick Kennedy - great-grandfather of John F. Kennedy (former president of the United States).
Father John Murphy - participant in the Irish Rebellion of 1798.
Col Joshua Nunn - veterinarian and barrister
Aidan O'Brien - horse trainer
Joseph O'Brien (jockey) - son of Aidan O'Brien and horse trainer, formerly jockey
Thomas O'Connor (rancher) - Irish rancher and landowner
Michael O'Hanrahan - Irish rebel executed for fighting in the 1916 Easter Rising.
Nicky Rackard - hurling player
John Redmond - 19th- 20th-century nationalist politician
Billy Roche - playwright
Dick Roche - politician
Patrick Roche - politician
James Ryan - politician and Irish Revolutionary
Martin Storey - hurling player
Colm Tóibín - novelist (2006 International Dublin Literary Award)
Maverick Sabre - singer/songwriter
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
List of abbeys and priories in Ireland (County Wexford)
Lord Lieutenant of Wexford
High Sheriff of Wexford
References
Bibliography
Byrne, Francis J. Irish Kings and High Kings. Dublin, 1973–2001
Carlyle, Thomas. "Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches". Vol. 1. New York: Wiley & Putnam, 1845
Cambrensis, Giraldus. Expugnatio Hibernica - The Conquest of Ireland. Dublin: R.I.A., 1978
Colfer, Billy. The County of Wexford. County Wexford: Foillsitheoirí Cois Sláine, n.d. - 1980 or 1981.
Furlong, Nicholas. A History of County Wexford. Dublin: Gill & MacMillan, 2003.
Furlong, Nicholas and John Hayes. County Wexford in the Rare Oul' Times Vol. IV. 1910–1924. Wexford: Old Distillery Press, 2005.
Ordnance Survey Ireland (OSi). Discovery Series 77 - Co Wexford (part). Scale 1: 50,000. Dublin: OSI, Phoenix Park, 1997.
The Times Atlas of the World – Reference Edition. London: Times Books, 1995–2002.
Whelan, K.(ed) & W. Nolan (assoc. ed.). Wexford: History and Society. Dublin: Geography Publications, 1987
External links
County Council website
Late 19th-century map of County Wexford
History Articles
Wexford
Wexford
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|
215268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuolumne%20Meadows | Tuolumne Meadows | Tuolumne Meadows () is a gentle, dome-studded, sub-alpine meadow area along the Tuolumne River in the eastern section of Yosemite National Park in the United States. Its approximate location is . Its approximate elevation is . The term Tuolumne Meadows is also often used to describe a large portion of the Yosemite high country around the meadows, especially in context of rock climbing.
Natural history
The meadow vegetation is supported by shallow groundwater. The water comes from 1,000 mm (39 inches) of precipitation annually, predominately in the form of snow. Water arises from snowmelt and hill-slope aquifers, and flows through the Tuolumne River, Budd Creek, Delaney Creek, and Unicorn Creek. In spring, as soon as the snow melts, it is not uncommon to see large areas of the meadows flooded and practically transformed into lakes.
While the mountains of the Sierra near the meadows have had some permanent snowfields, in the summer they are mostly free of snow. Although brief, the late spring and summer wildflower bloom in Tuolumne Meadows is host to a wide variety of California wildflowers, including the relatively rare Purple Webber, a type of lupin.
Plant species composition changes across the meadows with different landforms, landscape positions, and summer water-table depths. Areas with seasonal flooding and deep-standing water support the inflated sedge and Sierra willow. The main herbaceous wet-meadow species include alpine aster, nearly-black sedge, King's ricegrass, western bistort, Breweri's reed grass, and dwarf bilberry. Thread-leaved sedge, pussy-toes, Sierra lodgepole pine, and Ross sedge are found in drier uplands within or on the edge of the meadows.
Recreation
Tuolumne Meadows has a good view of the Cathedral Range and Unicorn Peak (to the south), Lembert Dome, and Mount Dana (to the east). Camping is available at the Tuolumne Meadows campground (reservations recommended). Excellent hiking and rock climbing are accessible from Tuolumne Meadows, which tends to be less crowded than Yosemite Valley. Downstream (flowing to the right (western) side of the image), the Tuolumne River cascades over Waterwheel Falls near Glen Aulin, eventually pooling at Hetch Hetchy Reservoir.
The road to the meadows is generally free of snow from June through October. Due to the extreme elevation, road access over Tioga Pass along Highway 120 is closed through winter season.
Hiking
Many backcountry hiking and backpacking trails start in Tuolumne Meadows including the primary route to summit Mount Lyell, the highest peak in Yosemite National Park. The John Muir and the Pacific Crest Trails are long-distance backpacking trails and follow a route through Lyell Canyon into Tuolumne Meadows. A large number of backpackers hike these trails each year. Along with these longer trails, Tuolumne Meadows feature a wide range of day trails to locations including Gaylor Lakes, Cathedral Lakes, Mono Pass, and Lembert Dome. The day hike trails are popular, and become busy during the summer high seasons. These trails are serviced by the Tuolumne Meadows shuttle bus, typically from June to September, though the dates are subject to change due to weather.
Rock climbing
In contrast to the big walls of Yosemite Valley, climbing at Tuolumne generally consists of short- to medium-length routes on eleven major domes and a number of minor ones, stretching from the Stately Pleasure Dome above Tenaya Lake to Lembert Dome on the east side of the Meadows. Since the area is all at a high elevation, the climbing season is mainly limited to June through September.
The rock is porphyritic granite, a very strong form of granite. It has a tendency for exfoliation, which helps produce and preserve the distinctive dome shapes. The resulting climbing includes both face and crack routes, the former often runout due to limited numbers of bolts, and the latter frequently following very thin cracks. The local ethic is to limit the placement of bolts on new routes and to forbid the addition of bolts to existing routes, resulting in distances of 40 feet (12 m) or more between bolts.
The major domes include:
Stately Pleasure Dome
Polly Dome
Daff Dome
Pothole Dome
Lembert Dome
Fairview Dome
See Granite Domes of Yosemite National Park for a list of granite domes in Yosemite National park, not just around Tuolumne.
In addition, the peaks of the nearby Cathedral Range, such as Cathedral Peak, Pywiack Dome, and Medlicott Dome, are traditionally considered part of the climbing area.
Infrastructure
The Tuolumne Meadows area is served by the Tioga Pass Road (California SR 120), which had been paved by the 1920s. Its present route through the meadows was laid out in the 1930s by the Civilian Conservation Corps. A housing area for seasonal employees was relocated at that time, whose new site includes a surviving collection of fine National Park Service rustic CCC-built structures listed on the National Register of Historic Places as "Tuolumne Meadows" in 1978.
References
External links
National Park Service Maps
Tuolumne Meadows Day Hikes
Tuolumne Meadows Campground Site Photos
Landforms of Yosemite National Park
Grasslands of California
Landforms of Tuolumne County, California
Climbing areas of California
History of Tuolumne County, California
Parks on the National Register of Historic Places in California
Tourist attractions in Tuolumne County, California
National Register of Historic Places in Tuolumne County, California
National Register of Historic Places in Yosemite National Park
Meadows in the United States | [
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|
215269 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tahquitz%20Peak | Tahquitz Peak | Tahquitz Peak (pronounced , sometimes ) is a granite, rock formation located on the high western slope of the San Jacinto mountain range in Riverside County, Southern California, United States, above the mountain town of Idyllwild. Tahquitz has a steep approach hike (approximately 800-foot elevation gain in a half mile), leading to a roughly 1000-foot face. Tahquitz, which can refer to both the rock outcrop and the outcrop's parent peak, is a popular hiking destination to the fire lookout station and the rock climbing area.
The Yosemite Decimal System, widely used in North America to classify hiking and climbing routes, was developed into its modern form at Tahquitz Peak.
Description
Tahquitz Peak can be reached from one of several trails, and is only a half-mile deviation from the Pacific Crest Trail. The most direct route is the South Ridge trail starting in Idyllwild, California. This trail is a direct hike to the peak and is typically used as an "out and back" route, four miles in length, featuring a 2400 ft. elevation gain. Tahquitz Peak can also be achieved via Devil's Slide Trail in Idyllwild, 4.8 miles one way, with a 2350 ft. elevation gain. The peak can be reached from the Palm Springs Aerial Tramway via a ten-mile hike with rolling hills and various ascents and descents.
Tahquitz Peak is used as a fire lookout in the late spring to mid fall, using a two-man ranger station with 270-degree panoramic views.
History
The area was named after the legendary luminous spirit-demon of the Soboba Indian tribe. The name first appeared in print on a 1901 USGS San Jacinto topographical map.
Two nearby rock climbing locations are Tahquitz Rock and Suicide Rock.
Lily Rock, originally named Tahquitz Rock, and still known by that name by mountain climbers, is to the northwest of Tahquitz Peak. The rock is said to have a lily-white appearance which might account for the second name. Another theory is that it was named for Lily Eastman who was the daughter of Dr. Sanford Eastman, the first Secretary and a Director of the "Southern California Colony Association" which later became Riverside.
Suicide Rock is to the northwest. Over three hundred climbing routes have been described.
In 2018, the Cranston Fire burned up the south face of Tahquitz Peak and threatened the fire lookout.
Climbing history
In the 1930s, the Rock Climbing Section (RCS) of the Sierra Club Members in California started a campaign to identify potential rock climbing locations in southern California. RCS member Jim Smith "discovered" Tahquitz in June 1935. The first fifth-class ascent of Tahquitz, "The Trough" (), occurred in August 1936 by Jim Smith, Bob Brinton, and Zene Jasaitis. A month later, Smith and Bill Rice quickly put up the now-classic route, "Angel's Fright" (5.6). In 1937, Dick Jones and Glen Dawson led a first ascent of "The Mechanic's Route", one of the first 5.8s in the country. During the late 1930s, the movie Three On A Rope featured climbing at Tahquitz.
By 1940, about a dozen routes had been established. World War II slowed down development, but activity soon picked back up and fresh faces were seen at Tahquitz. Royal Robbins, a prominent member of the RCS, led the new surge in Tahquitz development in the 1950s. This new group of climbers eschewed some of the time-honored safety techniques of the past, which led to harder and harder climbs being developed, culminating with "The Vampire" in 1959. Though Robbins and Dave Rearick climbed it via aid technique (5.9 A3/4), it was free climbed in 1973 (5.11a) by John Long et al. and is now considered one of the best free climbs in southern California.
With the help of new climbing shoe designs, route development in the 1960s jumped well into 5.10 territory. Nearby Suicide Rock also started to be developed, resulting in another southern California classic, "Valhalla" (5.11a) in November 1970.
The Yosemite Decimal System (YDS) of classifying routes was developed at Tahquitz by members of the RCS of the Angeles Chapter of the Sierra Club in the 1950s. Royal Robbins in 1952 established what was then one of the hardest free climbs in the United States, known as "Open Book". As new routes were constantly being discovered and climbed, the old method of rating climbs as either easy, moderate, or hard was quickly becoming useless. With the help of fellow RCS members Don Wilson and Chuck Wilts, the modern system of rating fifth-class climbing was developed, with the scale running from 5.0 to 5.9. Mark Powell, a local who frequented Yosemite, passed this system on to the climbers in Yosemite. By the early 1960s, the Yosemite Decimal System was the standard in the United States.
In 1967, Bob Kamps and Mark Powell established "Chingadera" one of the first 5.11 in the country and setting a new standard in rock climbing.
Most climbers, after the 1970s, considered the area "climbed out" in terms of potential new first ascents. Still, new and quality climbs continued to be added on Tahquitz as well as the smaller rock outcrops nearby, Bob Gaines having established many of them.
The Idyllwild Area Historical Society museum contains a wealth of information about the early climbing history of Tahquitz and Suicide Rock.
Natural history
The plant Ivesia callida is endemic to the San Jacinto Range and is known by the common name Tahquitz mousetail.
See also
Tahquitz (spirit), the Cahuilla spirit the Peak was named for.
References
Further reading
San Jacinto Mountains
Rock formations of California
Landforms of Riverside County, California
Climbing areas of California | [
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|
215270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty%20%28Helmet%20album%29 | Betty (Helmet album) | Betty is the third album by American rock band Helmet, released in 1994 on Interscope. It is Helmet's highest charting album in the U.S.
The album was highly anticipated by both music critics and fans as a result of the band's success with the previous album, Meantime. Rob Echeverria (guitarist of New York hardcore band Rest in Pieces) replaced Peter Mengede on guitar. After recording and touring in support of the album, Echeverria left Helmet in 1995 to join Biohazard; however, his departure was more amicable than Mengede's.
Prior to Bettys release in June 1994, the album's biggest hit, "Milquetoast", appeared in alternate form on The Crow soundtrack as "Milktoast". Its video was in regular rotation on MTV, and videos for "Wilma's Rainbow" and "Biscuits for Smut" were also released.
Musical style
Usually regarded as Helmet's experimental album, it features a broader approach with forays into jazz and blues. Frontman Page Hamilton said, "Those things were my indulgences. I tried to force the music in different directions. I know a lot of fans were disappointed, but I think it's important to try to grow musically." Helmet's sonic trademarks of crunching riffs and pounding drums still define the album. Betty, along with Meantime and Aftertaste, are considered definitive influences in post-metal.
Recording and production
Helmet entered the studio in the fall of 1993 with producer T-Ray to record the follow-up to its 1992 record Meantime. Writing and recording sessions took place at Soundtrack, Power Station, and Sound on Sound in New York City.
Release and reception
Betty was released on June 21, 1994, and peaked at number 45 on the Billboard 200 album chart, making it Helmet's highest ranking album so far.
Track listing
Amphetamine Reptile track listing
The album was issued on vinyl (on Amphetamine Reptile Records) in two-disc 10" format; this version included additional tracks "Flushings", "Thick" and "Pariah" and omits "Sam Hell".
A limited edition CD was released with a blue jewel case and five extra live tracks recorded July 30, 1994, in Los Angeles. The live tracks are "Sinatra", "FBLA II", "Tic", "Just Another Victim" and "In the Meantime". (These tracks were released overseas on the Wilma's Rainbow CD EP.)
In 2010, a 19-track digital only reissue of Betty was released. It included the bonus tracks: "Flushings", "Thick", "Pariah", "Biscuits for Smut (Mutt Mix)" and "Biscuits for Smut (Pooch Mix)".
Chart performance
Personnel
Credits taken from the CD liner notes.
Helmet
Henry Bogdan – bass guitar
Rob Echeverria – guitar
Page Hamilton – lead vocals, guitar
John Stanier – drums
Production
Helmet – production, all songs except "Milquetoast"
T-Ray – production, all songs except "Milquetoast"
Butch Vig – production, "Milquetoast"
Anton Pukshansky – engineering, all songs except "Milquetoast"
Martin Bisi – engineering, all songs except "Milquetoast"
John Siket – engineering, "Milquetoast"
Chris Curran, Anthony Gillis, Joe Hogan, Rich Piszker, Chris Albert – assistants
Andy Wallace – mixing
Howie Weinberg – mastering
References
External links
1994 albums
Helmet (band) albums
Albums produced by Butch Vig
Albums produced by Andy Wallace (producer)
Interscope Records albums | [
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|
215271 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publius%20Cornelius%20Scipio%20%28consul%20218%20BC%29 | Publius Cornelius Scipio (consul 218 BC) | Publius Cornelius Scipio (died 211 BC) was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic and the father of Scipio Africanus.
A member of the Cornelia gens, Scipio served as consul in 218 BC, the first year of the Second Punic War. He sailed with his army from Pisa with the intention of confronting Hannibal in Hispania. Stopping at Massalia (today Marseille) to replenish his supplies, he was shocked to discover that Hannibal's army had moved from Hispania and was crossing the Rhône. Scipio disembarked his army and marched to confront Hannibal, who, by now, had moved on. Returning to the fleet, he entrusted the command of his army to his brother Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus and sent him off to Hispania to carry on with the originally intended mission. Scipio returned to Italy to take command of the troops fighting in Cisalpine Gaul.
On his return to Italy, he advanced at once to meet Hannibal. In a sharp cavalry engagement near the Ticinus, a tributary of the Po river, he was defeated and severely wounded. In December of the same year, he again witnessed the complete defeat of the Roman army at the Trebia, when his fellow consul Tiberius Sempronius Longus allegedly insisted on fighting against his advice.
Despite the military defeats, he still retained the confidence of the Roman people; his term of command was extended and the following year found him in Hispania with his brother Calvus, winning victories over the Carthaginians and strengthening Rome's position in the Iberian peninsula. He continued the Iberian campaigns until 211, when he was killed during the defeat of his army at the upper Baetis river by the Carthaginians and their Iberian allies under Indibilis and Mandonius. That same year, Calvus and his army were destroyed at Ilorci near Carthago Nova. The details of these campaigns are not completely known, but it seems that the ultimate defeat and death of the two Scipiones was due to the desertion of the Celtiberians, who were bribed by Hasdrubal Barca, Hannibal's brother.
At his funeral, a certain Lucius Marcus was giving a speech when suddenly, his head spontaneously caught on fire. This has been interpreted as a divine message to Scipio's soldiers for them to avenge his death.
The son of Lucius Cornelius Scipio, he was the father of Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (the elder), and of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus.
Notes
References
See also
Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree
211 BC deaths
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Cornelii Scipiones
Roman commanders of the Second Punic War
Roman generals killed in action
Roman governors of Hispania
Year of birth unknown
Roman patricians | [
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215272 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnaeus%20Cornelius%20Scipio%20Calvus | Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus | Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus (died 211 BC) was a Roman general and statesman during the third century BC. He played a major part in the Second Punic War establishing Roman Rule in the east of the Iberian Peninsula and tying up several Carthaginian armies keeping them from reinforcing Hannibal.
Family
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus was a member of the patrician family of the Cornelii Scipiones. His father was Lucius Cornelius Scipio consul of 259 BC, the son of the patrician censor of 280, Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus. His younger brother was Publius Cornelius Scipio consul of 218, father of the famous Scipio Africanus (the most famous of the Scipios). Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio was nicknamed Calvus (the bald) to distinguish him from his uncle, another Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio, who was nicknamed Asina (donkey) and who had been consul twice during the First Punic War.
Consulship
Gnaeus Cornelius was elected consul for 222 BC, with Marcus Claudius Marcellus as his co-consul. Both consuls led their armies against the Insubres of Cisalpine Gaul. Scipio laid siege to Acerrae, while Marcellus engaged the Isubres at Clastidium. After Acerrae fell, Scipio marched towards Mediolanum, drawing the Gauls out and routing them. He took that city and thereby forced the Gauls to submit to the Romans.
The Second Punic War
Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus fought in the Second Punic War. Though he never faced Hannibal himself, he played a major part in defeating him. At the start of the Second Punic War Gnaeus served as a legate in the army of his younger brother Publius, who was consul at the outbreak of the war in 218 BC. From 218 BC until his death in 211 BC he fought against the Carthaginians in Spain.
Marching against Hannibal
In 218 Gnaeus and his brother Publius sailed his army to the allied Greek city of Massilia in southern Gaul. From there they planned to start operations against Hannibal and the Carthaginian holdings on the Iberian Peninsula. Publius was informed Hannibal was to the north in Gaul, so he sent a cavalry force north up the eastern bank of the Rhone River, which clashed with a similar force of Numidian light cavalry. After a hard-fought skirmish, they managed to drive off the Numidians. Publius then marched his entire force north intending to do battle with Hannibal in Gaul. Meanwhile, Hannibal had marched east towards the Alps. Arriving at the deserted Carthaginian camp, Scipio learned that Hannibal was three days' march away and decided to send his army to the Iberian Peninsula under the command of his elder brother Gnaeus, while he himself returned to Northern Italy to organize the defences.
Invading the Iberian Peninsula
Gnaeus, with 20,000 infantry (2 Roman legions and 2 allied alae) 2,200 cavalry and 60 quinqueremes, sailed from Massilia and landed in eastern Spain at Emporion. The Greek cities of Emporion and Tarraco welcomed the Romans, and Gnaeus began to win over the Iberian tribes north of the Ebro. Hannibal had left a certain Hanno with 10,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry to garrison the newly conquered territory north of the Ebro, he was seriously outnumbered so Hasdrubal Barca, who had been left in command of the Carthaginian army in southern Spain, decided to reinforce him and marched north with 8,000 infantry and 1,000 cavalry.
The Battle of Cissa
Hanno, afraid he would lose the Iberians and all of the Cartiginian territory north of the Ebro if he waited any longer, marched and attacked the Romans just north of Tarraco, near a place called Cissa or Kissa. He fought a pitched battle, in which there were no brilliant maneuvers or ambushes; the armies just formed up and faced off. Being outnumbered two to one, Hanno was defeated relatively easily, losing 6,000 soldiers in battle. Furthermore, the Romans managed to capture the Carthaginian camp, along with 2,000 soldiers and Hanno himself. The camp contained all the baggage left by Hannibal. The prisoners also included Indibilis, an influential Iberian chieftain. The Romans also stormed the town of Cissa, though to the frustration of the Romans it did not contain any valuable booty.
The Battle of the Ebro River
In spring 217 BC Gnaeus commanded a fleet of 55 warships (probably quinqueremes) during a naval battle near the mouth of the Ebro River. The Carthaginian naval contingent of 40 warships facing him was totally defeated after a surprise attack by the Roman ships. The Carthaginians lost 29 ships and the control of seas around the Iberian Peninsula. Furthermore, the victory enhanced Roman prestige among the warlike Iberians.
The Battle of Dertosa
In early 215 BC the Romans, under the joined command of the brothers Gnaeus and Publius Scipio, crossed the Ebro River. Hasdrubal marched north with his field army, and after some maneuvering the two armies faced of on the south bank of the Ebro River across from the town of Dertosa. The armies were about similar in size with the Scipio brothers having 30,000 infantry and 2,800 cavalry against Hasdrubal's 25,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and 20 elephants. Hasdrubal tried to emulate his brother Hannibal's envelopment tactic (see: Cannae) but failed because the Roman cavalry held out and he could not close the trap. The Scipio brothers continued with their policy of subjugating the Iberian tribes and raiding Carthaginian possessions. After losing most of his field army, Hasdrubal had to be reinforced with the army that was to sail to Italy and reinforce Hannibal. Thus, by winning this battle, the Scipios had indirectly prevented the situation in Italy from getting worse in addition to improving their own situation in Iberia.
The Battles of the Upper Baetis
In 212 BC, the Scipio brothers captured Castulo, a major mining town and the home of Hannibal's wife Imilce. They then wintered at Castulo and Ilugia.
Over the last couple of years the strength of the Scipios army had been reduced by losses and the need to garrison their recently conquered territories Therefore, the brothers had hired around 20,000 Celt-Iberian mercenaries to supplement their field army to 40,000 men. With a large army at their back and observing that the Carthaginian commanders had deployed separately from each other the Scipio brothers decided to divide their forces. Publius led an army of Roman and allied soldiers to attack Mago Barca near Castulo, while Gnaeus took one-third of the Romans and all of the mercenaries to attack Hasdrubal Barca. This stratagem would lead to two battles which took place within a few days of each other; the Battle of Castulo and the Battle of Ilorca.
Battle of Castulo
As Publius neared Castulo, he was harassed day and night by Numidian light cavalry under Masinissa. When informed that Indibilis was moving across his line of retreat with 7,500 Iberians, Publius decided not to face Mago but to attack the Iberian chieftain. Leaving 2,000 soldiers in his camp under the legate Tiberius Fonteus, he marched out at night, to evade Masinissa's cavalry, and launched an attack on the Iberians in the early morning. He caught Indibilis and his men by surprise and, with a numerical superiority, began to gain the upper hand in the ensuing action. The Iberians managed to hold off the Romans just long enough for Masinissa to arrive.
With the Numidian horse attacking their flank, the Roman assault on the Iberians began to slacken. Then Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco arrived with their combined armies. The Romans, after a grim struggle, broke and fled, leaving Publius and most of their comrades dead on the field. Mago gave the Numidians enough time to loot the dead before force marching the army towards Hasdrubal Barca's position. A handful of Roman survivors managed to reach Fonteus's camp.
Battle of Ilorca
Gnaeus Scipio had arrived at his objective first. Hasdrubal Barca decided to refuse battle and stayed within his fortified camp, he then managed to bribe the Celt-Iberian mercenaries to desert Gnaeus. This led to Hasdrubal's army outnumbering that of Gnaeus. Still Hasdrubal bided his time, avoiding any battles with the Romans.
Gnaeus, having lost his numerical advantage, decided to withdraw north after Mago and Hasdrubal Gisco arrived with their armies. The Romans moved out of their camp, leaving their camp fires burning, and made for the Ebro at night. The Numidians located them the following day; their attacks forced the Romans to take position for the night on a hilltop near Ilorca. The combined Carthaginian armies arrived during the night. As the ground was too stony for digging the Romans tried to create a defensive wall with baggage and saddles. The Carthaginians easily overran these makeshift fortification, destroying Gnaeus's army.
Death
Gnaeus died in battle fighting the Carthaginians who had overrun his makeshift camp during the battle of Ilorca. His death did not end the Scipios’ war against the Carthaginians. His nephew Publius would play an even greater part in bringing down Hannibal, and in establishing Roman Rule over the Iberian Peninsula.
Descendants
His son was Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica (nicknamed Nasica for his pointed nose), who was consul in 191 BC. He was the first Scipio Nasica and founded the Nasica branch of the Scipiades. Scipio Nasica's son, another Scipio Nasica (nicknamed Corculum, with his full name being Publius Cornelius P.f. G.n. Scipio Nasica Corculum), married his second cousin Cornelia Africana Major, the eldest daughter of Scipio Africanus and thus united the two lines. Their descendants in the male line continued until at least 46 BC, in the person of Metellus Scipio (who was adopted into the Caecilii Metelli family).
See also
Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree
References
3rd-century BC births
211 BC deaths
3rd-century BC Roman consuls
Calvus, Gnaeus
Roman commanders of the Second Punic War
Roman generals killed in action
Roman governors of Hispania
Roman patricians
Year of birth uncertain | [
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|
215273 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born%20Annoying | Born Annoying | Born Annoying is a compilation album of alternative metal band Helmet's early songs, released in 1995 by their old label, Amphetamine Reptile, a.k.a. AmRep. It is a collection of singles, B sides, compilation tracks, and other rarities spanning from the band's inception in 1989 until they were signed to Interscope in 1992. However, the band did record two songs in 1993 that were released through AmRep; they are included here.
The cover art is a bronze-colored version of the same photo used on the "Born Annoying" 7" single. (It was light green back then.)
Track listing
Personnel
Peter Mengede – guitar
Henry Bogdan – bass
Page Hamilton – guitar, vocals
John Stanier – drums
References
Helmet (band) albums
Amphetamine Reptile Records albums
1995 compilation albums | [
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|
215274 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftertaste%20%28album%29 | Aftertaste (album) | Aftertaste is the fourth album by American rock band Helmet, released in 1997 on Interscope. It was the band's final album with original members John Stanier (drums) and Henry Bogdan (bass). Guitarist Rob Echeverria, who appeared on Helmet's previous outing, Betty, left the group to join Biohazard. Subsequently, the album was recorded as a three-piece, with Page Hamilton covering all the guitar parts. Guitarist Chris Traynor (formerly of Orange 9mm) came on board for the supporting tour.
Aftertaste harkens back to Helmet's earlier sound, omitting some of the experimental/jazz tendencies of Betty. The album met with a mixed critical reaction and poor commercial response and went out of print in 2006.
This album along with Meantime and Betty is considered a definitive text in post-metal.
Writing and production
Hamilton said his goal in writing the album was to create a greater mix between smarts and crunch.
"I don't want to say that I'm sick of the visceral animal response that we get - I'm not, But I need more than that. I need more than seeing a bunch of kids jumping around and breaking each other's noses. I feel like I really need to communicate with an audience who will listen. I'm painted into a corner. Whatever I write in a rock 'n' roll context will elicit a conditioned response, unless I quit rock and make a country record or something."
Release
Delays
The album was close to being released in the fall of 1996, with promotional interviews being held (Visions Magazin 09/1996 cover story) and advance tapes being sent to journalists. A 1996 version of the track "Insatiable" featuring the same intro that appeared as the final albums intro to "Pure" was released on the German Metal Hammers magazine CD "Offroad Tracks Vol4" in the fall of 1996. The album release was withdrawn and the mix duties were handed from Producer Dave Sardy to Terry Date. The version of "Pure" that appeared on the "Exactly What You Wanted" CD single in 1997 appears to be taken from this early version of the album. The track list of the early version would've held "Insatiable" as the opening track and Pure as the album closer. "Renovation" at the time was not included in the album as it was to be contributed exclusively to a Soundtrack compilation album.
Reception
The album was met with mixed to positive reviews from music critics. AllMusic staff writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album a negative review, writing "Without the invention of Betty or the gut-level force of Meantime, Helmet is simply a bland alternative metal band, lacking riffs, hooks, and purpose and relying only on volume. It's a shocking and disheartening turn of events for one of the more intriguing metal bands of the '90s." Kevin Templeton, writer for Vancouver music publication Drop-D, remarked in July 1997 that, "Although I consider myself a fan of Helmet's riffs... er, music, I can't help feeling that they could sound a little more dangerous than this."
Legacy
Muse bassist Chris Wolstenholme has mentioned Aftertaste as his favourite album.
On the album's 20th anniversary in 2017, Diffuser.fm stated that "Aftertaste was less musically adventurous than Betty, going for more crunching, immediate riffing." They also observed that, "The music scene had shifted somewhat dramatically in the nearly three years since Betty, and 1997 would ultimately be remembered for bands like Limp Bizkit and Coal Chamber creeping into the spotlight under the guise of nu metal which, incidentally, was a genre Helmet would end up credited by many to have primarily influenced."
Track listing
Personnel
Band
Henry Bogdan – bass
Page Hamilton – guitar, vocals
John Stanier – drums
Guest musician
Jane Scarpantoni – cello on "Like I Care"
Production
Ralph Cacciurri – recording assistant
Terry Date – mixing
Suz Dyer – recording assistant
Greg Gordan – recording
Helmet – production
Dave Sardy – production
Ted Jensen – mastering
Chart positions
Album
Singles
References
1997 albums
Helmet (band) albums
Albums produced by Dave Sardy
Interscope Records albums | [
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|
215277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shinobi%20%28disambiguation%29 | Shinobi (disambiguation) | Shinobi () is the Japanese word for male ninja. It may also refer to:
Shinobi (series), a series of video games
Shinobi (1987 video game), the original arcade video game in the series developed by Sega
Shinobi (2002 video game), the PlayStation 2 sequel
Shinobi (2011 video game), the 2011 Nintendo 3DS game
Shinobi: Heart Under Blade, a 2005 Japanese film
"Shinobi", a song by Eyehategod from the album In the Name of Suffering
Shinobi Shaw, a Marvel Comics villain
Ring name of professional wrestler Al Snow (born 1963)
See also
Ninja (disambiguation)
Ninja Warrior (disambiguation)
Kunoichi (disambiguation) | [
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215279 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTV2 | MTV2 | MTV2 (formerly M2) is an American pay television channel owned by the Paramount Media Networks division of Paramount Global.
The channel launched initially as an all-music video service, once the original MTV had started to shift its programming. As with its parent network, MTV2's focus on music programming would gradually be downplayed during the 2000s. By 2011, MTV2 would primarily target young adult men with original and acquired lifestyle and reality programming, reruns of male-targeting shows from MTV, acquired sitcoms and movies, and a daily block of hip hop and rock genre videos in the early mornings. Due to Viacom's 2017 restructuring plan, MTV2's original programs were eventually moved over to the flagship MTV network, while the former network would drop its music video blocks in November of that year.
In February 2015, approximately 79,416,000 American households (68.2% of households with television) received MTV2.
History
Early history
MTV2 began broadcasting as simply M2 on August 1, 1996 – MTV's 15th anniversary – with Beck's "Where It's At" being the first video to air. In its first few years on the air, M2 was restricted to satellite television plus the few, small markets where digital cable was then available, limiting its audience reach to around 12 million homes by 2000. M2 also broadcast live over the internet during its early years, which meant it was similarly ahead of its time in a period when few people had broadband internet connections. Due in part to the unexpectedly slow roll-out of the fledgling channel, MTV Networks decided to rebrand M2 in the first quarter of 1999, changing the name to MTV2
M2's early years was known for its playful or ironic programming decisions that underscored the channel's free-wheeling, subversive attitude; on January 1, 1999, M2 played the music video "1999" by Prince for 24 hours straight. M2 quickly gained favor with music insiders, and as its popularity and reputation grew within the music industry, it became common for musicians and record labels to request that their new videos premiere exclusively on M2 rather than MTV. Record companies often asked to have new artists appear on the channel in taped segments with the VJs. The Spice Girls made their first U.S. television appearance on M2, as did their video for "Wannabe". At the time of their appearance on M2, the girl group was a huge success in the United Kingdom, but they were relatively unknown to U.S. audiences.
Starting on January 1, 2000, in honor of the millennium, MTV2 attempted to play every music video in the MTV library in alphabetical order. While a majority of videos were played, many were skipped over. The special ended in mid-April 2000.
1997: Relaunch
In 1997, MTV’s owner Viacom bought out the rival music channel The Box. Starting on January 1, 2001, all households that had received The Box began to receive MTV2 in its place, putting the channel into millions of additional households. MTV2 also began adding television commercials to its broadcasts; beforehand, subscription providers interrupted MTV2's feed to insert their own ads.
A new show hosted by Jancee Dunn called MTV2 Request aired every weekday between 11 a.m. and 12 p.m. and again between 11 p.m. and midnight. All of the videos played on MTV2 Request were selected by online viewer requests. Another new show called Control Freak began in 2001, airing weekdays from 8 to 9 p.m. It used real-time viewer voting to select the next video to be played on the channel (out of three choices), while the current video was playing. The majority of the daytime schedule still featured a mix of rap, rock, and pop genre videos. By 2003, the network had 50 million subscribers in the United States.
During the Memorial Day weekend of 2002, MTV2 played a special called Increase The Beat. DJ Paul Oakenfold hosted the special and played videos from such artists as Fatboy Slim, Beastie Boys, and Jay-Z. The videos were arranged in order from slowest to fastest, based on the number of beats per minute of the song.
In 2003, Jesse Snider, son of Twisted Sister's Dee Snider was selected as the new host of MTV2 Rock, replacing Abby Gennet. Another new program included Track 2, a series going "behind the scenes" of music videos, and Nose Dive, profiling past popular artists.
In May of that year, MTV2 relaunched the old MTV program Headbangers Ball, which featured a wide array of heavy metal and hard rock music videos. Metallica hosted the first episode, followed by Rob Zombie for the next few weeks.
In June, MTV2 began an eight-hour block of hip-hop programming on Sundays called Sucker Free Sunday. Each week, a different guest host served up Artist Collections, countdowns, and other hip-hop music specials. In July of that year, the channel also introduced a new advertising campaign – aimed at differentiating itself from its parent network, MTV – featuring The Talking Baby, a foul-mouthed baby doll operated by Charlotte-based comedian Sean Keenan.
Around this time, MTV2 sponsored two albums in the MTV2 Album Covers series, in which a band covers another band's songs. The first was Dashboard Confessional/R.E.M., and the second was Guster/Violent Femmes.
2005–2011:The two-headed dog
In 2005, MTV2 rebranded with a new logo: a two-headed Rottweiler dog. Billboard Radio Monitor reported that the double heads of the dog were made to represent rock and hip-hop, the two sides of music on MTV2.
From February 2007, MTV2 began scaling down music programming as a result of its production staff being archer. MTV2 would later devote Saturday evenings to rock music, usually during the primetime hours on Saturdays, but currently the block is shown on late Saturday evenings starting at 10:00 p.m. Other formats included a 30-minute block of videos that aired in the early mornings and late nights, as well as the No Break Video Hour, a music video block that excluded commercials, Tuesdays through Thursdays at 10:00 a.m.
MTV2 gave the cast of Human Giant free rein of the channel in May for an event called Human Giant: 24, allowing them to program the channel and host from MTV's Times Square studios as they see fit for 24 hours, from 12 p.m. on May 18 to 12 p.m. on May 19. Notable guests included Fred Armisen and Bill Hader from Saturday Night Live, Will Arnett, Michael Cera, Bob Odenkirk, Michael Showalter, Todd Barry, Zach Galifianakis, Tapes 'n Tapes, and Tegan and Sara. The live event was the successor to 24 Hours of Love in 2002, 24 Hours of Foo in 2005, and a subsequent Jackass special on MTV in early 2008.
Music programming was briefly expanded in June. From 4:30 p.m. on June 29 to 1:00 a.m. on July 1, 2007, MTV2 played strictly music videos, whether a general block of videos or a specific genre-based block such as Headbangers Ball (heavy metal) or Sucker Free (hip-hop), for 33 hours and 30 minutes. Throughout the month of July 2007, MTV2 broadcast music video programs during primetime Mondays through Thursdays in its efforts to play more music. In February 2008, MTV2 replaced the 10 p.m. Eastern rebroadcast of Elite 8 with a standard block of music videos.
2008 saw decreased availability for MTV2, as both Comcast and Cox Communications moved the channel from their widely received analog cable services to digital cable.
2011–2017
In 2011, MTV debuted a new original series calld Guy Code on November 15. The series closed out its first season as the highest-rated program in network history, amassing significant time period increases among MTV2's core male demographic with a 55% increase among men 12-34 and massive 188% increase in viewership among male teens, as well as a 44% increase among 12- to 34-year-olds overall.
The second season of Guy Code closed out its sophomore run on September 25, 2012, as MTV2's highest-rated and most-watched original series ever.
MTV2 next debuted Nitro Circus Live, an original series featuring 17-time X Games medalist Travis Pastrana and his sports-adventure troupe bridging the gap between extreme sports and unabashed daredevil antics, on March 27, 2012 . The first season of Nitro Circus Live became MTV2's highest-rated original series among the network's core demographic of men 12-34 since 2006, delivering an average rating of .42 and a 50% time period increase versus the year prior. In addition, the first season improved its prior year time period by 27%.
On May 22, 2012, MTV2 premiered the comedic game show Hip Hop Squares, a revitalization of the iconic game show Hollywood Squares that featured an original style and personality tailor-made for the network's audience. The show stayed true to the tic-tac-toe format of the original game show, while infusing it with well-known personalities in hip-hop culture. A reboot of the series would premiere on VH1 in 2016. In addition, MTV2 brought back The Dub Magazine Project for a second season on October 28, 2012, to give viewers a unique and rarely seen glimpse into the lives and deepest obsessions of entertainment and sports personalities.
2013 saw MTV2 expand its original programming slate further with the premieres of Mac Miller and the Most Dope Family, the Guy Code spinoff, Guy Court; Ain't that America and Charlamagne and Friends. After a six-year hiatus, a revival of Wild 'n Out premiered on July 9, 2013. The premiere episode of season five had 1.1 million total viewers, the highest-rated telecast in the network's history. During this time, MTV2 introduced a new version of the "Two-Headed Dog" logo, with the channel's name rendered in a new font.
In 2014, MTV2 debuted Jobs That Don't Suck, a show spotlighting young entrepreneurs, and the weekly series Off the Bat from the MLB Fan Cave, created from MTV's partnership with Major League Baseball. On November 11, 2014, MTV2 renewed Wild n' Out & Guy Code and greenlit two new series: a comedic game show, MTV2's Joking Off, and a news satire series under the working title Number 2 News. Weeks after the announcement that the NBCUniversal-owned cable network, G4, will be shutting down, MTV2 began syndicating the Marvel Anime anthology, which previously aired on the former network.
Because of the popularity of MTV2's original programming, the network was listed as one of Comedy Hype's 20 Game Changers of Comedy of 2015. Joking Off premiered on April 1, 2015, and Number 2 News, renamed Not Exactly News, premiered on June 17, 2015. In the Summer of 2015, MTV2 debuted the reality series, Kingin' with Tyga, and panel show, Uncommon Sense with Charlamagne.
Because of Viacom's 2017 restructuring, in which most of the company's resources were directed towards the flagship MTV network, MTV2 currently has no original programming. In the previous year, several of MTV2's remaining original programs moved to MTV.
Music programming
Music programming was seen during the AMTV2 block, which aired Monday-Fridays from 4 to 9 a.m. AMTV2 was blocked in as "MTV2 Jams", which runs from 4AM-8AM Eastern, and "MTV2 Music Mix" (known on-air as Morning Music Buzz), which runs from 8AM-9AM Eastern. "Jams" primarily features hip-hop music videos, while "Music Mix" features a mixture of hip-hop, rock, and alternative videos.
On October 28, 2012, MTV2 relaunched its Sucker Free series as The Week in Jams, followed by additional airings on MTV Jams. Where Sucker Free Countdown focused primarily on music, the expanded focus of The Week in Jams includes interviews, fashion trends, music, sports and hip-hop lifestyle. MTV recruited a stable of hip hop contributors to serve as the hosts of The Week in Jams and to provide expert commentary across MTV's channels including: mixtape legend, radio personality and television host DJ Envy; industry insider, radio personality and cast member of MTV2's Guy Code Charlamagne Tha God; Motown Records recording artist and songwriter Sofi Green; insider Maestro; and radio personality and nationally syndicated nighttime radio host Nessa, to join MTV hip hop expert and MTV News correspondent, Sway Calloway. The show hasn't been seen on MTV2's schedule since late 2013.
MTV Clubland, an EDM block on the flagship network, premiered on March 30, 2013; it continued to be seen on AMTV
Programming
As of 2021, MTV2 primarily airs movies, acquired sitcoms and reality shows, as well as reruns of MTV programming and other shows from its sibling-owned networks.
Broadcast affiliates
From 2001 until 2015, MTV2 had a small network of terrestrial television affiliates that carried the network for free as a result of MTV's purchase of The Box in 2001. The broadcast network branch slowly thinned out as other parties purchased stations, with some leaving the air as a result of the digital transition dislocating those stations from their channel positions, and in most cases, the retransmission consent contracts for Viacom's networks, including MTV2, precluded these stations from having any cable or satellite carriage on their own, notwithstanding existing complications involving low-power stations and cable carriage. The over-the-air stations also created a side effect of requiring MTV2's programming to meet the FCC's broadcast safe harbor and in some cases, educational and informational programming requirements. Eventually, Viacom let their affiliation agreements lapse with their broadcast affiliates, and those other stations have become affiliates of other networks, or ceased all operations.
Former affiliates
International versions
In addition to the original MTV2 channel in the United States, there have been a number of other MTV Networks channels around the world known as MTV2.
Europe: MTV Rocks, which focused solely on alternative rock and indie, broadcast from London. It was called MTV Two.
Canada: MTV2 in Canada was very similar to its American counterpart, however it had VJs who host shows such as MTV2 Videos (music videos). The original incarnation of MTV2 featured a non-stop freeform mix of music videos as well as a select number of concert performances. It was replaced by PunchMuch (now known as Juicebox) in June 2005.
Germany: A version of MTV2 was replaced by Nick in September 2005. Unlike the original, MTV2 Pop was a mainstream channel. However, MTV Rocks is being offered by several pay-TV services.
See also
List of MTV channels
List of programs broadcast by MTV2
MTV
MTV Classic
MTVX
mtvU
References
External links
MTV2
Music video networks in the United States
Television channels and stations established in 1996
Television networks in the United States
English-language television stations in the United States
MTV channels
1996 establishments in the United States | [
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|
215280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Cornelius%20Scipio%20Asiaticus | Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus | Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus (properly Asiagenes; 3rd century BC – after 183 BC) was a general and statesman of the Roman Republic. He was the son of Publius Cornelius Scipio and the younger brother of Scipio Africanus. He was elected consul in 190 BC, and later that year led (with his brother) the Roman forces to victory at the Battle of Magnesia.
Although his career may be eclipsed by the shadow of his elder brother, Lucius' life is noteworthy in several respects.
Family background
Lucius belonged to the patrician gens Cornelia, one of the most important gentes of the Republic, which counted more consulships than any other. He was the son of Publius, the consul of 218 who died against the Carthaginians at the Battle of the Upper Baetis in 211, and Pomponia, the daughter of Manius Pomponius Matho, consul in 233. Lucius also had an elder brother, Publius, better known as Scipio Africanus, who was the leading man of his generation and the vanquisher of Hannibal at the Battle of Zama in 202. Lucius was very close to his brother throughout his career, but had a conflicting relationship with his cousin Scipio Nasica since both of them were born circa 228, and therefore fought for the same magistracies at each stage of their cursus honorum.
Lucius' wife is not known.
Early career
Lucius served under his brother in Spain during the Second Punic War, defeating the Carthaginian commander Larus in a famous duel, and in 208 BC took a town on his own. In 206 BC, he was sent to the Senate with news of the victory in Spain. He was curule aedile in 195 BC, and praetor assigned to Sicily in 193 BC, helped by the influence of his brother. He was a candidate for consul in 191 BC, but lost to his first cousin Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica.
Consul
He was finally elected consul in 190 BC with his co-consul being his brother's old second-in-command Gaius Laelius. According to Smith, the senate had not much confidence in his abilities (Cic. Phil. xi. 17), and it was only through the offer of his brother Africanus to accompany him as a legate that he obtained the province of Greece and the conduct of the war against Antiochus.
He asserted himself against his brother by refusing the peace negotiated with the Aetolians by the latter. However, Publius insisted that as supreme commander at Magnesia Lucius should receive full credit for the victory over Antiochus. Upon his return to Rome, he celebrated a triumph (189 BC) and requested the title "Asiaticus" to signify his conquest of Western Asia Minor.
According to some biblical commentators, Asiaticus is the "commander" referred to in Daniel 11:18, where it says that "a commander will put an end to his insolence" (NIV).
Political fall
Towards the end of his brother's life, Lucius was accused of misappropriating some of the funds collected from Antiochus as an indemnity. Africanus, then Princeps Senatus, was outraged, going so far as to destroy the campaign's financial records while speaking in the Senate, as an act of defiance.
After his brother's death (c. 183 BC), Lucius was imprisoned for this alleged theft. He was eventually pardoned by the tribune Tiberius Gracchus, although he was forced to sell his property and pay the state a lump sum. Roman historians report that he refused to accept any gifts or loans from his friends to pay the penalty.
During his brother's lifetime in 185 BC, Lucius celebrated with great splendour the games which he had vowed in his war with Antiochus. Valerius of Antium related that he obtained the necessary money during an embassy on which he was sent after his condemnation, to settle the disputes between the kings Antiochus and Eumenes.
He was a candidate for the censorship in 184 BC, but was defeated by an old enemy of his family, M. Porcius Cato, who deprived Lucius of his Public Horse at the review of the equites.
Descendants
Lucius had descendants, the Cornelii Scipiones Asiatici, the last of whom was the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio Asiaticus who had an adoptive son. This son passed into obscurity after 82 BC.
See also
Scipio-Paullus-Gracchus family tree
References
Sources
Bibliography
Ancient sources
Fasti Capitolini.
Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome.
Plutarch, Parallel lives.
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3rd-century BC births
2nd-century BC deaths
3rd-century BC Romans
2nd-century BC Roman consuls
2nd-century BC Roman praetors
2nd-century BC Roman generals
Curule aediles
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Asiaticus, Lucius
Roman patricians
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown | [
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215285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent%20Gigante | Vincent Gigante | Vincent Louis Gigante (; March 29, 1928 – December 19, 2005), also known as "The Chin", was an American mobster who was boss of the Genovese crime family in New York City from 1981 to 2005. Gigante started out as a professional boxer who fought in 25 matches between 1944 and 1947. He then started working as a Mafia enforcer for what was then the Luciano crime family, forerunner of the Genovese family. Gigante was one of five brothers; three of them, Mario, Pasquale, and Ralph, followed him into the Mafia. Only one brother, Louis, stayed out of the crime family, instead becoming a priest. Gigante was the shooter in the failed assassination of longtime Luciano boss Frank Costello in 1957. In 1959, he was sentenced to seven years in prison for drug trafficking, and after sharing a prison cell with Costello's rival, Vito Genovese, Gigante became a caporegime overseeing his own crew of Genovese soldiers and associates who operated out of Greenwich Village.
Gigante quickly rose to power during the 1960s and 1970s. By 1981 he became the family's boss, while Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno served as front boss during the first half of the 1980s. He also ordered the failed murder attempt of Gambino crime family boss John Gotti in 1986. With the arrest and conviction of Gotti and various Gambino family members in 1992, Gigante was recognized as the most powerful crime boss in the United States. For about 30 years, Gigante feigned insanity in an effort to throw law enforcement off his trail. Dubbed "The Oddfather" and "The Enigma in the Bathrobe" by the media, Gigante often wandered the streets of Greenwich Village in his bathrobe and slippers, mumbling incoherently to himself. He was indicted on federal racketeering charges in 1990, but was determined to be mentally unfit to stand trial. In 1997, he was tried and convicted of racketeering and conspiracy, and sentenced to 12 years in prison. Facing obstruction of justice charges in 2003, he pleaded guilty and admitted that his supposed insanity was an elaborate effort to avoid prosecution, as he was sentenced to an additional three years in prison. He died while incarcerated at the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners on December 19, 2005.
Early life and boxing career
Gigante was born in New York City to Italian immigrants from Naples, Salvatore Gigante, a watchmaker, and Yolanda Gigante, a seamstress. He had four brothers, Mario, Pasquale, and Ralph, who followed him into a life of organized crime, and Louis, who became a Catholic priest at St. Athanasius Church in the South Bronx and city councilman. According to his brother Louis, his nickname, "The Chin", stemmed from their mother affectionately calling him Chinzeeno as a boy, derived from the name Vincenzo, the Italian form of Vincent. Gigante graduated from Public School 3 in West Village, Manhattan and later attended Textile High School, but dropped out.
Gigante was a professional light heavyweight boxer between 1944 and 1947, who was known as "The Chin" Gigante. He fought 25 matches and lost four, boxing 117 rounds. His first professional boxing match was against Vic Chambers on July 18, 1944, in Union City, New Jersey, which he lost; he then fought Chambers a second time at the St. Nicholas Arena on October 6, 1944, and defeated him. He defeated him again on June 29, 1945, at Madison Square Garden. His last match was against Jimmy Slade on May 17, 1947, at Ridgewood Grove, Brooklyn, which he lost by technical knockout.
He maintained a residence in Old Tappan, New Jersey, with his wife Olympia Grippa, whom he married in 1950, and their five children, Andrew, Salvatore, Yolanda, Roseanne, and Rita. He maintained his second family at a townhouse in the Upper East Side, Manhattan with his longtime mistress and common-law wife, Olympia Esposito and their three children, Vincent, Lucia and Carmella. He often stayed at his mother's apartment in Greenwich Village.
Criminal career
Costello murder attempt and caporegime
As a teenager, Gigante became the protégé of future Genovese crime family patriarch Vito Genovese, who had helped pay for Gigante's mother's surgery. Between the ages of 17 and 25, he was arrested seven times on charges ranging from receiving stolen goods, possession of an unlicensed handgun and for illegal gambling and bookmaking. Most were dismissed or resolved by fines, except for a 60-day jail-stay for a gambling conviction; during this time, Gigante listed his occupation as a tailor.
In early 1957, Genovese decided to move on Luciano family boss Frank Costello. Genovese ordered Gigante to murder Costello, and on May 2, 1957, Gigante shot and wounded Costello outside his apartment building. Although the wound was superficial, it persuaded Costello to relinquish power to Genovese and retire. Genovese then controlled what is now called the Genovese crime family. A doorman identified Gigante as the gunman. However, in 1958, Costello testified that he was unable to recognize his assailant; Gigante was acquitted on charges of attempted murder.
In 1959, Gigante was convicted, with Vito Genovese, of heroin trafficking and sentenced to seven years in prison; he was paroled after five years. Not long afterward, he was promoted from soldier to captain, running the Greenwich Village Crew, and headquartered at the Triangle Civic Improvement Association. In 1969, Gigante was indicted in New Jersey for conspiracy to bribe the entire five-member Old Tappan, New Jersey police force to alert him to surveillance operations by law enforcement agencies, though that charge was dropped after Gigante's lawyers presented reports from psychiatrists that he was mentally unfit to stand trial.
Since 1969, Gigante had been treated 20 times for psychiatric disorders, and Gigante's "primary treating psychiatrist" Eugene D'Adamo noted that "Vincent Gigante has been diagnosed since 1969 as suffering from schizophrenia, paranoid type with period acute exacerbations which result in hospitalization". Gigante's lawyers and relatives said that Gigante had been mentally disabled since the late 1960s, with a below-normal IQ of 69 to 72.
Genovese crime boss
In 1981, Genovese's successor, Philip "Benny Squint" Lombardo, stepped down as boss due to poor health. With Lombardo's support, Gigante became boss of the Genovese family. Anthony "Fat Tony" Salerno was made front boss of the Genovese family in order to fool law enforcement.
Gigante built a vast network of bookmaking and loansharking rings and from extortions of garbage, shipping, trucking and construction companies seeking labor peace or contracts from carpenters', Teamsters and laborers' unions, including those at the Javits Center, as well as protection payoffs from merchants at the Fulton Fish Market. Gigante also had influence in the Feast of San Gennaro in Little Italy, operating gambling games, extorting payoffs from vendors, and pocketing thousands of dollars donated to a neighborhood church—until a crackdown in 1995 by New York City officials.
On April 13, 1986, Gambino crime family underboss Frank DeCicco was killed when his car was bombed following a visit to Paul Castellano loyalist James Failla. The bombing was carried out by Victor Amuso and Anthony Casso of the Lucchese crime family, under orders of Gigante and Lucchese boss Anthony Corallo, to avenge Castellano and Thomas Bilotti by killing their successors; John Gotti also planned to visit Failla that day, but canceled, and the bomb was detonated after a soldier who rode with DeCicco was mistaken for the boss.
In January 1987, Salerno was sentenced to 100 years in prison for racketeering, along with top members of the other New York families, as part of the Mafia Commission Trial. Salerno had initially been billed as the boss of the Genovese family. However, shortly after the trial, Salerno's longtime right-hand man, Vincent "The Fish" Cafaro, turned informant and told the FBI that Salerno had been a front for the real boss, Gigante. Cafaro also revealed that the Genovese family had been keeping up this ruse since 1969. FBI bugs had captured a conversation in which Salerno and capo Matthew "Matty the Horse" Ianniello were reviewing a list of prospective candidates to be made in another family. Frustrated that the nicknames of the wannabes had not been included, Salerno shrugged and said, "I'll leave this up to the boss."
Gigante was reclusive, and almost impossible to capture on wiretaps, speaking softly, eschewing the phone and even at times whistling into the receiver. He almost never left his home unoccupied because he knew FBI agents would sneak in and plant a bug. Genovese members were not allowed to mention Gigante's name in conversations or phone calls; when they had to mention him, members pointed to their chins or made the letter "C" with their fingers.
During Gigante's tenure as boss of the Genovese family, after the imprisonment of John Gotti in 1992, Gigante came to be known as the figurehead capo di tutti capi, the "Boss of All Bosses", despite the position being abolished in 1931 with the murder of Salvatore Maranzano.
Trials and conviction
From 1978 to 1990, four of the five crime families of New York, including the Genovese family, rigged bids for 75 percent of $191 million, or about $142 million, of the window contracts awarded by the New York City Housing Authority. Installation companies were required to make union payoffs between $1 and $2 for each windows installed.
In 1988, Gigante had open-heart surgery. On May 30, 1990, Gigante was indicted along with other members of four of the New York crime families for conspiring to rig bids and extort payoffs from contractors on multimillion-dollar contracts with the New York City Housing Authority to install windows. Gigante attended his arraignment in pajamas and bathrobe, and due to his defense stating that he was mentally and physically impaired, legal battles ensued for seven years over his competence to stand trial.
In June 1993, Gigante was under indictment again, charged with sanctioning the murders of six mobsters and conspiring to kill three others, including Gambino boss John Gotti. At sanity hearings in March 1996, Sammy "The Bull" Gravano, former underboss of the Gambino crime family, who became a cooperating witness in 1991, and Alphonse "Little Al" D'Arco, former acting boss of the Lucchese family, testified that Gigante was lucid at top-level Mafia meetings and that he had told other gangsters that his eccentric behavior was a pretense. Gigante's lawyers got testimony and reports from psychiatrists that from 1969 to 1995 Gigante had been confined 28 times in hospitals for treatment of hallucinations and that he suffered from "dementia rooted in organic brain damage".
In August 1996, senior judge of the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York, Eugene Nickerson, ruled that Gigante was mentally competent to stand trial; he pleaded not guilty and had been free for years on $1 million bail. Gigante had another cardiac operation in December 1996. On June 25, 1997, Gigante's trial started; Gigante stood trial in a wheelchair. On July 25, 1997, after almost three days of deliberations, the jury convicted Gigante of conspiring in plots to kill other mobsters and of running rackets as head of the Genovese family. Prosecutors stated that the verdict finally established that Gigante was not mentally ill as his lawyers and relatives had long maintained.
On December 18, 1997, Gigante was sentenced to 12 years in prison and fined $1.25 million by judge Jack B. Weinstein, a lenient sentence due to Gigante's "age and frailty", who declared that Gigante had been "...finally brought to bay in his declining years after decades of vicious criminal tyranny". While in prison, he maintained his role as boss of the Genovese family, while other mobsters were entrusted to run the day-to-day activities of the family; Gigante relayed orders to the crime family through his son, Andrew, who visited him in prison.
On January 23, 2002, Gigante was indicted with several other mobsters, including his son Andrew, on racketeering and obstruction of justice charges. Prosecutors accused him of continuing to rule his family from prison, and that he used Andrew to funnel messages to the family. They also wanted him held responsible for causing a seven-year delay in his previous trial by feigning insanity. Several days later, Andrew was released on $2.5 million bail. Federal prosecutor Roslynn R. Mauskopf had planned to play tapes showing him "fully coherent, careful and intelligent," running crime operations from prison. Faced with this evidence, Gigante pleaded guilty to obstruction of justice on April 7, 2003; just hours before the trial was to start. Judge I. Leo Glasser sentenced him to an additional three years in prison. Mauskopf stated, "The jig is up...Vincent Gigante was a cunning faker, and those of us in law enforcement always knew that this was an act...The act ran for decades, but today it's over."
On July 25, 2003, Gigante's son Andrew was sentenced to two years in prison and fined $2.5 million for racketeering and extortion. New York Times organized-crime reporter and mob historian Selwyn Raab described Gigante's plea deal as an "unprecedented capitulation" for a Mafia boss; it was almost unheard of for a boss to even consider pleading guilty. However, Gigante agreed to the deal to ease the burden on his relatives. For instance, Andrew faced up to 20 years in prison had he gone to trial. Another provision of the plea agreement stipulated that any relatives who helped in his deception—including his wife, mistress and Father Louis—would not be charged with obstruction of justice.
Death
Gigante died on December 19, 2005, at the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri. His funeral and burial were held four days later, on December 23, at Saint Anthony of Padua Church in Greenwich Village, largely in anonymity.
Since Gigante's death, his family has continued to live well. According to a 2011 report by Jerry Capeci, Gigante's relatives earn nearly $2 million a year as employees of companies on the New Jersey waterfront.
In popular culture
Films and television
He is portrayed by Nicholas Kepros in the 1998 TV film Witness to the Mob.
In the 2018 film Gotti, Gigante is portrayed by Sal Rendino.
The Law & Order episode "Faccia e Faccia", first aired February 28, 1998, featured an aging mafia don claiming mental impairment, inspired by Gigante.
He is portrayed by Vincent D'Onofrio in the 2019 TV series Godfather of Harlem.
Documentaries
The story of the FBI investigation into Gigante was depicted in season 1, episode 6 of The FBI Files documentary show, titled "The Crazy Don" (which first aired on December 8, 1998).
National Geographic aired a 6-part documentary series, Inside the American Mob, where Gigante features prominently in episode 5, "The Rise and Fall of Gotti", while actions attributed to him are discussed in episode 3, "New York-Philly War".
References
Further reading
Capeci, Jerry. The Complete Idiot's Guide to the Mafia. Indianapolis: Alpha Books, 2002.
Jacobs, James B., Coleen Friel and Robert Radick. Gotham Unbound: How New York City Was Liberated from the Grip of Organized Crime. New York: NYU Press, 2001.
Maas, Peter. Underboss: Sammy the Bull Gravano's Story of Life in the Mafia. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1997.
Raab, Selwyn. Five Families: The Rise, Decline, and Resurgence of America's Most Powerful Mafia Empires. New York: St. Martin Press, 2005.
External links
Vincent Gigante Mafia Archive
nytimes.com
ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com
1928 births
2005 deaths
Light-heavyweight boxers
People from the Lower East Side
American gangsters of Italian descent
American boxers of Italian descent
Bosses of the Genovese crime family
Capo dei capi
Genovese crime family
People convicted of racketeering
American people who died in prison custody
Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention
People from Greenwich Village
People from Old Tappan, New Jersey
American drug traffickers
American people convicted of drug offenses
People convicted of obstruction of justice
People acquitted of murder
American male boxers | [
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|
215288 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wardialing | Wardialing | Wardialing (or war dialing) is a technique to automatically scan a list of telephone numbers, usually dialing every number in a local area code to search for modems, computers, bulletin board systems (computer servers) and fax machines. Hackers use the resulting lists for various purposes: hobbyists for exploration, and crackers—malicious hackers who specialize in breaching computer security—for guessing user accounts (by capturing voicemail greetings), or locating modems that might provide an entry-point into computer or other electronic systems. It may also be used by security personnel, for example, to detect unauthorized devices, such as modems or faxes, on a company's telephone network.
Process
A single wardialing call would involve calling an unknown number, and waiting for one or two rings, since answering computers usually pick up on the first ring. If the phone rings twice, the modem hangs up and tries the next number. If a modem or fax machine answers, the wardialer program makes a note of the number. If a human or answering machine answers, the wardialer program hangs up. Depending on the time of day, wardialing 10,000 numbers in a given area code might annoy dozens or hundreds of people, some who attempt and fail to answer a phone in two rings, and some who succeed, only to hear the wardialing modem's carrier tone and hang up. The repeated incoming calls are especially annoying to businesses that have many consecutively numbered lines in the exchange, such as used with a Centrex telephone system.
Some newer wardialing software, such as WarVOX, does not require a modem to conduct wardialing. Rather, such programs can use VOIP connections, which can speed up the number of calls that a wardialer can make. Sandstorm Enterprises has a patent on a multi-line war dialer. ("System and Method for Scan-Dialing Telephone Numbers and Classifying Equipment Connected to Telephone Lines Associated therewith.") The patented technology is implemented in Sandstorm's PhoneSweep war dialer.
Etymology
The popular name for this technique originated in the 1983 film WarGames. In the film, the protagonist programmed his computer to dial every telephone number in Sunnyvale, California to find other computer systems. Prior to the movie's release, this technique was known as "hammer dialing" or "demon dialing", but the film introduced the method to many, such as the members of The 414s. By 1985 at least one company advertised a "War Games Autodialer" for Commodore computers. Such programs became common on bulletin board systems of the time, with file names often truncated to wardial.exe and the like due to length restrictions of 8 characters on such systems. Eventually, the etymology of the name fell behind as "war dialing" gained its own currency within computing culture.
The popularity of wardialing in 1980s and 1990s prompted some states to enact legislation prohibiting the use of a device to dial telephone numbers without the intent of communicating with a person.
Variants
A more recent phenomenon is wardriving, the searching for wireless networks (Wi-Fi) from a moving vehicle. Wardriving was named after wardialing, since both techniques involve actively scanning to find computer networks. The aim of wardriving is to collect information about wireless access points (not to be confused with piggybacking).
Similar to war dialing is a port scan under TCP/IP, which "dials" every TCP port of every IP address to find out what services are available. Unlike wardialing, however, a port scan will generally not disturb a human being when it tries an IP address, regardless of whether there is a computer responding on that address or not. Related to wardriving is warchalking, the practice of drawing chalk symbols in public places to advertise the availability of wireless networks.
The term is also used today by analogy for various sorts of exhaustive brute force attack against an authentication mechanism, such as a password. While a dictionary attack might involve trying each word in a dictionary as the password, "wardialing the password" would involve trying every possible password. Password protection systems are usually designed to make this impractical, by making the process slow and/or locking out an account for minutes or hours after some low number of wrong password entries.
See also
Autodialer
Toneloc, a war dialer for DOS.
Warflying
Vishing
References
External links
47 C.F.R. § 64.1200(a)(7) The Electronic Code of Federal Regulations has the most up to date version of the TCPA which appears to make wardialing a federal crime in the United States.
Old School Hacks: War Dialing with WarVox 2009 article about using WarVOX for an internal network scan.
Telephony
Computer security exploits
Phreaking | [
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215289 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.%20D.%20Ouspensky | P. D. Ouspensky | Pyotr Demianovich Ouspenskii (known in English as Peter D. Ouspensky; ; 5 March 1878 – 2 October 1947), was a Russian esotericist known for his expositions of the early work of the Greek-Armenian teacher of esoteric doctrine George Gurdjieff. He met Gurdjieff in Moscow in 1915, and was associated with the ideas and practices originating with Gurdjieff from then on. He taught ideas and methods based in the Gurdjieff system for 25 years in England and the United States, although he separated from Gurdjieff personally in 1924, for reasons that are explained in the last chapter of his book In Search of the Miraculous.
Ouspensky studied the Gurdjieff system directly under Gurdjieff's own supervision for a period of ten years, from 1915 to 1924. In Search of the Miraculous recounts what he learned from Gurdjieff during those years. While lecturing in London in 1924, he announced that he would continue independently the way he had begun in 1921. Some, including his close pupil Rodney Collin, say that he finally gave up the system in 1947, just before his death, but his own recorded words on the subject ("A Record of Meetings", published posthumously) do not clearly endorse this judgement.
Early life
Ouspensky was born in Kharkov, today modern day Ukraine, in 1878. In 1890, he studied at the Second Moscow Gymnasium, a government school attended by boys aged from 10 to 18. At the age of 16, he was expelled from school for painting graffiti on the wall in plain sight of a visiting inspector. From then on he was more or less on his own. In 1906, he worked in the editorial office of the Moscow daily paper The Morning. In 1907 he became interested in Theosophy. In the autumn of 1913, aged 35, he journeyed to the East in search of the miraculous. He visited Theosophists in Adyar, but was forced to return to Moscow after the beginning of the Great War. In Moscow he met Gurdjieff and married Sophie Grigorievna Maximenko. He had a mistress by the name of Anna Ilinishna Butkovsky.
Career
During his years in Moscow, Ouspensky wrote for several newspapers and was particularly interested in the then-fashionable idea of the fourth dimension. His first work, published in 1909, was titled The Fourth Dimension. It was influenced by the ideas prevalent in the works of Charles H. Hinton, which treated the fourth dimension as an extension in space. Ouspensky treats time as a fourth dimension only indirectly in a novel he wrote titled Strange Life of Ivan Osokin where he also explores the theory of eternal recurrence.
Ouspensky's second work, Tertium Organum, was published in 1912. In it he denies the ultimate reality of space and time, and negates Aristotle's Logical Formula of Identification of "A is A", concluding in his "higher logic" that A is both A and not-A. Unbeknown to Ouspensky, a Russian émigré by the name of Nicholas Bessarabof took a copy of Tertium Organum to America and placed it in the hands of the architect Claude Bragdon who could read Russian and was interested in the fourth dimension. Tertium Organum was rendered into English by Bragdon who had incorporated his own design of the hypercube into the Rochester Chamber of Commerce building. Bragdon also published the book and the publication was such a success that it was finally taken up by Alfred A. Knopf. At the time, in the early 1920s, Ouspensky's whereabouts were unknown. Bragdon located him in Constantinople and paid him back some royalties.
Ouspensky traveled in Europe and the East — India, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and Egypt — in his search for knowledge. After his return to Russia and his introduction to Gurdjieff in 1915, he spent the next few years studying with him, and supporting the founding of a school.
Prior to 1914, Ouspensky had written and published a number of articles. In 1917, he updated these articles to include "recent developments in physics" and republished them as a book in Russian entitled A New Model of the Universe. The work, as reflected in its title, shows the influence of Francis Bacon and Max Müller, and has been interpreted as an attempt to reconcile ideas from natural science and religious studies with esoteric teachings in the tradition of Gurdjieff and Theosophy. It was assumed that the book was lost to the Revolution's violence, but it was then republished in English (without Ouspensky's knowledge) in 1931. The work has attracted the interest of a number of philosophers and has been a widely accepted authoritative basis for a study of metaphysics. Ouspensky sought to exceed the limits of metaphysics with his "psychological method", which he defined as "a calibration of the tools of human understanding to derive the actual meaning of the thing itself". (paraphrasing p. 75.) According to Ouspensky: "The idea of esotericism ... holds that the very great majority of our ideas are not the product of evolution but the product of the degeneration of ideas which existed at some time or are still existing somewhere in much higher, purer and more complete forms." (p. 47) The book also provided an original discussion on the nature and expression of sexuality; among other things, he draws a distinction between erotica and pornography.
Ouspensky's lectures in London were attended by such literary figures as Aldous Huxley, T. S. Eliot, Gerald Heard and other writers, journalists and doctors. His influence on the literary scene of the 1920s and 1930s as well as on the Russian avant-garde was immense but still very little known. It was said of Ouspensky that, though nonreligious, he had one prayer: not to become famous during his lifetime.
Later life
After the Bolshevik revolution, Ouspensky travelled to London by way of Istanbul. In London, a number of eminent people became interested in his work. Lady Rothermere, wife of Harold Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere, the press magnate, was willing to promote Tertium Organum. The influential intellectual and editor A. R. Orage became deeply interested in Ouspensky's ideas and promoted their discussion in various circles. Prominent theosophist and editor G. R. S. Mead became interested in his ideas on the fourth dimension.
By order of the British government, Gurdjieff was not allowed to settle in London. Gurdjieff eventually went to France with a considerable sum of money raised by Ouspensky and his friends, and settled down near Paris at the Prieuré in Fontainebleau-Avon. It was during this time, after Gurdjieff founded his Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man in France, that Ouspensky came to the conclusion that he was no longer able to understand his former teacher and made a decision to discontinue association with him. He set up his own organisation, The Society for the Study of Normal Psychology, which is now known as The Study Society.
Ouspensky wrote about Gurdjieff's teachings in a book originally entitled Fragments of an Unknown Teaching, published posthumously in 1947 under the title In Search of the Miraculous. While this volume has been criticized by some of those who have followed Gurdjieff's teachings as only a partial representation of the totality of his ideas, it provides what is probably the most concise explanation of the material that was included. This is in sharp contrast to the writings of Gurdjieff himself, such as Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson, where the ideas and precepts of Gurdjieff's teachings are found very deeply veiled in allegory. Initially, Ouspensky had intended this book to be published only if Beelzebub's Tales were not published. But after his death, Mme Ouspensky showed its draft to Gurdjieff who praised its accuracy and permitted its publication.
Ouspensky died in Lyne Place, Surrey, in 1947. Shortly after his death, The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution was published, together with In Search of the Miraculous. A facsimile edition of In Search of the Miraculous was published in 2004 by Paul H. Crompton Ltd. London. Transcripts of some of his lectures were published under the title of The Fourth Way in 1957; largely a collection of question and answer sessions, the book details important concepts, both introductory and advanced, for students of these teachings.
Ouspensky's papers are held at Yale University Library's Manuscripts and Archives department.
Teaching
After Ouspensky broke away from Gurdjieff, he taught the "Fourth Way", as he understood it, to his independent groups.
Fourth Way
Gurdjieff proposed that there are three ways of self-development generally known in esoteric circles. These are the Way of the Fakir, dealing exclusively with the physical body, the Way of the Monk, dealing with the emotions, and the Way of the Yogi, dealing with the mind. What is common about the three ways is that they demand complete seclusion from the world. According to Gurdjieff, there is a Fourth Way which does not demand its followers to abandon the world. The work of self-development takes place right in the midst of ordinary life. Gurdjieff called his system a school of the Fourth Way where a person learns to work in harmony with his physical body, emotions and mind. Ouspensky picked up this idea and continued his own school along this line.
Ouspensky made the term "Fourth Way" and its use central to his own teaching of the ideas of Gurdjieff. He greatly focused on Fourth Way schools and their existence throughout history.
Students
Among his students were Rodney Collin, Maurice Nicoll, Robert S. de Ropp, Kenneth Walker, Remedios Varo and Dr Francis Roles.
Self-remembering
Ouspensky personally confessed the difficulties he was experiencing with "self-remembering," which has later been defined by Osho as 'witnessing'. The present phraseology in the teachings of Advaita is to be in awareness, or being aware of being aware. It is also believed to be consistent with the Buddhist practice of 'mindfulness'. The ultimate goal of each is to be always in a state of meditation even in sleep. 'Self-remembering' was a technique to which he had been introduced by Gurdjieff himself. Gurdjieff explained to him that this was the missing link to everything else. While in Russia, Ouspensky experimented with the technique with a certain degree of success, and in his lectures in London and America he emphasized the importance of its practice. The technique requires a division of attention, so that a person not only pays attention to what is going on in the exterior world but also in the interior. A.L. Volinsky, an acquaintance of Ouspensky in Russia, mentioned to him that this was what professor Wundt meant by apperception. Ouspensky disagreed and commented on how an idea so profound to him would pass unnoticed by people whom he considered intelligent. Gurdjieff explained the Rosicrucian principle that in order to bring about a result or manifestation, three things are necessary. With self-remembering and self-observation two things are present. The third one is explained by Ouspensky in his tract on Conscience: it is the non-expression of negative emotions.
Published works
The Psychology of Man’s Possible Evolution. Online.
Tertium Organum: The Third Canon of Thought, a Key to the Enigmas of the World. Translated from the Russian by Nicholas Bessaraboff and Claude Bragdon. Rochester, New York: Manas Press, 1920; New York: Knopf, 1922; London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1923, 1934; 3rd American edition, New York: Knopf, 1945. Online version.
A New Model of the Universe: Principles of the Psychological Method in Its Application to Problems of Science, Religion and Art. Translated from the Russian by R. R. Merton, under the supervision of the author. New York: Knopf, 1931; London: Routledge, 1931; 2nd revised edition, London: Routledge, 1934; New York: Knopf, 1934.
Talks with a Devil (Russian, 1916). Tr. by Katya Petroff, edited with an introduction by J. G. Bennett. Northamptonshire: Turnstone, 1972, (HC); New York: Knopf, 1973; York Beach: Weiser, 2000, .
The Psychology of Man’s Possible Evolution. New York: Hedgehog Press, 1950.
Strange Life of Ivan Osokin. New York and London: Holme, 1947; London: Faber & Faber, 1948; first published in Russian as Kinemadrama (St. Petersburg, 1915). Online (Russian).
In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949; London: Routledge, 1947.
In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching London, Paul H. Crompton Ltd 2010 facsimile edition of the 1949 edition, hardcover.
The Fourth Way: A Record of Talks and Answers to Questions Based on the Teaching of G. I. Gurdjieff (Prepared under the general supervision of Sophia Ouspensky). New York: Knopf, 1957; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1957.
Letters from Russia, 1919 (Introduction by Fairfax Hall and epilog from In Denikin's Russia by C. E. Bechhofer). London and New York: Arkana, 1978.
Conscience: The Search for Truth. Introduction by Merrily E. Taylor. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979.
A Further Record: Extracts from Meetings 1928–1945. London and New York: Arkana, 1986.
The Symbolism of the Tarot (Translated by A. L. Pogossky). New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1976. Online version.
The Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution and The Cosmology of Man's possible Evolution, a limited edition of the definitive text of his Psychological and Cosmological Lectures, 1934–1945. Agora Books, East Sussex, 1989. .
P. D. Ouspensky Memorial Collection, Yale University Library. Archive notes taken from meetings during 1935–1947.
References
Further reading
Bob Hunter: "P.D.Ouspensky, Pioneer of the Fourth Way", Eureka Editions, 2000. [www.eurekaeditions.com] . Later republished as: Don't Forget: P.D. Ouspensky's Life of Self-Remembering, Bardic Press, 2006. .
Cerqueiro, Daniel: "P.D.Ouspensky y su teoría Espacio-Temporal Hexadimensional". Ed.Peq.Ven. Buenos Aires 2010.
Gary Lachman: In Search of P. D. Ouspensky: The Genius in the Shadow of Gurdjieff. Quest Books, 2004, .
Goodwin, J.K. (aka Kailasa Candra dasa): Buddhi-yoga and System Ouspensky: A Commentary on His Essential Teachings. Kala Purusha Publications, 2019,
J. H. Reyner: Ouspensky, The Unsung Genius. George Allen & Unwin, London, 1981, .
Colin Wilson: The Strange Life of P. D. Ouspensky. The Aquarian Press, 1993, .
The Study Society: The Bridge No. 12, P. D. Ouspensky Commemorative Issue.
Centers~ Influences From Within: The Essential Wisdom of Mindfulness and the Fourth Way by Cheryl Shrode-Noble (2017)
External links
Ouspensky Today: Includes an archive of material and images celebrating Ouspensky’s life and work.
The Ouspensky Foundation
www.ouspensky.org.uk (2007, An Appreciation by James Moore; Bibliography by J. Walter Driscoll)
Ouspensky's Historical Choreography
Tertium Organum (full text at sacred-texts.com)
Psychology of Man's Possible Evolution (full text at holybooks.com)
New Model of the Universe (full text at Internet Archive)
A Brief Discussion of Ouspensky's Thought by Michael Presley
1878 births
1947 deaths
19th-century philosophers
20th-century Russian philosophers
Esotericists
Fourth Way
Russian spiritual writers
Spiritual teachers
Students of George Gurdjieff
Tarotologists
New Age predecessors
Philosophers of time
Philosophical cosmologists
Russian occultists
Writers about religion and science | [
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|
215290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20de%20Hartmann | Thomas de Hartmann | Thomas Alexandrovich de Hartmann (; September 21, 1885March 28, 1956) was a Russian composer and prominent student and collaborator of George Gurdjieff.
Biography
Thomas de Hartmann was born in Khoruzhivka, Poltava Governorate, Russian Empire, now Sumy Oblast, Ukraine. At the age of 18 he received his diploma from the Saint Petersburg Conservatory. He studied conducting in Munich with Felix Mottl before World War I.
Thomas de Hartmann was a graduate of the Imperial Conservatory of Music. He studied musical composition with three of the greatest Russian composers of the 19th century: Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Anton Arensky and Sergei Taneyev. His piano teacher was Anna Yesipova, the second wife and former student of Theodor Leschetizky. Most of De Hartmann's compositions were for voice and piano. In 1907, his ballet The Pink Flower, produced by Nikolay Legat with Vaslav Nijinsky and Tamara Karsavina in the cast, was presented at the Imperial Opera. The Tsar was so impressed that he himself granted De Hartmann exemption from military duty so that he might study conducting in Munich.
In Munich, Thomas de Hartmann met the artist, former Sufi student and later stage impresario, Alexander de Salzmann; they were both friends of Rainer Maria Rilke and Wassily Kandinsky. Later, in Russia, after the beginning of World War I, De Hartmann would introduce De Salzmann to George Gurdjieff.
On November 12, 1906 Thomas married Olga Arkadievna (Arkadaevna) de Schumacher (August 28, 1885 - September 12, 1979), a celebrated opera singer. Olga was a daughter of Arkady Alexandrovich von Schumacher (June 7, 1855 - June 8, 1938) and Olga Konstantinovna von Wulffert (1860 - April 3, 1939), who both died in Paris. Arkady was a high official in the tsarist Russian government in St. Petersburg.
Thomas was a great-nephew of Eduard von Hartmann, the author of Philosophy of the Unconscious (3 vols.), vol. 1 of which was published in Germany in 1869. This work later became well-known in America and England.
Association with Gurdjieff
De Hartmann was already an acclaimed composer in Russia when he first met Gurdjieff in 1916 in St. Petersburg. From 1917 to 1929 he was a pupil and confidant of Gurdjieff. During that time, at Gurdjieff's Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man near Paris, De Hartmann transcribed and co-wrote much of the music that Gurdjieff collected and used for his movements exercises.
In 1951 De Hartmann and his wife moved to the United States from France. He died on March 28, 1956, in New York City. After her husband's death, Olga collected many of Gurdjieff's early talks in the book Views from the Real World (1973). She died at her home in Nambé, Santa Fe County, New Mexico on September 12, 1979. Both she and her husband are buried in the Princeton Cemetery, Princeton, New Jersey.
Music
De Hartmann's four-act ballet La Fleurette Rouge (The Red Flower) was performed in 1906. Vaslav Nijinsky, Anna Pavlova, and Michel Fokine danced principal roles in performances at the Imperial opera houses of Moscow and St. Petersburg.
He composed the music for Wassily Kandinsky's The Yellow Sound.
The music he wrote with Gurdjieff was later adapted by Laurence Rosenthal for the 1979 Peter Brook film Meetings with Remarkable Men.
In 1982, the Guggenheim Foundation premiere of Kandinsky's opera Der gelbe Klang was made possible thanks to a complete rearrangement by Gunther Schuller of De Hartmann's hitherto lost work. It is not known whether De Hartmann completed a full score but it is clear why Konstantin Stanislavski could not understand the work when de Hartmann proposed it for the Moscow Art Theatre in 1914.
Recordings
The complete Piano Music of Georges I. Gurdjieff and Thomas de Hartmann, Cecil Lytle, pianist, 6-CD boxed set, , Celestial Harmonies 19904-2
The Music of Gurdjieff/de Hartmann, three disc set, Triangle Editions, TCD1001-1003, 1989
The Thomas de Hartmann Project',' by Elan Sicroff, seven-disc set of solo piano, chamber and vocal works (Basta Music 3093472, September 2016)
G.I. Gurdjieff: Sacred Hymns," by Keith Jarrett, ECM 1174, September 1980 Hidden Sources -Gurdjieff, De Hartmann, by Alessandra Celletti (KHA Records, 1998)
Sacred Honey -Gurdjieff, De Hartmann, by Alessandra Celletti Echoes From the Real World - Gurdjieff, De Hartmann'', 21 compositions for solo piano; Mario Sollazzo, pianist. , KHA Records, Italy, 2015
Writings
Our Life with Mr. Gurdjieff (1983), The "Definitive Edition" substantially enlarged from the original 1964 edition via the inclusion of unpublished materials and drawing upon the memoirs of Olga de Hartmann (co-authored with Olga de Hartmann, who was Gurdjieff's personal secretary for many years.). Arkana Books
References
External links
Thomas de Hartmann: A Composer’s Life By John Mangan
Thomas de Hartmann page from Gurdjieff International Review
Thomas de Hartmann papers at Yale University Music Library
Thomas de Hartmann grave at Princeton Cemetery
1885 births
1956 deaths
People from Nedryhailiv Raion
People from Poltava Governorate
Russian male composers
Ballet composers
Russian film score composers
Male film score composers
Fourth Way
Russian anti-communists
White Russian emigrants to the United States
Saint Petersburg Conservatory alumni
Burials at Princeton Cemetery
20th-century Russian male musicians | [
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|
215296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurdjieff%20movements | Gurdjieff movements | The Gurdjieff movements is a series of sacred dances that were collected or authored by G. I. Gurdjieff and taught to his students as part of the work of self observation and self study.
Gurdjieff taught that the movements were not merely calisthenics, exercises in concentration, and displays of bodily coordination and aesthetic sensibility: on the contrary, in the movements was embedded real, concrete knowledge, passed from generation to generation of initiates - each posture and gesture representing some cosmic truth that the informed observer could read like a book. Certain of Gurdjieff's followers claim that the Gurdjieff Movements can only be properly transmitted by those who themselves have been initiated in the direct line of Gurdjieff; otherwise, they say, it leads nowhere.
The movements are purportedly based upon traditional dances that Gurdjieff studied as he traveled throughout central Asia, India, Tibet, the Orient and Africa where he encountered various Indo-European and Sufi orders, Buddhist centers and other sources of traditional culture and learning. However, Gurdjieff insists that the main source as well as the unique symbol of the Enneagram was transmitted to him as an initiate in the Sarmoung Monastery. There were literally thousands of movements collected and taught by Gurdjieff throughout his teaching career. The music for the movements was written by Gurdjieff and Thomas de Hartmann, as well as British composer Edouard Michael.
A brief glimpse of the dances appears at the very end of the motion picture about Gurdjieff, Meetings with Remarkable Men, produced and directed in 1978 by Peter Brook.
An example of Gurdjieff's later series of movements (The 39 series) are:
1. The Automat.
2. Prayer in Three Parts.
3. Four Tableaux.
4. Prayer for Instruction.
5. Pointing Dervish.
6. Movement in canon
7. Esoteric
8. Triads in Pairs. Complexity in Simplicity.
9. 'Olbogmek'. Double Multiplication
10. (A light dance with counting in canon)
11. Lord Have Mercy.
12. Halleluia
13. (A prayer movement)
14. Reading from a Sacred Book
15. (Tibetan) Days of the Week.
16–17. Multiplication of Enneagram
18–19. Stop Exercise. 'Frightened'
20. Six Displacements. Dervish exercise.
21. Remorse of Conscience
22. of Mesoteric series
23–24. Chadze Vadze (Lord, Mercy!)
25. Black and White Magic.
26. (A multiplication)
27. (A canon)
28–30. Canon of Six Measures. A 'cosmic' dance.
31. Fifteen Rhythms. Getting up and Down
32. Automaton.
33. Premier exercise apri le retour d'Amerique
34. (A continuous multiplication)
35–36. Dervish Movement. People scattered about
37–38. (A canon)
39. (Thinking, Feeling, Sensing)
References
External links
Gurdjieff Heritage Society resource regarding Gurdjieff Movements and music
Gurdjieff Movements
The Fourth Way Archive
GurdjieffArabic.Org نشرة عربية عن تعاليم جورج إ. غوردجييف
Gurdjieff Movements in Russia
Gurdjieff Movements in Japan & Turkey
Fourth Way
Ritual dances
Sacred dance
George Gurdjieff | [
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|
215297 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Forrestal | USS Forrestal | USS Forrestal (CV-59) (later CVA-59, then AVT-59), was a supercarrier named after the first Secretary of Defense James Forrestal. Commissioned in 1955, she was the United States' first completed supercarrier, and was the lead ship of her class. The other carriers of her class were , and . She surpassed the World War II Japanese carrier as the largest carrier yet built, and was the first designed to support jet aircraft.
The ship was affectionately called "The FID", because her namesake was the first Secretary of Defense, FID standing for "First In Defense". This is also the slogan on the ship's insignia and patch. She was also informally known in the fleet as the "USS Zippo" and "Forest Fire" or "Firestal" because of a number of highly publicized fires on board, most notably a 1967 fire in which 134 sailors died and 161 more were injured.
Forrestal served for nearly four decades in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Pacific. She was decommissioned in 1993, and made available as a museum. Attempts to save her were unsuccessful, and in February 2014 she was towed to Brownsville, Texas, to be scrapped. Scrapping was completed in December 2015.
Construction and commissioning
Forrestal'''s keel was laid down at Newport News Shipbuilding on 14 July 1952. During construction, her design was adjusted several times—the original telescoping bridge, a design left over from the canceled USS United States, was replaced by a conventional island structure, and her flight deck was modified to include an angled landing deck and steam catapults, drawing on British innovations. She was launched on 11 December 1954, and commissioned into service on 1 October 1955.
Design featuresForrestal was the first American aircraft carrier to be constructed with an angled flight deck, steam catapult, and an optical landing system, as opposed to having them installed after launching.
The original design——provided for the island to retract flush with the deck during flight operations, but that was found to be too complicated. Another solution was considered where the two masts were to fold down, in lieu of the retractable island, to allow the carrier to pass under the Brooklyn Bridge. The larger center mast was to fold to the side and rest on the flight deck, and the smaller mast was to fold toward the stern.
1956–1962
From her home port, Naval Station Norfolk, Norfolk, Virginia, Forrestal spent the first year of service in intensive training operations off the Virginia Capes and in the Caribbean. An important assignment was training aviators in the use of her advanced facilities. During this time she often operated out of Naval Station Mayport, Florida. On 7 November 1956, she put to sea from Mayport to operate in the eastern Atlantic during the Suez Crisis, ready to enter the Mediterranean Sea should it be necessary. She returned to Norfolk on 12 December to prepare for her first deployment with the 6th Fleet in the Mediterranean, for which she sailed on 15 January 1957.
On this, as on her succeeding tours of duty in the Mediterranean, Forrestal visited many ports to "show the flag" and take on board dignitaries and the general public. For military observers, she staged underway demonstrations to illustrate her capacity to bring air power to and from the sea in military operations on any scale. She returned to Norfolk on 22 July 1957 for exercises off the North Carolina coast in preparation for her first NATO operation, Operation Strikeback in the North Sea. This deployment, between 3 September and 22 October, found her visiting Southampton, UK, as well as drilling in the highly important task of coordinating United States naval power with that of other NATO nations.
The next year found Forrestal participating in a series of major fleet exercises as well as taking part in experimental flight operations. During the Lebanon Crisis of summer 1958, the carrier was again called upon to operate in the eastern Atlantic to back up naval operations in the Mediterranean. She sailed from Norfolk on 11 July to embark an air group at Mayport two days later, then patrolled the Atlantic until returning to Norfolk on 17 July.
On her second tour of duty in the Mediterranean, from 2 September 1958 to 12 March 1959, Forrestal again combined a program of training, patrol, and participation in major exercises with ceremonial, hospitality and public visiting. Her guest list during this cruise was headed by United States Secretary of Defense N. H. McElroy. Returning to Norfolk, she continued the never-ending task of training new aviators, constantly maintaining her readiness for instant reaction to any demand for her services brought on by international events. Visitors during the year included King Hussein of Jordan.Forrestal again went to the 6th Fleet between 28 January 1960 and 31 August, visiting the ports typical of a Mediterranean deployment as well as Split, Croatia (then part of Yugoslavia). Again she was open for visitors at many ports, as well as taking part in the patrol and training schedule of the 6th Fleet. She completed another deployment to 6th Fleet January 1961 to August 1961, after which she entered a yard period at Norfolk Naval Shipyard where the six arresting wires were replaced with four, freed 03 level spaces were converted to berthing areas, and the right side flight deck mirror landing system was replaced with a permanent Fresnel lens in the port catwalk, among other updates. She conducted a shakedown cruise to Guantanamo Bay in January 1962 with port calls in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, and Port of Spain, Trinidad. She then acted as the defending carrier in an amphibious force landing exercise on Vieques Island; it was the largest assembled naval force since the Korean War. Forrestal with Vice-President Lyndon B. Johnson aboard, and Enterprise with President John F. Kennedy aboard hosted many foreign ambassadors, military attaches, and other diplomats for a Naval Air Power demonstration off the Virginia Capes in June 1962.Forrestal deployed to the Mediterranean again on 3 August 1962 to 2 March 1963 as flagship for Commander Carrier Division Four (ComCarDiv 4) participating in NATO exercises in the Atlantic and western Mediterranean with , British and French carriers. Cross deck operations were conducted with . Whilst a USMC Phantom was aboard HMS Ark Royal, it developed problems and couldn't take off to return to the Forrestal before docking in Malta. US personnel were not allowed on Malta at the time so the Phantom was painted with Royal Navy tail markings to make the jet blend in with Royal Navy Phantoms.
1963–1967Forrestal made history in November 1963 when, on the 8th, 21st and 22nd, LT James H. Flatley III and his crew members, LCDR Walter "Smokey" Stovall and Aviation Machinist's Mate (Jet). V 1st Class Ed Brennan, made 21 full-stop landings and takeoffs in a C-130 Hercules aboard the ship. The tests were conducted out in the North Atlantic off the coast of Massachusetts. In so doing, Forrestal and the C-130 set a record for the largest and heaviest airplane landing on a Navy aircraft carrier. The Navy was trying to determine whether the big Hercules could serve as a "Super-COD", or "Carrier Onboard Delivery" aircraft. The problem was there was no aircraft which could replenish a carrier in mid-ocean. The Hercules was stable and reliable, and had a long cruising range and high payload.
The tests were more than successful. At , the KC-130F came to a complete stop within , and at the maximum load, the plane used only for take-off. The Navy concluded that, with the C-130 Hercules, it would be possible to lift of cargo and land it on a carrier. However, the idea was considered too risky for routine COD operations. The aircraft was also too large to fit on the carrier's elevators or in her hangars, severely hampering operations. The C-2 Greyhound program was developed and the first of these planes became operational in 1965. For his effort, the Navy awarded LT Flatley the Distinguished Flying Cross. The Hercules used, BuNo 149798, was retired to the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, in May 2003.
In 1964, in what was known as Operation Brother Sam, U.S. president Lyndon B. Johnson sent Forrestal to support a military coup d'état against Brazilian president João Goulart. The coup was successful and led to a 20-year-long military dictatorship in Brazil.<ref group="note">"Brazil: The Military Republic, 1964–85, Library of Congress Country Studies" [...] The role of the United States in these events was complex and at times contradictory. An anti-Goulart press campaign was conducted throughout 1963, and in 1964 the Johnson administration gave moral support to the campaign. Ambassador Lincoln Gordon later admitted that the embassy had given money to anti-Goulart candidates in the 1962 municipal elections and had encouraged the plotters; that many extra United States military and intelligence personnel were operating in Brazil; and that four United States Navy oil tankers and the carrier Forrestal, in an operation code-named Brother Sam, had stood off the coast in case of need during the 1964 coup. Washington immediately recognized the new government in 1964 and joined the chorus chanting that the coup d'état of the "democratic forces" had staved off the hand of international communism. In retrospect, it appears that the only foreign hand involved was Washington's, although the United States was not the principal actor in these events. Indeed, the hard-liners in the Brazilian military pressured Costa e Silva into promulgating the Fifth Institutional Act on December 13, 1968. This act gave the president dictatorial powers, dissolved Congress and state legislatures, suspended the constitution, and imposed censorship."</ref>
On March 15, 1966, Forrestal again was a witness to history when she and various other units of the Sixth Fleet made a brief stopover at Palomares, Spain, (site of an underway nuclear disaster cleanup and H-bomb recovery effort) ostensibly to deliver personnel, material support, or both. The carrier dropped anchor at 0903, departed at 1219, and resumed flight operations.
1967 fire
In June 1967, Forrestal departed Norfolk for duty in waters off Vietnam. In the Gulf of Tonkin on 29 July, Forrestal had been launching aircraft from her flight deck. For four days, the planes of Attack Carrier Air Wing 17 flew about 150 missions against targets in North Vietnam from the ship. On 29 July 1967, during preparation for another strike, a Zuni rocket installed on an F-4 Phantom (#110), misfired, impacting an armed A-4 Skyhawk's side #405, parked on the port side. The rocket's impact dislodged and ruptured the Skyhawk's 400-gallon external fuel tank. Fuel from the leaking tank caught fire, creating a serious conflagration that burned for hours, killing 134, injuring 161, destroying 21 aircraft and costing the Navy US$72 million. On the flight deck that day was Lieutenant Commander (later Senator) John McCain.
1968–1975
Forrestal was deployed to Mediterranean waters four times between 1968 and 1973. She also sped to Tunisia for rescue operations in the flooded Medjerda River Valley near Tunis. The ship logged three more Mediterranean deployments between 1973 and 1975. On 22 July 1974, as a result of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the U.S. Ambassador to Cyprus Roger Davies requested the evacuation of U.S. citizens from that island nation. In a joint Navy-Marine Corps effort, HMM-162 from the 6th Fleet amphibious assault ship evacuated 466 people, 384 of them U.S. citizens, in only five hours. Forrestal provided air cover for that operation.
In October 1968, a routine night launch of an E-2A from VAW-123 led the way for all launches aboard Forrestal. The crew members were LCDR Paul Martin Wright (Operations Officer), LCDR James Leo Delaney (Maintenance Officer), LTJG Howard Booth Rutledge (Personnel Officer), LTJG Frank J. Frederick (Asst. Maintenance Officer), and AT1 David E. Carpenter (Avionics Dept). The flight was routine and all aircraft recovered as usual until the VAW-123 E-2A, which was the last plane to recover. The aircraft boltered and went off the angled deck and into the water, nose first. When it hit the water, the aircraft flipped over onto its back, breaking its radar dome off and sank within minutes. The dome floated and was recovered. Immediately, helicopters moved into the area for search and rescue operations. AT1 David E. Carpenter and LTJG Frank J. Frederick were rescued without serious injury. Lost at sea were LCDR Wright, LCDR Delaney, and LTJG Rutledge.
On 10 July 1972, while moored at Pier 12, Norfolk, Forrestal was once again the scene of a catastrophic fire. This fire, which was set by a crewmember, was in an O-3 level computer room (just under the flight deck). A hole was cut in the flight deck to reach the fire from above and hundreds of gallons of water were pumped into the space. This ruined all of the computer equipment and the ship took on an exaggerated list, prompting concern that she might capsize. The ship returned to the yards at Portsmouth and three months later was at last able to relieve , which had to serve an extended Mediterranean deployment while the Forrestal was being repaired. Electrician's Mate Robert Horan, who was aboard at the time, recalls in a memoir "[The fire did] over seven million dollars in damage. The news videos...show[ed] the flight deck glowing red. We went back to Portsmouth for repairs and I believe we got most of the CIC and electronics equipment that was supposed to go on board the , then under construction."
In June 1974, Forrestal sent a contingent of 34 sailors and two officers to represent the U.S. Navy at the 30th anniversary of D-Day at Normandy, France. The group marched in various parades at the Normandy Beaches on 6 June 1974 as well as Cherbourg, France and was well received by the locals. The group was passed in review by retired General of the Army Omar Bradley. This contingent of sailors were flown off of Forrestal by SH-3 Sea Kings of HELANTISUBRON 3 (HS-3) onto the deck of USS Milwaukee (AOR-2), then taken to Naval Station Rota, Spain. After a few days of refresher "marching", they were flown to Cherbourg, France in a C-130. Following the celebrations, the group reunited with Forrestal at the island of Crete in mid June.
1975–1980
On 30 June 1975, Forrestal was reclassified a "Multi-purpose Aircraft Carrier", CV-59. Also in 1975 Forrestal was selected to be host ship for the International Naval Review in New York City on the nation's Bicentennial. On 4 July 1976, on Forrestals flight deck, President Gerald Ford rang in the Bicentennial and reviewed over 40 tall ships from countries around the world.
Shortly after the review, Forrestal participated in a special shock test. It involved the detonation of high explosives near the hull to determine if a capital ship could withstand the strain of close quarter combat and still remain operational.
In September 1977, following a nine-month overhaul, Forrestal departed Norfolk and shifted her homeport to Mayport. The carrier left Mayport on Friday, 13 January 1978 for a three-week at-sea period in the Atlantic Fleet Weapons Training Facility (AFWTF) of the Roosevelt Roads Operating Area to complete the third phase of Type Commander's Training (TYT-3), and to undergo the Operational Readiness Evaluation (ORE). Tragedy struck Forrestal on the evening of 15 January 1978 as an A-7 Corsair II from VA-81 crashed on the flight deck, killing two deck crewmen and injuring 10 others. The pilot was operating without communication gear due to an onboard malfunction, and as he was making his approach, he saw that the "ball" was lit (signalling that it was permissible to land). The pilot ejected safely after seeing that the deck was covered with parked and moving aircraft, by which time it was impossible to pull up. He was recovered, suffering only minor injuries, but his Corsair struck another A-7 and an EA-6B before careening across the deck in a ball of flames. A small fire on the aft portion of the deck, caused by fuel spilled during the crash, was extinguished within seconds. At the time of the accident, Forrestal was operating about off St. Augustine, Florida. A memorial service for the dead was held on board on 19 January. The ship returned to Mayport on 3 February.
Forrestal left Mayport for the Mediterranean on 4 April 1978. At 22:00 on 8 April, just minutes after the ship had finished a general quarters drill, the crew was called to G.Q. again, but this time it was not a drill; a fire had broken out in the Number Three Main Machinery Room. Freshly painted thermal insulation in Three Main engine room had been set smoldering by hot steam lines. Watch-standers within the space activated an extinguishing system and had the fire out within seconds.
Three days later, the crew again was called to respond to another emergency G.Q. At midnight on 11 April, a fire was discovered in a catapult steam trunk in the forward part of the ship at about the 01 level, and another fire was found in an adjoining storeroom minutes later. The at-sea fire brigade, working with area repair lockers, had the fires out within the hour.
On 10 May 1978 while in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, flooding, which began in a pump room in the aft portion of the ship, rose to a height of before it was controlled. The flood spread into food storage rooms, destroying most of the ship's stocks of fresh milk and produce. Divers from the ship's Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) team dropped into the pump room to plug the leak. Total damage from the flooding was estimated at $30,000.
From 19 to 29 May 1978, Forrestal participated in Operation Dawn Patrol, the first of three NATO exercises the ship would be involved in during the deployment. Dawn Patrol involved air and ground forces and over 80 ships from six NATO countries. Forrestals role during the exercise included protecting a Turkish amphibious task group and working with and the French aircraft carrier Foch to defend against simulated "enemy" ships and aircraft.
During this sea period, two separate air crashes on successive days left one pilot dead and another injured. On 24 June 1978, LCDR T. P. Anderson, Operations Officer for Carrier Air Wing Seventeen, was killed when his A-7E Corsair II crashed into the sea during a practice bombing mission. Before the crash, the pilot ejected while the plane was inverted in less than ideal weather conditions. On 25 June, a pilot from VA-83, also flying an A-7E, ejected shortly after takeoff due to a catapult malfunction, suffering minor injuries. He could be seen swimming away from the side of the ship as it passed near him. A rescue crew aboard an SH-3D Sea King helicopter from HS-3 recovered the pilot and returned to the ship within eight minutes after the crash. Both accidents occurred as the ship was operating in the Ionian Sea, east of Sicily.
From 4 to 19 September 1978, Forrestal participated in the massive NATO exercise Northern Wedding, which included over 40,000 men, 22 submarines, and 800 rotary and fixed-wing aircraft from nine NATO countries. Northern Wedding, which took place every four years, practiced NATO's ability to reinforce and resupply Europe in times of tension or war. During the exercise Forrestal and the British aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal headed separate task groups, steaming in a two-carrier formation to gain sea control and deploying their aircraft in support of mock amphibious landings in the Shetland Islands and Jutland, Denmark.
From 28 September to 10 October, Forrestal participated in Display Determination, the third and final NATO exercise of the deployment. The operation, involving ships, aircraft, and personnel from eight NATO countries, was designed to practice rapid reinforcement and resupply of the southern European region in times of tension or war. Forrestal arrived in Rota, Spain, on 11 October for the last overseas port stop of the deployment.
On 13 October 1978, the ship put to sea to conduct a one-day exercise with a task group of deploying U.S. ships headed by the aircraft carrier . Air Wing Seventeen's planes conducted mock attacks on the task group to allow the ships to practice anti-air warfare. Forrestal returned to Rota late in the evening on the 13th.
Before dawn on 15 October, Forrestal departed Rota and outchopped from the Sixth Fleet, having been relieved by Saratoga. On the homeward transit, Forrestal took an extreme northerly course as part of a special operation code-named Windbreak. Commander Second Fleet, Vice Adm. Wesley L. McDonald, embarked in Forrestal for the exercise. Windbreak was designed to introduce U.S. sailors and equipment to relatively unfamiliar waters and conditions, and to gauge Soviet interest in U.S. ships in transit to and from the Mediterranean. During the exercise, Forrestal traveled as far north as 62 degrees latitude, south of Iceland, encountering seas to , winds in excess of , and a wind chill factor that drove the temperature as far down as . The waves were high enough to crash over the flight deck as the ship drove west. Also participating in Windbreak were the guided missile cruiser and the destroyer .
Forrestal returned to Mayport on 26 October 1978. On 13 November, Forrestal commenced a four-month period of upkeep and repair known as an Extended Selected Restricted Availability (ESRA), to be conducted as the ship was moored alongside the carrier pier in Mayport. Forrestal ended 1978 as she had started it, moored to the carrier pier in Mayport.
On 27 August 1979 Forrestal had to make an emergency deployment due to Hurricane David. It was feared the ship could be damaged and in turn damage the carrier pier as the storm surge from the hurricane thrust inland. Forrestal traveled through the main part of the storm and emerged in the eye briefly before coming out of the opposite side as the storm moved northwest along the east coast. The ship was manned with a skeleton crew and no aircraft.
After completing her 15th Mediterranean cruise from November 1979 to May 1980 (https://www.navysite.de/cruisebooks/cv59-80/index.html) she celebrated her silver anniversary in October 1980. Forrestal got underway on her 16th Mediterranean deployment in March 1981 and return to the carrier pier in Mayport on September 15, 1981 (https://www.navysite.de/cruisebooks/cv59-81/index.html).
1981–1987
On 2 March 1981, Forrestal began her 17th Mediterranean deployment and second quarter century of naval service. During the Syria/Israel missile crisis, Forrestal maintained a high state of readiness for 53 consecutive days at sea. In a Gulf of Sidra exercise, two Libyan aircraft were shot down after firing on F-14s from Nimitz over international waters. Forrestal aircraft made more than 60% of all the intercepts of Libyan planes. After departing the Mediterranean she operated above the Arctic Circle as part of NATO Ocean Venture '81.
After a repair period, Forrestal deployed for her 18th Mediterranean cruise on 8 June 1982, and operated in the eastern Mediterranean in support of the Lebanon Contingency Force of 800 U.S. Marines in Beirut. On 12 September 1982, after transiting the Suez Canal for the first time in her 28-year history, she entered the Indian Ocean. This marked the first time that Forrestal had operated with 7th Fleet since the 1967 Vietnam cruise.
Forrestal completed the five and one-half-month deployment with a nighttime arrival at Mayport on 16 November 1982 and immediately began preparing for the Service Life Extension Program (SLEP). The ship shifted homeport to Philadelphia Naval Shipyard, Philadelphia on 18 January 1983, and embarked on the 28-month, $550 million SLEP, designed to extend the life of U.S. aircraft carriers another 15 to 20 years.
During Forrestals SLEP, the ship was completely emptied and most major equipment was removed for rework or replacement. Forrestals successful SLEP period was completed on time when the ship left Philadelphia on 20 May 1985. After completing a four-day transit to her homeport of Mayport, Forrestal immediately began a workup cycle in preparation for her first deployment in over four years.
Forrestal departed Mayport on 2 June 1986, on her 19th deployment. During this cruise, Forrestal aircraft frequently operated in the international airspace of the Tripoli Flight region, the international air traffic control sector of Libya. Forrestal also participated in Operation Sea Wind a joint U.S.-Egyptian training exercise and Display Determination, which featured low-level coordinated strikes and air combat maneuvering training over Turkey.
In 1987, Forrestal went through yet another period of pre-deployment workups. This included refresher training, carrier qualifications, and a six-week deployment to the North Atlantic to participate in Ocean Safari '87. In this exercise, Forrestal operated with NATO forces in the fjords of Norway.
Forrestal in New Orleans
The ship and crew performed so well in Ocean Safari '87 that Forrestals commanding officer, CAPT John A. Pieno Jr., recommended that the ship be granted a special liberty call in the United States as a reward. Special liberty calls serve to reward Navy personnel with a trip to other parts of the U.S. and provides Americans who would normally never see warships and planes an up close look at life in the United States Navy. CAPT Pieno being a native of New Orleans, Louisiana, decided that New Orleans, during her Mardi Gras celebration, would be the perfect location to show off his pride and joy. During her trip to New Orleans Forrestal broke another record by becoming the largest naval warship ever to come up the Mississippi River. Also during her four days in New Orleans she accommodated tours for over 40,000 visitors. The tour included viewings and descriptions of all her aircraft, damage control demonstrations, and the crowd's favorite, a ride on one of her four aircraft elevators.
1988–1993
Forrestal departed on her 20th major deployment on 25 April 1988. She steamed directly to the North Arabian Sea via the Suez Canal in support of America's Earnest Will operations in the region. She spent 108 consecutive days at sea before her first liberty port. During the five and one-half month deployment, Forrestal operated in three ocean areas and spent only 15 days in port. She returned on 7 October 1988, and received the Meritorious Unit Commendation for her superior operational performance during the deployment.
After a brief stand down period followed by local operations, Forrestal participated in New York City's Fleet Week in May 1989, and then commenced preparations for her next deployment. Also in 1989, she won the Marjorie Sterrett Battleship Fund Award for the Atlantic Fleet.
Forrestals departure for her 21st major deployment was delayed when a fire caused major damage to a primary command and control trunk space. Through the efforts of the ship's crew and civilian contractors, Forrestal was able to depart for her deployment on 6 November 1989, completing the necessary repairs well ahead of projections. The 9 October 1989 fire caused around $2.5 million in damage and injured 11 sailors.
The final two months of 1989 proved exciting. Beyond the "routine" exercises and training initiatives, Forrestals crew became part of history, as they provided support to President George H. W. Bush during his Malta Summit. The support included a three-hour Presidential visit to the ship. Forrestal participated in numerous exercises during this deployment including Harmonie Sud, Tunisian Amphibious and National Week. She returned to Mayport on 12 April 1990, ending a deployment which had included nine port visits in seven different countries. After a post deployment stand down, Forrestal completed a drydocking selected restricted availability at Mayport from 14 May 1990 – 27 August 1990.
From September to November 1990, Forrestal underwent repairs at Norfolk Naval Shipyard. Repairs included work on the catapult system, hull and other changes to accommodate the F/A-18 Hornet. Forrestal returned to Mayport 21 November 1990.
In 1989, during work up cruises to prepare for the upcoming deployment, Forrestal was diverted from an 11-day carrier task force training exercise in the Atlantic. The order came in just after midnight and the Forrestal was directed to leave the task force, and proceed West at flank speed. After 20 hours, she slowed to 2 knots and took up station keeping off the North West coast of Puerto Rico. At around 12:30 the second evening, 2 helicopters arrived, delivering SEAL Team Six to the Forrestal's deck. The crew and its visitors cruised for 3 days to the South West Caribbean sea off the Panama and Colombian coasts, where Seal Team Six departed. It is unclear if the operation was an attempt to capture Manuel Noriega, or if it was in support of Operation Pokeweed to apprehend Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar.
The year of 1991 was one of anticipation and change for Forrestal and her crew, as she spent the first five months maintaining combat readiness as the east coast ready carrier. Maintaining a hectic and challenging period of at-sea operations, Forrestals anticipated deployment in support of Operation Desert Storm was not to be, and orders to deploy were canceled twice during the conflict. The call to deploy finally came and Forrestal commenced the 22nd and final operational deployment on 30 May 1991.
No less challenging than the months of maintaining readiness for combat, Forrestals deployment was repeatedly referred to as "transitional." During the ensuing six months, Forrestal was called upon to provide air power presence and airborne intelligence support for Operation Provide Comfort, and to initiate, test and evaluate a wide range of innovative Sixth Fleet battle group tactics and new carrier roles.
The year ended with Forrestal making advanced preparations for a change of homeport to Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, and the transition into a new role as the Navy's training carrier, replacing . Forrestal was redesignated AVT-59 and arrived in Pensacola on 4 February. The ship and crew returned to New Orleans for a visit in May, 1992. Forrestal arrived in Philadelphia on 14 September 1992 to begin a 14-month, $157 million complex overhaul prior to assuming duties as a training carrier. In early 1994, however, the Navy decided to decommission Forrestal and leave the Navy without a dedicated training carrier.
It can also be noted that both of Forrestal's anchors were reused on the 1995 commissioned, USS John C. Stennis.
Commanding officers
The following officers commanded the Forrestal from 1955 through 1993.
Decommissioning and fate
After more than 37 years of service, Forrestal was decommissioned on 11 September 1993 at Pier 6E in Philadelphia, and was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day. After being stricken, ex-Forrestal was heavily stripped to support the rest of the carrier fleet. Two 30 ton anchors were transferred to , while the ship's four nearly new bronze propellers were installed on , then under construction. On 16 June 1999, the Navy announced that the ship would be available for donation to an eligible organization for use as a museum or memorial. The USS Forrestal Museum Inc. began a campaign to obtain the ship from the Navy via donation, for use as a museum, to be located in Baltimore, but this plan was not successful. No other viable applications were received and the vessel was removed from donation hold in December 2003 and redesignated for disposal. According to the NVR, efforts were made to determine her viability to be "donated for use as fishing reef." In 2007, the ship was environmentally prepared for sinking as an artificial reef as was USS Oriskany. Due to elements of the Forrestal design having led directly to current aircraft carrier design, it was intended that the ship be donated to a state and sunk to become a deep water reef, for fishery propagation and not be accessible to divers. That plan never materialized.
On 15 June 2010, ex-Forrestal departed Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island, where she had been stored since 1998, under tow for the inactive ship storage facility in Philadelphia and tied up at Pier 4, next to ex-.
On 26 January 2012, the Navy's Naval Sea Systems Command posted a notice of solicitation for the towing and complete dismantlement of multiple CV-59/CV-63 Class aircraft carriers in the United States, to include ex-Forrestal (CV-59), ex-, ex-, and ex-. These solicitations were posted in May 2012 and subsequently awarded to three successful offerors, pending their receipt of the facility security clearance required as part of the contract award. After the initial award of one carrier to each successful offeror, this contract provides the Navy with the capability to scrap other decommissioned conventionally-powered aircraft carriers over a five-year period.
In October 2013, it was announced ex-Forrestal would be scrapped by All Star Metals in Brownsville, Texas, at a cost of 1 cent. She left the Philadelphia Naval Yard via a team of tugboats at 5:00AM on 4 February 2014. She arrived at All Star Metals in Brownsville on 18 February 2014 for final scrapping. According to the Naval Vessel Register, scrapping was completed 15 December 2015. Her stern plate was saved and restored and now is in the hands of the National Naval Aviation Museum in Pensacola, Florida.
See also
List of aircraft carriers
List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy
Notes
References
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Freeman, Gregory A. Sailors to the End: The Deadly Fire on the USS Forrestal and the Heroes Who Fought It. New York: William Morrow, 2002. , .
Capt Terrence Riley Medical Corps, US Navy. "Ship's Doctor" Annapolis Maryland: Naval Institute Press.
External links
USS Forrestal Association homepage
Navy photographs of Forrestal (CVA-59)
USS Forrestal webpage
Memorial to the men who died in the Forrestal fire
USS Forrestal Construction – Youtube
Forrestal-class aircraft carriers
1954 ships
Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States
Vietnam War aircraft carriers of the United States
Ships built in Newport News, Virginia | [
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215298 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20G.%20Bennett | John G. Bennett | John Godolphin Bennett (8 June 1897 – 13 December 1974) was a British scientist, technologist, industrial research director, and author. He is best known for his books on psychology and spirituality, particularly on the teachings of G. I. Gurdjieff. Bennett met Gurdjieff in Istanbul in October 1920 and later helped to co-ordinate the work of Gurdjieff in England after the guru had moved to Paris. He also was active in starting the British section of the Subud movement, and co-founded its British headquarters.
Bennett was born in London, England; educated at King's College School, London; Royal Military Academy, Woolwich; School of Military Engineering, Chatham; and the School of Oriental Studies, London.
He was a Fellow of the Institute of Fuel, London, from 1938 onwards; Chairman, Conference of Research Associations, 1943–1945; Chairman, Solid Fuel Industry, British Standards Institution, 1937–1942; Chairman and Director, Institute for the comparative study of History, Philosophy, and the Sciences, Kingston upon Thames, 1946–1959.
Early life, World War I, marriage
Bennett's parents met in Florence, Italy; they later married. His mother was American and his father was British. In Bennett's infancy, his family were moderately wealthy and traveled frequently in Europe. In 1912, his father, who was a noted traveller, adventurer and linguist, lost all of his money and his wife's in an investment that failed. Bennett later displayed an extraordinary talent for languages, which enabled him to talk with many spiritual teachers in their native tongues. He studied Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic and Christian sacred texts in their original languages.
Bennett makes little reference to his childhood in his autobiography, Witness. Elsewhere he credits his mother with instilling in him the virtues of hard work and tolerance.
At school, he excelled in sports and captained the school rugby football team. He won a scholarship in mathematics from Oxford University, but never had the chance to take advantage of this because of the outbreak of the Great War. He continued to play rugby football for the army (against such opponents as the New Zealand national team), breaking his arm once and his collar bone twice.
In the First World War, at the age of nineteen, Bennett served as a subaltern in the Royal Engineers, with responsibility for signals and telegraphy.
In France in March 1918, he was blown off his motorcycle by an exploding shell. Taken to a military hospital, operated upon, and apparently in a coma for six days, Bennett had an out-of-body experience. He became convinced that there is something in man which can exist independently of the body.
"It was perfectly clear to me that being dead is quite unlike being very ill or very weak or helpless. So far as I was concerned, there was no fear at all. And yet I have never been a brave man and was certainly still afraid of heavy gun fire. I was cognizant of my complete indifference toward my own body."
This experience set his life on a new course. He described the return to normal consciousness as the return to a body that was now in some sense a stranger.
In the closing months of the First World War, Bennett undertook an intensive course in the Turkish language at the School of Oriental and African Studies, London, and was posted to Constantinople. He was assigned to a sensitive position in Anglo-Turkish relations, at the time of the breakup of the Ottoman Empire and rise in Turkish nationalism. His fluency made him the confidant of many high-ranking Turkish political figures; it also helped him to develop his knowledge of Turkey and to gain insights into non-European ways of thinking. A notable piece of initiative drew the attention of General Edmund Allenby, and a mention in C-in-C's dispatches. Bennett was recruited to be the head of Military Intelligence "B" Division, with responsibility for the entire Middle Eastern region.
"All day long I was dealing with different races: English, French, Italian, Greek, Armenian, Turkish, Kurdish, Russian, Arab, Jews and people so mixed up as to be no race at all. Each and every one was convinced of the superiority of his own people. How could everyone be right and all the rest wrong? It was nonsense."
Bennett's eighteen months' tenure in this position were so eventful, that he is still regarded as a major figure in the political life of Turkey in that period. Bennett's success resulted in some animosities among his superiors and he was recalled to London in January 1921. He resigned his commission with the rank of Captain and a pension for life. He kept an abiding love for Turkey for the rest of his life.
After the war, Bennett had married Evelyn, with whom he had a daughter, Ann, born August 1920. Evelyn had stayed in England when he was posted to Turkey. Bennett's immersion in Turkish affairs and his relationship with Winifred Beaumont, an English woman living in Turkey, placed increasing strain on the marriage. In 1924, Evelyn Bennett sued for divorce. Bennett later married Beaumont, who was twenty years his senior; they were together until her death in 1958. (He married a third time in 1958, to Elizabeth Mayall.)
Gurdjieff and Ouspensky
After the First World War and the Russian Revolution, many displaced people passed through Constantinople en route to the West. Part of Bennett's job was to monitor their movements. Among them were G.I. Gurdjieff and P.D. Ouspensky, whom Bennett met through Prince Sabahaddin. This reformist thinker had introduced him to a wide range of religious and occultist systems, including Theosophy and Anthroposophy. Bennett became determined to pursue the search for a deeper reality. He had been profoundly impressed with Gurdjieff's ideas about the arrangement of the human organism and the possibility of a man's transformation to a higher state of being, and would later dedicate much of his life to the elaboration and dissemination of those ideas.
Gurdjieff and Ouspensky moved on to Europe, and Bennett remained in Turkey, committed to his work and fascinated by the political and social developments in Turkey. The sultanate fell and on October 29, 1923, the Turkish republic was proclaimed. Bennett approved permission for M. Kemal Atatürk to enter Samsun, where he started the Turkish Independence struggle.
Gurdjieff founded his Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man at the Château Le Prieuré in Fontainebleau-Avon, south of Paris, in October 1922. Bennett visited in the summer of 1923, spending three months at the institute. This experience further convinced him that Gurdjieff had profound knowledge and understanding of techniques by which man can achieve transformation. Gurdjieff encouraged Bennett to stay longer, but Bennett was short of money and so felt obliged to return to work in England. Though Bennett expected to return to the group soon, he would not meet Gurdjieff again until 1948.
Bennett served the British government as a consultant on the Middle East, and interpreter at the 1924 conference in London intended to settle disputes between Greece and Turkey. He was invited to stand for parliament, but he chose instead to give his personal studies precedence over his public life.
He joined Ouspensky's groups, and continued to study Gurdjieff's system with them for fifteen years. Ouspensky broke off all contact with Gurdjieff himself in the early 1920s.
Coal industry
During this time, Bennett became involved with various coal mining ventures in Greece and Turkey. These were ultimately unsuccessful, but in the process he acquired expertise in mining and coal chemistry. He worked for four years in Greece, where he was also involved in protracted negotiations involving land claims by members of the deposed Turkish royal family.
In 1938, Bennett was asked to head Britain's newest industrial research organisation, the British Coal Utilisation Research Association (BCURA). With the outbreak of World War II, BCURA's research was focused on developing fuel-efficient fireplaces and finding alternatives to oil. BCURA developed cars powered by coal-gas and a coal-based plastic.
Group work
In 1941, Ouspensky left England to live in the United States. By now, Bennett was running his own study groups and giving talks on the subject of Gurdjieff's system. The groups continued and expanded in London throughout the Second World War. Bennett began writing and developing his own ideas in addition to Gurdjieff's. Ouspensky repudiated him in 1945, which proved very painful for Bennett. He had lost touch with Gurdjieff during the war and believed him to be dead.
"Ouspensky fell under the impression that Bennett was setting himself up as a teacher and plagiarising his lecture material. Instructions were sent to all members of Ouspensky's groups to disassociate themselves from Bennett, who found himself vilified and ostracised, but still supported by a small loyal following. He decided to go ahead with his work of communicating his understanding of the System to people, and to create a society or institute to serve as its vehicle".
Coombe Springs
In 1946, Bennett and his wife founded the non-profit Institute for the Comparative Study of History, Philosophy and the Sciences:
"To promote research and other scientific work in connection with the factors which influence development and retrogression in man and their operation in individuals and communities; to investigate the origin and elaboration of scientific hypotheses and secular and religious philosophies and their bearing on general theories of Man and his place in the universe; and to study comparative methodology in history, philosophy and natural science".
The Institute bought Coombe Springs, a seven-acre estate in Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, which had housed research laboratories used by BCURA. The Bennetts moved in with ten of Bennett's closest pupils, with the intention of starting a small research community. Coombe Springs became a centre for group work. In addition to the small community who lived there permanently, hundreds of people visited Coombe Springs for meetings and summer schools.
The old laboratories were used as dormitory space; they were known as the "fishbowl" because of the large amount of glass they had. A "new building" was later built for superior accommodation. The main house was used for meetings as well as accommodation. Coombe Springs took its name from an original Elizabethan spring house in the grounds. Until the mid-19th century, it had provided water to the palace at Hampton Court.
Bennett believed that Gurdjieff's system could be reconciled with modern science. He started work on a five-dimensional geometry which included "eternity" as a second time-like dimension, introducing this in his first published book, The Crisis in Human Affairs (1948).
Reunion with Gurdjieff
Ouspensky died in 1947. In 1948, Bennett went to the United States and met Ouspensky's wife, through whom he learned that Gurdjieff had survived the Nazi occupation of France and was living in Paris. Though it was 25 years since they had last met (due mainly to Ouspensky's longstanding veto against Gurdjieff to members of his groups), Bennett quickly decided to renew contact. In the 18 months before Gurdjieff's death (in October 1949), Bennett visited him frequently. He also continued his crowded professional schedule (he was now working for the Powell Duffryn coal company) and his responsibilities towards the group work at Coombe Springs.
A month spent working very intensively with Gurdjieff's group in the summer of 1949 laid the foundation for a significant transformation in his life and spiritual work. At that time, Gurdjieff's apartment in Paris had become a 'Mecca' to the followers of his ideas, who converged from many different countries. Bennett learnt of Gurdjieff's writings, and read Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson for the first time. At the beginning of 1949, Gurdjieff named Bennett as his 'Representative for England'. Bennett later gave public lectures in London on Gurdjieff and his ideas.
This period was described by Bennett's third wife, Elizabeth Bennett (1918–1991), who was part of the study group, in her book Idiots in Paris: Diaries of J.G. Bennett and Elizabeth Bennett, 1949. Her memoir was based on J.G. Bennett's diaries and on her own memories. A third paperback edition was published posthumously in 2017.
Gurdjieff's death in 1949 was a serious blow for all his followers. Disagreements arose within the group, partly as a result of Gurdjieff's having allocated his closest associates with conflicting areas of authority. In Bennett's case, the conflict was exacerbated by his own interpretation and development of Gurdieff's ideas.
After Gurdjieff's death, the various groups looked to Jeanne de Salzmann to give them direction and hold them together, but there was little inherent harmony among them. At this time Bennett was a member of a small group headed by Madame de Salzmann, and he put his work at Coombe Springs under her overall guidance.
In 1950, Bennett was falsely accused of harbouring communists on his staff, during a communist scare in Great Britain, and he was forced to resign from Powell Dufryn. (He later resisted several attractive offers to return to a career in industrial research and administration). He began to concentrate more fully on the group work at Coombe Springs. He lectured frequently, trying to fulfill a promise he had made to Gurdjieff to do everything in his power to propagate his ideas. Friendly relations continued with Madame de Salzmann and her groups throughout 1951 and 1952, but by then Bennett was convinced that his more senior students were not making progress. He believed that he had to learn firsthand whether there still existed an ancient tradition or source from which Gurdjieff had derived his teaching.
Travels in the Middle East
In 1953, Bennett undertook a long journey to the Middle East (West Asia), visiting Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Persia. His search, chronicled in his book Journeys in Islamic Countries (reprinted in paperback in 2001), brought him into contact with Sufis of extraordinary spiritual accomplishment, such as Emin Chikou (1890–1964) (known in Syria as Mohammad Amin Sheikho) and Farhâd Dede (1882-1977), the former of whom led Bennett indirectly to a profound meeting with Shaykh Abdullah Fa'izi ad-Daghestani (1891–1973). Bennett described him as "a true saint in whom one feels an immediate complete trust. With him there were no lengthy arguments or quotations from the scriptures." Their chance meeting on a mountaintop in Damascus is chronicled, albeit briefly, in his book Subud. Bennett concludes that Shaykh Daghestani was in possession of "powers of a kind that I had already seen in Gurdjieff and one or two others, and prepared me to take very seriously anything that he might [have to] say."
During 1954, differences of opinion became more obvious between Bennett and Madame de Salzmann regarding the promulgation of Gurdjieff's teachings. Bennett decided that an effectual working relationship with her groups was not possible. He wanted to execute Gurdjieff's last directives literally, by disseminating his ideas and writings as widely as possible, especially Beelzebub's Tales to his Grandson, which Madame de Salzmann wanted to keep away from the public eye.
In 1955, Bennett initiated a project to build an unusual nine-sided meeting hall at Coombe Springs for the performance of Gurdjieff's sacred dance movements. This, together with his public lectures in London, completed the rift with Madame de Salzmann. The project took two years to complete. At the opening in 1957, Bennett commented that the real value of such a project was in building a community rather than the building itself.
Subud
In 1956, Bennett was introduced to Subud, a spiritual movement originating in Java (an island in the Republic of Indonesia). For a number of reasons, Bennett felt that Gurdjieff had expected the arrival of a very important teaching from Indonesia. In spite of deep reservations, in November 1956 Bennett allowed himself to be 'opened' by Husein Rofé, a native Englishman (1922–2008) who had studied in the East. Rofé used the latihan (the primary spiritual exercise used in Subud).
Bennett regarded the latihan as being akin to what the mystics call diffuse contemplation. He also felt that the latihan has the power to awaken a person's conscience, the spiritual faculty that Gurdjieff regarded as necessary for salvation. Bennett sent an invitation to Subud's founder, Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo (1901–1987) (aka Pak Subuh), to come to England. Pak Subuh came to Coombe Springs, where all Bennett's pupils were given the opportunity to be 'opened'.
It was a highly controversial event. It included the apparently miraculous cure of film star Eva Bartok, but also the violent death of one of Bennett's pupils. The death of Bennett's pupil is described on pages 345–347 of the original edition of Bennett's auto-biography titled Witness: The Story of a Search (1962). The section on the death was excised from later editions of the autobiography, along with some fifty additional pages. Although Bennett admits writing this section from a subjective and self-serving perspective, the incident still showed the dangers of Subud and of putting one's trust blindly in any spiritual teacher or spiritual path.
Soon Bennett was instrumental in spreading Subud practice all over the world. He travelled extensively to spread the Subud exercise, sometimes in the company of Pak Subuh. Bennett translated Pak Subuh's lectures into various languages. His introductory book on Subud, titled Concerning Subud (1959), sold thousands of copies worldwide.
Bennett's deep involvement in Subud meant less participation in the work-group activities and exercises that had been practised until he began this work. The meeting hall was left unfinished without its intended viewers' balcony and its striking pentagonal floor was filled in to allow for latihans. Its original purpose was not to be fulfilled for many years.
Some of Bennett's pupils were dismayed. Subud's spontaneous exercise seemed to some to be the antithesis of Gurdjieff's methods for spiritual awakening, and Bennett's enthusiasm for it served to deepen the divisions within the Gurdjieff groups. Many people left the Coombe Springs groups, but others came in large numbers. For several years Coombe Springs was the headquarters of the Subud movement in Europe, attracting both serious seekers and sensation seekers.
In 1958, monks from the Benedictine Abbey of St. Wandrille, interested in Subud, contacted Bennett. The following year he made the first of many visits to the abbey to teach the monks. These visits brought him into close contact with the Catholic Church. Dom Albert-Jacques Bescond, OSB (1920–1986) was the first monk from the abbey to be 'opened', followed by many others. At St. Wandrille, Bennett first had a deep experience of what he believed was the destined unification of Islam and Christianity. He had given this possibility philosophical expression through his concept of 'essential will', as detailed in his The Dramatic Universe (4 vols). Soon after, he formally entered the Catholic Church.
By 1960, Bennett had concluded that the practice of 'latihan' alone was inadequate, and he resumed the work that he had learned from Gurdjieff. By 1962, Bennett left the Subud organization, feeling that a return to the Gurdjieff method was necessary.
Although he always said that he had derived great benefit from Subud, his departure aroused animosity and dismay from Subud members, and many turned against him.
Meanwhile, the Institute had been largely given over to Subud to the extent, at one time, of instigating a move to forbid the sale of Gurdjieff's books at Coombe Springs. In spite of this, Bennett reinstated lecture courses on psychokinetics, an action that led to increasing conflict among the membership.
A battle of power ensued in 1962 that resulted in Subud acquiring its own organization and Bennett resigning from the Subud brotherhood and his role as leader of the Coombe Springs Community and Director of Research of the institute.
From 1963, the pattern of exercises that were subsequently followed at Coombe Springs combined the latihan with different techniques such as the Gurdjieff movements. The meeting hall was completed with the fitting of a balcony for viewers and an external access through stairs for spectators. Lectures were held on topics ranging from Sufism to Synchronicity, and Bennett resumed work on the final volumes of his "personal whim", the epic 'The Dramatic Universe', which he had been working on for more than ten years, constantly writing, revising and re-writing.
Shivapuri Baba
Meanwhile, Bennett had made contact with the Shivapuri Baba, a Hindu sage living in Nepal. He had first heard of the Shivapuri Baba in the early 1940s, and now learned from Hugh Ripman (a fellow student of Ouspensky) that the yogi was still alive.
Bennett visited the Shivapuri Baba twice between 1961 and 1963, by which time the Shivapuri Baba was reportedly 137 years old. Bennett was impressed with the vitality and simplicity of the Shivapuri Baba's teaching, and later referred to him as his teacher. Bennett undertook to propagate the Shivapuri Baba's teaching, and made various attempts to incorporate it into his own work.
The Shivapuri Baba died in 1963, shortly after he had approved the draft for his biography, Bennett's Long Pilgrimage - The Life and Teaching of the Shivapuri Baba.
ISERG
In 1962, Bennett gave a seminar on spiritual psychology in which the various elements he had received (particularly from Gurdjieff, Subud and the Shivapuri Baba) were integrated into a coherent psycho-cosmology. This marked a major step in his understanding of a comprehensive methodology which combined both active and receptive "lines of work".
By this time Bennett was also working with a group of young scientists called ISERG (Integral Science Education Research Group) headed by Dr. Anthony Hodgson and soon joined by Anthony George Edward Blake, Kenneth Pledge, Henri Bortoft and others. This group investigated educational methods, the nature of science, and similar subjects. The group maintained a contact with physicist and philosopher David Bohm.
Research fellowships were created to enable Hodgson and Blake to concentrate their time on educational work. Out of this came the idea of structural communication which led the Institute into co-operative work with G.E.C. in the field of teaching machines.
In 1963, Bennett launched the institute's journal, Systematics. The journal was designed to spread the ideas of the discipline of Systematics, a practical analytical method based on his own researches into the laws governing processes in the natural world. The journal ran for 11 years with major contributions from all disciplines.
Idries Shah
While the educational work was progressing, Bennett learned of Idries Shah, an exponent of Sufism. When they met, Shah presented Bennett with a document supporting his claim to represent the 'Guardians of the Tradition'. Bennett and other followers of Gurdjieff's ideas were astonished to meet a man claiming to represent what Gurdjieff had called 'The Inner Circle of Humanity', something they had discussed for so long without hope of its concrete manifestation.
Bennett introduced "teaching stories" to his groups on Shah's instructions. These are now widely published and recognized as important teaching materials containing the essence of Sufi knowledge and insight.
It remained unclear as to what the future relationship between the institute, Bennett and Shah could become. Eventually Bennett decided to put Coombe Springs at Shah's disposal to do with as he saw fit. In October 1965 at an extraordinary General Meeting of the institute, Bennett persuaded the membership to take this step.
Shah originally indicated that he would take Bennett's psychological groups under his own wing. Bennett welcomed this, as it would allow him to concentrate on research and writing. However, he again found himself unpopular - not only with conservatives within the institute, but also with other followers of Idries Shah and members of his organisation SUFI (Society for the Understanding of the Foundation of Ideas).
In the spring of 1966, The Institute for Comparative Study donated Coombe Springs to Shah, who promptly sold it for a housing development. The Djamee was destroyed. About half the people who had studied under Bennett were integrated into his groups while the rest were left 'in the air'. The institute was left with the educational research work as its main focus. The work with the Hirst Research Laboratories of G.E.C. bore fruit in the new teaching machine, the 'Systemaster', and Bennett organised various young people around him to write and develop teaching materials that followed the structural communication method.
Bennett and some of the Coombe Springs residents had moved into a nearby house in Kingston upon Thames, where the family (the Bennetts now had two sons and two young daughters) would live quietly for four years before Bennett embarked on his last great project - an experimental school for passing on techniques for spiritual transformation.
International Academy for Continuous Education
By 1969 the company which had been formed to explore structural communication – Structural Communication Systems Ltd. – was floundering and Bennett's health, too, was in a dangerous state. After his recovery, Bennett looked afresh at the situation and the conviction came to him that he should take up the work that Gurdjieff had started at the Prieuré in 1923 and been forced to abandon. He would start a School of the Fourth Way.
Bennett became very interested in young people, especially those who surfaced from the social and cultural turmoil of the 1960s with serious questions about the significance of life but with few satisfactory answers. As part of his research, Bennett attended the rock music festival on the Isle of Wight in 1970. The outcome was the establishment of an "academy" to teach some of what he had learned in trying to discover the "sense and aim of life, and of human life in particular."
On the twenty fifth anniversary of the institute, in April 1971, a jubilee celebration on the theme of The Whole Man was held. In a very short time, primarily in the US, Bennett recruited many students and in October 1971 the International Academy for Continuous Education was inaugurated in Sherborne, Gloucestershire.
Bennett had begun this enterprise with no programme in mind and with only a handful of helpers. Initially, his ideas had involved running a school in the midst of 'life-conditions' in Kingston with two dozen students, but contact with a young representative of the New Age Movement in the USA persuaded him to think in terms of larger numbers and a relatively isolated locale in the countryside. Bennett realized that work on the land (which he considered to be an essential part of teaching the proper relationship between mankind and the rest of creation) would require a larger number. Both Hasan Shushud and Idries Shah made recommendations that, for the most part, he disregarded.
He quickly attracted one hundred pupils, and in 1971, with the support of the Institute for Comparative Study, he inaugurated the International Academy for Continuous Education, in the village of Sherborne, Gloucestershire, England.
The name was chosen "to indicate on the one hand its Platonic inspiration and on the other to emphasise that it was to offer a teaching for the whole life of the men and women who came to it."
As he tells the story in his autobiography, although various spiritual leaders had urged him at various points in his life to strike out on his own path, it was not until near the end of his years that he felt fully confident to assume the mantle of the teacher. Bennett relates how Gurdjieff had told him in 1923 that one day Bennett would "follow in his footsteps and take up the work he had started at Fontainebleau." In 1970, following the promptings of a still, small voice from within that said, "You are to found a school",
Bennett proposed that there should be five experimental courses each of ten months duration. The courses proved fruitful, and many people have continued, as he had hoped, to work with the ideas and methods he presented.
In April 1972, the Sufi Hasan Lutfi Shushud (1901-1988) came to stay for a few months at the Academy. Shushud and Bennett had met in Turkey ten years previously, and Shushud had visited Bennett's Surrey home in 1968, at which time he initiated Bennett into his wordless, universal zikr. Bennett concluded that Shushud's wordless universal zikr produced results similar to those of the latihan, while omitting many of the risks attendant on 'opening' people through Subud. Bennett observed that occasionally there are people 'opened' through Subud who experience some harsh and/or dangerous effects (for which they are unprepared) during the operation of the latihan. This observation led him to have reservations about the supposed absolute safety of the latihan for the general public. As a result of these reservations, Bennett became increasingly attracted to the Khwajagan (Masters of Wisdom of Central Asia) as presented in the teachings of Shushud. In 1973 Bennett's publisher Alick Bartholomew commissioned Bennett and Shushud to co-write a book whose tentative title was Gurdjieff and the Masters of Wisdom. Before the book was ready for publication Shushud pulled out of the project, telling Bennett that he did not trust the publisher, apparently on the grounds that Bartholomew had deducted state income tax from the advance payment for the book. However, eventually it became known that what Shushud was really objecting to was Bennett's contention in the book that Gurdjieff had established personal contact with the Khwajagan, and that therefore it is very likely that at least some of Gurdjieff's major teachings are based directly on what he had learned from the Khwajagan. Due to Shushud's disagreements with Bennett over this issue, Bennett ended up dividing the proposed book into two separate books, titled respectively Gurdjieff: Making a New World (1973) and The Masters of Wisdom (1975) (not published until after Bennett's death). However, in spite of Shushud's disagreements with Bennett over this issue, it appears that Bennett nevertheless (in the end) borrowed heavily from Shushud's teachings on the Khwajagan (probably against Shushud's wishes), in order to bring his book on that subject (The Masters of Wisdom) to a successful conclusion.
There are a number of mysterious things about Shushud, who certainly had unusual powers. Bennett makes a brief reference to these in his book Witness, and many others have attested to them. While criticising Bennett's methods, Shushud impressed on him that "Your only home is the Absolute Void". However, Shushud eventually agreed that what Bennett was doing for young Western seekers was more suitable for them than his own strict methods of fasting and zikr.
In the same year (1973), Bennett began editing Gurdjieff's Third Series of writings, Life is Real Only Then When I Am, undertaking its publication on behalf of the Gurdjieff family (who were having difficulties in dealing with the Gurdjieff Foundation). He also revisited Turkey, meeting with Hajji Muzaffer Özak al-Jerrahi (1916–1985), the Grand Shaykh of the Halveti-Jerrahi Sufi Order.
During the period of the second course at the Academy, a Theravada Buddhist monk and teacher from Cambodia named Bhante Dharmawara (1889–1999) came to Sherborne at Bennett's invitation. During his visit Dharmawara introduced meditation techniques that continue to be practised by many people.
Other visitors to the Academy were Süleyman Dede (1904–1985), head of the Mevlevi Order in Konya, as well as Süleyman Dede's disciple Reshad Feild (1934–2016). Idries Shah paid a brief visit during the first year, but soon left, with harsh views on the attitudes and disposition of the students.
Throughout the period of the institute's existence, Bennett had been toying with the idea of founding a spiritual community. He saw the Sermon on the Mount as a document describing the true community.
His contact with Idries Shah combined this in his mind with the possibility of establishing a Power House where 'enabling energies' could be concentrated. He set his sights on some kind of self-sufficient community, populated by Sherborne graduates, to evolve out of the school. He was profoundly influenced by contemporary ideas, such as those of Schumacher, about the need for alternative technology and by the argument of conservationists for intelligent, ecologically sound agriculture. He was also greatly impressed that his spiritual hero and inner teacher, Khwaja Ubaidallah Ahrar (15th century) had turned to farming after his period of training.
The soaring price of land in the UK led to Bennett's interest in starting something in the US. In 1974, he signed an agreement whereby the institute loaned $100,000 to a newly formed society for the foundation of a psychokinetic community. He signed this document shortly before his death on 13 December 1974.
The Claymont Society was founded to attempt to carry out Bennett's vision, but without the help of his guidance.
In the summer of 1974, he visited the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in Rome to question him about Transcendental Meditation and his interpretation of the Bhagavad Gita. Bennett had been initiated into TM several years before and first met the Maharishi in 1959. He disputed Maharishi's presentation of the Gita in which he eliminated the need for sacrifice and suffering.
In the last year of his life, he gradually made it known to those working with him, that his own personal task centred on the creation of a way of religious worship that would be accessible to men and women of the West who were lacking in religious formation. During this period he made experiments with the Islamic namaz and Sufi zikr.
The teachings he developed in his last years were recorded and published in a series of books put together by Anthony Blake. He showed that at last he was independent of Gurdjieff and had his own understanding of the spiritual world, based on a radical questioning of all current assumptions.
Bennett died on Friday, 13 December 1974, shortly after the start of the fourth course. That course, and the fifth, were completed by his wife, working with a few of his most experienced pupils.
With his death the institute was faced with the typical problems of a body which had been led almost single-handedly by one man since its inception. The decision was taken to continue the Academy's work until the five-year period, originally specified by Bennett, had been completed. The setting up of the US community at Claymont Court, West Virginia, went ahead.
In the months before he died, Bennett worked to establish an experimental "ideal human society" embodying the methods and ideas that he had developed and derived from Gurdjieff. He made substantial efforts to overcome the rifts that had grown between different groups of Gurdjieff's followers, and was beginning to talk about the development of new forms of worship appropriate for the modern world.
Bibliography
1948. Crisis in human affairs. (2e ed. 1951)
1949. What Are We Living For? (A critique of western culture)
1956. Dramatic Universe, The (A search for a unified vision of reality)
1959. Concerning Subud.
1961. Christian mysticism and Subud.
1962. Approaching Subud; ten talks. And a discussion with Steve Allen.
1962. Witness: The Story of a Search (Dharma Book Company, and Hodder & Stoughton)(Autobiography)
1964, A Spiritual Psychology (1974, 1999)(a workbook for creating an organ of perception and mode of existence independent from the vagaries of life)
1964. Energies: Material, Vital, Cosmic (2e ed. 1989) (exploration of the theory of Universal Energies developed from Gurdjieff's hints)
1965. Long Pilgrimage (2e ed. 1983) (The life and teaching of the Shivapuri Baba)
1969. Gurdjieff: A Very Great Enigma (The ideas of Gurdjieff and the mystery that surrounded him)
1973. Gurdjieff - Making a New World (Biography exploring Gurdjieff's role in bringing ancient wisdom to the West)
1974. How We Do Things: The Role of Attention in Spiritual Life (Chapters on Function, Sensitivity, Consciousness, Decision, & Creativity)
1974. Sex: the relationship between sex and spiritual development (The relationship between sex and spiritual development)
1974, Transformation of man seriesPosthumous publications
1975. Intimations: Talks with J.G. Bennett at Beshara (talks given to students of Reshad Feild, Bulent Rauf and of the great Sufi Mystic
1976. First Liberation, freedom from like and dislike (2002 ed. subtitle: Working with Themes at Sherborne House)
1976. Hazard: The Risk of Realization (First book of talks given on ideas found in The Dramatic Universe)
1976. Journeys In Islamic Countries (Diaries of Bennetts's search for the sources of Gurdjieff's teachings)
1977. Needs Of A New Age Community: Talks on Spiritual Community & Schools compiled by A. G. E. Blake from the unpublished writings and talks of J. G. Bennett. (Includes Bennett's commentaries on 'The Sermon on the Mount')
1977. Material objects 1978. Creation (Exploration of the idea that man lives in many worlds)
1978. Deeper Man (Gurdjieff's ideas applied to the critical condition of 20th century society)
1978, Transformation (2003) (The process by which a man can become a 'New Man')
1980. Idiots In Paris 1991. 2008. (Diaries of Elizabeth & J.G. Bennett in Paris with Gurdjieff)
1983. Spiritual Hunger Of The Modern Child: a series of ten lectures (Bennett, Mario Montessori, A.I Polack and others on the nature of a child's spirituality)
1989. Creative Thinking (1998) (The conditions necessary for creative insight)
1989. Sacred Influences: Spiritual Action in Human Life (Essays on the qualities of Life, Nature, Doing, Wisdom, God, and Sacred Images)
1993. Elementary Systematics: A Tool for Understanding Wholes (Conceptual tool to find pattern in complexity. A handbook for business)
1995. Making A Soul: Human Destiny and the Debt of Our Existence (Instruction based on Bennett's view of the fundamental purpose of human existence)
1995. Masters Of Wisdom: An Esoteric History of the Spiritual Unfolding of Life on This Planet (Historical study and a vision of the workings of higher intelligence)
2006. Way To Be Free. edited by Anthony Blake (Conversations between Bennett & his students on the difference between work done from the mind and work from essence)
2007. Talks On Beelzebub's Tales'' (From Bennett's talks on Gurdjieff's series 'Beelzebub's Tales to His Grandson'.
See also
Systematics – study of multi-term systems
References
External links
Official website
Bennett Books website
The Gurdjieff's Mission video explores Bennett's enigmatic relationship with Gurdjieff
John G. Bennett page at Gurdjieff International Review website
"A Call for a New Society" by Bennett
Systematics website including original journal articles
Sabah newspaper from Turkey Bennett's signature from 16 May 1919, Istanbul
1897 births
1974 deaths
Students of George Gurdjieff
Fourth Way
Subud
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|
215300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bugs%20Moran | Bugs Moran | George Clarence "Bugs" Moran (; born in France Adelard Leo Cunin; August 21, 1893 – February 25, 1957) was an American Chicago Prohibition-era gangster. He was incarcerated three times before his 21st birthday. Seven members of his gang were gunned down in a warehouse in the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre of February 14, 1929, supposedly on the orders of his rival Al Capone.
Early life and career
Moran was born Adelard Cunin to French immigrant Jules Adelard Cunin and Marie Diana Gobeil, Canadian descendent, in Saint Paul, Minnesota. He attended Cretin High School, a private Catholic school in Saint Paul, but he also joined a local juvenile gang and left school at age 18. He was later caught robbing a store and was sent to the state juvenile correctional facility, and was put in jail three times before he turned 21. He then fled to Chicago where he was caught trying to rob a warehouse, taking part in a horse-stealing ring, taking part in robbery involving the death of a police officer, and robbing a freight car, for which he received a variety of prison and jail sentences.
Prohibition
Prohibition was established in 1920 with the enactment of the 18th Amendment, which banned the distribution of alcoholic beverages, resulting in bootlegging.
Among the involved gangs were Dean O'Banion and his mostly Irish group, including Bugs Moran, who became known as the North Side Gang and Al Capone as the leader of the Italian mob on the South Side. These two rivals fought violently, resulting in what is known as "The Bootleg Battle of the Marne".
Battling Al Capone
The bootlegging operation of Hymie Weiss and Bugs Moran continued to pose a significant challenge to Capone's South Side Gang. Moran and Capone then led a turf war with each other that cost them both. Moran's hatred of Capone was apparent even to the public. Moran was disgusted that Capone engaged in prostitution. He would not increase profits himself by engaging in prostitution rings because of his Catholic religion. Johnny Torrio's gang killed Dean O'Banion, and in an attempt to avenge him Bugs Moran and Earl "Hymie" Weiss made an attempt on Torrio's life. Later they went on to make a failed attempt on Al Capone's life at his headquarters, the Hawthorne Inn in Cicero, Illinois. More than one thousand shots were fired at the inn and at a nearby restaurant in their attempts to kill Capone. In retaliation, Weiss's life was taken by Al Capone's gang, and Bugs Moran became the new boss of the North Side Gang.
According to historian of Twin Cities organized crime Paul Maccabee, Bugs Moran had a close friendship with St. Paul-based Irish mob boss Danny Hogan. Following Hogan's murder by car bomb on December 4, 1928, Bugs Moran personally stood guard outside the Hogan family residence at West Seventh Street in St. Paul, "apparently to protect the Hogan family from further underworld attacks."
Responding to Weiss's death, Moran tried to kill a member of Capone's gang, resulting in an attack, allegedly from Capone, known as the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.
The St. Valentine's Day Massacre
On February 14, 1929, seven members of Moran's gang died in the Saint Valentine's Day Massacre. Moran was offered a truckload of whiskey at a bargain price, which he had ordered to be delivered at 10:30 a.m. to the garage of the S.M.C. Cartage Company on North Clark Street, where he kept his bootlegging trucks. Two gunmen dressed as Chicago police officers and two others in plain clothes lined up Moran's people against the wall in the warehouse and shot them. Bugs Moran, the main target of the "assassination" was not present, having arrived late and saw the approaching Police car he turned around going to a nearby café instead. Another North Sider, Al Weinshank, was misidentified as Moran by one of the lookouts who signaled for the attack to begin.
Police response was delayed when witnesses saw the two "police officers" exit the scene. There were six corpses and another man near death when police arrived on the scene. The man, Frank Gusenberg, following the gangster's code of silence, refused to identify the killers before dying. When Moran learned of the carnage, he broke the gangster code, accusing Capone of the murders. No-one was convicted, Capone denying involvement in the massacre, though twice being summoned to court, which he avoided by claimed illness.
There is some evidence implicating Chicago police officers in the killings. Prior to the massacre, some officers were stealing bootleg liquor from the gang's trucks and were allegedly disciplined by the chief of police, but no substantiation is available. It has been established that Al Capone was in Florida on the day of the massacre.
After Prohibition
Moran managed to keep control of his territory and what remained of his gang through the early 1930s, but the North Side gang never fully recovered its power or former place in Chicago's underworld as the chief rival to Capone's Italian mob. Moran eventually left the area, quitting the gang entirely—though not the criminal lifestyle, as he reverted to his earlier gangster ways of petty crime such as mail fraud and robbery.
On April 30, 1939, Moran was convicted of conspiracy to cash $62,000 worth of American Express checks. He was freed on appeal when he posted a bond; he fled but was captured and not released until December 21, 1944. He was almost penniless by the 1940s, only 17 years after being one of the richest gangsters in Chicago. On July 6, 1946, he was arrested for his involvement in the robbery of a Dayton, Ohio tavern on June 28, 1945, and he received a sentence of 20 years after being found guilty. He was paroled in 1956, but was immediately arrested for his role in the 1945 robbery of a bank in Ansonia, Ohio. He was found guilty in 1957 and sentenced to 10 more years in prison.
Death in prison
Moran died of lung cancer a few months into his 10-year sentence at Leavenworth Federal Prison in Kansas on February 25, 1957, at the age of 63.
Personal life
Moran married Evelyn Herrell, who left him because of his criminal lifestyle. In 1922 he married Lucille Logan Bilezikdijan, with whom he fathered a son, John George Moran (1920 – 1959).
In popular culture
References
Sources
Bugs Moran at Encyclopædia Britannica
George "Bugs" Moran, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing left. 1957. New York World-Telegram and the Sun Newspaper Photograph Collection, whereabouts unknown. Accessed 22 Mar. 2015. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/95511458/
George "Bugs" Moran, head-and-shoulders portrait, facing front. 1930. Library of Congress, whereabouts unknown. Accessed 22 Mar. 2015. https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/93511625/
"FEB 14 1929: The St Valentine's Day Massacre in Chicago". History Today 59, no. 2 (February 2009): 10. Corporate ResourceNet, Accessed March 23, 2015. EBSCOhost.
Salem Press. American Villains. Pasadena, Calif: Salem Press, 2008. 386–389. Accessed March 22, 2015. EBSCOhost.
External links
BugsMoran.net
George Clarence Moran at My Al Capone Museum
1893 births
1957 deaths
American bank robbers
American crime bosses
American people of French descent
American people of Canadian descent
American people who died in prison custody
American bootleggers
Deaths from cancer in Kansas
Deaths from lung cancer
North Side Gang
People from Chicago
People from Saint Paul, Minnesota
Prisoners who died in United States federal government detention
Prohibition-era gangsters
Prohibition gangs | [
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|
215301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In%20Search%20of%20the%20Miraculous | In Search of the Miraculous | In Search of the Miraculous: Fragments of an Unknown Teaching is a 1949 book by Russian philosopher P. D. Ouspensky which recounts his meeting and subsequent association with George Gurdjieff. It is widely regarded as the most comprehensive account of Gurdjieff's system of thought ever published. It is regarded as "fundamental textbook" by many modern followers of Gurdjieff's teachings , who often use it as a means of introducing new students to Gurdjieff's system of self-development.
Editions
In Search of the Miraculous: The Definitive Exploration of G. I. Gurdjieff's Mystical Thought and Universal View, Harvest Book; New edition, 2001. .
"In Search of the Miraculous -
August 2010 - identical copy of first hardback edition.
Paul H. Crompton Ltd.
See also
Fragments of an Unknown Teaching (music inspired by the book)
External links
In Search of the Miraculous'' Synopsis & Book Download (PDF)
A synopsis by Jacob Needleman originally presented at the 1980 national meetings of the American Academy of Religion.
1949 non-fiction books
New religious movements in popular culture
Philosophy books
Self-help books
Fourth Way
Books by P. D. Ouspensky
Books about spirituality
George Gurdjieff
Harcourt (publisher) books | [
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215313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grodno%20Region | Grodno Region | Grodno Region () or Grodno Oblast or Hrodna Voblasts (, Hrodzienskaja vobłasć; , Grodnenskaya oblast; ) is one of the regions of Belarus. It is located in the western part of the country.
The capital, Grodno, is the biggest city in the region. It lies on the Neman River. It borders Minsk Region to the east, Brest Region to the south, Poland (Podlaskie Voivodeship) to the west and Vitebsk Region and Lithuania (Alytus and Vilnius counties) to the north. Grodno's existence is attested to from 1127. Two castles dating from the 14th - 18th centuries are located here on the steep right bank of the Nemen. One of the city's surviving masterpieces is the 12th century Orthodox Church of St Boris & St Gleb (Kalozhskaya Church), which is the second oldest in Belarus.
History
This region was the westernmost "borderlands" of the Early East Slavs (tribal union Dregovichs?) on the lands of the Balts in the 6th-9th centuries. In the 12th-14th centuries it was part of the area sometimes known as Black Ruthenia, that was fully incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) by the rulers of Lithuania in the 13th century.
In 1413, the area around Grodno, part of the Duchy of Trakai, was transformed into newly established Trakai Voivodeship. Grodno became the seat of Grodno County. In 1441, Magdeburg Law charter was granted to the capital by Casimir IV Jagiellon Grand Duke of Lithuania and future King of Poland. In 1444, Grodno received its coat of arms from Casimir's hands as well as substantial trade privileges.
The strong economic development of the area continued during the reign of Casimir's son - Duke Alexander Jagiellon who founded the first solid bridge over the Neman River as well as Monastery of Order of Saint Augustine and Monastery of Polish Ordo Fratrum Minorum. Later, Bona Sforza Queen of Poland and Grand Duchess of Lithuania, placed in Grodno her royal residence. According to medieval surveys, Grodno had 35 streets and 700 houses in 1558.
The golden age of Grodno falls on the reign of Stephen Báthory King of Poland, which is between 1576 and 1586. During his reign, Grodno became royal headquarters and began to host sessions of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Senate and Parliament. In 1580, on king's order the castle of Grodno was rebuilt in Renaissance style of architecture, by Scoto di Parma.
At the beginning of the 17th century, Grodno was one of the most developed and important cities in Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, traditionally recognized as the third capital of the commonwealth. Deterioration of province status began with Livonian War which put Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in long-lasting and exhausting military conflict with Tsardom of Russia and Swedish Empire. Between 1765 and 1780, the province regained some of its previous status when Antoni Tyzenhaus the Treasurer of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Administrator of Polish Royal Estates, was governing the capital and the province. Around 50 new economical endeavours were undertaken by Tyzenhaus in the region, new manufactures, mills and workshops have been built.
As part of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth forming the Grand Duchy's Trakai Voivodship, and due to subsequent Partitions of Poland, the whole of the Grodno region was finally annexed by Russian Empire by the end of 1795. The city of Grodno then became a seat for Grodno Governorate.
During World War I the governorate was occupied by Germany. German troops entered Grodno city on 3 September 1915, plundering the Library of Dominicans Order. During the German occupation, Polish citizens of Grodno region were persecuted and had restricted civil rights. At the end of the war, the Belarusian People's Republic declared its independence from Soviet Russia in March 1918 in Minsk. Grodno was the site of the last stand of the BNR's Council (Rada). Soon, the Council was forced to flee as Soviet troops invaded the region and the city in 1919. The same year Polish–Soviet War broke out and lasted until 1921.
Under the terms of Peace Treaty of Riga the region and the city returned to Second Polish Republic which claimed rights to this territory as a successor to Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and as a victorious side of the Polish–Soviet War. By 1939, the Grodno city had 60,000 inhabitants, with Poles and Jews accounting for 60% and 37% of the population, respectively. During Polish rule Grodno was centre of Grodno County in Białystok Voivodeship, but some parts of present Grodno Region was in the voivodeships of Nowogródek and Wilno.
On 17 September 1939, the Grodno area was invaded by Soviet Union and incorporated by force to the Soviet Union as part of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Grodno was located in the newly established Belastok Region. Thousands were imprisoned or deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan. During World War II the region fell under Nazi German occupation. In November 1941, German occupants established the Grodno Ghetto for Jewish citizens of Grodno and rest of the region population. In 1942, after a year of severe persecution and planned starvation of ghetto inhabitants, 10,000 Jews from Grodno were deported to the German concentration camp of Auschwitz-Birkenau and murdered there. Next year, in 1943, survivors of remaining 17,000 of ghetto inhabitants were again deported to Auschwitz-Birkenau as well as to Treblinka extermination camp and Białystok Ghetto. Although on 13 March 1943, German troops reported the end of extermination and described Grodno city as judenrein, around 50 Jews survived the extermination, also hidden by non-Jewish families. Polish and Soviet underground acted in the region. Villages like Dziarečyn, which originally had large Jewish populations, were greatly reduced.
As a result of Joseph Stalin's policy of expansion to the west, it was decided during the Yalta Conference that the Polish eastern border shall be set along the so-called "original" Curzon Line. Based on this decision, the left-bank part of Grodno town would be kept within the borders of Poland. It is actually not clear till today, how the original Curzon Line near Grodno has been moved by around 20 km to the west. When the so-called "mistake" (today regarded rather as deliberate sabotage within British ministry structures) became obvious to negotiators, Stalin refused to correct the mistaken line. Despite multiple and desperate appeals from Polish citizens of Grodno, the whole Grodno region, (including ethically Polish till today) Sapotskin Triangle, was incorporated to the Soviet Belarus and many Poles emigrated or were expelled.
In 1944 Belastok Region was dissolved and Grodno Region established.
Since 1991 the Grodno Region constitutes one of 6 regions of independent Belarus.
Heritage and tourism
Main tourist attractions in the region are numerous old architectural constructions such as castles in Mir, Lida, Novogrudok. A part of Białowieża Forest is situated here, but the tourist excursions start from the Brest Region part of the National Park. Zhyrovichy Monastery is also a destination for religious travellers.
The Mir Castle Complex and Belovezhskaya Pushcha National Park are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. There are such objects of Belarusian Cultural heritage list, as the Church of Saint Anthony of Padua in Kamienka, St. Francis Xavier Cathedral, St Andrew's Church in Slonim, Church of the Holy Trinity in Gierviaty, etc.
There are about 45 travel agencies in Grodno Region, half of them provide agent activity, the other half are tour operators.
Demographics (2002)
The province covers an area of 25,100 km² and has a population of 1,065,100, giving a population density of 42/km². About 63.5% live in cities and towns, while 36.5% live in rural areas. Females account for 53% of the region's population and men 47%. There are about 310,000 children under 19, and about 240,000 people aged over 60.
Nowadays, Belarusians account for 62.3% of the population. The region is a home to significant minority populations:
Poles (24.8%),
Russians (10%),
Ukrainians (1.8%),
Jews (0.4%),
Tatars (0.2%),
Lithuanians (0.2%),
other nationalities (0.4%).
Whereas Belarus as a whole is primarily Russian Orthodox, Grodno Region has two major religions, Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox. There are 449 religious communities and 18 denominations, 2 Russian Orthodox eparchial districts, 1 Orthodox nun sorority, 2 Catholic monk brotherhoods, 1 Catholic nun sorority, 2 Orthodox and 4 Catholic monasteries, 165 Orthodox and 169 Catholic churches. The Catholic minority is made up mostly of Poles, although the identifier "Pole" has also been historically applied to Catholic Belarusians.
There are a number on national minority associations: 6 Polish, 6 Lithuanian, 4 Jewish, 1 Ukrainian, 1 Russian, 1 Tatar, 1 Georgian, 1 Chuvash.
Administrative subdivisions
The Grodno Region is subdivided into 17 districts (rajons), 194 selsoviets, 12 cities, 6 city municipalities, and 21 urban-type settlements.
Districts of Grodno Region
Cities and towns
Population of cities and towns in Grodno Region:
Economy
In 2016, Grodno Region produced 10.9% of industrial output of Belarus. The biggest company was a nitrogen fertilizer producer Grodno Azot (16% of regional industrial output). In 2017, the biggest taxpayer of the region was Grodno tobacco factory.
Average salary (before income tax) in the region in 2017 was 700 BYN, or lower than average salary in Belarus (820 BYN). The highest salary in the region was recorded in Grodno (810 BYN).
Unemployment rate in 2017 was estimated at 4.4%, but only 0.8% of population of employable age was registered as unemployed.
See also
Subdivisions of Belarus
Second Polish Republic’s Nowogródek Voivodeship (1919-1939)
Second Polish Republic’s Białystok Voivodeship (1919–1939)
Second Polish Republic’s Wilno Voivodeship (1926–39)
Grodno is one of the most ancient towns in Belarus.
References
External links
Grodno Regional Executive Committee, in Belarusian, Russian, English and Chinese
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|
215316 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planet%20of%20the%20Apes%20%28novel%29 | Planet of the Apes (novel) | La Planète des singes, known in English as Planet of the Apes in the US and Monkey Planet in the UK, is a 1963 science fiction novel by French author Pierre Boulle. It was adapted into the 1968 film Planet of the Apes, launching the Planet of the Apes media franchise.
The novel tells the tale of three human explorers from Earth who visit a planet orbiting the star Betelgeuse, in which great apes are the dominant intelligent and civilized species, whereas humans are reduced to a savage animal-like state.
Plot
In a frame story, a rich couple sailing alone in space, Jinn and Phyllis, rescue and translate a manuscript from a floating bottle. The manuscript was written by journalist Ulysse Mérou, who in 2500 was invited by wealthy Professor Antelle to accompany him and his disciple, physician Arthur Levain, to Betelgeuse. Because they travel close to the speed of light, time dilation causes centuries to pass on Earth during their two years in transit. They land their shuttle on a temperate, lushly forested planet which they name Soror (Latin for sister). They can breathe the air, drink the water and eat the fruit. Attracted by a woman whom they call Nova, they swim below a scenic waterfall. She is frightened by their pet chimpanzee, Hector, and strangles it. Her tribe, who exhibit the behavior of dumb animals, wreck the newcomers' clothing and shuttle.
Gorillas, fully dressed as hunters, attack the tribe with firearms. Many are killed, including Arthur. Ulysse is captured with the survivors and brought to a city populated by apes. Ape clothing matches that of 20th century Earth humans, except that the apes wear gloves instead of shoes on their prehensile feet. The apes smoke tobacco, photograph their hunting trophies, drink through straws and appear utterly civilized. Their society is divided into three strata: aggressive gorilla police and military, conservative orangutan politicians and religious authorities, and liberal chimpanzee scientists.
In an urban biological research facility, Ulysse recognizes conditioning methods being used on captured humans. He is mated with Nova. Curious chimpanzee researcher Zira takes an interest in his geometric drawings and his ability to speak a few simian words. With help from Zira's fiancé, Cornélius, Ulysse makes a speech in front of several thousand apes. He is granted freedom and is given tailored clothing. Antelle reverts to primitive humanity in the zoo and is moved to the laboratory for safety, where he is mated to a young female.
Cornélius, an archaeologist, excavates an ancient human city. An unconscious human lab subject recites from racial memory the events that led to the fall of human civilization: humans tamed apes and eventually used them as servants. As apes learned to talk, a cerebral laziness took hold of the humans. Apes gradually took over human homes, driving the humans into camps outside of the cities. In the final memory, apes attacked the last human camp, carrying only whips.
Nova bears Ulysse a son, Sirius, who walks and talks at three months. Fearing for their lives, they take the place of the human test subjects in a space flight experiment. Because all humans look alike to apes, they are able to escape without notice and they rendezvous with the orbiting ship. Ulysse programs the ship back to Earth. As they fly over Paris, Orly Airport and the Eiffel Tower look the same. When they land, however, they are greeted by a field officer in a Jeep who is a gorilla. It is subsequently revealed, via the frame story, that Jinn and Phyllis are actually civilized chimpanzees, and they discard Ulysse's story as sheer fantasy because they find the idea of intelligent humans unbelievable.
Publication history
The novel was published in France in 1963 by Éditions Julliard.
The first English language version, with a translation by Xan Fielding, was published in the United States by Vanguard Press in June 1963 under the title Planet of the Apes.
In January 1964, it was published in the United Kingdom as Monkey Planet by Secker & Warburg of London, then re-issued as Planet of the Apes in August 1973 to tie it in to the film franchise it inspired.
The first paperback edition was published in the US in March 1964 by Signet / New American Library.
In May 1964, Saga: The Magazine For Men printed an abridged version of the novel.
Adaptations
The novel inspired a media franchise consisting of nine films, two television series (one animated), and several comic books.
The first film was Planet of the Apes (1968), a science fiction feature film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner from a screenplay by Michael Wilson & Rod Serling and starring Charlton Heston. The film was a critical and commercial success, spawning four sequels on a one-film-a-year basis between 1970 and 1973.
A second adaptation of the book was released in 2001 directed by Tim Burton as a loose remake of the 1968 film of the same name. A series reboot with a new production team called Rise of the Planet of the Apes was released in 2011 to critical and commercial success. It was the first in a new series of films.
See also
Ape and Essence
Genus Homo
"Living Fossil"
Les Animaux dénaturés
"No Connection"
References
Further reading
External links
1963 French novels
Fiction set around Betelgeuse
French-language novels
French science fiction novels
1963 science fiction novels
French fantasy novels
Fiction set in the 26th century
Vanguard Press books
French novels adapted into films
Planet of the Apes
Fiction about alien zoos
Novels adapted into comics
French novels adapted into television shows
Novels adapted into video games | [
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|
215318 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volyn%20Oblast | Volyn Oblast | Volyn Oblast (; also referred to as Volyn, Wołyń or Lodomeria) is an oblast (province) in northwestern Ukraine. Its administrative centre is Lutsk. Kovel is the westernmost town and the last station in Ukraine on the rail line running from Kyiv to Warsaw. Population:
History
Volyn was once part of Kievan Rus' before becoming an independent local principality and an integral part of the Halych-Volynia, one of Kievan Rus' successor states. In the 15th century, the area came under the control of neighbouring Grand Duchy of Lithuania, in 1569 passing over to Poland and then in 1795, until World War I, to the Russian Empire where it was a part of the Volynskaya Guberniya. In the interwar period most of the territory, organized as Wołyń Voivodeship was under Polish control.
In 1939 when following the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact Poland was invaded and divided by Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, Volyn was joined to Soviet Ukraine, and on December 4, 1939, the oblast was organized.
Many Ukrainians rejoiced at the "reunification", but the Polish minority suffered a cruel fate. Thousands of Poles, especially retired Polish officers and intelligentsia were deported to Siberia and other areas in the depths of the Soviet Union. A high proportion of these deportees died in the extreme conditions of Soviet labour camps and most were never able to return to Volyn again.
In 1941 Volyn along with the Soviet Union was invaded by the Nazi Germany's Barbarossa Offensive. Nazis alongside Ukrainian collaborators completed their holocaust of the Jews of Volhynia in late 1942.
Partisan activity started in Volyn in 1941, soon after German occupation. Partisans were involved in the Rail War campaign against German supply lines and were known for their efficiency in gathering intelligence and for sabotage. The region formed the basis of several networks and many members of the local population served with the partisans. The Poles in the area became part of the Polish Home Army, which often undertook operations with the partisan movement.
UPA initially supported Nazi Germany which had in turn supported them with financing and weaponry before the start of World War II. Many served in the various RONA and SS units. Once they became disillusioned with the Nazi program, they independently began to target all non-Ukrainians (Poles, Jews, Russians, among others) for extermination. Some 30,000 to 60,000 Poles, Czechs, remaining Jews, and Ukrainians who tried to help others escape (Polish sources gave even higher figures) and later, around 2,000 or more Ukrainians were killed in retaliation (see Massacres of Poles in Volhynia).
In January 1944 the Red Army recaptured the territory from the Nazis.
In the immediate aftermath of World War II the Polish-Soviet border was redrawn based on the Curzon line. Volyn, along with the neighbouring provinces became an integral part of the Ukrainian SSR. Most Poles who remained in the eastern region were forced to leave to the Recovered Territories of western Poland (the former easternmost provinces of Germany) whose German population had been expelled. Some of the Ukrainians on the western side, notably around the city of Kholm (Chełm in Polish), were also forcibly relocated to Ukraine.
The area underwent rapid industrialisation including the construction of the Lutskiy Avtomobilnyi Zavod. Nevertheless, the area remains one of the most rural throughout the former Soviet Union.
Historical sites
The following historical-cultural sites were nominated in 2007 for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.
Upper Castle
Volodymyr historical-cultural complex
Villa-museum of Lesia Ukrainka
Relics
Painting of the Holm's Virgin Mary
Politics
Former Chairmen of Oblast Council
2006 – Vasyl Dmytruk Lytvyn's Bloc
2006 – Anatoliy Hrytsiuk
Subdivisions
The Volyn Oblast is administratively subdivided into 4 raions (districts).
Demography
Age structure
0–14 years: 19.0% (male 101,739/female 95,332)
15–64 years: 68.2% (male 344,359/female 363,116)
65 years and over: 12.8% (male 42,221/female 90,463) (2013 official)
Median age
total: 35.7 years
male: 33.2 years
female: 38.3 years (2013 official)
Notable people
Oleh Skvira (born 2000), Ukrainian professional football player
Vitaliy Kvartsyanyi (born 1953), Ukrainian football manager and former player.
See also
List of villages in Volyn Oblast
References
External links
Volyn Oblast State Administration
Volyn Region (Newspaper)
Picture album
Oblasts of Ukraine
States and territories established in 1939
1939 establishments in Ukraine | [
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|
215320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright%20law%20of%20Hong%20Kong | Copyright law of Hong Kong | Copyright law in Hong Kong to a great extent follows the English model. The Basic Law of Hong Kong, its constitutional document, guarantees a high degree of autonomy and continuation of laws previously in force after its reunification with Mainland China. Hong Kong therefore continues to maintain a separate intellectual property regime from Mainland China. Article 139 and 140 of the Basic Law specifically deal with the protection of copyright in Hong Kong.
Article 139
The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall, on its own, formulate policies on science and technology and protect by law achievements in scientific and technological research, patents, discoveries and inventions.
The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall, on its own, decide on the scientific and technological standards and specifications applicable in Hong Kong.
Article 140
The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region shall, on its own, formulate policies on culture and protect by law the achievements and the lawful rights and interests of authors in their literary and artistic creation.
See more on https://www.basiclaw.gov.hk/pda/en/basiclawtext/chapter_6.html
Open-qualification system
Apart from general substantive criteria, for Copyright to subsist in a work, the statutory requirements with respect to qualification for copyright protection in s 177 must be met (Copyright Ordinance s 2(3)).
Hong Kong has broad copyright protection thanks to its open-qualification system under Copyright Ordinance ss177(1)(a), 177(1)(b) and 178. It means that no requirements of nationality or other status of the author, or of the work's place of first publication need to be satisfied before a work is eligible for protection. Works transmitted over Internet, radio, televisions are all under protection (ss26 and 177(1)(c)).
Nonetheless, Copyright Ordinance s 180(1) allows the Chief Executive to deny or limit copyright protection for works originating in non-reciprocating jurisdictions.
Copyright Ordinance
The Copyright Ordinance (Cap 528), which became effective on 27th June 1997, is Hong Kong's first purely local copyright law. However, the Copyright Act in 1956 of the United Kingdom will continue to apply to the protection of copyright of works created before 27th June 1997.
Categories of copyright works
Copyright Ordinance (Cap 528) s 2(i)(a) protects 9 categories of copyrighted works:
literary works
dramatic works
musical works
artistic works
sound recordings
films
broadcasts
cable programmes
typographical arrangement of published editions
Criteria of claiming copyright protection
In order to successfully claim for copyright protection, 3 criteria must be satisfied: (1) the subject matter must be a 'work'; (2) the work must fall within 1 of the 9 categories stated in s.2(1) of the Hong Kong Copyright Ordinance; and (3) the work must be original if the subject matter is a literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work.
Duration of copyright
S.17 to 21 of the Copyright Ordinance deal with the duration of copyright works. The author of the work is deemed to be the person who creates the work (with exceptions for commissioned works and employee works). S.17(1) to (5) states that the duration of copyright of literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works is the life of the author plus 50 years, or 50 years from the end of the year in which the work was first created or made available to the public if the identity of the author is not known.
Except for typographical arrangement of published editions, the duration of copyright in other works is also 50 years from certain events specified in the Copyright Ordinance.
The duration of copyright in typographical arrangement of published editions is 25 years from the year of first publication, according to S.21 of the Copyright Ordinance.
Moral rights
The Hong Kong Copyright Ordinance Pt II Div IV (ss 89-100) recognizes the following two types of moral rights ("droit d'auteur") in favour of the author, director or commissioner of the work regardless of whether he is the owner of the copyright: (i) Right to be identified as author or director (Copyright Ordinance s 89); and (ii) Right to object to derogatory treatment of work Copyright Ordinance s 92.
Controversies in criminalising the copying of materials
Controversial changes criminalising the copying of materials in the course of trade were introduced in 2000: insofar as they affect printed matter, these were quickly suspended following an outcry from educational groups and consumer groups. The suspension, provided in the Copyright (Suspension of Amendments) Ordinance 2001, will expire on 31 July 2004. Hong Kong is currently unique in the common law world for treating copying infringing materials differently between printed and non-printed materials.
Administration of copyright laws
Copyright laws are administered by the Intellectual Property Department of the Hong Kong Government.
See also
Hong Kong trade mark law
References
External links
Website of the Intellectual Property Department of the Hong Kong Government
Hong Kong Intellectual Property Department's Guide for Photocopying for Educational Institutions
Copyright Ordinance (Cap 528) of Hong Kong Law.
Copyright (Suspension of Amendments) Ordinance 2001
Hong Kong
Hong Kong law
Hong Kong intellectual property law | [
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|
215326 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offense | Offense | Offense or offence may refer to:
Common meanings
Sin, an act that violates a known moral rule
Offense or crime, a violation of penal law
Offense (sports), the action of engaging an opposing team with the objective of scoring
Media
The Offence, a 1972 drama film directed by Sidney Lumet
"Offense" (Law & Order: Criminal Intent), an episode of Law & Order: Criminal Intent, 2008
Other uses
Offense (policy debate), arguments that make a definite value judgment about an advocacy
Religious offense, an offense against religion
See also
Offensive (disambiguation) | [
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|
215330 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20Games | War Games | War Games is a song by Australian singer John Paul Young, released in 1984. It was released as the second single from One Foot in Front and it was written by John Capek and Marc Jordan. The song reached number 87 in Australia.
Track listings
7 Inch single
12 Inch single
Charts
References
John Paul Young songs
1984 songs
1984 singles
Songs written by John Capek
Songs written by Marc Jordan | [
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|
215334 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2000s%20in%20film | 2000s in film | The decade of the 2000s in film involved many significant developments in the film industries around the world, especially in the technology used. Building on developments in the 1990s, computers were used to create effects that would have previously been more expensive, from the subtle erasing of surrounding islands in Cast Away (leaving Tom Hanks' character stranded with no other land in sight) to the vast battle scenes such as those in The Matrix sequels and 300.
The 2000s saw the resurgence of several genres. Fantasy film franchises dominated the box office with The Lord of the Rings, Harry Potter, Pirates of the Caribbean, the Star Wars prequel trilogy (beginning in 1999), The Chronicles of Narnia, etc. Comic book superhero films became a mainstream blockbuster genre following the releases of X-Men, Unbreakable, and Spider-Man. Gladiator similarly sparked the revival of epic films, while the Bollywood-inspired Moulin Rouge! did the same for musical films in the Western world, where Indian musicals such as Lagaan and Devdas also began gaining mainstream exposure. Hong Kong fight choreographers like Yuen Woo-ping continued their influence in Hollywood with such martial arts films as Kill Bill: Volume 1 and Kill Bill: Volume 2, even leading to the spread of wire fu techniques into other subgenres alongside filmmaker John Woo's gun fu. The battle royale genre also began with the release of the Japanese film Battle Royale (2000).
In addition, film categories not known for their popular appeal in North America became increasingly attractive to moviegoers. Foreign language films such as Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, Hero (2002), The Passion of the Christ, and Pan's Labyrinth; as well as documentary films like An Inconvenient Truth, March of the Penguins, Super Size Me, and Fahrenheit 9/11; became very successful.
Computer animation replaced traditional animation as the dominant medium for animated feature films in American cinema (especially with the release of Shrek): DreamWorks Animation was the dominant animation studio in that decade. Pixar and 20th Century Fox Animation followed close behind (the latter after Fox Animation Studios was closed down on October 31, 2000). Further extending to the exploration of motion capture technology in films such as Sinbad: Beyond the Veil of Mists (2000), Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within (2001) and The Polar Express (2004). However, hand-drawn anime films gained more exposure outside of Japan with the release of Spirited Away. While stop-motion animated films regained popularity with the releases of Chicken Run, Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit and Coraline.
Highest-grossing films
The list has more 2008 and 2007 films in the top 50 than any other year, each with eight. They are followed by 2009, 2005 and 2004, each with six. Figures are given in United States dollars (USD).
Highest-grossing film per year
Most acclaimed films of the decade
According to They Shoot Pictures, Don't They?, a site which numerically calculates reception among critics, the most acclaimed films of the 2000s are:
In the Mood for Love
Mulholland Drive
Yi Yi
There Will Be Blood
Spirited Away
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
Caché/Hidden
Tropical Malady
Lost in Translation
City of God
Brokeback Mountain
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
WALL-E
Talk to Her
Dogville
Tie Xi Qu: West of the Tracks
Russian Ark
The White Ribbon
The Death of Mr. Lazarescu
No Country for Old Men
According to Metacritic, which analysed many of the notable 'best films of the decade' lists to compile the results, the top twenty films most often and most notably included in these lists are:
There Will Be Blood
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
Mulholland Drive
No Country for Old Men
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
The Lord of the Rings: The Two Towers
Spirited Away
4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days
The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring
The Dark Knight
Amélie
Children of Men
Memento
Pan's Labyrinth
United 93
Wall-E
Almost Famous
Brokeback Mountain
Far from Heaven
Lost in Translation
As well as this, the ten films released in the 2000s which got the highest average critic scores according to Metacritic are:
Pan's Labyrinth
4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days
Ratatouille
Spirited Away
The Hurt Locker
The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King
Sideways
Wall-E
Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon
35 Shots of Rum
BBC's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century poll of film critics listed the following as the top ten best films of the 2000s:
Mulholland Drive
In the Mood for Love
There Will Be Blood
Spirited Away
Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
Yi Yi
No Country for Old Men
Zodiac
Children of Men
4 Months, 3 Weeks and 2 Days
The New York Times list of "The 25 Best Films of the 21st Century So Far" selected the following as the top five best films of the 2000s:
There Will Be Blood
Spirited Away
Million Dollar Baby
The Death of Mr. Lazarescu
Yi Yi
Moviefone's list of "50 Best Movies of the Decade" included the following films in the top five:
Kill Bill
City of God
Battle Royale
No Country for Old Men
The Dark Knight
Filmmaker Quentin Tarantino selected the following as the best and most influential films of the decade:
Battle Royale
Anything Else
Dogville
The Host
Joint Security Area
Lost in Translation
Memories of Murder
Shaun of the Dead
Team America: World Police
Unbreakable
List of films
2000 in film
2001 in film
2002 in film
2003 in film
2004 in film
2005 in film
2006 in film
2007 in film
2008 in film
2009 in film
See also
Film
History of film
Lists of films
Popular culture: 2000s in music, 2000s in sports, 2000s in television
References
Highest-grossing films
Films by decade
Film by decade | [
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|
215335 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WP | WP | WP or wp may refer to:
Organisations
Warsaw Pact, a disbanded organization of Central and Eastern European communist states
, the Reich Party of the German Middle Class, a political party of Weimar Germany
, the Polish Armed Forces
Workers' Party (Singapore), a political party in Singapore
Science and technology
Watt-peak (Wp), the nominal power of a photovoltaic
Wilting point, in soil moisture determination
Computing
Weakest precondition (wp), in computer science
Windows Phone, a smartphone operating system
WordPerfect, a word processor
Word processor, software used for the production of printable material
WordPress (wp.org), a content management system
Websites
Wikipedia, an online encyclopedia
Wirtualna Polska, a Polish web portal
WordPress.com, a blog hosting provider powered by WordPress
Transportation
Indian locomotive class WP
Western Pacific Railroad (reporting mark), a former American railroad
Island Air (Hawaii) (IATA code), an airline
Other uses
WP (Polish TV channel), a television channel owned by Wirtualna Polska Holding
White phosphorus munitions
Widening participation, in higher education
Wild pitch, in baseball
Work Programme, a UK welfare to work scheme
Wettable powder, a powder
See also
The Washington Post (WaPo), an American newspaper | [
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|
215337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20defense%20%28disambiguation%29 | National defense (disambiguation) | National defense is a nation's use of military, economic and political power to maintain survival.
National defense or national defence may also refer to:
National Defense (Poland), a volunteer military formation of the Second Polish Republic
National Defense (magazine), a business and technology magazine published by the National Defense Industrial Association
National missile defense, a military strategy to shield a country from missiles
Movement of National Defence, a Greek government during WWI
See also
Ministry of defence, part of a government responsible for matters of defence
National security (disambiguation)
Defense (disambiguation)
National Defence Academy (disambiguation)
National Defence University (disambiguation) | [
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|
215339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentration%20%28card%20game%29 | Concentration (card game) | Concentration, also known as Matching Pairs, Match Match, Match Up, Memory, Pleonasm, Shank, Pexeso or simply Pairs, is a card game in which all of the cards are laid face down on a surface and two cards are flipped face up over each turn. The object of the game is to turn over pairs of matching cards.
Concentration can be played with any number of players or as a solitaire or patience game. It is a particularly good game for young children, though adults may find it challenging and stimulating as well. The scheme is often used in quiz shows (in fact, several game shows have used its name in their titles) and can be employed as an educational game.
Rules
Any deck of playing cards may be used, although there are also commercial sets of cards with images. The rules given here are for a standard deck of 52 cards, which are normally laid face down in four rows of 13 cards each. The two jokers may be included for a total of six rows of nine cards each.
Additional packs can be used for added interest. Standard rules need not be followed: the cards can be spread out anywhere, such as all around a room.
In turn, each player chooses two cards and turns them face up. If they are of the same rank and color (e.g. six of hearts and six of diamonds, queen of clubs and queen of spades, or both jokers, if used) then that player wins the pair and plays again. If they are not of the same rank and color, they are turned face down again and play passes to the player on the left. Rules can be changed here too: it can be agreed before the game starts that matching pairs be any two cards of the same rank, a color-match being unnecessary, or that the match must be both rank and card suit.
The game ends when the last pair has been picked up. The winner is the person with the most pairs. There may be a tie for first place.
Solitaire
Concentration may be played solo either as a leisurely exercise, or with the following scoring method: play as normal, but keep track of the number of non-matching pairs turned over (this may be done using poker chips, pennies or by making marks on a sheet of paper). The object is to clear the tableau in the fewest turns, or to get the lowest possible score.
With perfect memorization and using an optimal strategy, the expected number of moves needed for a game with cards converges to , with . For a standard deck of 52 cards, the expected value is moves.
Strategy
Over the course of the game, it becomes known where certain cards are located, and so upon turning up one card, players with good memory will be able to remember where they have already seen its pair.
It is common for many players to think they know where pairs are and to turn over the one they are sure of first, then be stumped finding its mate. A better strategy is to turn over a less certain card first, so that if wrong, one knows not to bother turning a more certain card over.
An ideal strategy can be developed if we assume that players have perfect memory. For the One Flip variation below, this strategy is fairly simple. Before any turn in the game, there are t cards still in play, and n cards still in play but of known value. The current player should flip over an unknown card. If this card matches one of the known cards, the match is next chosen. Less obviously, if the card does not match any known card, one of the n known cards should still be chosen to minimize the information provided to other players. The mathematics follow:
If a remaining unknown card is chosen randomly, there is a 1/(t−1−n) chance of getting a match, but also a n/(t−1−n) chance of providing opponents with the information needed to make a match.
There are some exceptions to this rule that apply on the fringe cases, where n = 0 or 1 or towards the end of the game.
Variations
Many of these may be played in combination with one another:
Any Color: A version especially good for young children where matching pairs need only be of the same rank, not the same color. When playing with jokers, these count double because they are more difficult to match.
One Flip: Players who make a successful pair win these cards but do not go again until their next turn.
Zebra: Pairs may only be formed by cards of the same rank, but opposite in color (so 7 of diamonds would match with a 7 of clubs or spades, but not a 7 of hearts)
Two Decks: For a much longer game, shuffle together two 52-card decks and lay them out in 8 rows of 13 cards (9 rows of 12 cards if using jokers). Pairs must be identical (same rank and same suit, so the 10 of clubs would have to match the other 10 of clubs).
Two Decks Duel: Duel is a two-player game where the playing field is divided into two separate parts. Each player shuffles a full 52-card deck and lays it out in 4 rows of 13 cards. The players cannot access each other's cards. Player one starts, flipping one card face-up, then player two selects one card from his/her own side. If the pair is a match, cards are removed, if not, they are flipped back. Pairs must be identical (same rank and same suit, so the 10 of clubs would have to match the other 10 of clubs). After every turn roles are exchanged, in this case: player two flips a card and player one answers.
Double Decker Checkerboard: For a slightly easier version of the two-pack game, use decks with different backs and shuffle them separately. Deal them out in a checkerboard pattern (red, blue, red, blue, etc.) The different backs help identify the position in the grid and significantly reduce the possibility of which cards will match.
Fancy: The cards need not be laid out in a strict rectangular grid and many players have their own special layouts that include circular, triangular, or diamond-shaped formations. Dealers may select any layout they wish.
Spaghetti: Same rules as standard concentration, only the cards are not laid out in neat rows. They are strewn randomly about on the floor.
Pexeso: Played with a deck of 64 cards of square shape, which are laid out into an 8×8 square. Usually cards are designed specifically for the game of Pexeso, but at the same time there is no limitation on the content of the cards (images from a cartoon shows, photographs of a historic monuments or touristic destinations, car model of a specific automobile company, etc.). Cards are not divided into any kind of value or colour system; their content consists only of 32 pairs of identical cards.
If one of the players has a particularly good memory, she could play blindfolded. In this case, her opponent must say which cards have been turned p, turn the cards back down if she doesn't get a pair and take the cards out for her if she does get a pair.
Concentration is not limited to playing cards. Many versions of the game that are designed for children may have different themes. In some compter versions, the cards may randomly move to increase the difficulty.
See also
Concentration (game show)
Solitaire
Klondike (solitaire)
References
External links
Matching games
Memory games
Card games for children
Multi-player card games
Single-deck patience card games | [
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|
215350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth%20Way | Fourth Way | The Fourth Way is an approach to self-development developed by George Gurdjieff over years of travel in the East (c. 1890 – 1912). It combines and harmonizes what he saw as three established traditional "ways" or "schools": those of the body, the emotions, and the mind, or of fakirs, monks and yogis, respectively. Students often refer to the Fourth Way as "The Work", "Work on oneself", or "The System". The exact origins of some of Gurdjieff's teachings are unknown, but various sources have been suggested.
The term "Fourth Way" was further used by his student P. D. Ouspensky in his lectures and writings. After Ouspensky's death, his students published a book entitled The Fourth Way based on his lectures.
According to this system, the three traditional schools, or ways, "are permanent forms which have survived throughout history mostly unchanged, and are based on religion. Where schools of yogis, monks or fakirs exist, they are barely distinguishable from religious schools. The fourth way differs in that "it is not a permanent way. It has no specific forms or institutions and comes and goes controlled by some particular laws of its own."
The Fourth Way addresses the question of humanity's place in the Universe and the possibilities of inner development. It emphasizes that people ordinarily live in a state referred to as a semi-hypnotic "waking sleep," while higher levels of consciousness, virtue, unity of will are possible.
The Fourth Way teaches how to increase and focus attention and energy in various ways, and to minimize day-dreaming and absent-mindedness. This inner development in oneself is the beginning of a possible further process of change, whose aim is to transform man into "what he ought to be."
Overview
Gurdjieff's followers believed he was a spiritual master, a human being who is fully awake or enlightened. He was also seen as an esotericist or occultist. He agreed that the teaching was esoteric but claimed that none of it was veiled in secrecy but that many people lack the interest or the capability to understand it. Gurdjieff said, "The teaching whose theory is here being set out is completely self supporting and independent of other lines and it has been completely unknown up to the present time."
The Fourth Way teaches that the soul a human individual is born with gets trapped and encapsulated by personality, and stays dormant, leaving one not really conscious, despite believing one is. A person must free the soul by following a teaching which can lead to this aim or "go nowhere" upon death of his body. Should a person be able to receive the teaching and find a school, upon the death of the physical body they will "go elsewhere." Humans are born asleep, live in sleep, and die in sleep, only imagining that they are awake with few exceptions. The ordinary waking "consciousness" of human beings is not consciousness at all but merely a form of sleep."
Gurdjieff taught "sacred dances" or "movements", now known as Gurdjieff movements, which were performed together as a group. He left a body of music, inspired by that which he had heard in remote monasteries and other places, which was written for piano in collaboration with one of his pupils, Thomas de Hartmann.
Three ways
Gurdjieff taught that traditional paths to spiritual enlightenment followed one of three ways:
The Way of the Fakir
The Fakir works to obtain mastery of the attention (self-mastery) through struggles with [controlling] the physical body involving difficult physical exercises and postures.
The Way of the Monk
The Monk works to obtain the same mastery of the attention (self-mastery) through struggle with [controlling] the affections, in the domain, as we say, of the heart, which has been emphasized in the west, and come to be known as the way of faith due to its practice particularly in Catholicism.
The Way of the Yogi
The Yogi works to obtain the same mastery of the attention (as before: 'self mastery') through struggle with [controlling] mental habits and capabilities.
Gurdjieff insisted that these paths, although they may intend to seek to produce a fully developed human being, tend to cultivate certain faculties at the expense of others. The goal of religion or spirituality was, in fact, to produce a well-balanced, responsive and sane human being capable of dealing with all eventualities that life may present. Gurdjieff therefore made it clear that it was necessary to cultivate a way that integrated and combined the traditional three ways.
Fourth Way
Gurdjieff said that his Fourth Way was a quicker means than the first three ways because it simultaneously combined work on all three centers rather than focusing on one. It could be followed by ordinary people in everyday life, requiring no retirement into the desert. The Fourth Way does involve certain conditions imposed by a teacher, but blind acceptance of them is discouraged. Each student is advised to do only what they understand and to verify for themselves the teaching's ideas.
Ouspensky documented Gurdjieff as saying that "two or three thousand years ago there were yet other ways which no longer exist and the ways then in existence were not so divided, they stood much closer to one another. The fourth way differs from the old and the new ways by the fact that it is never a permanent way. It has no definite forms and there are no institutions connected with it."
Ouspensky quotes Gurdjieff that there are fake schools and that "It is impossible to recognize a wrong way without knowing the right way. This means that it is no use troubling oneself how to recognize a wrong way. One must think of how to find the right way."
Origins
In his works, Gurdjieff credits his teachings to a number of more or less mysterious sources:
Various small sects of 'real' Christians in Asia and the Middle East. Gurdjieff believed that mainstream Christian teachings had become corrupted.
Various dervishes (he did not use the term 'Sufi')
Gurdjieff mentions practicing Yoga in his youth but his later comments about Indian fakirs and yogis are dismissive.
The mysterious Sarmoung monastery in a remote area of central Asia, to which Gurdjieff was led blindfold.
The non-denominational "Universal Brotherhood".
Attempts to fill out his account have featured:
Technical vocabulary first appearing in early 19th century Russian freemasonry, derived from Robert Fludd (P. D. Ouspensky)
Eastern Christianity as detailed in the works of Robin Amis and Boris Mouravieff
Caucasian Ahmsta Kebzeh (Murat Yagan)
Tibetan Buddhism, according to Jose Tirado.
Chatral Rinpoche believes that Gurdjieff spent several years in a monastery in the Swat valley.
James George hypothesizes that Surmang, a Tibetan Buddhist monastery in China, is the real Sarmoung monastery.
Naqshbandi Sufism, (Idries Shah, Rafael Lefort)
The "stop" exercise is similar to the Uqufi Zamani exercise in Omar Ali-Shah's book on the Rules or Secrets of the Naqshbandi Sufi Order.
In principle Zoroaster, and explicitly the 12th century Khwajagan Sufi leader, Abdul Khaliq Gajadwani (J. G. Bennett)
Teachings and teaching methods
Basis of teachings
Present here now
We do not remember ourselves
Conscious Labor is an action where the person who is performing the act is present to what he is doing; not absentminded. At the same time he is striving to perform the act more efficiently.
Intentional suffering is the act of struggling against automatism such as daydreaming, pleasure, food (eating for reasons other than real hunger), etc. In Gurdjieff's book Beelzebub's Tales he states that "the greatest 'intentional suffering' can be obtained in our presences by compelling ourselves to endure the displeasing manifestations of others toward ourselves"
To Gurdjieff, conscious labor and intentional suffering were the basis of all evolution of man.
Self-Observation
Observation of one's own behavior and habits. To observe thoughts, feelings, and sensations without judging or analyzing what is observed.
The Need for Effort
Gurdjieff emphasized that awakening results from consistent, prolonged effort. Such efforts may be made as an act of will after one is already exhausted.
The Many 'I's
This indicates fragmentation of the psyche, the different feelings and thoughts of ‘I’ in a person: I think, I want, I know best, I prefer, I am happy, I am hungry, I am tired, etc. These have nothing in common with one another and are unaware of each other, arising and vanishing for short periods of time. Hence man usually has no unity in himself, wanting one thing now and another, perhaps contradictory, thing later.
Centers
Gurdjieff classified plants as having one center, animals two and humans three. Centers refer to apparati within a being that dictate specific organic functions. There are three main centers in a man: intellectual, emotional and physical, and two higher centers: higher emotional and higher intellectual.
Body, Essence and Personality
Gurdjieff divided people's being into Essence and Personality.
Essence – is a "natural part of a person" or "what he is born with"; this is the part of a being which is said to have the ability to evolve.
Personality – is everything artificial that he has "learned" and "seen".
Cosmic Laws
Gurdjieff focused on two main cosmic laws, the Law of Three and the Law of Seven .
The Law of Seven is described by Gurdjieff as "the first fundamental cosmic law". This law is used to explain processes. The basic use of the law of seven is to explain why nothing in nature and in life constantly occurs in a straight line, that is to say that there are always ups and downs in life which occur lawfully. Examples of this can be noticed in athletic performances, where a high ranked athlete always has periodic downfalls, as well as in nearly all graphs that plot topics that occur over time, such as the economic graphs, population graphs, death-rate graphs and so on. All show parabolic periods that keep rising and falling. Gurdjieff claimed that since these periods occur lawfully based on the law of seven that it is possible to keep a process in a straight line if the necessary shocks were introduced at the right time. A piano keyboard is an example of the law of seven, as the seven notes of the major scale correspond exactly to it.
The Law of Three is described by Gurdjieff as "the second fundamental cosmic law". This law states that every whole phenomenon is composed of three separate sources, which are Active, Passive and Reconciling or Neutral. This law applies to everything in the universe and humanity, as well as all the structures and processes. The Three Centers in a human, which Gurdjieff said were the Intellectual Centre, the Emotional Centre and the Moving Centre, are an expression of the law of three. Gurdjieff taught his students to think of the law of three forces as essential to transforming the energy of the human being. The process of transformation requires the three actions of affirmation, denial and reconciliation. This law of three separate sources can be considered modern interpretation of early hindu Philosophy of Gunas, We can see this as Chapters 3, 7, 13, 14, 17 and 18 of Bhagavad Gita discuss Guna in their verses.
How the Law of Seven and Law of Three function together is said to be illustrated on the Fourth Way Enneagram, a nine-pointed symbol which is the central glyph of Gurdjieff's system.
Use of symbols
In his explanations Gurdjieff often used different symbols such as the Enneagram and the Ray of Creation. Gurdjieff said that "the enneagram is a universal symbol. All knowledge can be included in the enneagram and with the help of the enneagram it can be interpreted ... A man may be quite alone in the desert and he can trace the enneagram in the sand and in it read the eternal laws of the universe. And every time he can learn something new, something he did not know before." The ray of creation is a diagram which represents the Earth's place in the Universe. The diagram has eight levels, each corresponding to Gurdjieff's laws of octaves.
Through the elaboration of the law of octaves and the meaning of the enneagram, Gurdjieff offered his students alternative means of conceptualizing the world and their place in it.
Working conditions and sacred dances
To provide conditions in which attention could be exercised more intensively, Gurdjieff also taught his pupils "sacred dances" or "movements" which they performed together as a group, and he left a body of music inspired by what he heard in visits to remote monasteries and other places, which was written for piano in collaboration with one of his pupils, Thomas de Hartmann.
Gurdjieff laid emphasis on the idea that the seeker must conduct his or her own search. The teacher cannot do the student's work for the student, but is more of a guide on the path to self-discovery. As a teacher, Gurdjieff specialized in creating conditions for students – conditions in which growth was possible, in which efficient progress could be made by the willing. To find oneself in a set of conditions that a gifted teacher has arranged has another benefit. As Gurdjieff put it, "You must realize that each man has a definite repertoire of roles which he plays in ordinary circumstances ... but put him into even only slightly different circumstances and he is unable to find a suitable role and for a short time he becomes himself."
Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man
Having migrated for four years after escaping the Russian Revolution with dozens of followers and family members, Gurdjieff settled in France and established his Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man at the Château Le Prieuré at Fontainebleau-Avon in October 1922. The institute was an esoteric school based on Gurdjieff's Fourth Way teaching. After nearly dying in a car crash in 1924, he recovered and closed down the Institute. He began writing All and Everything. From 1930, Gurdjieff made visits to North America where he resumed his teachings.
Ouspensky relates that in the early work with Gurdjieff in Moscow and Saint Petersburg, Gurdjieff forbade students from writing down or publishing anything connected with Gurdjieff and his ideas. Gurdjieff said that students of his methods would find themselves unable to transmit correctly what was said in the groups. Later, Gurdjieff relaxed this rule, accepting students who subsequently published accounts of their experiences in the Gurdjieff work.
After Gurdjieff
After Gurdjieff's death in 1949 a variety of groups around the world have attempted to continue The Gurdjieff Work. The Gurdjieff Foundation, was established in 1953 in New York City by Jeanne de Salzmann in cooperation with other direct pupils. J. G. Bennett ran groups and also made contact with the Subud and Sufi schools to develop The Work in different directions. Maurice Nicoll, a Jungian psychologist, also ran his own groups based on Gurdjieff and Ouspensky's ideas.
The French institute was headed for many years by Madam de Salzmann – a direct pupil of Gurdjieff. Under her leadership, the Gurdjieff Societies of London and New York were founded and developed.
A number of offshoots incorporate elements of the Fourth Way, such as:
Claudio Naranjo's teaching.
Oscar Ichazo's Arica School
Samael Aun Weor
The Diamond Approach of A. H. Almaas.
The Enneagram is often studied in contexts that do not include other elements of Fourth Way teaching.
References
Esoteric schools of thought
Fourth Way enneagram
New religious movements
External links | [
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|
215352 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cy | Cy | Cy, CY, or cy may refer to:
People
Cy (given name)
Fictional characters
Cy, a Cylon in the final episode ("The Return of Starbuck") of the television series Galactica 1980
Cy the Cardinal, mascot of Iowa State University
Cy, mascot of the Pee Dee Cyclones minor league ice hockey team based in Winston-Salem, North Carolina
Cy, O'Hare Air delivery guy from The Lorax movie
Codes
Cyprus ISO 3166-1 alpha-2, FIPS Pub 10-4 and obsolete NATO country code
.cy, Cyprus Internet country code top-level domain (ccTLD)
Cyprus Airways IATA airline designator
Cymraeg, otherwise known as the Welsh language ISO 639-1 language code
In science and technology
Cubic yard
In BIOS setup, number of cylinders in cylinder-head-sector (CHS) hard disk drive access method
Cyclohexyl group, in organic chemistry
Cyclophosphamide, an alkylating agent used in therapy for cancer and some autoimmune diseases
Samokhodnaya Ustanovka (Russian: самоходная установка), a range of Soviet self-propelled carriages
Cypress Semiconductor (NASDAQ stock symbol)
Cy, a code for cyanine dyes
Other uses
Calendar year
Common year
Common Year (Greyhawk)
See also
C. Y. Leung Chun-ying (born 1954), Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
CCY, IATA code and FAA LID for Northeast Iowa Regional Airport
Sy (disambiguation) | [
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215354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormus | Ormus | The Kingdom of Ormus (also known as Hormoz; ; ) was located in the eastern side of the Persian Gulf and extending as far as Bahrain in the west at its zenith. The Kingdom was established in 11th century initially as a dependency of the Kerman Seljuk Sultanate, and later as an autonomous tributary of the Salghurids and the Ilkhanate of Iran. Ormus later became a client state of the Portuguese Empire, most of its territory was eventually annexed by the Safavid Empire in the 17th century.
The Kingdom received its name from the fortified port city which served as its capital. It was one of the most important ports in the Middle East at the time as it controlled seaway trading routes through the Persian Gulf to China, India, and East Africa. This port was originally located on the southern coast of Iran to the east of the Strait of Hormuz, near the modern city of Minab, and was later relocated to the Island of Jarun which came to be known as Hormuz Island, which is located near the modern city of Bandar-e Abbas.
Etymology
Popular etymology derives "Hormuz", being the Middle Persian pronunciation of the Persian deity Ahuramazda. Alternatively, it has been suggested that the name derives from Hur-Muz 'Place of Dates'. Yet another possibility is that it comes from Όρμος, the Greek word for 'cove, bay'. The name of the actual urban settlement that acted as the capital of the Old Hormoz Kingdom was also given as Naband.
Old Hormuz
The original city of Hormoz was situated on the mainland in the province of Mogostan (Mughistan) of the province of Kirman, today's region of Minab in Hormozgan. At the time of the Ilkhanid competition with the Chaghataids, the old city of Hormoz, also known as Nabands and Dewankhana, was abandoned by its inhabitants. Instead, in 1301, the inhabitants, led by the king Baha ud-Din Ayaz and his wife Bibi Maryam, moved to the neighbouring island of Jerun.
New Hormuz
"It was during the reign of Mir Bahdin Ayaz Seyfin, fifteenth king of Hormoz, that Tartars, raided the kingdom of Kerman and from there to that of Hormoz. The wealth of Hormoz attracted raids so often that the inhabitants sought refuge off the mainland and initially moved to the island of Qeshm. Mir Bahdin then visited the island of Jerun and obtained it from Neyn (Na'im), King of Keys (Kish), to whom all the islands in the area belonged."
Risso writes: "In the eleventh century, Saljûq Persia developed at the expense of what was left of Buwayhid Mesopotamia and the Saljûqs controlled ‘Umânî ports from about 1065 to 1140. Fâtimid Egypt attracted trade to the Red Sea route and away from the Persian Gulf. These shifts in power marked the end of the [Persian] Gulf's heyday, but the island ports of Qays and then the mainland port of Hormoz (at first tributary to Persia) became renowned entrepôts. The Hurmuzî rulers developed Qalhât on the ‘Umânî coast in order to control both sides of the entrance to the Persian Gulf. Later, in 1300, the Hurmuzî merchants cast off Persian overlordship. and reorganized their entrepôt on the island also called Hurmuz and there amassed legendary wealth. The relationship. between the Nabâhina and the Hurmuzîs is obscure".
Abbé T G F Raynal gives the following account of Hormoz in his history:
Hormoz became the capital of an empire which comprehended a considerable part of Arabia on one side, and Persia on the other. At the time of the arrival of the foreign merchants, it afforded a more splendid and agreeable scene than any city in the East. Persons from all parts of the globe exchanged their commodities and transacted their business with an air of politeness and attention, which are seldom seen in other places of trade. The streets were covered with mats and in some places with carpet, and the linen awnings which were suspended from the tops of the houses, prevented any inconvenience from the heat of the sun. India cabinets ornamented with gilded vases, or china filled with flowering shrubs or aromatic plants adorned their apartments. Camels laden with water were stationed in the public squares. Persian wines, perfumes, and all the delicacies of the table were furnished in great abundance, and they had the music of the East in its highest perfection … In short, universal opulence, an extensive commerce, politeness in the men and gallantry in the women, united all their attractions to make this city the seat of pleasure.
Hormuz enjoyed a long period of autonomy under the suzerainty of kings of Iran from the foundation of the kingdom in the 11th century to the coming of the Portuguese. It was ruled by the children of Muhammad Deramku (Deramkub "Dirham minter") who founded the kingdom as a dependency of the Kingdom of Kerman after the collapse of the Buyid kingdom, reaching its apogee under the rule of the Mongol dynasty of the Ilkhanids. In the medieval period, the kingdom was well-known as an international emporium controlling both sides of the Persian Gulf and much of the coastal area of the Arabian Sea and well known in Europe as a commercial hub. Its success in fact led to its fame, prompting the Portuguese to launch attacks on it and conquer it in the early 16th century.
In the early 15th century, Hormuz was one the kingdoms that was visited by the Chinese expeditionary fleet commanded by Admiral Zheng He during the Ming treasure voyages and was the final destination of the fleet during the fourth voyage. Ma Huan, an interpreter serving in the crew, described Hormuz society in a positive light in the Yingya Shenglan, writing for example about the people that "the limbs and faces of the people are refined and fair [...] and they are stalwart and fine-looking; their clothing and hats are handsome, distinctive and elegant." Fei Xin, another crew member, made an account of Hormuz in the Xingcha Shenglan. It included, for instance, observations suggesting that Hormuz society had a high standard of living, writing that "the lower classes are wealthy", and on local dressing habits such as the long robes worn by both men and women, the veils that women wore over their head and face when going out, and the jewels worn by the well-to-do.
Portuguese conquest
In September 1507, the Portuguese Afonso de Albuquerque landed on the island. Portugal occupied Ormuz from 1515 to 1622.
As vassals of the Portuguese state, the Kingdom of Ormus jointly participated in the 1521 invasion of Bahrain that ended Jabrid rule of the Persian Gulf archipelago. The Jabrid ruler was nominally a vassal of Ormus, but the Jabrid King, Muqrin ibn Zamil had refused to pay the tribute Ormus demanded, prompting the invasion under the command of the Portuguese conqueror, António Correia. In the fighting for Bahrain, most of the combat was carried out by Portuguese troops, while the Ormusi admiral, Reis Xarafo, looked on. The Portuguese ruled Bahrain through a series of Ormusi governors. However, the Sunni Ormusi were not popular with Bahrain's Shia population which suffered religious disadvantages, prompting rebellion. In one case, the Ormusi governor was crucified by rebels, and Portuguese rule came to an end in 1602 after the Ormusi governor, who was a relative of the Ormusi king, started executing members of Bahrain's leading families.
The kings of Hormuz under the Portuguese rule were reduced to vassals of the Portuguese empire in India, mostly controlled from Goa. The archive of correspondence between the kings and local rulers of Hormuz, and some of its governors and people, and the kings of Portugal, contain the details of the kingdom's disintegration and the independence of its various parts. They show the attempts by rulers such as Kamal ud-Din Rashed trying to gain separate favour with the Portuguese in order to guarantee their own power. This reflects in the gradual independence of Muscat, previously a dependency of Hormuz, and its rise one of the successor states to Hormuz.
After the Portuguese made several abortive attempts to seize control of Basra, the Safavid ruler Abbas I of Persia conquered the kingdom with the help of the English, and expelled the Portuguese from the rest of the Persian Gulf, with the exception of Muscat. The Portuguese returned to the Persian Gulf in the following year as allies of Afrasiyab, the Pasha of Basra, against the Persians. Afrasiyab was formerly an Ottoman vassal but had been effectively independent since 1612. They never returned to Ormus.
In the mid-17th century it was captured by the Imam of Muscat, but was subsequently recaptured by Persians. Today, it is part of the Iranian province of Hormozgan.
Accounts of Ormus society
Situated between the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, Ormus was a "by-word for wealth and luxury", perhaps best captured in the Arab saying: "If all the world were a golden ring, Ormus would be the jewel in it". The city was also known for its licentiousness according to accounts by Portuguese visitors; Duarte Barbosa, one of the first Portuguese to travel to Ormuz in the early 16th century found:
This theme is also strong in Henry James Coleridge's account of Ormus in his life of the Navarrese missionary, St Francis Xavier, who visited Ormus on his way to Japan:
Depiction in literature
Ormus is mentioned in a passage from John Milton's epic poem Paradise Lost (Book II, lines 1–5) where Satan's throne "Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind", which Douglas Brooks states is Milton linking Ormus to the "sublime but perverse orient". It is also mentioned in Andrew Marvell's poem 'Bermudas', where pomegranates are described as "jewels more rich than Ormus." In Hart Crane's sonnet To Emily Dickinson, it appears in the couplet: "Some reconcilement of remotest mind– / Leaves Ormus rubyless, and Ophir chill." The closet drama Alaham by Fulke Greville is set in Ormus.
See also
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Hormuz Island
References
Bibliography
Aubin, Jean. “Les Princes d’Ormuz du XIIIe au XVe siècle.” Journal asiatique, vol. CCXLI, 1953, pp. 77–137.
Natanzi, Mo'in ad-Din. Montakhab ut-Tawarikh-e Mo'ini. ed. Parvin Estakhri. Tehran: Asateer, 1383 (2004).
Qa'em Maqami, Jahangir. "Asnad-e Farsi o Arabi o Torki dar Arshiv-e Melli-ye Porteghal Darbarey-e Hormuz o Khaleej-e Fars." Barrasihaa-ye Tarikhi (1356-1357).
Shabankareyi, Muhammad b Ali. Majma al-Ansab. ed. Mir-Hashem Mohadess. Tehran: Amir Kabir, 1363 (1984).
Vosoughi, Mohammad Bagher. "the Kings of Hormuz: from the Beginning until the Arrival of the Portuguese." in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.) The Persian Gulf in History, New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2009.
Medieval history of Iran
History of Safavid Iran
Former Portuguese colonies
Portuguese colonisation in Asia
Hormozgan Province
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|
215360 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice%20Nicoll | Maurice Nicoll | Henry Maurice Dunlop Nicoll (19 July 1884 – 30 August 1953) was a Scottish neurologist, psychiatrist, author and noted Fourth Way esoteric teacher. He is best known for his Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, a five-volume collection of more than 500 talks given and distributed to his study groups in and around London from March 1941 to August 1953.
Life and work
Nicoll was born at the manse in Kelso, Scotland, the son of William Robertson Nicoll, a minister of the Free Church of Scotland and renowned man of letters. From 1903 to 1906 Nicoll studied science at Gonville & Caius College in Cambridge University earning First Class Honors in the Natural Science Tripos. From 1906 to 1910 he attended St. Bartholomew's Hospital qualifying in medicine as a surgeon and neurologist. He served as ship's-surgeon for a brief stint to and from Buenos Aires before proceeding to tour the European hotbeds of the New Psychology, Vienna, Berlin, and finally, Zürich, where he met and became a close friend and colleague of C.G. Jung in 1912.
Jung legitimised Nicoll's belief in the mind-body dynamic by curing him of a stammer. Nicoll spent the next decade with his father-figure even making Jung godfather of his only child, Jane, in 1921.
In 1917 Nicoll published his first non-fiction monograph, Dream Psychology, the "First didactic presentation of Jung's psychology," according to the Jungian scholar Sonu Shamdasani.
In addition to his personal friendship with Jung, from 1912 through 1921 Nicoll published a number of articles on Jung's theories in professional journals, so it would not have been out of character for Nicole to have served as a Jungian proxy at his Harley Street, London, medical practice. Following his service as a captain in the Royal Army Medical Corps during WWI, where he first treated the wounded at the Gallipoli, Suvla Bay offensive, and after recovering from dysentery, he arrived with the 32nd Field Hospital of the 10th Irish division and did the same at the Siege of Kut, in Mesopotamia.
In October 1921 he met P.D. Ouspensky, a student and then a teacher of George Gurdjieff's Fourth Way. Despite the recent birth of his only child, Jane, the following spring Nicoll sold his Harley Street medical practice within a month after meeting the “Tiger of Turkestan” (Gurdjieff’s nickname), and by that fall he, his wife Catherine, Jane, and the child's nanny arrived at the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man outside Paris. In 1923, when Gurdjieff closed down his institute, Nicoll joined Ouspensky's group. In 1931 he followed Ouspensky's advice and started his own study groups in England. Many of these talks were recorded verbatim and documented in a six-volume series of texts compiled in his book series Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky.
Nicoll is best known as a teacher and practitioner of the Fourth Way or esoteric Christianity of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky, but as his authorised biographer Beryl Pogson notes he privately read Swedenborg and the Gospels. In fact, his synthesis of the aforementioned esoteric Christianity with the New Christianity as especially expounded by Swedenborg in his multi-volume exegetical work Arcana Coelestia resulted in what could be described as a mystical Christianity unique to the Fourth Way tradition if not all of Christian mysticism.
His early tutelage under Jung led to a lifelong interest in and self-application of dream interpretation. His associated reflections on Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Hermeticism, Alchemy, Sufism, Greek philosophy, Jakob Böhme, William Blake, along with variety of Indian and Chinese traditions (not to mention an assortment of individuals throughout history who have commented on consciousness) are as a whole present in Living Time and the Integration of the Life (completed by WWII but not published until 1952); yet both his published works and private papers have for the most part been publicly commented upon only infrequently.
Bibliography
Books
Dream Psychology, 1917, 2nd, 1919
Psychological Commentaries on the Teaching of Gurdjieff and Ouspensky
Volumes 1-3 privately printed, 1949, then Vincent Stuart Ltd., 1952
Volume 4, Vincent Stuart Ltd., 1955
Volume 5, Vincent Stuart Ltd., 1956
Samuel Weiser Inc., 1996, (5 volumes with additional index volume)
The New Man : An Interpretation of Some Parables and Miracles of Christ, 1950
First American edition, 1951
Penguin, 1972
Watkins, 1981
Shambhala, 1984
Eureka Editions, 1999
Living Time and the Integration of the Life, 1952
Watkins, 1976
Eureka Editions, 1998
The Mark, posthumous, 1954, 1955
Watkins, 1981
Shambhala, 1981
Eureka Editions, 1998
Simple Explanation of Work Ideas, privately printed, 1968
Eureka Editions, 1999
Notes Taken at Meetings, January 18, 1934 to April 8, 1934, Eureka Editions, 1996
Selections from Meetings in 1953 at Great Amwell, Eureka Editions, 1997
Informal Work Talks and Teachings: 1940-1950, Eureka Editions, 1998
Poetry
Poems, privately printed, 1956
Professional Articles
"Why Is The 'Unconscious' Unconscious?", 1918, The British Journal of Psychology, Volume 9, Number 2
"Neurosis of War", 1920, The Medical Annual
Using the pen-name "Martin Luttrell Swayne"
Novels and Novellas
The Sporting Instinct, Hodder & Stoughton, 1910
Lord Richard in the Pantry, Methuen & Company, 1911
Cupid Goes North, Hodder & Stoughton, 1913
In Mesopotamia, Hodder & Stoughton, 1918
The Blue Germ, Hodder & Stoughton, 1918
Unpublished Novel
Pelican Hotel, unpublished, 1939
Short-stories
"A Game of Consequences", London Magazine, October 1911
"The Black and Gold Curtain", London Magazine, April 1912
"The Mystery of the 'Vathek'", Pall Mall Magazine, 94-104, January 1913
"Life-Like", The Strand Magazine, 206–13, February 1913
"Life-Like", "The Times’ Red Cross Story Book by Famous Novelists Serving in His Majesty's Forces", 74–82
"The Piano-tuner", London Magazine, 73–79, April 1913
"Sir Clifford's Gorilla", The Strand Magazine, 24–31, July 1913
"The Alabaster Jar", The Strand Magazine, 212–20, August 1913
"The Flying Log", London Magazine, November 1913
"The Corot Landscape", The Strand Magazine, 516–23, November 1913
"Half a Ton of Dynamite", The Strand Magazine, 18–27, January 1916
"The Sleep-Beam", The Strand Magazine, 187–93, March 1918
"The Whistling", Lloyd's Magazine, October 1918
"An Awkward Situation", The Strand Magazine, 83–91, July 1924
"A Sense of the Future", The Strand Magazine, 174–84, August 1924
"An Obvious Case", The Strand Magazine, 405–13, October 1924
Plays
"One Good Turn", with Eille Norwood, 1912
"Lord Richard in the Pantry, A Play in Three Acts", adapted from the novel by Martin Swayne, 1918
Biographies Upon Nicoll
Maurice Nicoll: A Portrait, Beryl Pogson, 1961
Fourth Way Books, 1987
The Diary of a Modern Alchemist: Working with Dr. Maurice Nicoll, John H. Reyner, 1974
Eureka Editions, 2014
Portrait of a Vertical Man: An Appreciation of Doctor Maurice Nicoll and His Work, Samuel Copley, 1989
Biographical Material Upon Nicoll
A Few Recollections of Dr Nicoll and of Amwell 1949-1953, Diana Pettavel, 1999
References
External links
The New Man An Interpretation of Some Parables and Miracles of Christ''
1884 births
1953 deaths
Scottish spiritual teachers
Scottish spiritual writers
Fourth Way
Alumni of the Medical College of St Bartholomew's Hospital
People from Kelso, Scottish Borders
Alumni of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge
Scottish science fiction writers
20th-century Scottish novelists
Scottish male novelists | [
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|
215365 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JMP%20%28x86%20instruction%29 | JMP (x86 instruction) | In the x86 assembly language, the JMP instruction performs an unconditional jump. Such an instruction transfers the flow of execution by changing the program counter. There are a number of different opcodes that perform a jump; depending on whether the processor is in real mode or protected mode, and an override instruction is used, the instructions may take 16-bit, 32-bit, or segment:offset pointers.
There are many different forms of jumps: relative, conditional, absolute and register-indirect jumps.
The following examples illustrate:
a relative jump with a 16-bit pointer;
a long jump (inter-segment), a relative jump with a 32-bit pointer;
and a register-indirect absolute jump using the EAX register.
(Note that although the first and second jumps are relative, commonly the destination address is shown instead of the relative offset as encoded in the opcode.)
Example one: Load IP with the new value 0x89AB, then load CS with 0xACDC and IP with 0x5578.
JMP 0x89AB
JMP 0xACDC:0x5578
Example two: Load EIP with the value 0x56789AB1, only in protected mode or unreal mode.
JMP 0x56789AB1
Example three: Jump to the value stored in the EAX register, only in protected mode.
JMP EAX
References
X86 instructions | [
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|
215366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathryn%20Hulme | Kathryn Hulme | Kathryn Hulme (July 6, 1900 – August 25, 1981) was an American author and memoirist most noted for her novel The Nun's Story. The book is often misunderstood to be semi-autobiographical.
Writing
Her 1956 book The Nun's Story was a best-selling novel which was made into an award-winning 1959 movie starring Audrey Hepburn and Peter Finch.
Another work, The Undiscovered Country: A Spiritual Adventure published by Little, Brown & Co. was a description of her years as a student of mystic G. I. Gurdjieff and her eventual conversion to Catholicism. Hulme studied with Gurdjieff as part of a group of women known as "The Rope," which included eight members in all: Jane Heap, Elizabeth Gordon, Solita Solano, Margaret Caroline Anderson, Louise Davidson and Alice Rohrer along with Hulme and Gurdjieff.
She is also the author of Wild Place, a description of her experiences as the UNRRA Director of the Polish Displaced Persons camp at Wildflecken, Germany, after World War II. This work won the Atlantic Non-Fiction Award in 1952.
It was at Wildflecken that Hulme met a Belgian nurse and former nun Marie Louise Habets, who became her lifelong companion. The Nun's Story is a slightly fictionalized biographical account of Habets' life as a nun.
In her 1938 fictionalized autobiography We Lived as Children, Hulme describes a child's perspective of San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake.
Bibliography
Arab Interlude, Macrae Smith Company (Philadelphia), 1930
Desert Night, The Macauley Company (New York), 1932
We lived as children, A.A. Knopf (New York, London), 1938 (LCCN: 38027542, ASIN: B000GBZZIU)
The Wild Place, (Atlantic Prize for Nonfiction (1952), Brown Little, 1953, ()
The Nun's Story, Pocket Books, 1958 (ASIN: B000CBFXYA)
The Undiscovered Country: A Spiritual Adventure, Little, Brown & Co. (Boston USA/Toronto CA), 1967; reprinted (Natural Bridge Editions: Lexington MA, 1997) ()
Look A Lion In the Eye: On Safari Through Africa, Little, Brown & Co. First edition (1974) ()
Annie's Captain, Little, Brown and Company (Boston, Toronto), 1961
See also
Margaret Caroline Anderson
Monica Baldwin
G. I. Gurdjieff
Marie Louise Habets
Jane Heap
Solita Solano
References
External links
Kathryn Hulme Papers Digital collection at the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University
Kathryn Hulme Papers, Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
"Too Much to Watch," short radio segment from We Lived as Children at California Legacy Project.
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American memoirists
1900 births
1981 deaths
American women novelists
LGBT writers from the United States
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Writers from San Francisco
American women memoirists
20th-century American women writers
Writers from Hawaii
20th-century LGBT people | [
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|
215368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl%20Edwin%20Pitts | Earl Edwin Pitts | This article describes Earl Pitts, the American spy. For the radio character, see Earl Pitts (radio character).
Earl Edwin Pitts (born September 23, 1953) is a former FBI special agent who was convicted of espionage for selling information to Soviet and Russian intelligence services.
History
Pitts was arrested in 1996 for selling U.S. intelligence secrets to Soviet and Russian intelligence for payments in excess of $224,000 from 1987 to 1992. In February 1997, he pleaded guilty to conspiring and attempting to commit espionage, in exchange for a reduced prison sentence.
On June 27, 1997, Earl Pitts was sentenced by a federal judge to 27 years in prison. Prosecutors had requested only 24½ years.
The FBI learned of Pitts' spying through human intelligence. His KGB handler, Alexsandr Karpov, defected to the United States and named Pitts as a Soviet mole in the FBI during his debriefings. Pitts was snared in a 16-month FBI sting that ended with his arrest while he was stationed at the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia. The FBI caught Pitts by convincing him that the Russian government wanted to reactivate him as a spy. Pitts offered his services to the Soviets in 1987 while he was assigned to the FBI's New York office where he was assigned to hunt and recruit KGB officers.
While working in the FBI New York office, Pitts had access to "a wide range of sensitive and highly classified operations" that included "recruitment operations involving Russian intelligence officers, double agent operations, operations targeting Russian intelligence officers, true identities of human assets, operations against Russian illegals, defector sources, surveillance schedules of known meet sites, internal policies, documents, and procedures concerning surveillance of Russian intelligence officers, and the identification, targeting, and reporting on known and suspected KGB intelligence officers in the New York area."
During the late 1980s, Pitts met with a KGB source in multiple locations throughout New York City, including an airport and a public library. His relationship with the Russians lasted for five years. During this time period, he turned over information that included the name of an FBI agent who was working covertly on Russian intelligence matters. According to the FBI, Pitts received more than $224,000, first from the KGB First Chief Directorate and then—after the dissolution of the Soviet Union—from its successor, the SVR RF. The FBI said Pitts also turned over a secret computerized FBI list of all Soviet officials in the United States, with their known or suspected posts in Soviet intelligence agencies.
After the sting began, Pitts' ex-wife, Mary Columbaro Pitts, also a former FBI employee, told the FBI that she suspected her husband was a spy, though he never disclosed his status as a double agent to her. When he was convicted of espionage and asked why he engaged in that act, Pitts cited numerous grievances with the FBI and said he wanted to "pay them back".
Pitts' plea bargain required him to submit to FBI debriefings. During one such debriefing in 1997, Pitts stated that he was not aware of any additional spies within the FBI, but he was suspicious of Robert Hanssen. The FBI did not act on Pitts' warning, however, and Hanssen's espionage continued until 2001.
Pitts was released on December 20, 2019.
References
External links
Copy of FBI Press Release
CNN news account of his sentencing
Affidavit
Spy Seminar Series - What Makes Traitors Tick? - YouTube
Mind of the spy: Motivation
1953 births
Admitted Soviet spies
American people convicted of spying for Russia
American people convicted of spying for the Soviet Union
American prisoners and detainees
Double agents
Espionage in the United States
Federal Bureau of Investigation agents convicted of espionage
Incarcerated spies
Living people
People convicted under the Espionage Act of 1917
Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government | [
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|
215369 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormuz | Hormuz | Hormuz is derived from the Persian Ohrmuzd, meaning Ahura Mazda. It may refer to:
The Strait of Hormuz in the Persian Gulf
Hormuz District, an administrative subdivision of Iran
Hormuz Island, an Iranian island in the Persian Gulf
Hormuz, Iran, a city on the island and in the district
Hormuz, Fars, a village in Fars Province, Iran
Hormuz, alternate name of the village Hormud-e Mehr Khui, Fars Province, Iran
Hormuz, Kerman, a village in Kerman Province, Iran
The Kingdom of Ormus (11th Century–1622)
See also
Hurmuz (disambiguation)
Hormizd (disambiguation) | [
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|
215371 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FBI%20Academy | FBI Academy | The FBI Academy is the Federal Bureau of Investigation's law enforcement training and research center near the town of Quantico in Stafford County, Virginia. Operated by the bureau's Training Division, it was first opened for use in 1972 on of woodland, which is not available for public tours. The academy was opened for the purpose of training the new agents after FBI Agents were granted the power to arrest, and to possess a firearm, in 1933. As the newly armed agents needed somewhere to train, the Marine Corps granted them access to their firing ranges in Quantico, Virginia. After outgrowing the Marine Corps firing ranges the FBI was granted permission to build their own firing range and classroom on the base. Over time they added new sections such as a whole new wing, kitchen, and basement. But with the rapid growth it still wasn't enough for their needs.
In 1965, the FBI received approval for a new complex at Quantico and construction began in 1969. The new facility opened in 1972, with more than two dozen classrooms, eight conference rooms, a large auditorium, a gym, pool, library, and a new firing range. The new complex had everything the FBI needed to train new agents in large numbers.
In addition to training new FBI agents at the facility, the Training Division also instructs special agents, intelligence analysts, law enforcement officers, Drug Enforcement Administration agents, and foreign partners. The academy provides several training programs, including Firearms, Hogan's Alley (a training complex simulating a small town), Tactical and Emergency Vehicle Operations Center (TEVOC), Survival Skills, and Law Enforcement Executive Development. To meet the needs of these training programs the FBI has a 1.1 mile long oval road track with a precision obstacle for conducting TEVOC. Hogan's Alley is a town that the FBI had built with the help of Hollywood set designers in order to give realistic training to agents. It helps the agents experience realistic and stressful scenarios to better prepare them for real-life situations.
The academy occupies 547 acres (221 ha) on the US Marine Corps Base Quantico. It is located 36 miles outside Washington D.C. and is a full service national training facility.
In order to be able to attend the academy and become an FBI Agent, a candidate must be aged between 23 and 37, a citizen of the United States, and possess a minimum of a bachelor's degree.
Training facilities
Elite units such as the Hostage Rescue Team (HRT), Evidence Response Teams (ERT), Special Weapons and Tactics (SWAT), and about 1,000 police leaders from across the world attend the FBI Academy and utilize its training facilities to improve on skills. A newer feature to the academy's facilities is newly renovated aquatic training center with a high tech filtration system and digital communications between water/chemical balance, that are 90% more effective.
Aquatic classes are used to boost cardio-respiratory endurance, muscular strength, flexibility, power and speed. While new agent trainees utilize the facility to receive CPR and lifesaving skills, larger units such as HRT officers receive over 450 hours of training that include advanced scuba diving, nighttime diving, rescue diving, and rescue swimming in the facilities. The FBI and DEA trainees also have classes that are focused on physical conditioning, basic water survival skills, and team work.
See also
CIA University
RCMP Academy, Canada
FSB Academy, Russia
The Silence of the Lambs, Film
Quantico, TV series
Mindhunter, TV series
References
External links
New Agent Training
The FBI Academy Documentary produced by WETA-TV
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Federal police academies in the United States
Government agencies established in 1972
Shooting ranges in the United States
1972 establishments in Virginia
Buildings and structures in Prince William County, Virginia
Quantico, Virginia | [
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|
215374 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inchoate%20offense | Inchoate offense | An inchoate offense, preliminary crime, inchoate crime or incomplete crime is a crime of preparing for or seeking to commit another crime. The most common example of an inchoate offense is "attempt". "Inchoate offense" has been defined as the following: "Conduct deemed criminal without actual harm being done, provided that the harm that would have occurred is one the law tries to prevent."
Intent
Every inchoate crime or offense must have the mens rea of intent or of recklessness, typically intent. Absent a specific law, an inchoate offense requires that the defendant have the specific intent to commit the underlying crime. For example, for a defendant to be guilty of the inchoate crime of solicitation of murder, he or she must have intended for a person to die.
Attempt, conspiracy, and solicitation all require mens rea.
On the other hand, committing an offence under the US Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act merely requires "knowing", that is, recklessness. Facilitation also requires "believing", yet another way of saying reckless.
Intent may be distinguished from recklessness and criminal negligence as a higher mens rea.
Proof of intent
Specific intent may be inferred from circumstances. It may be proven by the doctrine of "dangerous proximity", while the Model Penal Code requires a "substantial step in a course of conduct".
Merger doctrine
The doctrine of merger has been abandoned in many jurisdictions in cases involving a conspiracy, allowing an accused to be convicted of both conspiracy and the principal offense. However, an accused cannot be convicted of either attempt or solicitation and the principal offense.
Defenses
A number of defences are possible to the charge of an inchoate offense, depending on the jurisdiction and the nature of the offense.
Impossibility
Impossibility is no defence to the crime of attempt where the conditions creating the impossibility are unknown to the actor.
Originally at common law, impossibility was a complete defence; as it was under French law at one point. Indeed, the ruling in Collins's Case L. and C. 471 was that an offender cannot be guilty of an attempt to steal his own umbrella when he mistakenly believes that it belongs to another. Although the "moral guilt" for the attempt and the actual crime were the same, there was a distinction between the harm caused by a theft and the harmlessness of an impossible act. This principle was directly overruled in England with the rulings R v Ring and R v. Brown The example from R v Brown of an attempt to steal from an empty pocket is now a classic example of illustrating the point that impossibility is no defense to the crime of attempt when the conditions creating the impossibility are unknown to the actor. This principle has been codified in the Model Penal Code:
A person is guilty of an attempt to commit a crime if, acting with the kind of culpability otherwise required for commission of the crime he: purposely engages in conduct which would constitute the crime if the attendant circumstances were as he believes them to be. MPC § 5.01 (1)(a) (emphasis added).
Consequently, the principle is universal in the United States either in Model Penal Code jurisdictions (40 states) or those remaining common law jurisdictions influenced by the reasoning in R v Brown.
Other cases that illustrate the case law for impossibility defences are People v. Lee Kong (CA, 1892), State v. Mitchell (MO, 1902), and United States v. Thomas (1962).
Abandonment
A defendant may plead and prove, as an affirmative defense, that they:
Stopped all actions in furtherance of the crime or conspiracy
Tried to stop the crime as it was ongoing
Tried to convince the co-conspirators to halt such actions, or reported the crime to the police or other authorities
Disputes
Burglaries as inchoate crimes
There is some scholarly treatment of burglaries in American law as inchoate crimes, but this is in dispute. According to scholar Frank Schmalleger, burglaries "are actually inchoate crimes in disguise."
Other scholars warn about the consequences of such a theory:
Certainly, possession of burglary tools, in those jurisdictions that criminalize that activity, creates an inchoate crime (going equipped in the UK). It is clear that:
Examples
Examples of inchoate offenses include conspiracy, solicitation, facilitation, misprision of felony (and misprision generally), organized crime, Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO), and attempt, as well as some public health crimes; see the list below.
List of inchoate offenses
Being an accessory
Attempt—see State v. Mitchell
Compounding a felony
Compounding treason
Conspiracy
Criminal facilitation
Incitement
Misprision
Misprision of felony
Misprision of treason
Offences under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO)
Solicitation
Stalking
Mail and wire fraud
See also
Criminal law
Impossibility defense
Merger doctrine (criminal law)
Pre-crime
References
External links
O'Connor, T. (2010-08-15). "Incomplete (Inchoate) Crimes". MegaLinks in Criminal Justice. | [
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215377 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexford | Wexford | Wexford () is the county town of County Wexford, Ireland. Wexford lies on the south side of Wexford Harbour, the estuary of the River Slaney near the southeastern corner of the island of Ireland. The town is linked to Dublin by the M11/N11 National Primary Route; and to Rosslare Europort, Cork and Waterford by the N25. The national rail network connects it to Dublin and Rosslare Europort. It had a population of 20,188 according to the 2016 census.
History
The town was founded by the Vikings in about 800 AD. They named it Veisafjǫrðr, meaning "inlet of the mudflats", and the name has changed only slightly into its present form. According to a story recorded in the Dindsenchas, the name "Loch Garman" comes from a man named Garman mac Bomma Licce who was chased to the river mouth and drowned as a consequence of stealing the queen's crown from Temair during the feast of Samhain.
For about three hundred years it was a Viking town, a city-state, largely independent and owing only token dues to the Irish kings of Leinster. However, in May 1169 Dermot MacMurrough, King of Leinster and his Norman ally, Robert Fitz-Stephen besieged Wexford. The Norse inhabitants resisted fiercely until the Bishop of Ferns persuaded them to accept a settlement with Dermot.
Wexford was an Old English settlement in the Medieval Period. An old dialect of English, known as Yola, was spoken uniquely in Wexford up until the 19th century. The Yola name for Wexford was Weiseforthe.
Following the Crusades, the Knights Templar had a presence in Wexford. Up to the present, their name is perpetuated in the old Knights' Templars' chapel yard of St. John's Cemetery, on Wexford's Upper St. John's Street.
County Wexford produced strong support for Confederate Ireland during the 1640s. A fleet of Confederate privateers was based in Wexford town, consisting of sailors from Flanders and Spain as well as local men. Their vessels raided English Parliamentarian shipping, giving some of the proceeds to the Confederate government in Kilkenny. As a result, the town was sacked by the English Parliamentarians during the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649. Many of its inhabitants were killed and much of the town was burned. In 1659 Solomon Richards was appointed Governor, but he was dismissed and imprisoned following the Restoration the next year.
Wexford's early- and mid- 18th-century history is less frequently remembered than later periods, however, the impact of this period is evident from the architectural fabric of the town such as the gabled Dutch Billy houses such as on Main Street.
County Wexford was the centre of the 1798 rebellion against British rule. Wexford town was held by the United Irishmen throughout the Wexford Rebellion and was the scene of a notorious massacre of local loyalists by the United Irishmen, who executed them with pikes on Wexford bridge.
Redmond Square, near the railway station, commemorates the elder John Edward Redmond (1806–1865) who sat in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom as a Liberal Member of Parliament (MP) for the city of Wexford. The inscription reads: "My heart is with the city of Wexford. Nothing can extinguish that love but the cold soil of the grave." His nephew William Archer Redmond (1825–1880) sat as an MP in Isaac Butt's Home Rule Party from 1872 until 1880. Willie Redmond sat as an MP for Wexford from 1883 until 1885. The younger John Redmond, was a devoted follower of Charles Stewart Parnell and leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party until his death in April 1918. He is interred in the Redmond family vault, at the old Knights' Templars' chapel yard of St. John's Cemetery, Upper St. John's Street.
Redmond Park was formally opened in May 1931 as a memorial to Willie Redmond, who died in 1917 while serving with the 16th (Irish) Division during the Messines offensive and was buried on the Western Front.
Culture
Wexford hosts the Wexford Opera Festival every October. Started by Dr Tom Walsh in 1951, the festival has since grown and a fireworks display is sometimes held in conjunction with the annual festival.
Wexford has a number of music and drama venues including:
The National Opera House (formerly the Wexford Opera House), developed on the site of the historic Theatre Royal opera house;
the Dun Mhuire Theatre, which holds community theatre events including music events and hosting shows by Oyster Lane Theatre Group and Wexford Pantomime Society;
the Wexford Arts Centre, which hosts exhibitions, theatre, music and dance events;
St. Iberius's Church (Church of Ireland), various concerts are held here.
Wexford is the home of several youth and senior theatre groups, including the Buí Bolg Street Theatre Company, Oyster Lane Theatre Group, Wexford Pantomime Society, Wexford Light Opera Society and Wexford Drama Group.
The National Lottery Skyfest was held in Wexford in March 2011 included a pyrotechnic waterfall on the towns main bridge spanning 300m. Buí Bolg also performed on the night.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, the Yola language could be heard in Wexford, and some words, phrases and place names are still used in the locality, particularly in the baronies of southern Wexford.
Foods distinctive to Wexford include the local cultivation of seafood, and smoked cod, mussels and rissoles are token dishes in the region.
Architecture
Notable churches within the town include the "twin churches", Bride Street and Rowe Street with their distinctive spires; St. Iberius Church of Ireland, which dates from the 18th Century; Saint Peter's College, with a chapel designed by Augustus Welby Pugin; and Ann Street Presbyterian church. A former Quaker meeting hall is now a band room in High Street. The twin churches can be seen from any part of Wexford and in 2008, their 150th anniversary was celebrated. The larger twin, on Rowe Street, contains a peal of ten change-ringing bells, cast by Gillett & Johnston in 1930.
In the early 21st century, Wexford saw the redevelopment of its quay front, and residential development at Clonard village. Also, the relocated offices of the Department of Environment were constructed near Wexford General Hospital on Newtown Road and opened in 2010.
Economy
Wexford's success as a seaport declined in the first half of the 20th century because of the constantly changing sands of Wexford Harbour. By 1968 it had become unprofitable to keep dredging a channel from the harbour mouth to the quays in order to accommodate the larger ships of the era, so the port closed. The port had been extremely important to the local economy, with coal being a major import and agricultural machinery and grain being exported. The woodworks which fronted the quays and which were synonymous with Wexford were removed in the 1990s as part of a plan to claim the quay as an amenity for the town as well as retaining it as a commercially viable waterfront.
In the early 20th century, a new port was built about to the south at Rosslare Harbour, now known as Rosslare Europort. This is a deepwater harbour, unaffected by tides and currents. All major shipping now uses this port and Wexford Port is used only by fishing boats and leisure vessels.
Johnstown Castle, approximately 6 km from Wexford town, is headquarters to Teagasc, the Environmental Protection Agency and the Department of Agriculture, Food and the Marine.
Major private-sector employers in and around the town include Wexford Creamery, Celtic Linen, Wexford Viking Glass, Parker Hannifin IPDE, Waters Technology, Kent Stainless, Equifax and BNY Mellon. Coca-Cola operates a research plant employing up to 160. Eishtec, which was acquired by Infosys in 2019, operates a call center in Wexford. Pamela Scott, A-wear and other retailers operate in the town. Public sector employers include Wexford County Council and Wexford General Hospital.
Places of interest
Curracloe Beach, approximately 10 km north of Wexford town, was the location in 1997 for the opening scenes of Saving Private Ryan.
The Irish National Heritage Park at Ferrycarrig includes various exhibits spanning 9000 years of Irish history, allowing the visitor to wander around re-creations of historic Irish dwelling including crannogs, Viking houses and Norman forts. The grounds also feature the archaeological site of Newtown, considered the first Norman fortification in Ireland.
The Wexford Wildfowl Reserve is a Ramsar site based on mudflats, (known locally as slobland), just outside Wexford. It is a migratory stop-off point for thousands of ducks, geese, swans and waders. Up to 12,000 (50% of the world's population) of Greenland white-fronted geese spend the winter on the Wexford slobs. There is a visitor centre with exhibitions and an audio-visual show.
Transport
Wexford O'Hanrahan railway station opened on 17 August 1874. On 10 April 1966 the station was named after Michael O'Hanrahan, one of the executed leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising. The railway line from Dublin to Rosslare Harbour runs along the quayside on the north-eastern edge of the town. In 2010 the Rosslare Strand-Waterford rail services were suspended, due to budget cuts at Irish Rail.
Wexford is also served by local and national bus networks, primarily Bus Éireann, Wexford Bus and Ardcavan Bus. There are also many local taxi and hackney providers. Wexford Bus serves Wexford Town and rural County Wexford.
Rosslare Europort is 19 kilometres south of Wexford. Car ferries run between Fishguard and Pembroke in Wales and Cherbourg and Roscoff in France. The ferry companies operating on these routes are Stena Line and Irish Ferries. Foot passengers can use the SailRail tickets from Wexford O'Hanrahan station via Rosslare Europort and Fishguard Harbour to reach Swansea, Cardiff Central and onwards including London Paddington.
The closest airport to Wexford is Waterford Airport which is approximately one hour away (70 km). Dublin Airport and Cork Airport are both approximately two-and-a-half hours away.
The town also has a shuttle bus service which has stops at the town's main facilities.
Sport
Association football
Wexford Football Club was admitted to the League of Ireland in 2007, and was the first Wexford-based club to take part in the competition. The club was the brainchild of former property developer Mick Wallace TD, who funded the construction of a complex for the new team's home at Newcastle, Ferrycarrig. In 2015, the team won the League of Ireland First Division. The club launched Wexford Youths WFC, a Women's National League team, in 2011.
Gaelic football
Wexford is also home to several Gaelic Athletic Association clubs. Though the town was traditionally associated with Gaelic football, with six teams providing ample outlets for its youngsters, it was not until 1960 that hurling took its foothold, with much due to local man Oliver "Hopper" McGrath's contribution to the county's All-Ireland Hurling Final triumph over the then-champions Tipperary. Having scored an early second-half goal to effectively kill off the opposition, McGrath went on to be the first man from the town of Wexford to receive an All-Ireland Hurling winner's medal.
Although the team has not achieved county senior football success since 1956, Volunteers ("the Vols") of Wexford Town hold a record eleven county senior titles, as well as six minor titles. Other notable Gaelic football clubs in the town are Sarsfields, St. Mary's of Maudlintown, Clonard and St. Joseph's.
Hurling
One of the town's local hurling clubs, Faythe Harriers, holds a record fifteen county minor championships, having dominated the minor hurling scene in the 1950s, late 1960s and early 1970s. The senior side has also won five Wexford Senior Hurling Championships.
Other sports
Wexford Golf Club's clubhouse and course were finished in 2006 and 2007 respectively.
Wexford has one rugby club, called the Wexford Wanderers RFC.
Ireland's former boxing head coach and Olympian Billy Walsh is a native of Wexford town and has been involved in the training of underage level boxers with local club St. Ibars/Joseph's.
Education
There are five secondary schools serving the population of the town. These are Wexford CBS, Coláiste Éamonn Rís (boys' school); Loreto Secondary School (girls' school); St Peter's College (boys' school); Presentation Secondary School (girls' school); and The Vocational College/Selskar College (mixed school).
People
John Banville, writer
Clementina Rowe Butler, missionary
Eoin Colfer, writer
Robert McClure, Arctic Explorer
Brendan Corish, politician
Mary Frances Crowley, educator and nurse
Thomas D'Arcy McGee, Canadian politician
Kevin Doyle, footballer
Jane Elgee 'Speranza', mother of Oscar Wilde
Mary Fitzgerald (trade unionist)
Gerald Fleming, meteorologist
Brendan Howlin, politician
Rianna Jarrett, footballer
William Kenealy, recipient of the Victoria Cross
Larry Kirwan, writer and musician
William Lamport, Irish soldier upon whom Zorro is said to be based
Michael Londra, singer
Declan Lowney, director
Chris O'Neill (Oney), animator and internet personality
Billy Roche, playwright
Dick Roche, politician
Jem Roche, boxer
Declan Sinnott, musician
John Sinnott, recipient of the Victoria Cross
Pierce Turner, singer-songwriter
Billy Walsh, boxer/coach
Dean Walsh, European boxing medallist
John Welsh, writer
Cry Before Dawn, 1980s rock band from Wexford
Twinning
Wexford is twinned with the following places:
Annapolis, MD, United States
Couëron, Loire-Atlantique, Pays de la Loire, France
Lugo, Ravenna, Emilia-Romagna, Italy
Yanga, Veracruz, Mexico
See also
List of Market Houses in Ireland
List of towns and villages in Ireland
References
Further reading
External links
Boroughs in the Republic of Ireland
County towns in the Republic of Ireland
Viking Age populated places | [
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|
215379 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recklessness | Recklessness | Recklessness may be:
Recklessness (law), a legal term describing a person's state of mind when allegedly committing a criminal offence.
Recklessness (psychology), a state of mind in which a person acts without caring what the consequences may be
See also
Reckless | [
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|
215382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20v.%20Shabani | United States v. Shabani | United States v. Shabani, 513 U.S. 10 (1994), was a case in which the Supreme Court of the United States clarified standards for conspiracy liability under a federal drug conspiracy statute. In a unanimous opinion written by Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, the Court held that government prosecutors need not prove evidence of an overt act in furtherance of the conspiracy when prosecuting individuals under the drug conspiracy statute codified at 21 U.S.C. § 846. Justice O'Connor wrote that Congress intended to "adopt the common law definition" of conspiracy for section 846, which did not require an overt act as a precondition of liability. Justice O'Connor's opinion also compared the drug conspiracy statute to the general conspiracy statute, which requires that a conspirator commit an over act in furtherance of the conspiracy, noting that "[i]n light of this additional element in the general conspiracy statute, Congress' silence in § 846 speaks volumes."
See also
actus reus
List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 513
List of United States Supreme Court cases
Lists of United States Supreme Court cases by volume
List of United States Supreme Court cases by the Rehnquist Court
References
External links
1994 in United States case law
United States Supreme Court cases of the Rehnquist Court
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215387 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Freemasonry | History of Freemasonry | The history of Freemasonry encompasses the origins, evolution and defining events of the fraternal organisation known as Freemasonry. It covers three phases. Firstly, the emergence of organised lodges of operative masons during the Middle Ages, then the admission of lay members as "accepted" (a term reflecting the ceremonial "acception" process that made non-stone masons members of an operative lodge) or "speculative" masons, and finally the evolution of purely speculative lodges, and the emergence of Grand Lodges to govern them. The watershed in this process is generally taken to be the formation of the first Grand Lodge in London in 1717. The two difficulties facing historians are the paucity of written material, even down to the 19th century, and the misinformation generated by masons and non-masons alike from the earliest years.
Freemasonry's long history includes its early development from organised bodies of operative stonemasons to the modern system of speculative lodges organised around regional or national "Grand Lodges".
Origin myths and theories
Early Masonic sources
The earliest masonic texts each contain some sort of a history of the craft of masonry. The oldest known work of this type, The Halliwell Manuscript, also known as Regius Poem, dates from between 1390 and 1425. This document has a brief history in its introduction, stating that the "craft of masonry" began with Euclid in Egypt, and came to England in the reign of King Athelstan (924–939). Shortly afterwards, the Matthew Cooke Manuscript traces masonry to Jabal, son of Lamech (Genesis 4: 20–22), and tells how this knowledge came to Euclid, from him to the Children of Israel (while they were in Egypt), and so on through an elaborate path to Athelstan. This myth formed the basis for subsequent manuscript constitutions, all tracing masonry back to biblical times, and fixing its institutional establishment in England during the reign of Athelstan.
Shortly after the formation of the Premier Grand Lodge of England, James Anderson was commissioned to digest these "Gothic Constitutions" in a palatable, modern form. The resulting constitutions are prefaced by a history more extensive than any before, again tracing the history of what was now freemasonry back to biblical roots, again forging Euclid into the chain. True to his material, Anderson fixes the first grand assembly of English Masons at York, under Athelstan's son, Edwin, who is otherwise unknown to history. Expanded, revised, and republished, Anderson's 1738 constitutions listed the Grand Masters since Augustine of Canterbury, listed as Austin the Monk. William Preston's Illustrations of Freemasonry enlarged and expanded on this masonic creation myth.
In France, the 1737 lecture of Chevalier Ramsay added the crusaders to the lineage. He maintained that Crusader Masons had revived the craft with secrets recovered in the Holy Land, under the patronage of the Knights Hospitaller. At this point, the history of the craft in Continental Freemasonry diverged from that in England.
Speculative histories
Anderson's histories of 1723 and 1738, Ramsay's romanticisation, together with the internal allegory of masonic ritual, centred on King Solomon’s Temple and its architect, Hiram Abiff, have provided ample material for further speculation.
The earliest known ritual places the first masonic lodge in the porchway of King Solomon’s Temple. Following Anderson, it has also been possible to trace Freemasonry to Euclid, Pythagoras, Moses, the Essenes, and the Culdees. Preston started his history with the Druids, while Anderson's description of masons as "Noachides", extrapolated by Albert Mackey, put Noah into the equation.
Following Ramsay's introduction of Crusader masons, the Knights Templar became involved in the myth, starting with Karl Gotthelf von Hund's Rite of Strict Observance, which also linked in the exiled House of Stuart. The murder of Hiram Abiff was taken as an allegory for the death of Charles I of England. Oliver Cromwell emerges as the founder of Freemasonry in an anonymous anti-masonic work of 1745, commonly attributed to Abbé Larudan. Mackey states that "The propositions of Larudan are distinguished for their absolute independence of all historical authority and for the bold assumptions which are presented to the reader in the place of facts." The anti-masonic writings of Christoph Friedrich Nicolai implicated Francis Bacon and the Rosicrucians, while Christopher Wren's connection with the craft was omitted from Anderson's first book of constitutions, but appeared in the second when Wren was dead.
Similarly, attempts to root Freemasonry in the French Compagnonnage have produced no concrete links. Connections to the Roman Collegia and Comacine masters are similarly tenuous, although some Freemasons see them as exemplars rather than ancestors. Thomas Paine traced Freemasonry to Ancient Egypt, as did Cagliostro, who went so far as to supply the ritual.
More recently, several authors have attempted to link the Templars to the timeline of Freemasonry through the imagery of the carvings in Rosslyn Chapel in Scotland, where the Templars are rumoured to have sought refuge after the dissolution of the order. In The Hiram Key, Robert Lomas and Christopher Knight describe a timeline starting in ancient Egypt, and taking in Jesus, the Templars, and Rosslyn before arriving at modern Freemasonry. These claims are challenged by Robert Cooper, the curator of the Grand Lodge of Scotland's library and museum, in his book The Rosslyn Hoax.
Emergence of modern masonic studies
The first rational study of masonic history was published in Germany, but Georg Kloss's 1847 work, Geschichte der Freimaurerei in England, Irland und Schottland was never translated. When Findel's History of Freemasonry was translated from German to English in 1866, Woodford in England and Murray-Lyon in Scotland were already active writers on the subject. Woodford was Findel's guide when he visited York to inspect manuscripts, and would shortly collaborate with Hughan in collecting, dating and classifying the old manuscript constitutions. Albert Mackey was no less active in America. The list of his published works start in 1844 with "A Lexicon of Freemasonry", and extend to his monumental Encyclopedia of Freemasonry in 1874. Increasing interest, and participation, in masonic studies led, in 1886, to the formation in London of Quatuor Coronati Lodge, the first lodge dedicated to masonic research.
From origin to Grand Lodge Freemasonry
Origin of the term "Freemason"
The earliest official English documents to refer to masons are written in Latin — "" (London 1212), "" (Oxford 1391) — or Norman French — "" (Statute of Labourers 1351). These all signify a worker in freestone, a grainless sandstone or limestone suitable for ornamental masonry. In the 17th century building accounts of Wadham College the terms freemason and freestone mason are used interchangeably. Freemason also contrasts with "Rough Mason" or "Layer", as a more skilled worker who worked or laid dressed stone.
The adjective "free" in this context may also be taken to infer that the mason is not enslaved, indentured or feudally bound. While this is difficult to reconcile with medieval English masons, it apparently became important to Scottish operative lodges.
Master Masons in medieval England
A medieval Master Mason would be required to undergo what passed for a liberal education in those days. In England, he would leave home at nine or ten years of age already literate in English and French, educated at home or at the petty (junior) school. From then until the age of fourteen, he would attend monastery or grammar school to learn Latin, or as a page in a knightly household would learn deportment in addition to his studies. Between the ages of fourteen and seventeen he would learn the basic skills of choosing, shaping, and combining stone and then between the ages of 17 and 21, be required to learn by rote a large number of formal problems in geometry. Three years as a journeyman would often finish with the submission of a masterwork dealing with a set problem in construction or design. At this point, he was considered qualified, but still had a career ladder to climb before attaining the status of Master Mason on a large project.
In his function as architect, the Master Mason probably made his plans for each successive stage of a build in silverpoint on a prepared parchment or board. These would be realised on the ground by using a larger compass than the one used for drafting. Medieval architects are depicted with much larger compasses and squares where they are shown on a building site. Fine detail was transferred from the drawing board by means of wooden templates supplied to the masons.
The Master Masons who appear in record as presiding over major works, such as York Minster, became wealthy and respected. Visiting Master Masons and Master Carpenters sat at high table of monasteries, dining with the abbot.
From the Middle Ages to the Reformation
The historical record shows two levels of organisation in medieval masonry, the lodge and the "guild". The original use of the word lodge indicates a workshop erected on the site of a major work, the first mention being Vale Royal Abbey in 1278. Later, it gained the secondary meaning of the community of masons in a particular place. The earliest surviving records of these are the laws and ordinances of the lodge at York Minster in 1352. These regulations were imposed by the Dean and Chapter of the Minster.
Nineteenth-century historians imposed the term "guild" on the "fellowships" of medieval tradesmen as an analogy with the merchant guilds. The masons were late in forming such bodies. The major employer of masons in medieval England was the crown, and the crown frequently employed masons by impressment. In other words, they were forcibly recruited when the need arose.
The Halliwell Manuscript, also called Regius Poem, is the oldest known document of masonic origin. It was published in 1840 by Shakespearean scholar and collector James Halliwell who dated it to 1390. A. F. A. Woodford, the pioneering Masonic scholar and a founder of Quatuor Coronati Lodge, agreed with this dating. More recently, historian Andrew Prescott has dated the text to the second quarter of the fifteenth century.
The poem may be seen as a response to a stream of legislation dating back to the Black Death, and the Statute of Labourers of 1351, in which Edward III attempted to fix wages at pre-plague levels. The earlier date follows the 1389 ordinance of Richard II requiring the guilds and fellowships to lay before him their Charters and Letters Patent, and the second follows the more serious legislation of 1425 banning the annual assemblies of masons.
In 1356, the preamble to regulations governing the Trade of Masons specifically states that, unlike the other trades, no body existed for the regulation of masonry by masons. Finally, in 1376, four representatives of the "mystery" or trade are elected to the Common Council in London. This also seems to be the first use of the word "freemason" in English. It was immediately struck out, and replaced with the word "mason".
The poem claims that these assemblies were ordained by King Athelstan and that he also linked the wages of a mason to the cost of living.
The Cooke Manuscript, dating from about 1450, set the pattern for what Anderson called the "Gothic Constitutions", the older histories and regulations of the craft. After a brief blessing, these documents describe the seven Liberal Arts, assigning predominance to Geometry, which is equated with Masonry. They then proceed to a history of masonry/geometry, finishing with King Athelstan, or Edwin, his brother or son depending on source, assembling England's masons to give them their charges. The regulations or charges follow, usually with instructions as to the manner in which a new mason should swear to them.
Also around 1450 the will of a mason from Beverley gives a tantalising glimpse into the emergence of masonic regalia. An inventory of John Cadeby's possessions mentions several zonae (girdles). Two were silver mounted, and one of these had the letters B and I in the middle, indicating Boaz and Jachin, the twin pillars of Solomon's Temple. He also owned a writing table and six English books, making him comfortably well-off and literate.
The following century and a half produced few new manuscripts. The Dowland manuscript, whose original is now lost, and Grand Lodge No 1, for the first time locate Edwin's assembly of Masons at York. The Lansdowne, originally dated to this period, is now thought to date from the 17th century.
During this period the Reformation occurred. It was at one time assumed that the church was the major employer of masons, and with the Dissolution of the Monasteries the lodges disappeared. It was also believed that the craft "guilds" were abolished in England in 1547. On the death of Henry VIII, Archbishop Cranmer sought to advance the reformation by the abolition of guilds and fellowships. In 1548, "The bill of conspiracies of victuallers and craftsmen" was passed, revoking their monopolies. In 1549 it was repealed, presumably because they were too useful to the government. The government continued to be a major employer of masons, who in London had moved from a fellowship to a corporation. While this was not chartered until 1666, the state used it in the sixteenth century to procure and indent masons for building projects. In addition, masons were increasingly employed by private individuals. The Saints day parades by the various crafts, enacting plays about their various patron saints, were however suppressed. Robert Cooper, the archivist of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, believes that the lost mystery play of the masons may survive in the ritual of contemporary masonic lodges.
Freemasonry in Scotland
An early continental history quotes a 16th-century source that by 1535, there were two Scottish masonic lodges recorded in France, one in Paris and the other in Lyon.
In Scotland, the lodges of masons were brought under the control of two crown appointed officials, the Warden General and the Principal Master of Work to the Crown, the latter being in existence from 1539 at the latest. Towards the end of the century, William Schaw held both these posts. In 1598, in conference with the masters of lodges in south east Scotland, he produced a set of regulations for the governance of masons and their lodges now known as the Schaw Statutes. These state "They shall be true to one another and live charitably together as becometh sworn brethren and companions of the Craft." They mention wardens, deacons, entered prentices and cowans. The second Schaw statutes, a year later, included in their negotiations a representative of the Lodge of Kilwinning (now Lodge Mother Kilwinning No 0) in Ayrshire, which was assigned jurisdiction over the west of Scotland. Edinburgh became the "first and principal" lodge and Kilwinning the "second and head" lodge of Scotland, attempting to appease all parties. Since neither the King nor the master of Kilwinning was present, the document was not regarded as final or binding. It was assumed that the King's warrant for the regulations would be obtained. In 1602, Schaw wrote a Charter granting to Sir William St Clair of Rosslyn the right to purchase patronage over the masons of Scotland. Kilwinning is noticeably absent from the list of lodges appending their endorsement. The charter seems to have lapsed when St Clair fled following a scandal, and a second charter was granted to his son, also William St Clair, in 1628. This patronage was surrendered by their descendant, another William St Clair, on the formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1736, in spite of the fact that it never won the royal approval that would have made it valid.
Emergence of speculative masonry
The lasting effect of the Schaw Statutes arose from the 1599 directive that the lodges should employ a reputable notary as secretary, and that he should record all important transactions. The Scottish lodges began to keep minutes, and therefore the appearance of "accepted" (non-operative) masons is better recorded than in England, where there are no known internal records of lodge proceedings.
The first recorded admission of non-masons was on 3 July 1634 at Lodge of Edinburgh (Mary's Chapel) No. 1, in the persons of Sir Anthony Alexander, his elder brother, Lord Alexander, and Sir Alexander Strachan of Thornton. Sir Anthony was the King's Principal Master of Work, and the man who had effectively blocked the second St Clair charter, the lodges of Scotland being his own responsibility. The reasons that his brother and their friend were also admitted are unclear.
The reasons and mechanisms for the transition of masonic lodges from operative communities to speculative fellowships remain elusive. As the responsibility for design shifted from the Master Mason to the architect in the sixteenth century, it is probable that architects started to join the lodges of the masons they worked with. It is also possible that, along with other professional bodies (including the East India Company), operative masonic lodges began to raise money by charging the gentry for admission to their "mysteries". Another opinion states that masonic lodges deliberately recruited the rich and powerful in an attempt to improve their pay and working conditions.
England vs Scotland Membership
On 20 May 1641 Sir Robert Moray was initiated into Freemasonry by several Freemasons who were members of the Lodge of Edinburgh. Although he was initiated into a Scottish lodge, the event took place south of the border: this is earliest extant record of a man being initiated into speculative Freemasonry on English soil.
While lodge records show a gradual development of mixed lodges in Scotland, it is evident that the lodge which initiated Elias Ashmole at Warrington on 16 October 1646 was mainly or entirely composed of speculative or accepted masons. In 1686 Robert Plot's "Natural History of Staffordshire" contains a passage about persons of quality being admitted to the society of free-masons, whose history Plot finds invented and ridiculous. At the start of the Grand Lodge period, there appears to have been a predominance of purely speculative lodges in the south of England, with operative and mixed lodges still in the majority in the north and in Scotland.
In 1716, four lodges and "some old Brothers" met at the Apple Tree Tavern in Covent Garden and agreed to meet again the next year to form a "Grand Lodge". These were the Goose and Gridiron, the Crown, the Apple Tree, and the Rummer and Grapes. The "old Brothers" were probably from the Cheshire Cheese and at least one other lodge.
Early Grand Lodge period
First Grand Lodge
The early history of Grand Lodge is uncertain, since no minutes were taken until 1723. It is known that the four lodges mentioned above held an assembly at the Goose and Gridiron, in St Paul's Churchyard, on, 24 June 1717 (the Feast of St John the Baptist). They agreed to restore their "Quarterly Communications", four meetings a year for the transaction of masonic business, and an annual assembly to elect the next Grand Master. At this meeting, they elected Anthony Sayer, Master of the lodge at the Apple Tree, of whom little else is known, and the Grand Lodge of London and Westminster was born. At this stage, it is unlikely that they saw themselves as anything more than an association of London lodges. This perception was to change very rapidly.
The next year, George Payne became Grand Master. He was a career civil servant with the commissioners of taxes. In 1719, they elected John Theophilus Desaguliers, a clergyman, an eminent scientist, and a Fellow of the Royal Society. The last commoner to serve as Grand Master was George Payne in his second term of office in 1720/21, when he wrote The General Regulations of a Free Mason which were later incorporated in Anderson's Constitutions. Thereafter, in what appears to be a deliberate attempt to raise the profile of the organisation, all the Grand Masters have been members of the nobility.
Desaguliers is often described as the "father" of modern freemasonry. It was Desaguliers who inscribed the dedication to Anderson's Constitutions, headed the committee which directed and approved them, and supplied the "Gothic Constitutions" from which they were formed. Although he only served one term as Grand Master, he was twice Deputy Grand Master under figurehead Grand Masters, and at other times behaved as if he was Grand Master, forming irregular lodges to conduct initiations. It seems to have been Desaguliers who insisted that ritual be remembered rather than written down, leading to a dearth of material on the development of English ritual until after the formation of United Grand Lodge.
These considerations cause many masonic historians to see him as the guiding intelligence as the new Grand Lodge embarked on an era of self-publicity, which saw the sudden expansion of speculative masonry, with a corresponding rise in anti-masonic groups and publications. Initiations began to be reported in newspapers. The noble grand masters were often fellows of the Royal Society, but the Duke of Wharton (1722–23) had just had his Hell-fire club shut down by the government, and joined, or possibly formed, an anti-masonic group called the Gormagons almost as soon as he left office. From 1721 the installation of the new Grand Master was the occasion for a parade, originally on foot, later in carriages. This became the subject of some ridicule, until starting in 1740 there were also mock processions by anti-masonic groups, leading to the discontinuation of the practice in 1747. The rapid expansion of freemasonry also led to many new lodges failing after only a year or two. In addition to attacks from outside the craft, there were now disillusioned ex-masons willing to make money out of "exposures" of freemasonry.
Anderson's Constitutions
The Constitutions of the Free-Masons, "For the Use of the Lodges" in London and Westminster, was published in 1723. It was edited by the presbyterian clergyman, James Anderson, to the order of John Theophilus Desaguliers, and approved by a Grand Lodge committee under his control. This work was reprinted in Philadelphia in 1734 by Benjamin Franklin, who was that year elected Grand Master of Masons in Pennsylvania. It was also translated into Dutch (1736), German (1741), and French (1745).
Anderson was minister of the Presbyterian church in Swallow Street, London, which had once been Huguenot church, and one of its four Deacons was Desaguliers' father. At the time of his meeting with Desaguliers, he seems to have passed himself off as a Talmudic scholar. His reward for his labours was the copyright on the work. In time, and to Anderson's dismay, it was condensed into "pocket" editions over which he had no control and from which he received no income. It was expanded, updated, and re-published in 1738.
The historical section, which comprises almost half the book, has already been described. This is followed by the "Charges", general rules for the conduct of Freemasons, and Payne's Regulations, the specific rules by which Grand Lodge and the lodges under its control were to be governed. The ceremony for dedicating a new lodge was briefly outlined, and the work finished with a section of songs. For the first time, the old hand-written charges and constitutions was replaced by an accessible, printed condensation of all there was to being a Freemason, omitting only the ritual. Although the historical section was attacked at the time, and ever since, as being a work of obvious fiction, the work remains a milestone in masonic history. The "Antient Charges" published in the current Book of Constitutions of the United Grand Lodge of England have altered little from those originally published by Anderson.
Degrees and rituals of Freemasonry
In common with other trades or mysteries, medieval masonry recognised three grades of craftsman;— the apprentice, the journeyman, and the master. An apprentice who had learned his craft became a journeyman, qualified to do all manner of masonic work. The master was also qualified as a project manager, often functioning as architect as well. He would sketch the day's work on a tracing board for execution by the journeymen and apprentices. The Schaw Statutes of 1598 show how this had evolved in the lodge system of Scottish masonry. An apprentice, after serving his term of seven years, could elect to pay to join a lodge, becoming an "entered apprentice". (Alternatively, he could elect to freelance on the lower grades of building work as a "Cowan".) The journeymen were referred to as "fellows" or "fellows of the craft", which accords with the Regius poem's injunction (line 51) that masons should "calle other felows by cuthe". The members of the lodge were "Brithers" (brothers), a Scottish legal term for those bound to each other by oath. The Master was simply the mason in charge of the lodge, or one who had held that distinction.
While the swearing of some sort of oath goes back to the earliest records of organised masonry, the first recorded ritual is not until 1696, in the Edinburgh Register House manuscript. From this, and from other documents of the same period, such as the Trinity College, Dublin manuscript of 1711, we can form an idea of the ritual of an operative lodge at the end of the 17th century. On taking of the oath of an Entered Apprentice a mason was entrusted with appropriate signs, a "Mason's Word", and a catechism. This was accompanied by much horseplay, which was probably excised as the craft became more gentrified. The fellowcraft was made to take a further oath, and entrusted with two further words and the "five points of fellowship", which in 1696 were foot to foot, knee to knee, heart to heart, hand to hand, and ear to ear. The distinction between a fellowcraft and a master is unclear, and in many documents they appear to be synonymous. As accepted masons became initiated, where the various words and signs could no longer be regarded as professional qualifications, the entered apprentice ritual and the fellowcraft/master were sometimes condensed into one ceremony.
In Pritchard's Masonry Dissected, an exposure of masonic ritual written in 1730 by a disillusioned ex-mason, we see for the first time something recognisable as the three degrees of modern Freemasonry. On being admitted to a lodge, a new mason naturally progresses through the degrees of Entered Apprentice, Fellowcraft, and Master Mason. There still remains the rank of Installed Master, which comprises the Master in charge of the lodge and its past masters, and involves its own ritual, words and signs, but entails being elected to take charge of the lodge for a year. These are the regular degrees and ranks of "craft" masonry, common to all constitutions. Other, "higher" degrees are optional and require a mason to join a side-order, except in lodges constituted under the Grand Lodge of Scotland, which are empowered to confer the Mark Master Mason degree on Master Masons, as an extension to the second or Fellowcraft degree. (see main article, Freemasonry)
Anderson's 1723 constitutions seem to recognise only the grades of Entered Apprentice, and the Fellowcraft/Master. Hence the third degree emerged sometime between 1723 and 1730, and took some time to spread within the craft. The fact that it did spread seems to many scholars to indicate that the tri-gradal system was not so much innovation, as the re-organisation of pre-existing material. The Mason word, once given to the Entered Apprentice, was now conferred in the third degree with the five points of fellowship, and the two linked words formerly bestowed on a fellowcraft were split between the first two degrees. The new Master Mason degree was centred on the myth of Hiram Abiff, which itself consists of three parts. The first is the biblical story of the Tyrian artisan with a Northern Israelite mother who became a master craftsman involved in the construction of King Solomon's Temple. The second is the story of his murder by subordinates, which is similar to one of the legends of the French Compagnonnage. Lastly, the story of the finding of his body, and the derivation therefrom of the five points of fellowship, which appears in the Graham Manuscript of 1725, where the body being sought and exhumed is that of Noah. The origin of this re-organisation is unknown. The earliest reference to the conferment of a third degree is from London, from the minutes of "Philo Musicae et Architecturae Societas Apollini", a short-lived musical society composed entirely of Freemasons. These minutes record the initiation and passing to the degree of Fellowcraft of Charles Cotton. Then, on 12 May 1725, the society took it upon itself to "pass" Brother Cotton and Brother Papillion Ball as Master Masons. This would nowadays be regarded as highly irregular. In March 1726 Gabriel Porterfield received the same degree in lodge Dumbarton Kilwinning in Scotland. That he was not the first is attested by the minutes of the lodge's foundation, only two months earlier, where Apprentices, Fellowcrafts, and Master Masons are recorded as attending. In December 1728, Greenock Kilwinning recorded separate fees for initiation, passing and raising.
Spread of Grand Lodges (1725–1750)
Even in London, there were many lodges that never affiliated with the new Grand Lodge. These unaffiliated Masons and their Lodges were referred to as "Old Masons," or "St John Masons", and "St John Lodges". Nonetheless, the influence of the new central body spread quickly, and the 1725 minutes mention lodges in ten provincial towns as far north as Salford, with Provincial Grand Lodges in South Wales and Cheshire.
In the same year, a second Grand Lodge was founded in Ireland, which took several decades to bring all the Irish lodges under its wing. Rival Grand Lodges quickly appeared in Munster and Cork. It was in Ireland that the practice of recognising the regularity of a lodge by the issue of a warrant began, the first known example dating from 1731. The Grand Lodge of Scotland was not formed until 1736.
Also in 1725 "The Ancient and Honourable Society and Fraternity of Freemasons meeting since time immemorial in the City of York" assumed the title, " The Grand Lodge of All England meeting in the City of York." This should not be interpreted as rivalry, as there was no overlap in the two jurisdictions. Indeed, Anderson's history would have produced the expectation of an older Grand Lodge at York, and the London Lodges were duly furnished with minutes going back some twenty years. Anderson's 1738 Constitutions recognised the independence of "the Old Lodge of York City. and the Lodges of Scotland, Ireland. France, Italy, etc".
However, in 1735, the Master and Wardens of an Irish lodge were refused admission to Grand Lodge because they did not have the written authority of the Grand Master of Ireland. It seems that they hoped to be recognised as a deputation from Lord Kingston, then Grand Master of Ireland, and Past Grand Master of the London Grand Lodge. They were offered, and refused, the English authorisation. This has been interpreted as evidence of a split between the two constitutions.
Responding to the popularity of Pritchard's and other exposures of masonic ritual, Grand Lodge, about this time, made changes to ritual and passwords to make it more difficult for outsiders to pass themselves off as masons. These changes were not universally accepted by affiliated lodges. The Goose and Gridiron (now Lodge of Antiquity No. 2), one of the original and most senior lodges of the constitution, never adopted them. For the unaffiliated, the innovations simply deepened the division. At the time, London was absorbing many economic migrants from Ireland. Those who were already Freemasons felt that they could not work with the new ritual, and the lodges they formed swelled further the numbers of unaffiliated lodges in the capital.
In the same period, Freemasonry as practiced by the English, Irish and Scottish lodges began to spread to Europe. The establishment of the first Grand Lodge in France is particularly problematic. Freemasonry itself appears to have been established in France by exiled Jacobites. The Grand Lodge of France dates its foundation to 1728, when it claims the Grand Master was the Duke of Wharton. Some Grand Orient seals date the first Grand Lodge to 1736 (the split between the Grand Lodge and the Grand Orient occurred in 1773). French histories date the first Grand Lodge to 24 June 1738. The situation seems confused, as other histories state that the first legitimate Grand Lodge was formed on 11 December 1743 as "The English Grand Lodge of France" with the Count of Clermont as grand master. Although the government of the craft was in the hands of a series of deputies, the protection of the count until his death in 1771 afforded French masonry a period of stability and growth. As masonry was persecuted in other catholic states, the moral and egalitarian nature of the French lodges accorded with the spirit of the age.
Although Anderson seems to imply the existence of an Italian Grand Lodge, no such body existed until the creation of the Grand Orient of Italy in 1805. The first lodge was the English Lodge ("La Loggia degli Inglesi") in Florence, founded in 1731, and Freemasonry quickly spread, in spite of a series of Papal bans.
The first appearance of the many German Grand Lodges dates from the 1740s, notably "Of the Three Globes", founded in Berlin in 1744, which became the "Grand National Mother Lodge" in 1772. Frederick the Great became a Freemason while he was still Crown Prince and personally sanctioned the Berlin Lodge. Although a few authors cite the existence of German operative grand lodges as far back as that formed at Cologne Cathedral in 1250, continuity of tradition has been hard to prove, and most sources believe the Eighteenth-century German speculative lodges show descent from the English model.
Freemasonry was brought to the Russian Empire by foreign officers in the Russian service. For instance, James Keith is recorded as being master of a lodge in Saint Petersburg in 1732–34. Several years later his cousin John Keith, 3rd Earl of Kintore was appointed Provincial Grand Master of Russia by the Grand Lodge of England. In the early 1770s, Ivan Yelagin succeeded in reorganizing Russian Freemasonry into a far-reaching system that united some 14 lodges and about 400 government officials. He secured English authorization of the first Russian Grand Lodge and became its Provincial Grand Master. Most Russian lodges were attracted to the Swedish Rite. In 1782, Ivan Schwarz represented Russia at the masonic congress in Wilhelmsbad (a health resort in Hanau), where Russia was recognized as the 8th province of the Rite of Strict Observance. See History of Freemasonry in Russia for further details.
Rival Grand Lodges
On 17 July 1751, representatives of six Lodges gathered at the Turk's Head Tavern, in Greek Street, Soho, London. Five were unaffiliated lodges of mainly Irish membership, and the sixth appears to have been formed shortly beforehand for the business of the evening. On that night, they established the "Most Ancient and Honourable Society of Free and Accepted Masons according to the Old Constitutions", now commonly known as the Grand Lodge of the Antients. The first Grand Secretary, John Morgan, obtained a position in the Navy, and resigned after seven months. His successor, Laurence Dermott, presided as Grand Secretary for almost twenty years, being deputy Grand Master on three occasions after that, and exercised considerable influence until his death in 1791.
Dermott's immediate impact was in replacing the regulations that Morgan had written with those of his own lodge in Dublin. In 1756 he published the Antient's own book of constitutions, entitled the "Ahiman Rezon", for which no meaning is known. Modeled on Spratt's Irish Constitutions, the regulations are comprehensive and well written, and are followed by an extended section devoted to songs. At the beginning, instead of Anderson's history, is an extended introduction attacking the original Grand Lodge, now calling itself the Grand Lodge of England, but saddled by Dermott with "the Moderns" in contrast to the "Ancient" usages of the new Grand Lodge. This name remains in use to the present day. His main weapon was satire. He started with an account of how he attempted to write a history which would better the others by describing masonry before Adam, but towards the end of the first volume, he fell asleep. He dreamed of a conversation with Ahimon, one of four sojourners from Jerusalem, about the futility of masonic histories, after which an ancient in a shining breastplate perused his first volume and pronounced, "Thou hast div'd deep into the water, and hast brought up a potsherd". He was woken by his neighbour's puppy eating his manuscript. Dermott then proceeded to a reasoned explanation of why a new Mason should not join a "Moderns" lodge, since their amended passwords would not be recognised by any of the other Grand Lodges which at that time existed. There follows a humorous account of their "unconstitutional fopperies", including Dermott's belief that their greatest masonic symbols were the knife and fork.
Under Dermott's influence, penmanship, and oratory, the new Grand Lodge grew to be a serious challenge to the original. The Antient's lodges were warranted from 1752, a practice not taken up by the Moderns for another two decades. As the unaffiliated lodges increasingly saw the sense of belonging to a larger organisation, they usually found that the Antients practice was closer to their own, although it was known for lodges to change allegiance from the Antients to the Moderns. The fact that the practices eventually adopted by the United Grand Lodge largely reflect those of the Antients is attributable to Dermott's industry.
While the emergence of the Antients simply consolidated a division in English Freemasonry, a schism occurred within the Moderns in 1777/78. While this only involved one lodge, it was the oldest and most prestigious in the constitution, and its Master the Moderns' most respected author and historian. William Preston was already in dispute with the Grand Secretary over the royalties to the new Book of Constitutions he had just written. Some members of his Lodge of Antiquity (formerly the Goose and Gridiron, or the Old Lodge of St Paul's), having attended church as masons, walked back to the lodge in their regalia. Three brethren saw fit to report this to the Moderns Grand Lodge as an unauthorised masonic parade. Preston, the Master of Antiquity, sided with the accused, arguing that since the lodge was one of the original four, it had only subscribed to the original constitutions, and did not require any other authority to hold a parade. For this, he was promptly expelled. Antiquity responded by expelling the three who had complained. At least half of the lodge seceded to the Grand Lodge of All England at York, quoting Article 39 of Payne's regulations, that the Landmarks of the order must be preserved in any new regulations of Grand Lodge (alluding to their own rights and privileges). Antiquity became, for the period of separation, "the Grand Lodge of All England South of the River Trent", warranting at least two lodges in its own right. The dispute was not resolved until May 1789, when Preston and his brethren were received back into the Moderns with much feasting and fanfare.
A similar situation arose in Scotland. Seniority was assigned according to the dating of lodge minutes, and due to a fire, Kilwinning records started at 1642, somewhat later than the Lodge of St Mary's Chapel in Edinburgh. Offended by being recognised as only the second lodge in the constitution, Lodge Mother Kilwinning withdrew from the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1743, and did not rejoin until 1807. During this period, Kilwinning functioned as yet another Grand Lodge, chartering about 70 lodges in Scotland and abroad. While the two Grand Lodges ignored each other at an official level, there does not appear to have been any real animosity, with no bar on masons visiting lodges in the competing jurisdiction. One Kilwinning member became Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. The Lodge at Melrose, claiming an antiquity at least as great as Kilwinning, simply ignored the Grand Lodge of Scotland, again chartering daughter lodges, with the Master being addressed as "Grand Master". They finally joined the national body on 25 February 1891 as The Lodge of Melrose St John No 1 bis.
In the wake of the French Revolution, the British Government became uneasy about possible revolutionary conspiracies. Amongst other repressive measures, Pitt's government proposed to introduce the Unlawful Societies Act in 1799, which declared that any body which administered a secret oath was illegal. Acting quickly, a delegation representing the Ancients, Moderns and the Grand Lodge of Scotland arranged a meeting with the Prime Minister. The delegation included the Duke of Atholl, Grand Master of the Ancients, and Past Grand Master Mason of the Grand Lodge of Scotland, and the Earl of Moira, Acting Grand Master of the Moderns (the Grand Master being the Prince of Wales). As a result of this meeting, Freemasons were specifically excluded from the act, although lodges were obliged to return a list of members to the local Clerk of the Peace, a practice which continued until 1967. It also demonstrated that the two rival Grand Lodges could act together.
Establishment of Freemasonry in North America
In 1682, John Skene, Born in Scotland came to New Jersey and is dedicated by the Grand Lodge of New Jersey As the first Freemason resident in America.
In 1733, Henry Price, the Provincial Grand Master over all of North America for the Grand Lodge of England, granted a charter to a group of Boston Freemasons. This lodge was later named St. John's Lodge and was the first duly constituted lodge in America. Between 1733 and 1737 the Grand Lodge in England warranted Provincial Grand Lodges in Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania and South Carolina. Benjamin Franklin re-issued Anderson's 1723 constitutions as Provincial Grand Master of Pennsylvania. Franklin had written in the Pennsylvania Gazette of 8 December 1730 of the several lodges of freemasons already in the "province", joined St. John's Lodge in Philadelphia the following year, and in 1732 was Junior Grand Warden of the Grand Lodge of Philadelphia. All this before the "first" lodge in North America.
Correspondence from John Moore, the collector for the port of Philadelphia and himself a Mason, indicate that Masonic Lodges were meeting in Philadelphia in 1715. The present Grand Lodge has the Carmick manuscript, a handwritten copy of the ancient charges dating from 1727, and headed "The Constitutions of St. John's Lodge". Colonel Daniel Coxe was made Provincial Grand Master of New York, New Jersey and Pennsylvania by the Grand Lodge of England in 1730, with effect from 24 June (St. John the Baptist's day) for two years. It is unclear whether he was in America or England at the time, but he was present at Grand Lodge, at the Devil Tavern in London, on 29 January 1731, where he is minuted as Provincial Grand Master of North America. There is no record of his chartering any lodges, but he arranged for St. John's Lodge to double as a Provincial Grand Lodge, and appointed his successor in 1731, a year early. Notwithstanding the acceptance of Coxe as their first Provincial Grand Master, it has been suggested that the formation of the new Grand Lodge by consenting pre-existing lodges makes it a Grand Lodge by "Immemorial right", and a sister lodge to the Grand Lodges of England Scotland and Ireland.
North America would have many independent lodges in the 18th century. Authorisation, which later would become a Warrant, took time and expense, especially in the period when the nearest Grand Lodge was on the other side of the Atlantic. Many lodges became "self starters", and only applied for Grand Lodge authorisation when they were reasonably confident that the lodge would survive for more than a few years. George Washington was initiated into the Lodge of Fredericksburg in 1752. The same lodge was chartered by the Grand Lodge of Scotland in 1758. The first properly chartered "Scottish" lodge was only two years earlier, being the Lodge of St. Andrews in Boston. Members included Paul Revere and Joseph Warren, and (according to some) later lodge outings included the Boston Tea Party.
Many lodges were attached British Army regiments. The Moderns may have been wary of warranting lodges without a permanent address, so there was only one Grand Lodge of England warrant in the continental army from 1775 to 1777. The Antients and the Grand Lodge of Scotland were slightly better represented, but the overwhelming majority of regimental lodges held warrants from the Grand Lodge of Ireland. Thus it was that a group of African Americans, having been rejected by the lodges in Boston, were initiated into Lodge No 441 on the register of the Grand Lodge of Ireland, which was attached to the 38th Foot (later the 1st Staffordshire). These 15 men formed African Lodge No 1, as the British departed, leaving them a permit to do almost everything but admit new masons. Two of the members were seafarers, and obtained entrance to a lodge in London, being recognised as regularly initiated Masons. This enabled their master, Prince Hall, to apply to the Moderns for a charter, which was duly granted on 29 September 1784, now as African Lodge No. 459. Such was the success of the lodge that it became a Provincial Grand Lodge, and Prince Hall the Provincial Grand Master. After his death, the provincial lodges reconstituted themselves as a grand lodge (African Grand Lodge), becoming Prince Hall Grand Lodge in 1847. Around the same time, the history of Freemasonry in Mexico can be traced to at least 1806 when the first Masonic lodge was formally established in the nation.
Royal Arch Freemasonry
The majority of this article deals with craft, or "blue lodge" masonry, the three degrees that are common to all masonic lodges and jurisdictions. Further degrees are usually outside of the jurisdiction of Grand Lodges, involve separate ceremonies, and are regulated by different Masonic bodies. The number and names of the "chivalric" orders and degrees depend on the local tradition of Freemasonry, and have varied greatly over the years. The oldest of these, and the most universal, is the Royal Arch Chapter (the Holy Royal Arch in England).
Although some masonic writers have attempted to see Royal Arch symbolism in material from the 1720s, the earliest definite reference is to a Royal Arch in a procession in Dublin preceding the master and held aloft by two "Excellent Masons". In 1744 it is mentioned as a degree in Dr Dassigny's "Serious and Impartial Inquiry".
Laurence Dermott, the guiding force behind the Ancients Grand Lodge, claimed to have been made a Royal Arch Mason in Dublin in 1746. He referred to it as the fourth degree, and campaigned to have it recognised as such. This happened just after he died, and only twenty years before the union of the Ancients and Moderns. The Moderns, on the other hand, had created a separate Grand Chapter in 1765 to deal with the degree, and wished to keep it separate from pure craft masonry. This would be a point of contention as the two jurisdictions moved towards union. The second of the articles of union stated that there were but three degrees in "pure Ancient Masonry", but included the Royal Arch in the third degree. The degree continues to be administered by a separate Grand Chapter, and until a revision in 2004, English Master Masons were simply told that the degree of the Holy Royal Arch completes their third degree.
The oldest Irish records of the ritual indicate that Royal Arch Chapters originally administered three degrees. The first was based on the refurbishment of the first temple by King Josiah. The second was a short bridge to the third, which was based on the rebuilding of the temple after the exile. Most jurisdictions base the modern Royal Arch ritual on the post-exilic legend. In 1864, the Grand Chapter of Ireland decided to base their ritual on the reign of Josiah, the main practical difference being the names of the officers.
19th century Freemasonry
Union of 1813
In 1809, the Grand Lodge of England (the Moderns) set up a "Lodge of Promulgation". Its purpose was to "revert to the Ancient Land Marks of the Society" and to promulgate those landmarks amongst the brethren. One of its members was the Duke of Sussex, the Master of the Lodge of Antiquity, No 2, and sixth son of George III. The result of their labours was a reply to the Ancients in 1811 that the Grand Lodge had resolved to "return to the Ancient Landmarks...when it should be ascertained what those ancient landmarks and obligations were." Both Grand Lodges moved visibly towards union, forming committees to negotiate the precise terms. The main sticking point was the inability of the Ancients' committee to decide anything without reporting back to a quarterly meeting of their own Grand Lodge. In October 1812, the Ancients allayed the frustration of the Moderns by granting their commissioners full powers. Shortly after this, the Earl of Moira resigned as acting Grand Master of the Moderns, due to his appointment as Governor General of India. His successor was the Duke of Sussex, who became Grand Master the next January on the resignation of his brother, the Prince of Wales. On 1 December 1813, the Duke of Atholl ceded the leadership of the Ancients to the Duke of Kent, the older brother of Sussex and the father of Queen Victoria. Kent had already presided over the union of the Ancients and Moderns in Canada, accomplished by the brutally simple expedient of merging the lodges of the Moderns with the nearest lodge of the Ancients. The Moderns in Canada had simply ceased to exist. These two men oversaw the union in 1813 to form the United Grand Lodge of England, with the Duke of Sussex appointed as Grand Master of the new body.
The actual process of unification continued for some years, first with the Lodge of Reconciliation (1813–1816), made up of two lodges, one of each constitution, which ironed out some sort of ritual acceptable to the two parties. The work of this lodge was spread by the Stability Lodge of Instruction (1817) and fleshed out by the Emulation Lodge of Improvement (1823 onwards). The new Grand Lodge essentially ended up with the ritual of the Ancients and the infrastructure of the Moderns. While the "Emulation Ritual" became the standard, many variations still exist which, while mutually recognisable, present many flavours of Masonic ritual within the English Constitution.
Morgan affair and decline in American Freemasonry (1826–c.1850)
In 1826, William Morgan disappeared from Batavia, New York, after threatening to expose Freemasonry's secrets, causing some to claim that he had been murdered by Masons. What exactly occurred has never been conclusively proven. However, Morgan's disappearance – and the minimal punishment received by his kidnappers – sparked a series of protests against Freemasons throughout the United States, especially in New York and neighboring states. The protracted backlash led to many masons leaving the craft. The Grand Lodge of New York controlled 227 lodges in 1827, but only 41 in 1835.
Under the leadership of Thurlow Weed, an anti-Masonic and anti-Andrew Jackson (Jackson was a Mason) movement grew to become the Anti-Masonic Party and made the ballot for the presidency in 1828 while gaining the support of such notable politicians as William H. Seward. Its influence was such that other Jackson rivals, including John Quincy Adams, denounced the Masons. In 1847, Adams wrote a widely distributed book titled Letters on the Masonic Institution that was highly critical of the Masons. In 1832, the party fielded William Wirt as its presidential candidate. This was rather ironic because he was, in fact, a Freemason, and even gave a speech at the Anti-Masonic convention defending the organization. The party only received seven electoral votes. Three years later, the party had disbanded in every state save Pennsylvania, as other issues such as slavery had become the focus of national attention.
American Freemasons during the Civil War
The fortunes of American Freemasonry declined sharply following the Morgan Affair, only to rebound as the force of the Anti-Masonic movement sputtered out in the mid-1830s. By the late 1850s, masonry in America was the subject of renewed popular interest and lodge membership, which had bottomed out during the anti-Masonic period began to rise. By the time of the American Civil War, U.S. freemasonry tripled its membership from 66,000 to 200,000 members in over 5000 lodges nationwide. This surge in membership helps explain, at least in part, the many stories of Masonic fraternisation during the American Civil War, which include accounts of Masonic soldiers and sailors rescuing enemy combatants who identified themselves as members of the fraternity. Masonic incidents are also recorded involving Freemasons burying their own with Masonic formalities during battle, as well as aid and special treatment given to Masonic POWs.
After the Civil War, American Freemasonry flourished along with other fraternal organizations during the so-called "Golden Age of Fraternalism" from approximately 1870 to 1920.
France
In France, the number of Freemasons grew from 10,000 in 1802, when Napoleon gave it semi-official status, to 20,000 in 1889, 32,000 in 1908, 40,000 in 1926, and about 60,000 in 1936. At an early stage, nearly all the lodges were affiliated with the Radical party. Zeldin argues that in 19th century France:
Freemasonry appealed first of all to people who liked mystic ritual, esoteric symbolism and fancy uniforms, and to those who like to have somewhere to discuss ideas and meet like-minded friends. Increasingly however it became an organization which politicians used for electoral purposes in which civil servants joined in order to further their chances of promotion, which hotel-keepers found useful as a way of enlarging their clientele and where businessmen could make deals and find jobs for their sons.
Rumors were rife, especially in conservative circles, that the order secretly ran the government, and was the main source of materialistic and anti-clerical propaganda. Zeldin concludes that was a "vast exaggeration." The details are known because the Vichy regime in 1941 seized the archives, and failed to find significant evidence. While the order did support anti-clerical campaigns, it did not initiate them. Its primary role was to serve as a social club which the members could rise in the world, and get 10% discounts in shops owned by fellow Masons. The chapters provided some charity and life insurance. In 1904 a scandal erupted because the Grand Orient de France lodges were asked by the Radical government to secretly collect information about the religious and political affiliations of army officers, with a view to blocking the promotion of Catholics. When the news leaked out, the government was forced to resign. The concern with Radical politics gradually declined, and it disappeared after 1945.
According to Ernest Belfort Bax, Freemasons were responsible for the last serious attempt at conciliation between Versailles and the Paris Commune on 21 April 1871. They were received coldly by Adolphe Thiers, who assured them that, though Paris was given over to destruction and slaughter, the law should be enforced, and he kept his word. A few days after they decided, in a public meeting, to plant their banner on the ramparts and throw in their lot with the Commune. On the 29th, accordingly, 10,000 of the brethren met (55 lodges being represented), and marched to the Hôtel de Ville, headed by the Grand Masters in full insignia and the banners of the lodges. Amongst them the new banner of Vincennes was conspicuous, bearing the inscription in red letters on a white ground, "Love one another." A balloon was then sent up, which let fall at intervals, outside Paris, a manifesto of the Freemasons. The procession then wended its way through the boulevards and the Champs Elysées to the Arc de Triomphe, where the banners were planted at various points along the ramparts. On seeing the white flag on the Porte Maillot the Versaillese ceased firing, and the commander, himself a Freemason, received a deputation of brethren, and suggested a final appeal to Versailles, which was agreed to. The "chief of the executive" hardly listened to the envoys, and declined to further discuss the question of peace with anyone. This last formal challenge having been made and rejected, the Freemasons definitely took their stand as combatants for the Commune.
Great Schism
The schism between French and English Freemasonry is popularly supposed to originate at a general assembly of the Grand Orient de France in September 1877. Accepting a recommendation in a report by a Protestant minister, Frédéric Desmons, the assembly, on a majority vote, amended its constitutions to read "Its principles are absolute liberty of conscience and human solidarity". The words "Its principles are the existence of God, the immortality of the soul and human solidarity" were struck out. The United Grand Lodge of England's (UGLE) response was a resolution in March 1878 that "the Grand Lodge, whilst always anxious to receive in the most fraternal spirit the Brethren of any Foreign Grand Lodge whose proceedings are conducted according to the Ancient Landmarks of the Order, of which a belief in T. G. A. O. T. U. (the Great Architect of the Universe) is the first and most important, cannot recognise as 'true and genuine' Brethren any who have been initiated in Lodges which either deny or ignore that belief". Relations between the two governing bodies effectively ceased, purportedly because the French body had removed the requirement for a belief in a supreme being. However, UGLE had just entered into fraternal relations with the Grand Orient of Belgium, which had removed the Great Architect from its constitutions in 1872, a relationship which lasted until 1921. The reasons for the split are obviously deeper and more complex than the official records suggest.
Mutual distrust between English and French Freemasons was apparent in the 1850s, when French Masonic refugees were appalled at the relationship between UGLE and the Monarchy, aristocracy, and the Anglican church. The English distrusted the mysticism of French Masonry, and its ideals of Fraternity and Universality.
Desmons' review had been prompted by the Lausanne Congress of Supreme Councils of 1875. Eleven countries were represented at an attempt to unify the Ancient and Accepted Scottish Rite. An agreement on colonial lodges would have seen the UGLE as the only recognised masonic grand lodge in British colonies, in spite of the Scottish and Irish lodges already flourishing there. The Scottish delegate, Mackersy, who also represented Greece, withdrew. His letter of withdrawal cited his jurisdiction's disagreement with any shift from the requirement for a member to believe in a personal god. He said that he believed the congress would agree to a non-requirement, or the specification of a vague universal principle. In avoiding ratifying a treaty which would obliterate Scottish lodges in the colonies, Mackersy sparked a debate that led to the removal of a requirement for an open volume of scripture in French lodges. The English interpretation of this as a slide towards atheism was probably partly prompted by the difficult political relationship between Britain and France at that time.
The gulf between UGLE and GOdF widened due to the French body's active engagement in politics, on a personal and organisational level. All discussion of politics and religion is expressly banned from English lodges.
Legacy of the Schism
During the First World War, many American lodges relaxed their opposition to the Grand Orient de France to allow servicemen to engage with other masons while in France. Many of these continue to allow their members to associate with continental Freemasons.
In December 1913, UGLE recognised a new Grand Lodge in France. The basis of this recognition was the series of obligations that the Independent and Regular National Grand Lodge of France (later the Grande Loge Nationale Française) imposed on its lodges. These were:
While the Lodge is at work the Bible will always be open on the altar.
The ceremonies will be conducted in strict conformity with the Ritual of the "Regime Rectifié" which is followed by these Lodges, a Ritual which was drawn up in 1778 and sanctioned in 1782, and with which the Duke of Kent was initiated in 1792.
The Lodge will always be opened and closed with invocation and in the name of the Great Architect of the Universe. All the summonses of the Order and of the Lodges will be printed with the symbols of the Great Architect of the Universe.
No religious or political discussion will be permitted in the Lodge.
The Lodge as such will never take part officially in any political affair but every individual Brother will preserve complete liberty of opinion and action.
Only those Brethren who are recognised as true Brethren by the Grand Lodge of England will be received in Lodge.
These "basic principles" were accepted by UGLE itself in 1929, and written into its constitutions.
Freemasonry in the Middle East
After the failure of the 1830 Italian revolution, a number of Italian Freemasons were forced to flee. They secretly set up an approved chapter of Scottish Rite in Alexandria, a town already inhabited by a large Italian community. Meanwhile, the French freemasons publicly flourished under patronage of Khedive Muhammad 'Ali and the Egyptian authorities. In 1845, they organised a local chapter in Alexandria which included influential Muslim and local dignitaries, such as the Algerian Emir 'Abd al-Qadir and Muhammad 'Ali's son, Prince Halim Pasha. During the 19th and 20th century Ottoman empire, Masonic lodges operated widely across all parts of the empire and numerous Sufi orders shared a close relationship with them. Many Young Turks affiliated with the Bektashi order were members and patrons of freemasonry. They were also closely allied against European imperialism. Many Ottoman intellectuals believed that Sufism and Freemasonry shared close similarities in doctrines, spiritual outlook and mysticism.
One of major Arab Muslim scholarly figures notable for promoting the cause of Freemasonry was the Algerian 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jaza'iri who admitted his three sons into Masonry. He spoke highly of Masons and their universalist efforts. He associated Freemasonry with the esoteric dimension of the Sufi orders, based on the emanentist teachings of Ibn al-ʿArabī and the mystical philosophy of Wahdat al-wujūd; which 'Abd al-Qadir as a Sufi master had studied and understood deeply. As a result, 'Abd al-Qadir had profound moral and spiritual trust in the philosophical and mystical qualities of his European brethren in Masonry. French Masons regarded 'Abd al-Qadir as an important ally in their mission to fight darkness. The lodge Henry IV at the Orient of Paris invited him to join the masonic brotherhood directly in France, but because of unspecified difficulties, the lodge "Les Pyramides" of Alexandria in Egypt was tasked to carry out his initiation. In his visit to Alexandria in June 1864, the Freemasons of Alexandria welcomed 'Abd al-Qadir's arrival. The Lodge of Pyramids specifically convened a ceremony in the 18th of June, to mark his arrival. In addition to being a distinguished religious scholar, 'Abd al-Qadir had committed himself to promote the ideals of a society established on Universal Brotherhood. 'Abd al Qadir was initiated into the Mysteries and honoured as the "Fellow of the Prophet", in addition to the previous privilege of being "a free and accepted Mason". After the occasion and a short stay in the city, 'Abd al-Qadir left for Syria by the end of July 1864; to take possession of a large property of land in Syria presented to him by the Viceroy of Egypt.
Taxil hoax
Between the years 1885 and 1897, Léo Taxil maintained a hoax against both Freemasonry and the Roman Catholic Church, by making increasingly outlandish claims regarding Freemasonry. On 19 April 1897, Taxil called a press conference at which he claimed he would introduce the "author" of his books to the press. He instead announced that his revelations about the Freemasons were fictitious. Nevertheless, the material is still used on some anti-Masonic websites today.
20th century Freemasonry
Freemasonry under totalitarian regimes (1900–present)
Many twentieth century totalitarian regimes, both Fascist and Communist, have treated Freemasonry as a potential source of opposition due to its secret nature and international connections (not to mention its promotion of religious and political tolerance through its symbolism). It has been alleged by Masonic scholars that the language used by the totalitarian regimes is similar to that used by some modern critics of Freemasonry.
See also
Masonic manuscripts
List of Freemasons
Masonic Appendant Bodies
Scottish Rite
Stonemason
York Rite
Nicodemite
References and notes
This is not for free.
From Cathedral City CA. 92234.
Understanding the importance of the Holy Scripture!
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Stevenson. David. The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's Century, 1590–1710 (Cambridge University Press, 1990)
Stevenson. David. David Stevenson. The First Freemasons: Scotland's Early Lodges and Their Members (Aberdeen University Press, 1988)
(semestral academic journal on the history of global Freemasonry, Creative Commons licensed; e-ISSN: 1659-4223)
External links
The Constitutions of the Free-Masons written by James Anderson and published "For the Use of the Lodges" in 1723 in London, and in 1734 by Benjamin Franklin in Philadelphia. Contains a mythical-biblical-historical account of the order, as well as "charges" and general regulations for members and lodges.
The Web of Hiram at Bradford University, an electronic database of the Masonic material held in many of the University's Special Collections
Freemasons history of Freemasonry found on the Pietre-Stones Review of Freemasonry website | [
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|
215388 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strict%20liability | Strict liability | In criminal and civil law, strict liability is a standard of liability under which a person is legally responsible for the consequences flowing from an activity even in the absence of fault or criminal intent on the part of the defendant.
In the field of torts, prominent examples of strict liability may include product liability, abnormally dangerous activities (e.g., blasting), intrusion onto another's land by livestock, and ownership of wild animals. Traditional criminal offenses that require no element of intent (mens rea) include statutory rape and felony murder.
Tort law
In tort law, strict liability is the imposition of liability on a party without a finding of fault (such as negligence or tortious intent). The claimant need only prove that the tort occurred and that the defendant was responsible. The law imputes strict liability to situations it considers to be inherently dangerous. It discourages reckless behaviour and needless loss by forcing potential defendants to take every possible precaution. It has the beneficial effect of simplifying and thereby expediting court decisions in these cases, although the application of strict liability may seem unfair or harsh, as in Re Polemis.
Under the English law of negligence and nuisance, even where tortious liability is strict, the defendant may sometimes be liable only for the reasonably foreseeable consequences of his act or omission.
An early example of strict liability is the rule Rylands v Fletcher, where it was held that "any person who for his own purposes brings on his lands and collects and keeps there anything likely to do mischief if it escapes, must keep it in at his peril, and, if he does not do so, is prima facie answerable for all the damage which is the natural consequence of its escape". If the owner of a zoo keeps lions and tigers, he is liable if the big cats escape and cause damage or injury.
In strict liability situations, although the plaintiff does not have to prove fault, the defendant can raise a defense of absence of fault, especially in cases of product liability, where the defense may argue that the defect was the result of the plaintiff's actions and not of the product, that is, no inference of defect should be drawn solely because an accident occurs. If the plaintiff can prove that the defendant knew about the defect before the damages occurred, additional punitive damages can be awarded to the victim in some jurisdictions.
The doctrine's most famous advocates were Learned Hand, Benjamin Cardozo, and Roger J. Traynor.
Strict liability is sometimes distinguished from absolute liability. In this context, an actus reus may be excused from strict liability if due diligence is proved. Absolute liability, however, requires only an actus reus.
Vaccines
In the United States courts have applied strict liability to vaccines since the Cutter incident in 1955. Some vaccines (eg. for Lyme disease) have been removed from the market because of unacceptable liability risk to the manufacturer.
The National Childhood Vaccine Injury Act (NCVIA) was enacted in 1986 to make an exception for childhood vaccines that are required for public school attendance. The NCVIA created a no-fault compensation scheme to stabilize a vaccine market adversely affected by an increase in vaccine-related lawsuits, and to facilitate compensation to claimants who found pursuing legitimate vaccine-inflicted injuries too difficult and cost prohibitive.
Bicycle–motor vehicle collisions
A form of strict liability has been supported in law in the Netherlands since the early 1990s for bicycle-motor vehicle collisions. In a nutshell, this means that, in a collision between a car and a cyclist, the driver is deemed to be liable to pay damages and his insurer (n.b. motor vehicle insurance is mandatory in the Netherlands, while cyclist insurance is not) must pay the full damages, as long as 1) the collision was unintentional (i.e. neither party, motorist or cyclist, intentionally crashed into the other), and 2) the cyclist was not in error in some way. Even if a cyclist made an error, as long as the collision was still unintentional, the motorist's insurance must still pay half of the damages. This does not apply if the cyclist is under 14 years of age, in which case the motorist must pay full damages for unintentional collisions with minors. If it can be proved that a cyclist intended to collide with the car, then the cyclist must pay the damages (or their parents in the case of a minor.).
General aviation
The trend toward strict liability in the United States during the mid to late 20th century nearly destroyed the small aircraft industry by the mid 1990s. Production had dropped from a peak of 18,000 units per year in 1978 to under only a few hundred by 1993. With a concurrent increase in the cost of liability insurance per airplane rising from $50 in 1962 to $100,000 in 1988, and many underwriters had begun to refuse all new policies.
Criminal law
The concept of strict liability is also found in criminal law, though the same or similar concept may appear in contexts where the term itself is not used. Strict liability often applies to vehicular traffic offenses: in a speeding case, for example, whether the defendant knew that the posted speed limit was being exceeded is irrelevant; the prosecutor need only prove that the defendant was driving the vehicle in excess of the posted speed limit.
In the United States, strict liability can be determined by looking at the intent of the legislature. If the legislature seems to have purposefully left out a mental state element (mens rea) because they felt mental state need not be proven, it is treated as a strict liability. However, when a statute is silent as to the mental state (mens rea) and it is not clear that the legislature purposely left it out, the ordinary presumption is that a mental state is required for criminal liability. When no mens rea is specified, under the Model Penal Code (MPC), the default mens rea requirement is recklessness, which the MPC defines as "when a person consciously disregards a substantial and unjustifiable risk with respect to a material element".
Strict liability laws can also prevent defendants from raising diminished mental capacity defenses, since intent does not need to be proven.
In the English case of Sweet v Parsley (1970), it was held that where a statute creating a crime made no reference to intention, then mens rea would be imputed by the court, so that the crime would not be one of strict liability.
See also
Command responsibility
Due diligence
Public liability
Restatement of Torts, Second
Vicarious liability
References
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|
215391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrence | Concurrence | In Western jurisprudence, concurrence (also contemporaneity or simultaneity) is the apparent need to prove the simultaneous occurrence of both actus reus ("guilty action") and mens rea ("guilty mind"), to constitute a crime; except in crimes of strict liability. In theory, if the actus reus does not hold concurrence in point of time with the mens rea then no crime has been committed.
Discussion
Suppose for example that the accused accidentally injures a pedestrian while driving. Aware of the collision, the accused rushes from the car only to find that the victim is a hated enemy. At this point, the accused joyfully proclaims his pleasure at having caused the injury. The conventional rule is that no crime has been committed. The actus reus is complete, and no rule of ratification applies in the criminal law. Whereas in the law of agency, a principal may retrospectively adopt a transaction as if the agent had originally been authorised to conclude an agreement with a third party ("ratification" of the agent's decision), and so acquires liability under that agreement, an alleged criminal cannot retrospectively adopt an actus reus and acquire guilt. To be convicted, the accused must have formed the mens rea either before or during the commission of the actus reus. In the vast majority of cases, this rule works without difficulty.
Two types of concurrence in criminal law
Temporal concurrence – the actus reus and mens rea occur at the same time.
Motivational concurrence – the mens rea motivates the actus reus.
The problem
Not all events are limited to a particular moment in time. The normal physical rules of cause and effect may see a series of interlocking circumstances conspire to cause a particular injury. If the facts of the example above are slightly changed so that the accident occurs at night at a sharp bend on a very quiet country road. When the driver sees the victim lying in the road he simply leaves the unconscious person where he fell. Some hours later, when a second car innocently comes around the corner and kills the victim, the first driver is happily asleep in his bed. Thus, he argues that, at the time of the death, he had no mens rea and so cannot be guilty of homicide. This argument fails because of the so-called Single Transaction Principle.
Single transaction principle
Not all acts forming the basis of an actus reus are single, unconnected events. If a sequence of events is inevitably linked, it may be viewed as a single transaction. So long as the requisite mens rea is formed before the sequence begins, or during the sequence (before it ends), the accused will be liable.
In the previous example, the victim would not have died if the first driver had not abandoned him at a dangerous point on the road. The law will treat the actus reus as having started with the accidental injury and ended with the death. In Fagan v Metropolitan Police Commissioner (1969) 1 QB 439, a police officer ordered the defendant to park his car and he reluctantly complied. In doing so, he accidentally drove the car on to the policeman’s foot and, when the policeman said "Get off my foot", said "Fuck you, you can wait" and turned off the ignition. Because of the steel toe cap in his boot, the policeman's foot was not in actual danger, but the Divisional Court held that this could constitute a common assault. Albeit accidentally, the driver had caused the car to rest on the foot. This actus reus was a continuing state of affairs for so long as the car rested on the officer's foot and the mens rea was formed before the car was removed. Whether realistically or not, the officer apprehended the possibility of injury so the offence of common assault was complete.
A different way of justifying liability in this type of situation would be to consider an omission at the point in time that the mens rea is formed. In the first example, liability arises from the reckless omission to move the man, or willful blindness that he was in danger. In Fagan, liability arises from omitting to remove the car.
But not every factual sequence can be so conveniently recast as an omission. Suppose, for example, that A sees his enemy, B, and decides to attack him. A picks up a stick and begins to chase B who runs into a hotel, up the stairs and into a room, locking the door behind him. A hammers at the door, shouting threats. A then sees a fire axe in a glass case nearby. He tells B that he is going for the axe and will break down the door. When A walks away, B is so terrified that he jumps out of the window and breaks his legs. Even though A might not have had an immediate intention to injure B at the critical moment when B jumped, the fear was inspired with an appropriate intention and B would not have been desperate enough to jump had it not been for that fear. [It is fair to exclude liability when B's fear is entirely unreasonable given A's behaviour because B's self-induced injury will break the chain of causation].
This latter example raises a separate issue which is that it is sufficient to base a conviction on the presence of mens rea at some time during the occurrence of the events comprising the single transaction. The fact that the accused might mistakenly believe they have succeeded in the crime does not prevent a conviction. For example, suppose that A begins to strangle B and, believing B to be dead, abandons the "body" in nearby woods where B dies of exposure. A will still be convicted of the homicide even though the relevant behaviour of abandoning the body was not accompanied by a mens rea.
And for the sake of completeness, if A commits an offence with an actus reus and a mens rea, it will not affect liability that A subsequently repents the crime and effects restitution. Thus, if A steals goods from B but then returns them together with some money to make good the damage caused during the forced entry, this cannot change the fact that there was an actus reus accompanied by an appropriate mens rea. A crime was committed although the subsequent conscience-based behaviour would be a relevant consideration during the sentencing stage of the trial.
English case law examples
Thabo Meli v R (1954) 1 All ER 373 (PC) Four defendants intended to kill their victim so they induced him to consume alcohol, struck him on the head and threw the "body" over a cliff to make the death appear accidental. Because they thought that the blow had killed him, there was no mens rea when they abandoned him and he died from exposure. The first act did not cause death but had the appropriate mens rea. The second act caused death but had no mens rea. But the Privy Council held that it was impossible to divide up what was really one transaction. The actus reus was said to be the series of acts and omissions with mens rea covering the initial stages.
In R v Church (1965) 2 AER 72 during an argument, the defendant struck the victim and, mistakenly believing her to be dead, threw her into a nearby river where she drowned. He was convicted of manslaughter.
In R v LeBrun (1991) 4 All ER 673, the defendant struck his wife during an argument outside their house leaving her unconscious. He then tried to drag her inside but, as he did so, her head struck the pavement, fracturing her skull and killing her. At first sight, this is distinguishable from R v Church because death was accidental, whereas Church was intentionally disposing of the "body". But, in attempting to drag his unconscious wife indoors, LeBrun was either trying to conceal his initial assault on her, or forcing her to enter the house against her wishes (this being the original reason for the argument). The trial judge had directed the jury to acquit if they concluded that LeBrun had been trying to help his wife when he moved her, and the Court of Appeal agreed that this would have broken the essential nexus between the two halves of the incident.
In AG's Reference (No. 4 of 1980) (1981) 2 All ER 617 the defendant was struggling with his girlfriend and she fell over a landing rail on to the floor below. Believing her dead, he dismembered her in the bath to dispose of her "body". It was impossible to prove whether she had died in the original fall or whether he killed her by his subsequent actions. The Court of Appeal held that a manslaughter conviction was only possible if each of the defendant's acts was accompanied by the requisite mens rea for that offence. At the very least, there must be an unlawful act which was the cause of the ultimate death. It was not enough to establish criminal negligence only in the subsequent act of disposal. Hence, the prosecution had to disprove D's claim of accident, i.e. that he had merely pushed her away in a "reflex action" when she dug her nails into him in the struggle on the upstairs landing.
Fagan v. Metropolitan Police Commissioner [1968] 3 All ER 442 The defendant accidentally drove his car onto a policeman's foot whilst the policeman was directing traffic, but then subsequently refused to move off during an argument with the policeman. It was held that the actus reus was not the single act of driving onto the foot, but continued as long as the car remained there. Once the defendant subsequently acquired the mens rea to harm the policeman, the crime was complete.
References
Further reading
MacDonald. (1995). "The Twice Killed Corpse – A Causation Issue". *MacDonald. (1995). "The Twice Killed Corpse – A Causation Issue". Journal of Criminal Law 207. 207.
Marston. (1970). "Contemporaneity of Act and Intention". 86 Law Quarterly Review 208.
Mitchel. (1999). "In Defence of a Principle of Correspondence". Criminal Law Review 195.
Wells, C. (1991). "Goodbye to Coincidence". New Law Journal 1566.
Criminal law
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215392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20A.%20Jackson%20%28computer%20scientist%29 | Michael A. Jackson (computer scientist) | Michael Anthony Jackson (born 16 February 1936) is a British computer scientist, and independent computing consultant in London, England. He is also a visiting research professor at the Open University in the UK.
Biography
Born in Birmingham to Montagu M. Jackson and Bertha (Green) Jackson, Jackson was educated at Harrow School in Harrow, London, England. There he was taught by Christopher Strachey and wrote his first program under Strachey's guidance. From 1954 to 1958, he studied classics (known as "Greats") at Merton College, Oxford; a fellow student, two years ahead of him, was C. A. R. Hoare. They shared an interest in logic, which was studied as part of Greats at Oxford.
After his graduation in 1961, Jackson started as computer science designer and consultant for Maxwell Stamp Associates in London. Here he designed, coded and tested his first programs for IBM and Honeywell computers, working in assembler. There Jackson found his calling, as he recollected in 2000: "Although I was a careful designer — drawing meticulous flowcharts before coding — and a conscientious tester, I realised that program design was hard and the results likely to be erroneous..." Information system design was in need of a structured approach.
In 1964, Jackson joined the new consultancy firm John Hoskyns and Company in London, before founding his own company Michael Jackson Systems Limited in 1971. In the 1960s, he had started his search for a "more reliable and systematic way of programming." He contributed to the emerging modular programming movement, meeting Larry Constantine, George H. Mealy and several others on a 1968 symposium. In the 1970s, Jackson developed Jackson Structured Programming (JSP). In the 1980s, with John Cameron, he developed Jackson System Development (JSD). Then, in the 1990s, he developed the Problem Frames Approach.
As a part-time researcher at AT&T Labs Research, in collaboration with Pamela Zave, Jackson created "Distributed Feature Composition", a virtual architecture for specification and implementation of telecommunication services.
Jackson received the Stevens Award for Software Development Methods in 1997. and British Computer Society Lovelace Medal in 1998.
In 1961, Jackson married Judith Wendy Blackburn; they have four sons, one of whom, Daniel, is also a computer scientist based at MIT.
Work
Jackson has developed a series of methods. Each of these methods covers a wider scope than the previous one, and builds on ideas that appeared, but were not fully developed, in the previous one. Reading his books in sequence allows you to follow the evolution of his thinking.
Jackson Structured Programming
Jackson Structured Programming (JSP) was the first software development method that Jackson developed. It is a program design method, and was described in his book Principles of Program Design. JSP covers the design of individual programs, but not systems.
Jackson System Development
The Jackson System Development (JSD) was the second software development method that Jackson developed. JSD is a system development method not just for individual programs, but for entire systems. JSD is most readily applicable to information systems, but it can easily be extended to the development of real-time embedded systems. JSD was described in his book System Development.
Problem Frames Approach
Problem Analysis or the Problem Frames Approach was the third software development method that Jackson developed. It concerns itself with aspects of developing all kinds of software, not just information systems. It was first sketched in his book Software Requirements and Specifications, and described much more fully in his book Problem Frames. The First International Workshop on Applications and Advances in Problem Frames was held as part of ICSE’04 held in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Publications
Michael Jackson's books include:
1975. Principles of Program Design .
1983. System Development .
1995. Software Requirements & Specifications .
1997. Business Process Implementation
2001. Problem Frames: Analysing and Structuring Software Development Problems .
Many of his essays have been collected, along with research papers relating to his work, in the book:
2010. Software Requirements and Design: The Work of Michael Jackson, Bashar Nuseibeh and Pamela Zave, editors.
References
External links
Michael Jackson home page
The Jackson Software Development Methods
The World and the Machine software engineering blog by Michael Jackson
1936 births
Living people
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
People educated at Harrow School
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Academics of the Open University
British computer programmers
British computer scientists
British software engineers
Computer science writers
Formal methods people
Software engineering researchers | [
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|
215395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attendant%20circumstance | Attendant circumstance | In law, attendant circumstances (sometimes external circumstances) are the facts surrounding an event.
In criminal law in the United States, the definition of a given offense generally includes up to three kinds of "elements": the actus reus, or guilty conduct; the mens rea, or guilty mental state; and the attendant (sometimes "external") circumstances. The reason is given in Powell v. Texas, 392 U.S. 514, 533 (1968):
...criminal penalties may be inflicted only if the accused has committed some act, has engaged in some behavior, which society has an interest in preventing.
The burden of proof is on the prosecution to prove each "element of the offense" in order for a defendant to be found guilty. The Model Penal Code §1.13(9) offers the following definition of the phrase "elements of an offense":
(i) such conduct or (ii) such attendant circumstances or (iii) such a result of conduct as
(a) is included in the description of the forbidden conduct in the definition of the offense; or
(b) establishes the required kind of culpability; or
(c) negatives an excuse or justification for such conduct; or
(d) negatives a defense under the statute of limitations; or
(e) establishes jurisdiction or venue;
Discussion
MPC §1.13(9)(a)/(c)
In United States v. Apfelbaum, 445 U.S. 115, 131 (1980), Justice Rehnquist states, in his opinion for the Court, the general rule that:
In the criminal law, both a culpable mens rea and a criminal actus reus are generally required for an offense to occur.
For these purposes, the term "actus reus" does not have a single definition, but it represents the general principle that before an individual may be convicted of an offense, it must be shown that there was an overt act in pursuance of any intention. Otherwise, a person might be held liable for his or her thoughts alone. Model Penal Code §2.01(1):
A person is not guilty of an offense unless his liability is based on conduct which includes a voluntary act or the omission to perform an act of which he is physically capable.
But there are exceptions. For example, according to United States v. Dozal, 173 F.3d 787, 797 (10th Cir. 1999) a conspiracy in violation of 21 U.S.C. §846 consists of four elements:
an agreement with another person to violate the law,
knowledge of the essential objectives of the conspiracy,
knowing and voluntary involvement, and
interdependence among the alleged conspirators.
But, according to United States v. Johnson, 42 F.3d 1312, 1319 (10th Cir. 1994) (citing United States v. Shabani, 513 U.S. 10 (1994)) drug conspiracies under 21 U.S.C. §846 are unique because the prosecution need not prove an overt act. Instead, the government must "prove that the defendant knew at least the essential objectives of the conspiracy and knowingly and voluntarily became a part of it." Consequently, withdrawal before an overt act has been committed cannot relieve a defendant of criminal responsibility.
When analysing an offense, the normal rules of interpretation require the identification of the policies that informed the creation of the offense, an assessment of the factual context within which the offense must be committed and the consequences prohibited by the law. Thus, as the MPC §1.13(9) definition indicates, the attendant circumstances will be the evidence that must be adduced to prove all the elements required to constitute the offense and, under §1.13(9)(c) to disprove any excuse or justification. So, as in State of North Carolina v Vernon Jay Raley 155 NC App 222 (01-1004), if a citizen intentionally utters a profanity at the police, the charges would be preferred under N.C.G.S. §14-288.4 which defines "disorderly conduct" as:
a public disturbance intentionally caused by a person who:
(1) Engages in fighting or other violent conduct or in conduct creating the threat of imminent fighting or violence; or
(2) makes or uses any utterance, gesture, display or abusive language which is intended and plainly likely to provoke violent retaliation and thereby causes a breach of the peace.
Under N.C.G.S. §14-288.4 (2001), the componential element of "public disturbance" is defined in G.S. §14-288.1(8) as follows:
Any annoying, disturbing, or alarming act or condition exceeding the bounds of social toleration normal for the time and place in question which occurs in a public place or which occurs in, affects persons in, or is likely to affect persons in a place to which the public or a substantial group has access. The places covered by this definition shall include, but not be limited to, highways, transport facilities, schools, prisons, apartment houses, places of business or amusement, or any neighborhood.
In order for a person to be found guilty of this crime, the evidence must prove that the defendant uttered a profanity (the act) in a public place (the contextual attendant circumstance) with the intention of provoking a violent reaction (the mental element demonstrating the right type of culpability) and thereby causes a breach of the peace (the result prohibited by law). There are no attendant circumstances that might invoke an excuse or other general defence. Indeed, the victim in this instance being a police officer would probably be considered an aggravating circumstance and increase the penalty for the crime. (When verification of an attendant circumstance decreases the penalty, it is known as a mitigating or extenuating circumstance.)
MPC §1.13(9)(d)/(e)
The elements of a crime may also require proof of attendant circumstances that bring the conduct within time for the purposes of any statute of limitation or before an appropriate venue. Such circumstances are completely independent from the actus reus or mens rea elements. In the federal system, for example, a crime may require proof of jurisdictional facts, which are not defined in the statute creating the offense. See generally LaFave & Scott at 273.3. Thus, the Sixth Amendment calls for trial "by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed." Within the federal court system, Rule 18 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure specifies which federal court may hear a particular criminal case:
Unless a statute or these rules permit otherwise, the government must prosecute an offense in a district where the offense was committed. The court must set the place of trial within the district with due regard for the convenience of the defendant and the witnesses, and the prompt administration of justice.
In United States v. Cabrales, 118 S. Ct. 1772 (1998) a jurisdiction issue on venue was invoked by the attendant circumstance that the relevant acts of money laundering occurred in Florida where the case was to be tried, but the funds were derived from the unlawful distribution of cocaine in Missouri. The offense is defined as:
Whoever, knowing that the property involved in a financial transaction represents the proceeds of some form of unlawful activity, conducts or attempts to conduct such a financial transaction which involves the proceeds of specified unlawful activity—
(A)(i) with the intent to promote the carrying on of specified unlawful activity; or
(ii) with intent to engage in conduct constituting a violation of section 7201 or 7206 of the Internal Revenue Code of 1986; or
(B) knowing that the transaction is designed in whole or in part—
(i) to conceal or disguise the nature, the location, the source, the ownership, or the control of the proceeds of specified unlawful activity; or
(ii) to avoid a transaction reporting requirement under State or Federal law,
shall be sentenced to a fine of not more than $500,000 or twice the value of the property involved in the transaction, whichever is greater, or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both.
The attendant circumstance of a transborder exercise is not referred to in the definition, but is a critical factual circumstance which will determine whether the accused can be tried as charged. The case was held more properly within the Missouri jurisdiction. This jurisdictional problem would not arise in relation to conspiracy charges.
See also
Extenuating circumstances
References
Wayne R. LaFave & Austin W. Scott, Jr. Substantive Criminal Law (West 1986)
Criminal law
Criminal law legal terminology | [
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|
215397 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipit | Pipit | The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, Anthus, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws, the pipits make up the family Motacillidae. The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, except the driest deserts, rainforest and the mainland of Antarctica.
They are slender, often drab, ground-feeding insectivores of open country. Like their relatives in the family, the pipits are monogamous and territorial. Pipits are ground nesters, laying up to six speckled eggs.
Taxonomy and systematics
The genus Anthus was introduced in 1805 by German naturalist Johann Matthäus Bechstein. The type species was later designated as the meadow pipit.
The generic name Anthus is the Latin word for a small bird of grasslands mentioned by Pliny the Elder.
Molecular studies of the pipits suggested that the genus arose in East Asia around seven million years ago (Mya), during the Miocene, and that the genus had spread to the Americas, Africa, and Europe between 5 and 6 Mya. Speciation rates were high during the Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 Mya ), but have slowed down so during the Pleistocene. Repeated dispersal between continents seems to have been important in generating new species in Eurasia, Africa, and North America, rather than species arising by radiation once a continent was reached. In South America, however, vicariance appears to have played an important role in speciation.
Extant species
The genus has more than 40 species, making it the largest genus in terms of numbers in its family. The exact species limits of the genus are still a matter of some debate, with some checklists recognising only 34 species. For example, the Australasian pipit, A. novaeseelandiae, which is currently treated as nine subspecies found in New Zealand, Australia, and New Guinea, once also included Richard's pipit and the paddyfield pipit of Asia, and the African pipit of Africa. In addition, the Australian and New Zealand populations could be split, or even that New Zealand's subspecies found on its outlying Subantarctic Islands be split from the mainland species. In part the taxonomic difficulties arise due to the extreme similarities in appearance across the genus.
The family has an additional species, the golden pipit, Tmetothylacus tennelus, which belongs to a distinct, monotypic genus. This species is apparently intermediate in appearance between the pipits and the longclaws, and is probably more closely related to the longclaws. One species, the yellow-breasted pipit, is sometimes split out into a genus Hemimacronyx, which is considered to be intermediate between the longclaws and pipits. The split was originally proposed based on morphological features, but it has also found support based upon genetic analysis.
Formerly, some authorities placed the Kakamega greenbul (nominate) in this genus (as Anthus kakamegae).
Description
The pipits are generally highly conservative in appearance. They are generally in length, although the smallest species, the short-tailed pipit, is only . In weight, they range from . The largest species may be the alpine pipit. Like all members of the family, they are slender, short-necked birds with long tails and long, slender legs with elongated (in some cases very elongated) hind claws. The length of the hind claw varies with the habits of the species, more arboreal species have shorter, more curved hind claws than the more terrestrial species. The bills are generally long, slender, and pointed. In both size and plumage, few differences are seen between the sexes. One unusual feature of the pipits, which they share in common with the rest of their family, but not the rest of the passerines, is that the tertials on the wing entirely cover the primary flight feathers. This is thought to be a feature to protect the primaries, which are important to flight, from the sun, which causes the feathers to fade and become brittle if not protected.
The plumage of the pipits is generally drab and brown, buff, or faded white. The undersides are usually darker than the top, and a variable amount of barring and streaking is seen on the back, wings,and breast. The drab,mottled-brown colours provide some camouflage against the soil and stones on which they are generally found. A few species have slightly more colourful breeding plumages; for example, the rosy pipit has greenish edges on the wing feathers. The yellow-breasted pipit, if it is retained in this genus, is quite atypical in having bright yellow plumage on the throat, breast, and belly.
Pipits are morphologically similar to some larks, but the two groups are quite distantly related; the lark family Alaudidae is part of the superfamily Sylvioidea, rather than the Passeroidea, where the pipits are placed. Morphological differences between the two groups of birds are, in fact, plentiful. Anatomical differences include a differently structured syrinx, differences in the structure of the tarsi, and in many lark genera, the presence of a distinct 10th primary, a fourth tertial, and feathers at least partially covering the nostrils. Bill shape differs between larks and pipits, with larks having an evenly sloping culmen, whereas most pipits have a small hump over the nostrils, and lark bills are generally heavier, reflecting differences in diet. Differences occur in the feather tracts of the two groups; while many larks have crests, no pipit does; pipits have only one prominent row of , whereas larks have two.
Distribution and habitat
The pipits have a cosmopolitan distribution, occurring across most of the world's land surface. They are the only genus in their family to occur widely in the Americas (two species of wagtails marginally occur in Alaska, as well). Three species of pipits occur in North America, and seven species occur in South America. The remaining species are spread throughout Eurasia, Africa, and Australia, along with two species restricted to islands in the Atlantic. Some six species occur on more than one continent.
As might be expected from a genus with such a wide distribution, the pipits are found in an equally wide range of habitats. They occur in most types of open habitat, although they are absent from the very driest deserts. They are mostly associated with some kind of grassland, from sea-level to alpine tundra. The rock pipit and South Georgia pipit are found in the rocks and cliffs of the seashore, whereas several species are restricted (for part of the year in some cases) to alpine areas. The family also ranges from the northern tundra and the subantarctic islands of New Zealand and the South Georgia group to the tropics. They are absent from tropical rainforest, but a few species are associated with open woodland, for example the wood pipit of southern Africa, which is found in open woodland savanna and miombo woodland.
The pipits range from entirely sedentary to entirely migratory. Insular species such as Berthelot's pipit, which is endemic to Madeira and the Canary Islands, are entirely sedentary, as are some species in warmer areas like the Nilgiri pipit. Other species are partly nomadic during the nonbreeding season, like the long-legged pipit of central Africa or the ochre-breasted pipit of South America. These seasonal movements are in response to conditions in the environment, and are poorly understood and unpredictable. Longer, more regular migrations between discrete breeding and wintering grounds are undertaken by several species. The tree pipit, which breeds in Europe and northern Asia, winters in Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, a pattern of long-distance migration shared with other northerly species. Species may also be partly migratory, with northern populations being migratory but more temperate populations being resident (such as the meadow pipit in Europe). The distances involved do not have to be that long; the mountain pipit of southern Africa breeds in the Drakensberg of South Africa and migrates north only as far as Angola and Zambia. Migration is usually undertaken in groups, and may happen both during the day and at night. Some variation hapens in this, for example, Sprague's pipit of North America apparently only migrates by day.
Behaviour and ecology
The pipits are active terrestrial birds that usually spend most of their time on the ground. They will fly in order to display during breeding, while migrating and dispersing, and also when flushed by danger. A few species make use of trees, perching in them and flying to them when disturbed. Low shrubs, rocks and termite nests may also be used as vantage points. Like their relatives the wagtails, pipits engage in tail-wagging. The way in which a pipit does this can provide clues to its identity in otherwise similar looking species. Upland pipits, for example, flick their tails quite quickly, as opposed to olive-backed pipits which wag their tails more gently. In general pipits move their tails quite slowly. The buff-bellied pipit wags its tail both up and down and from side to side. The exact function of tail-wagging is unclear; in the related wagtails it is thought to be a signal to predators of vigilance.
Feeding
The diet of the pipits is dominated by small invertebrates. Insects are the most important prey items; among the types taken include flies and their larvae, beetles, grasshoppers and crickets, true bugs, mantids, ants, aphids and particularly the larvae and adults of moths and butterflies. Outside of insects other invertebrates taken include spiders and, rarely, worms and scorpions. They are generally catholic in their diet, the composition of their diet apparently reflecting the abundance of their prey in the location (and varying with the season). The diet consumed by adults may vary to that of the young birds; for example adult tree pipits take large numbers of beetles but do not feed many to their chicks. Species feeding on the seashore are reported to feed on marine crustaceans and molluscs. A few species have been reported to feed on small fish, beating them in the manner of a kingfisher having caught them. Rock pipits have also been observed feeding on fish dropped by puffins. These fish, which include sand eels and rocklings, were dropped by puffins being harassed by gulls. A few species also are reported as consuming berries and seeds.
Species list
The genus contains 46 species:
Richard's pipit (Anthus richardi)
Paddyfield pipit (Anthus rufulus)
Australian pipit (Anthus australis)
New Zealand pipit (Anthus novaeseelandiae)
African pipit (Anthus cinnamomeus)
Mountain pipit (Anthus hoeschi)
Blyth's pipit (Anthus godlewskii)
Tawny pipit (Anthus campestris)
Long-billed pipit (Anthus similis)
Nicholson's pipit (Anthus nicholsoni)
Wood pipit (Anthus nyassae)
Buffy pipit (Anthus vaalensis)
Plain-backed pipit (Anthus leucophrys)
Long-legged pipit (Anthus pallidiventris)
Meadow pipit (Anthus pratensis)
Tree pipit (Anthus trivialis)
Olive-backed pipit (Anthus hodgsoni)
Pechora pipit (Anthus gustavi)
Rosy pipit (Anthus roseatus)
Red-throated pipit (Anthus cervinus)
Buff-bellied pipit (Anthus rubescens)
Water pipit (Anthus spinoletta)
European rock pipit (Anthus petrosus)
Nilgiri pipit (Anthus nilghiriensis)
Upland pipit (Anthus sylvanus)
Berthelot's pipit (Anthus berthelotii)
Striped pipit (Anthus lineiventris)
African rock pipit (Anthus crenatus)
Short-tailed pipit (Anthus brachyurus)
Bushveld pipit (Anthus caffer)
Sokoke pipit (Anthus sokokensis)
Malindi pipit (Anthus melindae)
Yellow-breasted pipit (Anthus chloris)
Alpine pipit (Anthus gutturalis)
Madanga (Anthus ruficollis)
Sprague's pipit (Anthus spragueii)
Yellowish pipit (Anthus chii)
Peruvian pipit (Anthus peruvianus)
Short-billed pipit (Anthus furcatus)
Puna pipit (Anthus brevirostris)
Pampas pipit (Anthus chacoensis)
Correndera pipit (Anthus correndera)
South Georgia pipit (Anthus antarcticus)
Ochre-breasted pipit (Anthus nattereri)
Hellmayr's pipit (Anthus hellmayri)
Paramo pipit (Anthus bogotensis)
References
Further reading
External links
Pipit videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Johann Matthäus Bechstein | [
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215398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherwell%20F.C. | Motherwell F.C. | Motherwell Football Club is a Scottish professional football club based in Motherwell, North Lanarkshire, which plays in the Scottish Premiership. Motherwell have not dropped out of the top-flight of Scottish football since 1985, and have lifted one trophy in that time – the Scottish Cup in 1991.
Clad in their traditional claret and amber, Motherwell play their home matches at Fir Park Stadium and have done since 1896. The club's main rivals over the years have been Hamilton Academical and Airdrieonians, due in part to their close geographical proximities. These matches are known as the Lanarkshire derby.
The club have won four major trophies in domestic football: the Scottish League title in 1931–32, the Scottish Cup in 1951–52 and 1990–91, and the Scottish League Cup in 1950–51.
History
Beginnings
Motherwell FC was born on 17 May 1886, when representatives of the two main Motherwell works teams Glencairn FC and Alpha FC met in Ballie's pub in the town's Merry Street, and decided to merge the two teams with the aim of creating a club to represent the town as a whole at a higher footballing level. Motherwell's debut fixture proved to be a successful one as they overcame Hamilton Academical 3–2.
The early years proved somewhat chaotic as the club had little regular competition to play in, and matches would often start with players short, as men failed to turn up on time after their shifts in the local ironworks. On 5 August 1893 the decision was made to turn professional, and the club was consequently elected to the league, then being the only Lanarkshire side to compete at national level.
Up until 1895 the club had played at a few different venues, including a site at Roman Road, and Dalziel Park. The small pitch and muddy conditions at Dalziel Park were deemed unsuitable and Lord Hamilton granted a lease on a plot of land on his Dalzell estate. This new ground was named Fir Park and has remained the club's home for over 120 years.
The following years saw the club grow, appointing their first and longest serving manager to date, John 'Sailor' Hunter, who would go on to steer the club into its most successful period.
In 1913 the decision was made to change the club's colours from blue to the now signature claret and amber. It is thought this was inspired by the success of Bradford City, who also sport claret and amber, although a more romantic version of events claims them to have been Lord Hamilton of Dalzell's racing colours.
1920s and 1930s successes
Motherwell enjoyed a successful period in the aftermath of World War I, managed by John Hunter. The club placed third in the 1919–20 season and, although narrowly avoiding relegation in 1924–25, they steadily climbed the table and enjoyed seven successive seasons finishing in the top three.
In the summer of 1927, the club made a very successful tour of Spain, winning six out of the eight games they played and losing only one. These results included an emphatic 3–1 victory over Real Madrid and a 2–2 draw with Barcelona. Following their success in Spain, the club went on another summer tour, this time of South America. After losing only three of their previous ten games, the tour culminated in a 5–0 defeat by a Brazilian League Select side.
Motherwell's first (and to this day, only) Scottish League championship came in 1931–32 – with 30 wins in 38 fixtures, scoring 119 goals – a record 52 of which were scored by Willie MacFadyen, who remains to this day the record holder for most goals scored in a single season and one of the club's all-time top goalscorers with 251 goals. The championship was sealed on 23 April 1932, when Rangers could only draw at home against Clyde, handing Motherwell the title without kicking a ball. This was also the only League title won by a club outside the Old Firm between 1904 and 1947. In the two seasons following the league title win (1933–34 and 1934–35), 'Well finished runners-up, as they had also been in 1926–27 and 1929–30. They also contested three Scottish Cup finals in this period – in 1931, 1933 and 1939, but lost them all.
Post-World War II period
Following the break-up of the squad after World War II, the club were not instantly successful. It then captured two major trophies in as many years with victories in the 1950 Scottish League Cup Final and the 1952 Scottish Cup Final. The club was then relegated for the first time ever at the end of the 1952–53 season, but the club were promoted the next year.
Following their return to the First Division, Bobby Ancell took management of the club in 1955 and presided over an era in which highly regarded Scotland stars including Ian St. John and Charlie Aitken played for the club. However, Motherwell were unable to keep their assets, and no trophies were won in Ancell's era. His resignation came in 1965 amidst a downturn in form which eventually saw the club relegated back to the Second Division at the conclusion of the 1967–68 season.
1970s recovery and the McLean era
Motherwell were immediately promoted back to the First Division in 1969, maintaining a mid-table position. The 18-team First Division was superseded by a new 10-team Premier League for the 1975–76 season, at which time they were managed by Willie McLean and his assistant Craig Brown (who would become manager almost 35 years later). Under their management, Motherwell improved to fourth in the table with players such as Bobby Graham, Willie Pettigrew and Bobby Watson. The most notable cup run of that period was the 1975-76 Scottish Cup where they eliminated Celtic and lost out in the semi-final to Rangers.
1980 and 90s
Relegation down to the now-First Division and promotion back to the Premier League occurred twice in the early 1980s, before a decade under manager Tommy McLean (brother of Willie) culminated in a Scottish Cup win in 1991. However, similarly to the Ancell era, Scotland internationalist Tom Boyd was sold in the close season after the cup win. Results faded for two years before reaching another two season zenith immediately following the signing of Paul Lambert with third (1993–94) and second-placed (1994–95) Premier League finishes. The 1995 runners-up finish was the club's highest finish since 1933–34.
With Tommy McLean's departure to Hearts in 1994, much of his squad was broken up; a large fee in particular was paid by Celtic for Phil O'Donnell. Much of this money was reinvested in the squad, while the club cycled through managers including Alex McLeish and Harri Kampman. At this point, in August 1998, John Boyle bought the club, taking over from John Chapman. Billy Davies was appointed as manager, and large transfer fees were paid for prominent players including ex-Scotland internationals John Spencer and Andy Goram. The investment though failed to provide results on the pitch.
2000–2009
By the end of Davies' tenure the club were in financial trouble. Eric Black was briefly in charge with the club floating near the foot of the table before it was placed in administration in April 2002 with losses approaching GBP 2 million yearly. Black resigned, and was replaced by Terry Butcher. The club's outlook remained bleak as they were forced to make redundant or release 19 players and replace them with younger players; Boyle also placed the club up for sale. Relegation in 2002–03 – normally automatic following a last-place finish in the league – was avoided on a technicality, as First Division winners Falkirk lacked a stadium meeting Premier League regulations.
Despite the lack of resources, a number of young talented players were found to play for the club; crucially, when many of these moved on, including Stephen Pearson and James McFadden, they brought revenue in the form of transfer fees, and with John Boyle waiving the club's personal debt to him, its financial future was assured by the conclusion of the 2004–05 season with the club's yearly losses falling to one of the lowest figures in the Premier League and the club coming out of administration in time to avoid a ten-point Premier League penalty which was being phased in for teams in administration. On the field, the club also managed to reach the League Cup final, although they were comprehensively defeated by Rangers. Butcher moved on to Sydney at the end of the 2005–06 season, and was succeeded by his assistant Maurice Malpas. Malpas' stint at the club lasted just one season before his resignation in May 2007. After a short period with Scott Leitch as caretaker manager, Mark McGhee was appointed to the position. In his first season as manager McGhee would take the club to 3rd in the league and thus qualify for the UEFA Cup for the first time in 13 years where they would be beaten by French side AS Nancy 3–0 on aggregate. Mark McGhee left Motherwell for the vacant managerial position at Aberdeen in June 2009 to be replaced by Jim Gannon. Former Scotland manager Craig Brown took over when Gannon left.
2010–present
Brown helped the club finish 5th in the SPL and qualify for Europe. The 2010–11 season saw the club in the Europa League and they defeated Breidablik and Aalesunds before losing in the Play-off round to Odense preventing them from reaching the group stages of the competition. Brown left Motherwell for Aberdeen on 10 December 2010. Stuart McCall was named as his successor. This season saw the club reach the Scottish Cup Final where they were defeated 3–0 by Celtic.
The 2011–12 season saw Motherwell reach the qualifying round of the Champions League for the first time. They finished third, one place outside the normal two spots allocated to the SPL for the Champions League. However the club was awarded a place because the club that had finished above them, Rangers, went into liquidation and were prevented by UEFA from playing in European competitions. In the draw for the 3rd qualification round of the Champions League Motherwell were drawn against Greek heavyweights Panathanaikos. This ended in disappointment as Motherwell were knocked out after losing 2–0 at home and then 3–0 away. The 2012–13 season brought even greater success in the SPL as the club finished 2nd in the table and once again qualified for the Europa League. It also saw striker Michael Higdon win the PFA Scotland Players' Player of the Year award. Goalkeeper Darren Randolph (second year running), defender Shaun Hutchinson and midfielder Nicky Law were selected for the PFA Scotland Team of the Year.
Motherwell were granted associate membership of the European Club Association in June 2013, becoming the fifth Scottish club to join the Association. The club were invited to join after consistent qualification for European competition between 2008 and 2013. In season 2013–14 Motherwell were knocked out of the Europa League by Russian side Kuban Krasnodar 3–0 on aggregate in the third qualifying round. On 22 January 2014 Motherwell won their 40th Lanarkshire cup beating Hamilton Academical 1–0 thanks to a 54th-minute goal by 19-year-old youngster Jack Leitch. On the final day of the 2013–14 Scottish Premiership, Motherwell won 1–0 at Aberdeen with a dramatic 93rd-minute winner, leapfrogging Aberdeen in the process to seal a second successive runners-up spot in the league. Despite conceding the most goals (60) out of the top six teams, European football was delivered for the sixth time in seven seasons, with a record points total (70). It was a season that also saw a first ever competitive defeat to Lanarkshire neighbours Albion Rovers, sitting third bottom of Scottish League Two at the time, 1–0 in the Scottish Cup.
Despite three successful consecutive league campaigns, Motherwell made a poor start to the 2014–15 Scottish Premiership, which ultimately led to the resignation of manager Stuart McCall on 2 November 2014. Despite the appointment of Ian Baraclough in December 2014, Motherwell were eventually consigned to a Scottish Premiership relegation play-off spot after a defeat at St Mirren in the penultimate league match of the 2014–15 season.
In the 2014–15 relegation play-off finals, Motherwell faced Rangers. The first leg, at Rangers' home ground, Ibrox Stadium, saw Motherwell run out as winners with a score of 1–3. In the second leg, Motherwell celebrated staying in the top division by winning, 3–0. On 23 September 2015, Motherwell parted ways with manager Ian Baraclough. Mark McGhee returned in October 2015 before being sacked in March 2017 after a poor run of results.
On 28 October 2016, Motherwell became a fan-owned club when supporters club Well Society's £1 deal with Les Hutchison was concluded. On 13 October 2017, Manager Stephen Robinson extended his contract until May 2020. On 31 December 2020, Robinson resigned as manager, with Keith Lasley taking interim charge.
Records and statistics
The club has won four major trophies in its history: the First Division in 1931–32, the Scottish Cup in 1952 and 1991, and the Scottish League Cup in 1950. In addition, it has won the second-tier Scottish league on four occasions; as the Second Division in 1953–54 and 1968–69, and as the First Division (beneath the Premier League) in 1981–82 and 1984–85. They also won the Milk Cup in 1983, and the Scottish Summer Cup in 1944 and 1965.
Bob Ferrier holds the record for the number of Motherwell appearances, with 626 in the inter-war period. The goalscoring record is held by Hughie Ferguson, who scored 284 league goals in 10 seasons in the 1910s and 1920s. Willie MacFadyen's 52 goals in the title-winning 1931–32 season remains a club (and country) record for goals in one season.
The club's record European appearance holder is Steven Hammell, with 19 appearances for the club in Europe. The current record European goalscorer is Jamie Murphy, with seven goals. Also, the 8–1 win over Flamurtari on 23 July 2009 currently stands as their record victory in European competition.
Fir Park's current safety certificate limits the capacity to 13,742, all-seated in accordance with the Taylor Report although the ground is listed as . Its average home gate for the 2018–19 season was 5,448. The club's record attendance for a home match is 35,632, against Rangers in a Scottish Cup quarter-final replay on 12 March 1952, but as season ticket holders were not counted at the time, the true attendance would be over 37,000.
Motherwell's biggest win was a 12–1 victory over Dundee United in 1954, with the club's heaviest defeat being the 8–0 loss to Aberdeen in 1979.
On 5 May 2010, Motherwell were involved in the highest scoring match in the SPL, drawing 6–6 with Hibernian at Fir Park, with Lukas Jutkiewicz scoring the equaliser in the 91st minute. This eclipsed another high-scoring game involving Motherwell, a 6–5 defeat by Aberdeen on 20 October 1999.
The record transfer fee paid by the club was to Everton for John Spencer in 1999 (£500,000) and the highest received was David Turnbull for his move to Celtic in 2020 (£3.25m), eclipsing the 1.75m paid for previous record holder Phil O'Donnell in 1994. O'Donnell rejoined Motherwell in 2004, but his second spell at Fir Park ended when he died after collapsing on the pitch in a game against Dundee United on 29 December 2007.
Stephen Craigan holds the record for the most-capped player at the club, with 54 caps in total, 51 as a Motherwell player – Northern Ireland.
Europe
Player of the Year
The Supporters Association first handed out the award in April 1956. The first winner of the award was Andy Paton, who received a silver cup from Sailor Hunter at a dinner dance in Overton Miners Welfare. Paton was further honoured in 2007 when he was declared the "Greatest Ever" Motherwell player.
Joe Wark and Keith Lasley are the only men to win the award three separate times. Charlie Aitken was the first of five players to win the award back-to-back, with Louis Moult being the last player to do this.
1955–56 – Andy Paton
1956–57 – Charlie Aitken
1957–58 – Charlie Aitken
1958–59 – Ian St John
1959–60 – Joe Mackin
1960–61 – Pat Quinn
1961–62 – Bobby Roberts
1962–63 – Bobby McCallum
1963–64 – Joe McBride
1964–65 – Pat Delaney
1965–66 – John Martis
1966–67 – John Martis
1967–68 – Peter McCloy
1968–69 – Joe Wark
1969–70 – Keith MacRae
1970–71 – Bobby Watson
1971–72 – Willie McCallum
1972–73 – Joe Wark
1973–74 – Bobby Graham
1974–75 – Bobby Watson
1975–76 – Joe Wark
1976–77 – Stuart Rennie
1977–78 – Gregor Stevens
1978–79 – Stuart Rennie
1979–80 – Hugh Sproat
1980–81 – Joe Carson
1981–82 – Steve McLelland
1982–83 – Ally Mauchlen
1983–84 – Andy Dornan
1984–85 – Graham Forbes
1985–86 – Tom Boyd
1986–87 – Fraser Wishart
1987–88 – Craig Paterson
1988–89 – Stevie Kirk
1989–90 – Tom Boyd
1990–91 – Ally Maxwell
1991–92 – Phil O'Donnell
1992–93 – Sieb Dijkstra
1993–94 – Brian Martin
1994–95 – Brian Martin
1995–96 – Paul Lambert
1996–97 – Mitchell van der Gaag
1997–98 – Tommy Coyne
1998–99 – Ged Brannan
1999–00 – Don Goodman
2000–01 – Stevie Hammell
2001–02 – Éric Deloumeaux
2002–03 – Martyn Corrigan
2003–04 – Stephen Craigan
2004–05 – Scott McDonald
2005–06 – Graeme Smith
2006–07 – Mark Reynolds
2007–08 – David Clarkson
2008–09 – Stephen Craigan
2009–10 – John Ruddy
2010–11 – Keith Lasley
2011–12 – Keith Lasley
2012–13 – Michael Higdon
2013–14 – Keith Lasley
2014–15 – Lee Erwin
2015–16 – Louis Moult
2016–17 – Louis Moult
2017–18 – Trevor Carson
2018–19 – David Turnbull
2019–20 – Declan Gallagher
2020–21 – Tony Watt
Hall of Fame
The club launched its official Hall of Fame in 2019, with five inaugural members announced at a dinner on 23 November. Four of the names were confirmed prior to the event with a fifth, a special fans vote, announced on the night as Phil O’Donnell. The 2020 event was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with only three names, Hunter, Paton and Cooper having been confirmed. On 9 September 2021, the club announced the event was returning with the two remaining 2020 inductees to be named alongside the previous three, together with a whole new class of five names for 2021.
2019:
George Stevenson
Willie Pettigrew
Ally Maxwell
Phil O’Donnell
James McFadden
2020:
John 'Sailor' Hunter
Andy Paton
Joe Wark
Davie Cooper
Steven Hammell
2021:
Bobby Ferrier
John Martis
Tommy McLean
Steve Kirk
Stephen Craigan
Managers
Honours
Motherwell have won a number of league titles and cups in their history, which includes six major domestic trophy successes. Their sole Scottish league championship came in season 1931–32 (66 points total, winning margin by 5 points). Amongst their biggest cup success was winning the Scottish Cup twice in 1951–52 (4–0 v Dundee) and 1990–91 (4–3 v Dundee United), and the Scottish League Cup once in 1950–51 (3–0 v Hibernian), also winning the now defunct Summer Cup in 1943–44 and 1964–65.
They have also won the second tier of Scottish league football on four occasions. Other notable cup success includes winning the Scottish Qualifying Cup once and winning the Lanarkshire Cup forty times. Their most recent Final appearance in the Scottish Cup came in 2017–18 (2–0 defeat to Celtic) and the Scottish League Cup came in 2017–18 (2–0 defeat to Celtic). Their best league performance recently in the Scottish top flight was registering back-to-back second-place finishes in 2012–13 and 2013–14. They have qualified for European competition ten times.
The club won the Lanarkshire Cup during 2013–14 in the last season that the cup was competed. This was the club's fortieth success.
Below is a list of honours won and other achievements by Motherwell.
1The Scottish Football Federation was a short-lived non-league that Motherwell competed in from 1891 to 1893 before being elected into the Scottish Second Division in 1893–94.
2The Summer Cup in the 1940s was a regional competition for Southern League teams, while in the 1960s it was a national cup competition for Scottish League Division One clubs.
3The Lord Provost of Glasgow's Charity Cup was a Scottish Super Cup match between the 1951–52 Division One champions and 1951–52 Scottish Cup winners.
4The Lanarkshire Cup Final was between Motherwell and Airdieoanians in 1925–26, but the cup was withheld after a dispute over choice of venue.
5 The Franco-Scottish Friendship Cup was an Inter-League competition.
Current squad
First team squad
On loan
Reserve Team
Retired numbers
Since O'Donnell's death in 2007, only one player has worn the number 10 shirt. David Clarkson, who is the nephew of O'Donnell, wore the shirt up until he left the club in July 2009. While not officially retired, it has not been issued to any subsequent player.
Club staff
Board of Directors
Coaching staff
Sponsorship
Motherwell were sponsored in the 2019–20 season by online gambling company Paddy Power as part of their 'Save our Shirt' campaign'. This followed Bet Park sponsoring the side in a deal running since the start of the 2018–19 season. Commsworld was the principal sponsor from the 2010–11 season. Due to the sponsorship deal not being agreed in time for the start of the 2010–11 UEFA Europa League the team briefly featured www.chooselife.net as their main shirt sponsor. The team shirts continue to carry this sponsorship on the back of the shirt. Recently, they have also been sponsored by the local IT firm Log in to Learn, which have also appeared on the back of the shirts. For the 2009–10 season the team were sponsored by JAXX, a German gambling company. They in turn had replaced Anglian home improvements, who were the club's shirt sponsor from 2006 to 2008. Previous to this the club had been sponsored by Zoom Airlines, who were part-owned by club director John Boyle, and who retained advertising space on both the Davie Cooper Stand and the South Stand until they ceased trading in August 2008.
The sponsor from 2002 to 2004 was a local company called The Untouchables. Previously the club had enjoyed a long-term association with Motorola, but this ended after 11 years in 2002 as the sponsor started to reduce its manufacturing operations in Scotland. This had in turn followed another long-term association with local car dealer Ian Skelly, who had sponsored the club since 1984.
The club have had a number of different kit manufacturers since the 1970s. At present the official kit supplier is Macron who were newly announced for the 2014–15 season to replace Puma after their 3-year deal with the club expired. Previously the club kits were supplied by New-Zealand based sporting goods manufacturer Canterbury who were announced as the official kit supplier to Motherwell for the four years beginning with the 2009–10 season, taking over from Bukta. However, Canterbury went into administration after less than one year of the contract had been completed. Major manufacturers Adidas, Admiral, Hummel, Patrick, Pony, Umbro and Xara have all been kit providers for Motherwell.
Kit and main sponsors
References
Further reading
External links
Official Motherwell Football Club Site
News and statistics
motherWELLnet
Motherwell FC NewsNow
Motherwell FC BBC Sport
Motherwell FC Sky Sports
Motherwell FC ESPN
Motherwell FC UEFA
Motherwell FC Wishaw Press
Motherwell FC Pie and Bovril
Motherwell FC Soccerbase
Association football clubs established in 1886
Sport in Motherwell
Football clubs in Scotland
Scottish Premier League teams
1886 establishments in Scotland
Scottish Football League teams
Scottish Cup winners
Scottish Professional Football League teams
Scottish League Cup winners
Companies that have entered administration in the United Kingdom | [
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|
215399 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd%20Al-Rahman%20Al-Gillani | Abd Al-Rahman Al-Gillani | Qutb-ul Aqtaab Naqib Al Ashraaf Syed Abd ar-Rahman al-Qadri al Gillani () was the first prime minister of Iraq, and its head of state, born on January 11, 1841. He is 15th direct descendant of Abdul Qadir Jilani, the Cardinal Sufi Saint in Islam. Al Gillani was chosen in 1920 to head the Iraqi Council of Ministers following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. He used his influence to oppose the appointment of Faisal I as King of Iraq and resigned his post when his efforts were defeated. Nevertheless, Faisal reappointed him as prime minister in order to curb opposition.
In 1922 Gillani negotiated the first Anglo-Iraqi Treaty, which ensured nominal independence for the country, though Britain maintained control of the military and foreign affairs, essentially establishing a Mandate in the country. Opposed to these results, Gillani resigned shortly after. Gillani died on 13 June 1927 in Baghdad, aged 86.
References
1841 births
1927 deaths
Arabs of the Ottoman Empire
Prime Ministers of Iraq
Iraqi people of Iranian descent
Hashemite people
Iraqi Muslims | [
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215403 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case%20law | Case law | Case law, also used interchangeably with common law, is law that is based on precedents, that is the judicial decisions from previous cases, rather than law based on constitutions, statutes, or regulations. Case law uses the detailed facts of a case that have been resolved by courts or similar tribunals. These past decisions are called "case law", or precedent. Stare decisis—a Latin phrase meaning "let the decision stand"—is the principle by which judges are bound to such past decisions, drawing on established judicial authority to formulate their positions.
These judicial interpretations are distinguished from statutory law, which are codes enacted by legislative bodies, and regulatory law, which are established by executive agencies based on statutes. In some jurisdictions, case law can be applied to ongoing adjudication; for example, criminal proceedings or family law.
In common law countries (including the United Kingdom, United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand), it is used for judicial decisions of selected appellate courts, courts of first instance, agency tribunals, and other bodies discharging adjudicatory functions.
In common law systems
In the common law tradition, courts decide the law applicable to a case by interpreting statutes and applying precedents which record how and why prior cases have been decided. Unlike most civil law systems, common law systems follow the doctrine of stare decisis, by which most courts are bound by their own previous decisions in similar cases. According to stare decisis, all lower courts should make decisions consistent with the previous decisions of higher courts. For example, in England, the High Court and the Court of Appeals are each bound by their own previous decisions, however, since 1966 the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom can deviate from its earlier decisions, although in practice it rarely does. A notable example of when the court has overturned its precedent is the case of R v Jogee, where the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom ruled that it and the other courts of England and Wales had misapplied the law for nearly 30 years.
Generally speaking, higher courts do not have direct oversight over the lower courts of record, in that they cannot reach out on their initiative (sua sponte) at any time to overrule judgments of the lower courts. Normally, the burden rests with litigants to appeal rulings (including those in clear violation of established case law) to the higher courts. If a judge acts against precedent, and the case is not appealed, the decision will stand.
A lower court may not rule against a binding precedent, even if it feels that it is unjust; it may only express the hope that a higher court or the legislature will reform the rule in question. If the court believes that developments or trends in legal reasoning render the precedent unhelpful, and wishes to evade it and help the law evolve, it may either hold that the precedent is inconsistent with subsequent authority, or that it should be distinguished by some material difference between the facts of the cases; some jurisdictions allow for a judge to recommend that an appeal be carried out. If that judgment goes to appeal, the appellate court will have the opportunity to review both the precedent and the case under appeal, perhaps overruling the previous case law by setting a new precedent of higher authority. This may happen several times as the case works its way through successive appeals. Lord Denning, first of the High Court of Justice, later of the Court of Appeal, provided a famous example of this evolutionary process in his development of the concept of estoppel starting in the High Trees case: Central London Property Trust Ltd v. High Trees House Ltd [1947] K.B. 130.
How case law is made
The different roles of case law in civil and common law traditions create differences in the way that courts render decisions. Common law courts generally explain in detail the legal rationale behind their decisions, with citations of both legislation and previous relevant judgments, and often interpret the wider legal principles. The necessary analysis (called ratio decidendi), then constitutes a precedent binding on other courts; further analyses not strictly necessary to the determination of the current case are called obiter dicta, which constitute persuasive authority but are not technically binding. By contrast, decisions in civil law jurisdictions are generally shorter, referring only to statutes. The reason for this difference is that these civil law jurisdictions adhere to a tradition that the reader should be able to deduce the logic from the decision and the statutes.
Some pluralist systems, such as Scots law in Scotland and types of civil law jurisdictions in Quebec and Louisiana, do not precisely fit into the dual common-civil law system classifications. These types of systems may have been heavily influenced by the Anglo-American common law tradition; however, their substantive law is firmly rooted in the civil law tradition. Because of their position between the two main systems of law, these types of legal systems are sometimes referred to as mixed systems of law.
Law professors traditionally have played a much smaller role in developing case law in common law than professors in civil law. Because court decisions in civil law traditions are historically brief and not formally amenable to establishing precedent, much of the exposition of the law in civil law traditions is done by academics rather than by judges; this is called doctrine and may be published in treatises or in journals such as Recueil Dalloz in France. Historically, common law courts relied little on legal scholarship; thus, at the turn of the twentieth century, it was very rare to see an academic writer quoted in a legal decision (except perhaps for the academic writings of prominent judges such as Coke and Blackstone). Today academic writers are often cited in legal argument and decisions as persuasive authority; often, they are cited when judges are attempting to implement reasoning that other courts have not yet adopted, or when the judge believes the academic's restatement of the law is more compelling than can be found in case law. Thus common law systems are adopting one of the approaches long-held in civil law jurisdictions.
Judges may refer to various types of persuasive authority to decide a case. Widely cited non-binding sources include legal encyclopedias such as Corpus Juris Secundum and Halsbury's Laws of England, or the published work of the Law Commission or the American Law Institute. Some bodies are given statutory powers to issue guidance with persuasive authority or similar statutory effect, such as the Highway Code.
In federal or multi-jurisdictional law systems there may exist conflicts between the various lower appellate courts. Sometimes these differences may not be resolved, and it may be necessary to distinguish how the law is applied in one district, province, division or appellate department. Usually, only an appeal accepted by the court of last resort will resolve such differences and, for many reasons, such appeals are often not granted.
Any court may seek to distinguish the present case from that of a binding precedent, to reach a different conclusion. The validity of such a distinction may or may not be accepted on appeal of that judgment to a higher court. An appellate court may also decide on an entirely new and different analysis from that of junior courts, and may or may not be bound by its own previous decisions, or in any case, may distinguish them on the facts.
Where there are several members of a court deciding a case, there may be one or more judgments given (or reported). Only the reason for the decision of the majority can constitute a binding precedent, but all may be cited as persuasive, or their reasoning may be adopted in an argument. Apart from the rules of procedure for precedent, the weight given to any reported judgment may depend on the reputation of both the reporter and the judges.
Nordic nations
The legal systems of the Nordic countries are sometimes included among the civil law systems, but as a separate branch, and sometimes counted as separate from the civil law tradition. In Sweden, for instance, case law arguably plays a more important role than in some of the Continental codified law systems. The two highest courts, the Supreme Court (Högsta domstolen) and the Supreme Administrative Court (Högsta förvaltningsdomstolen), have the right to set precedent which is in practice (however not formally) binding on all future application of the law. Courts of appeal, both general courts (hovrätter) and administrative courts (kammarrätter), may also issue decisions that act as guides for the application of the law, but these decisions may be overturned by higher courts. Much of the case law is used to prove the existence of a law and not, unlike many common law jurisdictions, the creation of law.
See also
Judicial activism
Legal opinion
Lists of case law
Precedent
References
External links
interactive database of European judgments of national courts in the EU
Queensland Case Law
Queensland Judgments reported and unreported case law
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|
215415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trespass | Trespass | Trespass is an area of tort law broadly divided into three groups: trespass to the person, trespass to chattels, and trespass to land.
Trespass to the person historically involved six separate trespasses: threats, assault, battery, wounding, mayhem (or maiming), and false imprisonment. Through the evolution of the common law in various jurisdictions, and the codification of common law torts, most jurisdictions now broadly recognize three trespasses to the person: assault, which is "any act of such a nature as to excite an apprehension of battery"; battery, "any intentional and unpermitted contact with the plaintiff's person or anything attached to it and practically identified with it"; and false imprisonment, the " or of freedom from restraint of movement". One can retrieve wounded or expired game from neighboring properties and boundaries even if the neighboring land owner does not give permission as long as there are no weapons in possession while retrieving game injury". Trespass to chattel does not require a showing of damages. Simply the "intermeddling with or use of … the personal property" of another gives cause of action for trespass. Since CompuServe Inc. v. Cyber Promotions, Inc., various courts have applied the principles of trespass to chattel to resolve cases involving unsolicited bulk e-mail and unauthorized server usage.
Trespass to land is today the tort most commonly associated with the term trespass; it takes the form of "wrongful interference with one's possessory rights in [real] property". Generally, it is not necessary to prove harm to a possessor's legally protected interest; liability for unintentional trespass varies by jurisdiction. " common law, every unauthorized entry upon the soil of another was a trespasser"; however, under the tort scheme established by the Restatement of Torts, liability for unintentional intrusions arises only under circumstances evincing negligence or where the intrusion involved a highly dangerous activity.
Trespass has also been treated as a common law offense in some countries.
Trespass to the person
There are three types of trespass, the first of which is trespass to the person. Whether intent is a necessary element of trespass to the person varies by jurisdiction. Under English decision, Letang v Cooper, intent is required to sustain a trespass to the person cause of action; in the absence of intent, negligence is the appropriate tort. In other jurisdictions, gross negligence is sufficient to sustain a trespass to the person, such as when a defendant negligently operates an automobile and strikes the plaintiff with great force. "Intent is to be presumed from the act itself." Generally, and as defined by Goff LJ in Collins v Wilcock, trespass to the person consists of three torts: assault, battery, and false imprisonment.
Assault
Under the statutes of various common law jurisdictions, assault is both a crime and a tort. Generally, a person commits criminal assault if he purposely, knowingly, or recklessly inflicts bodily injury upon another; if he negligently inflicts bodily injury upon another by means of dangerous weapon; or if through physical menace, he places another in fear of imminent serious bodily injury. A person commits tortious assault when he engages in "any act of such a nature as to excite an apprehension of battery [bodily injury]". In some jurisdictions, there is no requirement that actual physical violence result—simply the "threat of unwanted touching of the victim" suffices to sustain an assault claim. Consequently, in R v Constanza, the court found a stalker's threats could constitute assault. Similarly, silence, given certain conditions, may constitute an assault as well. However, in other jurisdictions, simple threats are insufficient; they must be accompanied by an action or condition to trigger a cause of action.
Incongruity of a defendant's language and action, or of a plaintiff's perception and reality may vitiate an assault claim. In Tuberville v Savage, the defendant reached for his sword and told the plaintiff that " it were not assize-time, I would not take such language from you". In its American counterpart, Commonwealth v. Eyre, the defendant shouted " it were not for your gray hairs, I would tear your heart out". In both cases, the courts held that despite a threatening gesture, the plaintiffs were not in immediate danger. The actions must give the plaintiff a reasonable expectation that the defendant is going to use violence; a fist raised before the plaintiff may suffice; the same fist raised behind the window of a police cruiser will not.
Battery
Battery is "any intentional and unpermitted contact with the plaintiff's person or anything attached to it and practically identified with it". The elements of battery common law varies by jurisdiction. In the United States, the American Law Institute's Restatement of Torts provides a general rule to determine liability for battery:
Battery torts under Commonwealth precedent are subjected to a four point test to determine liability:
Directness. Is the sequence of events connecting initial conduct and the harmful contact an unbroken series?
Intentional Act. Was the harmful contact the conscious object of the defendant? Did the defendant intend to cause the resulting harm? Though the necessity of intent remains an integral part of Commonwealth battery, some Commonwealth jurisdictions have moved toward the American jurisprudence of "substantial certainty". If a reasonable person in the defendant's position would apprehend the substantial certainty of the consequences of his actions, whether the defendant intended to inflict the injuries is immaterial.
Bodily Contact. Was there active (as opposed to passive) contact between the bodies of the plaintiff and the defendant?
Consent. Did the plaintiff consent to the harmful contact? The onus is on the defendant to establish sufficient and effective consent.
False imprisonment
False imprisonment is defined as " or of freedom from restraint of movement". In some jurisdictions, false imprisonment is a tort of strict liability: no intention on the behalf of the defendant is needed, but others require an intent to cause the confinement. Physical force, however, is not a necessary element, and confinement need not be lengthy;
the restraint must be complete, though the defendant needn't resist.
Conveniently, the American Law Institute's Restatement (Second) of Torts distills false imprisonment liability analysis into a four-prong test:
The defendant intends to confine the plaintiff. (This is not necessary in Commonwealth jurisdictions.)
The plaintiff is conscious of the confinement. (Prosser rejects this requirement.)
The plaintiff does not consent to the confinement.
The confinement was not otherwise privileged.
Defenses
Child correction
Depending on the jurisdiction, corporal punishment of children by parents or instructors may be a defense to trespass to the person, so long as the punishment was "reasonably necessary under the circumstances to discipline a child who has misbehaved" and the defendant " prudence and restraint". Unreasonable punishments, such as violently grabbing a student's arm and hair, have no defense. Many jurisdictions, however, limit corporal punishment to parents, and a few, such as New Zealand, have criminalized the practice.
Consent
Perhaps the most common defense for the torts of trespass to the person is that of volenti non fit injuria, literally, "to a willing person, no injury is done", but shortened to "consensual privilege" or "consent". If a plaintiff participates in a sporting activity in which physical contact is ordinary conduct, such as rugby, they are considered to have consented. This is not the case if the physical contact went beyond what could be expected, such as the use of hand gun during a fistfight, as in Andrepont v. Naquin, or where the injuries were suffered not from the plaintiff's participation in the sport but inadequate safety measures taken, as in Watson v British Boxing Board of Control Ltd. Where the plaintiff and defendant voluntarily agree to participate in a fight, some jurisdictions will deny relief in civil action, so long as the injuries caused are proportionate: "in an ordinary fight with fists there is no cause of action to either of [the combatants] for any injury suffered". Other jurisdictions refuse to recognize consent as a defense to mutual combat and instead provide relief under the doctrine of comparative negligence.
Medical care gives rise to many claims of trespass to the person. A physician, "treating a mentally competent adult under non-emergency circumstances, cannot properly undertake to perform surgery or administer other therapy without the prior consent of his patient". Should he do so, he commits a trespass to the person and is liable to damages. However, if the plaintiff is informed by a doctor of the broad risks of a medical procedure, there will be no claim under trespass against the person for resulting harm caused; the plaintiff's agreement constitutes "informed consent". In those cases where the patient does not possess sufficient mental capacity to consent, doctors must exercise extreme caution. In F v West Berkshire Health Authority, the House of Lords instructed British physicians that, to justify operating upon such an individual, there "(1) must … be a necessity to act when it is not practicable to communicate with the assisted person ... [and] (2) the action taken must be such as a reasonable person would in all the circumstances take, acting in the best interests of the assisted person".
Self-defense / defense of others / defense of property
Self-defense, or non-consensual privilege, is a valid defense to trespasses against the person, assuming that it constituted the use of "reasonable force which they honestly and reasonably believe is necessary to protect themselves or someone else, or property". The force used must be proportionate to the threat, as ruled in Cockcroft v Smith.
Trespass to goods
Trespass to chattels (also known as trespass to goods or trespass to personal property) is defined as "an intentional interference with the possession of personal property...proximately injury". While originally a remedy for the asportation of personal property, the tort grew to incorporate any interference with the personal property of another. In some jurisdictions, such as the United Kingdom, trespass to chattels has been codified to clearly define the scope of the remedy; in most jurisdictions, trespass to chattel remains a purely common law remedy, the scope of which varies by jurisdiction.
Generally, trespass to chattels possesses three elements:
Lack of consent. The interference with the property must be non-consensual. A claim does not lie if, in acquiring the property, the purchaser consents contractually to certain access by the seller. " use exceeding the consent" authorized by the contract, should it cause harm, gives rise to a cause for action.
Actual harm. The interference with the property must result in actual harm. The threshold for actual harm varies by jurisdiction. In California, for instance, an electronic message may constitute a trespass if the message interferes with the functioning of the computer hardware, but the plaintiff must prove that this interference caused actual hardware damage or actual impaired functioning.
Intentionality. The interference must be intentional. What constitutes intention varies by jurisdiction, however, the Restatement (Second) of Torts indicates that "intention is present when an act is done for the purpose of using or otherwise intermeddling with a chattel or with knowledge that such an intermeddling will, to a substantial certainty, result from the act", and continues: " is not necessary that the actor should know or have reason to know that such intermeddling is a violation of the possessory rights of another".
Remedies for trespass to chattel include damages, liability for conversion, and injunction, depending on the nature of the interference.
Traditional applications
Trespass to chattels typically applies to tangible property and allows the owner of such property to seek relief when a third party intentionally interferes or intermeddles in the owner's possession of his personal property. "Interference" is often interpreted as the "taking" or "destroying" of goods, but can be as minor as "touching" or "moving" them in the right circumstances. In Kirk v Gregory, the defendant moved jewelry from one room to another, where it was stolen. The deceased owner's executor successfully sued her for trespass to chattel. Furthermore, personal property, as traditionally construed, includes living objects, except where property interests are restricted by law. Thus animals are personal property, but organs are not.
Modern US applications
In recent years, trespass to chattels has been expanded in the United States to cover intangible property, including combating the proliferation of unsolicited bulk email as well as virtual property interests in online worlds. In the late 1990s, American courts enlarged trespass to chattels, first to include the unauthorized use of long distance telephone lines, and later to include unsolicited bulk email. In 1998, a federal court in Virginia held that the owner of a marketing company committed trespass to chattels against an Internet service provider's computer network by sending 60 million unauthorized email advertisements after being notified that the spam was unauthorized. In America Online, Inc. v. LCGM, Inc., AOL successfully sued a pornographic website for spamming AOL customers and forging the AOL domain name to trick customers. By the new millennium, trespass to chattel expanded beyond bulk email. In eBay v. Bidder's Edge, a California court ruled that Bidder's Edge's use of a web crawler to cull auction information from eBay's website constituted trespass to chattel and further, that a plaintiff in such a suit need not prove that the interference was substantial. A number of similar cases followed until, in Intel v. Hamidi, the Supreme Court of California held that a plaintiff must demonstrate either actual interference with the physical functionality of the computer system or the likelihood that such interference would occur in the future. The Hamidi decision quickly found acceptance at both the federal and state level.
To date, no United States court has identified property rights in items acquired in virtual worlds; heretofore, virtual world providers have relied on end-user license agreements to govern user behavior. Nevertheless, as virtual worlds grow, incidents of property interference, a form of "griefing", may make trespass to chattel an attractive remedy for deleted, stolen, or corrupted virtual property.
Trespass to land
Trespass to land involves the "wrongful interference with one's possessory rights in [real] property." It is not necessary to prove that harm was suffered to bring a claim, and is instead actionable per se. While most trespasses to land are intentional, British courts have held liability holds for trespass committed negligently. Similarly, some American courts will find liability for unintentional intrusions only where such intrusions arise under circumstances evincing negligence or involve a highly dangerous activity. Exceptions exist for entering land adjoining a road unintentionally (such as in a car accident), as in River Wear Commissioners v Adamson. In some jurisdictions, trespass while in possession of a firearm, which may include a low-power air weapon without ammunition, constitutes a more grave crime of armed trespass.
Subsoil and airspace
Aside from the surface, land includes the subsoil, airspace and anything permanently attached to the land, such as houses, and other infrastructure, this is literally explained by the legal maxim quicquid plantatur solo, solo cedit.
Subsoil
William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England articulated the common law principle cuius est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos, translating from Latin as "for whoever owns the soil, it is theirs up to Heaven and down to Hell." In modern times, courts have limited the right of absolute dominion over the subsurface. For instance, drilling a directional well that bottoms out beneath another's property to access oil and gas reserves is trespass, but a subsurface invasion by hydraulic fracturing is not. Where mineral rights are severed from surface ownership, it is trespass to use another's surface to assist in mining the minerals beneath that individual's property, but, where an emergency responder accesses the subsurface following a blowout and fire, no trespass lies. Even the possible subsurface migration of toxic waste stored underground is not trespass, except where the plaintiff can demonstrate that the actions "actually interfere with the [owner's] reasonable and foreseeable use of the " or, in some jurisdictions, that the subsurface trespasser knows with "substantial certainty" that the toxic liquids will migrate to the neighboring land...
Airspace
However, domain of landowners over airspace is limited to the lower atmosphere; in United States v. Causby et ux. landowner domain was limited to the space below , Justice Douglas reasoned that, should it find in the landowners' favor and accept the "ancient doctrine that at common law ownership of land to the periphery of the universe—Cujus est solum ejus est usque ad " "every transcontinental flight would subject the operator to countless trespass suits." Citizens have a right to fly in the "navigable airspace" Thirty one years later, in Bernstein of Leigh v Skyviews & General Ltd, an English court reached a similar conclusion, finding an action for trespass failed because the violation of airspace took place several hundred meters above the land: " the latin maxim were applied literally it would lead to the absurdity of trespass being committed every time a satellite passed over a suburban garden."
Interference
The main element of the tort is "interference". This must be both direct and physical, with indirect interference instead being covered by negligence or nuisance. "Interference" covers any physical entry to land, as well as the abuse of a right of entry, when a person who has the right to enter the land does something not covered by the permission. If the person has the right to enter the land but remains after this right expires, this is also trespass. It is also a trespass to throw anything on the land. For the purposes of trespass, the person who owns the land on which a road rests is treated as the owner; it is not, however, a trespass to use that road if the road is constructed with a public use easement, or if, by owner acquiescence or through adverse possession, the road has undergone a common law dedication to the public. In Hickman v Maisey and Adams v. Rivers, the courts established that any use of a road that went beyond using it for its normal purpose could constitute a trespass: " a land owner's property rights may be to the right of mere passage, the owner of the soil is still absolute master."
British courts have broadened the rights encompassed by public easements in recent years. In DPP v Jones, the court ruled that "the public highway is a public place which the public may enjoy for any reasonable purpose, providing that the activity in question does not amount to a public or private nuisance and does not obstruct the highway by reasonably impeding the primary right of the public to pass and repass; within these qualifications there is a public right of peaceful assembly on the highway." The principles established in Adams remain valid in American law.
Defenses
There are several defenses to trespass to land; license, justification by law, necessity and jus tertii. License is express or implied permission, given by the possessor of land, to be on that land. These licenses are irrevocable unless there is a flaw in the agreement or it is given by a contract. Once revoked, a license-holder becomes a trespasser if they remain on the land. Justification by law refers to those situations in which there is statutory authority permitting a person to go onto land, such as the England and Wales' Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, which allows the police to enter land for the purposes of carrying out an arrest, or the California state constitution, which permits protests on grocery stores and strip malls, despite their presenting a general nuisance to store owners and patrons. Jus tertii is where the defendant can prove that the land is not possessed by the plaintiff, but by a third party, as in Doe d Carter v Barnard. This defense is unavailable if the plaintiff is a tenant and the defendant a landlord who had no right to give the plaintiff his lease (e.g., an illegal apartment rental, an unauthorized sublet, etc.). Necessity is the situation in which it is vital to commit the trespass; in Esso Petroleum Co v Southport Corporation, the captain of a ship committed trespass by allowing oil to flood a shoreline. This was necessary to protect his ship and crew, however, and the defense of necessity was accepted. Necessity does not, however, permit a defendant to enter another's property when alternative, though less attractive, courses of action exist.
See also
Appropriation (economics)
Trespass on the case
Trespass in English law
Castle doctrine
Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000 (UK)
Forced entry
Freedom to roam
Easement
Structural encroachment
Rights of way in England and Wales
Rights of way in Scotland
Property is theft!
References
Bibliography
Books
Periodicals
External links
Crimes
Tort law
Real property law
Property crimes | [
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|
215417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karin%20Smith | Karin Smith | Karin Kiefer Smith (born August 4, 1955, in Fürstenfeldbruck, Bavaria) is a retired female javelin thrower from the United States. She was born in Germany. She is a three-time Olympian. Smith qualified for a fourth, the 1980 U.S. Olympic team, but was unable to compete due to the 1980 Summer Olympics boycott. She did however receive one of 461 Congressional Gold Medals created especially for the spurned athletes.
College
While at Cal Poly, she won the Broderick Award, (now the Honda Sports Award) as the nation's best female collegiate track and field competitor in 1982.
International competitions
References
1955 births
Living people
People from Fürstenfeldbruck (district)
Track and field athletes from California
Sportspeople from Bavaria
American female javelin throwers
Olympic track and field athletes of the United States
Athletes (track and field) at the 1976 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1984 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 1988 Summer Olympics
World Athletics Championships athletes for the United States
UCLA Bruins women's track and field athletes
Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
Congressional Gold Medal recipients
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
Universiade silver medalists for the United States
Medalists at the 1981 Summer Universiade
Competitors at the 1990 Goodwill Games | [
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|
215419 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%20squid | Giant squid | The giant squid (Architeuthis dux) is a species of deep-ocean dwelling squid in the family Architeuthidae. It can grow to a tremendous size, offering an example of deep-sea gigantism: recent estimates put the maximum size at around for females and for males, from the posterior fins to the tip of the two long tentacles (longer than the colossal squid at an estimated , but substantially lighter, due to the tentacles making up most of the length). The mantle of the giant squid is about long (more for females, less for males), and the length of the squid excluding its tentacles (but including head and arms) rarely exceeds . Claims of specimens measuring or more have not been scientifically documented.
The number of different giant squid species has been debated, but recent genetic research suggests that only one species exists.
The first images of the animal in its natural habitat were taken in 2004 by a Japanese team.
Range and habitat
The giant squid is widespread, occurring in all of the world's oceans. It is usually found near continental and island slopes from the North Atlantic Ocean, especially Newfoundland, Norway, the northern British Isles, Spain and the oceanic islands of the Azores and Madeira, to the South Atlantic around southern Africa, the North Pacific around Japan, and the southwestern Pacific around New Zealand and Australia. Specimens are rare in tropical and polar latitudes.
The vertical distribution of giant squid is incompletely known, but data from trawled specimens and sperm whale diving behavior suggest it spans a large range of depths, possibly .
Morphology and anatomy
Like all squid, a giant squid has a mantle (torso), eight arms, and two longer tentacles (the longest known tentacles of any cephalopod). The arms and tentacles account for much of the squid's great length, making it much lighter than its chief predator, the sperm whale. Scientifically documented specimens have masses of hundreds, rather than thousands, of kilograms.
The inside surfaces of the arms and tentacles are lined with hundreds of subspherical suction cups, in diameter, each mounted on a stalk. The circumference of these suckers is lined with sharp, finely serrated rings of chitin. The perforation of these teeth and the suction of the cups serve to attach the squid to its prey. It is common to find circular scars from the suckers on or close to the head of sperm whales that have attacked giant squid.
Each tentacular club is divided into three regions—the carpus ("wrist"), manus ("hand") and dactylus ("finger"). The carpus has a dense cluster of cups, in six or seven irregular, transverse rows. The manus is broader, closer to the end of the club, and has enlarged suckers in two medial rows. The dactylus is the tip. The bases of all the arms and tentacles are arranged in a circle surrounding the animal's single, parrot-like beak, as in other cephalopods.
Giant squid have small fins at the rear of their mantles used for locomotion. Like other cephalopods, they are propelled by jet—by pulling water into the mantle cavity, and pushing it through the siphon, in gentle, rhythmic pulses. They can also move quickly by expanding the cavity to fill it with water, then contracting muscles to jet water through the siphon. Giant squid breathe using two large gills inside the mantle cavity. The circulatory system is closed, which is a distinct characteristic of cephalopods. Like other squid, they contain dark ink used to deter predators.
The giant squid has a sophisticated nervous system and complex brain, attracting great interest from scientists. It also has the largest eyes of any living creature except perhaps the colossal squid—up to at least in diameter, with a pupil (only the extinct ichthyosaurs are known to have had larger eyes). Large eyes can better detect light (including bioluminescent light), which is scarce in deep water. The giant squid probably cannot see colour, but it can probably discern small differences in tone, which is important in the low-light conditions of the deep ocean.
Giant squid and some other large squid species maintain neutral buoyancy in seawater through an ammonium chloride solution which is found throughout their bodies and is lighter than seawater. This differs from the method of flotation used by most fish, which involves a gas-filled swim bladder. The solution tastes somewhat like salty liquorice/salmiak and makes giant squid unattractive for general human consumption.
Like all cephalopods, giant squid use organs called statocysts to sense their orientation and motion in water. The age of a giant squid can be determined by "growth rings" in the statocyst's statolith, similar to determining the age of a tree by counting its rings. Much of what is known about giant squid age is based on estimates of the growth rings and from undigested beaks found in the stomachs of sperm whales.
Size
The giant squid is the second-largest mollusc and one of the largest of all extant invertebrates. It is only exceeded by the colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, which may have a mantle nearly twice as long. Several extinct cephalopods, such as the Cretaceous vampyromorphid Tusoteuthis, the Cretaceous coleoid Yezoteuthis, and the Ordovician nautiloid Cameroceras may have grown even larger.
Giant squid size, particularly total length, has often been exaggerated. Reports of specimens reaching and even exceeding are widespread, but no specimens approaching this size have been scientifically documented. According to giant squid expert Steve O'Shea, such lengths were likely achieved by greatly stretching the two tentacles like elastic bands.
Based on the examination of 130 specimens and of beaks found inside sperm whales, giant squids' mantles are not known to exceed . Including the head and arms, but excluding the tentacles, the length very rarely exceeds . Maximum total length, when measured relaxed post mortem, is estimated at or for females and for males from the posterior fins to the tip of the two long tentacles.
Giant squid exhibit sexual dimorphism. Maximum weight is estimated at for females and for males.
Reproductive cycle
Little is known about the reproductive cycle of giant squid. They are thought to reach sexual maturity at about three years old; males reach sexual maturity at a smaller size than females. Females produce large quantities of eggs, sometimes more than , that average long and wide. Females have a single median ovary in the rear end of the mantle cavity and paired, convoluted oviducts, where mature eggs pass exiting through the oviducal glands, then through the nidamental glands. As in other squid, these glands produce a gelatinous material used to keep the eggs together once they are laid.
In males, as with most other cephalopods, the single, posterior testis produces sperm that move into a complex system of glands that manufacture the spermatophores. These are stored in the elongate sac, or Needham's sac, that terminates in the penis from which they are expelled during mating. The penis is prehensile, over long, and extends from inside the mantle.
How the sperm is transferred to the egg mass is much debated, as giant squid lack the hectocotylus used for reproduction in many other cephalopods. It may be transferred in sacs of spermatophores, called spermatangia, which the male injects into the female's arms. This is suggested by a female specimen recently found in Tasmania, having a small subsidiary tendril attached to the base of each arm.
Post-larval juveniles have been discovered in surface waters off New Zealand, with plans to capture more and maintain them in an aquarium to learn more about the creature. Young giant squid specimens were found off the coast of southern Japan in 2013 and confirmed through genetic analysis.
Another juvenile, approximately 3.7 metres long, was encountered and filmed alive in the harbour in the Japanese city of Toyama on 24 December 2015; after being filmed and viewed by a large number of spectators, including a diver who entered the water to film the squid up close, it was guided out of the harbour into the Sea of Japan by the diver.
Genetics
Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of giant squid individuals from all over the world has found that there is little variation between individuals across the globe (just 181 differing genetic base pairs out of 20,331). This suggests that there is but a single species of giant squid in the world. Squid larvae may be dispersed by ocean currents across vast distances.
Ecology
Feeding
Recent studies have shown giant squid feed on deep-sea fish and other squid species. They catch prey using the two tentacles, gripping it with serrated sucker rings on the ends. Then they bring it toward the powerful beak, and shred it with the radula (tongue with small, file-like teeth) before it reaches the esophagus. They are believed to be solitary hunters, as only individual giant squid have been caught in fishing nets. Although the majority of giant squid caught by trawl in New Zealand waters have been associated with the local hoki (Macruronus novaezelandiae) fishery, hoki do not feature in the squid's diet. This suggests giant squid and hoki prey on the same animals.
Predators and potential cannibalism
The known predators of adult giant squid include sperm whales, pilot whales, southern sleeper sharks, and in some regions killer whales. Juveniles may fall prey to other large deep sea predators. Because sperm whales are skilled at locating giant squid, scientists have tried to observe them to study the squid. Giant squid have also been recently discovered to presumably steal food from each other; in mid-to-late October 2016, a giant squid washed ashore in Galicia, Spain. The squid had been photographed alive shortly before its death by a tourist named Javier Ondicol, and examination of its corpse by the Coordinators for the Study and Protection of Marine Species (CEPESMA) indicates that the squid was attacked and mortally wounded by another giant squid, losing parts of its fins, and receiving damage to its mantle, one of its gills and losing an eye. The intact nature of the specimen indicates that the giant squid managed to escape its rival by slowly retreating to shallow water, where it died of its wounds. The incident is the second to be documented among Architeuthis recorded in Spain, with the other occurring in Villaviciosa. Evidence in the form of giant squid stomach contents containing beak fragments from other giant squid in Tasmania also supports the theory that the species is at least occasionally cannibalistic. Alternatively, such squid-on-squid attacks may be a result of competition for prey. These traits are seen in the Humboldt squid as well, indicating that cannibalism in large squid may be more common than originally thought.
Species
The taxonomy of the giant squid, as with many cephalopod genera, has long been debated. Lumpers and splitters may propose as many as seventeen species or as few as one. The broadest list is:
Architeuthis dux, Atlantic giant squid
Architeuthis (Loligo) hartingii
Architeuthis japonica
Architeuthis kirkii
Architeuthis (Megateuthis) martensii, North Pacific giant squid
Architeuthis physeteris
Architeuthis sanctipauli, southern giant squid
Architeuthis (Steenstrupia) stockii
Architeuthis (Loligo) bouyeri
Architeuthis clarkei
Architeuthis (Plectoteuthis) grandis
Architeuthis (Megaloteuthis) harveyi
Architeuthis longimanus
Architeuthis monachus?
Architeuthis nawaji
Architeuthis princeps
Architeuthis (Dubioteuthis) physeteris
Architeuthis titan
Architeuthis verrilli
It is unclear if these are distinct species, as no genetic or physical basis for distinguishing between them has yet been proposed.
In the 1984 FAO Species Catalogue of the Cephalopods of the World, Roper, et al. wrote:
In Cephalopods: A World Guide (2000), Mark Norman writes:
In March 2013, researchers at the University of Copenhagen suggested that, based on DNA research, there is only one species:
Timeline
Aristotle, who lived in the fourth century BC, described a large squid, which he called teuthus, distinguishing it from the smaller squid, the teuthis. He mentions, "of the calamaries, the so-called teuthus is much bigger than the teuthis; for teuthi [plural of teuthus] have been found as much as five ells long".
Pliny the Elder, living in the first century AD, also described a gigantic squid in his Natural History, with the head "as big as a cask", arms long, and carcass weighing .
Tales of giant squid have been common among mariners since ancient times, and may have led to the Norse legend of the kraken, a tentacled sea monster as large as an island capable of engulfing and sinking any ship. Japetus Steenstrup, the describer of Architeuthis, suggested a giant squid was the species described as a sea monk to the Danish king Christian III circa 1550. The Lusca of the Caribbean and Scylla in Greek mythology may also derive from giant squid sightings. Eyewitness accounts of other sea monsters like the sea serpent are also thought to be mistaken interpretations of giant squid.
Steenstrup wrote a number of papers on giant squid in the 1850s. He first used the term "Architeuthus" (this was the spelling he chose) in a paper in 1857. A portion of a giant squid was secured by the French corvette Alecton in 1861, leading to wider recognition of the genus in the scientific community. From 1870 to 1880, many squid were stranded on the shores of Newfoundland. For example, a specimen washed ashore in Thimble Tickle Bay, Newfoundland, on 2 November 1878; its mantle was reported to be long, with one tentacle long, and it was estimated as weighing . In 1873, a squid "attacked" a minister and a young boy in a dory near Bell Island, Newfoundland. Many strandings also occurred in New Zealand during the late 19th century.
Although strandings continue to occur sporadically throughout the world, none have been as frequent as those at Newfoundland and New Zealand in the 19th century. It is not known why giant squid become stranded on shore, but it may be because the distribution of deep, cold water where squid live is temporarily altered. Many scientists who have studied squid mass strandings believe they are cyclical and predictable. The length of time between strandings is not known, but was proposed to be 90 years by Architeuthis specialist Frederick Aldrich. Aldrich used this value to correctly predict a relatively small stranding that occurred between 1961 and 1968.
In 2004, another giant squid, later named "Archie", was caught off the coast of the Falkland Islands by a fishing trawler. It was long and was sent to the Natural History Museum in London to be studied and preserved. It was put on display on 1 March 2006 at the Darwin Centre. The find of such a large, complete specimen is very rare, as most specimens are in a poor condition, having washed up dead on beaches or been retrieved from the stomachs of dead sperm whales.
Researchers undertook a painstaking process to preserve the body. It was transported to England on ice aboard the trawler; then it was defrosted, which took about four days. The major difficulty was that thawing the thick mantle took much longer than the tentacles. To prevent the tentacles from rotting, scientists covered them in ice packs, and bathed the mantle in water. Then they injected the squid with a formol-saline solution to prevent rotting. The creature is now on show in a glass tank at the Darwin Centre of the Natural History Museum.
In December 2005, the Melbourne Aquarium in Australia paid A$100,000 for the intact body of a giant squid, preserved in a giant block of ice, which had been caught by fishermen off the coast of New Zealand's South Island that year.
The number of known giant squid specimens was close to 700 in 2011, and new ones are reported each year. Around 30 of these specimens are exhibited at museums and aquaria worldwide. The Centro del Calamar Gigante in Luarca, Spain, had by far the largest collection on public display, but many of the museum's specimens were destroyed during a storm in February 2014.
The search for a live Architeuthis specimen includes attempts to find live young, including larvae. The larvae closely resemble those of Nototodarus and Onykia, but are distinguished by the shape of the mantle attachment to the head, the tentacle suckers, and the beaks.
Images and video of live animals
By the turn of the 21st century, the giant squid remained one of the few extant megafauna to have never been photographed alive, either in the wild or in captivity. Marine biologist and author Richard Ellis described it as "the most elusive image in natural history". In 1993, an image purporting to show a diver with a live giant squid (identified as Architeuthis dux) was published in the book European Seashells. However, the animal in this photograph was a sick or dying Onykia robusta, not a giant squid. The first footage of live (larval) giant squid ever captured on film was in 2001. The footage was shown on Chasing Giants: On the Trail of the Giant Squid on the Discovery Channel.
First images of live adult
The first image of a live mature giant squid was taken on 15 January 2002, on Goshiki beach, Amino Cho, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. The animal, which measured about in mantle length and in total length, was found near the water's surface. It was captured and tied to a quay, where it died overnight. The specimen was identified by Koutarou Tsuchiya of the Tokyo University of Fisheries. It is on display at the National Science Museum of Japan.
First observations in the wild
The first photographs of a live giant squid in its natural habitat were taken on 30 September 2004, by Tsunemi Kubodera (National Science Museum of Japan) and Kyoichi Mori (Ogasawara Whale Watching Association). Their teams had worked together for nearly two years to accomplish this. They used a five-ton fishing boat and only two crew members. The images were created on their third trip to a known sperm whale hunting ground south of Tokyo, where they had dropped a line baited with squid and shrimp. The line also held a camera and a flash. After over twenty tries that day, an giant squid attacked the lure and snagged its tentacle. The camera took over 500 photos before the squid managed to break free after four hours. The squid's tentacle remained attached to the lure. Later DNA tests confirmed the animal as a giant squid.
On 27 September 2005, Kubodera and Mori released the photographs to the world. The photo sequence, taken at a depth of off Japan's Ogasawara Islands, shows the squid homing in on the baited line and enveloping it in "a ball of tentacles". The researchers were able to locate the likely general location of giant squid by closely tailing the movements of sperm whales. According to Kubodera, "we knew that they fed on the squid, and we knew when and how deep they dived, so we used them to lead us to the squid". Kubodera and Mori reported their observations in the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society.
Among other things, the observations demonstrate actual hunting behaviors of adult Architeuthis, a subject on which there had been much speculation. The photographs showed an aggressive hunting pattern by the baited squid, leading to it impaling a tentacle on the bait ball's hooks. This may disprove the theory that the giant squid is a drifter which eats whatever floats by, rarely moving so as to conserve energy. It seems the species has a much more aggressive feeding technique.
First video of live adult
In November 2006, American explorer and diver Scott Cassell led an expedition to the Gulf of California with the aim of filming a giant squid in its natural habitat. The team employed a novel filming method: using a Humboldt squid carrying a specially designed camera clipped to its fin. The camera-bearing squid caught on film what was claimed to be a giant squid, with an estimated length of , engaging in predatory behavior. The footage aired a year later on a History Channel program, MonsterQuest: Giant Squid Found. Cassell subsequently distanced himself from this documentary, claiming that it contained multiple factual and scientific errors. Videos of live giant squids have been captured three times subsequently, with one of these aforementioned individuals being guided back into the open ocean after appearing in Toyama Harbor on December 24, 2015.
Second video of giant squid in natural habitat
On 19 June 2019, in an expedition run by the National Oceanic & Atmospheric Association (NOAA), known as the Journey to Midnight, biologists Nathan J. Robinson and Edith Widder captured a video of a juvenile giant squid at a depth of 759 meters (2,490 feet) in the Gulf of Mexico. Michael Vecchione, a NOAA Fisheries zoologist, confirmed that the captured footage was that of the genus Architeuthis, and that the individual filmed measured at somewhere between .
Cultural depictions
The elusive nature of the giant squid and its foreign appearance, often perceived as terrifying, have firmly established its place in the human imagination. Representations of the giant squid have been known from early legends of the kraken through books such as Moby-Dick and Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea on to novels such as Ian Fleming's Dr. No, Peter Benchley's Beast (adapted as a film called The Beast), and Michael Crichton Sphere (adapted as a film), and modern animated television programs.
In particular, the image of a giant squid locked in battle with a sperm whale is a common one, although the squid is the whale's prey and not an equal combatant.
In 2021 a statue of a giant squid was constructed in the Japanese town of Noto. It was widely criticised for being funded with coronavirus relief money.
See also
Colossal squid, the largest squid species by mass
Enteroctopus, a genus whose members are commonly known as giant octopuses
Giant Squid Interpretation Site, a small museum in Glovers Harbour, Newfoundland
Gigantic octopus, a hypothesised species of octopus
Humboldt squid, a large species of squid and the only member of the genus Dosidicus
Largest living organisms
Taningia danae, a large squid species of the genus Taningia
References
Further reading
External links
Tree of Life Web Project: Architeuthis
TONMO.com's fact sheet for giant and colossal squids
TONMO.com's giant squid reproduction article
Giant squid – Smithsonian Ocean Portal
New Zealand – 1999 Expedition Journals In Search of Giant Squid
Fishermen haul in world's biggest squid in the Ross Sea, February 2007.
Video of giant squid
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|
215422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IAU%20%28disambiguation%29 | IAU (disambiguation) | IAU may refer to:
Immersion gold plating (IAu), a surface finish process in PCB manufacturing
International Astronomical Union
International American University
International American University College of Medicine
International Association of Universities
International Association of Ultrarunners (IAU) is the governing body for ultra running
Islamic American University
Islamic Azad University
Italian Actors Union, former name of the Guild of Italian American Actors, United States
5000 IAU, an asteroid
Is Anyone Up?
International Crossbow Shooting Union or International Armbrustschützen Union (IAU)
Interamerican University of Puerto Rico
Iau is:
The Iau language
An occasional spelling for Eiao | [
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|
215423 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber%20alert | Amber alert | An Amber Alert or a child abduction emergency alert (SAME code: CAE) is a message distributed by a child abduction alert system to ask the public for help in finding abducted children. The system originated in the United States, and is named for Amber Rene Hagerman, who was abducted and later found murdered in 1996.
AMBER is a backronym for America's Missing: Broadcast Emergency Response. Alternative regional alert names were once used; in Georgia, "Levi's Call" (in memory of Levi Frady); in Hawaii, "Maile Amber Alert" (in memory of Maile Gilbert); in Arkansas, "Morgan Nick Amber Alert" (in memory of Morgan Nick); and in Utah, "Rachael Alert" (in memory of Rachael Runyan).
In the United States, Amber alerts are distributed via commercial and public radio stations, Internet radio, satellite radio, television stations, text messages, and cable TV by the Emergency Alert System and NOAA Weather Radio (where they are termed "Child Abduction Emergency" or "Amber Alerts"). The alerts are also issued via e-mail, electronic traffic-condition signs, commercial electronic billboards, or through wireless device SMS text messages. AMBER Alert has also teamed up with Google, Bing, and Facebook to relay information regarding an AMBER Alert to an ever-growing demographic: AMBER Alerts are automatically displayed if citizens search or use map features on Google or Bing. With the Google Child Alert (also called Google AMBER Alert in some countries), citizens see an AMBER Alert if they search for related information in a particular location where a child has recently been abducted and an alert was issued. This is a component of the AMBER Alert system that is already active in the US (there are also developments in Europe). Those interested in subscribing to receive AMBER Alerts in their area via SMS messages can visit Wireless Amber Alerts, which are offered by law as free messages. In some states, the display scrollboards in front of lottery terminals are also used.
The decision to declare an AMBER Alert is made by each police organization (in many cases, the state police or highway patrol) that investigates each of the abductions. Public information in an AMBER Alert usually consists of the name and description of the abductee, a description of the suspected abductor, and a description and license plate number of the abductor's vehicle if available.
Activation criteria
The alerts are broadcast using the Emergency Alert System, which had previously been used primarily for weather bulletins, civil emergencies, or national emergencies. In Canada, alerts are broadcast via Alert Ready, a Canadian emergency warning system. Alerts usually contain a description of the child and of the likely abductor. To avoid both false alarms and having alerts ignored as a "wolf cry", the criteria for issuing an alert are rather strict. Each state's or province's AMBER alert plan sets its own criteria for activation, meaning that there are differences between alerting agencies as to which incidents are considered to justify the use of the system. However, the U.S. Department of Justice issues the following "guidance", which most states are said to "adhere closely to" (in the U.S.):
Law enforcement must confirm that an abduction has taken place.
The child must be at risk of serious injury or death.
There must be sufficient descriptive information of child, captor, or captor's vehicle to issue an alert.
The child must be under 17 years of age
Many law enforcement agencies have not used #2 as a criterion, resulting in many parental abductions triggering an Amber Alert, where the child is not known or assumed to be at risk of serious injury or death. In 2013, West Virginia passed Skylar's Law to eliminate #1 as a criterion for triggering an Amber Alert.
It is recommended that AMBER Alert data immediately be entered into the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) National Crime Information Center. Text information describing the circumstances surrounding the abduction of the child should be entered, and the case flagged as child abduction.
The Royal Canadian Mounted Police's (RCMP) requirements in Canada are nearly identical to the above list, with the exception that the RCMP instead of the FBI is normally notified. One organization might notify the other if there is reason to suspect that the border may be crossed.
When investigators believe that a child is in danger of being taken across the border to either Canada or Mexico, U.S. Customs and Border Protection, United States Border Patrol and the Canada Border Services Agency are notified and are expected to search every car coming through a border checkpoint. If the child is suspected to be taken to Canada, a Canadian Amber Alert can also be issued, and a pursuit by Canadian authorities usually follows.
Incidents not meeting alert criteria
For incidents which do not meet AMBER Alert criteria, the United States Department of Justice developed the Child Abduction Response Teams (CART) program to assist local agencies. This program can be used in all missing children's cases with or without an AMBER alert. CART can also be used to help recover runaway children under the age of 18 and who are in danger. , 225 response teams have been trained in 43 states, as well as Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and Canada.
Namesake
Amber Rene Hagerman (November 25, 1986 – January 15, 1996) was a young girl abducted while riding her bike with her brother in Arlington, Texas. Her younger brother, Ricky, had gone home without her because Amber had wanted to stay in the parking lot for a while. When he returned to go get her, Ricky found her bicycle without her. A neighbor who had witnessed the abduction called 911. On hearing the news, Hagerman's father, Richard, called Marc Klaas, whose daughter, Polly, had been kidnapped and murdered in Petaluma, California, in 1993. Richard, and Amber's mother, Donna Whitson (now Donna Norris), called the news media and the FBI. They and their neighbors began searching for Amber.
Four days after her abduction, near midnight, Amber's naked body was discovered in a creek behind an apartment complex with severe laceration wounds to her neck. The site of the discovery was less than five miles (8 km) from where she was abducted. Her murder remains unsolved as of 2022.
Program development
Within days of Amber's death, Donna Whitson was "calling for tougher laws governing kidnappers and sex offenders". Amber's parents soon established People Against Sex Offenders (P.A.S.O.). They collected signatures hoping to force the Texas Legislature into passing more stringent laws to protect children.
God's Place International Church donated the first office space for the organization, and as the search for Amber's killer continued, P.A.S.O. received almost-daily coverage in local media. Companies donated various office supplies, including computer and Internet service. Congressman Martin Frost, with the help of Marc Klaas, drafted the Amber Hagerman Child Protection Act. Both of Hagerman's parents were present when President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law, creating the national sex offender registry. Whitson and Richard Hagerman then began collecting signatures in Texas, which they planned to present to then-Governor George W. Bush as a sign that people wanted more stringent laws for sex offenders.
In July 1996, Bruce Seybert (whose own daughter was a close friend of Amber) and Richard Hagerman attended a media symposium in Arlington. Although Hagerman had remarks prepared, on the day of the event the organizers asked Seybert to speak instead. In his 20-minute speech, he spoke about efforts that local police could take quickly to help find missing children and how the media could facilitate those efforts. C.J. Wheeler, a reporter from radio station KRLD, approached the Dallas police chief shortly afterward with Seybert's ideas and launched the first ever Amber Alert.
Whitson testified in front of the U.S. Congress in June 1996, asking legislators to create a nationwide registry of sex offenders. Representative Martin Frost, the Congressman who represents Whitson's district, proposed an "Amber Hagerman Child Protection Act." Among the sections of the bill was one that would create a national sex offender registry.
Diana Simone, a Texas resident who had been following the news, contacted the KDMX radio station and proposed broadcasts to engage passerby in helping locate missing children. Her idea was picked up and for the next two years, alerts were made manually to participating radio stations. In 1998, the Child Alert Foundation created the first fully automated Alert Notification System (ANS) to notify surrounding communities when a child was reported missing or abducted. Alerts were sent to radio stations as originally requested but included television stations, surrounding law enforcement agencies, newspapers and local support organizations. These alerts were sent all at once via pagers, faxes, emails, and cell phones with the information immediately posted on the Internet for the general public to view.
Following the automation of the AMBER Alert with ANS technology created by the Child Alert Foundation, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children (NCMEC) expanded its role in 2002 to promote the AMBER Alert, although in 1996 now CEO of the NCMEC declined to come in and further assist the AMBER Alert when asked to by Bruce Seybert and Richard Hagerman and has since worked actively to see alerts distributed using the nation's existing emergency radio and TV response network.
International adoption
United States
In October 2000, the United States House of Representatives adopted H.Res. 605 which encouraged communities nationwide to implement the AMBER Plan. In October 2001, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children that had declined to be a part of the Amber Alert in February 1996, launched a campaign to have AMBER Alert systems established nationwide. In February 2002, the Federal Communications Commission officially endorsed the system. In 2002, several children were abducted in cases that drew national attention. One such case, the kidnapping and murder of Samantha Runnion, prompted California to establish an AMBER Alert system on July 24, 2002. According to Senator Dianne Feinstein, in its first month California issued 13 AMBER alerts; 12 of the children were recovered safely and the remaining alert was found to be a misunderstanding.
By September 2002, 26 states had established AMBER Alert systems that covered all or parts of the state. A bipartisan group of US Senators, led by Kay Bailey Hutchison and Dianne Feinstein, proposed legislation to name an AMBER Alert coordinator in the U.S. Justice Department who could help coordinate state efforts. The bill also provided $25 million in federal matching grants for states to establish AMBER Alert programs and necessary equipment purchases, such as electronic highway signs. A similar bill was sponsored in the U.S. House of Representatives by Jennifer Dunn and Martin Frost. The bill passed the Senate unanimously within a week of its proposal. At an October 2002 conference on missing, exploited, and runaway children, President George W. Bush announced changes to the AMBER Alert system, including the development of a national standard for issuing AMBER Alerts. A similar bill passed the House several weeks later on a 390–24 vote. A related bill finally became law in April 2003.
The alerts were offered digitally beginning in November 2002, when America Online began a service allowing people sign up to receive notification via computer, pager, or cell phone. Users of the service enter their ZIP Code, thus allowing the alerts to be targeted to specific geographic regions.
By 2005, all fifty states had operational programs and today the program operates across state and jurisdictional boundaries. , AMBER Alerts are automatically sent through the Wireless Emergency Alerts (WEA) program.
Canada
Canada's system began in December 2002, when Alberta launched the first province-wide system. At the time, Alberta Solicitor-General Heather Forsyth said "We anticipate an Amber Alert will only be issued once a year in Alberta. We hope we never have to use it, but if a child is abducted Amber Alert is another tool police can use to find them and help them bring the child home safely." The Alberta government committed to spending more than CA$1 million to expanding the province's emergency warning system so that it could be used effectively for Amber Alerts. Other Canadian provinces soon adopted the system, and by May 2004, Saskatchewan was the only province that had not established an Amber Alert system. Within the next year, the program was in use throughout the country.
Amber Alerts may also be distributed via the Alert Ready emergency alert system, which disrupts programming on all radio, television stations, and television providers in the relevant region to display and play audio of Amber Alert information. In 2018, Alert Ready introduced alerts on supported mobile devices. When an alert is broadcast, a distinct sound is played and a link to find more information is displayed onscreen. Currently, there is no way to deactivate Amber Alerts on mobile devices in Canada, even if the device is in silent and/or Do Not Disturb modes, which has provoked controversy. These series of multiple blaring alarms going off in the middle of the night have caused residents to complain, often by calling 911. However, there are concerns that hearing repeated alarms may cause Canadians to ignore the alarm when the system is used to warn of life-threatening emergencies.
British Columbia
Translink, the corporation responsible for the regional transportation network of Metro Vancouver in British Columbia, Canada, displays Amber alerts on all their buses' digital signs reading "AMBER ALERT | Listen to radio | Bus #". Details of the Amber alert information are also available on screens at transit stations.
Quebec
The program was introduced in Quebec on May 26, 2003. The name AMBER alert was then adapted in French to Alerte Médiatique But Enfant Recherché, which directly translates as "Media Alert for Child Recovery". In order to launch an AMBER alert, police authorities need to meet 4 criteria simultaneously and with no exceptions:
The missing person is a child under the age of 18.
The police have reason to believe that the missing child has been abducted.
The police have reason to believe that the physical safety or the life of the child is in serious danger.
The police have information that may help locate the child, the suspect and/or the suspect's vehicle.
Once all 4 conditions are met, the police service may call an AMBER alert. Simultaneously, all of Quebec's Ministry of transport message boards will broadcast the police's messages. The Société de l'assurance automobile du Québec (SAAQ) road traffic controllers also help with the search. Television and radio stations broadcast a description of the child, the abductor and/or the abductor's car. On the radio, the information is broadcast every 20 minutes for two hours or less if the child is found. On the television, the information is broadcast on a ticker tape at the bottom of the screen for two hours with no interruptions. After this, the ticker tape is withdrawn, but the police continue to inform the public through the usual means of communication.
Over the years, the program gathered more partners in order for the alert to be communicated on different media platforms. As in Ontario, lottery crown corporation Loto-Québec puts to the disposition of the police forces their 8500 terminals located throughout the province. Some of these terminals are equipped with a screen that faces the customer which makes it the largest network of its kind to operate in Canada. The technology employed enables them to broadcast the message on the entire network in under 10 minutes. In addition, The Canadian Wireless Telecommunications Association (CWTA) offers to most Canadians, upon free subscription, the possibility to receive, via text message, on their mobile devices AMBER alert notices.
Ontario
Ontario furthered its reach beyond media and highway signs by offering Amber Alerts on the province's 9,000 lottery terminal screens.
After the abduction and murder of Victoria Stafford, an online petition was started by Suzie Pereira, a single mother of 2 children who gathered over 61,000 signatures, prompting a review of the Amber Alert. There was some concern regarding the strict criteria for issuing the alerts – criteria that were not met in the Stafford case – that resulted in an alert not being issued. Ontario Provincial Police have since changed their rules for issuing an alert from having to confirm an abduction and confirm threat of harm, to believe that a child has been abducted and believe is at risk of harm.
Mexico
Mexico joined international efforts to spread the use of the AMBER alert at an official launch ceremony on April 28, 2011.
Australia
The Australian state of Queensland implemented a version of the AMBER Alerts in May 2005. Other Australian states joined Queensland in Facebook's Amber Alert program in June 2017.
Europe
AMBER Alert Europe is a foundation that assists in saving missing children at risk by connecting law enforcement with other police experts and with the public across Europe. AMBER Alert Europe advocates that one missing child is one too many and aims for zero missing children in Europe.
AMBER Alert Europe brings together 42 official organisations, public authorities and business entities from 26 countries. The foundation actively contributes to the EU and national policy debate on saving missing children. AMBER Alert Europe also officially facilitates the Police Expert Network on Missing Persons (PEN-MP), so far consisting of over 80 experts from 30 countries, and the Task Force on AMBER Alerts. The goals of AMBER Alert Europe are backed by 465 Members of the European Parliament: most successful Written Declaration since 2011.
AMBER Alert Europe is a neutral platform. It operates either evidence based (scientifically proven) or expert based. All activities are executed with respect for the privacy of missing persons and data protection laws.
Background
In 2008, AMBER Alert Netherlands was launched. With a reach of more than 12 million Dutch citizens, AMBER Alert Netherlands quickly became an example of how citizen sourcing can work; in 94 percent of the cases, the child was successfully found.
The creation of AMBER Alert Europe
Inspired by the success of the Dutch AMBER Alert, the AMBER Alert Europe foundation was launched in 2013 with the following goal:
1. To be a life-saving factor in abductions or disappearances of children throughout Europe;
2. To undertake any further actions necessary related to achieving or advancing the above-mentioned goal, in the broadest sense.
Police Expert Network on Missing Persons
The Police Expert Network on Missing Persons (PEN-MP), founded by the AMBER Alert Europe foundation, is officially recognised by the Council of the European Union and all member states. The PEN-MP is the official European missing persons police network consisting of police experts in the field of missing persons from all over Europe. So far, the PEN-MP consists of over 80 law enforcement experts from 30 countries. Goal of the PEN-MP is to bring together law enforcement experts in the field of missing persons, specifically children.
In order to save more missing persons across Europe, members can quickly contact and consult each other about missing person cases. The PEN-MP also provides specialist support, advice, and training to its members.
The PEN-MP was announced in 2016 under the Dutch Presidency of the Council of the European Union. At its launch, the Dutch Presidency called on every Member State to appoint a national contact for the network. In support of the Dutch initiative, a majority of 465 Members of the European Parliament from all EU Member States signed AMBER Alert Europe's Written Declaration for better European cooperation on saving the lives of missing children.
The PEN-MP is now officially recognised by the Council of the European Union with its formal affiliation to the Law Enforcement Working Party (LEWP).
According to AMBER Alert Europe, a child whose whereabouts is not known will be considered as missing until located, and their well-being or otherwise confirmed. All cases should be assessed to determine the seriousness and immediacy of risk, which will indicate the response that is required. For more detailed information on risk assessment see 'Understanding and Managing Risk in the Context of Missing Persons'.
France
In February 2006, France's Justice ministry launched an apparatus based on the AMBER alerts named Alerte-Enlèvement (abduction alert) or Dispositif Alerte-Enlèvement (abduction alert apparatus) with the help of most media and railroad and motorway companies.
Netherlands
AMBER Alert Netherlands was launched in 2008 and is now facilitated by the AMBER Alert Europe foundation. On February 14, 2009, the first Dutch AMBER Alert was issued when a 4-year-old boy went missing in Rotterdam. He was found safe and sound after being recognized by a person who saw his picture on an electronic billboard in a fast food restaurant. He was recovered so quickly, that the transmission of the AMBER Alert was halted before all recipients received it. Since 2008, the AMBER Alert system has been deployed for 29 AMBER Alerts and over 1000 Missing Child Alerts.
Currently, AMBER Alert has 3 million participants including thousands of large organizations. Indirectly, a Dutch AMBER Alert reaches more than 12 million Dutch citizens (89 percent of the Dutch population). With a success rate of 94 percent, the Dutch AMBER Alert system is an example of effective citizen sourcing.
An AMBER Alert is issued when a child is missing or abducted and the Dutch police fear that the life or health of the child is in imminent danger. The system enables the police to immediately alert press and public nationwide, by means of electronic highway signs, TV, radio, social media, PCs, large advertising screens (digital signage), email, text messages, apps, RSS news feeds, website banners and pop-ups. There are four key criteria in The Netherlands to be met before an AMBER Alert is issued:
The child is (very likely) abducted by an unknown person or persons or the child is missing and its life is in imminent danger
The victim is a minor (under 18 years of age);
There is enough information about the victim to increase the chances of the child being found by means of an AMBER Alert, such as a photo, information about the abductor or the vehicle used during the abduction;
The AMBER Alert is issued as soon as possible after the abduction or disappearance of the child.
Parts of the Dutch AMBER Alert system are being used for Missing Child Alerts. A Missing Child Alert is issued when there is an immediate and significant risk of harm for the missing child but the case does not reach the criteria for an AMBER Alert. The Dutch police can decide to publicize information and ask the help of citizens to recover the child.
United Kingdom
On April 1, 2007, the AMBER Alert system became active in North West England. An implementation across the rest of Britain was planned at that time. This was realized on May 25, 2010 with the nationwide launch of the Child Rescue Alert, based on the AMBER Alert system. The first system in the UK of this kind was created in Sussex on November 14, 2002. This was followed by versions in Surrey and Hampshire. By 2005, every local jurisdiction in England and Wales had its own form of alert system. The system was first used in the UK on October 3, 2012, with regard to missing 5 year-old April Jones in Wales.
Ireland
In April 2009, it was announced that an AMBER Alert system would be set up in Ireland, In May 2012, the Child Rescue Ireland (CRI) Alert was officially introduced. Ireland's first AMBER alert was issued upon the disappearance of two boys, Eoghan (10) and Ruarí Chada (5).
Slovak Republic
Since April 2015, an emergency child abduction alert system "AMBER Alert Slovakia" is also available in Slovak Republic. (www.amberalert.sk)
Ukraine
On 22 September 2021, Ukraine's Ministry of Digital Transformation, the National Police of Ukraine and Facebook announced the launch of AMBER Alert in Ukraine.
Malaysia
In September 2007, Malaysia implemented the Nurin Alert. Based on the AMBER alert, it is named for a missing eight-year-old girl, Nurin Jazlin.
Ecuador
In 2018, Ecuador's Department of Security introduced its own AMBER Alert called EMILIA Alert, named after the abducted girl Emilia Benavides in December 2017.
Russia
In 2019, Megafon developed its own alert system called MegaFon.Poisk. It is oriented for all regions of Russia where MegaFon is represented and is used for searches of children and adults as well. For less than half of a year, the service has been used for searching of more than 250 people and in more than 30% of situations people called back with information about a lost person.
Retrieval rate
According to the U.S. Department of Justice, of the children abducted and murdered by strangers, 75% are killed within the first three hours in the USA. Amber Alerts are designed to inform the general public quickly when a child has been kidnapped and is in danger so "the public [would be] additional eyes and ears of law enforcement". , the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children estimates that 657 children have been successfully recovered as a result of the existence of the AMBER Alert program.
A Scripps Howard study of the 233 AMBER Alerts issued in the United States in 2004 found that most issued alerts did not meet the Department of Justice's criteria. Fully 50% (117 alerts) were categorized by the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children as being "family abductions", very often a parent involved in a custody dispute. There were 48 alerts for children who had not been abducted at all, but were lost, ran away, involved in family misunderstandings (for example, two instances where the child was with grandparents), or as the result of hoaxes. Another 23 alerts were issued in cases where police did not know the name of the allegedly abducted child, often as the result of misunderstandings by witnesses who reported an abduction. Seventy of the 233 AMBER Alerts issued in 2004 (30%) were actually children taken by strangers or who were unlawfully travelling with adults other than their legal guardians.
According to the 2014 Amber Alert Report, 186 Amber Alerts were issued in the US, involving 239 children; 60 were taken by strangers or people other than their legal guardians.
Controversies
Crime control theater
Some outside scholars examining the system in depth disagree with the "official" results. A research team led by criminologist Timothy Griffin reviewed hundreds of abduction cases that occurred between 2003 and 2006 and found that AMBER Alerts actually had little apparent role in the eventual return of abducted children. The AMBER Alerts tended to be "successful" in relatively mundane abductions, such as when the child was taken by a noncustodial parent or other family member. There was little evidence that AMBER Alerts routinely "saved lives", although a crucial research constraint was the impossibility of knowing with certainty what would have happened if no alert had been issued in a particular case.
Griffin and coauthor Monica Miller articulated the limits to AMBER Alert in a subsequent research article. They stated that alerts are inherently constrained, because to be successful in the most menacing cases there needs to be a rapid synchronization of several events (rapid discovery that the child is missing and subsequent alert, the fortuitous discovery of the child or abductor by a citizen, and so forth). Furthermore, there is a contradiction between the need for rapid recovery and the prerogative to maintain the strict issuance criteria to reduce the number of frivolous alerts, creating a dilemma for law enforcement officials and public backlash when alerts are not issued in cases ending as tragedies. Finally, the implied causal model of alert (rapid recovery can save lives) is in a sense the opposite of reality: in the worst abduction scenarios, the intentions of the perpetrator usually guarantee that anything public officials do will be "too slow".
Because the system is publicly praised for saving lives despite these limitations, Griffin and Miller argue that AMBER Alert acts as "crime control theater" in that it "creates the appearance but not the fact of crime control". AMBER Alert is thus a socially constructed "solution" to the rare but intractable crime of child-abduction murder. Griffin and Miller have subsequently applied the concept to other emotional but ineffective legislation such as safe-haven laws and polygamy raids. Griffin considers his findings preliminary, reporting his team examined only a portion of the Amber Alerts issued over the three-year period they focused on, so he recommends taking a closer look at the evaluation of the program and its intended purpose, instead of simply promoting the program.
Overuse and desensitization
Advocates for missing children have expressed concerns that the public is gradually becoming desensitized to AMBER Alerts because of a large number of false or overly broad alarms, where police issue an AMBER Alert without strictly adhering to the U.S. Department of Justice's activation guidelines.
The timing of a July 2013 New York child abduction alert sent through the Wireless Emergency Alerts system at 4 a.m. raised concerns that many cellphone users would disable WEA alerts.
Effects on traffic
AMBER alerts are often displayed on electronic message signs. The Federal Highway Administration has instructed states to display alerts on highway signs sparingly, citing safety concerns from distracted drivers and the negative impacts of traffic congestion.
Many states have policies in place that limit the use of AMBER alerts on freeway signs. In Los Angeles, an AMBER alert issued in October 2002 that was displayed on area freeway signs caused significant traffic congestion. As a result, the California Highway Patrol elected not to display the alerts during rush hour, citing safety concerns. The state of Wisconsin only displays AMBER alerts on freeway signs if it is deemed appropriate by the transportation department and a public safety agency. AMBER alerts do not preempt messages related to traffic safety.
Influence
The United States Postal Service issued a postage stamp commemorating AMBER Alerts in May 2006. The 39-cent stamp features a chalk pastel drawing by artist Vivienne Flesher of a reunited mother and child, with the text "AMBER ALERT saves missing children" across the pane. The stamp was released as part of the observance of National Missing Children's Day.
In 2006, a TV movie, Amber's Story, was broadcast on Lifetime. It starred Elisabeth Röhm and Sophie Hough.
A comic book entitled Amber Hagerman Deserves Justice: A Night Owl Story was published by Wham Bang Comics in 2009. Geared toward a young audience by teen author Jake Tinsley and Manga artist Jason Dube, it tells Amber's story, recounts the investigation into her murder, and touches on the effect her death has had on young children and parents everywhere. It was created to promote what was then a reopened investigation into her murder.
References
Cited works and further reading
External links
U.S. government AMBER alert site
Our Missing Children (Government of Canada)
Congressional Research Service (CRS) report on Amber Alert program technology
Child Rescue Alert – UK equivalent of Amber Alert
AMBER Alert Nederland site, the Dutch Amber alert
National Center for Missing & Exploited Children
Crime Library on Amber Hagerman
1996 establishments in the United States
Child safety
Emergency communication
Law enforcement in Canada
Law enforcement in the United States
Missing people organizations
Organizations established in 1996 | [
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|
215424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant%20coffee | Instant coffee | Instant coffee, also called soluble coffee, coffee crystals, coffee powder, or powdered coffee, is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans that enables people to quickly prepare hot coffee by adding hot water or milk to the powder or crystals and stirring. Instant coffee is commercially prepared by either freeze-drying or spray drying, after which it can be rehydrated. Instant coffee in a concentrated liquid form is also manufactured.
Advantages of instant coffee include speed of preparation (instant coffee dissolves quickly in hot water), lower shipping weight and volume than beans or ground coffee (to prepare the same amount of beverage), and long shelf life—though instant coffee can spoil if not kept dry. Instant coffee also reduces cleanup since there are no coffee grounds, and at least one study has found that it has a lower environmental footprint than other preparation methods.
History
A concentrated coffee/milk/sugar mixture was produced for the Union army during the American Civil War under the name Essence of Coffee, a teaspoonful of which was mixed with a cup of hot water. It had the consistency of axle grease, and proved so unpopular with the troops that it was soon discontinued. The brand Camp Coffee, a coffee and chicory essence, was first produced in 1876 by Paterson & Sons Ltd in Scotland and continues.
Instant or soluble coffee was invented and patented in 1890, by David Strang of Invercargill, New Zealand, under patent number 3518 sold under the trading name Strang's Coffee citing the patented "Dry Hot-Air" process. Some modern sources have credited French humorist and writer Alphonse Allais with the invention.
The invention was previously attributed to Satori Kato, a Japanese scientist working in Chicago in 1901. Kato introduced the powdered substance in Buffalo, New York, at the Pan-American Exposition. George Constant Louis Washington developed his own instant coffee process shortly thereafter, and first marketed it commercially (1910). The Nescafé brand, which introduced a more advanced coffee refining process, was launched in 1938.
High-vacuum freeze-dried coffee was developed shortly after World War II, as an indirect result of wartime research into other areas. The National Research Corporation (NRC) was formed in Massachusetts as a process-development company employing high-vacuum technology. It developed high-vacuum processes to produce penicillin, blood plasma, and streptomycin for US military use. As the war ended, NRC looked to adapt its processes for peacetime uses. It formed Florida Foods Corporation to produce concentrated orange juice powder and originally sold its product to the United States Army. That company later changed its name to Minute Maid.
Use
Close to 50% of the world's green coffee is used to produce instant coffee.
As food
Instant coffee is available in powder or granulated form contained in glass and plastic jars, sachets, or tins. The user controls the strength of the resulting product by adding less or more powder to the water, ranging from thin "coffee water" to very strong and concentrated syrupy coffee.
Instant coffee is also convenient for preparing iced coffee like the Greek frappé.
In some countries, such as Portugal, Spain, and India, instant coffee is commonly mixed with hot milk instead of boiling water. In other countries, such as South Korea, instant coffee commonly comes pre-mixed with non-dairy creamer and sugar and is called "coffee mix". Said to have been popularised in the UK by GIs during World War II, instant coffee still accounts for over 75 percent of coffee bought to drink in British homes, as opposed to well under 10 percent in the U.S. and France and one percent in Italy.
In the United Kingdom, instant coffee granules are sometimes used to enhance the flavour of sauces used in preparing spaghetti Bolognese.
Non-food use
Instant coffee is one of the ingredients in Caffenol, a home-made, non-toxic black-and-white photographic developer. The other ingredients in the basic formula are ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) and anhydrous sodium carbonate; some recipes also include potassium bromide as a fog-reducing agent. The active ingredient appears to be caffeic acid. Initial experiments on Caffenol were performed in 1995 at the Rochester Institute of Technology; addition of ascorbic acid began around 2000, yielding the improved Caffenol-C, which is less likely to stain negatives than the original formulation. Experiments have shown that cheaper, less desirable brands of coffee work better for this application than more expensive brands.
Production
As with regular coffee, the green coffee bean itself is first roasted to bring out flavour and aroma. Rotating cylinders containing the green beans and hot combustion gases are used in most roasting plants. When the bean temperature reaches the roasting begins. It takes about 8–15 minutes to complete roasting. After cooling, the beans are then ground finely. Grinding reduces the beans to pieces. Until here, the process is in general the same as for other types of coffee.
Extraction
To produce instant coffee, the soluble and volatile contents of the beans, which provide the coffee aroma and flavor, have to be extracted. This is done using water. Pressurized water heated to around is used for this process. The coffee concentration in the liquid is then increased by either evaporation or by freeze concentration.
Freeze drying
The basic principle of freeze drying is the removal of water by sublimation.
Since the mass production of instant coffee began in post-WWII America, freeze-drying has grown in popularity to become a common method. Although it is more expensive, it generally results in a higher-quality product.
The coffee extract is rapidly frozen and is broken into small granules. (Slower freezing would lead to larger ice crystals and a porous product; it can also affect the colour of the coffee granules).
The granules are sifted and sorted on size.
Frozen coffee granules are placed in the drying chamber, often on metal trays.
A vacuum is created within the chamber. The strength of the vacuum is critical in the speed of the drying and therefore the quality of the product. Care must be taken to produce a vacuum of suitable strength.
The drying chamber is warmed, most commonly by radiation, but conduction is used in some plants and convection has been proposed in some small pilot plants. A possible problem with convection is uneven drying rates within the chamber, which would give an inferior product.
Sublimation—the previously frozen water in the coffee granules expands to ten times its previous volume. The removal of this water vapor from the chamber is vitally important, making the condenser the most critical and expensive component in a freeze-drying plant.
The freeze-dried granules are removed from the chamber and packaged.
Spray drying
Spray drying is preferred to freeze-drying in some cases because it allows larger scale economic production, shorter drying times, and because it produces fine rounded particles.
The process produces spherical particles about in size with a density of 0.22 g/cm3. To achieve this, nozzle atomization is used. Various ways of nozzle atomization can be used each having its own advantages and disadvantages. High speed rotating wheels operating at speeds of about 20,000 rpm are able to process up to of solution per hour. The use of spray wheels requires that the drying towers have a wide radius to avoid the atomized droplets collecting onto the drying chamber walls.
Completed in 5–30 seconds (dependent on factors such as heat, size of particle, and diameter of chamber).
Moisture content change: IN = 75-85% OUT = 3-3.5%
Air temperature: IN = OUT =
One drawback with spray drying is that the particles it produces are too fine to be used effectively by the consumer; they must first be either steam-fused in towers similar to spray dryers or by belt agglomeration to produce particles of suitable size.
Decaffeination
In commercial processes, the decaffeination of instant coffee almost always happens before the critical roasting process which will determine the coffee's flavour and aroma processes.
Byproducts
The main byproduct of the instant coffee production process is spent coffee grounds. These grounds can be used as biomass, for example to produce heat used in the manufacturing process. Roughly 2 times the mass in spent coffee grounds is generated for each quantity of soluble coffee.
Composition
The caffeine content of instant coffee is generally less than that of brewed coffee. One study comparing various home-prepared samples came to the result that regular instant coffee (not decaffeinated) has a median caffeine content of 66 mg per cup (range 29–117 mg per cup), with a median cup size of 225 ml (range 170-285 ml) and a caffeine concentration of 328 µg/ml (range 102-559 µg/ml). In comparison, drip or filter coffee was estimated to have a median caffeine content of 112 mg, with a median concentration of 621 µg/ml for the same cup size.
Regarding antioxidants, the polyphenol content of a 180 ml cup of instant coffee has been estimated to be approximately 320 mg, compared to approximately 400 mg in a cup of brewed coffee of the same size.
Health hazards
Malabsorption
Instant coffee decreases intestinal iron absorption more than drip coffee. One study estimated that, when a cup of instant coffee was ingested with a meal composed of semipurified ingredients, intestinal absorption was reduced from 5.88% to 0.97%, compared to an absorption of 1.64% with drip coffee. It was also estimated that, when the strength of the instant coffee was doubled, intestinal iron absorption fell to 0.53%. Apparently, however, there is no decrease in iron absorption when instant coffee is consumed 1 hour before a meal, but the same degree of inhibition as with simultaneous ingestion occurs when instant coffee is taken 1 hour after a meal.
Carcinogenicity
Instant coffee has been associated with an increased risk of bladder cancer in women when compared to regular coffee, whereas for men both instant and regular coffee have been associated with an increased bladder cancer risk. However, current review research suggests that there is no dose-response relationship between coffee drinking and bladder cancer, and that previous studies may have been confounded by unidentified risks of bladder cancer.
Per an FDA survey, brewed instant coffee has acrylamide levels of 3–7 ppb, which is less than brewed regular coffee, i.e. 6–13 ppb.
Regulation
In the EU, regulations include the following details:
Species of coffee bean
Geographical origin
Processing detail
Year of crop
Solvents used in decaffeination
Caffeine level
Various institutions govern the coffee industry and help to achieve standardisation and also release information to the public.
International Coffee Organization (London)
Codex Alimentarius Commission of the UN (Rome)
National Coffee Association (New York)
See also
Instant breakfast
Instant soup
Instant tea
List of instant foods
List of dried foods
Powdered milk
References
Bibliography
External links
Types of coffee
Powdered drink mixes
Products introduced in 1909 | [
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|
215426 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Katz | Bernard Katz | Sir Bernard Katz, FRS (; 26 March 1911 – 20 April 2003) was a German-born British physician and biophysicist, noted for his work on nerve physiology. He shared the Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine in 1970 with Julius Axelrod and Ulf von Euler. He was made a Knight Bachelor in 1969.
Life and career
Katz was born in Leipzig, Germany, to a Jewish family originally from Russia, the son of Eugenie (Rabinowitz) and Max Katz, a fur merchant. He was educated at the Albert Gymnasium in that city from 1921 to 1929 and went on to study medicine at the University of Leipzig. He graduated in 1934 and fled to Britain in February 1935.
Katz went to work at University College London, initially under the tutelage of Archibald Vivian Hill. He finished his PhD in 1938 and won a Carnegie Fellowship to study with John Carew Eccles at the Kanematsu Institute of Sydney Medical School. During this time, both he and Eccles gave research lectures at the University of Sydney. He obtained British nationality in 1941 and joined the Royal Australian Air Force in 1942. He spent the war in the Pacific as a radar officer and in 1946 was invited back to UCL as an assistant director by Hill. For three years until 1949, the Katz family lived with Hill and his wife Margaret in the top flat of their house in Highgate.
Back in England he also worked with the 1963 Nobel prize winners Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley. Katz was made a professor at UCL in 1952 and head of biophysics, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1952. He stayed as head of biophysics until 1978 when he became emeritus professor.
Katz married Marguerite Penly in 1945. He died in London on 20 April 2003, at the age of 92. His son Jonathan is Public Orator of The University of Oxford.
Research
His research uncovered fundamental properties of synapses, the junctions across which nerve cells signal to each other and to other types of cells. By the 1950s, he was studying the biochemistry and action of acetylcholine, a signalling molecule found in synapses linking motor neurons to muscles, used to stimulate contraction. Katz won the Nobel for his discovery with Paul Fatt that neurotransmitter release at synapses is "quantal", meaning that at any particular synapse, the amount of neurotransmitter released is never less than a certain amount, and if more is always an integral number times this amount. Scientists now understand that this circumstance arises because, prior to their release into the synaptic gap, transmitter molecules reside in like-sized subcellular packages known as synaptic vesicles, released in a similar way to any other vesicle during exocytosis.
Katz's work had immediate influence on the study of organophosphates and organochlorines, the basis of new post-war study for nerve agents and pesticides, as he determined that the complex enzyme cycle was easily disrupted.
See also
Chemical synapse
Quantile neurotransmitter release
End-plate potential
List of refugees
Neuromuscular junction
References
External links
Sir Bernard Katz Biography. Nobel Foundation
Guardian Obituary
Australian Neuroscience Society Obituary
Sabbatini, R.M.E.: Neurons and synapses. The history of its discovery IV. Chemical transmission. Brain & Mind, 2004.
Physiology Online, PhysiologyNews, Issue 52, Autumn 2003
Bernard Katz: "An autobiographical sketch"
König-Albert-Gymnasium Leipzig
1911 births
2003 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
British Nobel laureates
German Nobel laureates
British neuroscientists
German neuroscientists
Jewish neuroscientists
Jewish scientists
Physicians from Leipzig
Alumni of University College London
Academics of University College London
Recipients of the Copley Medal
Knights Bachelor
Fellows of the Royal Society
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United Kingdom
Electrophysiologists
Neurophysiologists
The Journal of Physiology editors | [
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|
215428 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motacillidae | Motacillidae | The wagtails, longclaws, and pipits are a family, Motacillidae, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. The around 70 species occur in five genera. The longclaws are entirely restricted to the Afrotropics, and the wagtails are predominantly found in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with two species migrating and breeding in Alaska. The pipits have the most cosmopolitan distribution, being found across mostly in the Old World, but occurring also in the Americas and oceanic islands such as New Zealand and the Falklands. Two African species, the yellow-breasted pipit and Sharpe's longclaw, are sometimes placed in a separate seventh genus, Hemimacronyx, which is closely related to the longclaws.
Most motacillids are ground-feeding insectivores of slightly open country. They occupy almost all available habitats, from the shore to high mountains. Wagtails prefer wetter habitats than the pipits. A few species use forests, including the forest wagtail, and other species use forested mountain streams, such as the grey wagtail or the mountain wagtail.
Motacillids take a wide range of invertebrate prey, especially insects are the most commonly taken, but also including spiders, worms, and small aquatic molluscs and arthropods. All species seem to be fairly catholic in their diets, and the most commonly taken prey for any particular species or population usually reflects local availability.
With the exception of the forest wagtail, they nest on the ground, laying up to six speckled eggs.
Description
Wagtails, pipits, and longclaws are slender, small to medium-sized passerines, ranging from in length, with short necks and long tails. They have long, pale legs with long toes and claws, particularly the hind toe, which can be up to 4 cm in length in some longclaws. No sexual dimorphism in size is seen. Overall, the robust longclaws are larger than the pipits and wagtails. Longclaws can weigh as much as 64 g, as in Fülleborn's longclaw, whereas the weight range for pipits and wagtails is 15–31 g, with the smallest species being perhaps the yellowish pipit. The plumage of most pipits is dull brown and reminiscent of the larks, although some species have brighter plumages, particularly the golden pipit of north-east Africa. The adult male longclaws have brightly coloured undersides. The wagtails often have striking plumage, including grey, black, white, and yellow.
Phylogeny
A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2019 sampled 56 of the 68 recognised species in the family Motacillidae and found that the species formed six major clades. The pipit genus Anthus was paraphyletic with respect to the longclaw genus Macronyx. The striped pipit (Anthus lineiventris) and the African rock pipit (Anthus crenatus) were nested with the longclaws in Macronyx. The type species of Anthus, the meadow pipit, was nested with the other Palearctic species in Clade 2.
Species and genera
Family: Motacillidae
Genus Dendronanthus
Forest wagtail, Dendronanthus indicus
Genus Motacilla: typical wagtails
Western yellow wagtail, Motacilla flava – possibly paraphyletic
Eastern yellow wagtail, Motacilla tschutschensis – possibly paraphyletic
Citrine wagtail, Motacilla citreola – possibly paraphyletic
Cape wagtail, Motacilla capensis
Madagascar wagtail, Motacilla flaviventris
Grey wagtail, Motacilla cinerea
Mountain wagtail, Motacilla clara
White wagtail, Motacilla alba – possibly paraphyletic
Pied wagtail, Motacilla alba yarrellii
Black-backed wagtail, Motacilla alba lugens
African pied wagtail, Motacilla aguimp
Mekong wagtail, Motacilla samveasnae
Japanese wagtail, Motacilla grandis
White-browed wagtail, Motacilla madaraspatensis
São Tomé shorttail Motacilla bocagii
Genus Tmetothylacus
Golden pipit, Tmetothylacus tenellus
Genus Macronyx: longclaws
Cape longclaw, Macronyx capensis
Yellow-throated longclaw, Macronyx croceus
Fülleborn's longclaw, Macronyx fuellebornii
Sharpe's longclaw, Macronyx sharpei - sometimes placed in genus Hemimacronyx
Abyssinian longclaw, Macronyx flavicollis
Pangani longclaw, Macronyx aurantiigula
Rosy-throated longclaw, Macronyx ameliae
Grimwood's longclaw, Macronyx grimwoodi
Genus Anthus: typical pipits
Richard's pipit Anthus richardi
Paddyfield pipit Anthus rufulus
Australian pipit Anthus australis
New Zealand pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae
African pipit Anthus cinnamomeus
Mountain pipit Anthus hoeschi
Blyth's pipit Anthus godlewskii
Tawny pipit Anthus campestris
Long-billed pipit Anthus similis
Nicholson's pipit Anthus nicholsoni
Wood pipit Anthus nyassae
Buffy pipit Anthus vaalensis
Plain-backed pipit Anthus leucophrys
Long-legged pipit, Anthus pallidiventris
Meadow pipit Anthus pratensis
Tree pipit Anthus trivialis
Olive-backed pipit Anthus hodgsoni
Pechora pipit Anthus gustavi
Rosy pipit Anthus roseatus
Red-throated pipit Anthus cervinus
Buff-bellied pipit Anthus rubescens
Water pipit Anthus spinoletta
European rock pipit Anthus petrosus
Nilgiri pipit Anthus nilghiriensis
Upland pipit Anthus sylvanus
Berthelot's pipit Anthus berthelotii
Striped pipit Anthus lineiventris
African rock pipit Anthus crenatus
Short-tailed pipit Anthus brachyurus
Bushveld pipit Anthus caffer
Sokoke pipit Anthus sokokensis
Malindi pipit Anthus melindae
Yellow-breasted pipit Anthus chloris - sometimes placed in genus Hemimacronyx
Alpine pipit Anthus gutturalis
Sprague's pipit Anthus spragueii
Yellowish pipit Anthus lutescens
Short-billed pipit Anthus furcatus
Pampas pipit Anthus chacoensis
Correndera pipit Anthus correndera
South Georgia pipit Anthus antarcticus
Ochre-breasted pipit Anthus nattereri
Hellmayr's pipit Anthus hellmayri
Paramo pipit Anthus bogotensis
Madanga Anthus ruficollis
References
External links
Motacillidae videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Bird families | [
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215429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish%20cuisine | Finnish cuisine | Finnish cuisine is notable for generally combining traditional country fare and haute cuisine with contemporary continental style cooking. Fish and meat (usually pork, beef or reindeer) play a prominent role in traditional Finnish dishes in some parts of the country, while the dishes elsewhere have traditionally included various vegetables and mushrooms. Evacuees from Karelia contributed to foods in other parts of Finland in the aftermath of the Continuation War.
Finnish foods often use wholemeal products (rye, barley, oats) and berries (such as bilberries, lingonberries, cloudberries, and sea buckthorn). Milk and its derivatives like buttermilk are commonly used as food, drink or in various recipes. Various turnips were common in traditional cooking, but were replaced with the potato after its introduction in the 18th century.
Characteristics
The way of life and culture of Finns was mainly based on agriculture already at prehistoric times. However, in the harsh and cold environment, agriculture was neither a very effective nor secure way of life, so getting food from nature has often been an important secondary livelihood. When crops failed, it might have been the only way to survive. Also, while farms mainly produced plants like crops or turnips, and often families had only some farm animals to get milk products and meat, hunting and especially fishing were important ways to get more protein. Large-scale meat production and therefore meat as a daily food started to emerge only at the beginning of 20th century, after periods of malnutrition in the 19th century caused by failed crops.
In former times, the country's harsh climate meant that fresh fruit and vegetables were largely unavailable for at least nine months of the year, leading to a heavy reliance on staple tubers (initially turnip, later potato), dark rye bread and fermented dairy products, occasionally enlivened with preserved fish and meat. Traditionally, very few spices other than salt were available, and fresh herbs like dill and chives were limited to the summer months. Many Finnish traditional dishes are prepared by stewing them for a long time in an oven, which produces hearty but bland fare. Forests and lakes were historically a major source of food, and produce from forests currently accounts for the distinctive traits in Finnish cuisine. The simplicity of traditional Finnish food has been turned into an advantage by shifting the emphasis to freshness. Modern Finnish restaurateurs now blend high-quality Finnish products with continental cooking techniques. This approach helped Helsinki's Chez Dominique to receive two Michelin stars in 2003. The restaurant closed in 2013.
Internationalization brought imported goods. As pasta, pizza, kebab, and hamburgers were integrated into Finnish menus, they displaced some traditional everyday dishes like kaalilaatikko (cabbage casserole), or herring fillets, which some consider inferior. As of the 20th century, when the majority of Finnish women entered the workforce, many traditional dishes that require long preparation time are reserved for holidays.
Even with modern agriculture and transportation, food remains expensive in Finland relative to other European countries. This is notwithstanding the effect of accession to the European Union in 1995. The consequent elimination of trade barriers led prices of products like grains, meat, and milk to drop as much as 50%. Before that, heavy taxes and outright bans on imports that competed with local produce severely limited the availability of foreign or unseasonal food. Nowadays Finnish supermarkets and restaurants provide a variety of food from all over the world.
Finnish cuisine is very similar to Swedish cuisine. In fact, Swedish dishes like Janssons frestelse (), pyttipannu, and gravlax are common in Finland. The overarching difference is the Finns' preference for unsweetened foods. For example, while traditional Swedish rye bread includes plenty of syrup and spices, Finnish rye bread is unsweetened, even bitter. Finnish cuisine also bears some resemblance to German and Russian cuisines. Sausages and buttered bread (like Butterbrot), and (kissel) and (cf. pirozhki) are similar to their respective German and Russian counterparts. Finnish recipes, however, tend to favour fresh ingredients over canned or pickled foods as fresh vegetables, fish, and meat are available throughout the year.
Finnish food
Meats from Finland
The most popular meats in Finland are pork (33.5 kg/year/person in 2005), beef (18.6 kg), chicken (13.3 kg). Approximately one third of this is eaten as sausage (), which is mostly made from pork but often mixes in other meats as well. Horse meat, lamb and reindeer make up a small portion of the total meat consumption, but they are widely available.
In addition to domesticated animals, there are long traditions of hunting and fishing in Finland. The hunters focus on deer, moose and bear, but small game such as hare, duck and grouse are popular. Approximately 70,000-80,000 moose are culled yearly producing significant amounts of meat. Due to very strict food hygiene regulations, moose meat is mainly consumed within households and is rarely obtainable in restaurants.
Berries
Arctic wild berries are distinctively featured in Finnish cuisine with their strong flavor and high nutrient content. Traditionally, they were eaten fresh in summer and dried at other times of year. It is still quite common to go picking berries straight from the forests - in fact, wild berries are free to pick in any forest, state or private, except in close proximity to dwellings (see Freedom to roam). Wild raspberries, bilberries and lingonberries (cowberries) are found in almost every part of Finland, while cloudberries, cranberries, arctic brambles and sea buckthorns grow in more limited areas. The intensely flavored wild strawberry () is a seasonal delicacy decorating cakes, served alone, with cream, or with ice cream. Farmed strawberry is also very common.
Today, berries are no longer dried for winter consumption but usually frozen. They may be used as ingredients, or eaten on their own, for example, with porridge and sugar. Kissel (a sweet soup of berry juice and berries thickened with potato starch) is a common dessert. Homemade berry juices and jams are common, especially among older people. While berries are most often used for desserts, they are also served with meat, especially the sour lingonberry relish.
Bilberry kiisseli and pie, made from wild bilberries (Vaccinium myrtillus), are traditional Finnish desserts. Bilberries are frequently used in Finnish cuisine, both as an ingredient, such as bilberry pie, and also served with cream or ice cream. They are often used on top of viili and other yogurt-type dishes.
Fish
Lakes and rivers in Finland and the Baltic Sea provide many opportunities for fishing and fish has always been an important protein source. Numerous methods of preparing fish are used, including frying, boiling, drying, salting, fermenting, cold smoking or simply slicing sea fish and eating it raw. Salmon is a popular choice, both as : cold smoked salmon, lox, or served raw with lemon juice as graavilohi ( in Swedish). It is common to smoke any types of fish, like salmon, zander, pike, perch and Baltic herring. A popular dish among the Swedish-speaking population is smoked herring (, ). There are many styles of pickled herring which is a common appetizer and also served around Midsummer accompanied by small potatoes called ( in Swedish) which means 'new potato', usually the first harvests of potato. Whitefish and vendace roe are Finnish delicacies served on top of a toast or with blinis. Crayfish can be found in many lakes and streams in Finland and, in August especially, the Swedish-speaking population often arranges parties centered around eating crayfish and drinking.
Mushrooms
Various species of mushrooms grow in abundance in Finnish forests and false morels start the season in spring and are used in creamy dishes. Chanterelles and ceps pop up after Midsummer and are popular in the whole country, while in eastern Finland almost all edible fungi are consumed, including milkcaps and russulas. Most of the mushroom recipes originate from Russia, since Finns used mushrooms in coloring fabrics rather than as food. Mushrooms are used in soups, sauces, stews, pie fillings, or simply fried in a pan with onions as a side dish. They are preserved for the winter by pickling or drying. Chanterelles are frequently featured in Finnish haute cuisine with their relatives winter chanterelles which often end the season. Just like berry picking, mushroom hunting is also a popular outdoor activity among Finns.
Bread
Dark and fiber-rich ruisleipä, rye bread, is a staple of the Finnish diet. Breads are made from grains like barley, oat, rye and wheat, or by mixing different grits and flours. For example, is made of a combination of rye and wheat. There is also a variety of flat breads called , like maitorieska (milk flatbread), with barley grits from Savonia, (lard flatbread) a somewhat flat barley bread with pieces of lard from Western coast, and perunarieska (potato flatbread). In Kainuu, North Finland, the flatbreads are very flat and baked on naked flame. Näkkileipä, crisp rye bread, is also common. Famines caused by crop failures in the 19th century caused Finns to improvise or bark bread, bread made from rye flour and the soft phloem layer of pine bark, which was nutritious, but rock-hard and anything but tasty. It was eaten also during the Second World War, and the tradition of making this bread has had a minor come-back with claims of health benefits.
Porridges
The Finnish breakfast traditionally includes a substantial portion of porridge. Rolled oats, rye or multi-grain porridge are most common. However, there are other options such as the milk-based (semolina-milk porridge) and helmipuuro (starch grain-milk porridge). Porridges are often eaten with milk, sugar, butter or berry kiisseli. The Christmas season introduces milk-based rice porridge (), sprinkled with cinnamon and sugar and often topped with prune (). There is also a semolina-based porridge flavored with fresh or frozen lingonberries called ("beaten porridge").
Beverages
Water and coffee are the most common drinks in Finland, but during meals milk and sour milk (, a fermented milk) are popular too, even among adults. Coffee is often drunk several times a day and served everywhere. In fact, Finland has the highest per capita consumption of coffee in the world. Tea is also available in most homes. There are several types of home-brewed alcoholic beverages, such as sima (mead) and sahti (traditional beer). Spirits brands include Koskenkorva (vodka-like clear spirit) and a salmiakki flavored shot Salmiakkikossu, Jaloviina (cut brandy), Finlandia vodka, and Marskin ryyppy (Marshal Mannerheim's shot). Around Christmas time a type of mulled wine called glögi is served, also often as a non-alcoholic version. Many berries are used to season liqueurs, e.g. cloudberry liqueur and there are fruit wines produced from red and black currants. A national specialty would be multiple brands of flavored hard ciders (as in Sweden) and long drink mixes with the pet name lonkero, which was originally a gin and grapefruit soda long drink.
The Finnish beer scene is dominated by pale lagers. The most popular local brands are Koff, Lapin Kulta, Karjala, Olvi and Karhu and their taste is rather similar to the Danish counterparts like Carlsberg and Tuborg; soft and a bit sweet. Non-alcoholic beer has also become a popular alternative during recent years. (similar to Russian kvass) is the traditional small beer. Kotikalja is a malty, sugar-containing sweet beer fermented only for carbonation, thus its alcohol content is low enough (<1.2%) to be served as a soft drink. Hops are often absent. Fresh kotikalja is unfiltered, cloudy and cannot be stored. A Finnish beer specialty is sahti, a traditional ale flavoured with juniper berries.
Desserts
Pulla, sweet, cardamom-flavored bread eaten with coffee or as dessert
Cinnamon rolls () - made into a roll with cinnamon and sugar
Golden cloudberry dessert
Kiisseli – water, sugar, berry juice and berries (nowadays often canned or frozen) thickened with potato starch flour, served with milk/cream and sugar. These may be less liquid than drink-like mustikkakeitto (), depending on preparation, but not gelatinous.
Runeberg torte named after a national poet Johan Ludvig Runeberg and served on his memorial day on the 5th of February.
Rönttönen pastry with lingonberry filling
Uunijuusto, baked milk dish eaten with berries
Vispipuuro (whipped porridge) a sweet pink dessert porridge with lingonberries or other berries, served with milk and sugar
Sweets
Salmiakki – salty black liquorice candy
Fazer Blue milk chocolate
Wood tar () flavoured candy, such as Terva Leijona
Examples of Finnish dishes
Note that the term ("traditional dish") is often applied to specialties that are rarely eaten on a daily basis. These are often regional, associated with the older generations or confined to a specific holiday (for example, mämmi in Easter or most Christmas dishes), and most people eat them rarely or not at all. To contrast with , the term ("home-made food", even if in a restaurant) is applied to daily staple dishes. Meatballs, pea soup and rye bread are examples of such staples.
The following list is a sample of typical dishes traditionally consumed in Finland.
Typical Finnish dishes
Kaalikääryleet – cabbage rolls
Game food. – Moose, deer, grouse, duck, hare, etc. dishes. Rarely attainable in restaurants. Common amongst those whose hobby is hunting.
Hernekeitto – pea soup, usually served on Thursday along with a dessert pancake
Leipäjuusto, alternate names and – a fresh cow's milk cheese
Viili – a yoghurt-like fermented milk product
Perunamuusi – mashed potato, a common side dish
Lihapullat – Finnish meatballs, often with gravy sauce and lingonberry sauce
and – smoked ham or beef
Holiday specialties
Shrove Tuesday
Hernekeitto – pea soup made with ham and traditionally served with mustard.
Laskiaispulla – ('Shrovetide ') filled with whipped cream and almond paste or jam
Easter
Mämmi – Easter dessert pudding: sweetened oven-baked rye malt porridge, served with sugar and milk or cream, available frozen around the year. In the Catholic era it was Lent food and also served on Good Friday.
Pasha – a dessert made of quark, butter, eggs and spices, originates from Russia
Vappu (May Day)
Sima – mead, home-made or purchased
(deep-fried dough coated in sugar similar to doughnuts)
('May Day fritters') analogous to funnel cake
Christmas
Joulupöytä ('Christmas table', consists of many dishes, some of which are almost entirely reserved for Christmas, e.g. lipeäkala.
Glögi, mulled wine, is served during the holiday season.
Regional cuisine
Lapland
Sautéed reindeer ()
Lohikeitto salmon soup with cream
Kainuu
Rönttönen, pastry with lingonberry filling (PGI protection under EU law)
Smoked meat soup
Kainuun Juustoleipä, Bread Cheese
Vendace fish soup
('-bread'), a bread made from rye flour and pine bark
Karelia
Karelian pasties popular throughout the whole of Finland
Karelian stew often eaten on Finland's Independence Day and on Christmas
Sultsina sold at the market square in Joensuu and other places in the area
Savonia
Kalakukko fish pasty loaf
Mykyrokka blood dumpling soup
pastry filled with sour or sweet fillings (meat, vegetable or jam)
Ostrobothnia and Åland
Due to the location on the West coast, the cuisine has some local specialities.
Klimpsoppa flour dumpling soup
Åland's pancake typically made of leftover porridge and served with plum jam
Swedish ('black bread') is eaten in Swedish-speaking Åland; similar dark bread, known as ('islander's bread', referring to Åland), is made on southern coast, and in Malax on the Ostrobothnian coast (). This bread, coloured dark brown, is made from rye and contains a substantial quantity of dark syrup.
Other specialties
Kesäkeitto – a traditional vegetable soup with butter and milk
Mustamakkara – blood sausage from Tampere
Rössypottu from Oulu (mixed blood pudding and pork stew)
Hapanvelli (rye and pea porridge) from Virolahti
, a type of white bread baked mostly in the Satakunta region
Meals
There are three meals per day: breakfast, lunch and dinner. In all primary and secondary schools, including high school, a hot free lunch is served as part of Finland's welfare state system. Lunch, eaten around noon, is usually a warm meal, although some people may select a lighter meal such as a sandwich or a salad. Taking a lunchbox is not as common as elsewhere in Europe. Universities also provide lunch for students, but contrary to primary and secondary schools, lunch in universities is not free of charge but subsidized.
Lunch typically consists of a single course with optional side salad, bread and dessert. Many workplaces have a lunch restaurant, and if not, employers often give lunch vouchers. Restaurants often have a separate lunch menu for this purpose. In the evening, the dinner is usually a hot meal, again with sides. Meals are usually single-course, commonly consisting of meat of some sort (pork, lamb, chicken, beef) and potatoes, rice or pasta with the meat. Soups, such as pea soup or fish soup, are not considered appetizers only, but may be served as lunch or dinner, and they are correspondingly heavier and come in larger portions.
Breakfast
Breakfast is seen as a substantial meal and usually consists of open sandwiches. The sandwich is often buttered, with savoury toppings such as hard cheese or cold cuts. Sour milk products such as yoghurt or viili are also common breakfast foods, usually served in a bowl with cereals such as corn flakes, muesli, and sometimes with sugar, fruit or jam. A third food that is commonly eaten at breakfast is porridge (), often made of rolled oats, and eaten with a pat of butter (, lit. 'butter eye') or with milk, or fruit or jam, especially the sort made of raspberries or strawberries (sometimes lingonberries). Drinks are milk, juice, tea, or coffee.
Coffee breaks
Finland has the highest coffee consumption per capita in the world, averaging of coffee per person annually. It is typical for a Finn to drink coffee continuously throughout the day, often accompanied by a sweet bun or a sandwich. Most workplaces allocate time for coffee breaks and serving coffee is very likely to happen to a visitor to a private home. Finns consider it as a small courtesy.
Criticism
In 2005, Finnish cuisine came under heavy fire from two leaders of countries renowned for their cuisine. The Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi claimed that "I've been to Finland and I had to endure the Finnish diet so I am in a position to make a comparison." Berlusconi started his anti-Finnish food campaign in 2001. He went on: "The Finns don't even know what Parma ham is." This followed the initial decision by the European Commission to establish the European Food Safety Authority in Helsinki. On 4 July 2005 French President Jacques Chirac claimed that "After Finland, [Britain is] the country with the worst food."
After Jacques Chirac's and Silvio Berlusconi's critiques, some international food reporters answered:
"Chirac and Berlusconi are wrong! Finnish cuisine is much more international than I expected. I have eaten very good food in wonderful restaurants, visited market places and enjoyed in good cafeterias. Cheese is very good in Finland. I also love Finnish cloudberry and smoked fish." (Ute Junker, Australian Financial Review Magazine, Sydney, Australia)
"Food in Finnish restaurants is extremely good. Especially I love Finnish salmon, mushroom soup and desserts. I have also got very good Finnish wines. The worldwide reputation of Finnish cuisine isn't very good – but it should be!" (Liliane Delwasse, Le Figaro, Paris, France)
"I have eaten only good food in Finland. Food in Finland is very fresh. Bread, berries, mushrooms and desserts are very delicious. Finnish berries (especially cloudberry), salmon, cheeses and reindeer should be available in London, too." (April Hutchinson, Abta Magazine, London, England).
Finnish pizza chain Kotipizza won the 2008 America's Plate International pizza contest in New York, while Italian-American pizza came in second. They named their award-winning smoked reindeer pizza Berlusconi as symbolic payback for the critique Finnish cuisine had received from the Italian prime minister earlier.
See also
Beer in Finland
Culture of Finland
Sami cuisine
List of Christmas dishes
Porilainen
Russian cuisine
Swedish cuisine
National Finnish Food Day
References
External links
Food from Finland
Mediaeval Food from Finland from the Hotel and Restaurant Museum On the museum website can be found menus over the last century, which shows the food available in Finland.
Arctic cuisine | [
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|
215430 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihajlo%20Pupin | Mihajlo Pupin | Mihajlo Idvorski Pupin (, ; 4 October 1858 – 12 March 1935), also known as Michael Pupin, was a Serbian physicist, physical chemist and philanthropist based in the United States.
Pupin is best known for his numerous patents, including a means of greatly extending the range of long-distance telephone communication by placing loading coils (of wire) at predetermined intervals along the transmitting wire (known as "pupinization"). Pupin was a founding member of National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) on 3 March 1915, which later became NASA, and he participated in the founding of American Mathematical Society and American Physical Society.
In 1924, he won a Pulitzer Prize for his autobiography. Pupin was elected president or vice-president of the highest scientific and technical institutions, such as the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the New York Academy of Sciences, the Radio Institute of America, and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He was also an honorary consul of Serbia in the United States from 1912 to 1920 and played a role in determining the borders of newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
Early life and education
Mihajlo Pupin was an ethnic Serb, born on 4 October (22 September, O.S.) in the village of Idvor (in the modern-day municipality of Kovačica, Serbia) in the region of Banat, in the Military Frontier of the Austrian Empire, 1858. He always remembered the words of his mother and cited her in his autobiography, From Immigrant to Inventor (1925):
Pupin went to elementary school in his birthplace, to Serbian Orthodox school, and later to German elementary school in Perlez. He enrolled in high school in Pančevo, and later in the Real Gymnasium. He was one of the best students there; a local archpriest saw his enormous potential and talent, and influenced the authorities to give Pupin a scholarship.
Because of his activity in the "Serbian Youth" movement, which at that time had many problems with Austro-Hungarian police authorities, Pupin had to leave Pančevo. In 1872, he went to Prague, where he continued the sixth and first half of the seventh year. After his father died in March 1874, the sixteen-year-old Pupin decided to cancel his education in Prague due to financial problems and to move to the United States.
Studies in America and Ph.D.
For the next five years in the United States, Pupin worked as a manual laborer (most notably at the biscuit factory on Cortlandt Street in Manhattan) while he learned English, Greek and Latin. He also gave private lectures. After three years of various courses, in the autumn of 1879 he successfully finished his tests and entered Columbia College, where he became known as an exceptional athlete and scholar. A friend of Pupin's predicted that his physique would make him a splendid oarsman, and that Columbia would do anything for a good oarsman. A popular student, he was elected president of his class in his Junior year. He graduated with honors in 1883 and became an American citizen at the same time.
After Pupin completed his studies, with emphasis in the fields of physics and mathematics, he returned to Europe, initially the United Kingdom (1883–1885), where he continued his schooling at the University of Cambridge. He obtained his Ph.D. at the University of Berlin under Hermann von Helmholtz and in 1889 he returned to Columbia University to become a lecturer of mathematical physics in the newly formed Department of Electrical Engineering. Pupin's research pioneered carrier wave detection and current analysis.
He was an early investigator into X-ray imaging, but his claim to have made the first X-ray image in the United States is incorrect. He learned of Röntgen's discovery of unknown rays passing through wood, paper, insulators, and thin metals leaving traces on a photographic plate, and attempted this himself. Using a vacuum tube, which he had previously used to study the passage of electricity through rarefied gases, he made successful images on 2 January 1896. Edison provided Pupin with a calcium tungstate fluoroscopic screen which, when placed in front of the film, shortened the exposure time by twenty times, from one hour to a few minutes. Based on the results of experiments, Pupin concluded that the impact of primary X-rays generated secondary X-rays. With his work in the field of X-rays, Pupin gave a lecture at the New York Academy of Sciences. He was the first person to use a fluorescent screen to enhance X-rays for medical purposes. A New York surgeon, Dr. Bull, sent Pupin a patient to obtain an X-ray image of his left hand prior to an operation to remove lead shot from a shotgun injury. The first attempt at imaging failed because the patient, a well-known lawyer, was "too weak and nervous to be stood still nearly an hour" which is the time it took to get an X-ray photo at the time. In another attempt, the Edison fluorescent screen was placed on a photographic plate and the patient's hand on the screen. X-rays passed through the patients hand and caused the screen to fluoresce, which then exposed the photographic plate. A fairly good image was obtained with an exposure of only a few seconds and showed the shot as if "drawn with pen and ink." Dr. Bull was able to take out all of the lead balls in a very short time.
Pupin coils
Pupin's 1899 patent for loading coils, archaically called "Pupin coils", followed closely on the pioneering work of the English polymath Oliver Heaviside, which predates Pupin's patent by some seven years. The importance of the patent was made clear when the American rights to it were acquired by American Telephone & Telegraph (AT&T), making him wealthy. Although AT&T bought Pupin's patent, they made little use of it, as they already had their own development in hand led by George Campbell and had up to this point been challenging Pupin with Campbell's own patent. AT&T were afraid they would lose control of an invention which was immensely valuable due to its ability to greatly extend the range of long-distance telephones and especially submarine ones.
Research during the First World War
When the United States joined the First World War in 1917, Pupin was working at Columbia University, organizing a research group for submarine detection techniques.
Together with his colleagues, professors Wils and Morcroft, he performed numerous researches with the aim of discovering submarines at Key West and New London. He also conducted research in the field of establishing telecommunications between places. During the war Pupin was a member of the state council for research and state advisory board for aeronautics. For his work he received a laudative from president Warren G. Harding, which was published on page 386 of his autobiography.
Contributions to determining borders of Yugoslavia
After World War I, Pupin was already a well-known and acclaimed scientist, as well as a politically influential figure in America. He influenced the final decisions of the Paris peace conference when the borders of the future kingdom (of Serbs, Croats and Slovenians) were drawn. Pupin stayed in Paris for two months during the peace talk (April–May 1919) on the insistence of the government.
According to the London agreement from 1915. it was planned that Italy should get Dalmatia. After the secret London agreement France, England and Russia asked from Serbia some territorial concessions to Romania and Bulgaria. Romania should have gotten Banat and Bulgaria should have gotten a part of Macedonia all the way to Skoplje.
In a difficult situation during the negotiations on the borders of Yugoslavia, Pupin personally wrote a memorandum on 19 March 1919 to American president Woodrow Wilson, who, based on the data received from Pupin about the historical and ethnic characteristics of the border areas of Dalmatia, Slovenia, Istria, Banat, Međimurje, Baranja and Macedonia, stated that he did not recognize the London agreement signed between the allies and Italy.
Mihajlo Pupin foundation
In 1914, Pupin formed "Fund Pijade Aleksić-Pupin" within the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts to commemorate his mother Olimpijada for all the support she gave him through life. Fund assets were used for helping schools in old Serbia and Macedonia, and scholarships were awarded every year on the Saint Sava day. One street in Ohrid was named after Mihajlo Pupin in 1930 to honour his efforts. He also established a separate "Mihajlo Pupin fund" which he funded from his own property in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which he later gave to "Privrednik" for schooling of young people and for prizes in "exceptional achievements in agriculture", as well as for Idvor for giving prizes to pupils and to help the church district.
Thanks to Pupin's donations, the library in Idvor got a reading room, schooling of young people for agriculture sciences was founded, as well as the electrification and waterplant in Idvor. Pupin established a foundation in the museum of Natural History and Arts in Belgrade. The funds of the foundation were used to purchase artistic works of Serbian artists for the museum and for the printing of certain publications. Pupin invested a million dollars in the funds of the foundation.
In 1909, he established one of the oldest Serbian emigrant organizations in the United States called "Union of Serbs – Sloga." The organization had a mission to gather Serbs in immigration and offer help, as well as keeping ethnic and cultural values. This organization later merged with three other immigrant societies.
Other emigrant organizations in to one large Serbian national foundation, and Pupin was one of its founders and a longtime president (1909–1926).
He also organized "Kolo srpskih sestara" (English: Circle of Serbian sisters) who gathered help for the Serbian Red Cross, and he also helped the gathering of volunteers to travel to Serbia during the First World War with the help of the Serbian patriotic organization called the "Serbian National Defense Council" which he founded and led. Later, at the start of the Second World War this organization was rehabilitated by Jovan Dučić and worked with the same goal. Pupin guaranteed the delivery of food supplies to Serbia with his own resources, and he also was the head of the committee that provided help to the victims of war. He also founded the Serbian society for helping children which provided medicine, clothes and shelter for war orphans.
Literary work
Besides his patents he published several dozen scientific disputes, articles, reviews and a 396-page autobiography under the name Michael Pupin, From Immigrant to Inventor (Scribner's, 1923). He won the annual Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography. It was published in Serbian in 1929 under the title From pastures to scientist (Od pašnjaka do naučenjaka). Beside this he also published:
Pupin Michael: Der Osmotische Druck und Seine Beziehung zur Freien Energie, Inaugural Dissertation zur Erlangung der Doctorwurde, Buchdruckerei von Gustav Shade, Berlin, June 1889.
Pupin Michael: Thermodynamics of Reversible Cycles in Gases and Saturated Vapors, John Wiley & Sons. 1894.
Pupin Michael: Serbian Orthodox Church (South Slav Monuments) J. Murray. London, 1918.
Pupin Michael: Yugoslavia. (In Association for International Conciliation Amer. Branch —Yugoslavia). American Association for International Conciliation. 1919.
Pupin Michael: The New Reformation; from Physical to Spiritual Realities, Scribner, New York, 1927.
Pupin Michael: Romance of the Machine, Scribner, New York, 1930.
Pupin Michael: Discussion by M. Pupin and other prominent engineers in Toward Civilization, edited by C. A. Beard. Longmans, Green & Co. New York, 1930.
Pupin Hall
Columbia University's Physical Laboratories building, built in 1927, is named Pupin Hall in his honor. It houses the physics and astronomy departments of the university. During Pupin's tenure, Harold C. Urey, in his work with the hydrogen isotope deuterium demonstrated the existence of heavy water, the first major scientific breakthrough in the newly founded laboratories (1931). In 1934 Urey was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the work he performed in Pupin Hall related to his discovery of "heavy hydrogen".
Patents
Pupin released about 70 technical articles and reviews and 34 patents.
Honors and tributes
Mihajlo Pupin was:
President of the Institute of Radio Engineers, USA (1917)
President of American Institute of Electrical Engineers (1925–26)
President of American Association for the Advancement of Sciences
President of New York Academy of Sciences
Honorary member of German Electrical Society
Honorary member of American Institute of Electrical Engineers
Member of National Academy of Sciences
Member of French Academy of Sciences
Member of Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Member of American Mathematical Society
Member of American Philosophical Society
Member of American Physical Society
Titles
Doctor of science, Columbia University (1904)
Honorable doctor of science, Johns Hopkins University (1915)
Doctor of science, Princeton University (1924)
Honorable doctor of science, New York University (1924)
Honorable doctor of science, Muhlenberg College (1924)
Doctor of engineering, Case School of Applied Science (1925)
Doctor of science, George Washington University (1925)
Doctor of science, Union College (1925)
Honorable doctor of science, Marietta College (1926)
Honorable doctor of science, University of California (1926)
Doctor of science, Rutgers University (1926)
Honorable doctor of science, Delaware University (1926)
Honorable doctor of science, Canyon College (1926)
Doctor of science, Brown University (1927)
Doctor of science, Rochester University (1927)
Honorable doctor of science, Middlebury College (1928)
Doctor of science, University of Belgrade (1929)
Doctor of science, University of Prague (1929)
Medals
Eliot Kresson Medal, Franklin Institute (1902)
Herbert award, French Academy of Sciences (1916)
IEEE Edison Medal, American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now IEEE) (1919)
Honorable medal, American Radio Institute (1924)
IEEE Medal of Honor (1924)
George Washington Award, Western Society of Engineers (1928)
White eagle, first degree, Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1929)
Order of the White Lion of Czech-Slovakia (1929)
John Fritz Medal, American Association of Engineering Societies (1931)[17]
Other
Pupin was pictured on the old 50 million Yugoslav dinar banknote.
Home page world web browser Google has been dedicated on 9 October 2011, to 157th birth anniversary of scientist Mihajlo Pupin. On the drawing in honor of the Pupin birth symbolically represented as a boy and a girl with two different hills talking on the phone.
The Central Radio Institute was renamed the Telecommunication and Automation Institute "Mihailo Pupin" in his honor in 1956.
A small lunar impact crater, in the eastern part of the Mare Imbrium, was named in his honor.
He also served on the board of trustees for Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1926 to 1929.
Honorary citizen, cities of Zrenjanin, Ohrid and Municipality of Bled
Various streets and schools across Serbia are named after him; Boulevard of Mihajlo Pupin (in capital city, Belgrade) or the tenth Belgrade gymnasium – Mihajlo Pupin, being the most famous examples.
A road bridge over the Danube River in Belgrade was named Pupin Bridge in his honor after the vote of the citizens.
Private life
After going to America, he changed his name to Michael Idvorsky Pupin, stressing his origin. His father was named Constantine and mother Olimpijada and Pupin had four brothers and five sisters. In 1888 he married American Sarah Catharine Jackson from New York, with whom he had a daughter named Barbara Ivanka Pupin who was born in 1899 in Yonkers, New York and died on August 2, 1962 in New York. They were married only for eight years, because she died from pneumonia.
Pupin had a reputation not only as a great scientist but also a fine person. He was known for his manners, great knowledge, love of his homeland and availability to everyone. Pupin was a great philanthropist and patron of the arts. He was a devoted Orthodox Christian and a prominent Freemason.
Mihajlo Pupin died in New York City in 1935 at age 76 and was interred at Woodlawn Cemetery, Bronx.
Legacy
He is included in The 100 most prominent Serbs.
See also
List of Serbs
Nikola Tesla
List of science and religion scholars
Memorial Complex in Idvor (Mihajlo Pupin)
References
Further reading
Michael Pupin, "From Immigrant to Inventor" (Charles Scribner's Sons, 1924)
Edward Davis, "Michael Idvorsky Pupin: Cosmic Beauty, Created Order, and the Divine Word." In Eminent Lives in Twentieth-Century Science & Religion, ed. Nicolaas Rupke (Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2007), pp. 197–217.
Bergen Davis: Biographical Memoir of Michael Pupin, National Academy of Sciences of the United States Biographical Memoirs, tenth memoir of volume XIX, New York, 1938.
Daniel Martin Dumych, Pupin Michael Idvorsky, Oxford University Press, 2005. Accessed 11 March 2008
Lambić Miroslav: Jedan pogled na život i delo Mihajla Pupina, Univerzitet u Novom Sadu, Tehnički fakultet "Mihajlo Pupin", Zrenjanin, 1997.
S. Bokšan, Mihajlo Pupin i njegovo delo, Naučna izdanja Matice srpske, Novi Sad, 1951.
S. Gvozdenović, Čikago, Amerika i Vidovdan, Savez Srba u Rumuniji-Srpska Narodna Odbrana, Temišvar-Čikago, 2003.
J. Nikolić, Feljton Večernjih novosti, galerija srpskih dobrotvora, 2004.
P. Radosavljević, Idvorski za sva vremena, NIN, Br. 2828, 2005.
R. Smiljanić, Mihajlo Pupin-Srbin za ceo svet, Edicija – Srbi za ceo svet, Nova Evropa, Beograd, 2005.
Savo B. Jović, Hristov svetosavac Mihajlo Pupin, Izdavačka ustanova Sv. arh. sinoda, Beograd, 2004.
Dragoljub A. Cucic, Michael Pupin Idvorsky and father Vasa Zivkovic, 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Mihajlo Pupin, Banja Luka, 2004.
External links
Michael Pupin at IEEE History Center
Pupin's autobiography From Immigrant to Inventor
... Commemorating the 150th Anniversary of the Birth of Michael Pupin ... at Tesla Memorial Society of New York
1858 births
1935 deaths
People from Kovačica
Serbs of Vojvodina
Austro-Hungarian emigrants to the United States
American people of Serbian descent
American electrical engineers
Pulitzer Prize for Biography or Autobiography winners
Serbian scientists
Serbian inventors
American inventors
American physicists
Serbian physicists
Members of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Eastern Orthodox Christians from the United States
Eastern Orthodox Christians from Serbia
Grand Officers of the Order of the White Lion
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
Columbia School of Engineering and Applied Science faculty
IEEE Edison Medal recipients
Burials at Woodlawn Cemetery (Bronx, New York)
John Fritz Medal recipients
Columbia College (New York) alumni | [
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|
215436 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sone | Sone | The sone () is a unit of loudness, the subjective perception of sound pressure. The study of perceived loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics. Doubling the perceived loudness doubles the sone value. Proposed by Stanley Smith Stevens in 1936, it is not an SI unit.
Definition and conversions
According to Stevens' definition, a loudness of 1 sone is equivalent to 40 phons (a 1 kHz tone at 40 dB SPL). The phons scale aligns with dB, not with loudness, so the sone and phon scales are not proportional. Rather, the loudness in sones is, at least very nearly, a power law function of the signal intensity, with an exponent of 0.3. With this exponent, each 10 phon increase (or 10 dB at 1 kHz) produces almost exactly a doubling of the loudness in sones.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
|-
! sone
| 1 || 2 || 4 || 8 || 16 || 32 || 64
|-
! phon
| 40 || 50 || 60 || 70 || 80 || 90 || 100
|}
At frequencies other than 1 kHz, the loudness level in phons is calibrated according to the frequency response of human hearing, via a set of equal-loudness contours, and then the loudness level in phons is mapped to loudness in sones via the same power law.
Loudness N in sones (for LN > 40 phon):
or loudness level LN in phons (for N > 1 sone):
Corrections are needed at lower levels, near the threshold of hearing.
These formulas are for single-frequency sine waves or narrowband signals. For multi-component or broadband signals, a more elaborate loudness model is required, accounting for critical bands.
To be fully precise, a measurement in sones must be specified in terms of the optional suffix G, which means that the loudness value is calculated from frequency groups, and by one of the two suffixes D (for direct field or free field) or R (for room field or diffuse field).
Example values
{| class="wikitable"
! Description !! Sound pressure !! Sound pressure level !! Loudness
|-
! !! align="center" | pascal !! align="center" | dB re 20 μPa !! align="center" | sone
|-
|Threshold of pain || align="right" | ~ 100 || align="right" | ~ 134 ||align="right" | ~ 676
|-
|Hearing damage during short-term effect || align="right" | ~ 20 || align="right" | ~ 120 || align="right" | ~ 256
|-
|Jet, 100 m away || align="right" | 6 ... 200 || align="right" | 110 ... 140 || align="right" | 128 ... 1024
|-
|Jackhammer, 1 m away / nightclub || align="right" | ~ 2 || align="right" | ~ 100 || align="right" | ~ 64
|-
|Hearing damage during long-term effect || align="right" | ~ 6×10−1 || align="right" | ~ 90 || align="right" | ~ 32
|-
|Major road, 10 m away || align="right" | 2×10−1 ... 6×10−1 || align="right" | 80 ... 90 || align="right" | 16 ... 32
|-
|Passenger car, 10 m away || align="right" | 2×10−2 ... 2×10−1 || align="right" | 60 ... 80 || align="right" | 4 ... 16
|-
|TV set at home level, 1 m away || align="right" | ~ 2×10−2 || align="right" | ~ 60 || align="right" | ~ 4
|-
|Normal talking, 1 m away || align="right" | 2×10−3 ... 2×10−2 || align="right" | 40 ... 60 || align="right" | 1 ... 4
|-
|Very calm room || align="right" | 2×10−4 ... 6×10−4 || align="right" | 20 ... 30 || align="right" | 0.15 ... 0.4
|-
|Rustling leaves, calm breathing || align="right" | ~ 6×10−5 || align="right" | ~ 10 ||align="right" | ~ 0.02
|-
|Auditory threshold at 1 kHz || align="right" | 2×10−5 || align="right" | 0 ||align="right" | 0
|}
See also
A-weighting
LKFS
Stevens's power law
Weber–Fechner law
References
External links
Correlation between sones und phons − calculator
Hearing
Human-based units of measurement
Units of sound | [
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|
215441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phon | Phon | The phon is a logarithmic unit of loudness level for tones and complex sounds. Loudness is measured in sone which is a linear unit. Human sensitivity to sound is variable across different frequencies; therefore, although two different tones may present an identical sound pressure to a human ear, they may be psychoacoustically perceived as differing in loudness. The purpose of the phon is to provide a logarithmic measurement (like decibels) for perceived sound magnitude, while the primary loudness standard methods result in a linear representation. A sound with a loudness of 1 sone is judged equally loud as a 1 kHz tone with a sound pressure level of 40 decibels above 20 micropascal. The phon is psychophysically matched to a reference frequency of 1 kHz. In other words, the phon matches the sound pressure level (SPL) in decibels of a similarly perceived 1kHz pure tone. For instance, if a sound is perceived to be equal in intensity to a 1kHz tone with an SPL of 50dB, then it has a loudness of 50phons, regardless of its physical properties. The phon was proposed in DIN 45631 and ISO 532 B by Stanley Smith Stevens.
Definition
By definition, the loudness level in phons of a sound is the sound pressure level (in dB SPL) of a 1-kHz pure tone that is judged as having the same loudness. The phon unit is not an SI unit in metrology. It is defined as a unit of loudness level by the American National Standards Institute in the Acoustical Terminology standard ANSI/ASA S1.1-2013. Because the phon is a unit associated with a subjective percept, it is obtained by presenting the considered sound to a group of normal-hearing human listeners and by taking the median of the loudness levels they report.
Such measurements have been performed for known sounds, such as pure tones at different frequencies and levels. The equal-loudness contours are a way of mapping the dB SPL of a pure tone to the perceived loudness level in phons (see loudness for details).
See also
A-weighting
References
Further reading
External links
Explanation with definitions
Correlation between sones und phons − calculator
Hearing
Human-based units of measurement
Units of sound
Acoustics
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|
215450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topper | Topper | Topper or Toppers may refer to:
Brand names
Harley-Davidson Topper, a motor scooter manufactured from 1960 to 1965
Topper Corp., an American toy manufacturer during 1960s and early 1970s
Topper (sports), a sportswear brand in Argentina and Brazil founded in 1975
Topper (dinghy), a sailing dinghy patented in 1977 by British designer Ian Proctor
Topper's Pizza (Canadian restaurant), a chain founded in 1982 as Mr. Topper's Pizza
Toppers Pizza (American restaurant), a company-owned and franchise chain founded in 1991
Another name for a top hat
Another name for a pencil sharpener in Ireland
Camper shell camper shell
Comics
Topper (comic strip), a general term for a small comic strip published above or below another strip
The Topper (comics), a 1953–1990 British comics periodical
Topper, a minor character in the 1989 American comic strip Dilbert
Film and TV
Topper (film), a 1937 American film based on Thorne Smith's 1926 novel
Topper (TV series), a 1953 American TV series based on the novel and film
Topper, a horse ridden by American western character Hopalong Cassidy in 1939–1954 films
Topper Harley, the lead character in the 1991 American film Hot Shots!
Topper Thornton, the main character in the Netflix series Outer Banks
De Toppers, a Dutch musical supergroup formed in 2005, popular on TV and DVD
Literature
Topper, a minor character in Dickens' 1843 novella A Christmas Carol
Topper, a 1926 novel by American author Thorne Smith
People
Topper (nickname)
Topper (surname)
Places in the United States
Toppertown, Missouri, an unincorporated community also known as Topper
Toppers, Oklahoma, an unincorporated community
Topper Site, an archaeological site in South Carolina
Other uses
The athletics teams of Blue Mountain College, Blue Mountain, Mississippi, United States
Furikake, a food on top of cooked rice | [
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|
215461 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command%20%28computing%29 | Command (computing) | In computing, a command is a directive to a computer program to perform a specific task. It may be issued via a command-line interface, such as a shell, or as input to a network service as part of a network protocol, or as an event in a graphical user interface triggered by the user selecting an option in a menu.
Specifically, the term command is used in imperative computer languages. The name arises because statements in these languages are usually written in a manner similar to the imperative mood used in many natural languages. If one views a statement in an imperative language as being like a sentence in a natural language, then a command is generally like a verb in such a language.
Many programs allow specially formatted arguments, known as flags or options, which modify the default behaviour of the program, while further arguments may provide objects, such as files, to act on. As an analogy to a natural language, the flags are adverbs, while the other arguments are objects.
Examples
Here are some commands given to a command-line interpreter (Unix shell).
The following command changes the user's working position in the directory tree to the directory /home/pete. The utility program is cd and the argument is /home/pete:
cd /home/pete
The following command prints the text Hello World on the standard output stream, which, in this case, just prints the text on the screen. The program name is echo and the argument is "Hello World". The quotes are used to prevent Hello and World being treated as separate tokens:
echo "Hello World"
The following commands are equivalent. They list files in the directory /bin. The program is ls, having three flags (l, t, r), and the argument is the directory /bin:
ls -l -t -r /bin
ls -ltr /bin
The following command displays the contents of the files ch1.txt and ch2.txt. The program name is cat, having two file name arguments:
cat ch1.txt ch2.txt
Here are some commands for the DOS, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows command prompt processor. The following command displays the contents of the file readme.txt. The program name is type and the argument is readme.txt.
type readme.txt
The following command lists the contents of the current directory. The program name is dir, and Q is a flag requesting that the owner of each file also be listed.
dir /Q
See also
Gesture recognition
List of Unix commands
List of DOS commands
Formal grammar
References
External links
command from FOLDOC
Windows Commands | Microsoft Docs
User interfaces
Computing terminology | [
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215467 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doshin%20the%20Giant | Doshin the Giant | Doshin the Giant is a Nintendo god simulation game for the Nintendo 64 and GameCube. It was originally released in Japan on December 1, 1999, as a launch game disk for the 64DD peripheral for Nintendo 64. A soundtrack by Tatsuhiko Asano was released on CD by Media Factory, early the next year. Both of these received positive reviews. An Expansion was released five months later called Kyojin no Doshin Kaihō Sensen Chibikko Chikko Daishūgou, which takes a very different perspective of the game, featuring short animated clips that the player can unlock after playing the original game. Doshin the Giant was upgraded graphically for its re-release on the GameCube in Japan on March 14, 2002, and Europe on September 20, 2002. The re-release received positive reviews.
Gameplay
As a god game, Doshin the Giants gameplay revolves around typical god-like abilities and tasks, such as altering the geography, managing natural disasters or answering prayers from simulated worshippers. Its designer Kazutoshi Iida has described it as "Populous meets Mario".
The player controls the Doshin as he tries to help, or hinder the islands inhabitants. Doing so causes the villagers to release love or hate, which Doshin absorbs. The two feelings cancel each other out, but if he gets enough of one type, he will grow in size. Doshin is the Love Giant, a yellow, featureless giant with a happy face and a few strands of hair. He is a benevolent being whose helpful actions earn love from his people and cause his body to increase in size for a day and return to normal size the next day. He can pick up objects such as people and trees. Doshin can transform at will into his evil alter ego Jashin, the Hate Giant. In the GameCube version, he has wings and clawed feet and inspires Hate monuments that are slightly different from the Love monuments Doshin can earn. Jashin is known to be a destructive force to the natives, the opposite of Doshin's nature. With his bad actions, people show him their dislike, and he increases in size. The only thing the two giants have in common is that both have an outie belly button. Although he cannot pick up things, he can send streams of fire across the land, destroying structures in their way. Doshin and Jashin can both raise and lower terrain.
The four native tribes on the island are separated with the color of their clothing (red, green, yellow, blue). The female natives are dressed in a sleeveless, uni-colored gown of their tribe's color. The male natives wear a kilt and hat of their tribe's color, but remain shirtless, also showing outie belly buttons. In the GameCube version the people also raise farm animals, and there are fish in the water. There are several threats that also endanger the villagers, such as tornadoes, volcanoes, fires, being crushed by Doshin, and even jealous tribe members named "Naughties".
An album stores photographic snapshots of the gameplay itself, and the player can examine a monument gallery closely for more information. In the GameCube version, completing the game unlocks a "New Map" option with various islands and various themed layouts and textures.
Developer Kazutoshi Iida notes "the sheer simplicity of the user-interface, as the game can be played without numbers or letters". He added, "Mr. Shigeru Miyamoto from Nintendo has said that computer games incorporate a world-wide common language, and Doshin illustrates this very clearly."
Story
The game opens on an island called Barudo, with a spoken narration, by an island native. This man, named Sodoru, who wears a mask on his face, tells the legend of a giant that rises out of the sea as the morning sun rises. As he tells the player this, a yellow giant named Doshin appears from out of the water.
The player then takes control of the giant. Sodoru then tells the player what the other inhabitants of the island want such as trees or hills raised and lowered. He then suggests helping the people, for which they will reward the giant with love, and might build a monument to it. Sodoru then suggests that the giant help bring the four tribes together. It takes Doshin many days to do this, and at the end of each day as the sun sets he returns to the sea. Finally, when every possible combination of tribes has been reached, the islanders then build one final monument called the Tower of Babel, which causes the island and Doshin to sink into the sea, thus killing everyone. However, the next day, a new island appears at sunrise in the shape of Doshin himself, with two members of each of the tribes on it as before. Doshin then walks out onto the island again and the story continues. The GameCube version has one additional ending with the islanders not building a monument this time, but instead a large rocket that blasts them up into space.
Reception & Sales
Doshin the Giant was first publicly displayed at Nintendo's Space World '99 trade show on August 27–29, 1999. Developer Kazutoshi Iida recalled a "continuous line of people queued to use the eight playable test units, and the 'Large Screen Experience'". He said that the foreign press received the game "very enthusiastically".
Doshin the Giant was a hit game in Japan, peaking at #1 and becoming the ninth best-selling game of 2002. In the UK, it peaked at #9 and is the 65th best-selling game (and 22nd best-selling GameCube game) of 2002 and hit the top of the GameCube charts. Doshin went on to appear as a trophy in Super Smash Bros. Melee, holding a villager in his hands; Jashin appears as a secret trophy in the lottery as Hate Giant.
Drew Mackie of the Singing Mountain podcast noted the game for its "trippy tropicalia" soundtrack and said it was "worth a second look".
Kyojin no Doshin: Kaihō Sensen Chibikko Chikko Daishūgō
Kyojin no Doshin Kaihō Sensen Chibikko Chikko Daishūgō is a 64DD expansion to the original, released on June 30, 2000. It requires the Doshin the Giant disk to operate.
Gameplay
In the game, a child is told to go to sleep and is pulled out of bed and through the window, into a world of dreams. There, Doshin is now imprisoned, and the child can tinkle 2D hearts on people and the giant. The main objective of the game is to watch the 17 mini black and white movies collectively titled More Than Giant. The player must repeatedly go back and forth between the two disks to verify that monuments were built in game 1, and to complete tasks that the "Queen Companions" request of them.
Another objective is to free Doshin from his imprisonment, by causing him to grow larger than his cage. This will cause the game credits to begin.
The player can also gather help to free Doshin. After creating monuments in "Doshin 1" and their counterpart pavilions, children will appear in the Expo area. The player can tinkle on them with their hearts, and they will join the player's team, becoming "Teamers" or teamsters. There are two other teams that the player can choose from at the start of the game. When enough pavilions are completed the player can battle the other teamster groups in a tinkle contest. If the player wins, the loser's team members become neutral and can be added to their team. The team can be made of up to six other children. This gives the player six times more tinkling hearts that can be poured onto Doshin to try and free him.
The player is given a meter for love which they can use on the other people, billboards, or Doshin. However, if the heart becomes too full, or the player is beaten at a tinkle contest, it causes the player to wake up. After Doshin is released the player's character wakes up to find that they now have a stained blanket, which the mother lectures the child about. At this moment Doshin appears from behind the parent, and part of the child jumps into dreamland, as a Queen Companion appears asking if the player wants to play again. From that point the credits begin as the camera descends down a manhole.
Reception
Peer Schneider of IGN rated the game at 2.5 out of 10, citing the graphics, controls, and gameplay. He said it "[l]ooks and plays like it was programmed in two weeks. Controls are bad" and "this add-on disk is a glorified movie player." The only thing he found appealing about the game was its presentation, saying that "[t]he Param team definitely has a sense of humor. Both Doshin games will make you laugh because they're so absurd." He ended his review of the game with one word: "Painful".
See also
Black & White, a similar god sim, game where the player can be either good or bad, by Lionhead
SimCity 64, another 64DD game where the player builds a city, and needs to protect its citizens from disasters
Aquanaut's Holiday and Tail of the Sun, two other games by designer Kazutoshi Iida
Notes
References
External links
64DD games
1999 video games
2000 soundtrack albums
GameCube games
God games
Marigul Management games
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set on fictional islands
Video games with expansion packs
Single-player video games
Nintendo games | [
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215468 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Former%20administrative%20divisions%20of%20Romania | Former administrative divisions of Romania | The 41 județe () and the municipality of Bucharest comprise the official administrative divisions of Romania. They also represent the European Union' s NUTS-3 geocode statistical subdivision scheme of Romania.
Overview
The earliest organization into județe of the Principalities of Wallachia, respectively ținuturi of Moldavia, dates back at least to the late 14th century. Each județ, respectively ținut, was ruled by a jude, respectively pârcălab, an officially appointed person who had administrative and judicial functions in a manner inspired from the organization of the late Byzantine Empire. Transylvania, when it was part of the historic Kingdom of Hungary (in the Middle Ages), an independent Principality or a Habsburg domain (in the modern era until World War I) was divided into royal counties (Latin: comitatus), headed by comes (royal counts) with administrative and judicial functions. The term județ started to be used in Romanian as a general term for all administrative divisions since the mid 19th century.
When modern Romania was formed in 1859 through the union of Wallachia and rump Moldavia, and then extended in 1918 through the union of Transylvania, as well as Bukovina and Bessarabia (parts of Moldavia temporarily acquired by respectively the Habsburgs, 1775–1918, and the Russian Tsars, 1812–1917), the administrative division was modernized using the French departments system as model. With the exception of the Communist period, this system remained in place. A prefect (from the Latin praefectus) is appointed for each județ. The prefect is the representative of the government in the county and the head of the local administration in the areas not devolved to local authorities. Until 1950, each județ was divided into a number of plăși (singular plasă), each administered by a pretor (from the Latin praetor), appointed by the prefect. Currently, Romania has no NUTS-4 units, the counties being composed directly of cities (with or without municipality status) and communes.
As in all modern democracies, the political power in Romania is divided into three independent branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The prefect and his administration have only executive prerogatives. However, the territorial districts of the Romanian judicial system overlap with county borders, thus avoiding further complication. At the same time with local elections (of mayors and councilors for the cities and communes), a County Council (consiliu județean) is directly elected for each county, and, since 2008, the President of the County Council is also elected by direct vote. As of now, the legislative powers of county councils are quite reduced, but there are plans for more decentralization. (These plans, however, call for introduction of Regional Councils for the 8 development regions of the NUTS-2 level.)
Before World War I
As of 1872, Romania was organized into 33 counties of which 17 were in Wallachia (12 in Muntenia and 5 in Oltenia), and 16 were in Moldavia (13 in western Moldavia and 3 in Southern Bessarabia: Cahul County, Bolgrad County, Ismail County).
After Independence, Romania lost Southern Bessarabia and received Northern Dobruja. The Romanian Old Kingdom was divided into 32 counties, with the following seats:
Argeș County – Pitești
Bacău County – Bacău
Botoșani County – Botoșani
Brăila County – Brăila
Buzău County – Buzău
Constanța County – Constanța
Silistra Nouă County (1878–1879, merged into Constanța County) – Rasova/Cernavodă/Medgidia
Covurlui County – Galați
Dâmbovița County – Târgoviște
Dolj County – Craiova
Dorohoi County – Dorohoi
Fălciu County – Huși
Gorj County – Târgu Jiu
Ialomița County – Călărași
Iași County – Iași
Ilfov County – București
Mehedinți County – Turnu Severin
Muscel County – Câmpulung
Neamț County – Piatra Neamț
Olt County – Slatina
Prahova County – Ploiești
Putna County – Focșani
Râmnicu Sărat County – Râmnicu Sărat
Roman County – Roman
Romanați County – Caracal
Suceava County – Fălticeni
Tecuci County – Tecuci
Teleorman County – Turnu Măgurele
Tulcea County – Tulcea
Tutova County – Bârlad
Vaslui County – Vaslui
Vâlcea County – Râmnicu Vâlcea
Vlașca County – Giurgiu
After the Second Balkan War, Romania was awarded the southern part of Dobrudja, between the Danube, Beli Lom River, Kamchiya River, and the Black Sea, which was divided into two counties:
Durostor County – Silistra
Caliacra County – Bazargic
Interwar Romania
Between 1919 and 1925 the specifics of the administrative organization in the new territories were kept. It consisted of about 76 counties or parts of counties. In 1923 Romania adopted a new Constitution, and it unified the traditional administrative systems of Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia with that of the Romanian Old Kingdom. County borders were kept largely intact, with only a couple minor adjustments. As a result of the 1925 administrative unification law, the territory was divided into 71 counties, 489 districts (plăși) and 8,879 communes.
Some of the 71 județe still exist today, a number were lost during World War II, and some became defunct. The latter ones are:
Baia Countydivided between Neamț, Suceava and Iași
Caraș Countymerged with Severin to form Caraș-Severin
Câmpulung Countymerged with Suceava
Ciuc Countymerged with Odorhei and renamed to Harghita
Covurlui Countymerged into Galați
Dorohoi Countymerged with Botoșani
Făgăraș Countydivided between Brașov and Sibiu
Fălciu Countymerged with Vaslui
Ialomița Countydivided between Ialomița and Călărași
Muscel Countymerged with Argeș
Odorhei Countymerged with Ciuc and renamed to Harghita
Putna Countyrenamed to Vrancea
Rădăuți Countymerged with Suceava
Râmnicu Sărat Countydivided between Vrancea, Buzău and Brăila
Roman County merged with Neamț
Romanați Countydivided between Dolj and Olt
Severin Countymerged with Caraș to form Caraș-Severin
Someș Countydivided between Maramureș County, Cluj, Sălaj and Bistrița-Năsăud
Târnava Mică Countydivided between Alba, Sibiu and Mureș
Târnava Mare Countydivided between Brașov, Sibiu and Mureș
Tecuci Countydivided between Galați, Bacău and Vaslui
Timiș-Torontal Countyrenamed to Timiș
Trei Scaune Countyrenamed to Covasna
Turda Countydivided between Cluj and Alba
Tutova Countymerged with Vaslui
Vlașca Countyrenamed to Giurgiu
Ținuturi: 1938–1940
As a part of King Carol II's administrative reform of August 14, 1938, 10 regions (ținuturi) were created, which each included several of the existing 71 counties. The counties were preserved as administrative units, but the marrow of their prerogatives was conveyed to the news regions. Each region was headed by a regional governor (Rezident Regal), who supervised the county prefects, and each region had a regional council. The regional governor was appointed directly by the King.
The aim of the new regions was to connect poorer and richer counties and to break up the historical regions (Bessarabia, Bukovina, Transylvania etc.). However, the old regionalisms continued under the new brand (e.g. Transylvanian regionalism in Ținutul Mureș and Bukovinian regionalism in Ținutul Suceava).
The new regions were short-lived: all regions but Ținutul Olt and Ținutul Timiș had lost territory in September 1940, following the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR, the Second Vienna Award and the Treaty of Craiova. After the fall of Carol II's personal regime (the so-called royal dictatorship) on September 6, 1940, the Ținuturi Timiș, Mureș, Mării, Dunărea de Jos, Prut and Suceava were restructured on September 16, 1940. All the regions were abolished only a couple of days latter, on September 22, 1940.
According to the Official Journal of August 14, 1938, the 10 regions and their capitals were the following:
Several regions had been given other names in the draft version of the Law (mentioned between brackets). All regions were named after rivers, except Ținutul Mării, i.e. the (Black) Sea Region, and Ținutul Bucegi, called after the Bucegi Mountains.
World War II changes
Bessarabia
After the recovery of Bessarabia, the Bessarabia Governorate with capital at Chișinău was established in 1941 and existed until 1944.
Bukovina
Following the recapture of Northern Bukovina, the Bukovina Governorate with capital at Cernăuți (Chernivtsi) existed from 1941 to 1944.
Administration of Transnistria (1941–1944)
This territory was administered by Romania briefly in 1941–1944, when the country was governed by a military dictatorship allied with Nazi Germany. It consisted of formerly proper Soviet territory between Dniester and Southern Bug rivers. Nowadays, most of it is in Ukraine, with small parts in the Republic of Moldova (Transnistria). This territory was kept under Romanian military occupation, and was not annexed by Romania. It was divided into 13 counties:
Lost during and after the war
To Bulgaria
In 1913, as a result of the Second Balkan War, Romania acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria, annexing this historical region within Romania's borders. In 1940, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy forced Romania to return it to Bulgaria (see Treaty of Craiova). Romania did not reclaim this area neither after the end of World War II nor at the fall of communism.
Caliacra (now Dobrich Province, Bulgaria)
Durostor (now Silistra Province, Bulgaria)
To the Soviet Union
In 1940, Soviet Union occupied Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and the Hertsa region (the latter part of Dorohoi County in a rump Moldavia). Since the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, these territories have been part of the newly independent Moldova and Ukraine.
in Moldova
Bălți County
Cahul County
southern half of Hotin County
Orhei County
Lăpușna County
Soroca County
Tighina County
a small part of Ismail County
a small part of Cetatea Albă County
in Ukraine
Cernăuți County
largest part of Cetatea Albă County
Hertsa region (a small part of Dorohoi County)
northern half of Hotin County
largest part of Ismail County
part of Rădăuți County
Storojineț County
Communist Romania
People's Republic of Romania
In 1951, the Romanian Workers' Party changed the administrative division of Romania to the Soviet model (regions and raions), but reverted to the county system in 1968, although county borders were quite different from the interwar period. A small adjustment was performed in 1981: former counties of Ilfov and Ialomița were reorganized into the present-day counties of Giurgiu, Călărași, Ialomița and Ilfov.
A new law on the administrative division from September 6, 1950, abolished the 58 remaining counties (as well as the 424 plăși and the 6,276 urban and rural communes), replacing them with 28 regions composed of 177 raions, 148 cities and 4,052 communes. In 1952 the number of regions was reduced to 18: Arad, Bacău, Baia Mare, Bârlad, București, Cluj, Constanța, Craiova, Galați, Hunedoara, Iași, Oradea, Pitești, Ploiești, Stalin, Suceava, Timișoara, and for the first time and autonomous administrative unit based on ethnic criteria, Magyar Autonomous Region (Regiunea Autonomă Maghiară). In 1956 the regions of Arad and Bârlad were also dismantled. In 1960, the Hungarian autonomous unit was renamed to Regiunea Mureș-Autonomă Maghiară (Mureș-Hungarian Autonomous Region) along with changes in its territory. The final number of regions was 16.
Socialist Republic of Romania
In February 1968, the old administrative division of județ was reinstated. On January 14, 1968 the law proposal included 35 counties. The final result was substantially different from the situation existent before 1950. This included 39 counties, municipality of Bucharest, 236 cities, out of which 47 were municipalities, and 2706 communes comprising 13149 villages. There were several reasons for restoring the județe. For one, the Nicolae Ceaușescu regime wished to distance itself from the Soviet Union, and discarding the Soviet administrative model was a means of achieving that. For another, the regime had a nationalist outlook, and bringing back an old Romanian system fit with the prevailing ideology. Finally, during his first years, Ceaușescu was preoccupied with replacing functionaries named by his predecessor Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej and creating his own power base; dismissing the regional administrations and naming his own county officials was a step in that process.
Current situation
In 1981 the Ilfov County was divided into a so-called "Agricultural Sector" of Ilfov (Sectorul Agricol Ilfov) and the newly created Giurgiu County, and Călărași County was created by detaching the southern part of the Ialomița County. The county borders introduced in 1968 are largely in place at present, but administrative reforms during the 1990s have devolved the functions of different authorities in line with transition from a totalitarian communist system to a modern democracy. The only territorial adjustment after 1989 occurred in 1995, when Ilfov County was formed out of the so-called "agricultural sector" of the Municipality of Bucharest (Sectorul Agricol Ilfov). With Romania's integration into the European structures, its counties became NUTS level 3 divisions of the European Union. Currently, Romania is divided into 41 counties and the Municipality of Bucharest.
Future developments
As of 2010–2011 there have been several proposals for the administrative reorganization of Romania made by the presidential commission tasked with the analysis of the current political and constitutional system. Most of these recommendations aim for the partial reestablishment of the counties in their pre-1950 form (NUTS III level). If this reform were adopted, the counties would be grouped into several regions (9 to 15) based on common historical and economic characteristics (NUTS II level). The regions will be in their turn clustered into 4–6 macroregions (NUTS I level). Furthermore, a NUTS IV level division, called plasă or canton, would probably be added in order to meet the EU statistical and administrative requirements.
Another proposal, based on 15 autonomous euro-regions (amongst them one ethnic-based region with a consistent Hungarian majority consisting of the existing Mureș, Harghita and Covasna counties) grouped into 5 statistical macroregions (NUTS I), was made by the Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania.
In 2018, a referendum was held in the Olt County to rename it to the "Olt-Romanați County" in memory of the former Romanați County, but it did not reach the required turnout and failed.
See also
List of cities in Romania
Etymological list of counties of Romania
Communes of Romania
Municipality in Romania
References
External links
http://romaniainterbelica.memoria.ro/
Historical
Subdivisions of Romania
Romania geography-related lists
Administrative divisions | [
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|
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