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231156	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Pryor	Richard Pryor	Richard Franklin Lennox Thomas Pryor Sr. (December 1, 1940 – December 10, 2005) was an American stand-up comedian, actor, and writer. He reached a broad audience with his trenchant observations and storytelling style and is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential stand-up comedians of all time. Pryor won a Primetime Emmy Award and five Grammy Awards. He received the first Kennedy Center Mark Twain Prize for American Humor in 1998. He won the Writers Guild of America Award in 1974. He was listed at number one on Comedy Central's list of all-time greatest stand-up comedians. In 2017, Rolling Stone ranked him first on its list of the 50 best stand-up comics of all time. Pryor's body of work includes the concert films and recordings: Richard Pryor: Live & Smokin' (1971), That Nigger's Crazy (1974), ...Is It Something I Said? (1975), Bicentennial Nigger (1976), Richard Pryor: Live in Concert (1979), Richard Pryor: Live on the Sunset Strip (1982), and Richard Pryor: Here and Now (1983). As an actor, he starred mainly in comedies. His occasional roles in dramas included Paul Schrader's Blue Collar (1978). He also appeared in action films, like Superman III (1983). He collaborated on many projects with actor Gene Wilder, including the films Silver Streak (1976), Stir Crazy (1980), and See No Evil, Hear No Evil (1989). Another frequent collaborator was actor/comedian/writer Paul Mooney. Early life Pryor was born on December 1, 1940, in Peoria, Illinois. He grew up in a brothel run by his grandmother, Marie Carter, where his alcoholic mother, Gertrude L. (née Thomas), was a prostitute. His father, LeRoy "Buck Carter" Pryor (June 7, 1915 – September 27, 1968), was a former boxer, hustler and pimp. After Gertrude abandoned him when he was 10, Pryor was raised primarily by Marie, a tall, violent woman who would beat him for any of his eccentricities. Pryor was one of four children raised in his grandmother's brothel. He was sexually abused at age seven, and expelled from school at the age of 14. While in Peoria, he became a Prince Hall Freemason at a local lodge. Pryor served in the U.S. Army from 1958 to 1960, but spent virtually the entire stint in an army prison. According to a 1999 profile about Pryor in The New Yorker, Pryor was incarcerated for an incident that occurred while he was stationed in West Germany. Angered that a white soldier was overly amused at the racially charged scenes of Douglas Sirk's film Imitation of Life, Pryor and several other black soldiers beat and stabbed him, although not fatally. Career 1960s In 1963, Pryor moved to New York City and began performing regularly in clubs alongside performers such as Bob Dylan and Woody Allen. On one of his first nights, he opened for singer and pianist Nina Simone at New York's Village Gate. Simone recalls Pryor's bout of performance anxiety: Inspired by Bill Cosby, Pryor began as a middlebrow comic, with material less controversial than what was to come. Soon, he began appearing regularly on television variety shows such as The Ed Sullivan Show, The Merv Griffin Show, and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. His popularity led to success as a comic in Las Vegas. The first five tracks on the 2005 compilation CD Evolution/Revolution: The Early Years (1966–1974), recorded in 1966 and 1967, capture Pryor in this period. In September 1967, Pryor had what he described in his autobiography Pryor Convictions (1995) as an "epiphany". He walked onto the stage at the Aladdin Hotel in Las Vegas (with Dean Martin in the audience), looked at the sold-out crowd, exclaimed over the microphone, "What the fuck am I doing here!?", and walked off the stage. Afterward, Pryor began working profanity into his act, including the word nigger. His first comedy recording, the eponymous 1968 debut release on the Dove/Reprise label, captures this particular period, tracking the evolution of Pryor's routine. Around this time, his parents died—his mother in 1967 and his father in 1968. In 1969, Pryor moved to Berkeley, California, where he immersed himself in the counterculture and rubbed elbows with the likes of Huey P. Newton and Ishmael Reed. 1970s In the 1970s, Pryor wrote for television shows such as Sanford and Son, The Flip Wilson Show, and a 1973 Lily Tomlin special, for which he shared an Emmy Award. During this period, Pryor tried to break into mainstream television. He also appeared in several popular films, including Lady Sings the Blues (1972), The Mack (1973), Uptown Saturday Night (1974), Silver Streak (1976), Car Wash (1976), Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings (1976), Which Way Is Up? (1977), Greased Lightning (1977), Blue Collar (1978), and The Muppet Movie (1979). Pryor signed with the comedy-oriented independent record label Laff Records in 1970, and in 1971 recorded his second album, Craps (After Hours). Two years later, the relatively unknown comedian appeared in the documentary Wattstax (1972), wherein he riffed on the tragic-comic absurdities of race relations in Watts and the nation. Not long afterward, Pryor sought a deal with a larger label, and he signed with Stax Records in 1973. When his third, breakthrough album, That Nigger's Crazy (1974), was released, Laff, which claimed ownership of Pryor's recording rights, almost succeeded in getting an injunction to prevent the album from being sold. Negotiations led to Pryor's release from his Laff contract. In return for this concession, Laff was enabled to release previously unissued material, recorded between 1968 and 1973, at will. That Nigger's Crazy was a commercial and critical success; it was eventually certified gold by the RIAA and won the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album at the 1975 Grammy Awards. During the legal battle, Stax briefly closed its doors. At this time, Pryor returned to Reprise/Warner Bros. Records, which re-released That Nigger's Crazy, immediately after ...Is It Something I Said?, his first album with his new label. Like That Nigger's Crazy, the album was a hit with both critics and fans; it was eventually certified platinum by the RIAA and won the Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording at the 1976 Grammy Awards. Pryor's 1976 release Bicentennial Nigger continued his streak of success. It became his third consecutive gold album, and he collected his third consecutive Grammy for Best Comedy Recording for the album in 1977. With every successful album Pryor recorded for Warner (or later, his concert films and his 1980 freebasing accident), Laff quickly published an album of older material to capitalize on Pryor's growing fame—a practice they continued until 1983. The covers of Laff albums tied in thematically with Pryor movies, such as Are You Serious? for Silver Streak (1976), The Wizard of Comedy for his appearance in The Wiz (1978), and Insane for Stir Crazy (1980). Pryor co-wrote Blazing Saddles (1974), directed by Mel Brooks and starring Gene Wilder. Pryor was to play the lead role of Bart, but the film's production studio would not insure him, and Mel Brooks chose Cleavon Little, instead. In 1975, Pryor was a guest host on the first season of Saturday Night Live and the first black person to host the show. Pryor's longtime girlfriend, actress and talk-show host Kathrine McKee (sister of Lonette McKee), made a brief guest appearance with Pryor on SNL. Among the highlights of the night was the now-controversial "word association" skit with Chevy Chase. He would later do his own variety show, The Richard Pryor Show, which premiered on NBC in 1977. The show was cancelled after only four episodes probably because television audiences did not respond well to his show's controversial subject matter, and Pryor was unwilling to alter his material for network censors. 'They offered me ten episodes, but I said all I wanted to in four'. During the short-lived series, he portrayed the first black President of the United States, spoofed the Star Wars Mos Eisley cantina, examined gun violence in a non-comedy skit, lampooned racism on the sinking Titanic and even used costumes and visual distortion to appear nude. In 1979, at the height of his success, Pryor visited Africa. Upon returning to the United States, Pryor swore he would never use the word "nigger" in his stand-up comedy routine again. 1980s While on a freebasing binge during the making of the film Stir Crazy (1980), Pryor doused himself in rum and set himself on fire. Pryor incorporated a description of the incident into his comedy show Richard Pryor: Live on the Sunset Strip (1982). He joked that the event was caused by dunking a cookie into a glass of low-fat and pasteurized milk, causing an explosion. At the end of the bit, he poked fun at people who told jokes about it by waving a lit match and saying, "What's that? Richard Pryor running down the street." Before his horribly damaging 1980 freebasing incident, Pryor was about to start filming Mel Brooks' History of the World, Part I (1981), but was replaced at the last minute by Gregory Hines. Likewise, Pryor was scheduled for an appearance on The Muppet Show at that time, which forced the producers to cast their British writer, Chris Langham, as the guest star for that episode instead. After his "final performance", Pryor did not stay away from stand-up comedy for long. Within a year, he filmed and released a new concert film and accompanying album, Richard Pryor: Here and Now (1983), which he directed himself. He also wrote and directed a fictionalized account of his life, Jo Jo Dancer, Your Life Is Calling, which revolved around the 1980 freebasing incident. In 1983 Pryor signed a five-year contract with Columbia Pictures for $40 million and he started his own production company, Indigo Productions. Softer, more formulaic films followed, including Superman III (1983), which earned Pryor $4 million; Brewster's Millions (1985), Moving (1988), and See No Evil, Hear No Evil (1989). The only film project from this period that recalled his rough roots was Pryor's semiautobiographic debut as a writer-director, Jo Jo Dancer, Your Life Is Calling, which was not a major success. Pryor was also originally considered for the role of Billy Ray Valentine on Trading Places (1983), before Eddie Murphy won the part. Despite his reputation for constantly using profanity on and off camera, Pryor briefly hosted a children's show on CBS called Pryor's Place (1984). Like Sesame Street, Pryor's Place featured a cast of puppets (animated by Sid and Marty Krofft), hanging out and having fun in a friendly inner-city environment along with several children and characters portrayed by Pryor himself. Its theme song was performed by Ray Parker, Jr. However, Pryor's Place frequently dealt with more sobering issues than Sesame Street. It was cancelled shortly after its debut. Pryor co-hosted the Academy Awards twice and was nominated for an Emmy for a guest role on the television series Chicago Hope. Network censors had warned Pryor about his profanity for the Academy Awards, and after a slip early in the program, a five-second delay was instituted when returning from a commercial break. Pryor is also one of only three Saturday Night Live hosts to be subjected to a rare five-second delay for his 1975 appearance (along with Sam Kinison in 1986 and Andrew Dice Clay in 1990). Pryor developed a reputation for being demanding and disrespectful on film sets, and for making selfish and difficult requests. In his autobiography Kiss Me Like a Stranger, co-star Gene Wilder says that Pryor was frequently late to the set during filming of Stir Crazy, and that he demanded, among other things, a helicopter to fly him to and from set because he was the star. Pryor was also accused of using allegations of on-set racism to force the hand of film producers into giving him more money: Pryor appeared in Harlem Nights (1989), a comedy-drama crime film starring three generations of black comedians (Pryor, Eddie Murphy, and Redd Foxx). 1990s and 2000s In his later years starting in the early to mid-1990s, Pryor used a power-operated mobility scooter due to multiple sclerosis (MS). To him, MS stood for "More Shit". He appears on the scooter in his last film appearance, a small role in David Lynch's Lost Highway (1997) playing an auto-repair garage manager named Arnie. Rhino Records remastered all of Pryor's Reprise and WB albums for inclusion in the box set ... And It's Deep Too! The Complete Warner Bros. Recordings (1968–1992) (2000). In late December 1999, Pryor appeared in the cold open of The Norm Show in the episode entitled "Norm vs. The Boxer". He played Mr. Johnson, an elderly man in a wheelchair who has lost the rights to in-home nursing when he kept attacking the nurses before attacking Norm himself. This was his last television appearance. In 2002, Pryor and Jennifer Lee Pryor, his wife and manager, won legal rights to all the Laff material, which amounted to almost 40 hours of reel-to-reel analog tape. After going through the tapes and getting Richard's blessing, Jennifer Lee Pryor gave Rhino Records access to the tapes in 2004. These tapes, including the entire Craps (After Hours) album, form the basis of the February 1, 2005, double-CD release Evolution/Revolution: The Early Years (1966–1974). Legacy Jerry Seinfeld called Pryor "the Picasso of our profession" and Bob Newhart heralded Pryor as "the seminal comedian of the last 50 years." Dave Chappelle said of Pryor, "You know those, like, evolution charts of man? He was the dude walking upright. Richard was the highest evolution of comedy." This legacy can be attributed, in part, to the unusual degree of intimacy Pryor brought to bear on his comedy. As Bill Cosby reportedly once said, "Richard Pryor drew the line between comedy and tragedy as thin as one could possibly paint it." Awards and honors In 1998, Pryor won the first Mark Twain Prize for American Humor from the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. According to former Kennedy Center President Lawrence J. Wilker, Pryor was selected as the first recipient of the Prize because: In 2004, Pryor was voted number one on Comedy Central's list of the 100 Greatest Stand-ups of All Time. In a 2005 British poll to find "The Comedian's Comedian," Pryor was voted the 10th-greatest comedy act ever by fellow comedians and comedy insiders. Pryor was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 2006. The animal rights organization PETA gives out an award in Pryor's name to people who have done outstanding work to alleviate animal suffering. Pryor was active in animal rights and was deeply concerned about the plight of elephants in circuses and zoos. In 1999, he was awarded a Humanitarian Award by the group, and worked with them on campaigns against the treatment of birds by KFC. Artist Preston Jackson created a life-sized bronze statue in dedication to the beloved comedian and named it Richard Pryor: More than Just a Comedian. It was placed at the corner of State and Washington Streets in downtown Peoria, on May 1, 2015, close to the neighborhood in which he grew up with his mother. The unveiling was held Sunday, May 3, 2015. Retrospectives In 2002, a television documentary entitled The Funny Life of Richard Pryor depicted Pryor's life and career. Broadcast in the UK as part of the Channel 4 series Kings of Black Comedy, it was produced, directed and narrated by David Upshal and featured rare clips from Pryor's 1960s stand-up appearances and films such as Silver Streak (1976), Blue Collar (1978), Richard Pryor: Live in Concert (1978), and Stir Crazy (1980). Contributors included George Carlin, Dave Chappelle, Whoopi Goldberg, Ice-T, Paul Mooney, Joan Rivers, and Lily Tomlin. The show tracked down the two cops who had rescued Pryor from his "freebasing incident", former managers, and even school friends from Pryor's home town of Peoria, Illinois. In the US, the show went out as part of the Heroes of Black Comedy series on Comedy Central, narrated by Don Cheadle. A television documentary, Richard Pryor: I Ain't Dead Yet, #*%$#@!! (2003) consisted of archival footage of Pryor's performances and testimonials from fellow comedians, including Dave Chappelle, Denis Leary, Chris Rock, and Wanda Sykes, on Pryor's influence on comedy. On December 19, 2005, BET aired a Pryor special, titled The Funniest Man Dead or Alive. It included commentary from fellow comedians, and insight into his upbringing. A retrospective of Pryor's film work, concentrating on the 1970s, titled A Pryor Engagement, opened at Brooklyn Academy of Music Cinemas for a two-week run in February 2013. Several prolific comedians who have claimed Pryor as an influence include George Carlin, Dave Attell, Martin Lawrence, Dave Chappelle, Chris Rock, Colin Quinn, Patrice O'Neal, Bill Hicks, Jerry Seinfeld, Jon Stewart, Bill Burr, Joey Diaz, Eddie Murphy, Louis C.K., and Eddie Izzard. On May 31, 2013, Showtime debuted the documentary Richard Pryor: Omit the Logic directed by Emmy Award-winning filmmaker Marina Zenovich. The executive producers were Pryor's widow Jennifer Lee Pryor and Roy Ackerman. Interviewees included Dave Chappelle, Whoopi Goldberg, Jesse Jackson, Quincy Jones, George Lopez, Bob Newhart, Richard Pryor, Jr., Lily Tomlin, and Robin Williams. On March 12, 2019, Paramount Network debuted the documentary I Am Richard Pryor, directed by Jesse James Miller. The film included appearances by Sandra Bernhard, Lily Tomlin, Mike Epps, Howie Mandel, and Pryor's ex-wife, Jennifer Lee Pryor, among others. Jennifer Lee also served as an executive producer on the film. Portrayals In the episode "Taxes and Death or Get Him to the Sunset Strip"(2012), the voice of Richard Pryor is played by Eddie Griffin in the satirical TV show Black Dynamite. A planned biopic, entitled Richard Pryor: Is It Something I Said?, was being produced by Chris Rock and Adam Sandler. The film would have starred Marlon Wayans as the young Pryor. Other actors previously attached include Mike Epps and Eddie Murphy. The film would have been directed by Bill Condon and was still in development with no release date, as of February 2013. The biopic remained in limbo, and went through several producers until it was announced in January 2014 that it was being backed by The Weinstein Company with Lee Daniels as director. It was further announced, in August 2014, that the biopic will have Oprah Winfrey as producer and will star Mike Epps as Pryor. He is portrayed by Brandon Ford Green in Season 1 Episode 4 "Sugar and Spice" of Showtime's I'm Dying Up Here. In the Epic Rap Battles of History episode George Carlin vs. Richard Pryor, Pryor was portrayed by American rapper ZEALE. Personal life Pryor met actress Pam Grier through comedian Freddie Prinze. They began dating when they were both cast in Greased Lightning (1977). Grier helped Pryor learn to read and tried to help him with his drug addiction. Pryor married another woman while dating Grier. Pryor dated actress Margot Kidder during the filming of Some Kind of Hero (1982). Kidder stated that she "fell in love with Pryor in two seconds flat" after they first met. Marriages Pryor was married seven times to five women: Patricia Price, to whom he was married 1960–1961. Shelley Bonus, to whom he was married 1967–1969. Deborah McGuire, an aspiring model and actress whom he married on September 22, 1977. They dated on and off for four years prior to their marriage. They separated in January 1978, and their divorce was finalized in August 1978. Jennifer Lee, an actress and interior designer whom Pryor had hired to decorate his home. They married in August 1981, and divorced in October 1982 due to his drug addiction. They remarried on June 29, 2001, and remained married until Pryor's death. Flynn Belaine, an aspiring actress whom he married in October 1986. They met when Pryor was performing in Washington, D.C., in 1984. Two months after they married, Pryor filed for divorce, but withdrew the petition the same day. A week later he filed for divorce again. Their divorce was finalized in July 1987. They remarried on April 1, 1990, but divorced again in July 1991. Children Pryor had seven children with six different women: Renee Pryor, born July 20, 1957, the child of Pryor and girlfriend Susan, when Pryor was 16. Richard Pryor Jr., born April 10, 1962, the child of Pryor and his first wife, Patricia Price. Elizabeth Anne, born April 24, 1967, the child of Pryor and girlfriend Maxine Anderson. Rain Pryor, born July 16, 1969, the child of Pryor and his second wife, Shelley Bonus. Steven, born November 14, 1984, the child of Pryor and Flynn Belaine, who later became his fifth wife. Franklin, born April 29, 1987, the child of Pryor and actress/model Geraldine Mason. Kelsey, born October 25, 1987, the child of Pryor and his fifth wife, Flynn Belaine. Sexuality Nine years after Pryor's death, in 2014 the biographical book Becoming Richard Pryor by Scott Saul stated that Pryor "acknowledged his bisexuality" and in 2018, Quincy Jones and Pryor's widow Jennifer Lee claimed that Pryor had had a sexual relationship with Marlon Brando, and that Pryor was open about his bisexuality with his friends. Pryor's daughter Rain later disputed the claim, to which Lee stated that Rain was in denial about her father's bisexuality. Lee later told TMZ, in explanation, that "it was the 70s! Drugs were still good...If you did enough cocaine, you'd fuck a radiator and send it flowers in the morning". In his autobiography Pryor Convictions, Pryor talked about having a two-week relationship with Mitrasha, a trans woman, which he called "two weeks of being gay." In his first special, Live & Smokin', Pryor discusses performing fellatio, and in 1977, he said at a gay rights show at the Hollywood Bowl, "I have sucked a dick." Substance abuse Late in the evening of June 9, 1980, Pryor poured 151-proof rum all over himself and lit himself on fire. The Los Angeles police reported he was burned by an explosion while freebasing cocaine. Pryor claimed his injuries were caused by burning rum. While ablaze, he ran down Parthenia Street from his Los Angeles home, until being subdued by police. He was taken to a hospital, where he was treated for second- and third-degree burns covering more than half of his body. Pryor spent six weeks in recovery at the Grossman Burn Center at Sherman Oaks Hospital. His daughter Rain stated that the incident happened as a result of a bout of drug-induced psychosis. Pryor's widow Jennifer Lee recalled when he began freebasing cocaine: "After two weeks of watching him getting addicted to this stuff I moved out. It was clear the drug had moved in and it had become his lover and everything. I did not exist." Health problems In November 1977, after many years of heavy smoking and drinking, Pryor suffered a mild heart attack at age 37. He recovered and resumed performing in January the following year. In 1986, he was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis. In 1990, Pryor suffered a second heart attack while in Australia. He underwent triple heart bypass surgery in 1991. In late 2004, his sister said he had lost his voice as a result of his multiple sclerosis. However, on January 9, 2005, Pryor's wife, Jennifer Lee, rebutted this statement in a post on Pryor's official website, citing Richard as saying: "I'm sick of hearing this shit about me not talking ... not true ... I have good days, bad days ... but I still am a talkin' motherfucker!" Death On December 10, 2005, nine days after his 65th birthday, Pryor suffered a third heart attack in Los Angeles. He was taken to a local hospital after his wife's attempts to resuscitate him failed. He was pronounced dead at 7:58 a.m. PST. His widow Jennifer was quoted as saying, "At the end, there was a smile on his face." He was cremated, and his ashes were given to his family. His ashes were later scattered in the bay at Hana, Hawaii by his widow in 2019. Forensic pathologist Michael Hunter believes Pryor's fatal heart attack was caused by coronary artery disease that was at least partially brought about by years of tobacco smoking. Discography Albums Compilations 1973: Pryor Goes Foxx Hunting (Laff.) Split LP with Redd Foxx, containing previously released tracks from Craps (After Hours) 1975: Down And Dirty (Laff.) Split LP with Redd Foxx, containing previously released tracks from Craps (After Hours) 1976: Richard Pryor Meets ... Richard & Willie And ... The SLA!! (Laff) Split LP with black ventriloquist act Richard And Willie, containing previously released tracks from Craps (After Hours) 1977: Richard Pryor's Greatest Hits (Warner Bros. Records) Contains tracks from Craps (After Hours), That Nigger's Crazy, and ... Is It Something I Said?, plus a previously unreleased track from 1975, "Ali". 1982: The Very Best of Richard Pryor (Laff.) 2000: ... And It's Deep Too! The Complete Warner Bros. Recordings (1968–1992) (9-CD box set) (Warner Bros. Records/Rhino) Box set collection containing all Warner Bros. albums plus a bonus disc of previously unissued material from 1973 to 1992. 2002: The Anthology (1968–1992) (2-CD set) (Warner Bros. Records/Rhino, 2002 in music) Highlights culled from the albums collected in the ... And It's Deep Too! box set. 2005: Evolution/Revolution: The Early Years (1966–1974) (2-CD set) (Warner Bros. Records/Rhino, 2005 in music) Pryor-authorized compilation of material released on Laff, including the entire Craps (After Hours) album. 2013: No Pryor Restraint: Life In Concert (7-CD, 2-DVD box set) (Shout! Factory) Box set containing concert films, albums and unreleased material from 1966 to 1992. Filmography Feature films Television Books References Further reading External links Richard Pryor: Stand-Up Philosopher, City Journal, Spring 2009 Richard Pryor's Legacy Lives On Richard Pryor at Emmys.com Richard Pryor's Peoria Biographical special—includes full version. Image of Richard Pryor and Lou Gossett backstage, 1978. Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429). UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. 1940 births 2005 deaths 20th-century American comedians 20th-century American male actors 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters Actors from Peoria, Illinois African-American film directors African-American male actors African-American male comedians African-American military personnel African-American screenwriters African-American stand-up comedians African-American television producers American Freemasons American humorists American male comedians American male comedy actors American male film actors American male non-fiction writers American male screenwriters American male television writers American Prince Hall Freemasons American satirists American social commentators American stand-up comedians American television writers Censorship in the arts Comedians from Illinois Deaths from coronary artery disease Film directors from Illinois Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners LGBT actors from the United States LGBT African Americans Male actors from Illinois Mark Twain Prize recipients Military personnel from Illinois Obscenity controversies in stand-up comedy People with multiple sclerosis Race-related controversies in stand-up comedy Screenwriters from Illinois Stand-up comedy controversies Stax Records artists Television producers from Illinois United States Army soldiers Warner Records artists Writers from Peoria, Illinois	[ -0.6105052828788757, 0.8131948709487915, -0.49780306220054626, -0.3185352385044098, 0.028125688433647156, 0.9474815726280212, 0.6276587843894958, 0.339657187461853, -0.6047230362892151, -0.1321822553873062, -0.19985942542552948, 0.008987341076135635, -0.20505931973457336, 0.7112419009208679, 0.11411561816930771, 0.5274018049240112, -0.417592853307724, 0.4049692451953888, -0.13205263018608093, -0.2946009635925293, 0.211845263838768, -0.2590639293193817, 0.3108974099159241, -0.11851323395967484, -0.22434960305690765, 0.058204323053359985, 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231158	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Wightman	Arthur Wightman	Arthur Strong Wightman (March 30, 1922 – January 13, 2013) was an American mathematical physicist. He was one of the founders of the axiomatic approach to quantum field theory, and originated the set of Wightman axioms. With his rigorous treatment of quantum field theories, he promoted research on various aspects of modern mathematical physics. Biography Arthur Wightman was born on March 30, 1922, in Rochester, in New York. He studied at the Yale University and in 1942 he earned a bachelor's degree in physics. In 1949 he received his doctorate at the Princeton University under the supervision of John Wheeler. He intended to graduate with Eugene Wigner, but he was spending most of his time at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory. In the early 1950s, he started as a young instructor in the Princeton Physics department and later became the Thomas D. Jones Professor of Mathematical Physics, in 1971. He retired in 1992 as professor emeritus. In the years 1951-1952 and 1956-1957 he was a visiting researcher at the University of Copenhagen at the Niels Bohr Institute, where he worked in particular with Gunnar Källén and Lars Gårding. In 1957 he was at the University of Paris and in the years 1963-1964 and 1968-1969 at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques. Between 1977 and 1978 he was visiting professor at the École Polytechnique in Paris and in 1982 at the University of Adelaide. Wightman has been married twice. His first wife, Anna-Greta Larsson, was an artist and photographer and died early. They had a daughter, Robin, who also died prematurely. The second wife was the Bulgarian translator Ludmilla Popova Wightman. Wightman died on January 13, 2013, in Princeton, in New Jersey. Scientific career Already during his undergraduate studies, Arthur Wightman had close contacts with the mathematics department in Princeton. Together with the mathematician John Tate, Wightman was engaged in the work on the Lorentz and Poincaré groups representations. In the 1950s, he introduced his famous Wightman axioms as a mathematical foundation to relativistic quantum field theory. Quantum fields are treated as distributions in space-time. The Hilbert space carries a unitary representation of the Poincaré group under which the field operators transform covariantly. Res Jost was able to derive the PCT and the spin-statistics theorems, as shown in Wightman's and Streater's book. Together with Eugene Wigner and Gian-Carlo Wick, he introduced superselection rules and studied the representations of commutator and anti-commutator algebras with the mathematician Lars Gårding. Honors and awards In 1969 Arthur Wightman was awarded the Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics for founding and contributing in developing axiomatic quantum field theory and in 1997 the Henri Poincaré Prize of the International Association of Mathematical Physics for his central role in the foundations of the general theory of quantum fields. Since 1964 he was a fellow of the American Physical Society, since 1966 of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and since 1970 of the United States National Academy of Sciences. In 1962 he was an invited speaker at the International Congress of Mathematicians in Stockholm. In 1976 he was Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecturer. Selected publications See also Axiomatic quantum field theory Hilbert's sixth problem PCT Theorem Principle of locality Quantum field theory Wightman axioms References Further reading External links . . . 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231159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomsday	Bloomsday	Bloomsday is a commemoration and celebration of the life of Irish writer James Joyce, observed annually in Dublin and elsewhere on 16 June, the day his 1922 novel Ulysses takes place in 1904, the date of his first outing with his wife-to-be, Nora Barnacle, and named after its protagonist Leopold Bloom. Name The English compound word Bloomsday is usually used in Irish as well, though some publications call it Lá Bloom. First celebration The first mention of such a celebration is to be found in a letter by Joyce to Miss Weaver of 27 June 1924, which refers to "a group of people who observe what they call Bloom's day – 16 June". On the 50th anniversary of the events in the novel, in 1954, John Ryan (artist, critic, publican and founder of Envoy magazine) and the novelist Brian O'Nolan organised what was to be a daylong pilgrimage along the Ulysses route. They were joined by Patrick Kavanagh, Anthony Cronin, Tom Joyce (a dentist who, as Joyce's cousin, represented the family interest) and AJ Leventhal (a lecturer in French at Trinity College, Dublin). Ryan had engaged two horse-drawn cabs, of the old-fashioned kind, in which in Ulysses Mr. Bloom and his friends drive to Paddy Dignam's funeral. The party were assigned roles from the novel. Cronin stood in for Stephen Dedalus, O’Nolan for his father Simon Dedalus, John Ryan for the journalist Martin Cunningham, and A.J. Leventhal, being Jewish, was recruited to fill (unknownst to him, according to John Ryan) the role of Leopold Bloom. They planned to travel round the city through the day, starting at the Martello tower at Sandycove (where the novel begins), visiting in turn the scenes of the novel, ending at night in what had once been the brothel quarter of the city, the area which Joyce had called Nighttown. The pilgrimage was abandoned halfway through, when the weary pilgrims succumbed to inebriation and rancour at the Bailey pub in the city centre, which Ryan then owned, and at which in 1967 he installed the door to No. 7 Eccles Street (Leopold Bloom's front door), having rescued it from demolition. A Bloomsday record of 1954, informally filmed by John Ryan, follows this pilgrimage. Activities Dublin The day involves a range of cultural activities, including Ulysses readings and dramatisations, pub crawls and other events, some of it hosted by the James Joyce Centre in North Great George's Street. Enthusiasts often dress in Edwardian costume to celebrate Bloomsday, and retrace Bloom's route around Dublin via landmarks such as Davy Byrne's pub. Hard-core devotees have even been known to hold marathon readings of the entire novel, some lasting up to 36 hours. The James Joyce Tower and Museum at Sandycove, site of the opening chapter of Ulysses, hosts many free activities around Bloomsday including theatrical performances, musical events, tours of the iconic tower and readings from Joyce's masterpiece. "Every year hundreds of Dubliners dress as characters from the book ... as if to assert their willingness to become one with the text. It is quite impossible to imagine any other masterpiece of modernism having quite such an effect on the life of a city." On Bloomsday 1982, the centenary year of Joyce's birth, Irish state broadcaster RTÉ transmitted a continuous 30-hour dramatic performance of the entire text of Ulysses on radio. A five-month-long festival, ReJoyce Dublin 2004, took place in Dublin between 1 April and 31 August 2004. On the Sunday before the 100th "anniversary" of the fictional events described in the book, 10,000 people in Dublin were treated to a free, open-air, full Irish breakfast on O'Connell Street consisting of sausages, rashers, toast, beans, and black and white puddings. The 2006 Bloomsday festivities were cancelled, the day coinciding with the funeral of Charles Haughey. United Kingdom BBC Radio Four devoted most of its broadcasting on 16 June 2012, to a dramatisation of Ulysses, with additional comments from critic Mark Lawson talking to Joyce scholars. In the dramatisation, Molly Bloom was played by Niamh Cusack, Leopold Bloom by Henry Goodman, Stephen Daedalus by Andrew Scott, and the Narrator was Stephen Rea. United States Washington, D.C. – The Georgetown Neighborhood Library, located at 3260 R Street, NW, in Washington, D.C. held a marathon dramatic reading of Ulysses beginning 9 June and concluding on 16 June 2014 (Bloomsday). Twenty-five writers, actors, and scholars read Ulysses aloud in its entirety, a project which took more than 33 hours. The reading concluded with opera singer Laura Baxter performing Molly Bloom's soliloquy in its entirety, a feat taking 2 1/2 hours by itself. Philadelphia – The Rosenbach Museum & Library is home to Joyce's handwritten manuscript of Ulysses. The museum first celebrated Bloomsday in 1992, with readings by actors and scholars at the Borders Books in Center City. The following 16 June, it began the tradition of closing the 2000-block of Delancey Street for a Bloomsday street festival. In addition to dozens of readers, often including Philadelphia's mayor, singers from the Academy of Vocal Arts perform songs that are integral to the novel's plot. Traditional Irish cuisine is provided by local Irish-themed pubs. In 2014, the Rosenbach's Bloomsday festival went on the road, with two hours of readings at the main branch of the Free Library of Philadelphia, an hour of readings at Rittenhouse Square, and concluded with five hours of readings on the steps of the museum, at 2008–10 Delancey Street. New York City has several events on Bloomsday including formal readings at Symphony Space and informal readings and music at the downtown Ulysses' Folk House pub. The Irish American Bar Association of New York celebrates Joyce's contribution to the First Amendment, with an annual keynote speech named after John Quinn, the Irish-American lawyer who defended Joyce's New York publishers in their obscenity trial in 1922. In 2014, New York celebrated Bloomsday with "Bloomsday on Broadway," which includes famous actors reading excerpts of the books, and commentators explaining the work between segments. The 2016 celebration includes a juried competition for the Best Dressed Molly and Leopold Bloom, selected from among attendees by a blue-ribbon panel including image strategist Margaret Molloy several design figures. Los Angeles, California – Each year Bloomsday is celebrated at the Hammer Museum with readings, music and libations. Kansas City, Missouri – The Kansas City Irish Center currently hosts the Bloomsday celebration, started at the now closed Bloomsday Books in 1995. Usually a day long event, the Center hosts readings, a documentary, a play, Irish dancers and a performance by Dublin balladeer Eddie Delahunt. This has been an annual event since its inception. Syracuse, New York – The Syracuse James Joyce Club holds an annual Bloomsday celebration at Johnston's BallyBay Pub, at which large portions of the book are either read aloud, or presented as dramatisations by costumed performers. Cleveland, Ohio – The Nighttown Restaurant/Jazz Club holds an annual reading of the novel on Bloomsday. Wichita, Kansas – Bloomsday is honoured by a presentation on James Joyce (often by Dr. Marguerite Regan) as well as readings from Ulysses and Irish folk music, sponsored by the Wichita Irish Cultural Association. Norfolk, Virginia – The Irish American Society of Tidewater, Virginia, held a Bloomsday Happy Hour at Smartmouth Brewery, on Saturday, 14 June 2014. Live Irish music was provided by the band Glasgow Kiss, and IAS members attended dressed in Joycean accessories (fedoras, round glasses, eye patches, etc.). Portland, Maine – Readings from Ulysses at the Maine Irish Heritage Center, corner of Gray and State Streets. Portland, Oregon – Powell's Books hosts a reading of the novel in its entirety for the duration of the day by authors, volunteers, and other Joyce lovers. Worcester, Massachusetts – long running annual celebration with readings from Ulysses at 7 sites around the city. Organized annually by the Worcester County Poetry Association. Tulsa, Oklahoma – The Oklahoma Center for the Humanities, Booksmart Tulsa, and the Guthrie Green began an annual Bloomsday Pub Crawl in the Brady Arts District of downtown Tulsa in 2014. Phoenix, Arizona – the Irish Cultural Center and McClelland Library sponsor a weekend Annual Bloomin' Beerfest with live Irish music, a costume contest, and live readings. Australia In Sydney, Bloomsday is hosted by the John Hume Institute for Global Irish Studies UNSW in association with the National Irish Association Sydney and the Consulate General of Ireland, Sydney. Bloomsday in Melbourne has a proud history of engagement with the work of James Joyce. Since 1994, a committee of Joyceansnow known as 'Bloomsday in Melbourne'has read and re-read Joyce and mounted theatrical events designed to communicate the joy of Joyce to its loyal patrons. In 2019 Bloomsday in Melbourne mounted a production of Tom Stoppard's Travesties at fortyfivedownstairs in Melbourne. In 2020, Bloomsday in Melbourne created an online series of eighteen short films, corresponding to each of the episodes of Ulysses. The films featured well-known Australian actor Max Gillies. In 2021, Bloomsday in Melbourne announced that it was to present Love's Bitter Mystery: the year that made James Joyce, as an 'intense immersive theatrical experience' at Melbourne's Villa Alba in Kew, Victoria. The play, written by Bloomsday in Melbourne's Steve Carey, focuses on a key period in the young James Joyce's life, between his first failed exile in Paris in 1902 and his departure for Europe in September 1904. New Zealand Bloomsday commenced in Auckland in the year 2000 with a radio transmission of Ulysses on Access Radio from midnight to 6am, 16 Junethe first Bloomsday celebration of the new millennium anywhere in the world. A cabaret show with Linn Lorkin and the Jews Brothers Band followed next year, 2001, and there has been a Jews Brothers Bloomsday ever since on 16 June, with Brooklyn musician Hershal Herscher as a Woody Allen Bloom and Dublin actor Brian Keagan reading from Ulysses. Currently this three-hour show is hosted by the Thirsty Dog, on Karangahape Road. Guest Molly Blooms have included New Zealanders Robyn Malcolm, Noelle McCarthy, Carmel McGlone, Lucy Lawless, Geraldine Brophy and Jennifer Ward-Lealand. Canada A five-day Bloomsday festival has been celebrated in Montreal since 2012 with readings, academic workshops, films, concerts and musical galas, cabarets, walking tours of Irish Montreal, Irish pub events, and guest lectures by internationally known Ulysses experts. Major partners include the Concordia School for Canadian Irish Studies, McGill University Continuing Education, The Jewish Public Library, Westmount and Atwater Libraries. Italy There have been many Bloomsday events in Trieste, where the first part of Ulysses was written. The Joyce Museum Trieste, opened on 16 June 2004, collects works by and about James Joyce, including secondary sources, with a special emphasis on his period in Trieste. Since 2005 Bloomsday has been celebrated every year in Genoa, with a reading of Ulysses in Italian by volunteers (students, actors, teachers, scholars), starting at 0900 and finishing in the early hours of 17 June; the readings take place in 18 different places in the old town centre, one for each chapter of the novel, and these places are selected for their resemblance to the original settings. Thus for example chapter 1 is read in a medieval tower, chapter 2 in a classroom of the Faculty of Languages, chapter 3 in a bookshop on the waterfront, chapter 9 in the University Library, and chapter 12 ("Cyclops") in an old pub. The Genoa Bloomsday is organised by the Faculty of Languages and the International Genoa Poetry Festival. France The Paris Bloomsday Group (of Paris-based Irish Joyceans) performs texts and songs from the work of James Joyce in such Parisian venues as the Irish Embassy, the Centre Culturel Irlandais or the American Library in Paris. Performances are in English with brief forays into French, Italian, Latin and Greek. Czech Republic Bloomsday has been celebrated annually since 1993 in Prague. Fans of Ulysses meet just below the Strahov Monastery near a large grove containing what is now a frequently dried pond. A large historical protected oak tree (pamatný strom) is at one end of the grove and an unrelated cement monolith on the opposite. People meet every year at 11:50AM. A volunteer reads a section of Aeolus at the noon hour to the pealing of the Strahov monastery's bells. Hungary Bloomsday has also been celebrated since 1994 in the Hungarian town of Szombathely, the fictional birthplace of Leopold Bloom's father, Virág Rudolf, an emigrant Hungarian Jew. The event is usually centred on the Iseum – the remnants of an Isis temple there from Roman times – and the Blum-mansion, commemorated to Joyce since 1997, at 40–41 Fő street, which used to be the property of an actual Jewish family called Blum. Hungarian author László Najmányi in his 2007 novel, The Mystery of the Blum-mansion (A Blum-ház rejtélye) describes the results of his research on the connection between Joyce and the Blum family. Latvia In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic obstacles, "Bloomsday Latvia" initiative group organized a limited conference dedicated to the question whether should “Ulysses” be translated once again into Latvian (the first translation and publication of the book was in 1960). This was followed by a promenade through Riga Old Town where passages from "Ulysses" were read along the way which ended at the local Irish pub with further talks and Irish dances. Global On Bloomsday 2011, @Ulysses was the stage for an experimental day-long tweeting of Ulysses. Starting at 0800 (Dublin time) on Thursday 16 June 2011, the aim was to explore what would happen if Ulysses was recast 140 characters at a time. It was hoped that the event would become the first of a series. Literary references In 2004, Vintage Publishers issued Yes I said yes I will yes: A Celebration of James Joyce, Ulysses, and 100 Years of Bloomsday. It is one of the few monographs that details the increasing popularity of Bloomsday. The book's title comes from the novel's famous last lines. In 1956, Ted Hughes and Sylvia Plath were married by special licence of the Archbishop of Canterbury at St George the Martyr Church, Holborn, on 16 June, in honour of Bloomsday. Pat Conroy's 2009 novel South of Broad has numerous references to Bloomsday. Leopold Bloom King is the narrator. The book's first chapter describes the events of 16 June 1969 in Leo's story. In the novel by Enrique Vila-Matas Dublinesca (2010), part of the action takes place in Dublin for Bloomsday. The book's main protagonist, Riba, a retired Spanish editor, moves to this city with several writer friends to officiate a "funeral" for the Gutenberg era. American playwright Steven Dietz's 2015 play, Bloomsday, features an American man returning to Dublin in search of a woman he met on a Ulysses tour years earlier. The play premiered at ACT Theatre in Seattle, WA. It received the 2016 Steinberg New Play Award Citation from the American Theatre Critics Association. It has been widely produced in the United States. Popular cultural references In Mel Brooks' 1968 film The Producers, Gene Wilder's character is called Leo Bloom, an homage to Joyce's character. In the 2005 film musical version, in the evening scene at the Bethesda Fountain in Central Park, Leo asks, "When will it be Bloom's day?". However, in the earlier scene in which Bloom first meets Max Bialystock, the office wall calendar shows that the current day is 16 June, indicating that it is, in fact, Bloomsday. Punk band Minutemen have a song on their 1984 Double Nickels on the Dime album entitled "June 16th", which is named after Bloomsday. Richard Linklater alludes to Ulysses in two of his films. In 1991's Slacker, a character reads an excerpt from Ulysses after convincing his friends to dump a tent and a typewriter in a river as a response to a prior lover's infidelity. The film also takes place over a 24-hour period. In 1995's Before Sunrise, events take place on 16 June. A 2009 episode of the cartoon The Simpsons, "In the Name of the Grandfather", featured the family's trip to Dublin and Lisa's reference to Bloomsday. U2's 2009 song "Breathe" refers to events taking place on a fictitious 16 June. References External links Bloomsday Central Paris Review article, "Bloomsday Explained," by Jonathan Goldman James Joyce Centre, Dublin, Ireland The Paris Bloomsday Group NPR: Celebrating the 'Bloomsday' Centennial Seattle Bloomsday readings Stream of Conviviality For Leopold Bloom's Day – New York Times, 10 June 2010 BBC: Fans descend on Joyce's Dublin, Celebrations mark Joyce centenary, In pictures: Bloomsday celebrations Bloomsday Santa Maria – RS (Brazil): A literary party since 1994 Bloomsday Belo Horizonte – MG (Brazil): Celebrated by the Group Oficcina Multimedia since 1990 The Rosenbach Museum & Library (Philadelphia) The Bloomsday Band (San Francisco) Pittsburgh's 20th anniversary celebration of Bloomsday Joyce Museum Trieste Front door to No. 7 Eccles Street First Bloomsday Photo: Cronin, Ryan and Flann O'Brien setting off from Martello tower Photo: Ryan, Kavanagh, Cronin, Brian O’Nolan, Tom Joyce Cultural depictions of James Joyce June observances Ulysses (novel) Unofficial 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231160	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomicrobiology	Geomicrobiology	Geomicrobiology is the scientific field at the intersection of geology and microbiology and is a major subfield of geobiology. It concerns the role of microbes on geological and geochemical processes and effects of minerals and metals to microbial growth, activity and survival. Such interactions occur in the geosphere (rocks, minerals, soils, and sediments), the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Geomicrobiology studies microorganisms that are driving the Earth's biogeochemical cycles, mediating mineral precipitation and dissolution, and sorbing and concentrating metals. The applications include for example bioremediation, mining, climate change mitigation and public drinking water supplies. Rocks and minerals Microbe-aquifer interactions Microorganisms are known to impact aquifers by modifying their rates of dissolution. In the karstic Edwards Aquifer, microbes colonizing the aquifer surfaces enhance the dissolution rates of the host rock. In the oceanic crustal aquifer, the largest aquifer on Earth, microbial communities can impact ocean productivity, sea water chemistry as well as geochemical cycling throughout the geosphere. The mineral make-up of the rocks affects the composition and abundance of these subseafloor microbial communities present. Through bioremediation some microbes can aid in decontaminating freshwater resources in aquifers contaminated by waste products. Microbially precipitated minerals Some bacteria use metal ions as their energy source. They convert (or chemically reduce) the dissolved metal ions from one electrical state to another. This reduction releases energy for the bacteria's use, and, as a side product, serves to concentrate the metals into what ultimately become ore deposits. Biohydrometallurgy or in situ mining is where low-grade ores may be attacked by well-studied microbial processes under controlled conditions to extract metals. Certain iron, copper, uranium and even gold ores are thought to have formed as the result of microbe action. Subsurface environments, like aquifers, are attractive locations when selecting repositories for nuclear waste, carbon dioxide (See carbon sequestration), or as artificial reservoirs for natural gas. Understanding microbial activity within the aquifer is important since it may interact with and effect the stability of the materials within the underground repository. Microbe-mineral interactions contribute to biofouling and microbially induced corrosion. Microbially induced corrosion of materials, such as carbon steel, have serious implications in the safe storage of radioactive waste within repositories and storage containers. Environmental remediation Microbes are being studied and used to degrade organic and even nuclear waste pollution (see Deinococcus radiodurans) and assist in environmental cleanup. An application of geomicrobiology is bioleaching, the use of microbes to extract metals from mine waste. Soil and sediment: microbial remediation Microbial remediation is used in soils to remove contaminants and pollutants. Microbes play a key role in many biogeochemistry cycles and can effect a variety of soil properties, such as biotransformation of mineral and metal speciation, toxicity, mobility, mineral precipitation, and mineral dissolution. Microbes play a role in the immobilization and detoxification of a variety of elements, such as metals, radionuclides, sulfur and phosphorus, in the soil. Thirteen metals are considered priority pollutants (Sb, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Se, Ag, Tl, Zn, Hg). Soils and sediment act as sinks for metals which originate from both natural sources through rocks and minerals as well as anthropogenic sources through agriculture, industry, mining, waste disposal, among others. Many heavy metals, such as chromium (Cr), at low concentrations are essential micronutrients in the soil, however they can be toxic at higher concentrations. Heavy metals are added into soils through many anthropogenic sources such industry and/or fertilizers. Heavy metal interaction with microbes can increase or decrease the toxicity. Levels of chromium toxicity, mobility and bioavailability depend on oxidation states of chromium. Two of the most common chromium species are Cr(III) and Cr(VI). Cr(VI) is highly mobile, bioavailable and more toxic to flora and fauna, while Cr(III) is less toxic, more immobile and readily precipitates in soils with pH >6. Utilizing microbes to facilitate the transformation of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) is an environmentally friendly, low cost bioremediation technique to help mitigate toxicity in the environment. Acid mine drainage Another application of geomicrobiology is bioleaching, the use of microbes to extract metals from mine waste. For example, sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) produce H2S which precipitates metals as a metal sulfide. This process removed heavy metals from mine waste which is one of the major environmental issues associated with acid mine drainage (along with a low pH). Bioremediation techniques are also used on contaminated surface water and ground water often associated with acid mine drainage. Studies have shown that the production of bicarbonate by microbes such as sulfate-reducing bacteria adds alkalinity to neutralize the acidity of the mine drainage waters. Hydrogen ions are consumed while bicarbonate is produced which leads to an increase in pH (decrease in acidity). Microbial degradation of hydrocarbons Microbes can affect the quality of oil and gas deposits through their metabolic processes. Microbes can influence the development of hydrocarbons by being present at the time of deposition of the source sediments or by dispersing through the rock column to colonize reservoir or source lithologies after the generation of hydrocarbons. Early Earth history and astrobiology A common field of study within geomicrobiology is origin of life on earth or other planets. Various rock-water interactions, such as serpentinization and water radiolysis, are possible sources of metabolic energy to support chemolithoautotrophic microbial communities on Early Earth and on other planetary bodies such as Mars, Europa and Enceladus. Interactions between microbes and sediment record some of the earliest evidence of life on earth. Information on the life during Archean Earth is recorded in bacterial fossils and stromatolites preserved in precipitated lithologies such as chert or carbonates. Additional evidence of early life on land around 3.5 billion years ago can be found in the Dresser formation of Australia in a hot spring facies, indicating that some of Earth's earliest life on land occurred in hot springs. Microbially induced sedimentary structures (MISS) are found throughout the geologic record up to 3.2 billion years old. They are formed by the interaction of microbial mats and physical sediment dynamics, and record paleoenvironmental data as well as providing evidence of early life. The different paleoenvironments of early life on Earth also serves as model when searching for potential fossil life on Mars. Extremophiles Another area of investigation in geomicrobiology is the study of extremophile organisms, the microorganisms that thrive in environments normally considered hostile to life. Such environments may include extremely hot (hot springs or mid-ocean ridge black smoker) environments, extremely saline environments, or even space environments such as Martian soil or comets. Observations and research in hyper-saline lagoon environments in Brazil and Australia as well as slightly saline, inland lake environments in NW China have shown that anaerobic sulfate-reducing bacteria may be directly involved in the formation of dolomite. This suggests the alteration and replacement of limestone sediments by dolomitization in ancient rocks was possibly aided by ancestors to these anaerobic bacteria. In July 2019, a scientific study of Kidd Mine in Canada discovered sulfur-breathing organisms which live 7900 feet below the surface, and which breathe sulfur in order to survive. these organisms are also remarkable due to eating rocks such as pyrite as their regular food source. See also Bacterial oxidation Desulforudis audaxviator Deep biosphere References Further reading External links Gold mines may be formed by bacteria - PDF file Biomineralization of magnetic minerals	[ 0.3877374529838562, 0.5269609093666077, -0.5815885663032532, 0.2269272655248642, 0.12030236423015594, -0.012907098978757858, -0.11652814596891403, 0.5240393280982971, -0.010794918052852154, -0.6927487850189209, -0.6454174518585205, 0.931054413318634, -0.09903214871883392, 0.5834740400314331, -0.3331878185272217, 0.7525037527084351, -0.19495785236358643, 0.10804461687803268, -0.013327350839972496, -0.44659996032714844, -0.020105548202991486, -0.29896417260169983, 0.04740646481513977, 0.18475289642810822, 0.1662888377904892, 0.13261918723583221, 0.059176720678806305, 0.8091083765029907, 0.04595201462507248, -0.11759186536073685, -0.13034649193286896, 0.3918571174144745, -0.4010303318500519, 0.32034817337989807, 0.14095085859298706, 0.4091351330280304, -0.25995758175849915, 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231161	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Kid	The Kid	The Kid or The Kids may refer to: Fictional characters The kid (Blood Meridian), a character in Cormac McCarthy's 1985 novel Blood Meridian The Kid (The Matrix), a character in the Matrix film series The Kid (The Stand), a character in Stephen King's 1978 novel The Stand Marshall Eriksen or The Kid, a character in How I Met Your Mother The Kid, a character in the 1984 film Purple Rain, played by Prince The Kid, the narrator of Samuel R. Delany's 1975 novel Dhalgren The Kid, a character in Bastion The Kid, a character in Driver: Parallel Lines The Kid, a character in Freedom Fighters The Kid, a character in I Wanna Be the Guy The Kid, a character in Jak II Films The Kid (1910 film), a film by Frank Powell The Kid (1921 film), a Charlie Chaplin film The Kid (1950 film), a Hong Kong film that stars a young Bruce Lee The Kid (1997 film), a film featuring Rod Steiger The Kid (1999 film), a Hong Kong film Disney's The Kid, a 2000 film starring Bruce Willis The Kid (2001 film), an animated TV film based on a story by Gahan Wilson The Kid (2010 film), an adaptation by Nick Moran of Kevin Lewis's book The Kids (film), a 2015 Taiwanese film The Kid (2019 film), a film by Vincent D'Onofrio Music The Kid (musical), a 2010 musical based on the book by Dan Savage The Kids (Belgian band), a punk rock band The Kids (Norwegian band), a rock band The Kids (garage rock band), a 1960s band whose song "Nature's Children" is included on the compilation album Pebbles, Volume 10 The Kids, a South Florida rock band that included Johnny Depp "The Kids", a song by B.o.B from B.o.B Presents: The Adventures of Bobby Ray "The Kid", a song by Eric Burdon from Survivor "The Kids", a song by Eminem from The Marshall Mathers LP "The Kids", a song by Hollywood Undead "The Kids", a song by Lou Reed from Berlin Nickname or ring name Frank Bourne (1854–1945), British soldier, last known survivor of the Battle of Rorke's Drift Billy the Kid (1859–1881), American Old West outlaw Ted Williams (1918–2002), Major League Baseball player Stu Ungar (1953–1998), professional poker and gin rummy player Gary Carter (1954-2012), Major League Baseball player Robin Yount (born 1955), Major League Baseball player Mark Ryan (guitarist) (1959-2011), English punk rock guitarist and playwright Carlos Valderrama (footballer) (born 1961), Colombian footballer Gary Jacobs (boxer) (born 1965), professional Scottish boxer Ken Griffey Jr. (born 1969), American retired Major League Baseball player Sean Waltman (born 1972), professional wrestler John Higgins (born 1975), professional snooker player Kevin Garnett (born 1976), National Basketball Association player Julian Gardner (poker player) (born 1978), professional poker player Yossi Benayoun (born 1980), Israeli footballer Kerby Raymundo (born 1981), Filipino professional basketball player Fernando Torres (born 1984), Spanish footballer Sidney Crosby (born 1987), National Hockey League player Joseph Marquez (born 1991), professional Super Smash Bros. Melee player Other uses The Kid (artist), contemporary artist The Kid (book), a book by Dan Savage The Kids (book), a 2021 poetry book by Hannah Lowe, Costa Book of the Year Haedi or the Kids, a pair of stars in the constellation Auriga See also Kid (disambiguation) Kidd (disambiguation) Kydd (disambiguation) Kid	[ 0.48727357387542725, -0.04107101634144783, -0.3434637188911438, 0.15027084946632385, 0.43796879053115845, -0.06930387020111084, 0.07816924154758453, 0.08718901872634888, -0.01993088237941265, -0.1473293900489807, -0.15618422627449036, 0.5044929385185242, -0.08066869527101517, 0.19723568856716156, 0.2214592546224594, 0.01979108527302742, 0.2211170643568039, 0.3443915843963623, 0.10067790746688843, -0.5042285919189453, -0.6271976828575134, -0.11453594267368317, 0.2196166217327118, -0.23228049278259277, 0.021518496796488762, 0.4102807939052582, -0.24359071254730225, -0.4252881407737732, -0.08699735999107361, 0.4215909242630005, 0.04701320827007294, -0.25695815682411194, 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231167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arnulfo%20Arias	Arnulfo Arias	Arnulfo Arias Madrid (15 August 1901 – 10 August 1988) was a Panamanian politician, doctor, and writer who served as the President of Panama from 1940 to 1941, again from 1949 to 1951, and finally for 11 days in October 1968. Throughout his adult life he had warned about the increasing influence of the military in Panamanian politics. He vowed to reduce its influence. In turn he was denied his presidential electoral success in 1948 by the military. He was removed from his duly elected presidency three times by military coups. Background Arnulfo Arias Madrid was born in Penonomé, Coclé Province, on 15 August 1901. He was the son of Antonio Arias and Carmen Madrid, and the brother of Harmodio Arias, who also served as the President of Panama for 13 days in January 1931 and again from 1932 to 1936. Arias began his studies at the French Christian Brothership (today known as La Salle) in his native city and attended secondary school in New York City. He studied medicine and surgery at Harvard University and the University of Chicago. Later, he specialized in psychiatry, obstetrics and endocrinology. Political life In 1925, Arias returned to Panama and assumed leadership of the nationalistic organization Patriotic Communal Action. This organization tapped into a building current of discontent in Panama against the considerable influence the United States exerted on the country. It formed the nucleus of the present-day Panameñista Party. Panama had been, for all intents and purposes, a U.S. protectorate since the United States helped it gain her independence in 1903 from Colombia. Arias was branded a nationalist. In 1931, Arias led a coup that deposed Liberal President Florencio Harmodio Arosemena. The next year, he helped his brother Harmodio become president. He subsequently served in the cabinet and diplomatic posts. He served as Ambassador to Italy during Benito Mussolini's reign. In 1940, he was elected president by an unprecedented majority as the candidate of the National Revolutionary Party (PNR, which became the Panameñista Party in the mid-1940s). Soon after taking office, Arias enacted a new constitution that granted women the right to vote for the first time. He was ousted in October 1941, in a coup engineered by the police. Arias was an outspoken nationalist. His service in Italy's Mussolini era led some to claim he was pro-axis. With war looming some Washington politicians were leery of Arias ruling Panama. Some historians feel Roosevelt supported his removal from the presidency. Arias consistently opposed the influence of the police in politics, labelling it as "a cancer" on the body politic. He ran for president again in 1948 as the candidate of a coalition of his party and the Authentic Revolutionary Party and clearly won but was not allowed to be seated. However, a year later the National Assembly declared that he had actually won. He suspended the constitution and created government entities to counter the power of the police. But he failed to curb their power. In 1951 he was overthrown by Colonel Jose Remon Cantera, Panama's police chief, the nation did not have an army. Arias fled the country but remained widely popular among the masses. He ran in 1964, then won the 1968 elections as the standard-bearer of a five-party coalition. Taking office in October, he sought to restructure the command of the National Guard. After only eleven days as president, he was ousted for the third time and undertook a midnight escape to the Canal Zone. Repeating mistakes which occurred in his previous administrations, Arias forgot to destroy records of his corruption and his opposition immediately capitalized. The Presidential Palace was attacked by Omar Torrijos' men. Arias, having seen his guards disappear and after receiving a call from the Costa Rican President José Joaquín Trejos Fernández, warning him that the border had been closed; he left the palace along with Hildebrando Nicosia, his chief of staff. Nicosia called Michael J. Merry, his son-in-law and manager of a U.S. communications company, and asked him to pick up Arias and three ministers of state at a prearranged location. By that time, military patrols were searching the city for Arias. With the country's leaders and an arsenal of automatic weapons in his vehicle, Merry drove through the military blockade to safety in the Panama Canal Zone, where the headquarters for the government in exile had been prepared. Since the Canal Zone, an independent political entity, authorities would not allow the weapons to remain in its territory, Merry was forced to bluff his way back to Panama City, through the National Guard border blockade and patrols to safety. Arias and Nicosia later left the Canal Zone to Miami, Florida. His 93-year-old mother, however, was sleeping upstairs, but was unharmed and undisturbed, having taken her hearing aids out to sleep. After the U.S. pressured military leader Omar Torrijos to liberalize his regime, Arias and Nicosia returned to Panama in 1978. While they were in exile, a small dissident group in Arias's Panameñista Party joined the pro-Torrijos coalition, and took over the party's registration. The majority of the party remained with Arias, renaming itself the Authentic Panameñista Party. It was renamed the Arnulfista Party in 1990, and in 2005 regained its old name, the Panameñista Party. In 1984, the 83-year-old Arias ran again for president. His campaign was complicated by a book Holocaust in Panama, distributed by Noriega with help from the Israeli Mossad, that fraudulently claimed Arias had arranged a massacre of Jews in 1941. When exit polls showed Arias with a substantial lead, the government, now controlled by Manuel Noriega, halted the count and brazenly manipulated the results to declare that its favored candidate, Nicolás Ardito Barletta, had won by a mere 1,713 votes. Independent observers estimated that Arias would have won in a landslide had the election been conducted in a fair manner. As a result, Barletta was nicknamed fraudito (little fraud), which rhymes with his second name, Ardito. Arias fled once again to Florida. It was the beginning of the Noriega military dictatorship. Death On the morning of 10 August 1988, Arnulfo died of a heart attack at his Coral Gables, Miami home. His wife, Mireya Moscoso was at his side. His death caused national mourning in Panama. Following the transfer of his body to Panama City and an enormous funeral where his supporters protested against Noriega, Arias was buried in Jardin de Paz cemetery (Located in Parque Lefevre) on 15 August, the day of what would have been his 87th birthday. After his death, Guillermo Endara became the leading opponent of the military dictatorship, heading the opposition coalition in the 1989 presidential election. Despite defeating pro-Noriega candidate Carlos Duque by an overwhelming margin, the results were annulled by the government, and Endara and his running mates were badly beaten in the streets by the paramilitary Dignity Battalions. Seven months later, the United States launched Operation Just Cause and Arias' party regained power shortly afterwards. On 8 January 2012, 23 years after his death and in order to fulfill his last wish, his remains were exhumed and he was given a state funeral. He was re-buried in a mausoleum close to the Arias Madrid Family Museum, located in the town of Penonomé, Coclé Province, Panama. Currently, there are monuments, schools, and a township avenue bearing his name. Personal life Arias married to Ana Matilde Linares in 1927 and remained together until her death in 1955. In 1964, he married Mireya Moscoso. They remained together until his death. Moscoso later became the first woman President of Panama following the 1999 elections. During his first marriage, he adopted a son named Gerardo Edilberto Arias (1929–2002). References 1901 births 1988 deaths People from Penonomé District Panamanian Roman Catholics Panameñista Party politicians Presidents of Panama Leaders ousted by a coup University of Chicago alumni Harvard Medical School alumni Agriculture ministers of Panama Public works ministers of Panama	[ -0.118111751973629, -0.1463153213262558, -0.0648188665509224, 0.11574195325374603, -0.25760114192962646, 0.11115842312574387, -0.059438858181238174, 0.5121269822120667, -0.18739822506904602, 0.1516146957874298, -0.16184842586517334, 0.6535767316818237, -0.4575592577457428, 0.1513696014881134, 0.07645896822214127, 0.48423781991004944, -0.09148659557104111, 0.3511665165424347, -0.7106620669364929, -0.16097965836524963, -0.3993724286556244, -0.20506811141967773, 0.3069124221801758, 0.4228411018848419, 0.11588575690984726, -0.14586928486824036, -0.3226510286331177, -0.21986909210681915, -0.07788487523794174, 0.2570135295391083, 0.3395334482192993, 0.12472572177648544, 0.44998645782470703, 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231168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mausoleum	Mausoleum	A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb, or the tomb may be considered to be within the mausoleum. Overview The word mausoleum derives from the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey), the grave of King Mausolus, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Historically, mausolea were, and still may be, large and impressive constructions for a deceased leader or other person of importance. However, smaller mausolea soon became popular with the gentry and nobility in many countries. In the Roman Empire, these were often in necropoles or along roadsides: the via Appia Antica retains the ruins of many private mausolea for kilometres outside Rome. When Christianity became dominant, mausolea were out of use. Later, mausolea became particularly popular in Europe and its colonies during the early modern and modern periods. A single mausoleum may be permanently sealed. A mausoleum encloses a burial chamber either wholly above ground or within a burial vault below the superstructure. This contains the body or bodies, probably within sarcophagi or interment niches. Modern mausolea may also act as columbaria (a type of mausoleum for cremated remains) with additional cinerary urn niches. Mausolea may be located in a cemetery, a churchyard or on private land. In the United States, the term may be used for a burial vault below a larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and cinerary urn spaces for interments in the lower level of the building. It is known as the "crypt mausoleum". In Europe, these underground vaults are sometimes called crypts or catacombs. Notable mausolea Africa Mausoleum of Mohammed V Bourguiba mausoleum El Alia Cemetery, Mausoleum of the Late President, Algeria. The Dr. John Garang De Mabior mausoleum in Juba, South Sudan. Mastabas dating from ancient Egypt. Agostinho Neto's Mausoleum in Luanda, Angola. Mausolée (Pyramide) du Président Mathieu Kerekou, Natitingou, Benin. Mausolée du Guide Suprême du Patriotisme, Gitega, Burundi. Omar Bongo's Mausoleum (A replica of the Mausoleum of Mohammed V) in Franceville, Gabon. Léon M'ba's Memorial Mausoleum in Libreville, Gabon. Kwame Nkrumah Mausoleum Atta Mills's Mausoleum at Asomdwee Park in Accra, Ghana. Burma Camp Military Cemetery in Accra, Ghana. Mausoleum of Late President Levy Mwanawasa, Frederick Chiluba and Michael Sata at Embassy Park Presidential Burial in Lusaka, Zambia. Domoni Mosque Mausoleum Indoor inside first president of Comoros, Ahmed Abdallah's Mausoleum. Marien Ngouabi's mausoleum and Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza's mausoleum in Brazzaville, The Republic of Congo. Mausoleum of the late president Felix Houphouet-Boigny in Yamoussoukro, Côte d'Ivoire. Laurent Kabila's mausoleum in Kinshasa, The Democratic Republic of Congo. Mausolée de Joseph Kasa-Vubu, Singini, Tshela, Kongo Central, The Democratic Republic of Congo. The pyramids of ancient Egypt and Nubian pyramids are also types of mausolea. Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque, is the Mausoleum of Gamal Abdel Nasser, in Cairo, Egypt. Unknown Soldier Memorial (Egypt) Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania Al Hussein Mosque, Cairo – Holy Shrine and mausoleum, and purported grave of the Islamic prophet Muhammad's grandson. Qalawun Mausoleum is the Mausoleum of Qalawun, Located in Cairo, Egypt, it was regarded by scholars as the second most beautiful medieval mausoleum ever to be built. Jedars - thirteen ancient monumental Berber mausoleums located south of Tiaret. Palm Grove Cemetery, Monrovia, Liberia. National Hall, Mausoleum of the Late President William Tubman in Monrovia, Montserrado, Liberia. Late President Eyadema's Family Mausoleum in Kara, Togo. Kamuzu Banda Mausoleum, in Lilongwe, Malawi. Dr. Bingu wa Mutharika, President of Malawi built a mausoleum in which his late first wife and Bingu himself are buried. Meles Zenawi's grave in Holy Trinity Cathedral, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. King Sobhuza II Memorial Park, Lobamba, Swaziland. Julius Nyerere's mausoleum in Mwalimu Nyerere Museum Centre, Butiama, Tanzania. The Heroes Square, Maputo, Mozambique. Amilcar Cabral's mausoleum in Bissau, Guinea-Bissau. Mausoleum of the Late President of Kenya Mzee Jomo Kenyatta in Nairobi, Kenya. Jaramogi Oginga Odinga Mausoleum, Bondo, Kenya. Camayanne Mausoleum and contains the tombs of Guinea national hero Samori Ture, Sekou Toure and Alfa Yaya in Grand Mosque of Conakry. Nnamdi Azikiwe's burial site, Onitsha, Nigeria. Abubakar Tafawa Balewa's tomb, Bauchi, Nigeria. Mausoleum of Obafemi Awolowo, Ogun State, Nigeria. Mausoleum of Sani Abacha, Kano, Nigeria. National Heroes Acre in Harare, Zimbabwe. Asia, Eastern, Southern, and Southeast China List of mausoleums of Chinese monarchs Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor biggest underground mausoleum The pyramids of ancient China are also types of mausolea. Qianling Mausoleum in China, houses the remains of Emperor Gaozong of Tang and the ruling Empress Wu Zetian, along with 17 others in auxiliary tombs. Tomb and Mausoleum of Genghis Khan in Ordos City, Inner Mongolia. Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum, Nanjing Thirteen Imperial Mausoleums of Ming Dynasty Emperors, Beijing Fuling Tomb, Shenyang Zhao Mausoleum (Qing Dynasty) Eastern Qing Tombs Western Qing Tombs Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum, Nanjing. Mausoleum of Yuan Shikai, Beiguan, Anyang. Mausoleum of Mao Zedong, Beijing. India Akbar's tomb at Agra, India Taj Mahal at Agra, India Qutb Shahi Tombs at Hyderabad, India Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur, India Humayun's Tomb at Delhi, India Indonesia Grave of Sukarno at Blitar, East Java, Indonesia Astana Giribangun at Karanganyar, Central Java, Indonesia Imogiri complex in Imogiri, Central Java is the cemetery for Mataram royals and the Hamengkubuwana Royals of Yogyakarta and Pakubuwono of Surakarta Grave of Bung Hatta at Jakarta, Indonesia Mausoleum O. G. Khouw at Jakarta, Indonesia Grave of Kyai Langgeng at Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia Japan Mausoleums of Emperors of Japan Mozu Tombs in Sakai, Osaka Prefecture, Japan. Fukakusa no kita no Misasagi (深草北陵) in Kyoto, Japan. Sennyū-ji, Kyoto, Japan Tsuki no wa no misasagi (月輪陵) Fushimi Momoyama no Misasagi (伏見桃山陵) in Kyoto, Kyoto Prefecture, Japan. Musashi Imperial Graveyard, is a mausoleum complex at Hachiōji, Tokyo, Japan. Toyokuni Shrine at Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto, Japan. Mausoleum of Kampaku Toyotomi Hideyoshi, which was later destroyed by the Tokugawa clan. Nikkō Tōshō-gū at Nikkō, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. It is part of the "Shrines and Temples of Nikkō", Mausoleum of Tokugawa Ieyasu, Tokugawa shōguns. Rinnō-ji at Nikkō, Tochigi Prefecture, Japan. The temple also administers the Taiyū-in Reibyō (大猷院霊廟), which is the mausoleum of Tokugawa Iemitsu, the third Tokugawa shōgun. Together with Nikkō Tōshō-gū and Futarasan Shrine. Zuihōden at Sendai, Miyagi Prefecture, Japan is the mausoleum complex of Date Masamune and his heirs, daimyō of the Sendai Domain. Tamaudun, at Shuri, Okinawa, Japan. Malaysia Makam Pahlawan at National Mosque of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Makam Diraja Mahmoodiah at Bukit Mahmoodiah in Jalan Mahmoodiah, Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia. Hang Kasturi Mausoleum at Jonker Walk, Melaka City, Melaka, Malaysia. Kedah Royal Mausoleum at Langgar, Kota Setar District, Kedah, Malaysia. Kelantan Royal Mausoleum Al-Ghufran Royal Mausoleum at Bukit Chandan in Jalan Istana, Kuala Kangsar, Malaysia. Hang Jebat Mausoleum in Melaka City, Melaka, Malaysia. Shah Alam Royal Mausoleum Tun Teja Mausoleum in Merlimau, Jasin District, Melaka, Malaysia. Seri Menanti Royal Mausoleum Sultan Abdul Samad Mausoleum in Jugra, Banting, Selangor, Malaysia. Pakistan Tomb of Jahangir at Shahdara, near Lahore, Pakistan. Mazar-e-Quaid at Karachi, Pakistan Tomb of Allama Iqbal at Lahore, Pakistan Data Durbar at Lahore, Pakistan Bhutto family mausoleum, Garhi Khuda Bakhsh, Sindh, Pakistan Philippines Rizal Monument at Rizal Park in Manila, Philippines, houses the remains of Dr. Jose Rizal, national hero of the Philippines. Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite, Philippines. Mausoleum of the Veterans of the Revolution, enshrining participants in the 1896 revolution against the Spanish Empire. Quezon Memorial, in Quezon City, Philippines, houses the remains of President Manuel L. Quezon and his wife, Aurora. Marcos Museum and Mausoleum in Batac, Ilocos Norte, Philippines, housing the remains of President Ferdinand Marcos. Taiwan National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, Taipei, Taiwan. National Dr. Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall, Taipei, Taiwan. Mausoleum of Late President Lord Chiang Kai-shek, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Mausoleum of Late President Chiang Ching-kuo, Taoyuan, Taiwan. Chen Tsyr-shiou Memorial Park, Former Mausoleum and Memorial of Late Vice President Chen Cheng, Taishan District, New Taipei, Taiwan. Others Konbaung tombs are a collection of mausoleums built by Konbaung Dynasty kings in Mandalay, Amarapura, and Inwa, Myanmar. Kandawmin Garden Mausolea, Myanmar. Martyrs' Mausoleum, Myanmar. Royal Cemetery at Wat Ratchabophit, Thailand Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea Kim Koo Museum and Hyochang Park, Seoul, Republic of Korea (South Korea) Mausoleum of Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in Gopalganj, Dhaka, Bangladesh. Bandaranaike family Estate in Horagolla Bandaranaike Samadhi, Sri Lanka Kurjey Lhakhang, Bumthang Valley, Bumthang District, Bhutan Silver Pagoda, Phnom Penh, Cambodia Ho Chi Minh Mausoleum, Hanoi, Vietnam Kumsusan Palace of the Sun or Kim Il-sung Mausoleum, Pyongyang, Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) Asia, western Al-Khazneh at Petra, Jordan Mausoleum of Maussollos at Halicarnassus Mausoleum of Cyrus the Great in Pasargadae, Iran. Naqsh-e Rustam at Persepolis Iran, Tombs of Persian Achaemenid kings (522-486 BCE). Tomb of Ferdowsi in Mashhad, Iran. Tomb of Hafez (Hāfezieh) in Shiraz, Iran The Shrine of the Báb and the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh in Haifa and Acre, Israel, respectively. Imam Husayn Mosque, Karbala – according to Shī‘ah belief, the head and body of Husayn ibn Ali, along with all others who fell at the Battle of Karbala are buried here. Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad, Iran The Mausoleum of Khomeini in Tehran, Iran Anıtkabir mausoleum of Atatürk the founder of the Republic of Turkey at Ankara, Turkey Celal Bayar Mausoleum in Bursa, Turkey Adnan Menderes's Mausoleum, in Istanbul, Turkey Turgut Özal's Mausoleum, in Istanbul, Turkey Süleyman Demirel Mausoleum in Atabey, Turkey Mausoleum of Yasser Arafat in Ramallah, West Bank Sheikh Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Europe Bismarck Mausoleum outside Friedrichsruh in northern Germany Hamilton Mausoleum at Hamilton in Scotland House of Karageorgevich Mausoleum, St. George's Church, Oplenac in Topola, Serbia Royal Mausoleum and the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum at Frogmore, England Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg, Russia Cathedral of the Archangel in Moscow, Russia Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow, Russia Cathedral of Saint Domnius in Split, Croatia Lajos Batthyány's Mausoleum in Budapest, Hungary Mausoleum of Augustus in Rome, Italy. Pantheon, Rome in Italy Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome, Italy Mausoleum of Theodoric in Ravenna, Italy Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, Italy Mausoleum of Marasesti in Marasesti, Romania Pyramid of Tirana in Tirana, Albania Batenberg Mausoleum in Sofia, Bulgaria Trentham Mausoleum near Stoke-on-Trent, England Panthéon, Paris in France Les Invalides in France Valle de los Caídos, in San Lorenzo del Escorial, Spain Imperial Crypt in Austria Church of Our Lady of Laeken in Belgium Oplenac Mausoleum in Topola, Serbia, the Mausoleum of the Serbian and Yugoslav Royal House of Karađorđević National Pantheon / Church of Santa Engrácia in Lisbon, Portugal Mausoleum of Njegoš in Lovćen, Montenegro Wilhelm II Mausoleum in Doorn, Netherlands Juselius Mausoleum in Finland Latin America El Ángel Victory column and mausoleum to the heroes of the Mexican Independence in Mexico City, Mexico. Monumento a la Revolución monument commemorating and mausoleum to the heroes of the Mexican Revolution in Mexico City, Mexico. Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral Panteon San Fernando, Mexico City, Mexico. Jardines Del Humaya, a cemetery with opulent multi-story and air-conditioned mausoleums of Mexican drug cartel members. Obelisk of São Paulo mausoleum to the heroes of Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo City, São Paulo, Brazil. Chico Xavier mausoleum in Uberaba, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Cemitério de São João Batista, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Panteón de los Próceres, Peru. Presbitero Maestro mausoleum and museum in Lima, Peru. Cathedral Basilica of St. John the Apostle and Evangelist, Lima Mausoleo a los Heroes de El Polvorín, at Cementerio Civil de Ponce in Ponce, Puerto Rico Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral, mausoleum of General San Martín. La Recoleta Cemetery, Buenos Aires, Argentina. La Chacarita cemetery, Buenos Aires, Argentina. Mausoleum of Néstor Kirchner, Río Gallegos, Santa Cruz, Argentina. Santa Ifigenia Cemetery, Santiago de Cuba, Cuba. Los Ilustres Cemetery, Salvador. Cementerio General, Trujillo, Honduras. Guatemala City General Cemetery Cementerio General Occidental, Managua, Nicaragua. Central Park, Managua, Nicaragua. Cathedral Basilica of Our Lady of Peace, La Paz, mausoleum of Andrés de Santa Cruz, Bolivia General Cemetery of Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Cementerio General de Cochabamba, mausoleum of “general del pueblo” René Barrientos Ortuño, Bolivia. Central Cemetery of Bogotá, Colombia. San Diego Cemetery, Quito, Ecuador. Haiti’s National Cemetery in Port-au-Prince, where François Duvalier, who ruled from 1957 to 1971, is buried. Omar Torrijos Mausoleum, Amador, Panama City, Panama. Cathedral of La Plata, mausoleum of Dardo Rocha. Artigas Mausoleum, mausoleum of José Gervasio Artigas. Altar de la Patria of Chile. Cementerio General de Santiago, Chile. National Pantheon of Venezuela, mausoleum of Simón Bolívar. National Pantheon of the Heroes Altar de la Patria, mausoleum to the Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. National Pantheon of the Dominican Republic Monument to the Independence of Brazil JK Memorial San Salvador Cathedral Cathedral of Quito Mausoleo en el Centro Cívico Ciudad Alfaro, Montecristi, Ecuador. Northern America Canada Eaton family mausoleum at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario Hart Massey's mausoleum at Mount Pleasant Cemetery in Toronto, Ontario Sir Henry Pellatt's mausoleum at Forest Lawn in Toronto, Ontario United States Henry Flagler's mausoleum in St. Augustine, Florida Presidential memorials in the United States and Presidents' graves of the United States Grant's Tomb in New York, New York Abraham Lincoln's tomb in Springfield, Illinois MacArthur Memorial Miles Mausoleum in Arlington National Cemetery Ferncliff Cemetery and Mausoleum in Hartsdale, New York Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California Queen of Heaven Mausoleum in Queen of Heaven Cemetery, Hillside, Illinois Rose Hills Memorial Park, Whittier, California Rose Chapel Mausoleum in Roseland Park Cemetery, Berkley, Michigan Shrine of the Good Shepherd Chapel Mausoleum in Green Bay, Wisconsin Tacoma Mausoleum in Tacoma, Washington Tombs of the Uga mascots inside Sanford Stadium in Athens, Georgia Brigadier General Egbert Ludovicus Viele's Egyptian-style pyramid mausoleum in West Point, New York Rapper XXXTentacion's mausoleum at The Gardens of Boca Raton in Boca Raton, Florida Oceania Massey Memorial in Wellington, New Zealand where New Zealand Prime Minister William Massey and his wife are interred. Savage Memorial at Bastion Point in Auckland, New Zealand where New Zealand Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage is interred. Royal Mausoleum in Honolulu, Hawaii where the members of the Kamehameha and Kalākaua dynasties are interred. See also List of types of funerary monument Morgue or mortuary National Cemetery Ohel (grave) Sepulchre Guard mounting Notes The plurals mausoleums and mausolea are both used in English, although mausoleums is more common. 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231169	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Theodore%20Roosevelt%20%28CVN-71%29	USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71)	USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN-71) is the fourth , nuclear-powered, aircraft carrier in the United States Navy. She is named in honor of Theodore Roosevelt, the 26th President of the United States and a proponent of naval power. She is the fourth ship named in honor of Theodore Roosevelt, three bearing his full name and a fourth with just his last name. Another three U.S. Navy ships have "Roosevelt" in their names in honor of members of the Roosevelt family. This carrier's radio call sign is "Rough Rider", the nickname of President Roosevelt's volunteer cavalry unit during the Spanish–American War. She was launched in 1984, and saw her first action during Operation Desert Storm in 1991. Background Initially, President Gerald Ford cancelled the order for CVN-71 in 1976 and substituted two CVV-type medium-sized, conventional-powered carriers that were expected to operate V/STOL aircraft. The existing T-CBL design formed the basis for the new CVV, serving as a replacement for the aging carriers, while capable of operating all existing conventional carrier aircraft. This capability to operate conventional aircraft proved important as the hoped-for supersonic V/STOL fighters did not come to fruition at the time. In any case, construction of the proposed CVV medium-sized carrier never took place. Authorization for CVN-71 was further delayed when President Jimmy Carter vetoed the 1979 Fiscal Year Department of Defense authorization bill because of the inclusion of this Nimitz-class nuclear supercarrier in the Navy ship-building program. As a result of the Iran hostage crisis, which required the increased deployment of U.S. carrier battle groups to the Indian Ocean, President Carter reversed his stand on Nimitz-class nuclear supercarriers, and CVN-71 was subsequently authorized under the 1980 Fiscal Year authorization bill for the U.S. Department of Defense. Design and construction Theodore Roosevelt was the first aircraft carrier to be assembled using modular construction, wherein large modules are independently constructed in "lay-down" areas, prior to being hoisted into place and welded together. Modular construction, made possible through the use of a huge gantry crane capable of lifting 900 tons, cut 16 months off Theodore Roosevelts construction time, and the technique has been used on every aircraft carrier since. Theodore Roosevelt and those Nimitz-class vessels completed after her have slight structural differences from the earlier carriers (, , and ) and improved protection for ordnance storage in her magazines. Theodore Roosevelts history began on 30 September 1980, when a contract was awarded for "Hull 624D" to Newport News Shipbuilding. Her keel was laid down on 31 October 1981, with Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger initiating the first weld. On 3 November 1981, Secretary of the Navy John F. Lehman announced that the carrier would be named for Theodore Roosevelt. The vessel's Pre-Commissioning Unit (PCU) was formed in February 1984, with Captain Paul W. Parcells named as Commanding Officer. On 27 October 1984, the ship was officially christened by Mrs. Barbara Lehman, wife of Secretary Lehman. On 25 October 1986, Theodore Roosevelt was commissioned to active service at Newport News. Service history Maiden deployment After sea trials and pre-deployment workups, Theodore Roosevelt started her maiden deployment on 30 December 1988 with Carrier Air Wing Eight (CVW-8) embarked. The ship patrolled the Mediterranean Sea prior to returning on 30 June 1989. She was awarded the 1989 Battle "E" from Commander, Naval Air Force U.S. Atlantic Fleet on 20 March 1990. 1990s On 28 December 1990, Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-8 deployed for Operation Desert Shield, arriving in the Persian Gulf on 16 January 1991. With the commencement of Operation Desert Storm on 15 January 1991, Theodore Roosevelt began combat operations; eventually flying over 4,200 sorties, more than any other carrier, and dropping more than of ordnance before the cease-fire on 28 February. When Iraqi forces turned on the Kurds, Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-8 were among the first coalition forces in Operation Provide Comfort, flying patrols over northern Iraq. After a 189-day deployment, with 176 days at sea, Theodore Roosevelt returned to Norfolk on 28 June 1991. On 14 February 1992, the ship won her second Battle "E". This was followed by the award of the Battenberg Cup for 1991 as the Atlantic Fleet's premier ship. Theodore Roosevelt began her third deployment on 11 March 1993, again with CVW-8 embarked. Also embarked was a Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force (SPMAGTF), in a test of the concept of embarking a multi-purpose Marine force in a carrier. While the ship was still in the Virginia Capes operating area, President Bill Clinton flew aboard for several hours for his first visit to a U.S. Navy ship. Theodore Roosevelt operated in the Adriatic as CVW-8 planes enforced Operation Deny Flight in the U.S. no-fly zone over Bosnia. In June, on the way to only her second port visit, Theodore Roosevelt was ordered instead to transit the Suez Canal en route to the Red Sea to participate in Operation Southern Watch, enforcing the no-fly zone over Iraq. Deployed for 184 days, Theodore Roosevelt spent 169 days under way prior to return in September 1993. For the accomplishments of her crew, the ship received her second Meritorious Unit Commendation. From November 1993 to April 1994, Theodore Roosevelt conducted a Selected Restricted Availability (SRA) at Norfolk Naval Shipyard (NNSY), completing ahead of schedule. On 10 March 1994, Theodore Roosevelt received her third Battle "E". Then on 3 June, Theodore Roosevelt was awarded her second Battenberg Cup as the best ship in the Atlantic Fleet. Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-8 began their fourth deployment in March 1995, operating in the Red Sea in support of Operation Southern Watch over Iraq, and Operations Deny Flight and Sharp Guard over the skies of Bosnia and in the Adriatic operating areas. Deny Flight evolved into Operation Deliberate Force, as CVW-8 aircraft led NATO strikes against strategic Bosnian Serb targets in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Theodore Roosevelt Battle Group returned to Norfolk, Virginia in September 1995 and was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation for its Bosnia operations. On 14 October 1996, Theodore Roosevelt collided with , a guided missile cruiser, while conducting operations off the coast of North Carolina. The incident occurred as the carrier, without prior warning, reversed her engines while Leyte Gulf was behind her and collided with the cruiser's bow. There were no injuries reported, but Theodore Roosevelt suffered more than $7 million damage to her stern, while damages to Leyte Gulfs bow were assessed at $2 million. Theodore Roosevelt deployed for her fifth deployment on 25 November 1996, with CVW-3 embarked, in support of Operation Southern Watch in the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf. The ship returned from deployment in May 1997. On 8 July 1997, Theodore Roosevelt entered the Newport News Shipbuilding yard for a one-year Extended Drydock and Selected Restricted Availability (EDSRA), her first major overhaul since commissioning. Theodore Roosevelt returned to her homeport of Norfolk Naval Station on 2 July 1998. From 1 February to 4 March 1999 Theodore Roosevelt participated in exercise JTFEX / TMDI99 along with the Brazilian Navy and several NATO navies. During the exercise, Theodore Roosevelt was mock-sunk, along with eight other U.S. ships, many of which were the carrier's escorts, by submarine HNLMS Walrus of the Royal Netherlands Navy. Theodore Roosevelt began her sixth deployment on 26 March 1999 with CVW-8 embarked. They were immediately called to duty in the Ionian Sea to support NATO's Operation Allied Force. Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-8 aircraft conducted airstrikes for two months over the skies of Kosovo against Serbian positions. Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-8 were then dispatched to support Operation Southern Watch, enforcing the "no-fly zone" over Southern Iraq. Theodore Roosevelt returned to her home port of Norfolk, Virginia, on 24 September 1999. 2000s On 10 January 2000, Theodore Roosevelt entered a Planned Incremental Availability (PIA) at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, Portsmouth, Virginia for a six-month maintenance period. After the September 11 attacks, Theodore Roosevelt began her seventh deployment on 19 September 2001 with Carrier Air Wing One (CVW-1). On 15 October 2001, Theodore Roosevelt and CVW-1 entered the North Arabian Sea, joining the already-present Enterprise and Carl Vinson in conducting attacks against al-Qaeda in Afghanistan for Operation Enduring Freedom. Between departing Norfolk on 19 September 2001 and arriving in Bahrain for a liberty call on 27 February 2002, Theodore Roosevelt spent 160 consecutive days at sea, breaking the record for the longest period underway since World War II. Theodore Roosevelt returned to her homeport 27 March 2002 and was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation, 2001 Battenberg Cup, and 2001 Battle "E". From April to October 2002, Theodore Roosevelt conducted a Planned Incremental Availability maintenance period at Norfolk Naval Ship Yard. Theodore Roosevelt got underway on 6 January for a scheduled month-long training period in the Puerto Rican Operating Area. Near the end of January, Theodore Roosevelt received orders to proceed across the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea. Strike Fighter Squadron 201, based at Naval Air Station Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Texas, was ordered to active duty as a unit of Carrier Air Wing (CVW) 8, the first Naval Reserve squadron to deploy aboard an aircraft carrier since the Korean War. Theodore Roosevelt arrived on station in the Eastern Mediterranean in February. On 22 March 2003 Theodore Roosevelt, along with , began launching air strikes into Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. Theodore Roosevelt returned home on 26 May and was awarded the Meritorious Unit Commendation, the Navy Unit Citation, and the Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal. On 19 February 2004, Theodore Roosevelt entered a ten-month Docked Planned Incremental Availability (DPIA) at NNSY in Portsmouth. Major systems overhauled included AC systems, Steam and CHT (sewage) systems, 1MC (announcing) systems, communication, navigation, and detection suites, weapons elevator overhauls, propeller replacement, hull cleaning and painting, and sea valve replacement. Theodore Roosevelt came out of dry-dock in August and completed the maintenance availability on 17 December 2004. On 1 September 2005, Theodore Roosevelt deployed with CVW-8 embarked for a routine six-month mission to the Persian Gulf in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF), transiting the Suez Canal on 27 September and launching OIF missions beginning 6 October. This deployment was the last cruise for the F-14 Tomcat before its retirement in 2006. Theodore Roosevelt carried two Tomcat squadrons, VF-31 (Tomcatters) and VF-213 (Black Lions). Theodore Roosevelt returned to home port on 11 March 2006. Shortly after this cruise, Theodore Roosevelt earned the "Jig Dog" Ramage Carrier and Carrier Air Wing Operational Excellence Award, which is a Navy-wide award that is selected jointly by Type Commanders (TYCOM) and is presented to the Carrier/Air Wing team with the best performance as an integrated unit. On 7 March 2007, Theodore Roosevelt began a nine-month Planned Incremental Availability (PIA) in Norfolk, which saw the addition of RAM-116 missiles among other upgrades. The ship returned to Naval Station Norfolk on 28 November 2007. CVW-8 and Theodore Roosevelt participated in Joint Task Force Exercise 08-4 Operation Brimstone off the coast of North Carolina between 21 and 31 July 2008. The British aircraft carrier , the amphibious assault ship with associated units and the Brazilian frigate and the French submarine also participated in the event. Theodore Roosevelt left Norfolk on 8 September 2008 for a scheduled deployment to the Middle East with Carrier Air Wing Eight embarked. On 4 October 2008, the ship stopped at Cape Town, South Africa. This was the first visit to Cape Town by a nuclear-powered vessel since the German cargo ship Otto Hahn in the 1970s. Due to poor weather, approximately half of the ship's crew was unable to go ashore on liberty. Much of the crew that made it ashore were unable to return to Theodore Roosevelt due to the increasingly poor weather. The remaining crew was forced to remain on the pier till morning alongside the cruiser . The ship made four subsequent port stops in Jebel Ali, UAE, including one during the Christmas holiday. CVW-8 and CVN-71 supported Operation Enduring Freedom and flew more than 3,100 sorties and dropped more than 59,500 pounds of ordnance while providing close air support for ISAF-forces in Afghanistan. On 21 March 2009, Theodore Roosevelt was relieved by Dwight D. Eisenhower. The carrier arrived at Norfolk on 18 April. On 26 August 2009 defense contractor Northrop Grumman was awarded a 2.4 billion dollar contract for Refueling and Complex Overhaul (RCOH) of Theodore Roosevelt at its Newport News shipyard. 2010s On 29 August 2013, Theodore Roosevelt returned to Norfolk Naval Station, Virginia, completing its post-overhaul sea trials that concluded its four-year mid-life RCOH. On 14 September 2013, Theodore Roosevelt successfully completed flight deck certification which entailed completing a total of 160 carrier landings during daytime and night-time operations. Other certification drills included rigging the emergency barricade, flight deck firefighting evolutions, and crash and salvage operations. On 17 September 2013, Theodore Roosevelt completed her first underway replenishment in over four years. Flight testing for the X-47B continued on board Theodore Roosevelt on 10 November 2013. During this phase, the X-47B's digitized carrier-controlled environment was tested which involved the interface between the unmanned aircraft and carrier personnel during launching, flight operations and recovery. The digital environment offered increased flexibility and enhanced safety for carrier operations. On 15 January 2014, the Navy announced that Theodore Roosevelts homeport would move to San Diego, replacing when she relocated to Japan sometime in 2015 as part of the US Navy's preparation for the planned refueling of . On 4 March 2015, during a training exercise off Florida, Theodore Roosevelt was mock-sunk by the French Navy submarine . On 11 March 2015,Theodore Roosevelt and Carrier Strike Group 12 departed Naval Station Norfolk for an around the world tour with deployments to the U.S. 5th, 6th and 7th Fleets as part the first deployment of Naval Integrated Fire Control-Counter Air (NIFC-CA) Carrier Strike Group, before arriving in their new homeport of San Diego, California. On 20 April 2015, Theodore Roosevelt, along with the cruiser , was deployed off the coast of Yemen to intercept suspected Iranian weapons shipments intended for Houthi rebels, who are engaged in a civil war with Yemeni government forces. In early November 2015, Theodore Roosevelt along with the guided-missile destroyer , sailed to the South China Sea to assert freedom of navigation in the area claimed by China. Theodore Roosevelt pulled into her new home port at San Diego on 23 November 2015, completing a deployment during which she circumnavigated the globe. The carrier launched 1,800 sorties against Islamic State militants in Iraq and Syria as part of Operation Inherent Resolve, totaling 10,618 flight hours and over one million pounds of ordnance employed through 1,085 guided munitions. Carrier Strike Group 12 traveled nearly during the deployment, which also marked aviation milestones including the first operational use of the E-2D Advanced Hawkeye and the last active-duty operational deployment of the HH-60H Rescue Hawk and SH-60F Seahawk helicopters. On 6 October 2017, Theodore Roosevelt departed San Diego for her deployment to the United States Seventh Fleet and United States Fifth Fleet area of operations, accompanied with Carrier Strike Group 9 and Carrier Air Wing Seventeen. On November 8, 2017, Theodore Roosevelt and her group started a 4-day exercise with two other carrier strike groups, led by carriers Ronald Reagan and Nimitz, in the Sea of Japan. In May 2019, Theodore Roosevelt participated in Exercise Northern Edge 2019, marking the first time in a decade a carrier took part in the exercise. Also in 2019, Carrier Air Wing Eleven was transferred to the ship. 2020s On 5 March 2020, Theodore Roosevelt, along with the cruiser , arrived at Da Nang, Vietnam, for a five-day port visit commemorating the 25th anniversary of United States–Vietnam relations. In July 2021 she was moved from San Diego, her usual homeport, to Bremerton, Washington, where she will be retrofitted to accommodate the F-35 multirole combat aircraft. A Navy spokesman said she will be in the Bremerton shipyard for 16 to 18 months. Approximately 3,000 sailors and their families will move to Bremerton with the ship. COVID-19 pandemic On 24 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, three sailors aboard the deployed vessel tested positive for COVID-19, a coronavirus disease identified as the cause of an outbreak of respiratory illness. Within a few days, that number climbed to dozens. Theodore Roosevelt was reported to be the first ship in the U.S. Navy to have a COVID-19 outbreak while at sea; Theodore Roosevelt docked at Guam on 27 March 2020. By 31 March, the number of infected sailors was over 100, and the captain, Brett Crozier, pleaded for help from the Navy, sending an e-mail to ten Pacific Fleet admirals and captains, including his superior, the commander of Carrier Strike Group-9, and the commander of the Pacific Fleet, requesting that his ship be evacuated. The US Navy ordered the aircraft carrier evacuated with a skeleton crew of 400 to remain aboard the vessel to maintain the nuclear reactor, the fire-fighting equipment, and the ship's galley. On 2 April, acting Navy Secretary Thomas Modly relieved Crozier of his command for sending the request for assistance over non-secure email to what he characterized as "broad array of people" rather than up the chain of command, adding that Crozier "allowed the complexity of the challenge of the COVID breakout on the ship to overwhelm his ability to act professionally". Crozier was to remain in the Navy and retain his rank. Several members of the House Armed Services Committee criticized the decision, stating that "the dismissal of Captain Crozier at this critical moment, as the sailors aboard the U.S.S. Theodore Roosevelt are confronted with the COVID-19 pandemic, is a reckless, political move that reeks of undue command influence." Captain Carlos A. Sardiello assumed temporary command of Theodore Roosevelt; his second stint serving as the ship's captain. Modly traveled to Guam and gave a ship-wide speech, which The New York Times described as a "tirade", during which he was heckled by some of the sailors. After demands from Congress that he be fired, Modly resigned on April 7. As of Easter Sunday, April 12, 585 crew members had tested positive. The Navy and the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) are using the infection, death, and recovery data from Theodore Roosevelt to study the pandemic. On 13 April, the hospitalized sailor, a chief petty officer, died. As of 20 April, 4,069 sailors had been moved off the ship, 94% of the crew had been tested for the virus, yielding 678 positive and 3,904 negative results. As of 17 April, seven crew members were in the hospital including one in intensive care. About 60% of the people who tested positive did not have symptoms. As of 16 April, most of the ship had been cleaned. Sailors kept testing positive for the virus even after 14 days of isolation; some who tested positive had previously tested negative. The Navy temporarily suspended post-quarantine testing and extended the sailors' isolation, delaying plans to begin moves of the crew back to the carrier. Some sailors volunteered for antibody testing. Initial testing was completed by 27 April 2020, at which point, 969 crew members had tested positive, and 14 of those 969 had recovered. By 29 April, sailors that were previously quarantined in Guam began moving back to the ship. Theodore Roosevelt returned to sea on 21 May for the first time after being sidelined for two months due to COVID-19. On 19 June 2020 the widely expected reinstatement of Captain Crozier was canceled and the promotion of the Theodore Roosevelt strike group commander was put on hold. On 23 June 2020 USS Nimitz and Theodore Roosevelt completed a two-carrier operation in the Philippine Sea. Theodore Roosevelt was returning to home port when another chief petty officer suffered a medical emergency, of which the nature was not disclosed, and died 2 July 2020. In a 10 November 2020 scientific brief, the CDC highlighted this case among several others to detail the community benefit of masking, as the use of face coverings on-board was demonstrated to be associated with a 70% reduced risk of infection. Final analysis of the outbreak in December 2020, found 1271 crew members tested positive for SARS-Cov-2 and an additional 60 had suspected COVID-19 but did not test positive; 76.9% of those who tested positive were asymptomatic at testing. 55% developed symptoms. Ship awards Joint Meritorious Unit Award Navy Unit Commendation (3 awards) – 1991, 1995, 2001 Meritorious Unit Commendation – 1993, 2008 Battle Efficiency Award (4 awards) – 1989, 1991, 1993, 2000 National Defense Service Medal (2 awards) – 1990, 2001 Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal Southwest Asia Service Medal (3 campaigns) Global War on Terrorism Expeditionary Medal Armed Forces Service Medal (2 campaigns) Sea Service Deployment Ribbon (9 overseas deployments) NATO Medal Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia) Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait) Battenberg Cup (3 awards) – 1991, 1993, 2001 Golden Anchor / Retention Excellence Award (7 awards) – 1988, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 2004, 2017 Security Excellence Award (2 awards) – 1996, 2009 Captain Edward F. Ney Memorial Award for Outstanding Food Service (2 awards) – 2001, 2002 See also List of aircraft carriers List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy USS Theodore Roosevelt UFO incidents References External links Official website USS Theodore Roosevelt history at U.S. Carriers USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) Story Archive – U.S. Navy USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) News – U.S. Navy USS Theodore Roosevelt (CVN 71) command histories – Naval History and Heritage Command 1984 ships Aircraft carriers of the United States Afghanistan War ships of the United States Cold War aircraft carriers of the United States Gulf War ships of the United States Nuclear ships of the United States Navy Nimitz-class aircraft carriers Ships built in Newport News, Virginia Aircraft carriers involved in the COVID-19 pandemic United States Navy New York (state)-related ships Theodore Roosevelt	[ -0.4237179458141327, -0.12180638313293457, 0.2219962179660797, 0.22035153210163116, 0.019252333790063858, 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231176	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunDog%3A%20Frozen%20Legacy	SunDog: Frozen Legacy	SunDog: Frozen Legacy is a 1984 space trading and combat simulator video game. SunDog was first developed for the Apple II, with version 1.0 being released in March 1984, and version 1.1 (bug fixes) released three weeks later. Version 2.0, which included enhancements and improved performance, was released in October, 1984. An enhanced version was released for the Atari ST in December 1985. The first game produced by FTL Games, and the only game programmed by Bruce Webster, SunDog not only stored an impressive amount of data in the limited 64K of the Apple II, it also implemented a GUI inspired by the interface developed at Xerox PARC. Although FTL intended to release further games in the series, this was preempted by the success of their follow-up effort, Dungeon Master. Plot The game begins with the player assuming the part of Zed, a young man who has been enslaved in the glass mines his entire life. His uncle, Brock Dor-Cede, died leaving Zed his ship, the SunDog. Zed has the chance to earn his freedom if he can fulfil his uncle's outstanding contract to start a colony for a religious order. With little to go on, the player begins on Jondd in the SunDog. Gameplay The player begins the game with a top-down view of a spaceship, the player's character represented by a white circle in the center. All actions are controlled by the joystick (or joystick and mouse on the Atari ST). By moving the cursor and clicking a joystick button, the player moves the character about the screen and controls all action in the game. Zed, controlled by the player, finds himself aboard the SunDog. A quick inspection of the ship finds many systems damaged and several destroyed components. A quick visit to the city's Commodity Exchange finds some goods belonging to the SunDog's captain (now Zed). Zed's bank account holds a few thousand credits (money). Zed's uncle made a contract with a colony to supply them with various goods throughout their settlement. With nothing else to go on, the player must find the colony and attempt to fulfil Zed's uncle's contract. The cities in SunDog vary in size, though all appear to be neatly laid out. They contain ship parts shops, hotels, gun shops, restaurants/bars and banks. If the player wanders about on foot for long, they will eventually encounter others. Some are beggars, some are hawkers trying to sell Zed items, but most are thugs who will attempt to mug him. The player may use Zed's weapons to fight back against muggers. With the use of bluffs or threats, some muggings can be thwarted without the use of a gun. There is no set route the player must follow to win the game, but a typical route would have the player first finding the colony on Jondd, the planet the player starts on. The player can do this by taking the SunDog's cargo pod, which can be used like an all-terrain vehicle when detached from the ship. Exploring the continent, the player will eventually find the small colony. Driving into the colony's Commodity Exchange will display what the colony needs in order to upgrade to the next phase. Several items are listed, such as fruits/grains, stock embryos and "Sun suns." All these goods can be purchased in the commodity exchanges of cities in neighboring star systems. Some can even be purchased right on Jondd. The only way for Zed to fulfil his uncle's contract is by supplying the colony with the items it needs. They have to buy these goods and deliver them to the colony. The colony will not give the player any money, so the only way the player can obtain the goods for the colony is by buying and selling other commodities for a profit. Zed has to adhere to the economic principle of buy low, sell high. They have a few goods initially, but little money to buy more, especially since the SunDog needs repairs. By visiting cities' commodity exchanges, the player can inspect what is for sale, buy and sell commodities and, ideally, turn enough profit to buy everything the colony needs. The most important goods the colony needs, however, are cryogens, or cryogenically frozen colonists. These cannot be purchased, but have to be found throughout the neighboring star systems. Zed's uncle has stored them in various commodity exchange warehouses, but has left no documentation specifying where. The only way to locate them is by visiting the planets in the neighboring systems and investigating the warehouses for any items belonging to the SunDog's captain. The next item of business, usually, is to repair the SunDog. Normally the SunDog will be in good enough shape to fly, but it will have to be in better condition to combat and flee from the pirates which litter the merchant channels between planets. Repairing the ship is usually a straightforward affair of discarding destroyed components and replacing them with new ones obtained from parts shops found in nearly every city on every planet. The only initial problem is that some parts can be expensive, eating into Zed's initial chunk of money. As well as keeping their ship in working order and fuelled, the player must care for Zed's health: eating food to keep hunger in check, sleeping in a safe place when tired (sleeping or collapsing from exhaustion in the open will result in being robbed) and healing if injured in personal combat. From this point, the player can either take what commodities are waiting in the commodity exchange's warehouse, sell them or buy new commodities. The player can then travel to other systems and try to sell the goods for a profit. While there, the player can to look for any cryogens that may be stored at various commodity exchanges. Getting safely to other planets is another matter, however. The merchant space avenues abound with pirates eager to rob merchant vessels, like the SunDog. The SunDog's warp drive only works reliably at the edges of a star system. So the player must travel outwards, warp and then travel back in to land on a planet, giving plenty of opportunity for pirates to attack. The player can try to either talk or threaten the pirates, but sooner or later the player will have to resort to combat. The SunDog has shields and two weapons systems (lasers and a cannon), but both have to be controlled manually. Hits from the pirates on the SunDog deplete shields and will damage systems and the hull if the shields get low. A player can destroy a pirate, survive to reach a planet, at which point the SunDog can safely land, or charge up their warp drive and warp (however warping from inside a system may fail). As a last resort the SunDog may jettison its cargo, which will make the pirates lose interest. If the player destroys a pirate, they may be able to obtain whatever cargo it was carrying. Damage to the SunDog's systems can be repaired on the fly by the player by leaving the cockpit and replacing damaged components, if they can afford the time. The equipment the SunDog comes with is only suitable for landing in cities with a starport. There is generally only one city per planet equipped with one. Cryogens, however, are sometimes stored in commodity warehouses other than the one in the city the player landed in. Initially the player can use the cargo pod to pick up cryogens in other cities. However, some cryogens will be located in cities on islands or continents other than the one with the starport. The cargo pod cannot cross water, so the player has to find other means to pick up the cryogens. The only way to do this is by outfitting the SunDog with advanced equipment. Advanced ground scanners, for example, can allow the SunDog to land in any planet's city. These advanced items have to be obtained by visiting distant planets whose shops carry these exotic parts. They can also sometimes be obtained by asking the barkeeps in bars. Other exotic items, such as "charm boosts" and "nutrapacks" can also be obtained in this manner. Development SunDog was designed by Bruce Webster and Wayne Holder, who were friends from school. Webster wrote 80 to 90% of the code, serving as co-designer, chief architect, and principal developer of the game. Initially the two were making a video game version of a microgame called Star Smuggler by Dwarfstar Games, but a bankruptcy of the developer's parent company Heritage Models prevented them from getting clear rights to it. SunDog was developed as a result. Before beginning SunDog, Webster had been working on a BBS door game called Blows Against the Empire. His idea was to lead the SunDog into some situations similar to those found in that game, and its setting was used for SunDog. Webster's Mormon faith inspired the game's story of colonists attempting to survive on the frontier. Inspired by the Xerox Alto user interface (developed by Xerox PARC), Webster designed a layered windowing system called ZoomAction. It was hailed for its ease of use and intuitive functionality. Players only needed an Apple two-button joystick or Atari ST's two-button mouse to play the game. Windows appeared one on top of the other as the player accessed different parts of the game. Drag-and-drop icons were used for repairing the ship, buying components, eating food, and so on. The user would interact with non-player characters (NPCs) via buttons listing possible responses to what the NPC had just said. ZoomAction was used for everything from controlling the ship to walking around the cities and planets in the game. As the user walked into buildings, a window would appear showing the interior, and the character could walk about and carry on (limited) conversations with other people in the building. The idea of exiting the ship to explore the game world remains fairly uncommon in the genre to this day. A world in which neutral characters populate interactive cities appears to be unique. Compared to games like Elite, the SunDog world was considerably more immersive, albeit much smaller in terms of the number of stars and planets. Shortly after completing version 1.0 of SunDog, Webster and Holder demoed their game at the West Coast Computer Faire. From people playing the game, they logged about 30 bugs. Webster resolved them all within three weeks. The fixed version was released as version 1.1, and FTL provided free upgrades for all registered owners of 1.0. Originally, SunDog was designed to run on 48K, but its memory requirement was changed to 64K late in development. Webster couldn't take full advantage of the extra memory at the time, but with 1.1 out the door, he was able to refactor the game. As a result, the new version swapped less to disk and just ran smoother. He also added some other new features. One more bug was discovered in version 1.1 (this bug actually let the player cheat, so few users complained about it). Webster fixed that bug as well. The result of this work was version 2.0 and was released in October 1984. At this point, Webster was burned out with software development and left FTL. He was made attractive offers from other game development companies, but turned them all down. The game is written in Apple Pascal. When it was ported to the Atari ST, large sections of the Apple II version were used with little or no changes. Reception SunDog was very successful; it was the Atari ST's best-selling game for a year before Dungeon Master. Computer Gaming World stated of the Apple II version that "playing Sundog is so enjoyable that it's easy to forget about the mission". It praised the user interface and flexible play options, and concluded "this game sets a new standard for sophistication, complexity, and ease of play ... Sundog is everything a great game should be". In 1986 the magazine called the Atari ST version a "loving, intelligent, and detailed translation ... the most impressive game I've seen on the ST yet". Compute! in 1985 praised the Apple II version as "one of the most entertaining and absorbing role-playing games on the market today". It also praised the user interface, and approved of the game's replayability. In 1986 the magazine similarly approved of the ST version, describing it as "a first-rate graphics adventure [with] stunning graphics and easy mouse-driven controls ... the Atari ST gets a chance to show off". Anthony Pryor reviewed SunDog: Frozen Legacy in Space Gamer/Fantasy Gamer No. 77. Pryor commented that "If you're ready to test fate, fire up your warp engines, and battle the odds for a chance at your fortune, Sundog: Frozen Legacy is a marvelous adventure." In 1999, Ultima designer Richard Garriott declared SunDog his favorite game of all time, calling it "basically Ultima meets Wing Commander." Reviews Casus Belli #25 (April 1985) Legacy Planned sequel The Apple II version automatically ran a demo if the user did nothing on the opening screen. It mentioned the forthcoming SunDog II. From the start, Webster planned for SunDog to be a trilogy. The two remaining entries in the series would be SunDog II: Old Scores to Settle and SunDog III: Blows Against the Empire. With the departure of Webster and FTL's much more successful Dungeon Master, SunDog II never materialized. Webster wrote in 1985 that had he remained with FTL and developed SunDog II, he wanted to improve the NPCs' sophistication by giving them individual personalities with varied reactions to player actions. Webster stated that, for example, a greedy NPC might fight for a valuable item even if not brave. SunDog: Resurrection Project In the early 2000s, Webster started the "SunDog: Resurrection Project", an open-source project to recreate SunDog using modern technology. Originally he planned to have the game developed in Java because of its cross-platform capabilities, but members of the project were more comfortable with C++ and developed in that language. It had several members, but due to his commitment to his work, Webster was unable to sufficiently guide the project, which faded largely from public sight. According to the SunDog Resurrection Project's SourceForge page as of August 4, 2007, work never ceased completely, but has continued with new and improved sprite/background graphics, as well as some game code (the game is still intended to be developed in Java), such as a functioning stock market engine. The engine reportedly has over forty stocks and tracks fourteen planetary and system variables (as opposed to the original Sundog's three) which affect market prices and stock availability with great realism and flexibility. Some early graphics from the project were made available via the Internet on the project's public gallery, but have since been removed. Most city tiles are replicas of the Atari ST version, though there are some original graphics designed by the project artist. The project artwork can be found on a webpage managed by Jake LaForet. On May 21, 2012, Jake LaForet's website was revised to announce that significant work has been accomplished on the project, and that the Alpha release of the Sundog Resurrection game would be released in August, 2012. It was a closed release, so that only a small number of applicants were invited to test the Alpha version. In August, 2012, the project unveiled a new website, reportedly to serve as a platform for all future news releases and software downloads. As of February 14, 2016, the project is recruiting a Beta feedback manager and will be releasing a Beta by the end of April 2016. A Hollywood composer, H.G. Templeton, composed the game's theme song and 8000 lines of NPC dialogue has been added to the game. As of August 2018, the game is still in Beta. As of January 2020, the game is still in Beta, working through feedback from ~800 testers. References External links Bruce Webster's Sundog Site SunDog Resurrection Port of SunDog: Frozen Legacy open source project that implements a p-system interpreter to play SunDog on modern hardware Fan sites A history of FTL and SunDog with helpful tips and strategies for the game (archived version) Another SunDog fan site 1984 video games Accolade (company) games Apple II games Atari ST games Role-playing video games Science fiction video games Space trading and combat simulators Video games developed in the United States	[ -0.7106998562812805, 0.2099616974592209, -0.2568179965019226, 0.27378201484680176, 0.17398963868618011, 0.03524009883403778, 0.05782239884138107, -0.06885183602571487, -0.16374655067920685, -0.0427979901432991, -0.16316834092140198, 0.0995178297162056, -0.33090341091156006, 0.12903589010238647, 0.2303672581911087, -0.41179847717285156, 0.06639398634433746, 0.09659843891859055, -0.29669880867004395, 0.08054061233997345, -0.03401859104633331, -0.0311144832521677, 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231184	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We%20TV	We TV	We TV (stylized as WE tv) is an American pay television channel. Owned by AMC Networks since its September 1997 launch, it is oriented mainly towards lifestyle and entertainment programming. As of February 2015, approximately 85.2 million American households (73.2% of households with television) received We TV. In March 2015, AMC announced it would soon begin making its channels available to cord cutters, including AMC, BBC America, IFC, Sundance TV, and We TV itself. History As Romance Classics (1997–2001) We TV was originally known as Romance Classics when it launched on September 1, 1997 under the ownership of what was then the Cablevision Systems Corporation-controlled Rainbow Media. It was originally a movie channel focusing mostly on romantic dramas and comedies, and television miniseries; similar to the original format of AMC (as American Movie Classics), the channel initially broadcast its films commercial-free. At launch, the Rainbow-owned MuchMusic USA dropped movies as a stunt as a movie channel. Format change as We TV (2001–2014) This format was abandoned on January 1, 2001, when the channel was relaunched as WE: Women's Entertainment, taking on an ad-supported general entertainment format. In 2006, the channel was renamed We TV. The channel aired the first three seasons of the popular Logie Award-winning Australian television series McLeod's Daughters, but dropped the show in April 2006. The channel's format then shifted towards reality shows, with several having topics related to weddings (such as Bridezillas, Big Easy Brides and My Fair Wedding with David Tutera). Other popular shows on the included Secret Lives of Women, The Locator and Amazing Cakes. In 2007, Rainbow would, however the channel's space, would launch a sister channel to WE tv. In 2009, Rainbow launched Wedding Central, a sister channel to WE tv. The channel closed on July 1, 2011. In January 2011, We TV confirmed that it had signed Toni Braxton for a reality series, entitled Braxton Family Values, which is marketed as one of the flagship shows. To prepare for a new show lineup, We TV also gave the AMC a new logo and marketing tagline: "Life As WE Know It". In March 2012, We TV confirmed that the AMC had ordered 14 episodes of Kendra on Top, a reality show following the lives of Kendra Wilkinson and Hank Baskett, who previously appeared in the E! reality series Kendra. Kendra said the show focuses on "motherhood, parenthood, and wife hood". Kendra On Top premiered on June 5, 2012. Rebranding (2014–present) In June 2014, the AMC unveiled a new logo, dropping the "Women's Entertainment" tagline. AMC president Marc Juris explained that while the AMC was to remain "a leading destination for women on television and online", the goal of the new branding was to broaden the focus on the word "we" as representing shared experiences, describing it as "a powerful and universal theme which drives connection, conversation, collaboration and community". As part of the rebranding, AMC also announced its first original scripted series, The Divide, which was originally pitched for sister AMC, and was canceled after its first season. Its second series, South of Hell, was ordered, but burned off in one day on 2015's Black Friday after a change in the network's management back towards exclusively original reality programming. Current programming Unscripted Braxton Family Values Bridezillas Bridezillas: Scared Fit Extreme Love Growing Up Hip Hop Growing Up Hip Hop: Atlanta Growing Up Hip Hop: New York Love After Lockup Love After Lockup: Life After Lockup Mama June: From Not to Hot Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Marriage Boot Camp: Reality Stars Family Edition Tamar Braxton: Get Ya Life! The TS Madison Experience (March 4, 2021) Untold Stories of Hip Hop Waka & Tammy: What The Flocka Acquired unscripted Beyond the Pole The Real Blac Chyna Acquired scripted The Closer Criminal Minds CSI: Miami Grimm Homicide: Life on the Street JAG Law & Order Law & Order: Criminal Intent Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Longmire Major Crimes Monk NCIS Double Cross Upcoming programming Acquired Unscripted Joseline's Cabaret: Miami (2021) Former programming Scripted The Divide South of Hell Unscripted A Stand Up Mother Adoption Diaries Adventures in Doggie Day Care Alien Abduction:True Confessions Amazing Wedding Cakes America's Cutest Puppies American Princess Amsale Girls Big Easy Brides Bride vs. Bride Bulging Brides Cheerleader U Cinematherapy Crimes of Passion The Cupcake Girls Cutting It: In the ATL Cyndi Lauper: Still So Unusual David Tutera's CELEBrations Designer to the Stars: Kari Whitman Dirty Dancing Downsized Dr. Miami Driven to Love Ex Isle Extreme Ghost Stories Family Restaurant Fix My Family Ghosts In The Hood Girl Meets Cowboy Girl Meets Gown Hair Trauma High School Confidential House of Curves Hustle & Soul I Want to Save Your Life Jilted? Jim & Chrissy: Vow or Never Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? John Edward Cross Country Kendra on Top Kiss & Tell L.A. Hair Little Miss Perfect The Locator Love Thy Sister The Lylas Mary Mary Match Made In Heaven Money. Power. Respect. Most Popular My Life is a Telenovela Mystery Millionaire Obsessed with the Dress Party Mama's Platinum Babies Platinum Weddings Pregnant & Dating Raising Sextuplets Rescue Mediums Rich Bride Poor Bride Secret Lives of Women Sanya's Glam & Gold Selling It: In the ATL Sex Box Sex Change Hospital Shannen Says She House She's Moving In Sinbad: It's Just Family Sisters in Law Skating's Next Star Spend It Fast! Split Ends Staten Island Cakes Style Me with Rachel Hunter Sunset Daze SWV Reunited Tamar & Vince Texas Multi Mamas Twister Sisters Ugliest House on The Block Unforgivable Crimes WE Investigates Wedding Central Wife, Mom, Bounty Hunter Women Behind Bars You're Wearing That?!? Acquired 20/20 48 Hours Blue Planet II Boston Public Charmed Committed Dharma & Greg Felicity Frasier Ghost Whisperer Girlfriends The Golden Girls The Great Christmas Light Fight Hope & Faith House How to Get Away with Murder Kate & Allie Madam Secretary McLeod's Daughters The Naked Truth Ned and Stacey Orphan Black Roseanne Two Guys and a Girl Will & Grace'' References External links AMC Networks Television channels and stations established in 1997 English-language television stations in the United States Women's interest channels	[ 1.2119348049163818, -0.5707457065582275, 0.5354394912719727, 0.37266162037849426, -0.13231980800628662, -0.044820498675107956, 0.3184126615524292, 0.106516994535923, 0.17765124142169952, -0.2637273073196411, 0.13688834011554718, 0.55040043592453, -0.16552668809890747, 0.07797610759735107, -0.5285585522651672, -0.40889468789100647, 0.3574153184890747, 0.9639987945556641, -0.046478815376758575, -1.098200798034668, -0.38478776812553406, -0.04474182426929474, 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231187	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20Baudrillard	Jean Baudrillard	Jean Baudrillard ( , , ; 27 July 1929 – 6 March 2007) was a French sociologist, philosopher and cultural theorist. He is best known for his analyses of media, contemporary culture, and technological communication, as well as his formulation of concepts such as simulation and hyperreality. He wrote about diverse subjects, including consumerism, gender relations, critique of economy, economics, social history, art, Western foreign policy, and popular culture. Among his best known works are Seduction (1978), Simulacra and Simulation (1981), America (1986), and The Gulf War Did Not Take Place (1991). His work is frequently associated with postmodernism and specifically post-structuralism. Nevertheless, Baudrillard can be also seen as a critic of post-structuralism and has distanced himself from postmodernism. Life Baudrillard was born in Reims, northeastern France, on 27 July 1929. His grandparents were farm workers and his father a gendarme. During high school (at the Lycée at Reims), he became aware of pataphysics via philosophy professor Emmanuel Peillet, which is said to be crucial for understanding Baudrillard's later thought. He became the first of his family to attend university when he moved to Paris to attend the Sorbonne. There he studied German language and literature, which led him to begin teaching the subject at several different lycées, both Parisian and provincial, from 1960 until 1966. While teaching, Baudrillard began to publish reviews of literature and translated the works of such authors as Peter Weiss, Bertolt Brecht, Karl Marx, Friedrich Engels, and Wilhelm Emil Mühlmann. While teaching German, Baudrillard began to transfer to sociology, eventually completing and publishing in 1968 his doctoral thesis Le Système des Objets (The System of Objects) under the dissertation committee of Henri Lefebvre, Roland Barthes, and Pierre Bourdieu. Subsequently, he began teaching Sociology at the Paris X Nanterre, a university campus just outside Paris which would become heavily involved in the events of May 1968. During this time, Baudrillard worked closely with Philosopher Humphrey De Battenburge, who described Baudrillard as a "visionary". At Nanterre he took up a position as Maître Assistant (Assistant Professor), then Maître de Conférences (Associate Professor), eventually becoming a professor after completing his accreditation, L'Autre par lui-même (The Other by Himself). In 1970, Baudrillard made the first of his many trips to the United States (Aspen, Colorado), and in 1973, the first of several trips to Kyoto, Japan. He was given his first camera in 1981 in Japan, which led to him becoming a photographer. In 1986 he moved to IRIS (Institut de Recherche et d'Information Socio-Économique) at the Université de Paris-IX Dauphine, where he spent the latter part of his teaching career. During this time he had begun to move away from sociology as a discipline (particularly in its "classical" form), and, after ceasing to teach full-time, he rarely identified himself with any particular discipline, although he remained linked to academia. During the 1980s and 1990s his books had gained a wide audience, and in his last years he became, to an extent, an intellectual celebrity, being published often in the French- and English-speaking popular press. He nonetheless continued supporting the Institut de Recherche sur l'Innovation Sociale at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique and was Satrap at the Collège de Pataphysique. Baudrillard taught at the European Graduate School in Saas-Fee, Switzerland, and collaborated at the Canadian theory, culture, and technology review Ctheory, where he was abundantly cited. He also participated in the International Journal of Baudrillard Studies from its inception in 2004 until his death. In 1999–2000, his photographs were exhibited at the Maison européenne de la photographie in Paris. In 2004, Baudrillard attended the major conference on his work, "Baudrillard and the Arts", at the Center for Art and Media Karlsruhe in Karlsruhe, Germany. Personal life Baudrillard enjoyed baroque music; a favorite composer was Claudio Monteverdi. He also favored rock music such as The Velvet Underground & Nico. Baudrillard was married twice. He and his first wife Lucile Baudrillard had two children, Gilles and Anne. In 1970 during his first marriage, Baudrillard met 25 year old Marine Dupuis when she arrived at the Paris Nanterre University where he was a professor. Marine went on to be a media artistic director. They married in 1994 when he was 65. Diagnosed with cancer in 2005, Baudrillard battled the disease two years from his apartment on Rue Sainte-Beuve, Paris, dying at the age of 77. Marine Baudrillard curates Cool Memories, an association of Jean Baudrillard's friends. Key concepts Baudrillard's published work emerged as part of a generation of French thinkers including: Gilles Deleuze, Jean-François Lyotard, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, and Jacques Lacan who all shared an interest in semiotics, and he is often seen as a part of the post-structuralist philosophical school. In common with many post-structuralists, his arguments consistently draw upon the notion that signification and meaning are both only understandable in terms of how particular words or "signs" interrelate. Baudrillard thought, as do many post-structuralists, that meaning is brought about through systems of signs working together. Following on from the structuralist linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, Baudrillard argued that meaning (value) is created through difference—through what something is not (so "dog" means "dog" because it is not-"cat", not-"goat", not-"tree", etc.). In fact, he viewed meaning as near enough self-referential: objects, images of objects, words and signs are situated in a web of meaning; one object's meaning is only understandable through its relation to the meaning of other objects; for instance, one thing's prestige relates to another's mundanity. From this starting point Baudrillard theorized broadly about human society based upon this kind of self-referentiality. His writing portrays societies always searching for a sense of meaning—or a "total" understanding of the world—that remains consistently elusive. In contrast to Post-structuralism (such as Michel Foucault), for whom the formations of knowledge emerge only as the result of relations of power, Baudrillard developed theories in which the excessive, fruitless search for total knowledge leads almost inevitably to a kind of delusion. In Baudrillard's view, the (human) subject may try to understand the (non-human) object, but because the object can only be understood according to what it signifies (and because the process of signification immediately involves a web of other signs from which it is distinguished) this never produces the desired results. The subject is, rather, seduced (in the original Latin sense: ) by the object. He argued therefore that, in the final analysis, a complete understanding of the minutiae of human life is impossible, and when people are seduced into thinking otherwise they become drawn toward a "simulated" version of reality, or, to use one of his neologisms, a state of "hyperreality." This is not to say that the world becomes unreal, but rather that the faster and more comprehensively societies begin to bring reality together into one supposedly coherent picture, the more insecure and unstable it looks and the more fearful societies become. Reality, in this sense, "dies out." Accordingly, Baudrillard argued that the excess of signs and of meaning in late 20th century "global" society had caused (quite paradoxically) an effacement of reality. In this world neither liberal nor Marxist utopias are any longer believed in. We live, he argued, not in a "global village", to use Marshall McLuhan's phrase, but rather in a world that is ever more easily petrified by even the smallest event. Because the "global" world operates at the level of the exchange of signs and commodities, it becomes ever more blind to symbolic acts such as, for example, terrorism. In Baudrillard's work the symbolic realm (which he develops a perspective on through the anthropological work of Marcel Mauss and Georges Bataille) is seen as quite distinct from that of signs and signification. Signs can be exchanged like commodities; symbols, on the other hand, operate quite differently: they are exchanged, like gifts, sometimes violently as a form of potlatch. Baudrillard, particularly in his later work, saw the "global" society as without this "symbolic" element, and therefore symbolically (if not militarily) defenseless against acts such as the Rushdie Fatwa or, indeed, the September 11 terrorist attacks against the United States and its military and economic establishment. The object value system In his early books, such as The System of Objects, For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign, and , Baudrillard's main focus is upon consumerism, and how different objects are consumed in different ways. At this time Baudrillard's political outlook was loosely associated with Marxism (and Situationism), but in these books he differed from Karl Marx in one significant way. For Baudrillard, as for the situationists, it was consumption rather than production that was the main driver of capitalist society. Baudrillard came to this conclusion by criticising Marx's concept of "use-value." Baudrillard thought that both Marx's and Adam Smith's economic thought accepted the idea of genuine needs relating to genuine uses too easily and too simply. Baudrillard argued, drawing from Georges Bataille, that needs are constructed, rather than innate. He stressed that all purchases, because they always signify something socially, have their fetishistic side. Objects always, drawing from Roland Barthes, "say something" about their users. And this was, for him, why consumption was and remains more important than production: because the "ideological genesis of needs" precedes the production of goods to meet those needs. He wrote that there are four ways of an object obtaining value. The four value-making processes are: The functional value: an object's instrumental purpose (use value). Example: a pen writes; a refrigerator cools. The exchange value: an object's economic value. Example: One pen may be worth three pencils, while one refrigerator may be worth the salary earned by three months of work. The symbolic value: an object's value assigned by a subject in relation to another subject (i.e., between a giver and receiver). Example: a pen might symbolize a student's school graduation gift or a commencement speaker's gift; or a diamond may be a symbol of publicly declared marital love. The sign value: an object's value within a system of objects. Example: a particular pen may, while having no added functional benefit, signify prestige relative to another pen; a diamond ring may have no function at all, but may suggest particular social values, such as taste or class. Baudrillard's earlier books were attempts to argue that the first two of these values are not simply associated, but are disrupted by the third and, particularly, the fourth. Later, Baudrillard rejected Marxism totally (The Mirror of Production and Symbolic Exchange and Death). But the focus on the difference between sign value (which relates to commodity exchange) and symbolic value (which relates to Maussian gift exchange) remained in his work up until his death. Indeed, it came to play a more and more important role, particularly in his writings on world events. Simulacra and Simulation As Baudrillard developed his work throughout the 1980s, he moved from economic theory to mediation and mass communication. Although retaining his interest in Saussurean semiotics and the logic of symbolic exchange (as influenced by anthropologist Marcel Mauss), Baudrillard turned his attention to the work of Marshall McLuhan, developing ideas about how the nature of social relations is determined by the forms of communication that a society employs. In so doing, Baudrillard progressed beyond both Saussure's and Roland Barthes's formal semiology to consider the implications of a historically understood version of structural semiology. According to Kornelije Kvas, "Baudrillard rejects the structuralist principle of the equivalence of different forms of linguistic organization, the binary principle that contains oppositions such as: true-false, real-unreal, center-periphery. He denies any possibility of a (mimetic) duplication of reality; reality mediated through language becomes a game of signs. In his theoretical system all distinctions between the real and the fictional, between a copy and the original, disappear". Simulation, Baudrillard claims, is the current stage of the simulacrum: all is composed of references with no referents, a hyperreality. Baudrillard argues that this is part of a historical progression. In the Renaissance, the dominant simulacrum was in the form of the counterfeit, where people or objects appear to stand for a real referent that does not exist (for instance, royalty, nobility, holiness, etc.). With the Industrial Revolution, the dominant simulacrum becomes the product, which can be propagated on an endless production line. In current times, the dominant simulacrum is the model, which by its nature already stands for endless reproducibility, and is itself already reproduced. The end of history and meaning Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, one of Baudrillard's most common themes was historicity, or, more specifically, how present-day societies utilise the notions of progress and modernity in their political choices. He argued, much like the political theorist Francis Fukuyama, that history had ended or "vanished" with the spread of globalization; but, unlike Fukuyama, Baudrillard averred that this end should not be understood as the culmination of history's progress, but as the collapse of the very idea of historical progress. For Baudrillard, the end of the Cold War did not represent an ideological victory; rather, it signaled the disappearance of utopian visions shared between both the political Right and Left. Giving further evidence of his opposition toward Marxist visions of global communism and liberal visions of global civil society, Baudrillard contended that the ends they hoped for had always been illusions; indeed, as The Illusion of the End argues, he thought the idea of an end itself was nothing more than a misguided dream: Within a society subject to and ruled by fast-paced electronic communication and global information networks the collapse of this façade was always going to be, he thought, inevitable. Employing a quasi-scientific vocabulary that attracted the ire of the physicist Alan Sokal, Baudrillard wrote that the speed society moved at had destabilized the linearity of history: "we have the particle accelerator that has smashed the referential orbit of things once and for all." In making this argument Baudrillard found some affinity with the postmodern philosophy of Jean-François Lyotard, who argued that in the late 20th century there was no longer any room for "metanarratives." (The triumph of a coming communism being one such metanarrative.) But, in addition to simply lamenting this collapse of history, Baudrillard also went beyond Lyotard and attempted to analyse how the idea of positive progress was being employed in spite of the notion's declining validity. Baudrillard argued that although genuine belief in a universal endpoint of history, wherein all conflicts would find their resolution, had been deemed redundant, universality was still a notion utilised in world politics as an excuse for actions. Universal values which, according to him, no one any longer believed universal were and are still rhetorically employed to justify otherwise unjustifiable choices. The means, he wrote, are there even though the ends are no longer believed in, and are employed in order to hide the present's harsh realities (or, as he would have put it, unrealities). "In the Enlightenment, universalization was viewed as unlimited growth and forward progress. Today, by contrast, universalization is expressed as a forward escape." This involves the notion of "escape velocity" as outlined in The Vital Illusion (2000), which in turn, results in the postmodern fallacy of escape velocity on which the postmodern mind and critical view cannot, by definition, ever truly break free from the all-encompassing "self-referential" sphere of discourse. Political commentary On the Bosnian War Baudrillard reacted to the West's indifference to the Bosnian War in writings, mostly in essays in his column for Libération. More specifically, he expressed his view on Europe's unwillingness to respond to "aggression and genocide in Bosnia," in which "New Europe" revealed itself to be a "sham." He criticized the Western media and intellectuals for their passivity, and for taking the role of bystanders, engaging in ineffective, hypocritical and self-serving action, and the public for its inability to distinguish simulacra from real world happenings, in which real death and destruction in Bosnia seemed unreal. He was determined in his columns to openly name the perpetrators, Serbs, and call their actions in Bosnia aggression and genocide. On the Persian Gulf War Baudrillard's provocative 1991 book, The Gulf War Did Not Take Place, raised his public profile as an academic and political commentator. He argued that the first Gulf War was the inverse of the Clausewitzian formula: not "the continuation of politics by other means," but "the continuation of the absence of politics by other means." Accordingly, Saddam Hussein was not fighting the Coalition, but using the lives of his soldiers as a form of sacrifice to preserve his power. The Coalition fighting the Iraqi military was merely dropping 10,000 tonnes of bombs daily, as if proving to themselves that there was an enemy to fight. So, too, were the Western media complicit, presenting the war in real time, by recycling images of war to propagate the notion that the U.S.-led Coalition and the Iraqi government were actually fighting, but, such was not the case. Saddam Hussein did not use his military capacity (the Iraqi Air Force). His power was not weakened, evinced by his easy suppression of the 1991 internal uprisings that followed afterwards. Over all, little had changed. Saddam remained undefeated, the "victors" were not victorious, and thus there was no war—i.e., the Gulf War did not occur. The book was originally a series of articles in the British newspaper The Guardian and the French newspaper Libération, published in three parts: "The Gulf War Will Not Take Place," published during the American military and rhetorical buildup; "The Gulf War Is Not Taking Place," published during military action; and "The Gulf War Did Not Take Place" published afterwards. Some critics accused Baudrillard of instant revisionism; a denial of the physical action of the conflict (which was related to his denial of reality in general). Consequently, Baudrillard was accused of lazy amoralism, cynical scepticism, and Berkelian subjective idealism. Sympathetic commentators such as William Merrin, in his book Baudrillard and the Media, have argued that Baudrillard was more concerned with the West's technological and political dominance and the globalization of its commercial interests, and what that means for the present possibility of war. Merrin argued that Baudrillard was not denying that something had happened, but merely questioning whether that something was in fact war or a bilateral "atrocity masquerading as a war." Merrin viewed the accusations of amorality as redundant and based on a misreading. In Baudrillard's own words: On the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001 In contrast to the "non-event" of the Gulf War, in his essay "The Spirit of Terrorism" Baudrillard characterises the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City as the "absolute event". Seeking to understand them as a reaction to the technological and political expansion of capitalist globalization, rather than as a war of religiously based or civilization-based warfare, he described the absolute event and its consequences as follows: In accordance with his theory of society, Baudrillard portrayed the attacks as a symbolic reaction to the inexorable rise of a world based on commodity exchange. This stance was criticised on two counts. Richard Wolin (in The Seduction of Unreason) forcefully accused Baudrillard and Slavoj Žižek of all but celebrating the terrorist attacks, essentially claiming that the United States received what it deserved. Žižek, however, countered that accusation to Wolin's analysis as a form of intellectual barbarism in the journal Critical Inquiry, saying that Wolin failed to see the difference between fantasising about an event and stating that one is deserving of that event. Merrin (in Baudrillard and the Media) argued that Baudrillard's position affords the terrorists a type of moral superiority. In the journal Economy and Society, Merrin further noted that Baudrillard gives the symbolic facets of society unfair privilege above semiotic concerns. Second, authors questioned whether the attacks were unavoidable. Bruno Latour, in Critical Inquiry, argued that Baudrillard believed that their destruction was forced by the society that created them, alluding to the notion that the Towers were "brought down by their own weight." In Latour's view, this was because Baudrillard conceived only of society in terms of a symbolic and semiotic dualism. The Agony of Power During 2005, Baudrillard wrote three short pieces and gave a brief magazine interview, all treating similar ideas; following his death in 2007, the four pieces were collected and published posthumously as The Agony of Power, a polemic against power itself. The first piece, "From Domination to Hegemony", contrasts its two subjects, modes of power; domination stands for historical, traditional power relations, while hegemony stands for modern, more sophisticated power relations as realized by states and businesses. Baudrillard decried the "cynicism" with which contemporary businesses openly state their business models. For example, he cited French television channel TF1 executive Patrick Le Lay who stated that his business' job was "to help Coca-Cola sell its products." Baudrillard lamented that such honesty pre-empted and thus robbed the Left of its traditional role of critiquing governments and businesses: "In fact, Le Lay takes away the only power we had left. He steals our denunciation." Consequently, Baudrillard stated that "power itself must be abolished—and not solely in the refusal to be dominated…but also, just as violently, in the refusal to dominate." The latter pieces included further analysis of the September 11 terrorist attacks, using the metaphor of the Native American potlatch to describe both American and Muslim societies, specifically the American state versus the hijackers. In the pieces' context, "potlatch" referred not to the gift-giving aspect of the ritual, but rather its wealth-destroying aspect: "The terrorists' potlatch against the West is their own death. Our potlatch is indignity, immodesty, obscenity, degradation and abjection." This criticism of the West carried notes of Baudrillard's simulacrum, the above cynicism of business, and contrast between Muslim and Western societies:We [the West] throw this indifference and abjection at others like a challenge: the challenge to defile themselves in return, to deny their values, to strip naked, confess, admit—to respond to a nihilism equal to our own. Reception One of Baudrillard's editors, Mark Poster, was among a number of academics who argued for his contemporary relevance; he remarked: Poster also attempted to refute the most extreme of Baudrillard's critics, the likes of Alan Sokal and Christopher Norris who see him as a purveyor of a form of reality-denying irrationalism: Only one of the two major confrontational books on Baudrillard's thought—Christopher Norris's Uncritical Theory: Postmodernism, Intellectuals and the Gulf War—seeks to reject his media theory and position on "the real" out of hand. The other—postmodern theorist Douglas Kellner's Jean Baudrillard: From Marxism to Postmodernism and Beyond—seeks rather to analyse Baudrillard's relation to postmodernism (a concept with which Baudrillard has had a continued, if uneasy and rarely explicit, relationship) and to present a Marxist counter. Regarding the former, William Merrin (discussed above) published more than one denunciation of Norris' position. The latter Baudrillard himself characterised as reductive. Douglas Kellner commented that Baudrillard's views were 'ultra-leftist' in his writing of Symbolic Exchange and Death. Baudrillard later admitted that his views could be classified as right-wing "in objective terms", but found the Left–right political spectrum arbitrary. In popular culture Native American (Anishinaabe) writer Gerald Vizenor, who has made extensive use of Baudrillard's concepts of simulation in his critical work. The Wachowskis said that Baudrillard influenced The Matrix (1999), and Neo hides money and disks containing information in Simulacra and Simulation. One critic wondered whether Baudrillard, who had not embraced the movie, was "thinking of suing for a screen credit," but Baudrillard himself disclaimed any connection to The Matrix, calling it at best a misreading of his ideas. Some reviewers have noted that Charlie Kaufman's film Synecdoche, New York seems inspired by Baudrillard's Simulacra and Simulation. Album Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared? by rock band Deerhunter was purportedly influenced by Baudrillard's essay of the same name. Bibliography Books (English translations) 1968. The System of Objects 1970. 1972. For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign 1973. The Mirror of Production 1976. Symbolic Exchange and Death 1977. Forget Foucault 1979. Seduction 1981. Simulacra and Simulation 1982. In the Shadow of the Silent Majorities 1983. Fatal Strategies 1983. Simulations 1986. America 1987. Cool Memories 1980-1985 1987. The Ecstasy of Communication 1990. The Transparency of Evil 1991. The Gulf War Did Not Take Place 1992. The Illusion of the End 1995. The Perfect Crime 1996. Cool Memories II 1987-1990 1997. Fragments: Cool Memories III 1990-1995 1998. Paroxysm: Interviews with Philippe Petit 1999. Impossible Exchange 2000. Passwords 2000. The Singular Objects of Architecture 2000. The Vital Illusion 2002. The Spirit of Terrorism And Requiem for the Twin Towers 2003. Fragments (Interviews with François L'Yvonnet) 2003. Cool Memories IV 1995-2000 2005. The Intelligence of Evil or the Lucidity Pact 2005. The Conspiracy of Art 2006. Utopia Deferred: Writings for Utopie (1967–1978) 2006. Cool Memories V 2000-2004 2007. Exiles from Dialogue 2008. Radical Alterity 2009. Why Hasn't Everything Already Disappeared? 2010. Carnival and Cannibal, or the Play of Global Antagonisms 2010. The Agony of Power 2011. Telemorphosis 2014. Screened Out 2014. The Divine Left: A Chronicle of the Years 1977–1984 Articles and essays 1996. "No Pity for Sarajevo; The West's Serbianization; When the West Stands In for the Dead." Pp. 79–89 in This Time We Knew: Western Responses to Genocide in Bosnia. NYU Press. . 2001. "The Spirit of Terrorism." Telos 121(Fall):134–42. 2005. "Divine Europe." Telos 131(Summer):188–90. 2006. "The Pyres of Autumn." New Left Review 2(37). Interviews Jocks, Heinz-Norbert: Die Fotografie und die Dinge. Ein Gespräch mit Jean Baudrillard. In: Kunstforum International., No: 172, Das Ende der Fotografie. Editor: Heinz-Norbert Jocks, 2004, p. 70–83. Smith, Richard G., David B. Clarke, eds. 2015. Jean Baudrillard: From Hyperreality to Disappearance: Uncollected Interviews. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. . Smith, Richard G., David B. Clarke, eds. 2017. Jean Baudrillard: The Disappearance of Culture: Uncollected Interviews. Edinburgh, UK: Edinburgh University Press. . Audio CDs 1997. Die Illusion des Endes – Das Ende der Illusion [58 minutes + booklet], Jean Baudrillard & Boris Groys. Cologne: supposé. 2006. Die Macht der Verführung, [55 minutes]. Cologne: supposé. . See also Hyperreality References External links Jean Baudrillard Biography. Archived from the original on 20 December 2009. Faculty page at European Graduate School (biography, bibliography, photos and videos). Jean Baudrillard (1981; translated 1994 by Sheila Glaser), Simulacra and Simulation, archived from the original on 21 May 2013. Baudrillard; Cultura, Simulacro y régimen de mortandad en el Sistema de los Objetos \| EIKASIA PDF (in Spanish) Adolfo Vásquez Rocca International Journal of Baudrillard Studies. Retrieved 9 March Cool Memories, association of Baudrillard's friends https://web.archive.org/web/20160513042009/http://ctheory.net/articles.aspx?id=67#text%201 Bacon's Essays/Of Simulation and Dissimulation by Anglican philosopher Francis Bacon 1929 births 2007 deaths 20th-century economists 20th-century French essayists 20th-century French male writers 20th-century French non-fiction writers 20th-century French philosophers 20th-century historians 21st-century economists 21st-century French essayists 21st-century French male writers 21st-century French non-fiction writers 21st-century French philosophers 21st-century historians Anti-consumerists Architectural theoreticians Architecture critics Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery Continental philosophers Critical theorists Critics of Marxism Critics of political economy Cultural critics Epistemologists European Graduate School faculty French anti-capitalists French architectural historians French architecture writers French art 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231196	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wat%20Tyler	Wat Tyler	Wat Tyler (c. 1320/4 January 1341 – 15 June 1381) was a leader of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt in England. He led a group of rebels from Canterbury to London to oppose the institution of a poll tax and to demand economic and social reforms. While the brief rebellion enjoyed early success, Tyler was killed by officers loyal to King Richard II during negotiations at Smithfield, London. Early life Not much is known of Wat Tyler's early life. There are varying sources of his birth. One claims that he was born on January 4, 1341, while another source claims he was born around 1320. Most historians agree that he was born around 1341. He was fascinated by John Ball, his group having broken the radical priest out of jail. He was probably born in Kent or Essex. “Wat” may have been his given name (derived from the Old English name Watt), or a diminutive form of the name Walter; his original surname was unknown. It is thought that the name "Tyler" came from his occupation as a roof tiler, but this is not confirmed. Prior to the Peasants' Revolt, it is probable that he lived in Kent or Essex; he has variously been represented as coming from Dartford and Maidstone in Kent, from Deptford, which was in Kent at the time, and from Colchester in Essex. The Peasants' Revolt The Peasants' Revolt began in May 1381, triggered by a recently imposed poll tax of 4 pence from every adult, whether peasant or wealthy. The revolt was not only about money, as the peasants also sought increased liberty and other social reforms. They demanded that each labourer be allowed to work for the employer of his choice and sought an end to serfdom and other rigid social demarcation. There were uprisings across England, with much of the unrest focused on Essex and Kent. The uprising was opposed by a significant part of English society in those regions, including nobility and wealthy religious establishments. Many peasants and labourers were inspired by the teachings of John Ball, a radical priest who preached that all humans should be treated equally, as descendants of Adam and Eve, and who asked: "When Adam delved and Eve span/Who was then the gentleman?" How Wat Tyler became involved with the revolt is unknown, although a much later sixteenth-century source indicates that a man of a similar name, John Tyler, was its initiator. This account suggests that a poll-tax collector had indecently assaulted John Tyler's daughter. It is suggested the poll tax collector "pulled up his daughter's clothes to see if she arrived at the age of puberty". In revenge he killed the miscreant and triggered the insurgency. Regardless of the basis of that story, by June 1381, when groups of rebels from across the country began a coordinated assault on London, Wat Tyler had emerged as a leader of the Kentish forces. On 13 June, the rebels reached the capital and crossed London Bridge. Once in the city, they attacked civil targets, destroying legal records, opening prisons, sacking homes, and killing individuals they thought were associated with the royal government. In response, the king, Richard II (then 14 years old), met with the rebels on 14 June 1381 and agreed to make many concessions and to give full pardons to all those involved in the rebellion. While some of the rebels were satisfied by the king's promises and dispersed, Tyler and his followers were not. Death On 15 June 1381, Tyler and his Kentish forces met King Richard at Smithfield, outside London. There, Tyler spoke personally with the king and put forward his demands. At first, the meeting seems to have gone well, with Tyler treating the king in a friendly, if overly familiar, manner, and Richard agreeing the rebels "should have all that he could fairly grant". However, tensions quickly rose. According to a contemporary chronicler, Tyler acted contemptuously, calling for a flagon of water to rinse his mouth "because of the great heat that he was in" and when he received the water "he rinsed his mouth in a very rude and disgusting fashion before the King's face". Sir John Newton (a servant of the king) insulted Tyler by calling him "the greatest thief and robber in all Kent". Tyler attacked Newton, but was restrained and arrested by the Lord Mayor of London, William Walworth. Tyler then attempted to stab the mayor, who was saved by his armour. Walworth slashed Tyler across the neck and head with his sword, and another of the king's servants, possibly Ralph de Standish, stabbed Tyler again, severely wounding him. Tyler managed to ride thirty yards before he fell from his horse. In the disorder that followed, he was taken to a hospital for the poor, but was tracked down by the mayor, brought back to Smithfield and publicly decapitated. Tyler's head was placed atop a pole and carried through the city, then displayed on London Bridge. In the wake of their leader's death, his followers were driven from London and the movement was shattered. Subsequently, Richard II revoked all the concessions he had made to the rebels and many were hunted down and executed. That effectively ended the revolt. In popular culture John Gower commented on Wat Tyler in his 14th-century poem Vox Clamantis: "The jay's voice is wild and he has only learnt the art of speaking from the classes with whom the Latin poet is identified." A number of works in the post-medieval period have featured Wat Tyler as protagonist. Tyler was the protagonist of the play Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, or, The Mob Reformers (1730) first performed at Bartholomew Fair in 1730. Wat Tyler is represented in Robert Southey's Wat Tyler, A Dramatic Poem, which was written in 1794 but not published until 1813. The first novel to feature Wat Tyler is Mrs O'Neill's The Bondman: A Story of the Days of Wat Tyler (1833). He is the protagonist in Pierce Egan the Younger's novel Wat Tyler, or the Rebellion of 1381 (1841), a highly radical text published at the height of the second phase of the Chartist movement that argued for republican government in England. Egan's novel was subsequently abridged and plagiarised and published as The Life and Adventures of Wat Tyler: The Good and the Brave (1851). Wat Tyler is the protagonist of the penny dreadful serial novel Wat Tyler; or, The King and the Apprentice which appeared in weekly parts in The Young Englishman's Journal in 1867, and appears as a main character in William Harrison Ainsworth's Merry England; or, Nobles and Serfs (1874). In Charles Dickens' Bleak House (1853), his name is invoked by Sir Leicester Dedlock as an example of what would happen if any concessions were made to "some person in the lower classes". Tyler features as a sympathetic hero in the novel A Dream of John Ball (1888) by William Morris. Wat Tyler is also mentioned in Redburn by Herman Melville and in A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court by Mark Twain. Tyler features briefly in the historical fiction The Mediation of Ralph Hardelot (1888) by William Minto. The juvenile novel A March on London (1897) by G. A. Henty, depicts Tyler briefly as a "sullen and resentful" demagogue. Henty's book was illustrated by W.H. Margetson. Long Will (1903), a novel by Florence Converse, depicts a meritorious Wat Tyler. The 1921 play Wat Tyler by Halcott Glover interprets Tyler as a sympathetic protester against feudal tyranny, who is driven into violence by John Ball's preaching. Riot at Gravesend (1952), a novel by William Howard Woods, focus on the combats between the rebels and the authorities. Who Then Was The Gentleman? (1963) is a novel by Charles E. Israel, that renders a courageous and charismatic Wat Tyler. A Summer Storm (1976), a novel by Jane Lane, depicts Tyler as a villain. The novel The Confession of Jack Straw (1991) by Simone Zelitch features Tyler as a central character. The children's novel Fire, Bed, and Bone (1997) by Henrietta Branford has Wat Tyler as one of its characters. Wat Tyler is the principal character in the historical novel, Now is the Time (2015) by Melvyn Bragg. English composer Alan Bush wrote an opera, Wat Tyler, about Tyler's life. Bush's opera was premiered at the Leipzig Opera in 1953. English folk singer-songwriter Frank Turner references Wat Tyler's negotiations at Smithfield in "Sons of Liberty" from the 2009 album Poetry of the Deed, and again mentions Tyler by name in "One Foot Before the Other" from 2011 album England Keep My Bones. Provisional IRA member and Irish political prisoner Bobby Sands referenced "Wat the Tyler" and his poor in one of his wider-known poems written while in prison, "The Rhythm of Time". A cultural history survey of Wat Tyler's portrayals in post-medieval literature down to the modern period has been written by Stephen Basdeo who argues that most of Tyler's appropriations in popular culture appear at times of political excitement. Tributes A section of the A249 road passing through Maidstone is named "Wat Tyler Way" in his honour. "Tyler's Causeway" running from Newgatestreet Village towards the A1000 in Hertfordshire named for the route taken by some of his followers fleeing the capital following his death. A road on the western edge of Blackheath is called Wat Tyler Road Wat Tyler Country Park in Essex is named after him. Swindon Borough Council's Offices are in Wat Tyler House. A memorial commemorating Wat Tyler and the Great Rising of 1381 was unveiled on 15 July 2015 in Smithfield, London. See also John Ball and Jack Straw, co-leaders of the 1381 Peasants' Revolt Jack Cade, leader of the 1450 Kentish Revolt Michael An Gof, leader of the Cornish rebellion of 1497 Robert Kett, leader of Kett's Rebellion in 1549 in Norfolk Bartholomew Steer, leader of the 1596 Oxfordshire Rebellion King Richard II of England References External links Wat Tyler Country Park Wat Tyler on historyguide.org — a description, from a chronicle of the time, which relates the final meeting between Wat Tyler and King Richard II. Wat Tyler's Rebellion in Froissart chronicle. — excerpts, from a Full 12 volume edition of Froissart chronicle related to Wat Tyler's Rebellion. EASF radical history wiki An East Anglia-specific look at the rebellion The Peasants' Revolt, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Miri Rubin, Caroline Barron & Alastair Dunn (In Our Time, Nov. 16, 2006) Year of birth unknown 14th-century births 1381 deaths Place of birth unknown English rebels English revolutionaries English tax resisters Medieval Kent Peasants' Revolt People from Kent Year of birth uncertain	[ -0.057428933680057526, 0.5847419500350952, -0.13776662945747375, -0.6817647218704224, -0.9435122013092041, 0.08767461776733398, 0.923629641532898, 0.11949718743562698, -0.4428713321685791, 0.2822524905204773, -0.08392153680324554, 0.49408262968063354, -0.3635701537132263, 0.3564371168613434, -0.026336899027228355, 0.6437302827835083, 0.570821225643158, 0.6653550863265991, 0.7055995464324951, -0.651772141456604, 0.10130972415208817, -0.5958734750747681, -0.130955770611763, -0.26559922099113464, 0.12433980405330658, 0.055143263190984726, 0.4403722882270813, 0.06139446422457695, 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231202	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociotechnical%20system	Sociotechnical system	Sociotechnical systems (STS) in organizational development is an approach to complex organizational work design that recognizes the interaction between people and technology in workplaces. The term also refers to the interaction between society's complex infrastructures and human behaviour. In this sense, society itself, and most of its substructures, are complex sociotechnical systems. The term sociotechnical systems was coined by Eric Trist, Ken Bamforth and Fred Emery, in the World War II era, based on their work with workers in English coal mines at the Tavistock Institute in London. Sociotechnical systems pertains to theory regarding the social aspects of people and society and technical aspects of organizational structure and processes. Here, technical does not necessarily imply material technology. The focus is on procedures and related knowledge, i.e. it refers to the ancient Greek term techne. "Technical" is a term used to refer to structure and a broader sense of technicalities. Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an organization or the society as a whole. Sociotechnical theory is about joint optimization, with a shared emphasis on achievement of both excellence in technical performance and quality in people's work lives. Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of achieving joint optimisation. They are usually based on designing different kinds of organisation, ones in which the relationships between socio and technical elements lead to the emergence of productivity and wellbeing. Overview Sociotechnical refers to the interrelatedness of social and technical aspects of an organization. Sociotechnical theory is founded on two main principles: One is that the interaction of social and technical factors creates the conditions for successful (or unsuccessful) organizational performance. This interaction consists partly of linear "cause and effect" relationships (the relationships that are normally "designed") and partly from "non-linear", complex, even unpredictable relationships (the good or bad relationships that are often unexpected). Whether designed or not, both types of interaction occur when socio and technical elements are put to work. The corollary of this, and the second of the two main principles, is that optimization of each aspect alone (socio or technical) tends to increase not only the quantity of unpredictable, "un-designed" relationships, but those relationships that are injurious to the system's performance. Therefore, sociotechnical theory is about joint optimization, that is, designing the social system and technical system in tandem so that they work smoothly together. Sociotechnical theory, as distinct from sociotechnical systems, proposes a number of different ways of achieving joint optimization. They are usually based on designing different kinds of organization, ones in which the relationships between socio and technical elements lead to the emergence of productivity and wellbeing, rather than the all too often case of new technology failing to meet the expectations of designers and users alike. The scientific literature shows terms like sociotechnical all one word, or socio-technical with a hyphen, sociotechnical theory, sociotechnical system and sociotechnical systems theory. All of these terms appear ubiquitously but their actual meanings often remain unclear. The key term "sociotechnical" is something of a buzzword and its varied usage can be unpicked. What can be said about it, though, is that it is most often used to simply, and quite correctly, describe any kind of organization that is composed of people and technology. The key elements of the STS approach include combining the human elements and the technical systems together to enable new possibilities for work and pave the way for technological change (Trist, 1981). The involvement of human elements in negotiations may cause a larger workload initially, but it is crucial that requirements can be determined and accommodated for prior to implementation as it is central to the systems success. Due to its mutual causality (Davis, 1977), the STS approach has become widely linked with autonomy, completeness and job satisfaction as both systems can work together to achieving a goal. Enid Mumford (1983) defines the socio-technical approach to recognise technology and people to ensure work systems are highly efficient and contain better characteristics which leads to higher job satisfaction for employees, resulting in a sense of fulfilment to improving quality of work and exceeding expectations. Mumford concludes that the development of information systems is not a technical issue, but a business organisation issue which is concerned with the process of change. ETHICs (Effective Technical & Human Implementation of Computer-based Systems) methodology was developed by Mumford with the goal of creating better work systems and a more equitable workplace. This method uses action research to help make radical improvements in work design. There is also a consensus approach which includes consultative participation. It allows work colleagues to become more motivated to expressing ideas. The method allows employees to get involved with the design process, meaning they have involvement in designing a job system and resolving conflicts. This method doesn’t provide a straightforward approach for successful change, but does involve employees making an ethical and more supportive system design. Principles Some of the central principles of sociotechnical theory were elaborated in a seminal paper by Eric Trist and Ken Bamforth in 1951. This is an interesting case study which, like most of the work in sociotechnical theory, is focused on a form of 'production system' expressive of the era and the contemporary technological systems it contained. The study was based on the paradoxical observation that despite improved technology, productivity was falling, and that despite better pay and amenities, absenteeism was increasing. This particular rational organisation had become irrational. The cause of the problem was hypothesized to be the adoption of a new form of production technology which had created the need for a bureaucratic form of organization (rather like classic command-and-control). In this specific example, technology brought with it a retrograde step in organizational design terms. The analysis that followed introduced the terms "socio" and "technical" and elaborated on many of the core principles that sociotechnical theory subsequently became. “The key elements of the STS approach include combining the human elements and the technical systems together to enable new possibilities for work and pave the way for technological change. Due to its mutual causality, the STS approach has become widely linked with autonomy, completeness and job satisfaction as both systems can work together to achieving a goal.” Responsible autonomy Sociotechnical theory was pioneering for its shift in emphasis, a shift towards considering teams or groups as the primary unit of analysis and not the individual. Sociotechnical theory pays particular attention to internal supervision and leadership at the level of the "group" and refers to it as "responsible autonomy". The overriding point seems to be that having the simple ability of individual team members being able to perform their function is not the only predictor of group effectiveness. There are a range of issues in team cohesion research, for example, that are answered by having the regulation and leadership internal to a group or team. These, and other factors, play an integral and parallel role in ensuring successful teamwork which sociotechnical theory exploits. The idea of semi-autonomous groups conveys a number of further advantages. Not least among these, especially in hazardous environments, is the often felt need on the part of people in the organisation for a role in a small primary group. It is argued that such a need arises in cases where the means for effective communication are often somewhat limited. As Carvalho states, this is because "...operators use verbal exchanges to produce continuous, redundant and recursive interactions to successfully construct and maintain individual and mutual awareness...". The immediacy and proximity of trusted team members makes it possible for this to occur. The coevolution of technology and organizations brings with it an expanding array of new possibilities for novel interaction. Responsible autonomy could become more distributed along with the team(s) themselves. The key to responsible autonomy seems to be to design an organization possessing the characteristics of small groups whilst preventing the "silo-thinking" and "stovepipe" neologisms of contemporary management theory. In order to preserve "...intact the loyalties on which the small group [depend]...the system as a whole [needs to contain] its bad in a way that [does] not destroy its good". In practice, this requires groups to be responsible for their own internal regulation and supervision, with the primary task of relating the group to the wider system falling explicitly to a group leader. This principle, therefore, describes a strategy for removing more traditional command hierarchies. Adaptability Carvajal states that "the rate at which uncertainty overwhelms an organisation is related more to its internal structure than to the amount of environmental uncertainty". Sitter in 1997 offered two solutions for organisations confronted, like the military, with an environment of increased (and increasing) complexity: "The first option is to restore the fit with the external complexity by an increasing internal complexity. ...This usually means the creation of more staff functions or the enlargement of staff-functions and/or the investment in vertical information systems". Vertical information systems are often confused for "network enabled capability" systems (NEC) but an important distinction needs to be made, which Sitter et al. propose as their second option: "...the organisation tries to deal with the external complexity by 'reducing' the internal control and coordination needs. ...This option might be called the strategy of 'simple organisations and complex jobs'". This all contributes to a number of unique advantages. Firstly is the issue of "human redundancy" in which "groups of this kind were free to set their own targets, so that aspiration levels with respect to production could be adjusted to the age and stamina of the individuals concerned". Human redundancy speaks towards the flexibility, ubiquity and pervasiveness of resources within NEC. The second issue is that of complexity. Complexity lies at the heart of many organisational contexts (there are numerous organizational paradigms that struggle to cope with it). Trist and Bamforth (1951) could have been writing about these with the following passage: "A very large variety of unfavourable and changing environmental conditions is encountered ... many of which are impossible to predict. Others, though predictable, are impossible to alter." Many type of organisations are clearly motivated by the appealing "industrial age", rational principles of "factory production", a particular approach to dealing with complexity: "In the factory a comparatively high degree of control can be exercised over the complex and moving "figure" of a production sequence, since it is possible to maintain the "ground" in a comparatively passive and constant state". On the other hand, many activities are constantly faced with the possibility of "untoward activity in the 'ground'" of the 'figure-ground' relationship" The central problem, one that appears to be at the nub of many problems that "classic" organisations have with complexity, is that "The instability of the 'ground' limits the applicability ... of methods derived from the factory". In Classic organisations, problems with the moving "figure" and moving "ground" often become magnified through a much larger social space, one in which there is a far greater extent of hierarchical task interdependence. For this reason, the semi-autonomous group, and its ability to make a much more fine grained response to the "ground" situation, can be regarded as "agile". Added to which, local problems that do arise need not propagate throughout the entire system (to affect the workload and quality of work of many others) because a complex organization doing simple tasks has been replaced by a simpler organization doing more complex tasks. The agility and internal regulation of the group allows problems to be solved locally without propagation through a larger social space, thus increasing tempo. Whole tasks Another concept in sociotechnical theory is the "whole task". A whole task "has the advantage of placing responsibility for the ... task squarely on the shoulders of a single, small, face-to-face group which experiences the entire cycle of operations within the compass of its membership." The Sociotechnical embodiment of this principle is the notion of minimal critical specification. This principle states that, "While it may be necessary to be quite precise about what has to be done, it is rarely necessary to be precise about how it is done". This is no more illustrated by the antithetical example of "working to rule" and the virtual collapse of any system that is subject to the intentional withdrawal of human adaptation to situations and contexts. The key factor in minimally critically specifying tasks is the responsible autonomy of the group to decide, based on local conditions, how best to undertake the task in a flexible adaptive manner. This principle is isomorphic with ideas like effects-based operations (EBO). EBO asks the question of what goal is it that we want to achieve, what objective is it that we need to reach rather than what tasks have to be undertaken, when and how. The EBO concept enables the managers to "...manipulate and decompose high level effects. They must then assign lesser effects as objectives for subordinates to achieve. The intention is that subordinates' actions will cumulatively achieve the overall effects desired". In other words, the focus shifts from being a scriptwriter for tasks to instead being a designer of behaviours. In some cases, this can make the task of the manager significantly less arduous. Meaningfulness of tasks Effects-based operations and the notion of a "whole task", combined with adaptability and responsible autonomy, have additional advantages for those at work in the organization. This is because "for each participant the task has total significance and dynamic closure" as well as the requirement to deploy a multiplicity of skills and to have the responsible autonomy in order to select when and how to do so. This is clearly hinting at a relaxation of the myriad of control mechanisms found in more classically designed organizations. Greater interdependence (through diffuse processes such as globalisation) also bring with them an issue of size, in which "the scale of a task transcends the limits of simple spatio-temporal structure. By this is meant conditions under which those concerned can complete a job in one place at one time, i.e., the situation of the face-to-face, or singular group". In other words, in classic organisations the "wholeness" of a task is often diminished by multiple group integration and spatiotemporal disintegration. The group based form of organization design proposed by sociotechnical theory combined with new technological possibilities (such as the internet) provide a response to this often forgotten issue, one that contributes significantly to joint optimisation. Topics Sociotechnical system A sociotechnical system is the term usually given to any instantiation of socio and technical elements engaged in goal directed behaviour. Sociotechnical systems are a particular expression of sociotechnical theory, although they are not necessarily one and the same thing. Sociotechnical systems theory is a mixture of sociotechnical theory, joint optimisation and so forth and general systems theory. The term sociotechnical system recognises that organizations have boundaries and that transactions occur within the system (and its sub-systems) and between the wider context and dynamics of the environment. It is an extension of Sociotechnical Theory which provides a richer descriptive and conceptual language for describing, analysing and designing organisations. A Sociotechnical System, therefore, often describes a 'thing' (an interlinked, systems based mixture of people, technology and their environment). Social technical means that technology, which by definition, should not be allowed to be the controlling factor when new work systems are implemented. So in order to be classified as 'Sociotechnical', equal attention must be paid to providing a high quality and satisfying work environment for employees. The Tavistock researchers, presented that employees who will be using the new and improved system, should be participating in determining the required quality of working life improvements. Participative socio‐technical design can be achieved by in‐depth interviews, questionnaires and collection of data. To approach system implementation with a sociotechnical systems perspective will, therefore, ensure that created systems are meaningful to all engaged actors. To achieve this, a human-centred stance is required, recognising that organisations are dynamic and subsist from moment-to-moment. It is possible to observe the practice of others and consider it in relation to our own contextual experiences and desires, however, attempts to copy practice from one unique context to another are unlikely to yield satisfactory results. Using relevant data collection methods prior to the design of the system and creating a group of internal stakeholders to assist in interpretation of results, can ensure that these systems are successful in practice. Participative socio-technical design can be conducted through in-depth interviews, the collection of statistics and the analysis of relevant documents. These will provide important comparative data that can help approve or disprove the chosen hypotheses. A common approach to participative design is, whenever possible, to use a democratically selected user design group as the key information collectors and decision makers. The design group is backed by a committee of senior staff who can lay the foundations and subsequently oversee the project. Alter describes sociotechnical analysis and design methods to not be a strong point in the information systems practice. The aim of socio-technical designs is to optimise and join both social and technical systems. However, the problem is that of the technical and social system along with the work system and joint optimisation are not defined as they should be. Future analysis Flexibility and speed are the two main pillars for future analysis for survival. To transform a business organization, the mindset must first be changed, as companies in the future will have to find a balance between four extremes: • Hierarchies versus networks • Profit versus meaningfulness • Control versus empowerment • Planning versus experiments The future of socio-technical design will continue to be of interest to researchers and therefore will adapt overtime to meet the ever-changing climate. New socio-technical approaches in information systems have endeavoured to overcome the shortcomings of the old approaches, through relying on theories from the social sciences. (Social science is the scientific study of human society and social relationships i.e. how people interact with each other.) Although structures are changing within the industry, companies, and managers, need to be dedicated to motivation and recognise what is essential to achieve this. Employees, their rights and needs, must always be given a high priority. Sustainability Standalone, incremental improvements are not sufficient to address current, let alone future sustainability challenges. These challenges will require deep changes of sociotechnical systems. Theories on innovation systems; sustainable innovations; system thinking and design; and sustainability transitions, among others, have attempted to describe potential changes capable of shifting development towards more sustainable directions. Sociotechnical perspectives also form a crucial role in the creation of systems that have long term sustainability. In the development of new systems, the consideration of sociotechnical factors from the perspectives of the affected stakeholders ensures that a sustainable system is created which is both engaging and benefits everyone involved. Any organisation that tries into becoming sustainable must take into consideration the many dimensions - financial, ecological and (socio-)technical. However, for many stakeholders the main aim of sustainability is to be economically viable. Without long term economic sustainability, the very existence of the organisation’s existence could come under question, potentially shutting the business down. Utilisation of new technology The utilization of new technology within an organization Welch, C. (2020) says “utilization of disruptive, more advanced technologies requires consideration from multiple perspectives taking into account the longer-term as well as potential short-term gains” he points out that any new technology has its risks to an organization and without it being properly investigated it could be highly disruptive. So organizations need to clearly investigate new technologies from all perspectives within it as if the technology shows promise within one part of the organization it could be highly disruptive to other sections of the organization. Thus by properly investigating the technologies' effect on the organization they can see the potential before utilizing it. Which could save the organization from utilizing a technology that could have destroyed them. Autonomous work teams Autonomous work teams also called self-managed teams, are an alternative to traditional assembly line methods. Rather than having a large number of employees each do a small operation to assemble a product, the employees are organized into small teams, each of which is responsible for assembling an entire product. These teams are self-managed, and are independent of one another. In the mid-1970s, Pehr Gyllenhammar created his new “dock assembly” work system at Volvo’s Kalmar Plant. Instead of the traditional flow line system of car production, self-managed teams would assemble the entire car. The idea of worker directors – a director on the company board who is a representative of the workforce – was established through this project and the Swedish government required them in state enterprises. Job enrichment Job enrichment in organizational development, human resources management, and organizational behavior, is the process of giving the employee a wider and higher level scope of responsibility with increased decision-making authority. This is the opposite of job enlargement, which simply would not involve greater authority. Instead, it will only have an increased number of duties. The concept of minimal critical specifications. (Mumford, 2006) states workers should be told what to do but not how to do it. Deciding this should be left to their initiative. She says they can be involved in work groups, matrices and networks. The employee should receive correct objectives but they decide how to achieve these objectives. Job enlargement Job enlargement means increasing the scope of a job through extending the range of its job duties and responsibilities. This contradicts the principles of specialisation and the division of labour whereby work is divided into small units, each of which is performed repetitively by an individual worker. Some motivational theories suggest that the boredom and alienation caused by the division of labour can actually cause efficiency to fall. Job rotation Job rotation is an approach to management development, where an individual is moved through a schedule of assignments designed to give him or her a breadth of exposure to the entire operation. Job rotation is also practiced to allow qualified employees to gain more insights into the processes of a company and to increase job satisfaction through job variation. The term job rotation can also mean the scheduled exchange of persons in offices, especially in public offices, prior to the end of incumbency or the legislative period. This has been practiced by the German green party for some time but has been discontinued. Motivation Motivation in psychology refers to the initiation, direction, intensity and persistence of behavior. Motivation is a temporal and dynamic state that should not be confused with personality or emotion. Motivation is having the desire and willingness to do something. A motivated person can be reaching for a long-term goal such as becoming a professional writer or a more short-term goal like learning how to spell a particular word. Personality invariably refers to more or less permanent characteristics of an individual's state of being (e.g., shy, extrovert, conscientious). As opposed to motivation, emotion refers to temporal states that do not immediately link to behavior (e.g., anger, grief, happiness). With the view that socio-technical design is by which intelligence and skill combined with emerging technologies could improve the work-life balance of employees, it is also believed that the aim is to achieve both a safer and more pleasurable workplace as well as to see greater democracy in society. The achievement of these aims would therefore lead to increased motivation of employees and would directly and positively influence their ability to express ideas. Enid Mumford's work on redesigning designing human systems also expressed that it is the role of the facilitator to “keep the members interested and motivated toward the design task, to help them resolve any conflicts”. Mumford states that although technology and organizational structures may change in industry, the employee rights and needs must be given a high priority. Future commercial success requires motivated work forces who are committed to their employers’ interests. This requires companies; managers who are dedicated to creating this motivation and recognize what is required for it to be achieved. Returning to socio-technical values, objectives; principals may provide an answer. Mumford reflects on leadership within organisations, because lack of leadership has proven to be the downfall of most companies. As competition increases employers have lost their valued and qualified employees to their competitors. Opportunities such as better job roles and an opportunity to work your way up has motivated these employees to join their rivals. Mumford suggests that a delegation of responsibility could help employees stay motivated as they would feel appreciated and belonging thus keeping them in their current organization. Leadership is key as employees would prefer following a structure and knowing that there is opportunity to improve. When Mumford analysed the role of user participation during two ES projects A drawback that was found was that users found it difficult to see beyond their current practices and found it difficult to anticipate how things can be done differently. Motivation was found to be another challenge during this process as users were not interested in participating (Wagner, 2007). Process improvement Process improvement in organizational development is a series of actions taken to identify, analyze and improve existing processes within an organization to meet new goals and objectives. These actions often follow a specific methodology or strategy to create successful results. Task analysis Task analysis is the analysis of how a task is accomplished, including a detailed description of both manual and mental activities, task and element durations, task frequency, task allocation, task complexity, environmental conditions, necessary clothing and equipment, and any other unique factors involved in or required for one or more people to perform a given task. This information can then be used for many purposes, such as personnel selection and training, tool or equipment design, procedure design (e.g., design of checklists or decision support systems) and automation. Job design Job design or work design in organizational development is the application of sociotechnical systems principles and techniques to the humanization of work, for example, through job enrichment. The aims of work design to improved job satisfaction, to improved through-put, to improved quality and to reduced employee problems, e.g., grievances, absenteeism. Deliberations Deliberations are key units of analysis in non-linear, knowledge work. They are 'choice points' that move knowledge work forward. As originated and defined by Cal Pava (1983) in a second-generation development of STS theory, deliberations are patterns of exchange and communication to reduce the equivocality of a problematic issue; for example, for systems engineering work, what features to develop in new software. Deliberations are not discrete decisions—they are a more continuous context for decisions. They have 3 aspects: topics, forums, and participants. Work System Theory (WST) and Work System Method (WSM) The WST and WSM simplifies the conceptualization of traditional complicated socio-technical system (STS) approach (Alter, 2015). Extending the prior research on STS which divides social and technical aspects; WST combines the two perspectives in a work system and outlines the framework for WSM which considers work system as the system of interest and proposes solutions accordingly (Alter, 2015). The Work System Theory (WST) and Work System Method (WSM) are both forms of socio-technical systems but in the form of work systems. Also, the Work System Method encourages the use of both socio-technical ideas and values when it comes to IS development, use and implementation. Evolution of socio-technical systems The evolution of socio-technical design has seen its development from being approached as a social system exclusively. The realisation of the joint optimisation of social and technical systems was later realised. It was divided into sections where primary work which looks into principles and description, and how to incorporate technical designs on a macrosocial level. Benefits of seeing sociotechnical systems through a work system lens Analysing and designing sociotechnical systems from a work system perspective and eliminates the artificial distinction of the social system from the technical system. This also eliminates the idea of joint optimization. By using a work system lens in can bring many benefits, such as: Viewing the work system as a whole, making it easier to discuss and analyse More organised approach by even outlining basic understanding of a work system A readily usable analysis method making it more adaptable for performing analysis of a work system Does not require guidance by experts and researchers Reinforces the idea that a work system exists to produce a product(s)/service(s) Easier to theorize potential staff reductions, job roles changing and reorganizations Encourages motivation and good will while reducing the stress from monitoring Conscientious that documentation and practice may differ Problems to overcome Difference in cultures across the world Data theft of company information and networked systems "Big Brother" effect on employees Hierarchical imbalance between managers and lower staff Persuading peoples old attitude of 'instant fixes' without any real thought of structure Social network / structure The social network perspective first started in 1920 at Harvard University within the Sociology Department. Within information systems social networks have been used to study behaviour of teams, organisations and Industries. Social network perspective is useful for studying some of the emerging forms of social or organisational arrangements and the roles of ICT. Multi-directional inheritance Multi-directional inheritance is the premise that work systems inherit their purpose, meaning and structure from the organisation and reflect the priorities and purposes of the organisation that encompasses them. Fundamentally, this premise includes crucial assumptions about sequencing, timescales, and precedence. The purpose, meaning and structure can derive from multiple contexts and once obtained it can be passed on to the sociotechnical systems that emerge throughout the organisation. Sociological perspective on sociotechnical systems A 1990s research interest in social dimensions of IS directed to relationship among IS development, uses, and resultant social and organizational changes offered fresh insight into the emerging role of ICT within differing organizational context; drawing directly on sociological theories of institution. This sociotechnical research has informed if not shaped IS scholarship. Sociological theories have offered a solid basis upon which emerging sociotechnical research built. ETHICS history The ETHICS (Effective Technical and Human Implementation of Computer Systems) process has been used successfully by Mumford in a variety of projects since its idea conception from the Turners Asbestos Cement project. After forgetting a vital request from the customer to discuss and potentially fix the issues found with the current organisation, she gave her advice on making a system. The system was not received well and Mumford was told they already had been using a similar system. This is when she realised a participative based approach would benefit many future projects. Enid Mumfords ETHICS development was a push from her to remind those in the field that research doesn't always need to be done on things of current interest and following the immediate trends over your current research is not always the way forward. A reminder that work should always be finished and we should never “write them off with no outcome.” as she said. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel Hegel, a political philosopher, has written a lot on the subject. He separated contracts into contracts of gift and contracts of exchange. The employment contract can be the contract of exchange. Hegel's option of the existence of a contract, that it doesn't matter if it is formal or informal, implies that the parties are able to recognise each other as people and the owners of something that has value. This article traces the history of socio‐technical design, emphasizing the set of values it embraces, the people espousing its theory and the organizations that practise it. Its role in the implementation of computer systems and its impact in a number of different countries are stressed. It also shows its relationship with action research, as a humanistic set of principles aimed at increasing human knowledge while improving practice in work situations. Its evolution in the 1960s and 1970s evidencing improved working practices and joint agreements between workers and management are contrasted with the much harsher economic climate of the 1980s and 1990s when such principled practices, with one or two notable exceptions, gave way to lean production, downsizing and cost cutting in a global economy, partly reflecting the impact of information and communications technology. Different future scenarios are discussed where socio‐technical principles might return in a different guise to humanize the potential impact of technology in a world of work where consistent organizational and economic change are the norm. Laudon & Laudon Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon are academics and practitioners in the field of information systems. In organizational change, their textbook approach to teaching the management of information systems is based on the sociotechnical view of systems. This view asserts that “optimal organizational performance is achieved by jointly optimizing both the social and technical systems used in production. Thus, they state that the performance of a system is optimized when both the technology and the organization mutually adjust to one another until a satisfactory fit is obtained. See also Complex systems Cybernetics Feedback Human factors Social network Sociology Sociotechnology Systems theory Systems science Telecommuting References Further reading Kenyon B. De Greene (1973). Sociotechnical systems: factors in analysis, design, and management. Jose Luis Mate and Andres Silva (2005). Requirements Engineering for Sociotechnical Systems. Enid Mumford (1985). Sociotechnical Systems Design: Evolving Theory and Practice. William A. Pasmore and John J. Sherwood (1978). Sociotechnical Systems: A Sourcebook. William A. Pasmore (1988). Designing Effective Organizations: The Sociotechnical Systems Perspective. Pascal Salembier, Tahar Hakim Benchekroun (2002). Cooperation and Complexity in Sociotechnical Systems. Sawyer, S. and Jarrahi, M.H. (2014) The Sociotechnical Perspective: Information Systems and Information Technology, Volume 2 (Computing Handbook Set, Third Edition,) edited by Heikki Topi and Allen Tucker. Chapman and Hall/CRC. \| http://sawyer.syr.edu/publications/2013/sociotechnical%20chapter.pdf James C. Taylor and David F. Felten (1993). Performance by Design: Sociotechnical Systems in North America. Eric Trist and H. Murray ed. (1993).The Social Engagement of Social Science, Volume II: The Socio-Technical Perspective. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.http://www.moderntimesworkplace.com/archives/archives.html James T. Ziegenfuss (1983). Patients' Rights and Organizational Models: Sociotechnical Systems Research on mental health programs. Hongbin Zha (2006). Interactive Technologies and Sociotechnical Systems: 12th International Conference, VSMM 2006, Xi'an, China, October 18–20, 2006, Proceedings. Trist, E., & Labour, O. M. o. (1981). The evolution of socio-technical systems: A conceptual framework and an action research program: Ontario Ministry of Labour, Ontario Quality of Working Life Centre. Amelsvoort, P., & Mohr, B. (Co-Eds.) (2016). "Co-Creating Humane and Innovative Organizations: Evolutions in the Practice of Socio-Technical System Design": Global STS-D Network Press Pava, C., 1983. Managing New Office Technology. Free Press, New York, NY. External links JP Vos, The making of strategic realities : an application of the social systems theory of Niklas Luhmann, Technical University of Eindhoven, Department of Technology Management, 2002. STS Roundtable, an international not-for-profit association of professional and scholarly practitioners of Sociotechnical Systems Theory IEEE 1st Workshop on Socio-Technical Aspects of Mashups http://istheory.byu.edu/wiki/Socio-technical_theory http://www.moderntimesworkplace.com/archives/archives.html, Archived Vol I, II, & III of The Tavistock Anthology Philosophy of technology Social systems Sociological theories Systems psychology Systems theory	[ 0.46042758226394653, 0.14175376296043396, -0.1411115825176239, 0.4355175495147705, 0.2084926962852478, 0.2466803938150406, 0.036784376949071884, 0.17877694964408875, -0.14584288001060486, -0.86784827709198, -0.47553980350494385, 0.4893798828125, -0.32684075832366943, 0.02204671874642372, -0.010303144343197346, 0.3065090477466583, 0.3447588086128235, 0.1691097915172577, -0.016852134838700294, -0.032172366976737976, -0.6109763979911804, -0.06738651543855667, 0.518439769744873, -0.03656625747680664, 0.15898528695106506, 0.07546669989824295, 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231204	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel%20capacity	Channel capacity	Channel capacity, in electrical engineering, computer science, and information theory, is the tight upper bound on the rate at which information can be reliably transmitted over a communication channel. Following the terms of the noisy-channel coding theorem, the channel capacity of a given channel is the highest information rate (in units of information per unit time) that can be achieved with arbitrarily small error probability. Information theory, developed by Claude E. Shannon in 1948, defines the notion of channel capacity and provides a mathematical model by which it may be computed. The key result states that the capacity of the channel, as defined above, is given by the maximum of the mutual information between the input and output of the channel, where the maximization is with respect to the input distribution. The notion of channel capacity has been central to the development of modern wireline and wireless communication systems, with the advent of novel error correction coding mechanisms that have resulted in achieving performance very close to the limits promised by channel capacity. Formal definition The basic mathematical model for a communication system is the following: where: is the message to be transmitted; is the channel input symbol ( is a sequence of symbols) taken in an alphabet ; is the channel output symbol ( is a sequence of symbols) taken in an alphabet ; is the estimate of the transmitted message; is the encoding function for a block of length ; is the noisy channel, which is modeled by a conditional probability distribution; and, is the decoding function for a block of length . Let and be modeled as random variables. Furthermore, let be the conditional probability distribution function of given , which is an inherent fixed property of the communication channel. Then the choice of the marginal distribution completely determines the joint distribution due to the identity which, in turn, induces a mutual information . The channel capacity is defined as where the supremum is taken over all possible choices of . Additivity of channel capacity Channel capacity is additive over independent channels. It means that using two independent channels in a combined manner provides the same theoretical capacity as using them independently. More formally, let and be two independent channels modelled as above; having an input alphabet and an output alphabet . Idem for . We define the product channel as This theorem states: Shannon capacity of a graph If G is an undirected graph, it can be used to define a communications channel in which the symbols are the graph vertices, and two codewords may be confused with each other if their symbols in each position are equal or adjacent. The computational complexity of finding the Shannon capacity of such a channel remains open, but it can be upper bounded by another important graph invariant, the Lovász number. Noisy-channel coding theorem The noisy-channel coding theorem states that for any error probability ε > 0 and for any transmission rate R less than the channel capacity C, there is an encoding and decoding scheme transmitting data at rate R whose error probability is less than ε, for a sufficiently large block length. Also, for any rate greater than the channel capacity, the probability of error at the receiver goes to 0.5 as the block length goes to infinity. Example application An application of the channel capacity concept to an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel with B Hz bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio S/N is the Shannon–Hartley theorem: C is measured in bits per second if the logarithm is taken in base 2, or nats per second if the natural logarithm is used, assuming B is in hertz; the signal and noise powers S and N are expressed in a linear power unit (like watts or volts2). Since S/N figures are often cited in dB, a conversion may be needed. For example, a signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB corresponds to a linear power ratio of . Channel capacity in wireless communications This section focuses on the single-antenna, point-to-point scenario. For channel capacity in systems with multiple antennas, see the article on MIMO. Bandlimited AWGN channel If the average received power is [W], the total bandwidth is in Hertz, and the noise power spectral density is [W/Hz], the AWGN channel capacity is [bits/s], where is the received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). This result is known as the Shannon–Hartley theorem. When the SNR is large (SNR ≫ 0 dB), the capacity is logarithmic in power and approximately linear in bandwidth. This is called the bandwidth-limited regime. When the SNR is small (SNR ≪ 0 dB), the capacity is linear in power but insensitive to bandwidth. This is called the power-limited regime. The bandwidth-limited regime and power-limited regime are illustrated in the figure. Frequency-selective AWGN channel The capacity of the frequency-selective channel is given by so-called water filling power allocation, where and is the gain of subchannel , with chosen to meet the power constraint. Slow-fading channel In a slow-fading channel, where the coherence time is greater than the latency requirement, there is no definite capacity as the maximum rate of reliable communications supported by the channel, , depends on the random channel gain , which is unknown to the transmitter. If the transmitter encodes data at rate [bits/s/Hz], there is a non-zero probability that the decoding error probability cannot be made arbitrarily small, , in which case the system is said to be in outage. With a non-zero probability that the channel is in deep fade, the capacity of the slow-fading channel in strict sense is zero. However, it is possible to determine the largest value of such that the outage probability is less than . This value is known as the -outage capacity. Fast-fading channel In a fast-fading channel, where the latency requirement is greater than the coherence time and the codeword length spans many coherence periods, one can average over many independent channel fades by coding over a large number of coherence time intervals. Thus, it is possible to achieve a reliable rate of communication of [bits/s/Hz] and it is meaningful to speak of this value as the capacity of the fast-fading channel. See also Bandwidth (computing) Bandwidth (signal processing) Bit rate Code rate Error exponent Nyquist rate Negentropy Redundancy Sender, Data compression, Receiver Shannon–Hartley theorem Spectral efficiency Throughput Advanced Communication Topics MIMO Cooperative diversity External links AWGN Channel Capacity with various constraints on the channel input (interactive demonstration) References Information theory Telecommunication theory Television terminology	[ -0.034092362970113754, -0.10574749112129211, 0.21088393032550812, 0.3028392791748047, -0.026134062558412552, 0.1604379564523697, -0.032081201672554016, -0.11698906123638153, -0.16983827948570251, -0.760613203048706, -0.49053576588630676, 0.8615503311157227, -0.23699520528316498, 0.4788960814476013, 0.15005414187908173, 0.2150925248861313, 0.6168169379234314, -0.13906808197498322, 0.05338313803076744, -0.3740904927253723, -0.19066357612609863, 0.28973039984703064, 0.20645715296268463, -0.06393430382013321, 0.4612957835197449, 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231209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper%20engineering	Paper engineering	Paper engineering is a branch of engineering that deals with the usage of physical science (e.g. chemistry and physics) and life sciences (e.g. biology and biochemistry) in conjunction with mathematics as applied to the converting of raw materials into useful paper products and co-products. The field applies various principles in process engineering and unit operations to the manufacture of paper, chemicals, energy and related materials. The following timeline shows some of the key steps in the development of the science of chemical and bioprocess engineering: From a heritage perspective, the field encompasses the design and analysis of a wide variety of thermal, chemical and biochemical unit operations employed in the manufacture of pulp and paper, and addresses the preparation of its raw materials from trees or other natural resources via a pulping process, chemical and mechanical pretreatment of these recovered biopolymer (e.g. principally, although not solely, cellulose-based) fibers in a fluid suspension, the high-speed forming and initial dewatering of a non-woven web, the development of bulk sheet properties via control of energy and mass transfer operations, as well as post-treatment of the sheet with coating, calendering, and other chemical and mechanical processes. Applications Today, the field of paper and chemical engineering is applied to the manufacture of a wide variety of products. The forestry and biology, chemical science, (bio)chemical industry scope manufactures organic and agrochemicals (fertilizers, insecticides, herbicides), oleochemicals, fragrances and flavors, food, feed, pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, chemicals, polymers and power from biological materials. The resulting products of paper engineering including paper, cardboard, and various paper derivatives are widely used in everyday life. In addition to being a subset of chemical engineering, the field of paper engineering is closely linked to forest management, product recycling, and the mass production of paper – based media. Methods Mechanical pulping In the process of mechanical pulping, "grinding" and "refining" are the two main methods used to create the pulp. Grinding is the method of pressing logs and chips against a turning stone to produce fibers. Refiner pulping is treating wood chips with chemicals or heat and then crushing the objects between two disks, one or both of which are rotating. There are four main types of refiner pulping, which includes refiner mechanical pulping, thermo-mechanical pulping, chemi-mechanical pulping, and chemithermomechanical pulping. Further descriptions of each process are contained in this link: Mechanical pulping, when compared to chemical pulping, is relatively inexpensive and has a high pulp yield (85–95%). However, the paper created is generally weak since it retains the lignin. Chemical pulping The process of chemical pulping is used to chemically disband the lignin found in the cell walls of the material undergoing the process. After the cellulose fibers are separated from the lignin, a pulp is created which can then be treated to create durable paper, boxes, and corrugated cardboard. Chemical pulping can be characterized by two main methods: sulfate (Kraft process) pulping and sulfite pulping, and these two methods have different benefits. Sulfate pulping can be performed on a wide range of tree varieties and results in the creation of a strong type of paper. Conversely, sulfite pulping results in a higher volume of pulp which is easier to bleach and process. However, sulfate pulping is more widely used since the product is more durable and the chemicals used in the process can be recovered, thus resulting in minimal environmental pollution. Further pulp processing The pulp is then processed through an apparatus which renders the pulp as a mesh of fibers. This fiber network is then pressed to remove all water contents, and the paper is subsequently dried to remove all traces of moisture. Finishing After the above processes have been completed, the resulting paper is coated with a minuscule amount of china clay or calcium carbonate to modify the surface, and the paper is then re-sized depending on its intended purpose. Product recycling Generally, the material to be recycled first undergoes mechanical or chemical pulping to render it in pulp form. The resulting pulp is then processed in the same way normal pulp is processed; however, original fiber is sometimes added to enhance the quality and appearance of the product. Related fields and topics Today, the field of paper and bioprocess engineering is a diverse one, covering areas from biotechnology and nanotechnology to electricity generation. Agricultural engineering Biomolecular engineering Biochemical engineering Biological engineering Chemical process modeling Chemical engineering Chemical reactor Computational fluid dynamics Corrosion engineering Environmental engineering Fluid dynamics Food engineering Forest engineering Heat transfer Mass transfer Materials science Microfluidics Nanotechnology Natural environment Polymers Process control Process design Process development Safety engineering Separation processes Textile engineering Thermodynamics Transport phenomena Unit operations Water technology Colleges and universities Generally offered as a specialization within chemical engineering: United States Auburn University Georgia Institute of Technology Miami University North Carolina State University SUNY ESF University of Maine University of Minnesota University of Washington University of Wisconsin - Stevens Point Western Michigan University Canada École Polytechnique de Montréal McGill University McMaster University University of British Columbia University of New Brunswick Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières University of Toronto Europe Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, Spain Darmstadt University of Technology, Germany Dresden University of Technology, Germany Grenoble INP, France Helsinki University of Technology, Finland Lund Institute of Technology, Sweden Tampere University of Technology, Finland Technische Universitat Graz, Austria Saint Petersburg State Technological University of Plant Polymers, Russia Technical University of Łódź, Poland University of Manchester, UK Åbo Akademi University, Finland Asia-Pacific Akademi Teknologi Pulp dan Kertas Monash University Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee South China University of Technology See also Paper folding Chemical engineer List of notable chemical engineers List of chemical engineering societies American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) Chemistry and engineering Chemical engineering and polymer science Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE) Food and Bioprocess Technology Contemporary food engineering Education for chemical engineers English engineering units Process design (chemical engineering) List of chemical process simulators List of dynamic process simulators References Engineering disciplines Pulp and paper industry Process engineering	[ 0.7843335270881653, 0.431261271238327, -0.33446359634399414, 0.4665808081626892, 0.13426949083805084, 0.1075785756111145, -0.48399287462234497, 0.39821019768714905, -0.22789154946804047, -0.415826678276062, -0.3852803707122803, 0.4925011694431305, 0.2845916152000427, 0.0721002072095871, -0.48359739780426025, 0.30350804328918457, 0.12836217880249023, 0.27125412225723267, 0.5085293650627136, -0.12838320434093475, -0.3092736601829529, 0.008541194722056389, 0.14943672716617584, -0.29708173871040344, 0.14335890114307404, -0.15056650340557098, 0.17326819896697998, 0.20444898307323456, -0.3327784836292267, 0.1518584042787552, -0.054410822689533234, 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231210	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp%20and%20Paper	Pulp and Paper	Pulp and Paper was the largest United States-based trade magazine for the pulp and paper industry. It was owned by RISI and based in Boston. The magazine existed between 1998 and 2015. In 2016 it merged with Paper360° Magazine, owned by the Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI). See also Paper engineering References External links Official website Business magazines published in the United States Defunct magazines published in the United States Magazines established in 1998 Magazines disestablished in 2015 Magazines published in Boston Packaging magazines and journals Professional and trade magazines Pulp and paper industry	[ 0.21824046969413757, 0.25034627318382263, -0.4961654841899872, 0.47530344128608704, -0.09033109247684479, 0.27191808819770813, -0.3417934477329254, 0.69405198097229, -0.32036086916923523, 0.0246519036591053, -0.21572920680046082, 0.23733843863010406, 0.013524426147341728, 0.42448142170906067, -0.08369021862745285, -0.010466924868524075, -0.17983019351959229, 0.2790856659412384, 0.4680502414703369, -0.6442692875862122, -0.7615662813186646, -0.13252060115337372, 0.5186032652854919, -0.17222008109092712, 0.4789999723434448, -0.4048892557621002, 0.3949927091598511, -0.22524067759513855, -0.49441781640052795, 0.24220509827136993, 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231214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Koehler	Robert Koehler	Robert Koehler (November 28, 1850 – April 23, 1917) was a German-born painter and art teacher who spent most of his career in the United States. Biography Koehler was born in Hamburg; his family spelled their name Köhler until they moved to Milwaukee, Wisconsin in 1854. There he attended the historic German-English Academy. He graduated from the academy in 1865, but continued his lessons with the school's drawing master, Henry Vianden, who had graduated from Munich's Royal Academy of Fine Arts. He apprenticed himself to a lithography firm. In 1871, he went to New York City for eye surgery, and stayed to work as a lithographer. After studying drawing in the night classes of the National Academy of Design, Koehler went to Munich to study fine art at the Royal Academy in 1873, studying with Karl von Piloty and Ludwig Thiersch. He returned to New York after two years because of depleted funds. In 1879, he was able to return to Munich with means furnished by George Ehret, of New York, whose attention had been drawn to the young artists's ambition and capabilities. On his second trip, he studied under Ludwig Löfftz and Franz Defregger. His friendships with William Merritt Chase and Frank Duveneck date from this time. Koehler's work while in Munich won him silver and bronze awards from the Academy, and Bavaria's Cross of the Order of St. Michael. Koehler then set himself up as head of a private art school; pupils included Alfons Mucha. He began to exhibit in the National Academy, New York, in 1877. In 1885 he took charge of a private school of art in that city. He organized the American department of the international art exhibition at Munich in 1883, and was appointed by the Bavarian authorities to act in the same capacity in the exhibition of 1888. In 1892 Robert Koehler returned to New York City to work as a portrait artist. The following year he moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota, accepting an offer to be the director of the Minneapolis School of Fine Arts (now the Minneapolis College of Art and Design). Koehler was also involved with the establishment of Minneapolis' Museum of Fine Art, now the Minneapolis Institute of Arts. He was a pioneer of art instruction and appreciation in the region. Koehler was president of the Minnesota State Art Commission from 1903 to 1910, member of the Artists' League of Minneapolis, honorary member of the Minnesota State Art Society, honorary member of the Alumni Association of the Minneapolis School of Art, member of the Society of Western Artists, a lecturer on art history at the University of Minnesota, and member of the Institute des Beaux Arts et des Lettres of Paris, France. He received bronze and silver medals at the Munich Academy, honorable mention at the Paris World's Fair, 1889, bronze medal at the International Art Exhibition at Buenos Aires in 1910, and the cross of the Order of Saint Michael of Bavaria in 1888. Three notable paintings, "The Carpenter's Family," "At the Cafe," and his masterpiece "The Strike" were selected for display at the Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. Koehler continued working in Minneapolis, painting portraits and landscapes, teaching painting, and arranging exhibitions. He retired as director in 1914. He died in Minneapolis at age 66. Works Holy-day Occupation (1881, at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts) Her Only Support (1882) The Socialist (1883, at the Deutsches Historisches Museum in Berlin) The Strike (1886, at the Deutsches Historisches Museum in Berlin) At the Cafe (c. 1887, private collection) First Snow (c. 1895, private collection) Portrait of Alvina Roosen (c. 1900) The Old Sewing Machine (unknown date) Rainy Evening on Hennepin Avenue (c. 1902) Herbjørn Gausta (1915) Study Head (Minneapolis Institute of Arts) Violet (Minneapolis Athletic Club) Portrait of Dean Wulling (State University of Minnesota) The Carpenter's Family (collection of Mr. and Mrs. Daniel Elliot, Woodland Hills, CA) The Family Bible Salve Luna a portrait at the Alexandria, Minnesota public library portrait of Etta Chadbourn Ross at the Etta C. Ross Memorial Library Museum at Blue Earth, Minnesota Notes References External links Robert Koehler's The Strike 19th-century American painters American male painters 20th-century American painters German emigrants to the United States 19th-century German painters 19th-century male artists German male painters 20th-century German painters 20th-century male artists Artists from Milwaukee 1850 births 1917 deaths Burials at Lakewood Cemetery University School of Milwaukee alumni	[ 0.24149452149868011, 0.47586777806282043, -0.8387961983680725, -0.028212828561663628, 0.39846715331077576, 0.6713661551475525, 0.7079356908798218, -0.1360943764448166, -0.46125873923301697, -0.7800114750862122, -0.3073066174983978, -0.1774677336215973, -0.09281506389379501, 0.20579950511455536, -0.3913300633430481, -0.2629604637622833, -0.22937773168087006, 0.12589123845100403, -0.4107120633125305, -0.06558197736740112, -0.3457452058792114, -1.1826354265213013, 0.15686312317848206, -0.32436710596084595, 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231218	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capablanca%20chess	Capablanca chess	(or Capablanca's chess) is a chess variant invented in the 1920s by World Chess Champion José Raúl Capablanca. It incorporates two new pieces and is played on a 10×8 board. Capablanca believed that chess would be played out in a few decades (meaning games between grandmasters would always end in draws). This threat of "draw death" for chess was his main motivation for creating a more complex version of the game. The archbishop combines powers of a bishop and a knight. The chancellor combines powers of a rook and a knight. The new pieces allow new strategies and possibilities that change the game. For example, the archbishop by itself can checkmate a lone king in the corner (when placed diagonally with one square in between). Setup and rules Capablanca proposed two opening setups for . His final revision placed the archbishop between the and ; the chancellor between the and . The king moves three squares when castling instead of moving two squares as in standard chess. A pawn can promote to archbishop or chancellor in addition to the regular promotion options in standard chess. It is important to notice that, unlike orthodox chess, each king, instead of each queen, starts on a square of its own color (the white king on a light square; the black king on a dark square). Capablanca also experimented with a 10×10 board size with a different initial setup and where pawns could advance up to three squares on their first move. Edward Lasker wrote: ... I played many test games with Capablanca, and they rarely lasted more than twenty or twenty-five moves. We tried boards of 10×10 squares and 10×8 squares, and we concluded that the latter was preferable because hand-to-hand fights start earlier on it. Lasker was one of the few supporters. Hungarian grandmaster Géza Maróczy also played some games with Capablanca (who got the better of him). British champion William Winter thought that there were too many strong pieces, making the less relevant. The new piece names archbishop (originally named chancellor) and chancellor (originally named marshall, followed by marshal) were introduced by Capablanca himself. These names are still used in most modern variants of Capablanca Chess. Variants of Capablanca chess Predating Capablanca chess Capablanca was not the first person to add the archbishop and the chancellor to the normal chess set, though he is the most famous. Other attempts mostly differ only by the arrangement of pieces and the castling rules. In 1617, Pietro Carrera published a book Il Gioco degli Scacchi, which contained a description of a chess variant played on an 8×10 board. He placed new pieces between a rook and a knight. Archbishop was on the and chancellor on the . Carrera used the names Centauro (centaur) instead of archbishop, and Campione (champion) instead of chancellor. In 1874, Henry Bird proposed a chess variant similar to Carrera's variant. The only significant difference was the opening setup. The new pieces were now between the bishops and the royal pair, the archbishop close to the king, the chancellor close to the queen. The queen's bishop's pawn is not protected in the initial setup. Bird used the names equerry instead of archbishop, and guard instead of chancellor. Postdating Capablanca chess Capablanca chess has inspired a number of variants: Universal chess (1928) by Dr. Bruno Violet (on 10×10 board). He proposed two arrangements. Grand Chess (1984) by Christian Freeling Gothic chess (2000) by Edward A. Trice Aberg's variation (2003) by Hans Aberg Capablanca random chess (2004) by Reinhard Scharnagl Grotesque chess (2004) by Fergus Duniho Paulovich's variation (2004) by David Paulovich Ladorean chess (2005) by Bernhard U. Hermes Embassy chess (2005) by Kevin Hill Univers chess (2006) by Fergus Duniho Schoolbook chess (2006) by Sam Trenholme Victorian chess (2007) by John K. Lewis Modern Capablanca random chess (2008) by José Carrillo Several proposals postdating Capablanca chess were designed to use an initial arrangement where all pawns are protected by at least one piece. This has been the case with Universal chess, Grand chess, Gothic chess, Grotesque chess, Ladorean chess, Schoolbook chess as well as with Univers chess, which adopted the starting lineup of Universal chess and used it on a 10×8 board, and Embassy chess which uses a starting position identical to Grand Chess adapted to a 10×8 board. Aberg's variation has the same setup than the historic ancestor Carrera's chess. This because Aberg followed Murray's description which was wrong and thought to invent a new game by switching the archbishop and the chancellor. But doing so, he reached exactly the setup proposed by the 17th century Italian master. David Paulowich in 2004 proposed an arrangement that was included in ChessV as "Capablanca Chess, Paulowich Variant". John Kipling Lewis re-invented it independently in 2007, giving it the name of Victorian Chess. Therefore, they have an identical initial setup. Capablanca random chess combines ideas of Fischer random chess and Capablanca chess. It also applies the principle which demands that all pawns in the starting positions are protected by at least one piece. It has a rule like Fischer random chess that the bishops must start at opposite-colored squares and cannot start at neighboring squares, it also has a rule that the queen and the archbishop must start at opposite-colored squares, this excludes the variants 10 (the standard Capablanca chess), 8 and 6 in the table, but all other seven variants are included, there are totally 12118 starting positions. Using a different board There are also variants of Capablanca Chess that do not use the standard 10×8 board. Grand Chess is a popular variant invented by Dutch game designer Christian Freeling in 1984. It uses Capablanca Chess pieces upon a larger, 10×10 board. It makes a clever use of the larger than 10×8 board, giving a lot of early mobility to the rooks. All pawns are protected on the initial setup. In 2007 Grandmaster Yasser Seirawan devised a variant (called Seirawan chess), which adds the two pieces to the standard game with an 8×8 board in a different manner. The player, after moving a piece (for example, a bishop) from the first , may immediately place either of the two pieces on the bishop's square. If the player moves all his eight starting pieces without placing the hawk or the elephant (Seirawan's names for the archbishop and the chancellor, respectively), he forfeits his right to do so. Strategy H. G. Muller suggested the following estimated piece values: Programs that play Capablanca chess ChessV Fairy-Max Fairy Stockfish References Bibliography Further reading (extensive history) External links "Capablanca's chess" by Hans Bodlaender, The Chess Variant Pages Capablanca Chess a simple program by Ed Friedlander (Java) PyChess Website online play (real time with digital clocks) Board games introduced in the 1920s Chess variants	[ -0.5757496356964111, 0.25316470861434937, -0.06325368583202362, 0.0013931227149441838, 0.270529180765152, -0.04640008509159088, 0.04854954779148102, 0.2921130359172821, -0.36867910623550415, -0.17763951420783997, 0.5151941776275635, 0.039048146456480026, -0.6765570044517517, 0.3267018496990204, 0.004237716551870108, 0.41249555349349976, 0.612379252910614, -0.0015179269248619676, -0.33735471963882446, -0.5368254780769348, -0.17016498744487762, -0.14225046336650848, 0.4244908392429352, 0.19795432686805725, 0.05778445303440094, -0.17956988513469696, 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231223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susquehanna%20River	Susquehanna River	The Susquehanna River (; Lenape: Siskëwahane) is a major river located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, overlapping between the lower Northeast and the Upland South. At long, it is the longest river on the East Coast of the United States. By watershed area, it is the 16th-largest river in the United States, and also the longest river in the early 21st-century continental United States without commercial boat traffic. The Susquehanna River forms from two main branches: the North Branch, which rises in Cooperstown, New York, and is regarded by federal mapmakers as the main branch or headwaters, and the West Branch, which rises in western Pennsylvania and joins the main branch near Northumberland in central Pennsylvania. The river drains , including nearly half of the land area of Pennsylvania. The drainage basin includes portions of the Allegheny Plateau region of the Appalachian Mountains, cutting through a succession of water gaps in a broad zigzag course to flow across the rural heartland of southeastern Pennsylvania and northeastern Maryland in the lateral near-parallel array of mountain ridges. The river empties into the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay at Perryville and Havre de Grace, Maryland, providing half of the Bay's freshwater inflow. The bay lies in the flooded valley, or ria, of the Susquehanna. Geology The Susquehanna River is one of the oldest existing rivers in the world, being dated as 320–340 Mya, older than the mountain ridges through which it flows. These ridges resulted from the Alleghenian orogeny uplift events, when Africa (as part of Gondwana) slammed into the Northern part of EurAmerica. The Susquehanna basin reaches its ultimate outflow in the Chesapeake Bay. It was well established in the flat tidelands of eastern North America during the Mesozoic era about 252 to 66 million years ago. This is the same period when the Hudson, Delaware and Potomac rivers were established. Course Both branches and the lower Susquehanna were part of important regional transportation corridors. The river was extensively used for muscle-powered ferries, boats, and canal boat shipping of bulk goods in the brief decades before the Pennsylvania Canal System was eclipsed by the coming of age of steam-powered railways. While the railroad industry has been less prevalent since the closures and mergers of the 1950s–1960s, a wide-ranging rail transportation infrastructure still operates along the river's shores. North Branch Susquehanna Also called the Main Branch Susquehanna, the longer branch of the river rises at the outlet of Otsego Lake in Cooperstown, New York. From there, the north branch of the river runs west-southwest through rural farmland and dairy country, receiving the Unadilla River at Sidney. It dips south into Pennsylvania briefly to turn sharply 90 degrees west at Susquehanna and again 90 degrees north at Great Bend hooking back into New York. It receives the Chenango in downtown Binghamton. After meandering westwards, it turns south crossing the line again through the twin towns of Waverly, New York and Sayre, Pennsylvania and their large right bank railyard, once briefly holding the largest structure in the United States devoted to the maintenance and construction of railroad locomotives. A couple of miles south, in Athens Township, Pennsylvania, it receives the Chemung from the northwest. It makes a right-angle curve between Sayre and Towanda to cut through the Endless Mountains in the Allegheny Plateau of Pennsylvania. It receives the Lackawanna River southwest of Scranton and turns sharply to the southwest, flowing through the former anthracite industrial heartland in the mountain ridges of northeastern Pennsylvania, past Pittston City (Greater Pittston), Wilkes-Barre, Nanticoke, Shickshinny, Berwick, Bloomsburg, and Danville, before receiving the West Branch at Northumberland. West Branch Susquehanna The origin of the official West Branch is near Elmora, Pennsylvania, in northern Cambria County near the contemporary and US Route 219 (locally Plank Road). It travels northeasterly through the towns of Northern Cambria, Cherry Tree, Burnside, Mahaffey and Curwensville (where the river is dammed to form a lake), into and through Clearfield, where it receives Clearfield Creek. The West Branch turns to the southeast and passes Karthaus (at Mosquito Creek), Keating (at Sinnemahoning Creek), Renovo and Lock Haven, where it receives Bald Eagle Creek. It passes Williamsport, where both Lycoming Creek and Loyalsock Creek empty into it, then turns south, passing Lewisburg, before joining the North Branch flowing from the northwest at Northumberland. Main Susquehanna flow Downstream from the confluence of its branches in Northumberland, the river flows south past Selinsgrove, where it is joined by its Penns Creek tributary, and cuts through a water gap at the western end of Mahantongo Mountain. It receives the Juniata River from the northwest at Duncannon, then passes through its last water gap, the Susquehanna Gap through the Blue Mountain Ridge, just northwest of Harrisburg. Downtown Harrisburg developed on the east side of the river, which is nearly a mile wide here. Harrisburg is the largest city located on the lower river, which flows southeast across South Central Pennsylvania, forming the border between York and Lancaster counties, and receiving Swatara Creek from the northeast. It crosses into northern Maryland approximately northeast of Baltimore and is joined by Octoraro Creek from the northeast and Deer Creek from the northwest. The river enters the northern end of the Chesapeake Bay at Havre de Grace. Concord Point Light was built here in 1827 to accommodate the increasing navigational traffic. Etymology "Susquehanna" comes from the Lenape (Delaware) word siskëwahane meaning "Muddy River". Alternatively, it comes from the Len'api term Sisa'we'hak'hanna, which means "Oyster River." Oyster beds were widespread in the bay near the mouth of the river, which the Lenape farmed. They left oyster shell middens at their villages. The Len'api were an Algonquian-speaking Native American people who had communities ranging from coastal Connecticut through New York and Long Island, and further south into New Jersey and Delaware in the mid-Atlantic area. Their settlements in Pennsylvania included Con'esto'ga ("Roof-place" or "town," modern Washington Boro, Lancaster County), also called Ka'ot'sch'ie'ra ("Place-crawfish," modern Chickisalunga, Lancaster County), or Gasch'guch'sa ("Great-fall-in-river," modern Conewago Falls, Lancaster County). They were called Minquas ("quite different"), or Sisa'we'hak'hanna'lenno'wak ("Oyster-river-people") by others. The Len'api also called the area Sisa'we'hak'hanna'unk ("Oyster-river-place"). Peoples of the mid-Atlantic Coast included coastal peoples who spoke Algonquian languages, such as the Len'api (whose bands spoke three dialects of Lenape), and Iroquoian languages-speaking peoples of the interior, such as the Eroni and the Five Nations of the Iroquois League, or Haudenosaunee. The English of Pennsylvania referred to the Eroni people of Conestoga as "Susquehannocks" or "Susquehannock Indians," a name derived from the Lenape term. In addition, John Smith of Jamestown, Virginia, labeled their settlement as "Sasquesahanough" on his 1612 map when he explored the upper Chesapeake Bay area. In Virginia and other southern colonies, Siouan-speaking tribes constituted a third major language family, with their peoples occupying much of the middle areas of the interior. Iroquoian speakers, such as the Cherokee and Tuscarora peoples, generally occupied areas to the interior near the Piedmont and foothills. History In 1615, the river was traversed by the French explorer Etienne Brule. In the 1670s the Conestoga, or Susquehannock people, succumbed to Iroquois conquest by the powerful Five Nations of the Iroquois League based in present-day New York, who wanted to control the fur trade with Europeans. The Susquehannock assimilated with the Iroquois. In the aftermath, the Iroquois resettled some of the semi-tributary Lenape in this area, as it was near the western boundary of the Lenape's former territory, known as Lenapehoking. The Susquehanna River has continued to play an important role throughout the history of the United States. In the 18th century, William Penn, the founder of the Pennsylvania Colony, negotiated with the Lenape to allow white settlement in the area between the Delaware River and the Susquehanna, which was part of Lenape territory. In late colonial times, the river became an increasingly important transportation corridor, used to ship anthracite coal, discovered by Necho Allen, from its upper reaches in the mountains to the markets downriver. In 1779 during the American Revolutionary War, General James Clinton led an expedition down the Susquehanna from its headwaters. His party had made the upper portion navigable by damming the river's source at Otsego Lake, allowing the lake's level to rise, and then destroying the dam and flooding the river in order for his flotilla to travel for miles downstream. James Fenimore Cooper described this event in the introduction to his historical novel, The Pioneers (1823). At Athens, Pennsylvania, then known as Tioga or "Tioga Point", Clinton met with General John Sullivan and his forces, who had marched from Easton, Pennsylvania. Together on August 29, they defeated the Tories and warriors of allied Iroquois bands at the Battle of Newtown (near present-day Elmira, New York). This was part of what was known as the "Sullivan-Clinton Campaign" or the "Sullivan Expedition". They swept through western New York, dominated by the Seneca people, destroying more than 40 Seneca villages, as well as the stores of crops the people had set aside for winter. Many of the Iroquois left New York and went to Canada as refugees; casualties from exposure and starvation were high that winter. Following the United States gaining independence in the Revolutionary War, in 1790 Colonel Timothy Matlack, Samuel Maclay and John Adlum were commissioned by the Supreme Executive Council of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania to survey the headwaters of the Susquehanna river. They were to explore a route for a passage to connect the West Branch with the waters of the Allegheny River, which flowed to Pittsburgh and the Ohio River. In 1792, the Union Canal was proposed in order to link the Susquehanna and the Delaware rivers in Pennsylvania along Swatara and Tulpehocken creeks. In the 19th century, many industrial centers developed along the Susquehanna, using its water power to drive mills and coal machinery, to cool machines, and as a waterway for the transport of raw and manufactured goods. Based on colonial charters, both Pennsylvania and Connecticut claimed land in the Wyoming Valley along the Susquehanna. Connecticut founded Westmoreland County here and defended its claim in the Pennamite Wars. Under federal arbitration, eventually the state ceded this territory to Pennsylvania. In the 1790s English Lake Poets Robert Southey, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Lovell formulated the "Pantisocracy Plan" to marry three sisters and move to the banks of the Susquehanna River to start a socialist experiment. They made the marriages but Southey moved to Lisbon, Portugal to visit an uncle, and they abandoned the plan to move to the United States. In 1833 John B. Jervis began a canal system to extend the Chenango River and connect the waters of the Susquehanna from Chenango Point to the Erie Canal, which ran through the Mohawk Valley of New York, ultimately connecting with Lake Erie through the Wood Canal. In October 1836, water from the Susquehanna was connected to the Erie Canal at Utica, New York. Water travel was the main form of transportation during that era. The Erie Canal dramatically expanded trade between communities around the Great Lakes and markets in New York and Pennsylvania. With the expansion of construction of railroad lines, canal-transport became unprofitable, as it could not compete in speed or flexibility. Boats had to climb a net height of between basins, requiring the use of more than 100 water locks, which were too expensive to be maintained under the new competition. The Susquehanna River figures in the history of the Latter Day Saint movement. It holds that Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery received the priesthood from heavenly beings at a site along the Susquehanna and performed their first baptisms of Latter Day Saints in the North Branch of the river. Smith and Cowdery said that they were visited on May 15, 1829, by the resurrected John the Baptist and given the Aaronic priesthood. Following his visit, Smith and Cowdery baptized each other in the river. Later that year, they said they were visited near the river by the apostles Peter, James and John. Both events took place in unspecified locations near the river's shore in Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. During the Civil War's 1863 Gettysburg Campaign, Union Major General Darius N. Couch, commander of the Department of the Susquehanna, resolved that Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army of Northern Virginia would not cross the Susquehanna. He positioned militia units under Maj. Granville Haller to protect key bridges in Harrisburg and Wrightsville, as well as nearby fords. Confederate forces reached the river at several locations in Cumberland and York counties. In 1972 the remnants of Hurricane Agnes stalled over the New York-Pennsylvania border, dropping as much as of rain on the hilly lands. Much of that precipitation was received into the Susquehanna from its western tributaries, and the valley suffered disastrous flooding. Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, was among the hardest-hit communities and the capital Harrisburg was flooded. The Chesapeake Bay received so much fresh water that it altered the ecosystem, killing much of the marine life that depended on saltwater. The Mid-Atlantic Flood of June 2006, caused by a stalled jet stream-driven storm system, affected portions of the river system. The worst affected area was Binghamton, New York, where record-setting flood levels forced the evacuation of thousands of residents. In September 2011 the Susquehanna River and its communities were hit by Tropical Storm Lee, which caused the worst flooding since Agnes in 1972. Bridges, ferries, canals and dams The Susquehanna River is important in the transportation history of the United States. Before the Port Deposit Bridge opened in 1818, the river formed a barrier between the northern and southern states, as it could be crossed only by ferry. The earliest dams were constructed to support ferry operations in low water. The presence of many rapids in the river meant that while commercial traffic could navigate down the river in the high waters of the spring thaws, nothing could move up. The Susquehanna was improved by navigations throughout the 1820s and 1830s as the Pennsylvania Canal. Together with facilities of the Allegheny Portage Railroad, loaded barges were transferred from the canal and hoisted across the mountain ridge into the Pittsburgh area with access to the Monongahela, Allegheny Rivers and their confluence into the Ohio River flowing southwest towards the Mississippi River. The Union Canal was completed in 1828 to connect the Schuylkill River (flowing southeast towards the Delaware River at Philadelphia) at Reading westwards to the Susquehanna River above the state capital of Harrisburg. Competition from faster transport via the railroad industry by the 1850s resulted in reducing the reliance on the river for transport. Two canal systems were constructed on the lower Susquehanna to bypass the rapids. The first was the Susquehanna Canal, also called the Conowingo Canal or the Port Deposit Canal, completed in 1802 by a Maryland company known as the Proprietors of the Susquehanna Canal. The second was the much longer and more successful Susquehanna and Tidewater Canal. The canals required dams to provide canal water and navigation pools. As the industrial age progressed, bridges replaced ferries, and railroads replaced canals. The railroads were often constructed on top of the canal right-of-way along the river. Many canal remnants can be seen; for example, in Havre de Grace, Maryland, along US Route 15 in Pennsylvania, and in upstate New York at various locations. These latter remnants are parts of the upstream divisions of the Pennsylvania Canal, of privately funded canals, and of canals in the New York system. Today 200 bridges cross the Susquehanna. The Rockville Bridge, which crosses the river from Harrisburg to Marysville, Pennsylvania, is the longest stone masonry arch bridge in the world. It was built by the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1902, replacing an earlier iron bridge. Two seasonal ferries operate across the Susquehanna. The Millersburg Ferry at Millersburg, Pennsylvania, is a practical ferry for up to four vehicles and 50 passengers, while the Pride of the Susquehanna, based at Harrisburg, provides a passenger-only pleasure cruise. Most of the canals have been filled in or are partially preserved as a part of historical parks. Dams generally are used to generate power or to provide lakes for recreation. Environmental threats The environmental group American Rivers named the Susquehanna "America's Most Endangered River for 2005" because of the excessive pollution it receives. Most of the pollution in the river is caused by excess animal manure from farming, agricultural runoff, urban and suburban stormwater runoff, and raw or inadequately treated sewage. In 2003 the river contributed 50% of the freshwater, 44% of the nitrogen, 21% of the phosphorus, and 21% of the sediment flowing into the Chesapeake Bay. It was designated as one of the American Heritage Rivers in 1997. The designation provides for technical assistance from federal agencies to state and local governments working in the Susquehanna watershed. Another environmental concern is radioactivity released during the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. However, extensive radionuclide studies over a 25-year period from 1979 through 2003, confirm that the Three Mile Island accident has not resulted in any harmful radiation effects. The areas in and along a 262-km length of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania were monitored for the presence of radioactive materials. This study began two months after the 1979 Three Mile Island (TMI) partial reactor meltdown; it spanned the next 25 years. Monitoring points included stations at the PPL Susquehanna and TMI nuclear power plants. Monthly gamma measurements documented concentrations of radionuclides from natural and anthropogenic sources. During this study, various series of gamma-emitting radionuclide concentration measurements were made in many general categories of animals, plants, and other inorganic matter, both within and near the river. Sampling began in 1979 before the first start-up of the PPL Susquehanna power plant. Although all species were not continuously monitored for the entire period, an extensive database was compiled. In 1986, the ongoing measurements detected fallout from the Chernobyl nuclear accident. These data may be used in support of dose or environmental transport calculations. The remaining reactor at Three Mile Island Nuclear Generating Station was shut down in 2019. In 2015, a smallmouth bass with a rare, cancerous tumor was caught from the river, raising renewed concerns about toxic materials and water pollution. The Environmental Protection Agency reported, "we do not have sufficient data at this time to scientifically support listing the main stem of the Susquehanna as impaired." Recreation The Susquehanna River has attracted boaters who watch or fish for its migratory species. Many tourists and local residents use the Susquehanna in the summer for recreation purposes such as kayaking, canoeing, and motor-boating. Due to the high volume of Smallmouth bass in the river, it is the host of numerous bass fishing tournaments each year and is regarded by many as one of the premier bass fishing rivers in North America. Canoe races are held annually on various sections of the river, such as the amateur race held in Oneonta, New York. Susquehanna rowing and paddling have a long history. Starting in 1874, rowers from Shamokin Dam, Pennsylvania, raced men from Sunbury. The General Clinton Canoe Regatta, a flat-water race, takes place each year in Bainbridge, New York, on Memorial Day weekend. Binghamton University Crew and Hiawatha Island Boat Club are also located on the river, in the Southern Tier of New York. See also References Further reading External links U.S. Geological Survey: PA stream gaging stations Susquehanna River Basin Commission American Rivers article: Susquehanna River "Most Endangered" History of the Susquehanna River Ark Hiawatha Island Boat Club – Owego, NY Binghamton University Crew – Binghamton, NY Rivers of Otsego County, New York Rivers of Pennsylvania Rivers of Maryland Rivers of New York (state) American Heritage Rivers Tributaries of the Chesapeake Bay Environment of the Mid-Atlantic states Allegheny Plateau Rivers of Broome County, New York Rivers of York County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Dauphin County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Cumberland County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Perry County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Juniata County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Snyder County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Northumberland County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Montour County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Luzerne County, 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231224	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detasheet	Detasheet	Detasheet is a flexible rubberized explosive, somewhat similar to plastic explosives, originally manufactured by DuPont. Its ingredients are PETN with nitrocellulose and a binder. Properties It was manufactured in thin flexible sheets with a rubbery texture, technically known as a rubberized explosive and is generally colored either reddish/orange (commercial) or green (military). In use, it is typically cut to shape for precision engineering charges. Compared to other explosives detasheet is very stable. It is detonated with a blasting cap or primercord but not by small-arms fire, heat, water, pressure, or concussion. Detasheet is relatively expensive compared to other explosives. Ingredients Detasheet C, the last and most common version produced, was made up of 63% PETN, 8% nitrocellulose, and 29% acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), an organic plasticizer. Production status DuPont ceased manufacturing explosives in the 1990s and the trademark is now owned by Ensign-Bickford Aerospace and Defense Company, which now sells a very similar explosive sheet called Primasheet. Deta Flex A military variant of Detasheet, called Deta Flex, was manufactured in a single thickness (0.25 inch (6.25 mm)) and olive green colored. Deta Flex contains a higher percentage of PETN (70%). LX-02-1 A version of Deta Flex is manufactured for Department of Energy research purposes, colored blue and manufactured in various thicknesses. LX-02-1 contains 73.5% PETN, 17.6% butyl rubber, 6.9% ATBC, and 2.0% Cab-o-sil. See also Rubberized explosives References Explosives Rubberized explosives	[ 0.26977765560150146, 0.31904757022857666, -0.369096040725708, 0.3846045136451721, -0.2636137306690216, -0.3151032328605652, 0.1535305231809616, 0.13081112504005432, 0.3151772916316986, 0.33230358362197876, -0.7092999815940857, 0.8804745674133301, -0.13141170144081116, 0.1306583285331726, -0.029082203283905983, 0.1362648606300354, -0.023209495469927788, 0.2049061805009842, 0.08543820679187775, -0.13828010857105255, -0.05441337451338768, -0.506321907043457, 0.3489014506340027, -0.25554895401000977, 0.7761996388435364, 0.361755907535553, 0.06846704334020615, 0.24403022229671478, -0.4270568788051605, 0.3817482590675354, -0.00535538699477911, 0.5812058448791504, -0.33063235878944397, -0.2821410000324249, 0.4246092438697815, 0.6208299398422241, -0.5410069823265076, 0.194170281291008, -0.10960927605628967, -0.9643348455429077, 0.09600235521793365, 0.2573833167552948, -0.24175554513931274, 0.22583553194999695, 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231225	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Wood	Holy Wood	Holy Wood or Holywood may refer to: Places Holywood, a town and townland in County Down, Northern Ireland Holywood (civil parish), a civil parish in County Down, Northern Ireland Holywood, Dumfries and Galloway, a village and civil parish in south west Scotland Arts Holy Wood (novel), an unpublished novel by Marilyn Manson Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death), a 2000 album by Marilyn Manson Holy Wood, a fictional location in the 1990 DiscWorld novel Moving Pictures by Terry Pratchett Other Christopher Holywood (1559–1626), 17th-century Jesuit Guaiacum sanctum, commonly known as Holywood or Holywood Lignum-vitae See also Palo santo (disambiguation), (Spanish: holy wood) Wood (disambiguation) Holy (disambiguation)	[ 0.39481058716773987, 0.7855081558227539, -0.17720238864421844, -0.12184415012598038, 0.4613668620586395, 0.5870563983917236, 0.5008257627487183, 0.24891270697116852, -0.43366682529449463, 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231234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Wood%20%28In%20the%20Shadow%20of%20the%20Valley%20of%20Death%29	Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death)	Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) is the fourth studio album by American rock band Marilyn Manson. It was released on November 11, 2000, by Nothing and Interscope Records. A rock opera concept album, it is the final installment of a triptych that also included Antichrist Superstar (1996), and marked a return to the industrial metal style of the band's earlier work, after the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals (1998). After its release, the band's eponymous vocalist said that the overarching story within the trilogy is presented in reverse chronological order: Holy Wood, therefore, begins the narrative. In the aftermath of the Columbine High School massacre on April 20, 1999, national news media reported that the perpetrators were wearing the band's T-shirts during the rampage, and had been influenced by their music. As their first release after the massacre, the record was Manson's rebuttal to the accusations leveled against him and the group, and was described by the vocalist as a "declaration of war". It was written in the singer's former home in the Hollywood Hills and recorded in several undisclosed locations, including Death Valley and Laurel Canyon. His ambitions for Holy Wood initially included an eponymous film exploring its backstory—a project which has since been abandoned and was modified into the as-yet-unreleased Holy Wood novel. The album was released to generally positive reviews. Several writers praised it as the band's finest work, and multiple publications ranked it as one of the best albums of 2000. British rock magazine Kerrang! went on to include it on its list of the best albums of the decade. In the US, Holy Wood was not as commercially successful as the band's preceding records, debuting at number 13 on the Billboard 200. However, it became their most successful album internationally, debuting in the top twenty of numerous national charts. It was certified gold in several countries, including Canada, Japan, Switzerland and the UK. Three singles were released from the record: "Disposable Teens", "The Fight Song" and "The Nobodies", and the band embarked on the worldwide Guns, God and Government Tour. In 2010, Kerrang! published a 10th-anniversary commemorative piece in which they called the album "Manson's finest hour ... A decade on, there has still not been as eloquent and savage a musical attack on the media and mainstream culture ... [It is] still scathingly relevant [and] a credit to a man who refused to sit and take it, but instead come out swinging." Background and development In the late 1990s, Marilyn Manson and his eponymous band established themselves as a household name, and as one of the most controversial rock acts in music history. Their albums Antichrist Superstar (1996) and Mechanical Animals (1998) were both critical and commercial successes, and by the time of their Rock Is Dead Tour in 1999, the frontman had become a culture war iconoclast and a rallying icon for alienated youth. As their popularity increased, the confrontational nature of the group's music and imagery outraged social conservatives. Numerous politicians lobbied to have their performances banned, citing false and exaggerated claims that they contained animal sacrifices, bestiality and rape. Their concerts were routinely picketed by religious advocates and parent groups, who asserted that their music had a corrupting influence on youth culture by inciting "rape, murder, blasphemy and suicide". On April 20, 1999, Columbine High School students Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold shot dead 12 students and a teacher and wounded 21 others, before committing suicide. In the aftermath of the school shooting, the band were widely reported to have influenced the killings; early media reports alleged that the shooters were fans, and were wearing the group's T-shirts during the massacre. Although these claims were later proven to be false, speculation in national media and among the public continued to blame Manson's music and imagery for inciting Harris and Klebold. Later reports revealed that the two were not fans—and, on the contrary, had disliked the band's music. Despite this, Marilyn Manson (as well as other bands and forms of entertainment, such as movies and video games) were widely criticized by religious, political, and entertainment-industry figures. Under mounting pressure in the days after Columbine, the group postponed their last five North American tour dates out of respect for the victims and their families. On April 29, ten US senators (led by Sam Brownback of Kansas) sent a letter to Edgar Bronfman Jr. – the president of Seagram (the owner of Interscope) – requesting a voluntary halt to his company's distribution to children of "music that glorifies violence". The letter named Marilyn Manson for producing songs which "eerily reflect" the actions of Harris and Klebold. Later that day, the band cancelled their remaining North American shows. Two days later, Manson published his response to these accusations in an op-ed piece for Rolling Stone, titled "Columbine: Whose Fault Is It?", where he castigated America's gun culture, the political influence of the National Rifle Association, and the media's irresponsible coverage, which he said facilitated the placing of blame on a scapegoat, instead of debating more relevant societal issues. On May 4, a hearing on the marketing and distribution of violent content to minors by the television, music, film and video-game industries was held by the United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and Transportation. The committee heard testimony from former Secretary of Education (and co-founder of conservative violent entertainment watchdog group Empower America) William Bennett, the Archbishop of Denver Charles J. Chaput, professors and mental-health professionals. Speakers criticized the band, its label-mate Nine Inch Nails, and the 1999 film The Matrix for their alleged contribution to a cultural environment enabling violence such as the Columbine shootings. The committee requested that the Federal Trade Commission and the United States Department of Justice investigate the entertainment industry's marketing practices to minors. After concluding the European and Japanese legs of their tour on August 8, the band withdrew from public view. The early development of Holy Wood coincided with Manson's three-month seclusion at his home in the Hollywood Hills, during which he considered how to respond to the controversy. Manson said the maelstrom made him re-evaluate his career: "There was a bit of trepidation, [in] deciding: 'Is it worth it? Are people understanding what I'm trying to say? Am I even gonna be allowed to say it?' Because I definitely had every single door shut in my face ... there were not a lot of people who stood behind me." He told Alternative Press that he felt his safety was threatened to the point that he "could be shot Mark David Chapman-style." He began work on the album as a counterattack. Recording and production Several of the tracks that appear on Holy Wood date back to 1995, prior to the release of Antichrist Superstar, although much of this material consisted of "scattered ideas". Manson, the band's vocalist, developed this material into more substantial compositions during his three-month period of seclusion. Following this, the full band worked for a year on re-writing and developing the material. The record is the group's most collaborative effort to date; all members contributed to the songwriting process. Most of the compositional work was done by Manson alongside guitarists Twiggy Ramirez and John 5. The vocalist contrasted his songwriting sessions between the two, calling sessions with the latter "very focused", saying that most of their compositions would be completed before being taken to the rest of the band for consideration. In contrast, his sessions with Ramirez were less demanding, and the pair frequently experimented with absinthe. Drummer Ginger Fish worked constantly on new material, and is credited with performing keyboards and programming, while keyboardist Madonna Wayne Gacy provided input on "President Dead" and "Cruci-Fiction in Space". Altogether, the band wrote 100 musical fragments, of which between 25 and 30 became songs. Band members maintained a low profile during the album's recording. Manson indicated that their website would be their "only contact with humanity" during this period. The album was recorded at several locations, including Death Valley, Manson's home in the Hollywood Hills, and Rick Rubin's Mansion Studio in Laurel Canyon. Locations were chosen for the atmosphere they were intended to impart to the music, and the band visited Death Valley a number of times to "imprint the feeling of the desert into [their] minds", and to avoid composing artificial-sounding songs. Manson co-produced the album alongside mixing engineer Dave Sardy, while Bon Harris of electronic body music group Nitzer Ebb is credited with programming and pre-production editing. Experimental sound effects and acoustic songs were recorded using live instrumentation. Harris' programming skills would prove invaluable during the recording process, as he would take the natural sounds the band had been recording and reconstruct them into processed background effects. Manson also explained that the acoustic songs were "acoustic" in the sense that they were not recorded with electronic instruments, but he said the album's sonic landscape would be "intrinsically electronic". Manson announced on December 16, 1999, that the album was progressing under the working title In the Shadow of the Valley of Death, and that its logo would be the alchemical symbol for mercury. Expanding on the symbol's relationship to the album's concept, Manson said "It represents both the androgyne and the prima materia, which has been associated with Adam, the first man." The band spent considerable time at the Mansion Studio, where the bulk of Ginger Fish's live drumming would be recorded, with its cavernous rooms particularly suitable for recording percussion. On February 23, 2000, Manson delivered a 20-minute lecture via satellite to a current-events convention, "DisinfoCon 2000", aimed at exposing disinformation wherein he posed the question, "White teenagers, why are they mad? They’re white. They’re spoiled. Is it because they know that America’s a lie? ... Is adult entertainment killing our children? Or is killing our children entertaining adults?" Six days later, it was announced that their upcoming album had been re-titled Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death). By April, the album was in the final stages of recording, and Manson began posting footage of the band from the studio. Novel and film Manson's ambitions for the project initially included an eponymous film exploring the album's backstory. In July 1999, he had reportedly begun negotiating with New Line Cinema to produce and distribute the film and its soundtrack. At the 1999 MTV Europe Music Awards in Dublin (where the band performed on November 11), he disclosed the film's title and his production plans. Manson met Chilean avant-garde filmmaker Alejandro Jodorowsky at the event to discuss work on the film, although no final decision was made. By February 29, 2000, the deal fell through when Manson had reservations that New Line Cinema would take the film in a direction which would not have "retained his artistic vision". Abandoning his attempt to bring Holy Wood to the screen, Manson announced plans to publish two books accompanying the album. The first was a "graphic and phantasmagoric" novel intended for release shortly after the album by ReganBooks (a division of HarperCollins). The novel's style was inspired by William S. Burroughs, Kurt Vonnegut, Aldous Huxley and Philip K. Dick, and would be followed by a coffee table book of images created for the project. In a December 2000 interview with Manson, novelist Chuck Palahniuk mentioned the Holy Wood novel (due for release in spring 2001) and complimented its style. Neither book has been released, reportedly due to a publishing dispute. Concept and themes Manson described Holy Wood as a "declaration of war." The album's plot is a parable, which he told Rolling Stone was semi-autobiographical. While it can be viewed on several levels, he said its simplest interpretation is to see it as a story about an idealistic man whose revolution is commercialized, leading him to "destroy the thing he has created, which is himself." It takes place in a thinly-veiled satire of modern America called "Holy Wood", which Manson described as a Disney-esque city-sized amusement park where the main attractions are death and violence, and where consumerism is taken to hyperbolic extreme. Its literary foil is "Death Valley", which is used as a "metaphor for the outcast and the imperfect of the world." The central character is the protagonist Adam Kadmon—a name derived from the Kabbalah which means "original man". The story follows him as he goes in search of a better life out of Death Valley and into Holy Wood. Disenchanted by what he finds, he fashions a counterculture revolution, only to have it usurped and co-opted by Holy Wood's consumer culture, and he finds himself appropriated as a figure of Holy Wood's ideology of "Celebritarianism": an ideology in which fame is the primary moral value of a religion deeply rooted in celebrity worship and martyrdom; where dead celebrities are revered as saints, and John F. Kennedy is idolized as the contemporary Jesus Christ. Holy Wood's religion parallels Christianity, in that it juxtaposes the dead-celebrity phenomenon in American culture with the crucifixion of Jesus. The phrase "guns, god and government" is repeated multiple times throughout the album. It is suggested that these are the root cause of violence, and the album examines the role conservative American culture supposedly played in the Columbine massacre: specifically, what Manson perceived as its advocacy of gun culture, the inadequacies of traditional family values, the American inclination toward war-mongering solely for profit, and the Christian right's proclivity for moral panic. This glorification of violence within mainstream American culture is the central theme of the record. A substantive portion of the record analyzes the cultural role of Jesus Christ, specifically Manson's view that the image of his crucifixion was the origin of celebrity. Manson said that while his previous work argued against the Bible's content, for the purpose of Holy Wood, he instead looked for things in the Bible to which he could relate. He developed an opinion that Christ was a revolutionary figure—a person who was killed for having dangerous opinions, and whose image was later exploited and merchandised for financial gain in the name of free market capitalism. Christ's death is also compared to Abraham Zapruder's film of the assassination of John F. Kennedy, which Manson called "the only thing that's happened in modern times to equal the crucifixion." He watched the clip many times as a child, and said it was the most violent thing he had ever seen. John Lennon is also referred to on the album as an assassinated icon murdered by a born-again Christian, Mark David Chapman, who was incensed by Lennon's "more popular than Jesus" remark. While recording Holy Wood, Manson was drawn to The Beatles' 1968 White Album, due to its alleged role in inspiring the Charles Manson "Family" murders, and the parallels he observed between that incident and Columbine, saying: "To my knowledge, it's the first rock n' roll record that's been blamed and linked to violence. When you've got "Helter Skelter" [taken from the Beatles song of the same name] written in blood on someone's wall, it's a little more damning than anything I've been blamed for." Composition and style The record is primarily an industrial metal album, although it has also been described as hard rock, and gothic rock. The vocalist claimed in a pre-release interview with Kerrang! that the album would contain some of the heaviest material the band had recorded to date. Holy Wood combines the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals with the industrial rock soundscape of the band's earlier work. He also called the record "arrogant, in an art rock sense" and said that, as a result of the lyrical content, most of the songs contained three or four distinct parts, although the band took great care to avoid being "self-indulgent". He also said that the record was intended to be the "industrial White Album", and that he wrote Holy Wood in the same house where The Rolling Stones wrote their 1970 single "Let It Bleed"—another source of inspiration. Like Antichrist Superstar before it, Holy Wood uses a song cycle structure, dividing the album into four movements. These movements are titled A: In the Shadow, D: The Androgyne, A: Of Red Earth, and M: The Fallen. Manson described the record as "the final piece of a triptych that I began with Antichrist Superstar." Despite being the last of the three albums to be released, Manson explained that the triptych's storyline takes place in reverse chronological order; Holy Wood began the story, and Mechanical Animals and Antichrist Superstar were sequels. The storyline unfolds in a multi-tiered series of metaphors and allusions; for example, the album's title refers not only to the Hollywood Sign, but also to "the tree of knowledge that Adam took the first fruit from when he fell out of paradise, the wood that Christ was crucified on, the wood that [Lee Harvey] Oswald's rifle is made from, and the wood that so many coffins are made of." A: In the Shadow "GodEatGod" is the first song on the record. It opens with the sound of a focal-plane shutter in slow-motion capturing gunshots ringing in the background amid screaming onlookers before transitioning into the song. The song is driven by keyboards, synthesizers and a synth bass. "The Love Song" was described by Manson as about "America's romance with guns", and its title originated from his observation that "Love Song" is one of the most common titles in music. The lyrics are composed around an elaborate metaphor about guns. Manson explained: "I was suggesting with the lyrics that the father is the hand, the mother is the gun, and the children are the bullets. Where you shoot them is your responsibility as parents." The chorus is a rhetorical take on a popular American bumper sticker: "Do you love your God, gun, government?" Kerrang! described "The Fight Song" as a "playground punk anthem", and Manson revealed that its theme is Adam's desire to be a part of Holy Wood, saying that it is about "a person who's grown up all his life thinking that the grass is greener on the other side, but when he finally [gets there], he realizes that it's worse than where he came from." "Disposable Teens" is a "signature Marilyn Manson song" with a bouncing guitar riff composed of staccato articulation. Its lyrics juxtapose the disenfranchisement of contemporary millennial youth with the revolutionary idealism of their baby boomer parents' generation. The Beatles' influence is evident in this song; the chorus echoes the disillusionment of the White Album "Revolution 1". D: The Androgyne Manson singled out "Target Audience (Narcissus Narcosis)" as his favorite song on the album and said that it describes every person's desire for self-actualization. The song features an optigan and is propelled by flanged arpeggiated chords, building into heavy guitar chugs and string bending during the chorus. Drowned In Sound described the song as "a shining moment" on the record. "President Dead" is a guitar-driven song showcasing John 5's technical skills and writing credits from John 5, Twiggy Ramirez, and Madonna Wayne Gacy. Manson also plays a mellotron. It opens with a sample of Don Gardiner's ABC News Radio broadcast announcing the death of John F. Kennedy. The song is 3:13 long, which is a deliberate numerological reference to frame 313 of the Zapruder film—the frame displaying the moment of impact of the fatal head shot which killed Kennedy. "In the Shadow of the Valley of Death" is an introspective song with Adam at his most emotionally vulnerable. The song is divided into two parts. The first portion consists of samples and a 'death loop' over a simple strum from John 5's 1952 Gibson acoustic guitar that make way for a bass guitar and drums over plucked chords in the second portion. "Cruci-Fiction in Space" further explores American gun culture, postulating that Americans took an alternate evolutionary path; from monkeys to men to firearms. Its composition is slow but heavy—bereft of "speed or intricacy." It has a mixed meter drum beat middle 8 in 4/4 time with two additional eighth notes at the end; "it doesn't start in 4/4, it doesn't end in 4/4, so it's confusing." "A Place in the Dirt" is another personal song, characterized by Adam's self-analysis of his place in Holy Wood. A: Of Red Earth "The Nobodies" is a mournful, elegiac dirge constructed over a clavecin électrique and synthesized-drums. Its title is taken from a quote by Mark David Chapman. The verse "Today I am dirty and I want to be pretty, tomorrow I'll know that I'm just dirt" has an Iggy Pop-style vocal delivery, building to the "adrenaline-fueled" chorus. CMJ noted that the song could be interpreted as a tribute to the Columbine shooters, but its point was not to glorify violence; rather, it was to depict a society drenched in its children's blood. "The Death Song" is the turning point for Adam; he no longer cares. Manson described it as sarcastic and nihilistic: "it's like 'We have no future and we don't give a fuck'." Kerrang! described it as one of the album's heaviest songs. The bridge of "Lamb of God" paraphrases the chorus of "Across the Universe" (from 1970's Let It Be), whose lyric "Nothing's gonna change my world" inspired the song. Manson elaborated that: "Mark David Chapman came along and proved him very wrong. That was always something growing up that was very sad and tragic to me". The song uses the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and John Lennon to criticize the media's veneration of death, and for turning tragedy into televised spectacle. It is keyboard-heavy and feature a variety of instrumentation ranging from a piano, a minipiano, a leslie speaker, and multiple synthesizers. Unusual recording techniques were employed for its rhythm and acoustic guitar parts. "Born Again" is the second song on the record to use the synth bass and is the only other song, apart from "The Nobodies", to use the drum machine. The song's guitar tracks were led by Ramirez and supplemented by contributions from John 5. "Burning Flag" is a pounding heavy-metal song reminiscent of American industrial metal band Ministry. M: The Fallen Ramirez and John 5 collaborated on the guitar compositions for "Coma Black"; the song alternates between Ramirez's "warped guitar" and the phaze guitar employed by John 5, with Manson providing additional rhythm guitar support. The album ends with an interlocking group of songs: "Valentine's Day", "The Fall of Adam", "King Kill 33°" and "Count to Six and Die (The Vacuum of Infinite Space Encompassing)" each end abruptly before being instantaneously followed by the introduction of the proceeding track. "Valentine's Day" was composed by Ramirez and Manson and feature Gacy playing the mellotron—the second time the eccentric instrument appears on the record. John 5 recorded guitar parts for "The Fall of Adam" in the pouring rain in an effort to extract a unique sound and deliberately mistuned his Gibson for the song's intro to "produce a sweeter sound." Bon Harris contributed the piano work for the final song "Count to Six and Die (The Vacuum of Infinite Space Encompassing)" while Gacy exchanged his mellotron for this track in favor of a string synthesizer. It concludes on a cliffhanger; it ends with the sound of a solitary bullet being loaded into a revolver against a background of distant fireworks followed by the chamber being spun repeatedly. Its hammer is cocked six times, although its trigger is pulled only five times. The result of the sixth and final chamber is left for the listener to determine. Release and artwork Manson posted a four-minute video clip on the band's website on December 16, 1999, featuring clips of two previously unreleased songs. The first clip was of a rock song which later became "Disposable Teens", while the second was a rough demo of a cover of Frankie Laine and Jimmy Boyd's 1953 single "The Little Boy and the Old Man" (composed by Wayne Shanklin a year earlier as "Little Child"; it was most popularly performed under the title "Mommy Dear" in the 1964 movie The Naked Kiss). As a Valentine's Day gift for fans, Manson posted a download of the band's cover of Charles Manson's "Sick City", from his 1970 album Lie: The Love and Terror Cult. In August, he announced an October 24 release date for the record, and posted a partial track listing containing 13 song titles, while also indicating that their website would be updated weekly. Within three weeks, the album's full track listing had been revealed, and sound files of "Burning Flag", "Cruci-Fiction in Space" and "The Love Song" had been released for free download, along with the cover of the Holy Wood novel. On September 18, Manson announced that the album's US release would be postponed until November 14 (to fine-tune the final mix), and that its first single would be "Disposable Teens". The album was released on three formats on November 13 in the UK by Nothing and Interscope Records. Versions of the enhanced CD edition released in the UK featured an acoustic version of "The Nobodies" as a bonus track, while Japanese editions also included a live version of "Mechanical Animals". The album was released on double-LP and cassette. Universal Music Japan released a remastered version of the album on Super High Material CD (SHM-CD) on March 23, 2013. Artwork for the album was designed by Manson and P. R. Brown. Manson began conceptualizing it as he wrote the songs, and Brown and Manson worked in tandem to realize the imagery after deciding to do the work themselves. The cover art, which portrays Manson as a crucified Christ with his jawbone torn off, is intended as a criticism of censorship and America's obsession with martyrs. It is a cropped reinterpretation of The Hanged Man Tarot card. Underneath is an obscured portion of John F. Kennedy's coroner report, displaying the words "clinical record" and "autopsy". The typeface used on the band's name is the same font used on the Disney World logo in the 1960s. The cover was controversial; editions of the album sold at Circuit City came housed in a cardboard sleeve featuring an alternative cover, while Walmart and Kmart refused to stock the album at all. A pastor in Memphis, Tennessee threatened to go on a hunger strike unless the album was pulled from shelves. Manson described these actions as attempts at censorship: "The irony is that my point of the photo on the album was to show people that the crucifixion of Christ is, indeed, a violent image. My jaw is missing as a symbol of this very kind of censorship. This doesn't piss me off as much as it pleases me, because those offended by my album cover have successfully proven my point." In 2008, Gigwise ranked it at number ten on their list of "The 50 Most Controversial Album Covers of All Time". A set of fourteen redesigned Major Arcana tarot cards, based on the Rider–Waite deck, were commissioned by the singer for the album's artwork. The cards depict band members in surrealistic tableau. Each card was reinterpreted to reflect the iconography of the album's lyrical content: The Fool is stepping off a cliff, with grainy images of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and a JFK campaign poster in the background; The Emperor, with prosthetic legs, is sitting in a wheelchair clutching a rifle in front of an American flag; Justice weighs the Bible against the brain on his balance scale. The album's inner sleeve contains these three images, along with a further nine: The Magician, The High Priestess, The Hierophant, The Hermit, Death, The Devil, The Tower, The Star and The World. The cover itself represents The Hanged Man. Promotion and singles Three singles were released to promote the album, with "Disposable Teens" being released as its lead single. The band made their debut appearance on BBC One's Top of the Pops to perform the song. Its music video was directed by Samuel Bayer, which debuted on MTV's Total Request Live on October 25. The single was released in the UK on November 6, and featured several B-sides, including covers of Lennon's "Working Class Hero" and The Doors' "Five to One", as well as original tracks "Diamonds & Pollen" and "Astonishing Panorama of the Endtimes". The latter had been released the previous year on the soundtrack to Celebrity Deathmatch. The band performed "Disposable Teens" on the MTV New Year's Eve celebration in 2000, along with a cover of Cheap Trick's "Surrender". It was also performed at the 2001 American Music Awards. From November 1, the UK division of Interscope held a contest to promote the album. The contest invited fans to log onto the band's website daily to pick up a series of coded clues which led to a hidden message. Fans who solved the riddle received an exclusive download, and were entered into a drawing for a one-week trip for two to meet the band in Hollywood. On November 14, the band took a break from the Guns, God and Government Tour to celebrate the album's US release date with a brief, invitation-only acoustic set at the Saci nightclub in New York City. Tickets for the show were given out via their website, in radio contests, and to the first 100 album buyers at Tower Records on Broadway in New York. The set consisted of four songs, including their cover "Suicide Is Painless" – the theme of the film (and TV series) MAS*H – which they had recently contributed to the soundtrack of Book of Shadows: Blair Witch 2. The following day, the vocalist appeared on Total Request Live in a segment entitled "Mothers Against Marilyn Manson". "The Fight Song" was released as the album's second single on February 19, 2001, in the UK. A remix of the song by Joey Jordison of Slipknot appeared as its B-side. Its music video was directed by Manson and W.I.Z. and sparked controversy for its violent depiction of an American football game between jocks and goths, with NME accusing it of being exploitative of the Columbine tragedy. Manson dismissed the claims as hype, and said: "I'm trying to show that sports as well as music can be seen as violent, so I chose a traditional black vs white, good vs evil theme for the video." Manson appeared on an April 2001 episode of The O'Reilly Factor, where he once again denied that the band's music was responsible for Columbine. Bill O'Reilly argued that "disturbed kids" without direction from responsible parents could misinterpret the message of his music as endorsing the belief that "when I'm dead [then] everybody's going to know me." Manson responded: In mid-2001, Universal Music Group was criticized for airing commercials promoting the album during episodes of Total Request Live. Manson suspected that former Democratic vice-presidential candidate Joseph Lieberman played a role in the criticism. Lieberman and Hillary Clinton had recently introduced the Media Marketing Accountability Act of 2001 before the 107th United States Congress. This legislation proposed to ban the entertainment-industry from marketing suspected violent or explicit material to minors. Manson announced prior to the release of "The Fight Song" that "The Nobodies" would be issued as the album's third single, whilst indicating a desire to film its video in Russia because "the atmosphere, the desolation, the coldness and the architecture would really suit the song." Another early plan was to incorporate the MTV series Jackass, as the song was included in the show's soundtrack. The idea was later abandoned, however, when the show drew the ire of Lieberman. The music video was directed by Paul Fedor and premiered on MTV in June, and the single was released in the UK on September 3. Its release was timed to coincide with the band's appearance at the Reading Festival, and was accompanied by another competition on the band's website—the winner was awarded two full-weekend passes to the festival, as well as unrestricted backstage access and a private sleeping area. A remix of the song later appeared in the 2001 Johnny Depp film From Hell. Tour The album was promoted by the worldwide Guns, God and Government Tour, which began in North America in 3–6,000-capacity venues on October 27, 2000, at the Orpheum Theatre in Minneapolis. Typically for the band, the concerts were highly theatrical. The tour's imagery was mainly derived from the concept and themes found on the album; its logo was a rifle, with handguns arranged to resemble the Christian cross. Sets were designed with communist, religious and "celebritarian" imagery. Manson had a number of costume changes during each show: a bishop's dalmatic and mitre (often confused with papal regalia); a costume made from animals (including epaulettes made from a horse's tail and a shirt made from skinned goat heads and ostrich spines); his signature black leather corset, g-string and garter stockings; an elaborate Roman legionary-style imperial galea; an Allgemeine SS-style peaked police cap; a black-and-white fur coat, and a large conical skirt which lifted him in the air. The Ozzfest leg of the tour marked the band's first performance in Denver, Colorado (on June 22, 2001, at Mile High Stadium) after the Columbine High School massacre in Littleton. After initially canceling due to a scheduling conflict, the band changed their plans to play the Denver date. The group's decision met resistance from conservative groups; Manson received death threats and demands to cancel the band's performance. A group of church leaders, businesses and families related to Columbine formed an ad hoc organization opposing the show. Citizens for Peace and Respect, which was supported by Colorado governor Bill Owens and representative Tom Tancredo, claimed on their website that the band "promotes hate, violence, death, suicide, drug use, and the attitudes and actions of the Columbine killers". In response, Manson issued a statement: Two films of the concert tour were made. The Guns, God and Government DVD was released on October 29, 2002, by Eagle Rock Entertainment, and featured live footage taken from several different performances in Los Angeles, Russia, Japan, and throughout Europe. It also included a 30-minute behind-the-scenes featurette, The Death Parade, with guest appearances from Ozzy Osbourne and Eminem. This was followed seven years later by a Blu-ray titled Guns, God and Government – Live in L.A. Released by Eagle Rock on November 17, 2009, it depicts the band's entire sixteen-song set from their January 13, 2001, performance at the Grand Olympic Auditorium—the final headlining show of the North American leg of the tour. Critical reception Holy Wood received generally positive reviews from music critics at the time of its release. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72 based on 14 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews", and is the 88th best-reviewed album of the year. The record was praised by several publications as being the band's finest work: Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic described it as their definitive record; a writer for Entertainment Weekly called it their "most potent effort yet", and April Long of NME said it was "by far the best thing Manson has ever set his warped mind to, [it] ultimately inspires something far more potent than fear or hatred—respect." The band received acclaim for the quality of their songwriting. Daniel Durchholz of Wall of Sound called Holy Wood their most ambitious and musically accomplished record to date. LA Weekly said that "almost all [of the songs] contain a double-take chord change or a textural overdose or a mind-blowing bridge, and they'll be terroristic in concert." Hot Press praised the band for their inventive musical arrangements, and said that "Holy Wood is a far better record than many would have dared to expect." Drowned in Sound rated the album 10 out of 10 and praised the band's performance, saying that they "play tighter than [ever] before (looking at the credits show it to be much more of a team effort) ... and, musically, it has a lot more variation and scope than the Limp Bizkits of the world." The band's vocalist was also applauded for his lyricism; Barry Walters of Rolling Stone commended him for "addressing real-life issues with a theatrical verve and genuine vitriol that no other mainstream act can match." Billboard magazine was similarly impressed, calling Manson one of the most skilled lyricists of his generation. Revolver editor Christopher Scapelliti compared his lyrics to those of John Lennon's, writing: "What comes across loudest on the album is not the music, but the sense of injury expressed in Manson's lyrics. Like Plastic Ono Band, Holy Wood screams with a primal fury that's evident even in its quietest moments." The album also received some mixed reviews. Several publications criticized its length, as well as the band for abandoning the glam rock-influenced production of Mechanical Animals. PopMatters argued that the album was too long, and claimed it would have been a more consistent record if subject matter was addressed literally, instead of through a 'concept album' format. Joshua Klein of The A.V. Club rated Holy Wood a B−, but was overall critical of the lack of glam rock-influenced songs on the album. Robert Hilburn, in a review for the Los Angeles Times, was also disappointed that the album did not live up to "the promise of Mechanical Animals". He viewed the musical cross-pollination of Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals as confusion on the band's part as to which of the two albums appealed most to casual listeners. Accolades The album appeared in numerous publication's lists of best albums of 2000. It appeared at number nine on Kerrang!s list of albums of the year, and went on to rate it the 11th best album of the 2000–2009 decade, while NME ranked it at number 34 in their critic's pick of the 50 best albums of 2000 in their "Decade in Music" series. German magazine Musik Express/Sounds listed the album at number 30 in their critics' top 50, and at number nine in the popular poll of their "Albums of 2000" list. The French edition of British magazine Rock Sound ranked Holy Wood 15th in their Le choix de la rédaction (editors choice) and 5th in Le choix des lecteurs (readers choice) of their 2000 Albums de l'année (albums of the year). Record Collector also included it on their "Best of 2000" list. It went on to win the "Best Album" accolade at the 2001 Kerrang! Awards. Retrospective commentary on the album has been highly positive. In November 2010, Kerrang! published a tenth-anniversary commemorative issue dedicated to Holy Wood titled Screaming For Vengeance, calling it "Manson's finest hour". In 2014, Metal Hammer identified the album as a modern classic, calling it the band's "creative zenith"; later, in 2020, the magazine named it one of the 20 best metal albums of 2000. Manson said in a June 2015 Reddit AMA that he considered the record to be his best work, and, that same month, NME referred to it as the band's best album. A 2016 feature in Houston Press called Holy Wood "the album that really cemented the band as more than just shock-rockers, but true musical mavericks with an intelligent perspective on social issues." Metal Hammer referred to the record as "perfect", saying: "Manson has yet to better Holy Wood and that's fine—nobody's really bettered it. The flow of the record, the delivery of its concept, the clarity with which it strikes its opponents. A gargantuan artistic feat that will go down in history as Manson's defining statement." Commercial performance Prior to the record's release, several critics and retailers openly questioned whether the band still had significant commercial appeal with mainstream consumers, with rap rock emerging as the predominant rock genre of the early 2000s. Furthermore, according to Metal Hammer, "By the turn of the century, Manson was no longer America's demon dog. White trash superstar Eminem had clocked his position and supplanted him." A clean version of the album was never manufactured. This resulted in Holy Wood being banned from sale at major retailers such as Walmart and Kmart, who enforce a strict policy on not stocking albums labeled with a Parental Advisory sticker. Best Buy's sales projections estimated its first-week sales at about 150,000 units nationally, significantly less than the 223,000 copies sold by Mechanical Animals during its first week. Holy Wood debuted and peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 117,279—an initial commercial disappointment. It spent 13 consecutive weeks on the chart before dropping off – far short of the 52 and 33 weeks Antichrist Superstar and Mechanical Animals spent on the chart, respectively – making it the shortest-charting full-length LP by the band until The High End of Low (2009). It took over two years to be certified gold by the RIAA (in March 2003), denoting shipments in excess of 500,000 units. The album sold over 573,000 copies in the US by 2010, according to Nielsen SoundScan. Manson attributed its lack of commercial appeal to the musical climate of the time, and argued that, at the height of the band's popularity, their US album sales peaked between one and two million units, so "it's not such a disaster as if we were coming down from seven or eight million records." He also said that the drop in US sales was off-set by increasing international success. The record reached the top 20 of numerous international markets, including Canada, where it peaked at number 13 and was certified gold by the CRIA for shipments of over 50,000 units. The record was more successful in continental Europe than preceding albums, peaking at number nine on Billboards Eurochart. It entered the top 10 of the national charts in Austria, Italy, and Sweden, and the top 20 in a further six countries: France, Norway, Poland, and Spain. It debuted at number 11 on the German Albums Chart and spent over five months on the chart—their second-longest chart run there, behind The Golden Age of Grotesque (2003). It also reached the top 20 in Switzerland, where it was certified gold by the IFPI almost five years after its release for shipments in excess of 25,000 units. Similarly, despite peaking at number 23 and spending just four weeks on the UK Albums Chart, it would be certified gold by the BPI in July 2013 for sales in excess of 100,000 copies. In Australasia, Holy Wood peaked at number eight on the Australian Albums Chart, and reached the top twenty in New Zealand, peaking at number 18. The album also peaked at number 13 on the Japanese Oricon chart, where it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for shipments of over 100,000 units. Track listing All lyrics written by Marilyn Manson. Notes Enhanced CD editions of the album contain a data track of a video titled "Autopsy". Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of the vinyl edition of Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death). Marilyn Manson Marilyn Manson – lead vocals, backing vocals keyboards , synthesizer , synthesizer bass , lead guitar , optigan , mellotron , syncussion , distorted flute , piano , ambient effects , clavecin électrique , minipiano , rhythm guitar , arrangements, production, art direction, concept Twiggy Ramirez – lead guitar , bass , rhythm guitar , Leslie guitar , keyboards , drum loops , warped guitar , additional electric guitar John 5 – guitars , lead guitar , rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar , slide guitar , phaze guitar , synth guitar Madonna Wayne Gacy – ambiance , keyboards , samples , loops , synthesizer , synthesizer bass , mellotron , synth string Ginger Fish – live drums , siren loop , drum loops , death loop , drum machine Production P.R. Brown – art direction, design, photography Greg Fidelman – engineer, Pro Tools Kevin Guarnieri – assistant engineer Bon Harris – pre-production editing, programming, synthesizer , drum programming , electronic percussion , insect hi-hat , sleigh bells , manipulation , synthesizer bass , piano Stephen Marcussen – mastering Paulie Northfield – additional engineering Nick Raskulinecz – assistant engineer Danny Saber – additional loops Dave Sardy – rhythm guitar , drum programming , production, mixing Alex Suttle – backing vocals Joe Zook – assistant engineer Charts and certifications Weekly charts Certifications Release history References Notes References Bibliography External links Holy Wood (In the Shadow of the Valley of Death) at Interscope Records 2000 albums Albums produced by Dave Sardy Albums produced by Marilyn Manson Albums recorded at Westlake Recording Studios Albums recorded in a home studio Concept albums Gothic rock albums by American artists Interscope Geffen A&M Records albums Interscope Records albums Marilyn Manson (band) albums Nothing Records albums Political music albums by American artists Rock operas Universal Music Group albums Works about the assassination of John F. 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231237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational%20grazing	Rotational grazing	In agriculture, rotational grazing, as opposed to continuous grazing, describes many systems of pasturing, whereby livestock are moved to portions of the pasture, called paddocks, while the other portions rest. Each paddock must provide all the needs of the livestock, such as food, water and sometimes shade and shelter. The approach often produces lower outputs than more intensive animal farming operations, but requires lower inputs, and therefore sometimes produces higher net farm income per animal. Approach In rotational grazing livestock are moved to portions of the pasture, called paddocks, while the other portions rest. The intent is to allow the pasture plants and soil time to recover. Healing native rangeland may require a combination of burning and rotational grazing. Rotational grazing can be used with ruminants such as beef or dairy cattle, sheep or goats, or even pigs. The herds graze one portion of pasture, or a paddock, while allowing the others to recover. The length of time a paddock is grazed will depend on the size of the herd and the size of the paddock and local environmental factors. Resting grazed lands allows the vegetation to regrow. Rotational grazing is especially effective because grazers do better on the more tender younger plant stems. These systems may or may not leave parasites behind to die off, minimizing or eliminating the need for de-wormers, depending if the rotational time is smaller or larger than the parasitic life cycle. Benefits Herd health benefits arise from animals having access to both space and fresh air. Freedom of movement within a paddock results in increased physical fitness, which limits the potential for injuries and abrasion, and sometimes depending on the system reduces the potential of exposure to high levels of harmful disease-causing microorganisms and insects. In a concentrated animal feeding operation it is normal for a large number of animals to continuously occupy a small area. By comparison, with managed grazing, the animals are able to live in a more natural environment. The animals experience less disease and fewer foot ailments, depending on the rotational system being used. Rotational grazing has been said to be more environmentally friendly in certain cases. Many pastures undergoing certain types of rotational grazing are less susceptible to soil erosion. Paddocks might require fewer inputs. These grazing regimes are sometimes said to be more resilient and more capable of responding to changing environmental conditions. Rotational grazing may reduce greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, and methane. Adaptive multi-paddock grazing can result in a net carbon sink. Problems A key element of this style of animal husbandry is that either each grazed area must contain all elements needed for the animals (water source, for instance) or the feed or water source must be moved each time the animals are moved. Having fixed feeding or watering stations can defeat the rotational aspect, leading to degradation of the ground around the water supply or feed supply if additional feed is provided to the animals. Special care must be taken to ensure that high use areas do not become areas where mud, parasites or diseases are spread or communicated. Several problems are related to shade in pasture areas. Although shade provides relief from heat and reduces the risk of heat stress, animals tend to congregate in these areas which leads to nutrient loading, uneven grazing, and potential soil erosion. Ruminal tympany, also known as bloat, is a common serious problem when grazing ruminants on fresh, young pasture, and if left untreated can be fatal. This problem occurs when foam producing compounds in plants are digested by cows, causing foam to form in the rumen of the animal and not allowing animals to properly belch gas. Animals are especially susceptible to bloat if they are moved to new pasture sources when they are particularly hungry and especially on young, fresh and wet legumes. It is therefore important to ensure that the herd is eating enough at the end of a rotation when forage will be more scarce, limiting the potential for animals to gorge themselves when turned out onto new paddocks. The risk of bloat can be mitigated by careful management of rotations, seeding the non-bloating European legume species Lotus corniculatus in pasturelands, reducing the amount of legumes/increasing grasses, providing sufficient supplemental feeding and extra fodder when turning out on new paddocks, reducing the size of the paddock when livestock is first turned out, and daily rations of the anti-foaming agent poloxalene mixed well into the fodder. Weed control A well managed rotational grazing system has low pasture weed establishment because the majority of niches are already filled with established forage species, making it harder for weeds to compete and become established. The use of multiple species in the pasture helps to minimize weeds. Established forage plants in rotational grazing pasture systems are healthy and unstressed due to the "rest" period, enhancing the competitive advantage of the forage. Additionally, in comparison to grain crop production, many plants which would be considered weeds are not problematic in perennial pasture. However, certain species such as thistles and various other weeds, are indigestible or poisonous to grazers. These plant species will not be grazed by the herd and can be recognized for their prevalence in pasture systems. A key step in managing weeds in any pasture system is identification. Once the undesired species in a pasture system are identified, an integrated approach of management can be implemented to control weed populations. It is important to recognize that no single approach to weed management will result in weed free pastures; therefore, various cultural, mechanical, and chemical control methods can be combined in an weed management plan. Cultural controls include: avoiding spreading manure contaminated with weed seeds, cleaning equipment after working in weed infested areas, and managing weed problems in fencerows and other areas near pastures. Mechanical controls such as repeated mowing, clipping, and hand weeding can also be used to effectively manage weed infestations by weakening the plant. These methods should be implemented when weed flower buds are closed or just starting to open to prevent seed production. Although these first two methods reduce need for herbicides, weed problems may still persist in managed grazing systems and the use of herbicides may become necessary. Use of herbicides may restrict the use of a pasture for some length of time, depending on the type and amount of the chemical used. Frequently, weeds in pasture systems are patchy and therefore spot treatment of herbicides may be used as a least cost method of chemical control. Nutrient availability and soil fertility If pasture systems are seeded with more than 40% legumes, commercial nitrogen fertilization is unnecessary for adequate plant growth. Legumes are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen, thus providing nitrogen for themselves and surrounding plants. Although grazers remove nutrient sources from the pasture system when they feed on forage sources, the majority of the nutrients consumed by the herd are returned to the pasture system through manure. At a relatively high stocking rate, or high ratio of animals per hectare, manure will be evenly distributed across the pasture system. The nutrient content in these manure sources should be adequate to meet plant requirements, making commercial fertilization unnecessary. Rotational grazing systems are often associated with increased soil fertility which arises because manure is a rich source of organic matter that increases the health of soil. In addition, these pasture system are less susceptible to erosion because the land base has continuous ground cover throughout the year. High levels of fertilizers entering waterways are a pertinent environmental concern associated with agricultural systems. However, rotational grazing systems effectively reduce the amount of nutrients that move off-farm which have the potential to cause environmental degradation. These systems are fertilized with on-farm sources, and are less prone to leaching as compared to commercial fertilizers. Additionally, the system is less prone to excess nutrient fertilization, so the majority of nutrients put into the system by manure sources are utilized for plant growth. Permanent pasture systems also have deeper, better established forage root systems which are more efficient at taking up nutrients from within the soil profile. Economics Although milk yields are often lower in rotational systems, net farm income per cow is often greater as compared to confinement operations. This is due to the additional costs associated with herd health and purchased feeds are greatly reduced in management intensive rotational grazing systems. Additionally, a transition to rotational grazing is associated with low start-up and maintenance costs. Another consideration is that while production per cow is less, the number of cows per acre on the pasture can increase. The net effect is more productivity per acre at less cost. The main costs associated with transitioning rotational grazing are purchasing fencing, fencers, and water supply materials. If a pasture was continuously grazed in the past, likely capital has already been invested in fencing and a fencer system. Cost savings to graziers can also be recognized when one considers that many of the costs associated with livestock operations are transmitted to the grazers. For example, the grazers actively harvest their own sources of food for the portion of the year where grazing is possible. This translates into lower costs for feed production and harvesting, which are fuel intensive endeavors. Rotational grazing systems rely on the grazers to produce fertilizer sources via their excretion. There is also no need for collection, storage, transportation, and application of manure, which are also all fuel intensive. Additionally, external fertilizer use contributes to other costs such as labor, purchasing costs. Rotational grazing results in time savings because the majority of work which might otherwise require human labor is transmitted to the herd. Criticism Managers have found that rotational grazing systems can work for diverse management purposes, but scientific experiments have demonstrated that some rotational grazing systems do not always necessarily work for specific ecological purposes. This controversy stems from two main categorical differences in rotational grazing, prescribed management and adaptive management. The performance of rangeland grazing strategies are similarly constrained by several ecological variables establishing that differences among them are dependent on the effectiveness of those management models. Depending on the management model, plant production has been shown to be equal or greater in continuous compared to rotational grazing in 87% of the experiments. See also Electric fence Free range Ley farming Pastured poultry Rangeland management Soil conservation Transhumance Yarding References External links Watering systems for grazing livestock. Iowa State University Extension. Greener Pastures. NRCS Range and Pasture Handbook Forage Resources The Ins and Outs of Overwintering Nitrogen Fertilization Weed Control in Pastures without Chemicals How does managed grazing affect Wisconsin's environment Milking more than profit Graze Anatomy. By Richard Manning. 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231238	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Harroun	Ray Harroun	Ray Harroun (January 12, 1879 – January 19, 1968) was an American racecar driver and pioneering constructor most famous for winning the inaugural Indianapolis 500 in 1911. Biography He was born on January 12, 1879 in Spartansburg, Pennsylvania to Russell LaFayette Harroun and Lucy A. Halliday. His father was a carpenter. Ray was their youngest child. He participated in the original setting of the land speed record driving from Chicago to New York in 1903, and the re-taking of that record in 1904. He and four others drove in shifts non-stop to establish the record of 76 hours at the end of September, 1903. That time was bested by another team nearly a year later, and in October 1904, the Columbia team re-set the record at 58 hrs, 35 min. That record stood for nearly two years. Other drivers in both years included Bert Holcomb (who was in charge of the runs), Lawrence Duffie (Demonstrator of the Gasoline Dept of Electric Vehicle Company, which manufactured Columbia cars), and Harry Sandol. In 1903, the fifth driver was David R. Adams; in 1904 it was Eddie Bald. Racing career Nicknamed the "Little Professor" for his pioneering work of creating, with Howard Marmon, the Marmon Wasp, which was a revolutionary design being the first open-wheel single-seater racecar. Harroun is best known for winning the first running of the Indianapolis 500 Mile Race on May 30, 1911. He is known to have started at least 60 AAA-sanctioned races, during the years 1905–1911 (statistics on some of the shorter races document only the top three finishers, so some starts resulting in lower finishes may not be known). From 1909 to 1911, Harroun drove primarily for the team operated by Indianapolis-based auto maker, Marmon. However, at least one 1909 race result shows him driving a Buick. Also, statistics from 1905 through 1908 show him driving cars described as "Harroun Custom" and "Harroun Sneezer." Race wins Harroun's race wins included: a 1910 100-mile race at the Atlanta Motordrome; the 1910 200-mile Wheeler-Schebler Trophy Race (at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway); the May 1910, 50-mile Remy Grand Brassard Race (also at IMS); three races at Churchill Downs (home of the Kentucky Derby); three races at the original Latonia Race Track; and races at tracks in New Orleans, Los Angeles, Long Island and Memphis. He is best known for winning the first Indianapolis 500, driving a Marmon. Harroun won a total of 8 races at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, the second-most of any driver in the 100-year history of the track (the only driver with more victories at IMS is Johnny Aitken, with 15 wins in 1909–1916). Retroactive champion designation During the years that Harroun was driving, the AAA designated some races each year as "championship" events. However, there was no actual year-long championship, and no points were awarded. In 1927, points were assigned retroactively, and champions were designated for those years. At that time, Harroun was designated the champion for the 1910 season. The first Indianapolis 500 At the first Indianapolis 500 in 1911, his use of what would now be called a rear-view mirror, rather than the riding mechanic specified in the rules, created controversy, but was ultimately allowed. Harroun went on to win at an average speed of . Harroun, who came out of retirement to race in the first 500, would not race after 1911. Harroun's historic Firestone-shod yellow #32 Marmon "Wasp," in which he won the Indianapolis 500, is on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum. The 50th Anniversary race in 1961 was won by A. J. Foyt, and both Harroun and Foyt appeared together on the television program I've Got a Secret—their secret being their respective wins at Indianapolis. Later career After retiring from racing, Harroun continued engineering work for Marmon, and later for the Maxwell racing team. In 1916, Harroun started his own automobile company in Wayne, Michigan, called the Harroun Motor Car Company. The venture folded after World War I, and today a street in Wayne is named for him. In 1927 he joined Lincoln Products. He continued to work in the automotive industry until his retirement at age 79. He died on January 19, 1968. Indianapolis 500 results Legacy He was inducted in the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame in 1952 and the Motorsports Hall of Fame of America in 2000. References External links Ray Harroun discussed in interview with his son Dick Harroun - on RaceRewind.com Columbia Car webpages The Greatest 33 1879 births 1968 deaths People from Spartansburg, Pennsylvania American founders of automobile manufacturers Racing drivers from Pennsylvania Indianapolis 500 drivers Indianapolis 500 winners American automotive engineers Automotive businesspeople	[ -0.5297348499298096, 0.5750315189361572, -0.35307425260543823, 0.168320432305336, -0.0387057289481163, 0.3359356224536896, 0.44085538387298584, 0.0394352488219738, -0.07178148627281189, -0.35650861263275146, 0.4019479751586914, 0.7440590858459473, 0.08897268027067184, 0.4483684003353119, 0.3072968125343323, -0.08830194175243378, -0.2843887507915497, -0.11590655148029327, -0.13201089203357697, 0.16708539426326752, -0.20053385198116302, -0.7787652611732483, 0.2429032176733017, -0.4092969596385956, -0.5109580755233765, -0.03825078159570694, -0.344939261674881, -0.04108872264623642, 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231242	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo%20%28The%20Matrix%29	Neo (The Matrix)	Neo (born as Thomas A. Anderson, also known as The One, an anagram for Neo) is a fictional character and the protagonist of The Matrix franchise, created by the Wachowskis. He was portrayed as a cybercriminal and computer programmer by Keanu Reeves in the films, as well as having a cameo in The Animatrix short film Kid's Story. Andrew Bowen provided Neo's voice in The Matrix: Path of Neo. In 2021, Reeves reprised his role in The Matrix Resurrections with what Vulture calls "his signature John Wick look". In 2008, Neo was selected by Empire as the 68th Greatest Movie Character of All Time... Neo is also an anagram of "one", a reference to his destiny of being The One who would bring peace. There are claims that a nightclub in Chicago inspired the name of the character. Neo is considered to be a superhero. Fictional character biography Thomas A. Anderson was born in Lower Downtown, Capital City, USA on March 11, 1962 according to his criminal record, or September 13, 1971 according to his passport (both seen in the film). His mother was Michelle McGahey (the name of the first film's art director) and his father was John Anderson. He attended Central West Junior High and Owen Patterson High (named after the film's production designer). In high school, he excelled at science, math and computer courses, and displayed an aptitude for literature and history. Although he had disciplinary troubles when he was thirteen to fourteen years old, Anderson went on to become a respected member of the school community through his involvement in football and hockey. At the start of the series, Neo is one of billions of humans neurally connected to the Matrix, unaware that the world he lives in is a simulated reality. The Matrix In his normal life, he is a quiet programmer for the "respectable software company" Meta Cortex; while in private, he is a computer hacker who penetrates computer systems illicitly and steals information under his hacker alias "Neo". He also sells illegal untraceable computer systems and hacking programs along with controlling computer viruses stashed on CDs and diskettes. During his time as a hacker, Anderson has learned about something known only as "The Matrix". During the years prior to the events of The Matrix, Neo has spent his time trying to find the one man who he thought could tell him what the Matrix was; a supposed terrorist known only as Morpheus. After an encounter with another hacker, Trinity, Anderson is suddenly contacted by Morpheus via a cell phone mailed to his office, but is almost immediately captured by the virtual reality's Agents, led by Agent Smith. After refusing to cooperate with the agents, Neo has an electronic bug implanted within his Matrix-simulated body so that his actions can be tracked and those seeking to make contact from the free world can be traced and destroyed. He is then contacted by Trinity, freed from the bug, and taken to meet Morpheus. Neo is offered a choice to remain in his everyday life and forget about the Matrix or to learn what the Matrix really is. Choosing to learn what the Matrix really is, he takes a drug (commonly called the "red pill") which is actually a program designed to disrupt his mind's neural connection to the Matrix and make it easier for his real body to be found and awakened in the real world. He wakes up disoriented and alarmed to find himself naked, weak, and hairless in a pod full of what can be assumed to be an artificial amniotic fluid. He also discovers that he is connected to a series of thick cables, by way of a number of plugs that are grafted to his body, including one plugged directly into the base of his skull which is later explained as the means through which his mind was connected to the Matrix. Upon his "birthing" into the real world, he is discovered by a machine which grabs him by the neck and removes all of his plugs and cables before flushing him out of his fluid tank down into the cold sewers below the Earth's surface. Neo is rescued by Morpheus and his body is healed of the effects of his atrophy incurred while inside the pod. Once Neo regains consciousness and is able to walk, Morpheus tells Neo the truth about the Matrix; that it is a simulated world to which humans are connected, "a prison for your mind", as stated by Morpheus, while unknown to them, their bodies are used as a power source for a race of sentient machines which, ironically, mankind created. He also tells Neo about the One, a human with the power to manipulate the Matrix, who has been foretold to end the war between humans and machines, and says that he believes Neo is The One. The next day, Neo begins his "training" and becomes knowledgeable in many forms of combat, as well as vehicle and weapons operations, by having various training programs uploaded directly into his brain. He also receives further instruction from Morpheus on subjects such as "freeing his mind" from the restrictions of the Matrix, essentially overcoming the physics engine the Matrix operates on. He is also made aware of the existence of it's agents, programs designed by the machines to maintain order and dominance over the human race, created with abilities such as dodging bullets, running at high speeds, jumping great distances, and physically possessing people in the Matrix. If killed, they simply find a new host to overcome. After several days aboard Morpheus' hovercraft, the Nebuchadnezzar, Neo is taken to meet the Oracle, who has the power of foresight within the simulated world. She tells him that he has the "gift", but appeared to be waiting for something, and that in his present life he is not the one. The Oracle warns him that a situation will arise when he will have to choose between saving his own life or that of Morpheus. Returning from the Oracle to a landline phone, which serves as the exit for "red pills" to leave the Matrix, the crew of Morpheus's ship is betrayed by Cypher, a "red pill" who is willing to give the agents Morpheus in exchange for the promise of being mentally erased and reconnected permanently to the Matrix as an escape from the real world's bleakness. In the Matrix, SWAT troops kill Mouse. Cypher jacks out, and grabs a real-world lightning gun, injuring Tank and killing Dozer. He kills Apoc and Switch; who remain jacked in, by prematurely terminating their connections. In the Matrix, Smith defeats and captures Morpheus. Neo and Trinity try to jack out but Cypher threatens to unplug them too, however, he is thwarted when Tank recovers, killing Cypher, and helping Neo and Trinity jack out. Neo learns the Agents seek to hack into Morpheus's brain in order to force him to tell them the access codes to the mainframe computer within humanity's last refuge, the city of Zion. After refusing to sacrifice Morpheus to prevent this, Neo decides to jack in and attack the building where he is being held. He and Trinity proceed to fight their way to the roof level of the building, where they are confronted by agent Jones. Neo unloads two entire magazines on Jones as he dodges each bullet effortlessly. When Jones returns fire, Neo proves capable of dodging bullets himself, fluidly moving in a way only an agent was thought to be capable of, although he is not yet as fast as them, as his leg is grazed by a bullet. Trinity then shoots Jones at point-blank range. Using an armed chopper, Neo and Trinity successfully rescue Morpheus. As Neo has just successfully rescued comrades from a building protected by heavily armed guards and agents (thought to be an unprecedented feat) Tank and Morpheus both believe Neo is indeed the One. Neo tries to tell Morpheus what the Oracle told him, but Morpheus explains that she merely told Neo what he needed to hear; had he believed himself to be the One, he would likely not have attempted the rescue, which was a necessary step to his emergence as the One. Reaching the landline phone, Morpheus and Trinity return to the real world, but Neo is trapped by agent Smith. Trinity admonishes Neo to run, but he stands his ground, having begun to believe that he may be the One. The two of them draw guns and fire them empty, but are able to effortlessly dodge each other's fire. Neo skillfully engages Smith in hand-to-hand combat, almost seeming to be Smith's equal. In the end Neo is briefly incapacitated and held by Smith as a subway train approaches, but at the last minute, he is able to get free and backflip up onto the platform, leaving Smith to be run over. However, the agent possesses the body of the conductor, and emerges from the train and Neo, realizing that the agents' ability to possess other bodies makes this a fight he cannot win, flees the subway station. Pursued by Smith and his fellow agents, Neo is able to evade them and reach the location of the landline phone, just to be ambushed and fatally shot in the chest by Smith. Trinity, seeing Neo die in the real world while his mind is still in the Matrix, tells his evidently lifeless body that the Oracle had foretold that she would fall in love with the One. When kissed by Trinity, Neo comes back to life, finally fully emerging as the One. When the agents try to kill him again, Neo simply raises his hand and the bullets freeze in mid-air, then drop harmlessly to the ground. It is then shown that he is able to perceive, interpret and alter the computer code of the Matrix. Completely believing in his new-found powers, he effortlessly fends off agent Smith before forcing himself into the agent's body and destroying it from within. The other two agents quickly flee. Neo is then seen leaving a message for the machines via phone; a warning that he plans to oppose the machines by freeing as many human minds as possible. He then hangs up and flies into the sky, now having completely made his final metamorphosis into becoming the One. The Matrix Reloaded Approximately six months have passed since the events of the first film, and Neo is now fully confident in his powers as the One, is able to manipulate the artificial world within the Matrix to a tremendous degree. He no longer requires firearms, relying solely on hand-to-hand combat. His ability to influence the coding of the Matrix allows him to stop incoming fire from multiple attackers. Dispensing with the long black trenchcoat and black shirt he wears at the conclusion of The Matrix, Neo now prefers a cassock with a high-rise mandarin collar giving the appearance of a priest or Bishop. He and Trinity are now lovers. Neo seeks more advice from the Oracle, unsure of his purpose, while Zion prepares for a massive attack by the Machines from over 250,000 Sentinels, numbered precisely relative to the population of Zion of 250,000 people. The Oracle directs him on a quest to find the Keymaker, a personified program that has access to numerous backdoors within the system. The Keymaker will be able to lead Neo safely to the Source, the programming heart of the machine world, which contains the programs sustaining the Matrix. After the Oracle leaves, agent Smith (aka Smith) appears and it is revealed that Neo had separated Smith from the rest of the Matrix code by shattering him, giving him a life independent of the machine's systems and now the two of them share a "connection" to each other. Smith is no longer an agent of the Matrix, but has become more virus-like, he is able to insert his code into other systems, and infect other programs and human minds to make copies of himself. Neo fends off hundreds of these Smiths and escapes. Later, he, Morpheus and Trinity steal the Keymaker from his keeper, the The Merovingian. During this time, Neo stays behind to fight off the Merovingian's men and becomes separated from the others, being trapped in the Merovingian's mansion five hundred miles away in the mountains. He flies off to help them and only arrives in time to save Morpheus and the Keymaker from two agents crashing two trucks together. The Keymaker explains that two power stations elsewhere in the Matrix must be disabled in a short time window to successfully disable the security system of a building where the door to the Source will appear; allowing Neo to reach it. This task is accomplished; but the Keymaker is killed, a hovercraft is destroyed and Trinity is put in jeopardy by the agents of the Matrix; a vision that Neo has seen earlier in his dreams. Entering the door, Neo finds himself confronted by the Architect, a program which created and designed the Matrix and also ensures its' constant stability. The Architect presents Neo with a radically different explanation of his origins and purpose, claiming that Neo is actually the sixth "One". He goes on to say that Zion has been destroyed by the machines five times before; faced with the dilemma of allowing humanity to be destroyed or allowing the machines' preferred status quo to be reconstructed, Neo's five predecessors have helped reload or restart the Matrix, before being allowed to rebuild Zion with a handful of freed humans. The productive output of the Matrix is based upon this repeated cycle of destruction and recreation, to keep the human minds which power it in a stable structure because not every human accepts the simulated reality and if enough of them accumulate, it could lead to a catastrophic system crash of the Matrix and subsequent extinction of both humanity and the Machines. The Oracle is as much part of that self-perpetuating design as the Architect, Neo is told and the prophecy of the One is designed to ensure it runs smoothly each time. The Architect warns of the annihilation of all human life in and out of the Matrix if he does not enter the Source door to reload the Matrix, but unlike his predecessors, Neo does not enter the door to the Source; he chooses not to believe the Architect's dire warnings of consequences and to save Trinity instead. Returning to the Matrix, he catches Trinity as she falls from an upper-story window of a power plant. She dies of a gunshot wound to the heart that she sustains during the fall, but Neo brings her back to life by reaching into her virtual body, removing the bullet and restarting her heart. Together, they exit the Matrix and return to the real world. Neo tells Morpheus that the prophecy was merely another system of control and that Zion's destruction is imminent. A group of sentinels begin to converge on their hovercraft, so Neo, and the others are forced to abandon it and flee as it is destroyed. As they flee, Neo suddenly discovers that he can now sense the sentinels and shuts them down telepathically; however, the effort causes him to fall unconscious. He and the crew are rescued by the hovercraft Mjolnir (also known as the Hammer) whose crew is dealing with a mystery in the form of Bane, a crew member from another ship; who is the only survivor of an ill-fated attack by the Zion fleet. Unbeknown to anyone, Bane's mind was destroyed by Smith at some point during the movie's events during which Smith overwrote himself over Bane's avatar, effectively killing Bane and once he was unplugged, he took over Bane's real body. The Matrix Revolutions The Matrix Revolutions begins immediately after the events of the second movie; as a result of his struggle with the sentinels, Neo returns to consciousness finding himself caught in an isolated train station-like limbo only accessible by order of the Merovingian, from which his mind is unable to free itself. It is here that he meets Sati, a young program created without a purpose; who is being smuggled into the Matrix by her parents; who are also programs in the machine world. Neo remains trapped; until freed by Trinity (assisted by Morpheus and Seraph); who threatens the Merovingian in a Mexican standoff. After a final visit to the Oracle, Neo learns that he has powers over the machines which extend beyond the Matrix and that Smith is spreading, threatening to destroy both the Matrix and the real world. Building on the Oracle's previous explanations about the nature of choice, Neo learns that the Architect's assertion that his choice to save Trinity would inherently lead to the extinction of humankind was incorrect; due to his nature as a purely mathematical being rendering him incapable of seeing past choices made by humans as he considers them mere variables in equations. Having told Neo that he now has the power to choose to end the war and defeat Smith, the Oracle then states "everything that has a beginning has an end, Neo" and informs him that in order for true peace to happen, he must travel to the heavily guarded Machine City in the real world and make a truce with the Machines in order to save both races from extinction because of Smith's activities. Soon after Neo leaves, dozens of Smiths come and assimilate Seraph, Sati and the Oracle. Neo and Trinity are given the Logos, a hovercraft commanded by Morpheus's former lover, Niobe, in what seems to others as a suicidal journey to the Machine City. Meanwhile, captain Roland and the Nebuchadnezzars surviving crew of Link and Morpheus in the hovercraft Hammer/Mjolnir return to Zion, which is now besieged and losing to the Machines. Neo and Trinity are ambushed by the stowaway Bane/Smith; who blinds Neo with an electric cable, but is killed when Neo discovers an ability to "see" programs and Machines independently without his eyesight; revealing that the "real world" outside the Matrix is just another layer of simulation. Neo, with Trinity as pilot, guide the Logos past the Machine City's defenses, but in the effort the Logos crash-lands, Trinity sustains fatal injuries and dies. Neo encounters the Deus Ex Machina, a giant machine construct and the leader of the machines. He offers Smith's defeat and destruction to the Deus in exchange for a truce. The offer is accepted; Neo enters the Matrix to find that Smith has copied himself throughout the simulated world, now truly threatening the safety and stability of the Matrix. One of the copies of Smith, having assimilated the Oracle and obtained as much freedom and control over the virtual world as Neo, faces Neo alone. For a while, the two fight evenly with no real advantage, but ultimately, the tireless Smith begins to wear out Neo and takes control of the fight. Realizing that he cannot win with brute force, Neo allows Smith to assimilate him, which enables the machines to eradicate the Smith virus directly through his body. Unfortunately, the process also kills Neo. Neo's body is taken away by the machines in the Machine City, while below in Zion, the machines stop their attack and depart in deference to the peace that Neo bartered. The Matrix is rebooted and a beautiful sunrise appears over the horizon, created by Sati in Neo's honor. The Matrix Online Although the fate of Neo was never truly revealed in the MMORPG sequel, The Matrix Online, however, despite this, his influence had a strong impact on several key events throughout the game. In the beginning, scattered code fragments of Neo's "RSI" (Residual Self Image) were found on the bodies of the impostor agents; who appeared across the Mega City during Chapter 1.1 (later revealed to be sentinels under the command of the general program) when held, these fragments echoed some of the final thoughts of Neo inside the redpill's mind. Each of the three main post-war political organizations inside the Matrix realized the possible significance of these fragments and began fighting amongst themselves to gather as many as they could. The Oracle reveals a secret society of exiles known only as the Shapers, who are the only ones able to bring the Fragments together in any significant way and that they must be protected from the impostor agents' corruption. The redpills' distrust and organizational differences prove too much for any strong unity, so that a shaper fell into the captivity of the false agents. His power was used to encode some part of the One's being onto them, creating the powerful, pale-skinned "N30 Ag3nts". In Chapter 1.2, Morpheus states that though the machines never returned Neo's physical remains (Neo's body in the real world) to Zion, they did not "recycle" them; a reference to the first film, in which Morpheus tells Neo that the machines liquefy deceased occupants of the Matrix to provide organic sustenance for it's living inhabitants. This would be the driving force behind Morpheus' descent into fanatical terrorism against the system in an attempt to force the machines to reveal Neo's fate; ultimately leading to his assassination. The subject of Neo then fell to the side lines for other struggles; until the arrival of the Oligarchs in Chapter 9. The original intruder, Halborn, was notably intrigued by the life of the One and was personally shocked about the implications of Neo's ability to affect Machines outside of the simulation had on his search for what he called the "Biological Interface Program". After Halborn's removal in Chapter 10, little more was questioned; until the revelation of the Trinity project, originally headed by the Oracle, in Chapter 12. It was revealed that both Neo and Trinity were actually the culmination of decades of machine research into translating human DNA perfectly into machine code; allowing them to interface directly with technology without the need for simulated interfaces. The Matrix Resurrections 60 years after the events of The Matrix Revolutions, Neo is now a video game designer and the creator of a video game series simply known as The Matrix, which uses Neo's previous memories in the plot. Neo is 57 years old in the Matrix program, but 60 years have passed in the real world, making Neo 97 years old. Neo lives under his real name as Thomas Anderson and although he looks not that old, others see him as a man with an eyepatch and gray hair. His love, Trinity is married with a man named Chad and has three children, and lives as "Tiffany". Neo has a series of existential crises, so his therapist has prescribed him with the blue pills. Neo's boss approaches him with an idea to make a fourth Matrix game. However, the more Neo and his crew make the game, the less blue pills he takes and he eventually stops taking them. One day, a man known as "Morpheus" approaches Neo with the red pill, but agents and a police force storm the building where Neo works in order to kill Morpheus; who is revealed to be a rogue agent who opened his mind and decided to help Neo destroy the Matrix. Morpheus kills several police officers while Neo's boss picks up an officer's gun and once again becomes Agent Smith. The attack was revealed to be a dream, and Neo was still in his therapist's room. A drunk Neo later goes on top of a rooftop and questions his existence. However, a woman with blue hair and a trench coat appears besides him. The woman introduces herself as Bugs; who tries to reopen his mind through a White Rabbit tattoo. Bugs then shows Neo her crew in an abandoned theater. Morpheus, part of Bugs' group once again offers a blue pill and a red pill to Neo; who takes the red pill. The team then "unplugs" Neo and with the help of a friendly machine; who was hacked, he is revived in the real world inside Bugs' ship, the Mnemosyne. In the real world, after Morpheus helps Neo regain his memories and fighting style, the Mnemosyne goes to Io, the last human city lead by Niobe. Niobe reveals that, when Zion was nearly destroyed by the machines, she and the rest of the inhabitants escaped and made a new city. After sixty years, Niobe does not trust Neo, but lets the Mnemosyne crew destroy the Matrix with the help of Sati, the sentient program who helped Neo in Revolutions. In the Matrix, Neo's therapist; who's name is the Analyst, a program designed to study the human psyche and the new leader of both the Matrix and the machines. He explains that after Neo and Trinity's deaths, he was able to resurrect them to study them. He found that suppressing their memories but keeping them in close proximity to one another made the Matrix more power-efficient and more resistant to the anomalies that caused the previous iterations to fail. However, Neo's liberation, destabilized the system and triggered a fail-safe to reboot the Matrix. The Analyst stalled the reboot by convincing his superiors that threatening to kill Trinity would get Neo to voluntarily return to his pod. Then the Analyst taunts Neo in the Matrix with bullet time by threatening to kill Trinity with a pistol, and then forces Neo to meet him in a café that he and Trinity had frequently goes. The crew then uses that opportunity to unplug Trinity. At the café, surrounded by riot officers, Neo distracts the Analyst while the team unplugs Trinity. They successfully unplug her, and Trinity gets her memories back and helps Neo fight the officers. Eventually, Smith fights the two, but gets away. In a final attempt to rid Neo and Trinity, the Analyst activates the Swarm, which forces many people to try to kill Bugs' team. The team survives, and when Neo and Trinity are cornered by police helicopters, they then decide to fly, which indeed does happen. The Analyst is defeated, and Neo and Trinity finally rekindle their romance and remake the Matrix in their own way. Other works Neo is briefly featured in the webcomic Casey and Andy by Andy Weir, in which he is remotely disintegrated by the fictionalised mad scientist Andy Weir by the latter's hacking of the Matrix, who works on behalf of Agent Bill to kill him in exchange for money. Casting choices When The Matrix was in its early writing stages, the Wachowskis had martial arts actor Brandon Lee in mind for the role of Neo, but Lee was accidentally killed on the set of the 1994 film The Crow. Tom Cruise, Johnny Depp, Brad Pitt, Nicolas Cage, David Schwimmer, Leonardo DiCaprio, John Cusack, and Mark Wahlberg were approached for the role as well. Will Smith, who turned down the role to make Wild Wild West, later said he regretted the decision. Ewan McGregor was said to have been sent the script to the movie, but later turned it down. Sandra Bullock was asked by the film's producers to star in the film, thus changing the gender of the character to female, only to receive a negative answer by Bullock. Powers and abilities Neo has carried, since his conception, the Matrix's source code known as the Prime Program. This gives him the ability to freely manipulate the simulated reality of the Matrix, similar to the authority a system administrator has over a given system. He manifests these abilities as various superhuman powers. The power Neo exhibits most often is akin to telekinesis in the Matrix. In that, he seems capable of manipulating any object in the Matrix through will alone. By focusing this ability upon himself, he can fly at amazing speeds and jump great distances. Whilst his speed is never specified, he flies from the Merovingian's mountain manor to the highway "500 miles due south" in a very short time. It can thus be extrapolated that if it took him roughly 10 minutes to fly from the chateau in the mountains to the freeway in the Mega City, he would have to have been flying at around 3,000 mph, or just shy of Mach 4. However, his speed of flight is further exemplified by his ability to escape explosions, and the sonic boom left in his wake has the power to overturn rows of heavy vehicles and reap massive destruction, indicating he can probably fly much faster than Mach 4 when pressed. He has used this ability multiple times to stop several bullets in mid flight, first against the Agents and again against the Merovingian. In addition to his abilities, Neo possesses superhuman strength and agility, and is near-invulnerable to most attacks. Although his physical endurance is immense, Neo can still be harmed or killed, as evidenced by an injury that Neo suffers while blocking a sword attack with his bare hand. His endurance is also finite: when confronted by masses of Smith clones in the second film, Neo was forced to escape rather than continue fighting though he easily overpowered at least 40 Smith clones and threw about 50 off him, and upon being disconnected from the Matrix, he appeared exhausted and winded. His reflexes are great enough to dodge bullets. Neo's strength and speed level have never been accurately measured; he is known to be capable of Mach 8, at least, and Mach 10 under stress, but his upper limit has never been shown. In the third movie, Neo has reached his (apparent) full strength; he is capable of withstanding a direct physical punch from the Smith enhanced by the Oracle's power, and is also able to hold his own in a prolonged fight (though his endurance is not without limit; he can fight this Smith to a standstill, but not defeat him). In the real world, like the other rebels, Neo does not display any of the aforementioned abilities. According to the Oracle, "The power of The One extends beyond the Matrix. It reaches from here all the way back to where it came from." Apparently because of his status as The One, he has a direct connection to the Source in the real world, and can therefore affect everything connected to it, including Sentinels, although the first use of this ability overwhelms him and he falls into a coma as his mind somehow plugs into the Matrix without a physical connection. Neo also begins to perceive everything connected to the Source, including the Machine City itself, as silhouettes of golden light. This ability becomes beneficial after he is blinded in the fight against Smith/Bane, thus he is able to see Smith/Bane and kill him. In The Matrix Resurrections, the resurrected Neo at first doesn't have access to his powers, although he slowly regains them over time, particularly during his fight with Smith. Neo is now able to create powerful telekinetic shockwaves, particularly when touching Trinity and while he can still stop bullets, it appears to take him more effort. At one point, he telekinetically deflects a missile into a helicopter and shields himself from Smith smashing a porcelain sink down on his head. However, he is unable to fly while trying to escape from the Analyst's forces after reuniting with Trinity or after jumping off of a roof. Instead, Trinity develops the ability to fly and takes them both to safety. Neo appears to have regained his full powers by the end of the movie as he and Trinity fly off together after confronting the Analyst. References External links The Matrix Trilogy: A Man-Machine Interface Perspective: a study of the trilogy from a strictly technological as opposed to philosophical viewpoint The Matrix (franchise) characters American superheroes Christ figures in fiction Fictional Jeet Kune Do practitioners Fictional Krav Maga practitioners Fictional Piguaquan practitioners Fictional Shaolin kung fu practitioners Fictional Wing Chun practitioners Fictional Zui Quan practitioners Fictional aikidoka Fictional avatars Fictional blind characters Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds Fictional characters with disfigurements Fictional characters with superhuman strength Fictional cyborgs Fictional hackers Fictional jujutsuka Fictional karateka Fictional kenpō practitioners Fictional revolutionaries Fictional software engineers Fictional taekwondo practitioners Fictional technopaths Film characters introduced in 1999 Film superheroes Male characters in film Martial artist characters in films 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231245	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Warren	Peter Warren	Peter Warren may refer to: Sir Peter Warren (Royal Navy officer) (c. 1703–1752), British naval officer Peter Warren (cricketer) (born 1953), Australian cricketer Peter Warren (radio) (born 1939), Canadian investigative journalist and radio host Peter Warren (archaeologist) (born 1938), leading scholar of the Aegean Bronze Age Peter Warren (journalist) (born 1960), English investigative freelance journalist and writer Peter Warren (musician) (born 1935), American jazz bassist Peter Warren (New Zealand musician) (born 1958, New Zealand drummer	[ -0.21467232704162598, 0.37543708086013794, -0.5590402483940125, -0.03580956161022186, 0.30863046646118164, 0.9414474964141846, 0.5518477559089661, 0.13515692949295044, -0.7330491542816162, 0.13489528000354767, -0.20363320410251617, 0.051918331533670425, -0.0408443845808506, 0.10750887542963028, -0.033350080251693726, 0.6657562851905823, -0.12880417704582214, 0.34168756008148193, 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231249	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transient%20lunar%20phenomenon	Transient lunar phenomenon	A transient lunar phenomenon (TLP) or lunar transient phenomenon (LTP) is a short-lived light, color or change in appearance on the surface of the Moon. The term was created by Patrick Moore in his co-authorship of NASA Technical Report R-277 Chronological Catalog of Reported Lunar Events, published in 1968. Claims of short-lived lunar phenomena go back at least 1,000 years, with some having been observed independently by multiple witnesses or reputable scientists. Nevertheless, the majority of transient lunar phenomenon reports are irreproducible and do not possess adequate control experiments that could be used to distinguish among alternative hypotheses to explain their origins. Most lunar scientists will acknowledge transient events such as outgassing and impact cratering do occur over geologic time. The controversy lies in the frequency of such events. Description of events Reports of transient lunar phenomena range from foggy patches to permanent changes of the lunar landscape. Cameron classifies these as (1) gaseous, involving mists and other forms of obscuration, (2) reddish colorations, (3) green, blue or violet colorations, (4) brightenings, and (5) darkening. Two extensive catalogs of transient lunar phenomena exist, with the most recent tallying 2,254 events going back to the 6th century. Of the most reliable of these events, at least one-third come from the vicinity of the Aristarchus plateau. An overview of the more famous historical accounts of transient phenomena include the following: Pre 1700 On June 18, 1178, five or more monks from Canterbury reported an upheaval on the Moon shortly after sunset. "There was a bright new moon, and as usual in that phase its horns were tilted toward the east; and suddenly the upper horn split in two. From the midpoint of this division a flaming torch sprang up, spewing out, over a considerable distance, fire, hot coals, and sparks. Meanwhile the body of the moon which was below writhed, as it were, in anxiety, and, to put it in the words of those who reported it to me and saw it with their own eyes, the moon throbbed like a wounded snake. Afterwards it resumed its proper state. This phenomenon was repeated a dozen times or more, the flame assuming various twisting shapes at random and then returning to normal. Then after these transformations the moon from horn to horn, that is along its whole length, took on a blackish appearance." This description appears outlandish perhaps due to lacking public understanding of astronomical phenomena. In 1976, Jack Hartung proposed that this described the formation of the Giordano Bruno crater. However, more recent studies suggest that it appears very unlikely the 1178 event was related to the formation of Crater Giordano Bruno, or was even a true transient lunar phenomenon at all. The millions of tons of lunar debris ejected from an impact large enough to leave a 22-km-wide crater would have resulted in an unprecedentedly intense, week-long meteor storm on Earth. No accounts of such a memorable storm have been found in any known historical records, including several astronomical archives from around the world. In light of this, it is suspected that the group of monks (the event's only known witnesses) saw the atmospheric explosion of a directly oncoming meteor in chance alignment, from their specific vantage point, with the far more distant Moon. On November 26, 1540, a transient phenomenon appeared between Mare Serenitatis and Mare Imbrium. This event is depicted on a temporary woodcut. 1701–1800 On the evening of August 16, 1725, the Italian astronomer Francesco Bianchini saw a reddish light streak across the floor of crater Plato, "like a bar stretching straight from one end to the other" along the major axis of the foreshortened elliptical shape of the crater. During the night of April 19, 1787, the British astronomer Sir William Herschel noticed three red glowing spots on the dark part of the Moon. He informed King George III and other astronomers of his observations. Herschel attributed the phenomena to erupting volcanoes and perceived the luminosity of the brightest of the three as greater than the brightness of a comet that had been discovered on April 10. His observations were made while an aurora borealis (northern lights) rippled above Padua, Italy. Aurora activity that far south from the Arctic Circle was very rare. Padua's display and Herschel's observations had happened a few days before the number of sunspots had peaked in May 1787. In December 1787, a luminous point was seen by a Maltese observer named d'Angos. On September 26, 1789, the German astronomer Johann Hieronymus Schröter noticed a speck of light close to the eastern foot of the Montes Alpes. It was seen on the night side of the moon and appeared like a star of Magnitude 5 to the naked eye. On October 15, 1789, J.H.Schröter observed two bright bursts of light, each one of them composed of many single, separate small sparks, appearing on the night side of the moon near crater Plato and Mare Imbrium. In 1790, Sir William Herschel saw one or more star-like appearances on the eclipsed moon. On November 1–2, 1791, J.H.Schröter noticed the bowl-shaped crater Posidonius A on the floor of crater Posidonius without internal shadow. In 1794, a report circulated that it was possible to see a volcano on the moon with the naked eye. 1801–1900 Between 1830 and 1840, the German astronomer Johann Heinrich von Mädler observed a strong reddish tint closely east of crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also Barcroft in 1940, Haas at a later date, Baum in 1951, and Hill in 1988. On November 24, 1865, Williams and two others observed for one hour and a half a distinct bright speck like an 8 magnitude star on the dark side near crater Carlini in Mare Imbrium. In 1866, the experienced lunar observer and mapmaker J. F. Julius Schmidt claimed that the Linné crater had changed its appearance. Based on drawings made earlier by J. H. Schröter, as well as personal observations and drawings made between 1841 and 1843, he stated that the crater "at the time of oblique illumination cannot at all be seen" (his emphasis), whereas at high illumination, it was visible as a bright spot. Based on repeat observations, he further stated that "Linné can never be seen under any illumination as a crater of the normal type" and that "a local change has taken place". Today, Linné is visible as a normal young impact crater with a diameter of about 1.5 miles (2.4 km). On January 4, 1873, French astronomer Étienne Léopold Trouvelot observed crater Kant which was 'filled with mist'. On August 31, 1877, English amateur astronomer Arthur Stanley Williams noticed some sort of phosphorescent glow on the shadowed southern part of the walled plain Plato. On August 6–7, 1881, German astronomer Hermann Joseph Klein observed the region of craters Aristarchus and Herodotus, and noticed a strong violet glare with some sort of nebulosity. On March 27, 1882, A.S.Williams saw the floor of Plato at sunrise 'glowing with a curious milky kind of light'. On July 3, 1882, several residents of Lebanon, Conn., observed two pyramidal luminous protuberances on the moon's upper limb. They were not large, but gave the moon a look strikingly like that of a horned owl or the head of an English bull terrier. On February 19, 1885, Gray saw a small crater near the larger crater Hercules glow dull red 'with vivid contrast'. On February 21, 1885, Knopp observed red patches in crater Cassini. In 1887, French amateur astronomer and selenographer Casimir Marie Gaudibert noticed a temporary white spot in the central part of crater Herodotus. One night in 1892, American astronomer Edward Emerson Barnard found the bowl of crater Thales filled with luminous haze. 1891-97, American astronomer William Henry Pickering gives drawings of a probable eruption of steam from crater Schröter. A photograph made on August 26, 1898, through the équatorial coudé, shows bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C on the floor of crater Posidonius as a bright spot without shadow, although the terminator (day-night boundary) was nearby. 1901–1950 A photograph made on September 30, 1901, through the équatorial coudé, shows bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C as an elongated bright spot without shadow, although the photograph was made shortly before sunset at crater Posidonius. In 1902, French astronomer Albert Charbonneaux, using the Meudon 33-inch refractor telescope at the Paris Observatory, noticed a small white cloud west of crater Theaetetus. In 1905, German astronomer Friedrich Simon Archenhold observed a bright spot at the location of the bowl-shaped craterlet Posidonius C on the floor of crater Posidonius. On May 19, 1912, Austrian astronomer and rocketry pioneer Max Valier noticed a small red glowing area on the moon's night side. In January 1913, William Henry Pickering observed the last one of a series of eruptions of some sort of white material at crater Eimmart. On June 15, 1913, the British civil engineer and astronomer William Maw observed a 'small reddish spot' in crater South. On February 22, 1931, Joulia observed a reddish glow in crater Aristarchus. In the same year (1931) and at the same location, British businessman and amateur astronomer Walter Goodacre and (?) Molesworth (1931?) observed a bluish 'glare'. Percy B. Molesworth ? (1867–1908). On June 17, 1931, N.J.Giddings and his wife observed unusual flashes of light (lightning-like phenomena) on the night side of the moon. On August 2, 1939, British moon observer Patrick Moore noticed that the internal detail of the walled plain Schickard was obliterated by an extensive mist. In 1940, American amateur astronomer David P. Barcroft (1897–1974) observed a pronounced reddish-brown color near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Baum in 1951, and Hill in 1988. On July 10, 1941, American amateur astronomer Walter H. Haas noticed a moving dot of white light near crater Hansteen in the southern section of Oceanus Procellarum. On August 31, 1944, the floor of the walled plain Schickard looked misty to the Welsh-born engineer and amateur astronomer Hugh Percy Wilkins. Some minor craters in it, which are normally well shadowed, stood out as white spots under a low sun. On January 30, 1947, Harold Hill observed an abnormal absence of the main peak's shadow at the central mountain group of crater Eratosthenes. On April 15, 1948, F.H.Thornton, using a 9-inch reflector, observed crater Plato and noticed a minute but brilliant flash of light which he described as looking very much like the flash of an AA shell exploding in the air at a distance of about ten miles. In color it was on the orange side of yellow. On May 20, 1948, British amateur astronomer Richard M. Baum noted a reddish glow to the northeast of crater Philolaus, which he watched for fifteen minutes before it faded from sight. Three years later he observed another red glow west of crater Lichtenberg. On February 10, 1949, F.H.Thornton, using an 18-inch reflector, observed the Cobra-Head of Vallis Schroteri and recorded a 'puff of whitish vapour obscuring details for some miles in the area'. in November 1949, and also in June and July 1950, Bartlett noticed a white spot at the central part of crater Herodotus. 1951–1960 In 1951, Richard Myer Baum (1930–2017) observed the regions near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum and reported a rose-pink coloration which persisted for a time and then faded. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Barcroft in 1940, and Hill in 1988. On November 15, 1953, Dr. Leon Stuart photographed a lunar flare at approximately 10 miles southeast of crater Pallas. The duration of the flare was 8 to 10 seconds. According to Bonnie Buratti, the coordinates of the impacted object are 3.88° Latitude / 357.71° Longitude. On May 11, 1954, Peter Cattermole observed the disappearance of the central mountains of crater Eratosthenes, although the surrounding detail remained clearly visible. In 1954, Patrick Moore detected curious ray-like features crossing crater Helmholtz. On June 25, 1955, mountaineer and amateur astronomer Valdemar Axel Firsoff observed a faint mist in crater Theophilus. On July 15, 1955, V.A.Firsoff observed crater Herodotus which had a 'pseudo central peak' casting a shadow. On January 16–17, 1956, Robert Miles of Woodland, Calif., noticed a flash of white or bright blue light east of Mare Crisium. On November 2, 1958, the Russian astronomer Nikolai A. Kozyrev observed an apparent half-hour "eruption" that took place on the central peak of Alphonsus crater using a 48-inch (122-cm) reflector telescope equipped with a spectrometer. During this time, the obtained spectra showed evidence for bright gaseous emission bands due to the molecules C2 and C3. While exposing his second spectrogram, he noticed "a marked increase in the brightness of the central region and an unusual white colour." Then, "all of a sudden the brightness started to decrease" and the resulting spectrum was normal. On November 19, 1958, Raymond J. Stein of Newark observed a change in the shadow of crater Alpetragius. On December 23, 1958, Greek observers of the moon noticed a greenish coloration at crater Schickard. 1961–1970 On October 29, 1963, two Aeronautical Chart and Information Center cartographers, James Clarke Greenacre and Edward M. Barr, at the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona, manually recorded very bright red, orange, and pink colour phenomena on the southwest side of Cobra Head; a hill southeast of the lunar valley Vallis Schröteri; and the southwest interior rim of the Aristarchus crater. This event sparked a major change in attitude towards TLP reports. According to Willy Ley: "The first reaction in professional circles was, naturally, surprise, and hard on the heels of the surprise there followed an apologetic attitude, the apologies being directed at a long-dead great astronomer, Sir William Herschel." A notation by Winifred Sawtell Cameron states (1978, Event Serial No. 778): "This and their November observations started the modern interest and observing the Moon." The credibility of their findings stemmed from Greenacre's exemplary reputation as an impeccable cartographer, rather than from any photographic evidence. On the night of November 1–2, 1963, a few days after Greenacre's event, at the Observatoire du Pic-du-Midi in the French Pyrenees, Zdeněk Kopal and Thomas Rackham made the first photographs of a "wide area lunar luminescence". His article in Scientific American transformed it into one of the most widely publicized TLP events. Kopal, like others, had argued that Solar Energetic Particles could be the cause of such a phenomenon. On July 16, 1964, AAVSO member Thomas A. Cragg (1927–2011) observed a 3 km diameter 'temporary hill casting a shadow' southeast of crater Ross D in Mare Tranquillitatis. On November 15, 1965, personnel of the Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., Annapolis, Md. observed via Moon-Blink device a color phenomenon which lasted at least four hours. On April 30 and May 1, 1966, Peter Sartory, Patrick Moore, P.Ringsdore, T.J.C.A.Moseley, and P.G.Corvan observed a wedge-shaped reddish colored appearance on the eastern part of crater Gassendi's floor. In 1967, T.J.C.A.Moseley of the Armagh Observatory recorded a flash in the area of crater Parrot. In 1968, J.C.McConnell reported that the north-east wall of crater Posidonius seemed hazy and obscured; the rest of the crater was clearly visible. On April 13, 1968, during the eclipse of the moon, Winifred Cameron of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center noticed a great many star-like points on the moon. They were seen by a group of observers who accompanied her. K.E.Chilton: At times, light is polarized in areas on the moon. On the night of September 18, 1968, I was observing the crater Gauss through a polaroid filter to cut down the glare. The eastern wall of the crater was not visible; when the filter was rotated the wall appeared, indicating that the area was reflecting polarized light. Although the same area has been examined since, this phenomenon has not been noticed again. On October 31, 1968, K.E.Chilton observed a red-colored glow in crater Eratosthenes. The glow lasted 5 or 6 minutes and then faded to obscurity. During the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969, Houston radioed to Apollo 11: "We've got an observation you can make if you have some time up there. There's been some lunar transient events reported in the vicinity of Aristarchus." Astronomers in Bochum, West Germany, had observed a bright glow on the lunar surface—the same sort of eerie luminescence that has intrigued Moon watchers for centuries. The report was passed on to Houston and thence to the astronauts. Almost immediately, Michael Collins reported back: "Hey, Houston, I'm looking north up toward Aristarchus now, and there's an area that is considerably more illuminated than the surrounding area. It seems to have a slight amount of fluorescence." 1971–1980 During the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972, Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt observed a bright flash-like phenomenon north of crater Grimaldi while in orbit around the moon (First Revolution, 21:11:09 GMT, December 10, 1972). While in orbit, Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans of Apollo 17 noticed a light flash eastward of Mare Orientale (14th Revolution, 22:28:27 GMT, December 11, 1972). In September 1973, the Dutch author of books on mysterious phenomena Hans van Kampen and a friend (Van Cleef) observed near crater Linné a bright point of light which was visible for almost two minutes. 1981–1990 On December 27, 1982, British moon observer Harold Hill noticed the absence of the principal craterlet (Nasmyth A) on the floor of the crater Nasmyth. A similar phenomenon was noticed by P.Wade on December 8, 1981. On January 1, 1983, Harold Hill noticed an unusual bright appearance of craterlet Furnerius A near the pronounced crater Furnerius at the evening terminator. On January 29, 1983, several members of the British Astronomical Association (BAA) observed abnormal brightness and purplish coloration at the bowl shaped crater Torricelli B northnortheast of the pear shaped crater Torricelli in Sinus Asperitatis. On October 29, 1983, Harold Hill observed abnormal brightness at the hillock just north of crater Kirch. On December 28, 1985, Harold Hill observed an extraordinary brilliance at the mid-section of the east inner wall of crater Peirescius. On April 1, 1988, Harold Hill noticed rosy-tinged areas fringing the northern edge of the lava sheet near crater Lichtenberg in Oceanus Procellarum. See also J.H.Mädler between 1830 and 1840, Barcroft in 1940, and Baum in 1951. 1991–2000 In 1992, Audouin Dollfus of the Observatoire de Paris reported anomalous features on the floor of Langrenus crater using a one-meter (3.2-foot) telescope. While observations on the night of December 29, 1992, were normal, unusually high albedo and polarization features were recorded the following night that did not change in appearance over the six minutes of data collection. Observations three days later showed a similar, but smaller, anomaly in the same vicinity. While the viewing conditions for this region were close to specular, it was argued that the amplitude of the observations were not consistent with a specular reflection of sunlight. The favored hypothesis was that this was the consequence of light scattering from clouds of airborne particles resulting from a release of gas. The fractured floor of this crater was cited as a possible source of the gas. No date given Johann Hieronymus Schröter once saw for a short time on the dark side, near craters Agrippa and Godin, a minute point of light. J.Adams (English Mechanic N°2374) noted on two occasions near sunrise, when the interior of the walled plain Plato was filled with shadow, that two beams of light traversed two-thirds of the floor from the western wall resembling searchlights; they were parallel and well-defined, and had the appearance of passing through a slight vapour resting on the surface. Harold Hill: A number of observers have claimed in the past that the inner slopes of the formation Young have a greenish, almost translucent cast or sheen when seen at the evening terminator. Patrick Moore: There is a darkish streak across the floor of crater Fracastorius which is of a slightly reddish hue, and is detectable with a moonblink device. American amateur astronomer David Barcroft (1897–1974) had seen the crater Timocharis 'filled with vapor and very indistinct near full moon'. Spanish astronomer Josep Comas i Solà once saw crater Reiner 'as a white patch when it should have been sharply defined'. T. W. Webb recommended crater Cichus (in the eastern part of Palus Epidemiarum) for further detailed study. In Cichus, a small crater seemed to have grown larger as compared to the earlier representations by Schröter and Mädler. Explanations Explanations for the transient lunar phenomena fall in four classes: outgassing, impact events, electrostatic phenomena, and unfavorable observation conditions. Outgassing Some TLPs may be caused by gas escaping from underground cavities. These gaseous events are purported to display a distinctive reddish hue, while others have appeared as white clouds or an indistinct haze. The majority of TLPs appear to be associated with floor-fractured craters, the edges of lunar maria, or in other locations linked by geologists with volcanic activity. However, these are some of the most common targets when viewing the Moon, and this correlation could be an observational bias. In support of the outgassing hypothesis, data from the Lunar Prospector alpha particle spectrometer indicate the recent outgassing of radon to the surface. In particular, results show that radon gas was emanating from the vicinity of the craters Aristarchus and Kepler during the time of this two-year mission. These observations could be explained by the slow and visually imperceptible diffusion of gas to the surface, or by discrete explosive events. In support of explosive outgassing, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was "recently" modified by a gas release event. The age of this feature is believed to be about 1 million years old, suggesting that such large phenomena occur only infrequently. Impact events Impact events are continually occurring on the lunar surface. The most common events are those associated with micrometeorites, as might be encountered during meteor showers. Impact flashes from such events have been detected from multiple and simultaneous Earth-based observations. Tables of impacts recorded by video cameras exist for years since 2005 many of which are associated with meteor showers. Furthermore, impact clouds were detected following the crash of ESA's SMART-1 spacecraft, India's Moon Impact Probe and NASA's LCROSS. Impact events leave a visible scar on the surface, and these could be detected by analyzing before and after photos of sufficiently high resolution. No impact craters formed between the Clementine (global resolution 100 metre, selected areas 7–20 metre) and SMART-1 (resolution 50 metre) missions have been identified. Electrostatic phenomena It has been suggested that effects related to either electrostatic charging or discharging might be able to account for some of the transient lunar phenomena. One possibility is that electrodynamic effects related to the fracturing of near-surface materials could charge any gases that might be present, such as implanted solar wind or radiogenic daughter products. If this were to occur at the surface, the subsequent discharge from this gas might be able to give rise to phenomena visible from Earth. Alternatively, it has been proposed that the triboelectric charging of particles within a gas-borne dust cloud could give rise to electrostatic discharges visible from Earth. Finally, electrostatic levitation of dust near the terminator could potentially give rise to some form of phenomenon visible from Earth. Unfavourable observation conditions It is possible that many transient phenomena might not be associated with the Moon itself but could be a result of unfavourable observing conditions or phenomena associated with the Earth. For instance, some reported transient phenomena are for objects near the resolution of the employed telescopes. The Earth's atmosphere can give rise to significant temporal distortions that could be confused with actual lunar phenomena (an effect known as astronomical seeing). Other non-lunar explanations include the viewing of Earth-orbiting satellites and meteors or observational error. Debated status of TLPs The most significant problem that faces reports of transient lunar phenomena is that the vast majority of these were made either by a single observer or at a single location on Earth (or both). The multitude of reports for transient phenomena occurring at the same place on the Moon could be used as evidence supporting their existence. However, in the absence of eyewitness reports from multiple observers at multiple locations on Earth for the same event, these must be regarded with caution. As discussed above, an equally plausible hypothesis for some of these events is that they are caused by the terrestrial atmosphere. If an event were to be observed at two different places on Earth at the same time, this could be used as evidence against an atmospheric origin. One attempt to overcome the above problems with transient phenomena reports was made during the Clementine mission by a network of amateur astronomers. Several events were reported, of which four of these were photographed both beforehand and afterward by the spacecraft. However, careful analysis of these images shows no discernible differences at these sites. This does not necessarily imply that these reports were a result of observational error, as it is possible that outgassing events on the lunar surface might not leave a visible marker, but neither is it encouraging for the hypothesis that these were authentic lunar phenomena. Observations are currently being coordinated by the Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers and the British Astronomical Association to re-observe sites where transient lunar phenomena were reported in the past. By documenting the appearance of these features under the same illumination and libration conditions, it is possible to judge whether some reports were simply due to a misinterpretation of what the observer regarded as an abnormality. Furthermore, with digital images, it is possible to simulate atmospheric spectral dispersion, astronomical seeing blur and light scattering by our atmosphere to determine if these phenomena could explain some of the original TLP reports. Literature William R. Corliss: Mysterious Universe, A Handbook of Astronomical Anomalies (The Sourcebook Project, 1979). William R. Corliss: The Moon and the Planets, A Catalog of Astronomical Anomalies (The Sourcebook Project, 1985). Thomas William Webb: Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes, Volume 1: The Solar System (Dover Publications, 1962). Valdemar Axel Firsoff: The Old Moon and the New (Sidgwick & Jackson – London, 1969). A.J.M.Wanders: Op Ontdekking in het Maanland (Het Spectrum, 1949). Harry de Meyer: Maanmonografieën (Vereniging Voor Sterrenkunde, VVS, 1969). Patrick Moore: New Guide to the Moon (W.W.Norton & Company, 1976). Harold Hill: A Portfolio of Lunar Drawings (Cambridge University Press, 1991). Don E. Wilhelms: To a Rocky Moon, a Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration (The University of Arizona Press, 1993). William P. Sheehan & Thomas A. Dobbins: Epic Moon, A History of Lunar Exploration in the Age of the Telescope'' (Willmann Bell, 2001). See also Geology of the Moon Lunar lava tube Lunar soil (see: Moon dust fountains and electrostatic levitation) Lunar swirls Observing the Moon Project A119 Project Moon-Blink, a 1960s NASA investigation into transient lunar phenomena Selenography Splitting of the moon References Cited references General references Patrick Moore, On the Moon, Cassel & Co., 2001, . External links Lunar Transient Phenomena NASA feature story Lunar transient phenomena Association of Lunar & Planetary Observers NASA – Lunar Impact Monitoring Program Professor Hakan Kayal of the Space Technology at Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU) in Bavaria, Germany – Moon telescope set up in Spain, to investigate Transient Lunar Phenomena Flashes on the Moon TLP Detection Astronomical imaging Lunar science Observational astronomy Lunar observation Unsolved problems in astronomy Unexplained phenomena	[ 0.5545687079429626, 0.18510760366916656, 0.3147304952144623, -0.11678393930196762, 0.26603493094444275, -0.024305831640958786, -0.09958469867706299, 0.6957967281341553, -0.7323064208030701, -0.41399094462394714, -0.6765353679656982, 0.12973320484161377, -0.3110218048095703, 0.3070601522922516, -0.19176436960697174, 0.4064975678920746, 0.5280593037605286, 0.19336898624897003, -0.19113191962242126, -0.2228851616382599, 0.028465820476412773, 0.040828362107276917, 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231255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20relations%20movement	Human relations movement	Human relations movement refers to the researchers of organizational development who study the behaviour of people in groups, particularly in workplace groups and other related concepts in fields such as industrial and organizational psychology. It originated in the 1930s' Hawthorne studies, which examined the effects of social relations, motivation and employee satisfaction on factory productivity. The movement viewed workers in terms of their psychology and fit with companies, rather than as interchangeable parts, and it resulted in the creation of the discipline of human relations management. Mayo's work Elton Mayo stressed the following: The power of natural groups, in which social aspects take precedence over functional organizational structures. The need for reciprocal communication, in which communication is two way, from worker to chief executive, as well as vice versa. The development of high quality leadership to communicate goals and to ensure effective and coherent decision making. It has become a concern of all many companies to improve the job-oriented interpersonal skills of employees. The teaching of these skills to employees is referred to as "soft skills" training. Companies need their employees to be able to successfully communicate and convey information, to be able to interpret others' emotions, to be open to others' feelings, and to be able to solve conflicts and arrive at resolutions. By acquiring these skills, the employees, those in management positions, and the customer can maintain more compatible relationships. Arguments against Mayo's involvement in human relations Mayo's work is considered by various academics to be the basic counterpoint of Taylorism and scientific management. Taylorism, founded by Frederick W. Taylor, sought to apply science to the management of employees in the workplace in order to gain economic efficiency through labour productivity. Elton Mayo's work has been widely attributed to the discovery of the 'social person', allowing for workers to be seen as individuals rather than merely robots designed to work for unethical and unrealistic productivity expectations. However, this theory has been contested, as Mayo's purported role in the human relations movement has been questioned. Nonetheless, although Taylorism attempted to justify scientific management as a holistic philosophy, rather than a set of principles, the human relations movement worked parallel to the notion of scientific management. Its aim was to address the social welfare needs of workers and therefore elicit their co-operation as a workforce. The widely perceived view of human relations is said to be one that completely contradicts the traditional views of Taylorism. Whilst scientific management tries to apply science to the workforce, the accepted definition of human relations suggests that management should treat workers as individuals, with individual needs. In doing so, employees are supposed to gain an identity, stability within their job and job satisfaction, which in turn make them more willing to co-operate and contribute their efforts towards accomplishing organisational goals. The human relations movement supported the primacy of organizations to be attributed to natural human groupings, communication and leadership. However, the conventional depiction of the human relations 'school' of management, rising out of the ashes of scientific management is argued to be a rhetorical distortion of events. Firstly, it has been argued that Elton Mayo's actual role in the human relations movement is controversial and although he is attributed to be the founder of this movement, some academics believe that the concept of human relations was used well before the Hawthorne investigations, which sparked the human relations movement. Bruce and Nyland (2011) suggest that many academics preceded Mayo in identifying a concept similar to that of the human relations movement even going as far to suggest that the output and information collected by the Hawthorne investigations was identified well before Mayo by Taylor. In addition, Wren and Greenwood (1998) argue that Taylor made important contributions to what inspires human motivation, even though his ultimate findings were somewhat different from the human relations movement. Another name which has been attributed to pre-existing human relations ideas is that of Henry S. Dennison. The one time president of the Taylor Society has been linked to both Taylorist principles as well human relation ideals thus creating a nexus between Taylorism and human relation thought. Dennison demonstrated an activist concern both with the rationale and character of workers, and with the control and management undertaken by managers of the business enterprise. In order to assess the validity of human relations as a benchmark for rights within the workplace, the contribution of Taylorism in comparison to human relations must be established. Taylorism and scientific management entailed to be a "complete mental revolution" and as Taylor explained, Taylorism sought to encourage managers and labourers to "take their eyes off of the division of the surplus as the important matter, and together turn their attention toward increasing the size of the surplus." This notion of management appealed to the employer as it addressed organisational problems, inefficiencies and adverse employer-employee relations. Scientific management aimed to use science and qualitative data in the selection of employees and facilitate the use of employee databases and performance reviews. Firstly, scientific management aimed to reduce inefficiency through studying the time and motions in work tasks. The object of time studies was to determine how fast a job should and could be done. Secondly, Taylor purported to introduce specific quantitative goals to individual employees in order to provide challenging time restraints and thus increasing productivity. Most importantly, Taylor sought to increase productivity through organization of behaviour. 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231261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duncan%20Sandys	Duncan Sandys	Edwin Duncan Sandys, Baron Duncan-Sandys (; 24 January 1908 – 26 November 1987), was a British politician and minister in successive Conservative governments in the 1950s and 1960s. He was a son-in-law of Winston Churchill. Early life Sandys, born on 24 January 1908 at the Manor House, Sandford Orcas, Dorset, was the son of George John Sandys, a Conservative Member of Parliament (1910–1918), and Mildred Helen Cameron. Sandys' parents divorced in January 1921 when he was 12 years old. His mother married Frederick Hamilton Lister in October that year, becoming Mildred Helen Lister. He was educated at Eton College and Magdalen College, Oxford. Early career He entered the diplomatic service in 1930, serving at the Foreign Office in London as well as at the embassy in Berlin. He became Conservative Party Member of Parliament (MP) for Norwood in south London in a by-election in March 1935, at which he was opposed by an Independent Conservative candidate sponsored by Randolph Churchill. In May 1935, he was in effect saying that Germany should have a predominant place in central Europe, so that Britain could be free to pursue her colonial interests without rival. The Duncan Sandys case In 1937, Sandys was commissioned into the 51st (London) Anti-Aircraft Brigade, Royal Artillery, of the Territorial Army (TA). In 1938, he asked questions in the House of Commons on matters of national security that reflected his TA experience. He was subsequently approached by two unidentified men, presumably representing the secret services, and threatened with prosecution under section 6 of the Official Secrets Act 1920. Sandys reported the matter to the Committee of Privileges which held that the disclosures of Parliament were not subject to the legislation, though an MP could be disciplined by the House. The Official Secrets Act 1939 was enacted in reaction to this incident. Wartime career During the Second World War he fought with 51st (London) HAA Regiment in the Norwegian campaign and was wounded in action; this left him with a permanent limp. His father-in-law gave him his first ministerial post as Financial Secretary to the War Office from 1941 to 1944 during the wartime coalition government. Sandys had been wartime Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Supply. W. A. Robotham who had been in the Ministry as "Chief Engineer of Tank Design" wrote that he was knowledgable on army matters. Robotham of Rolls-Royce who had headed development of the Meteor tank engine in WWII was surprised and pleased when in 1963 Sandys said "I regard the adoption of the Meteor tank engine as the absolute turning-point in the history of British tank development", at the opening of a Rolls-Royce aero engine factory at East Kilbride (aero engines being Rolls-Royce's main business). From 1944 to 1945 he served as Minister of Works for the remainder of the coalition and in the Churchill Caretaker Ministry. While a Minister he was also chairman of a War Cabinet Committee for defence against German flying bombs and rockets, where he frequently clashed with the scientist and intelligence expert R. V. Jones. However, he lost his seat in the 1945 general election. He resigned his TA commission as a lieutenant-colonel the following year. Post-war career Sandys was responsible for establishing the European Movement in Britain in 1947 and served as a member of the European Consultative Assembly from 1950 until 1951. He was elected to parliament once again at the 1950 general election for Streatham and, when the Conservatives regained power in 1951, he was appointed Minister of Supply. For most of his time in that role, his private secretary was Jack Charles. As Minister of Housing from 1954, he introduced the Clean Air Act and in 1955 introduced the green belts. He was appointed Minister of Defence in 1957 and quickly produced the 1957 Defence White Paper that proposed a radical shift in the Royal Air Force by ending the use of fighter aircraft in favour of missile technology. Though later ministers reversed the policy, the lost orders and cuts in research were responsible for several British aircraft manufacturers going out of business. As Minister of Defence he saw the rationalisation (i.e., merger) of much of the British military aircraft and engine industry. Sandys continued as a minister at the Commonwealth Relations Office, later combining it with the Colonies Office, until the Conservative government lost power in 1964. In this role he was responsible for granting several colonies their independence and was involved in managing the British response to several conflicts involving the armed forces of the newly independent countries of East Africa. He remained in the shadow cabinet until 1966 when he was sacked by Edward Heath. He had strongly supported Ian Smith in the dispute over Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence. He was not offered a post when the Conservatives won the 1970 general election, but instead served as leader of the United Kingdom delegation to the Council of Europe and Western European Union until 1972 when he announced his retirement. The next year he was made a Companion of Honour. In 1974 he retired from parliament and was awarded a life peerage on 2 May. As the title of Baron Sandys was already held by another family, he followed the example of George Brown and incorporated his first name in the title Baron Duncan-Sandys of the City of Westminster. He was an active early member of the Conservative Monday Club. Personal life In 1935, Duncan Sandys married Diana Churchill, daughter of the future prime minister Winston Churchill. They divorced in 1960. In 1962, he married Marie-Claire (née Schmitt), who had been previously married to Robert Hudson, 2nd Viscount Hudson. The marriage lasted until Sandys' death. It has long been speculated that he may have been the 'headless man' whose identity was concealed during the scandalous divorce trial of Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll, in 1963. Sandys died on 26 November 1987 at his home in London. He is buried in the churchyard of St Nicholas in Child Okeford, Dorset. His grave is marked by a horizontal white slab. Children From his first marriage, with Diana Churchill: The Hon. Julian Sandys (19 September 1936 – 15 August 1997) The Hon. Edwina Sandys (born 22 December 1938) The Hon. Celia Sandys (born 18 May 1943). She married firstly Michael Kennedy and secondly Dennis Walters (divorced 1979). From his second marriage, with Marie-Claire Schmitt: The Hon. Laura Sandys (born 5 June 1964). She was a Conservative Member of Parliament for South Thanet. Interests Among Sandys' other interests was historic architecture. He formed the Civic Trust in 1956 and was its President; the Royal Institution of British Architects made him an honorary Fellow in 1968, and the Royal Town Planning Institute made him an honorary member. He was also a trustee of the World Security Trust. Between 1969 and 1984 he was President of Europa Nostra and acted for the preservation of the European cultural and architectural heritage. His business activities included a Directorship of the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation, which was later part of Lonrho of which he became chairman. He was therefore caught up in the scandal in which Lonrho was revealed to have bribed several African countries and broken international sanctions against Rhodesia, as well as the "unpleasant and unacceptable face of capitalism" episode involving eight directors being sacked by Tiny Rowland. Career summary Coalition Government 20 July 1941 – 7 February 1943, Financial Secretary to the War Office 7 February 1943 – 21 November 1944, Parliamentary Secretary, Ministry of Supply 21 November 1944 – 25 May 1945, Minister of Works Caretaker Government 25 May 1945 – 26 July 1945, Minister of Works Conservative Government 31 October 1951 – 18 October 1954, Minister of Supply 18 October 1954 – 13 January 1957, Minister of Housing and Local Government 13 January 1957 – 14 October 1959, Minister of Defence 14 October 1959 – 27 July 1960, Minister of Aviation 27 July 1960 – 13 July 1962, Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations 13 July 1962 – 16 October 1964, Secretary of State for the Colonies and Commonwealth Relations Notes Further reading Cowling, Maurice, The Impact of Hitler – British Policies and Policy 1933–1940, Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 415, . External links men' in sex scandal finally named – The Guardian, Thursday 10 August 2000. Obituary, New York Times 7 November 1987 http://www.europanostra.org/history/ The Papers of Lord Duncan-Sandys held at Churchill Archives Centre British Army Officers 1939−1945 1908 births 1987 deaths Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford British Army personnel of World War II British Secretaries of State for Commonwealth Affairs British Secretaries of State Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies Duncan-Sandys European integration pioneers Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Ministers in the Churchill caretaker government, 1945 Ministers in the Churchill wartime government, 1940–1945 Ministers in the Eden government, 1955–1957 Ministers in the Macmillan and Douglas-Home governments, 1957–1964 Ministers in the third Churchill government, 1951–1955 Ministers of Supply People educated at Eton College People educated at West Downs School Royal Artillery officers Secretaries of State for the Colonies UK MPs 1935–1945 UK MPs 1950–1951 UK MPs 1951–1955 UK MPs 1955–1959 UK MPs 1959–1964 UK MPs 1964–1966 UK MPs 1966–1970 UK MPs 1970–1974 UK MPs who were granted peerages Military personnel from Dorset War Office personnel in World War II	[ -0.4591265916824341, 0.4865196943283081, -0.23887671530246735, -0.7321566939353943, 0.3485000729560852, 0.7270963191986084, 0.6077543497085571, -0.5185021758079529, -0.49170881509780884, 0.1186159998178482, -0.40643617510795593, 0.22925816476345062, -0.23949043452739716, 0.3599826395511627, 0.4644502103328705, 0.29791271686553955, -0.24064326286315918, -0.12020649760961533, -0.3004402220249176, 0.14659161865711212, -0.190857395529747, -0.08682712912559509, -0.2101968228816986, 0.6822109222412109, -0.3041648864746094, 0.22348272800445557, 0.19924713671207428, -0.20711319148540497, 0.365401953458786, -0.15433771908283234, 0.39655134081840515, 0.37626397609710693, 0.24501484632492065, -0.08147475123405457, 0.01472428534179926, 0.09514574706554413, 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231262	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSL	BSL	BSL may refer to: Business Boyne Smelters Limited, an Australian-based aluminium smelter company Black Star Line, a former shipping line owned by Marcus Garvey Brookdale Senior Living, a U.S. company that operates senior residences BlueScope Steel Limited, an Australian-based flat product steel producer Education Bachelor of Science in Law, an academic degree The British School of Lome, a school in Togo, West Africa Transport Phenomena (book), an engineering textbook also known by its authors' initials (Bird, Stewart, and Lightfoot) Bangladesh Chhatra League, a students' political organisation in Bangladesh Linguistics Bulletin de la Société de Linguistique de Paris British Sign Language Bhutanese Sign Language Science and computing Biosafety level, also referred to as Biohazard Safety Level Boost Software License, a license popular for C++ projects The Bulletin of Symbolic Logic from the Association for Symbolic Logic Bootstrap loader, the full term for the software involved in booting a computer Sports Basketball Super League (Turkish: Basketbol Süper Ligi), Turkey's premier men's basketball league Israeli Basketball Super League, a former name of Israel's premier men's basketball league, now the Israeli Basketball Premier League Bafakhy Super League Transportation EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, by IATA airport code Broad Street Line, a subway line in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Other uses Biologic Space Laboratories, the location of the Metroid Fusion video game Beam Stage Loader, a machine that forms part of a longwall mine Blood sugar level Breed-specific legislation, a law to prohibit or restrict the keeping of particular types of dog	[ 0.5690187811851501, 0.43664810061454773, -0.1653662919998169, -0.7415356040000916, 0.08647681027650833, 0.08841811865568161, 0.019688565284013748, 0.6590012907981873, -0.425308495759964, 0.3005991578102112, -0.8278042078018188, -0.21454092860221863, -0.15457814931869507, 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231263	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin%20Jowett	Benjamin Jowett	Benjamin Jowett (, modern variant ; 15 April 1817 – 1 October 1893) was an influential tutor and administrative reformer in the University of Oxford, a theologian, an Anglican cleric, and a translator of Plato and Thucydides. He was Master of Balliol College, Oxford. Early life Jowett was born in Camberwell, London, the third of nine children. His father was a furrier originally from a Yorkshire family that, for three generations, had been supporters of the Evangelical movement in the Church of England, and an author of a metrical translation of the Old Testament Psalms. His mother, Isabella Langhorne (1790–1869), was related to John Langhorne, the poet and translator of Plutarch. At the age of 12, Jowett was placed on the foundation of St Paul's School (then in St Paul's Churchyard) where he soon gained a reputation as a precocious classical scholar. Aged 18 he was awarded an open scholarship to Balliol College, Oxford, where he remained for the rest of his life. He began his studies in 1836, and was quickly recognised as one of the leading Oxford dons of his generation, made a Fellow while still an undergraduate in 1838; he graduated with first-class honours in 1839. This was at the height of the Oxford Tractarian movement: through the friendship of W. G. Ward he was drawn for a time in the direction of High Anglicanism; but a stronger and more lasting influence was that of the Arnold school, represented by A. P. Stanley. The controversy caused Jowett to withdraw from High Table at college to lodgings in Broad Street. Heretical controversialist As early as 1839, Stanley had joined with Archibald Campbell Tait, the future Archbishop of Canterbury, in advocating certain university reforms. From 1846 onwards, Jowett threw himself into this movement, which in 1848 became general amongst the younger and more thoughtful fellows, until it took effect in the commission of 1850 and the act of 1854. Jowett then concentrated on theology: he spent the summers of 1845 and 1846 in Germany with Stanley, and became an eager student of German criticism and speculation. His views became more than radical, they were heretical, which severely curtailed prospects for advancement within the walls of the conformity of Anglican Oxford. Amongst the writings of that period he was most impressed by those of F. C. Baur. But he never ceased to exercise an independent judgement, and his work on St Paul, which appeared in 1855, was the result of much original reflection and inquiry. Jowett found a friend and correspondent in Florence Nightingale, but whether there was any romantic attachment is unclear. It has been suggested that he belatedly proposed marriage, but was rejected, and lived the latter part of his life in regret that he never knew matrimonial bliss. Jowett's didactic and pedagogic nature tended him towards instruction of her complicated character accusing her of exaggeration, an emotional intensity occasioned by hysteria. He was a father figure, paternalistic towards a deeply conservative woman, religious, self-censoring and strict in her conduct. Another educational reform, the opening of the Indian Civil Service to competition, took place at the same time, and Jowett was one of the commission. He had two brothers, William and Alfred who had served and died in India, and he never ceased to take a deep and practical interest in Indian affairs. After the Second Royal Commission in May 1859 he called Philomela 'the Governess of Governors of India' for her robust dealings with the poor conditions in Calcutta "the natives themselves...educated to cleanliness & health by the enforcement of sanitary regulations in the large towns." When an old man he visited Claydons, where Margaret Verney donated him a print portrait of Florence which he later bequested in his will to Somerville College. A. Sorabji, an Indian writer, was a student barrister at Somerville College in 1890s, when the Master of Balliol, pointing to the picture declared her love for him: the story was never confirmed. In another story entirely Margot Tennant later wife of Henry Asquith, befriended Jowett, only to learn that he had had a "violent...very violent" relationship with Nightingale. Jowett was an éminence grise of liberal theology but could be somewhat chaotic in his recollections. Oxford career Jowett was appointed to the Regius Professorship of Greek in autumn 1855. He had been a tutor of Balliol and an Anglican cleric since 1842 and had devoted himself to the work of tuition: his pupils became his friends for life. He discerned their capabilities and taught them to know themselves. This made him a reputation as "the great tutor". A great disappointment, his repulse for the mastership of Balliol, also in 1854, appears to have roused him into the completion of his book on The Epistles of St Paul. This work, described by one of his friends as "a miracle of boldness", is full of originality and suggestiveness, but its publication awakened against him a storm of theological opposition from the Orthodox Evangelicals, which followed him more or less through life. Instead of yielding to this, he joined with Henry Bristow Wilson and Rowland Williams, who had been similarly attacked, in the production of the volume known as Essays and Reviews. This appeared in 1860 and gave rise to a strong outbreak of criticism. Jowett's loyalty to those who were prosecuted on this account was no less characteristic than his persistent silence while the augmentation of his salary as Greek professor was withheld. This persecution was continued until 1865, when E. A. Freeman and Charles Elton discovered by historical research that a breach of the conditions of the professorship had occurred, and Christ Church, Oxford, raised the endowment from £40 a year to £500. Jowett was one of the recipients of Nightingale's three volume work Suggestions for Thought for proof-reading and criticism. In the third volume of Essays and Reviews he contributed On the Interpretation of Scripture in which he attempted to reconcile her assertion that religion was law and could be unified with science. Her radical thoughts on women's place in the home, and his departure from liberal Anglican theology helped to block his career advancement for a decade to the Mastership of Balliol. By 1860, he was already Regius Professor of Greek and a Fellow of Balliol, but an increase in his stipend was withheld. While the work gained fulsome praise from philosopher-politician John Stuart Mill, it profoundly shook the more traditional establishment's fervent belief that the working-classes would continue to worship in parish churches. Recognition that this was no longer so, was just one of the theological departures. In October 1862 he was invited to Oak Hill Park to offer Florence the sacrament. Accepting the prospect with relish, he nonetheless consulted with Archbishop Tait for permission. Many of his letters to her and Mrs Bracebridge have survived; their religion was tinged with a mutual respect for their shared common interests and intellectual gifts. Also included is an unflattering description of a middle-aged man. Height of intellectual powers Meanwhile, Jowett's influence at Oxford had steadily increased; he had his favourites. It culminated when the country clergy, provoked by the final acquittal of the essayists, had voted in convocation against the endowment of the Greek chair. Jowett's pupils, who were now drawn from the university at large, supported him with enthusiasm. He made friends with the Freemantles (related to Gladstone's minister, Grant Duff), and the Verneys at Claydons. On holiday in Derbyshire he would write to them and Florence, describing his findings at Lea Hurst in 1864. One historian has identified his relations with her as being most intense between 1863 to 1866: in April 1864, he had advised Florence Nightingale to prevent Garibaldi, her world-famous guest, from stirring up trouble in Italy. This coincided with a big philosophical argument in which they were poles apart: there were three major pieces of sanitary legislation, the Contagious Diseases Acts which in 1870 came under fire from Josephine Butler, a feminist and social reformer, who wished their repeal. The rational theologian in Jowett warned Nightingale to ignore those "on the wrong tack". Rising incidents of venereal disease posed a moral question about whether to regulate prostitution, when men still might die from the infection. Policing of the health conditions became a case for which women's rights campaigners demanded repeal, they launched a vociferous attack in the press on amongst other, Jowett. He was a compassionate man, visiting the selfless Hilary Bonham Carter dying from cancer, in May 1865 administering his own brand of prayer and kindness. He was a staunch critic of the Poor Laws that condemned the poor, sick, and vulnerable to appalling degradation, left people to starve. In London alone in 1866 there were 21,500 patients with no trained nurses. But his influence could be profound. In 1874, he criticised her impending Report of Land Tenure in India to the extent that it was never published because she "could lose influence". In the midst of other labours, Jowett had been quietly exerting his influence so as to conciliate all shades of liberal opinion, and bring them to bear upon the abolition of the theological test, which was still required for the M.A. and other degrees, and for university and college offices. He spoke at an important meeting upon this question in London on 10 June 1864, which laid the ground for the Universities Tests Act 1871. Directly after, he had made as Master, Balliol College "a sort of heaven on earth" in 1870. Speaking of the Bahá'í Faith, the emerging world religion, to his eminent pupil and classicist Professor Lewis Campbell, "This Bahá'í Movement is the greatest light that has come into the world since the time of Jesus Christ. You must watch it and never let it out of your sight. It is too great and too near for this generation to comprehend. The future alone can reveal its import." The liberal reforms to college commenced radical scientific enquiries into the nature of man's existence questioning empirical data on the basis of findings the meaning of Christianity and its very existence. The shock waves reverberated through the liberal establishment into the founding of the Labour Party and the New Liberalism of the Great War. In connection with the Greek professorship, Jowett had undertaken a work on Plato which grew into a complete translation of the Dialogues with introductory essays, for which Florence Nightingale's criticism was gratefully received. At this he laboured in vacation time for at least ten years. He argued that platonic love between men was devoid of sexual activity, though Walter Pater would later disagree. He showed no interest in offering his own opinion on God, theology in his translations, in several editions of Plato's works. The educated middle-classes were looking for an answer to how Plato could be relevant to Victorians. But his interest in theology had not abated, and his thoughts found an outlet in occasional preaching. The university pulpit, indeed, was closed to him, but several congregations in London delighted in his sermons, and from 1866 until the year of his death he preached annually in Westminster Abbey, where Stanley had become Dean in 1863. Three volumes of selected sermons were published posthumously. The years 1865–70 were occupied with assiduous teaching and writing. Amongst his pupils at Balliol were men destined to high positions in the state, whose parents had thus shown their confidence in the supposed heretic, and gratitude on this account was added to other motives for his unsparing efforts in tuition. In 1870, Robert Scott, Master of Balliol College, was promoted to the deanery of Rochester and Jowett, finally after years of trying, was elected to the vacant Mastership by the fellows of Balliol. Jowett attributed this arrangement to his liberal friend Robert Lowe, afterwards Lord Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Gladstone's ministry). From the vantage-ground of this long-coveted position the Plato was published in 1871. It had a great and well-deserved success. While scholars criticized particular renderings (and there were many small errors to be removed in subsequent editions), it was generally agreed that he had succeeded in making Plato an English classic. From 1866, his authority in Balliol had been paramount, and various reforms in college had been due to his initiative. The opposing minority were now powerless, and the younger fellows who had been his pupils were more inclined to follow him than others would have been. There was no obstacle to the continued exercise of his firm and reasonable will. He still knew the undergraduates individually, and watched their progress with a vigilant eye. His influence in the University was less assured. The pulpit of St Mary's, the University church, was no longer closed to him, but the success of Balliol in the schools gave rise to jealousy in other colleges, and old prejudices did not suddenly give way; while a new movement in favour of "the endowment of research" ran counter to his immediate purposes. Meanwhile, the tutorships in other colleges, and some of the headships also, were being filled with Balliol men, and Jowett's former pupils were prominent in both houses of parliament and at the bar. He continued the practice, which he had commenced in 1848, of taking with him a small party of undergraduates in vacation time, and working with them in one of his favourite haunts, at Askrigg in Wensleydale, or Tummel Bridget or later at West Malvern. Included in this list was Abel Hendy Jones Greenidge who became recognised as equal to the great classical scholar Theodor Mommsen. The new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1835) and the cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the master's activity. Neither business nor the many claims of friendship interrupted literary work. The six or seven weeks of the long vacation, during which he had pupils with him, were mainly employed in writing. The translation of Aristotle's Politics, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the translation of Thucydides many times revised, occupied several years. The edition of the Republic, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished, but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis Campbell. Other literary plans were not to take effect – an Essay on the Religions of the World, a Commentary on the Gospels, a Life of Christ, a volume on Moral Ideas. Such plans were frustrated, not only by his practical avocations, but by his determination to finish what he had begun, and the fastidious self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy. The book on Morals might, however, have been written but for the heavy burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing many improvements for Oxford University. The Vice-Chancellor was ex officio a delegate of the Oxford University Press, where he hoped to effect much; and a plan for draining the Thames Valley, which he had now the power of initiating, was one on which his mind had dwelt for many years. However, one plan that certainly came to fruition to great applause was the co-operation with Florence Nightingale to bring a lecture tour to Oxford for undergraduates training in the agricultural sciences for the Indian Civil Service. It was supported by economist Arnold Toynbee, also at Balliol, and W R Robertson, Principal of Madras Agricultural College. For the first time, Indians would receive a proper education in the technical aspects of forestry and farming. Later life and death The exhausting labours of the vice-chancellorship were followed by illness (1887); after this he relinquished the hope of producing any great original writing. His literary industry was thenceforth confined to a commentary on the Republic of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle which were to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the Politics. The essays which should have accompanied the translation of Thucydides were never written. Jowett, who never married, died on 1 October 1893 in Oxford. The funeral was one of the most impressive ever seen in that city. The pall-bearers were seven heads of colleges and the provost of Eton, all old pupils. Theologian, tutor, University reformer, renowned Master of an Oxford college, Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding generations was his greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the most prominent Englishmen of the day were his pupils and owed much of what they were to his precept and example, his penetrative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his unwearying friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued with so clear a recognition of practical limitations. "Dear (tho perfidious) Professor" Jowett's theological work was transitional; yet has an element of permanence, "Mr Jowett put as much of his genius into Plato as Plato did into Mr Jowett', eulogised Florence Nightingale on her old friend. As has been said of another thinker, he was "one of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new life into theology by wider and more humane ideas." In earlier life he had been a zealous student of Immanuel Kant and G. W. F. Hegel, and to the end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit; but he had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought rather to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the neglect of minutiae, but he had the higher merit of interpreting ideas. A well-known Balliol rhyme about him runs: Jowett is buried in St Sepulchre's Cemetery off Walton Street in Oxford. Publications Legacy Jowett Walk in central Oxford is named after him. He appears as "Dr Jenkinson" in The New Republic, by William Hurrell Mallock. Jowett appears briefly as a character in Louis Auchincloss's novel The Rector of Justin (1964). Jowett also appears as a minor character in Tom Stoppard's play The Invention of Love (1997). The Great Jowett is a radio play based on his life. See also History of translation Notes References Sources John Bibby: HOTS: History of Teaching Statistics for original documents. Further reading External links Works at Open Library Grave of Benjamin Jowett in St Sepulchre's Cemetery, Oxford, with biography Works at Christian Classics Ethereal Library Catalogue of the Jowett Papers at Balliol College Archives & Manuscripts, University of Oxford 1817 births 1893 deaths People from Camberwell People educated at St Paul's School, London Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford English classical scholars English theologians English Anglican theologians English Anglicans Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford Masters of Balliol College, Oxford Vice-Chancellors of the University of Oxford English translators Regius Professors of Greek (University of Oxford) British scholars of ancient Greek philosophy Translators of philosophy 19th-century British translators British essayists Translators of Ancient Greek texts 19th-century essayists	[ -0.08768519014120102, 0.6932241916656494, -0.6994980573654175, -0.8070090413093567, -0.10646191984415054, 1.3402572870254517, 0.96696937084198, 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231266	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A2W%20reactor	A2W reactor	The A2W reactor is a naval nuclear reactor used by the United States Navy to provide electricity generation and propulsion on warships. The A2W designation stands for: A = Aircraft carrier platform 2 = Second generation core designed by the contractor W = Westinghouse was the contracted designer History This nuclear reactor was used in the world's first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier, the . The four propulsion plants on Enterprise each contained two reactors, numbered according to the shaft they powered, 1A-1B, 2A-2B, 3A-3B, and 4A-4B. Each propulsion plant was capable of operating on one reactor plant through most of the power range required to propel the ship at speeds in excess of . Both reactors would have been on-line to simultaneously provide maximum ship speed and plane launching capability. Design and operation The reactors are pressurized water reactors fueled by highly enriched (upwards of 93%) uranium-235. Light water is used as both neutron-moderator and reactor coolant. Hafnium Control rods are used to control the operation of the reactor. Extracting the rods to a calculated height allows the reactor to reach criticality, the point at which the nuclear fission reactions reach a self-sustaining level. Thereafter, steam flow (from the steam generators) regulates reactor power as explained below. The control rods are "shimmed" in or out to regulate average coolant temperature or lowered to the bottom of the reactor vessel to shut the reactor down — either done in a slow controlled manner or dropped rapidly during what is called a SCRAM to immediately shut the reactor down in an emergency. Much of the reactor power control during steady-state operation comes as a result of the coolant water's negative temperature coefficient. The power of the reactor is determined by the instantaneous rate of fission events that take place in the fuel. As the water heats up, it expands and becomes less dense, which provides fewer molecules per volume to moderate the neutrons, hence fewer neutrons are slowed to the required thermal energies to sustain thermal fission. Conversely, when the coolant water temperature decreases, its density increases and a greater number of neutrons reach the required thermal energy, increasing the number of fissions per unit of time, creating more heat. This has the effect of allowing "steam demand" to control reactor power, requiring little intervention by the Reactor Operator for changes in the power demanded by the ship's operations. The hot water from the reactors is sent, via large pipes, into heat exchangers called steam generators. There the heat from the pressurised, superheated reactor coolant water is transferred, through tube walls, to water being fed into the steam generators from a separate feed system. In the A1W and A2W systems, the reactor coolant water is kept between . In the steam generators, the water from the feed system is converted to steam at and a pressure of about . Once the reactor coolant water has given off its heat in the steam generators, it is returned, via large electric pumps (four per reactor), to the reactors to repeat the cycle. Saturated steam at 600 psi is channeled from each steam generator to a common header, where the steam is then sent to the main engine, electrical generators, aircraft catapult system, and various auxiliaries. There are two main propulsion turbines, one high pressure turbine and one low pressure turbine, with a moisture separator in place between the two. The Low Pressure main propulsion turbine is double-ended, whereby the steam enters at the center and divides into two streams as it enters the actual turbine wheels, expanding and giving up its energy as it does so, causing the turbine to spin at high speed. The main shaft enters a reduction gear in which the high rotational velocity of the turbine shaft is stepped down to a usable turn rate for propelling the ship. The expended steam from the main engine and other auxiliaries enters condensers to be cooled into liquid water and recycled to the feed system. 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231267	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seis%20bagatelas	Seis bagatelas	Seis bagatelas is a 1987 work by Juan Maria Solare for trio of flutes. The world premiere was in Mendoza on 15 November 2000, at the Auditorio of the Escuela de Música of the Universidad Nacional de Cuyo. It was played by Virginia Rivarola, Cecilia Ulloque and Irina Gruszka. The European premiere was performed by the Trio Soli Sono at the Berliner Kabarett Anstalt, Berlin, on 26 December 2000. The work has been published by Verlag Dohr in Cologne (Germany). 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231268	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epiclesis	Epiclesis	The epiclesis (also spelled epiklesis; from "surname" or "invocation") refers to the invocation of one or several gods. In ancient Greek religion, the epiclesis was the epithet used as the surname given to a deity in religious contexts. The term was borrowed into the Christian tradition, where it designates the part of the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) by which the priest invokes the Holy Spirit (or the power of God's blessing) upon the Eucharistic bread and wine in some Christian churches. In most Eastern Christian traditions, the Epiclesis comes after the Anamnesis (remembrance of Jesus' words and deeds); in the Western Rite it usually precedes. In the historic practice of the Western Christian Churches, the consecration is effected at the Words of Institution though during the rise of the Liturgical Movement, many denominatons introduced an explicit epiclesis in their liturgies. Ancient Greece The Ancient Greek term epíklēsis (ἐπίκλησις; literally 'calling upon') can be translated as 'surname, additional name', or as 'invocation, appeal'. In ancient Greek religion, the epiclesis was used as the surname that was associated with a deity during religious invocations, in contrast to the more general term 'epithet' (ἐπίθετον), which is used in poetic contexts. In the 2nd century AD, the Greek geographer Pausanias used the term 'epiclesis' to designate the appellation under which a deity was honoured in specific places or occasions. Christianity Eastern churches While in the Roman Catholic Church, the Words of Institution are considered to be the moment of Transubstantiation (when, according to religious tradition, the eucharistic elements would change from bread and wine into the actual Body and Blood of Christ), the Eastern Orthodox Churches do not hold this belief. Instead, the Epiclesis is believed to be the moment at which this change is completed. However, the actual process of change is not considered to begin at this moment, but begins with the Liturgy of Preparation—it is merely completed at the Epiclesis. The Epiclesis is considered to be essential to the validity of the Sacred Mystery (sacrament), and in the 20th century, when Western Rite Orthodox parishes began to be established, it was necessary to add an Epiclesis to their Eucharistic rites, if one was not already there (for instance, those parishes which desired to use the Anglican Missal.) Liturgy of Addai and Mari In its pure form, the ancient anaphora of the Divine Liturgy of Addai and Mari used in the Church of the East (East Syriac Rite) does include an epiclesis. It does not use the Words of Institution, although they appear directly and indirectly in other parts of the rite (and is therefore considered to be implicit). Priest: We too, my Lord, your feeble, unworthy, and miserable servants who are gathered in your name and stand before you at this hour, and have received by tradition the example which is from you, while rejoicing, glorifying, exalting, and commemorating, perform this great, fearful, holy, life-giving, and divine Mystery of the passion, death, burial, and resurrection of our Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. And may there come, O my Lord, your Holy Spirit, and may he rest upon this oblation of your servants. May he bless it and hallow it, and may it be for us, O my Lord, for the pardon of debts, the forgiveness of sins, the great hope of resurrection from the dead, and for new life in the kingdom of heaven with all who have been well-pleasing before you. And for all this great and marvelous dispensation towards us we will give thanks to you and praise you without ceasing in your church, which is saved by the precious blood of your Christ. Liturgy of St. James In the Liturgy of Saint James, according to the form in which it is celebrated on the island of Zakynthos, Greece, the anaphora is as follows: Priest (aloud): Thy people and Thy Church entreat Thee. (thrice) People: Have mercy on us, Lord God, the Father, the Almighty. (thrice) The Priest, in a low voice: Have mercy on us, Lord God, the Father, the Almighty. Have mercy on us, God our Saviour. Have mercy on us, O God, in accordance with Thy great mercy, and send forth upon these holy gifts, here set forth, Thine all-holy Spirit, (bowing) the Lord and giver of life, enthroned with Thee, God and Father, and Thine only-begotten Son, co-reigning, consubstantial and co-eternal, who spoke by the Law and the Prophets and by Thy New Covenant, who came down in the form of a dove upon our Lord Jesus Christ in the river Jordan, and rested upon him, who came down upon Thy holy Apostles in the form of fiery tongues in the upper room of holy and glorious Sion on the day of Pentecost. (Standing up) Thy same all-holy Spirit, Lord, send down on us and on these gifts here set forth, (aloud): that having come by his holy, good and glorious presence, He may sanctify this bread and make it the holy Body of Christ, People: Amen. Priest: and this Cup (chalice) the precious Blood of Christ, People: Amen. The Priest signs the holy Gifts and says in a low voice: that they may become for all those who partake of them for forgiveness of sins and everlasting life. For sanctification of souls and bodies. For a fruitful harvest of good works. For the strengthening of Thy holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church, which Thou didst found on the rock of the faith, so that the gates of Hell might not prevail against it, delivering it from every heresy and from the scandals caused by those who work iniquity, and from the enemies who arise and attack it, until the consummation of the age. Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom In the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom an epiclesis is present (explicit); the priest says: Priest: Again we offer to Thee this spiritual and bloodless worship; and we beg Thee, we ask Thee, we pray Thee: Send down Thy Holy Spirit upon us and upon these Gifts set forth. Priest: God Cleanse me a sinner and have mercy on me(3) Priest: O Lord, Who didst send down Thy most Holy Spirit at the third hour on Thy apostles, take Him not from us O Good One, but renew Him in us who pray unto Thee (Deacon: Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me) Priest: O Lord, Who didst send down Thy most Holy Spirit at the third hour on Thy apostles, take Him not from us O Good One, but renew Him in us who pray unto Thee (Deacon: Create in me a clean heart, O God, and renew a right spirit within me) Priest: O Lord, Who didst send down Thy most Holy Spirit at the third hour on Thy apostles, take Him not from us O Good One, but renew Him in us who pray unto Thee (Deacon [pointing with his orarion to the diskos]: Bless, Master, the Holy Bread.) Priest: Make this bread the Precious Body of Thy Christ, (Deacon [pointing to the chalice]: Amen. Bless, Master, the Holy Cup.) Priest: And that which is in this Cup, the Precious Blood of Thy Christ, (Deacon [pointing to both]: Amen. Bless them both, Master.) Priest: Changing them by Thy Holy Spirit. (Deacon: Amen, Amen, Amen.) Liturgy of St. Basil the Great In the Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great according to the Greek recension of the prayers, the liturgical actions described above for the Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom are the same. The formula is as follows: Priest: Therefore, O Most-holy Master we sinners and Thine unworthy servants also, having been vouchsafed to minister at Thy holy Altar, not because of our righteousness, for we have not done that which is good on the earth, but because of Thy mercies and Thy compassions, which Thou hast poured out richly upon us, dare to draw nigh unto Thy holy Altar; and having presented the sacred emblems of the Body and Blood of Thy Christ, we pray Thee, and we call upon Thee: O Holy of Holies, through the favour of Thy goodness send Thy Holy Spirit down upon us, and upon these Gifts presented here, and bless them, sanctify, and manifest them. (Deacon [pointing with his orarion to the diskos]: Bless, Master, the Holy Bread.) Priest: And make this Bread itself the precious Body of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, (Deacon [pointing to the chalice: Amen. Bless, Master, the Holy Cup.) Priest: And that which is in this Cup, the precious Blood itself of our Lord and God and Saviour Jesus Christ, (Deacon [pointing to both]: Amen. Bless them both, Master.) Priest: Which was shed for the life of the world, and for its salvation. (Deacon: Amen) Priest: Changing them by Thy Holy Spirit. (Deacon: Amen, Amen, Amen.) Roman Rite Implicit epiclesis It is sometimes said that, in the Roman Rite of Mass, the prayer Quam oblationem of the Roman Canon represents an implicit epiclesis: Be pleased, O God, we pray, to bless, acknowledge, and approve this offering in every respect; make it spiritual and acceptable, so that it may become for us the Body and Blood of your most beloved Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. Another candidate for an implicit epiclesis is the Veni, sanctificator prayer of the Roman Canon: Come, Thou, the Sanctifier, God, almighty and everlasting: bless this sacrifice which is prepared for the glory of Thy holy name. The Roman Canon mentions the Holy Spirit explicitly only once, in the final doxology: "Through him [Christ], and with him, and in him, O God, almighty Father, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, all glory and honour is yours, for ever and ever." The Catechism of the Catholic Church considers an at least implicit epiclesis to be a vital part of the sacrament: "At the heart of the Eucharistic celebration are the bread and wine that, by the words of Christ and the invocation of the Holy Spirit, become Christ's Body and Blood." Nicholas Cabasilas was of the opinion that the functional epiclesis in the Roman Rite is instead the prayer Supplices te rogamus, which, like the explicit epicleses in the Byzantine Rite, is placed after the anamnesis and oblation: In humble prayer we ask you, almighty God: command that these gifts be borne by the hands of your holy Angel to your altar on high in the sight of your divine majesty, so that all of us, who through this participation at the altar receive the most holy Body and Blood of your Son, may be filled with every grace and heavenly blessing. (Through Christ our Lord. Amen.) In Western Rite Orthodox parishes, an epiclesis, modified from that of the Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, is inserted into the Roman canon, immediately before the supplices. The addition of an epiclesis was originally suggested by Joseph Overbeck, the first person to make serious petitions for the restoration of an Orthodox western rite. This opinion on the need of an epiclesis was shared by the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, who added an epiclesis to the modified book of common prayer, later known as the Divine Liturgy of St. Tikhon. When the Gregorian Liturgy was approved for use in 1961, the Overbeck missal was approved for use, including the epicleses. This epiclesis shares most of its text with that of the Liturgy of St. John, but with certain omissions, streamlining it better into the canon. And we beseech, Thee, O Lord, to send down Thy Holy Spirit upon (us and upon) these offerings, that He would make this bread the precious body of Thy Christ, and that which is in this cup, the precious blood of Thy Son, our Lord Jesus Christ. Transmuting/Changing (them) by the Holy Spirit Many variances exist in the exact text of the epiclesis, due to translation inconsistency and different schools of thought on how the modified canon should be handled (e.g. should the elevation of the host and chalice remain?) Explicit epicleses The additional Eucharistic Prayers (EP) introduced into the Roman Rite in the 1969 revision have both a pre-consecration and a post-consecration epiclesis. Pre-consecration EP II: Make holy, therefore, these gifts, we pray by sending down your Spirit upon them like the dewfall, so that they may become for us the Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ. EP III: Therefore, O Lord, we humbly implore you by the same Spirit graciously make holy these gifts we have brought to you for consecration, that they may become the Body and Blood of your Son our Lord Jesus Christ, at whose command we celebrate these mysteries. EP IV: Therefore, O Lord, we pray: may this same Holy Spirit graciously sanctify these offerings, that they may become the Body and Blood of our Lord Jesus Christ for the celebration of this great mystery which he himself left us as an eternal covenant. Post-consecration EP II: Humbly we pray, that, partaking of the Body and Blood of Christ we may be gathered into one by the Holy Spirit. EP III: Look, we pray, upon the oblation of your Church and, recognising the sacrificial Victim by whose death you willed to reconcile us to yourself, grant that we, who are nourished by the Body and Blood of your Son and filled with his Holy Spirit, may become one body, one spirit in Christ. EP IV: Look, O Lord, upon the Sacrifice which you yourself have provided for your Church, and grant in your loving kindness to all who partake of this one Bread and one Chalice that, gathered into one body by the Holy Spirit, they may truly become a living sacrifice in Christ to the praise of your glory. Protestantism Anglicanism and Lutheranism Lutheran and Anglican divines have argued that in earlier liturgies of theirs in which an Epiclesis and unity with the one sacrifice of Christ may not have seemed explicit (as with the 1662 Book of Common Prayer), it was stated as the point of the consecration in other parts of the rite, notably in required exhortations (the Words of Institution). In present-day practice, Anglicans in the USA and American Lutheran Eucharistic prayers and newer Old Catholic anaphoras, tend to follow the Eastern practice of treating the Words of Institution as a warrant for the action, with the Epiclesis following the anamnesis/oblation. For example, after the Words of Institution, the epiclesis in Eucharistic Prayer B in the American Book of Common Prayer (which is found in the Canadian Book of Alternative Service and several other Anglican liturgies) reads: "And we offer our sacrifice of praise and thanksgiving to you, O Lord of All, presenting to you, from your creation, this bread and this wine. We pray you, gracious God, to send your Holy Spirit upon these gifts that they may be + the Sacrament of the Body of Christ and his Blood of the new Covenant. Unite us to your Son in his sacrifice, that we may be acceptable through him, being + sanctified by the Holy Spirit." After the Words of Institution in the Lutheran Book of Worship, for example, the epiclesis in Eucharistic Prayer III reads: "And we implore you mercifully to accept our praise and thanksgiving and, with your Word and Holy Spirit, to bless us, your servants, and these your own gifts of bread and wine; that we and all who share in the + body and blood of your Son may be filled with Heavenly peace and joy and, receiving the forgiveness of sin, may be + sanctified in soul and body, and have our portion with all your saints." Methodism The Sunday Service of the Methodists, the first Methodistic liturgical text, saw the "words of institution as the main consecratory act". The Wesleys "introduced the epiclesis in their eucharistic hymns"; as such, early Methodists sung a hymnic epiclesis from Hymns of the Lord's Supper (HLS) after the Words of Institution. According to a 2003 report of the British Methodist Church, His Presence Makes The Feast: Holy Communion in the Methodist Church: "The one Spirit by whom we are all baptised into the one body (1 Corinthians 12:13) is the same Spirit who unites us in and with the body of Christ in Holy Communion. The Holy Spirit at work in the Church of the Acts of the Apostles brings into effect a witnessing and preaching community in which there is apostolic teaching, fellowship, prayer and the breaking of the bread (Acts 2:42)." The epiclesis of the present-day liturgy in many Methodist connexions draws from both the Anglican tradition, such as the 1549 Prayer Book, and the liturgical renewal movement of the 20th century that focused upon liturgies of the ancient church, such as the early rite of Hippolytus. From these traditions, John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, inherited the notion that the Holy Spirit was to be invoked to make real and true all that God had promised to bestow on the faithful through Holy Communion. This theology of epiclesis is evidenced in several Methodist hymns written by Charles Wesley, the brother of John Wesley. The epiclesis used in The United Methodist Church is as follows: "Pour out your Holy Spirit on us gathered here, and on these gifts of bread and wine. Make them be for us the body and blood of Christ, that we may be for the world the body of Christ, redeemed by his blood. By your Spirit make us one with Christ, one with each other,..." (UMH; pages 10, 14). The traditional rite of Holy Communion used before the publication of the 1989 hymnal did not include an explicit epiclesis. The traditional text, with slight revisions, is Word and Table IV, and it contains a 16 word, two line epiclesis, as follows: "bless and sanctify with thy Word and Holy Spirit these thy gifts of bread and wine" (UMH, page 29.) Another epiclesis used in the Methodist Church in Great Britain is as follows: "Send down your Holy Spirit that these gifts of bread and wine may be for us the body and blood of Christ. Unite us with him for ever and bring us with the whole creation to your eternal kingdom." Use in other sacraments A similar invocation of the Holy Spirit by the priest in some other sacraments is also called an epiclesis. The Eastern Orthodox Church holds that such an epiclesis is necessary for the validity of the Holy Mystery (sacrament) of marriage; the Roman Catholic Church holds that it is not, since for them the bride and groom are the ministers of that sacrament. An epiclesis also appears in the Orthodox rite of Baptism. Baptism in the Roman Rite includes an epiclesis as part of the blessing of the baptismal water: "We ask you, Father, with your Son to send the Holy Spirit upon the water of this font. May all who are buried with Christ in the death of baptism rise also with him to newness of life. We ask this through Christ our Lord." In the Roman Rite sacrament of Confirmation, the bishop invokes the Holy Spirit upon those being confirmed: "Send your Holy Spirit upon them to be their Helper and Guide." Other epicleses include that in the Eastern Orthodox Great Blessing of Waters on the feast of the Theophany. References Bibliography Further reading External links The Epiklesis (photo) ccwatershed.org Eucharistic devotions Greek words and phrases Catholic liturgical law	[ 0.18600714206695557, 0.19050587713718414, -1.1088793277740479, 0.36751940846443176, -0.5797098875045776, 0.9582687616348267, 0.4590076804161072, 0.4546046853065491, -0.5658085346221924, -0.5283006429672241, -0.8112809658050537, 0.2810990512371063, -0.12375537306070328, -0.1149401143193245, -0.34657052159309387, -0.2444179654121399, 0.28210827708244324, 0.9008301496505737, -0.09815984219312668, -0.5560759902000427, -0.08938142657279968, 0.2735324800014496, 0.22443003952503204, -0.2660408616065979, 0.2572360932826996, 0.43895775079727173, -0.19783852994441986, -0.4447508156299591, 0.2858099639415741, 0.19335149228572845, -0.006787553429603577, 0.8059898018836975, -0.297567218542099, -0.5258110761642456, -0.1506778597831726, -0.2041248083114624, -0.09736961871385574, 0.2158489227294922, 0.14098557829856873, 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231271	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halberstadt%20%28district%29	Halberstadt (district)	Halberstadt was a district (Kreis) in the middle of Saxony-Anhalt, Germany. Neighboring districts were (from north clockwise) Bördekreis, Quedlinburg, Wernigerode, Goslar, Wolfenbüttel, Helmstedt. History The region around Halberstadt was a clerical principality, which emerged with the creation of the Bishopric of Halberstadt in 804 and existed until the Thirty Years' War. In 1648 it was secularized and became part of Brandenburg-Prussia as the Principality of Halberstadt. During the Napoleonic Wars it became part of the French-controlled Kingdom of Westphalia, where Halberstadt was the capital of the Département of the Saale. In 1815 it came back to the Kingdom of Prussia, and in 1816 it became part of the Regierungsbezirk Magdeburg within the newly established Prussian Province of Saxony. At the same time the Landkreis (district) of Halberstadt was created. In 1825 it was merged with the Osterwieck district. On July 1, 2007, the district was merged with the districts of Quedlinburg and Wernigerode to form the new district of Harz. Geography The district is located at the northern end of the Harz mountains. Coat of arms Towns and municipalities External links Official website (German) Halberstadt Districts of Prussia 1816 establishments in Germany 2007 disestablishments in Germany	[ -0.3640480041503906, 0.537233293056488, 0.8164849281311035, -0.27397122979164124, -0.5713897943496704, 0.26362526416778564, 0.8734860420227051, -0.010008469223976135, 0.19774599373340607, -0.506898820400238, 0.4442688822746277, -0.791960597038269, 0.0011489500757306814, 0.511780321598053, -0.4356860816478729, 0.5787176489830017, 0.14757677912712097, 0.36432942748069763, 0.12751370668411255, -0.5737744569778442, -0.05282926931977272, 0.26330509781837463, 0.07693736255168915, -0.08385956287384033, 0.09903313219547272, -0.4962064325809479, 0.5559650659561157, 0.27311041951179504, -0.25107523798942566, 0.014077233150601387, -0.18070682883262634, 0.6433302164077759, -0.55408775806427, 0.26089975237846375, 0.26141542196273804, 0.6072586178779602, -0.258802205324173, -0.6675678491592407, 0.013021484017372131, 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231272	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Campbell%20%28classicist%29	Lewis Campbell (classicist)	Lewis Campbell (; 1830–1908) was a Scottish classical scholar. Biography Campbell was born in Edinburgh. His father, Robert Campbell, RN, was a first cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. His mother was the author Eliza Constantia Campbell. His father died when he was two years of age. In 1844 his mother married Colonel Morrieson. Campbell was educated at Edinburgh Academy, the University of Glasgow, Trinity College, Oxford and Balliol College, Oxford. He was fellow and tutor of Queen's College, Oxford (1855–1858), vicar of Milford, Hampshire (1858–1863), and professor of Greek at the University of St Andrews (1863–1894). An advocate for the higher education for women, he was closely involved in the foundation of St Leonards School for Girls and was the chairman of the school council for many years.In 1894, he was elected an honorary fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. From 1894 to 1896 he gave the Gifford Lectures, which were published in 1898. Works As a scholar he is best known by his work on Sophocles and Plato. His published works include: Sophocles Greek text with English notes in two volumes (2nd ed., 1879) The Sophistes and Politicus of Plato Greek text with English notes (1867) Sophocles, The Seven Plays in English Verse (1883) The Theaetetus of Plato Greek text with English notes (2nd ed., 1883) Republic, the Greek text, in three volumes (with Benjamin Jowett, 1894) Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett in two volumes (with Evelyn Abbott, 1897) Letters of B. Jowett (1899) Life of James Clerk Maxwell, with William Garnett, 1st ed., 1882, (new ed. revised and abridged, 1884) A Guide to Greek Tragedy for English Readers (1891) (Gifford Lectures for 1894-1895) On the Nationalisation of the Old English Universities (1901) Verse translations of the plays of Aeschylus (1890) Sophocles (1896) Plato's Republic Oxford lectures (1902) Tragic Drama in Aeschylus, Sophocles and Shakespeare (1904) Paralipomena Sophoclea (1907). Sir W.D. Ross had recognized the importance of stylometric methods in Plato chronology which Campbell had introduced in his editions of the Sophistes and Politicus of 1869. Recent scholars such as Charles H. Kahn and Diskin Clay, have each advanced the ordering and grouping of Plato's dialogues according to the same method. Notes References External links Lewis Campbell biographical notes and Lectures available from the Gifford Lectures website 1830 births 1908 deaths 19th-century Scottish people Academics from Edinburgh People educated at Edinburgh Academy Alumni of the University of Glasgow Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Academics of the University of St Andrews Fellows of The Queen's College, Oxford Fellows of Balliol College, Oxford Scottish biographers Scottish classical scholars Scottish translators Scottish literary critics 19th-century British translators Writers from Edinburgh	[ -0.18054446578025818, 0.619384229183197, -0.40007373690605164, -0.9215376973152161, -0.20144273340702057, 0.5065560936927795, 1.1487460136413574, 0.2046574205160141, -0.4457562565803528, -0.3821924924850464, -0.5570977330207825, -0.10322202742099762, -0.4209274351596832, 0.6679755449295044, 0.31478551030158997, 0.7116934061050415, -0.005840277299284935, -0.19635435938835144, 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231281	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ironside%20%281967%20TV%20series%29	Ironside (1967 TV series)	Ironside is an American television crime drama that aired on NBC over eight seasons from 1967 to 1975. The show starred Raymond Burr as Robert T. Ironside (usually addressed by the title "Chief Ironside"), a consultant for the San Francisco police department (formerly chief of detectives), who was paralyzed from the waist down after being shot while on vacation. The character debuted on March 28, 1967, in a TV movie entitled Ironside. When the series was broadcast in the United Kingdom, from late 1967 onward, it was broadcast as A Man Called Ironside. The show earned Burr six Emmy and two Golden Globe nominations. Ironside is a production of Burr's Harbour Productions Unlimited in association with Universal Television. Plot The series revolves around former San Francisco Police Department (SFPD) Chief of Detectives Robert T. Ironside (Raymond Burr), a veteran of more than 20 years of police service, forced to retire from the department after a sniper's bullet to the spine paralyzed him from the waist down, resulting in his reliance on a wheelchair. In the pilot episode, a television movie, Ironside shows his strength of character and gets himself appointed a "special department consultant" by his good friend, Police Commissioner Dennis Randall. He does this by calling a press conference and then tricking Commissioner Randall into meeting his terms. In the pilot, Ironside eventually solves the mystery of the ambush. He requests Ed Brown and Eve Whitfield be assigned to him. Supporting characters on Ironside included Det. Sgt. Edward "Ed" Brown (Don Galloway) and a young socialite-turned-plainclothes officer, Eve Whitfield (Barbara Anderson). In addition, delinquent-turned assistant Mark Sanger (Don Mitchell), who subsequently attends and graduates from law school (night classes were mentioned from early on), joins the San Francisco police force himself in the sixth season, then marries late in the run of the series. Commissioner Randall was played by Gene Lyons. After the program's fourth season, Anderson left for personal reasons, and her character was then replaced by another young policewoman, Fran Belding (Elizabeth Baur), who filled much the same role for four more years. Ironside uses a fourth-floor room (for living and office space) in the old San Francisco Hall of Justice building, which housed the city's police headquarters. He recruits Mark Sanger to be his personal assistant after Sanger is brought in as a suspect who wanted to kill Ironside. Ironside acquires a specially equipped, former fleet-modified 1940 1½-ton Ford police patrol wagon, with bulletproof glass and a specially modified high-performance supercharged and fuel-injected V-8 engine. This is replaced in the episode titled "Poole's Paradise" after the van is destroyed by Sergeant Brown as part of a way to trick a corrupt sheriff. At the end of the episode, the patrol wagon is replaced by a one-off fully custom modified 1969 1-ton Ford Econoline Window Van. The show became a success as Ironside depended on brains and initiative in solving cases. Although Ironside is portrayed as good-hearted and honest, he often maintains a somewhat gruff persona. The series enjoyed a seven-and-a-half-season run on NBC, drawing respectable, if not always high ratings. As the shortened eighth and final season began (only 16 of 19 episodes produced were aired by NBC), Universal released a syndicated rerun package of episodes from earlier seasons under the title The Raymond Burr Show, reflecting the practice of that time to differentiate original network episodes from syndicated reruns whenever possible. After NBC's midseason cancellation, however, the syndicated episodes reverted to the Ironside title. Cast Raymond Burr as Chief Robert T. Ironside Don Galloway as Detective Sergeant Ed Brown Barbara Anderson as Officer Eve Whitfield Don Mitchell as Mark Sanger Elizabeth Baur as Fran Belding Gene Lyons as Commissioner Dennis Randall (recurring role) Production Locations The show was filmed in a mixture of locations, sometimes in San Francisco, but also with a large number of studio scenes (including scenes with conversations in a moving vehicle, where a traffic backdrop is used). The shows contained stock footage of San Francisco, with pan shots of Coit Tower or clips of traffic scenes. Ironside and his team used a rather large open space on the fourth floor of the Old Hall of Justice in San Francisco at 750 Kearny Street between Washington and Merchant Streets. The Old Hall had already been demolished while Ironside was still in production. It had been abandoned in 1961 and demolished in late 1967. The SFPD had begun using their new home by January 1962. In December 1967, demolition finally began. Wrecking balls and bulldozers took 5 months to raze the building. Music The opening theme music was composed by Quincy Jones, and was the first synthesizer-based television theme song. In 1971, Jones recorded a fuller four-minute band version for the album Smackwater Jack. This recording was then edited and used for the opening credits of the fifth through eighth seasons (1971–1975). (The entire album track can be heard in the fifth-season episode "Unreasonable Facsimile" as Ironside and team track a suspect on the streets of San Francisco.) The iconic theme music has since been sampled in numerous recordings and soundtracks to recent television commercials and shows, including "All Caps" by the hip-hop duo Madvillain. In addition to the opening theme music, Quincy Jones composed the entire score for the first eight episodes. Oliver Nelson took over those duties up to the end of the winter to spring 1972 episodes. Nelson was then replaced by Marty Paich for nearly all of the episodes from the beginning of the fall of that year until the last episode that was produced, in late 1974. The song "Even When You Cry", with music composed by Jones and lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman, was performed by James Farentino in the episode "Something for Nothing", while Marcia Strassman had already sung it off-screen in the earlier episode "The Man Who Believed"; both installments were originally transmitted during season one. Episodes Episode list * Pilot episode was titled A Man Called Ironside. ** The last three episodes of the series were not broadcast on NBC, but were later seen in syndication, as well as released on DVD. TV reunion movie Burr and the main cast reunited for a made-for-TV movie in 1993, The Return of Ironside, which aired on May 4, 1993, on NBC, not long before Burr's death. At the time, Burr was starring in a series of telefilms for NBC playing his most famous character, Perry Mason. In the years between the end of Ironside in 1975 and the first Perry Mason movie in 1985, Burr's appearance had undergone some changes. His hair was grayer, he had gained a significant amount of weight, and after years of playing clean-shaven characters, he grew a beard. Since nearly 20 years had passed since Ironside left the air, and as he had been playing Perry Mason on television for the previous eight years, Burr felt that he was more associated with Perry Mason. He believed that to play Ironside properly and not confuse viewers, he would need to undergo a small makeover to distinguish the Ironside character from the more identifiable Perry Mason. Burr thus had his hair colored (which was unnecessary, since Burr was already gray-haired when Ironside originally aired) and cut his beard down to a goatee. One thing Burr did not need to do, however, was pretend to be disabled. At the time the Ironside reunion went into production, Burr had been suffering from kidney cancer that had metastasized to his liver, and the disease left him unable to stand or walk without assistance. Thus, like Ironside, Burr used a wheelchair to get around. Unlike the original series, which took place in San Francisco, the reunion was set and filmed in Denver, Colorado, with the justification that the character Ed Brown had become the city's deputy chief of police. (Denver was also where most of Burr's Perry Mason TV movies were produced.) Galloway, Mitchell, Anderson, and Baur recreated their roles for the movie, though Anderson and Baur had not worked at the same time on the original series. Broadcast history Notable guest appearances Crossovers and spinoffs At the start of its sixth season, Ironside did a two-part crossover episode with The Bold Ones: The New Doctors, titled "Five Days in the Death of Sergeant Brown", where Ed is critically injured by a sniper and is treated by Dr. David Craig and his medical staff. Part 1 was broadcast on Ironside and part 2 on The New Doctors. Part 2 is now shown in reruns as an episode of Ironside. E. G. Marshall and David Hartman (stars of The New Doctors) received starring credit in the opening credits of both episodes. Part 2 features a longer edited version of Quincy Jones' "Ironside" theme as heard on his 1971 album Smackwater Jack. NBC's 1971 fall TV season opened with a two-hour crossover between Ironside and a new series, Sarge, starring George Kennedy as a cop-turned-priest. Kennedy's San Diego–based Father Samuel Cavanaugh comes to San Francisco because of the death of a friend and fellow priest, and his investigation gets him embroiled with Ironside and his staff. The special consolidated the two shows' consecutive time slots and has been subsequently seen as a TV-movie, The Priest Killer. Jessica Walter guest-starred in a spin-off episode for the series Amy Prentiss, which aired as part of The NBC Mystery Movie during the 1974–1975 season. She played a relatively young investigator who becomes chief of detectives for the San Francisco Police Department. Helen Hunt, in an early role, played Prentiss' preteen daughter, Jill. Three two-hour episodes were aired. The 22nd episode of season 7, airing in March 1974, and entitled "Riddle at 24,000," was a pilot for "Dr. Domingo," a proposed spin-off series starring Desi Arnaz as a crime-solving physician in a small, California town. It was written by Lane Slate, perhaps best known as the screenwriter of They Only Kill Their Masters, the James Garner movie about a small-town police chief. 2013 remake In 2013, a short-lived remake with the same name aired on NBC. Actor Blair Underwood took on the title role (with none of the other characters from the original series being used), while the action was relocated from San Francisco to New York City. This version of the character was more in the tough cop mold, often at odds with his superiors over his unrelenting, even violent approach to police work. The series was lambasted by critics and ignored by viewers, and was cancelled and pulled after the airing of just four episodes (of 9 produced). Parodies An episode of Get Smart that aired in March 1969 was titled "Leadside" and featured a wheelchair-using master criminal by that name (and his assistants). Leadside could not walk, but he was able to run. Another episode, called "Ironhand", had a KAOS operative with a hand encased in metal. The December 1970 issue of Mad magazine included a parody of Ironside titled "Ironride". On The Benny Hill Show, Benny Hill played Ironside in a few sketches, most notably in a sketch called "Murder on the Oregon Express", which parodied several TV detective characters. Impressionist Billy Howard included Ironside as one of the detectives parodied in his novelty hit record "King of the Cops". The 1980 television movie Murder Can Hurt You spoofs numerous TV detectives from the 1970s and '80s, and includes Victor Buono playing the wheelchair-using detective Ironbottom. American Dad has an episode, "Wheels and Legman", that loosely parodies Ironside in which Roger and Steve have a fictional detective agency. In the "Gone Efficient" episode of Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law, a man in a wheelchair is shown pleading a case in front of Judge Mentok (who strongly resembles Raymond Burr) as a nod to both Ironside and Perry Mason. Home media Shout! Factory has released the first four seasons of Ironside on DVD in Region 1. Seasons 3 and 4 were released as Shout Factory Exclusives, available exclusively through Shout!'s online store. On May 9, 2017, Shout! Factory re-released season 3 as a general retail release. Season 4 was re-released on August 22, 2017. In Region 2, Anchor Bay Entertainment released the first season on DVD in the UK on August 25, 2008. In Region 4, Madman Entertainment released all eight seasons on DVD. The eighth and final season, which included the 1993 TV reunion movie The Return of Ironside, was released on October 19, 2011. Season 5 includes the two-part crossover TV movie episode The Priest Killer, a crossover with the series Sarge. ♦ – Shout! Factory Exclusives title, sold exclusively through Shout's online store References External links 1960s American crime television series 1967 American television series debuts 1970s American crime drama television series 1975 American television series endings English-language television shows Fictional portrayals of the San Francisco Police Department NBC original programming 1970s American police procedural television series Television series by Universal Television Television shows set in San Francisco American detective television series	[ -0.5051063299179077, 0.12526215612888336, -0.20851482450962067, -0.383522093296051, -0.04448804259300232, 0.07723967730998993, 0.5364047288894653, 0.1752581149339676, -0.14593181014060974, 0.019810115918517113, 0.003965364769101143, 0.5619572401046753, -0.31032949686050415, 0.17502360045909882, -0.01494254358112812, 0.668156623840332, 0.39987850189208984, 0.3838500678539276, -0.3030923008918762, -0.5114931464195251, -0.336077481508255, 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231283	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin%20McCain	Edwin McCain	Edwin Cole McCain (born January 20, 1970) is an American singer-songwriter and guitarist. His songs "I'll Be" (1998) and "I Could Not Ask for More" (1999) were radio top-40 hits in the U.S., and five of his albums have reached the Billboard 200. In all, McCain has released eleven albums, with his first two being released independently. Career McCain graduated from Christ Church Episcopal School in Greenville, South Carolina, and briefly attended both the College of Charleston and Coastal Carolina University. Longtime touring friends with Hootie and the Blowfish, the Edwin McCain band signed with the same label, Atlantic Records. In 1994, he recorded his first major-label album, Honor Among Thieves under the Lava Records imprint (Matchbox Twenty, Kid Rock and Jewel). The record was then released in 1995. His second album, Misguided Roses, spawned "I'll Be", a major hit single in 1998. This song also is featured on the charitable album, Live in the X Lounge, along with a live version of "Solitude". It was also featured in the 2000 drama television show, Higher Ground, as well as the 2004 teen flick, A Cinderella Story. Summer of 1999 marked the arrival of McCain's third album, Messenger, which included a second Top 40 hit, the Diane Warren-penned "I Could Not Ask For More." Produced by Matt Serletic (Matchbox Twenty, Collective Soul) and Noel Golden, Messenger was recorded at Tree Sound Studios and Southern Tracks in Atlanta as well as Record Plant Studios in Los Angeles. "I Could Not Ask For More" was also featured on the soundtrack for the 1999 film Message in a Bottle. Having fulfilled his four-album contract, McCain split from Lava/Atlantic at the end of 2001. In early 2003 he released a collection of acoustic versions of old and new songs called The Austin Sessions via ATC Records, a Nashville-based independent record label (at which McCain was the first artist signed following its creation in 2001.) Sessions, recorded in roughly 20 days, punctuated McCain's major-label departure with an intentionally stripped-down sound and offered some fan favorites from his early days of touring, including Dire Straits' "Romeo and Juliet". The album, coupled with McCain's first DVD, Mile Marker: Songs and Stories from the Acoustic Highway (2002) – which consisted of interviews, live performances and other material – served as a thank-you to longtime followers. In a May 2003 interview with Billboard, McCain noted, "The whole package is sort of saying, 'I'm back doing what I started doing.'" About the same time, the musician also hosted "Inside Music With Edwin McCain", a syndicated show on the Sirius radio network. Mid-2004 saw the arrival of his first studio album in three years, titled Scream & Whisper, which was released on another indie label, DRT Entertainment. Later that year, McCain made time in his tour schedule to run the 35th annual New York City Marathon. In an interview in the August 2004 issue of Runner's World, McCain said of training on the road: "You just pick your spots. One of the things that comes in handy depends on how far away the hotel is from the venue. ... For example, the other day the hotel was five miles away from the club where I was performing, so once we got to the club and got sound checked I threw on my running clothes, then ran back to the hotel. Little things like that help." In late 2004 McCain released his second DVD, Tinsel and Tap Shoes. It was his first live concert DVD, recorded at The House of Blues in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina. In 2005, McCain released a single, "Hold Out a Hand," co-written and performed with singer/songwriter Maia Sharp. This song, available for a 99-cent download on iTunes, gives all profits to the relief of the hurricane victims that year. McCain's next album, Lost in America, was released on April 11, 2006, on Vanguard Records. Lost in America contained three singles: "Truly Believe", "The Kiss" and live-favorite "Gramercy Park Hotel", which pays homage to the New York City landmark and its colorful patrons (including baseball legend Babe Ruth.) A subsequent recording, a collection of R&B cover songs titled "Nobody's Fault But Mine", was produced by Tor Hyams and released through Saguaro Road Records on June 24, 2008, and included a version of Soul Brothers Six song "Some Kind of Wonderful." On May 17, 2009, McCain performed on board the USS John C. Stennis, while the carrier was on a Western Pacific deployment in the vicinity of Guam. The next year saw the release of The Best of Edwin McCain, a 20-year career retrospective that included a cross-section of material as well as a new single, "Walk With You" (produced by Don Was.) McCain's 10th album, Mercy Bound, was released August 30, 2011, on 429 Records. Reuniting McCain with collaborator Maia Sharp, who also had production credits, Mercy Bound features additional artistic input from Angie Aparo, Mark Addison and Anders Osborne, as well as guitar work from Warren Haynes. McCain is also a ship restorer, as seen on the former Animal Planet TV series Flipping Ships. On January 22, 2017, McCain sang the American National Anthem at Gillette Stadium for the AFC Championship Game between the New England Patriots and Pittsburgh Steelers. On November 29, 2019, McCain released his first Christmas album, Merry Christmas, Baby. Band members While his albums are released under his name, he does have a permanent band, referred to as the Edwin McCain Band. Members of the band include Larry Chaney (lead guitar), Pete Riley (rhythm guitar and vocals), Craig Shields (keyboards, saxophone and other wind instruments), Jason Pomar (bass guitar and vocals) and Tez Sherard (drums and percussion). Discography Independent albums Studio albums EPs Compilations Soundtrack Singles References External links 1970 births Living people 429 Records artists American alternative rock musicians American rock guitarists American male guitarists Lava Records artists Musicians from Greenville, South Carolina Vanguard Records artists Alternative rock guitarists Alternative rock singers American male singer-songwriters American rock singers American rock songwriters 20th-century American singers 21st-century American singers American television personalities 20th-century American guitarists 21st-century American guitarists Guitarists from South Carolina 20th-century American male singers 21st-century American male singers Singer-songwriters from South Carolina	[ 0.09387939423322678, 0.4118243455886841, -0.3844326138496399, 0.08699456602334976, 0.5426164865493774, 0.7434464693069458, 0.4333242177963257, -0.11566534638404846, -0.09614836424589157, -0.4205726683139801, 0.23754222691059113, 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231284	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN%20bus	CAN bus	A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a robust vehicle bus standard designed to allow microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other's applications without a host computer. It is a message-based protocol, designed originally for multiplex electrical wiring within automobiles to save on copper, but it can also be used in many other contexts. For each device, the data in a frame is transmitted sequentially but in such a way that if more than one device transmits at the same time, the highest priority device can continue while the others back off. Frames are received by all devices, including by the transmitting device. History Development of the CAN bus started in 1983 at Robert Bosch GmbH. The protocol was officially released in 1986 at the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) conference in Detroit, Michigan. The first CAN controller chips were introduced by Intel in 1987, and shortly thereafter by Philips. Released in 1991, the Mercedes-Benz W140 was the first production vehicle to feature a CAN-based multiplex wiring system. Bosch published several versions of the CAN specification and the latest is CAN 2.0 published in 1991. This specification has two parts; part A is for the standard format with an 11-bit identifier, and part B is for the extended format with a 29-bit identifier. A CAN device that uses 11-bit identifiers is commonly called CAN 2.0A and a CAN device that uses 29-bit identifiers is commonly called CAN 2.0B. These standards are freely available from Bosch along with other specifications and white papers. In 1993, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released the CAN standard ISO 11898 which was later restructured into two parts; ISO 11898-1 which covers the data link layer, and ISO 11898-2 which covers the CAN physical layer for high-speed CAN. ISO 11898-3 was released later and covers the CAN physical layer for low-speed, fault-tolerant CAN. The physical layer standards ISO 11898-2 and ISO 11898-3 are not part of the Bosch CAN 2.0 specification. These standards may be purchased from the ISO. Bosch is still active in extending the CAN standards. In 2012, Bosch released CAN FD 1.0 or CAN with Flexible Data-Rate. This specification uses a different frame format that allows a different data length as well as optionally switching to a faster bit rate after the arbitration is decided. CAN FD is compatible with existing CAN 2.0 networks so new CAN FD devices can coexist on the same network with existing CAN devices. CAN bus is one of five protocols used in the on-board diagnostics (OBD)-II vehicle diagnostics standard. The OBD-II standard has been mandatory for all cars and light trucks sold in the United States since 1996. The EOBD standard has been mandatory for all petrol vehicles sold in the European Union since 2001 and all diesel vehicles since 2004. Applications Passenger vehicles, trucks, buses (combustion vehicles and electric vehicles) Agricultural equipment Electronic equipment for aviation and navigation Industrial automation and mechanical control Elevators, escalators Building automation Medical instruments and equipment Pedelecs Model railways/railroads Ships and other maritime applications Lighting control systems 3D Printers Automotive The modern automobile may have as many as 70 electronic control units (ECU) for various subsystems. Traditionally, the biggest processor is the engine control unit. Others are used for Autonomous Driving, Advanced Driver Assistance System (ADAS), transmission, airbags, antilock braking/ABS, cruise control, electric power steering, audio systems, power windows, doors, mirror adjustment, battery and recharging systems for hybrid/electric cars, etc. Some of these form independent subsystems, but communications among others are essential. A subsystem may need to control actuators or receive feedback from sensors. The CAN standard was devised to fill this need. One key advantage is that interconnection between different vehicle systems can allow a wide range of safety, economy and convenience features to be implemented using software alone - functionality which would add cost and complexity if such features were "hard wired" using traditional automotive electrics. Examples include: Auto start/stop: Various sensor inputs from around the vehicle (speed sensors, steering angle, air conditioning on/off, engine temperature) are collated via the CAN bus to determine whether the engine can be shut down when stationary for improved fuel economy and emissions. Electric park brakes: The "hill hold" functionality takes input from the vehicle's tilt sensor (also used by the burglar alarm) and the road speed sensors (also used by the ABS, engine control and traction control) via the CAN bus to determine if the vehicle is stopped on an incline. Similarly, inputs from seat belt sensors (part of the airbag controls) are fed from the CAN bus to determine if the seat belts are fastened, so that the parking brake will automatically release upon moving off. Parking assist systems: when the driver engages reverse gear, the transmission control unit can send a signal via the CAN bus to activate both the parking sensor system and the door control module for the passenger side door mirror to tilt downward to show the position of the curb. The CAN bus also takes inputs from the rain sensor to trigger the rear windscreen wiper when reversing. Auto lane assist/collision avoidance systems: The inputs from the parking sensors are also used by the CAN bus to feed outside proximity data to driver assist systems such as Lane Departure warning, and more recently, these signals travel through the CAN bus to actuate brake by wire in active collision avoidance systems. Auto brake wiping: Input is taken from the rain sensor (used primarily for the automatic windscreen wipers) via the CAN bus to the ABS module to initiate an imperceptible application of the brakes whilst driving to clear moisture from the brake rotors. Some high performance Audi and BMW models incorporate this feature. Sensors can be placed at the most suitable place, and their data used by several ECUs. For example, outdoor temperature sensors (traditionally placed in the front) can be placed in the outside mirrors, avoiding heating by the engine, and data used by the engine, the climate control, and the driver display. In recent years, the LIN bus (Local Interconnect Network) standard has been introduced to complement CAN for non-critical subsystems such as air-conditioning and infotainment, where data transmission speed and reliability are less critical. Other The CAN bus protocol has been used on the Shimano DI2 electronic gear shift system for road bicycles since 2009, and is also used by the Ansmann and BionX systems in their direct drive motor. The CAN bus is also used as a fieldbus in general automation environments, primarily due to the low cost of some CAN controllers and processors. Manufacturers including NISMO aim to use CAN bus data to recreate real-life racing laps in the videogame Gran Turismo 6 using the game's GPS Data Logger function, which would then allow players to race against real laps. Johns Hopkins University's Applied Physics Laboratory's Modular Prosthetic Limb (MPL) uses a local CAN bus to facilitate communication between servos and microcontrollers in the prosthetic arm. Teams in the FIRST Robotics Competition widely use CAN bus to communicate between the roboRIO and other robot control modules. The CueScript teleprompter range uses CAN bus protocol over coaxial cable, to connect its CSSC – Desktop Scroll Control to the main unit The CAN bus protocol is widely implemented due to its fault tolerance in electrically noisy environments such as model railroad sensor feedback systems by major commercial Digital Command Control system manufacturers and various open source digital model railroad control projects. Architecture Physical organization CAN is a multi-master serial bus standard for connecting electronic control units (ECUs) also known as nodes (automotive electronics is a major application domain). Two or more nodes are required on the CAN network to communicate. A node may interface to devices from simple digital logic e.g. PLD, via FPGA up to an embedded computer running extensive software. Such a computer may also be a gateway allowing a general purpose computer (like a laptop) to communicate over a USB or Ethernet port to the devices on a CAN network. All nodes are connected to each other through a physically conventional two wire bus. The wires are a twisted pair with a 120 Ω (nominal) characteristic impedance. This bus uses differential wired-AND signals. Two signals, CAN high (CANH) and CAN low (CANL) are either driven to a "dominant" state with CANH > CANL, or not driven and pulled by passive resistors to a "recessive" state with CANH ≤ CANL. A 0 data bit encodes a dominant state, while a 1 data bit encodes a recessive state, supporting a wired-AND convention, which gives nodes with lower ID numbers priority on the bus. ISO 11898-2, also called high-speed CAN (bit speeds up to 1 Mbit/s on CAN, 5 Mbit/s on CAN-FD), uses a linear bus terminated at each end with 120 Ω resistors. High-speed CAN signaling drives the CANH wire towards 3.5 V and the CANL wire towards 1.5 V when any device is transmitting a dominant (0), while if no device is transmitting a dominant, the terminating resistors passively return the two wires to the recessive (1) state with a nominal differential voltage of 0 V. (Receivers consider any differential voltage of less than 0.5 V to be recessive.) The dominant differential voltage is a nominal 2 V. The dominant common mode voltage (CANH+CANL)/2 must be within 1.5 to 3.5 V of common, while the recessive common mode voltage must be within ±12 of common. ISO 11898-3, also called low-speed or fault-tolerant CAN (up to 125 kbit/s), uses a linear bus, star bus or multiple star buses connected by a linear bus and is terminated at each node by a fraction of the overall termination resistance. The overall termination resistance should be close to, but not less than, 100 Ω. Low-speed fault-tolerant CAN signaling operates similarly to high-speed CAN, but with larger voltage swings. The dominant state is transmitted by driving CANH towards the device power supply voltage (5 V or 3.3 V), and CANL towards 0 V when transmitting a dominant (0), while the termination resistors pull the bus to a recessive state with CANH at 0 V and CANL at 5 V. This allows a simpler receiver which just considers the sign of CANH−CANL. Both wires must be able to handle −27 to +40 V without damage. Electrical properties With both high-speed and low-speed CAN, the speed of the transition is faster when a recessive to dominant transition occurs since the CAN wires are being actively driven. The speed of the dominant to recessive transition depends primarily on the length of the CAN network and the capacitance of the wire used. High-speed CAN is usually used in automotive and industrial applications where the bus runs from one end of the environment to the other. Fault-tolerant CAN is often used where groups of nodes need to be connected together. The specifications require the bus be kept within a minimum and maximum common mode bus voltage, but do not define how to keep the bus within this range. The CAN bus must be terminated. The termination resistors are needed to suppress reflections as well as return the bus to its recessive or idle state. High-speed CAN uses a 120 Ω resistor at each end of a linear bus. Low-speed CAN uses resistors at each node. Other types of terminations may be used such as the Terminating Bias Circuit defined in ISO11783. A provides power and ground in addition to the CAN signaling on a four-wire cable. This provides automatic electrical bias and termination at each end of each bus segment. An ISO11783 network is designed for hot plug-in and removal of bus segments and ECUs. Nodes Each node requires a Central processing unit, microprocessor, or host processor The host processor decides what the received messages mean and what messages it wants to transmit. Sensors, actuators and control devices can be connected to the host processor. CAN controller; often an integral part of the microcontroller Receiving: the CAN controller stores the received serial bits from the bus until an entire message is available, which can then be fetched by the host processor (usually by the CAN controller triggering an interrupt). Sending: the host processor sends the transmit message(s) to a CAN controller, which transmits the bits serially onto the bus when the bus is free. Transceiver Defined by ISO 11898-2/3 Medium Access Unit [MAU] standards Receiving: it converts the data stream from CAN bus levels to levels that the CAN controller uses. It usually has protective circuitry to protect the CAN controller. Transmitting: it converts the data stream from the CAN controller to CAN bus levels. Each node is able to send and receive messages, but not simultaneously. A message or Frame consists primarily of the ID (identifier), which represents the priority of the message, and up to eight data bytes. A CRC, acknowledge slot [ACK] and other overhead are also part of the message. The improved CAN FD extends the length of the data section to up to 64 bytes per frame. The message is transmitted serially onto the bus using a non-return-to-zero (NRZ) format and may be received by all nodes. The devices that are connected by a CAN network are typically sensors, actuators, and other control devices. These devices are connected to the bus through a host processor, a CAN controller, and a CAN transceiver. Data transmission CAN data transmission uses a lossless bitwise arbitration method of contention resolution. This arbitration method requires all nodes on the CAN network to be synchronized to sample every bit on the CAN network at the same time. This is why some call CAN synchronous. Unfortunately the term synchronous is imprecise since the data is transmitted in an asynchronous format, namely without a clock signal. The CAN specifications use the terms "dominant" bits and "recessive" bits, where dominant is a logical 0 (actively driven to a voltage by the transmitter) and recessive is a logical 1 (passively returned to a voltage by a resistor). The idle state is represented by the recessive level (Logical 1). If one node transmits a dominant bit and another node transmits a recessive bit then there is a collision and the dominant bit "wins". This means there is no delay to the higher-priority message, and the node transmitting the lower priority message automatically attempts to re-transmit six bit clocks after the end of the dominant message. This makes CAN very suitable as a real-time prioritized communications system. The exact voltages for a logical 0 or 1 depend on the physical layer used, but the basic principle of CAN requires that each node listen to the data on the CAN network including the transmitting node(s) itself (themselves). If a logical 1 is transmitted by all transmitting nodes at the same time, then a logical 1 is seen by all of the nodes, including both the transmitting node(s) and receiving node(s). If a logical 0 is transmitted by all transmitting node(s) at the same time, then a logical 0 is seen by all nodes. If a logical 0 is being transmitted by one or more nodes, and a logical 1 is being transmitted by one or more nodes, then a logical 0 is seen by all nodes including the node(s) transmitting the logical 1. When a node transmits a logical 1 but sees a logical 0, it realizes that there is a contention and it quits transmitting. By using this process, any node that transmits a logical 1 when another node transmits a logical 0 "drops out" or loses the arbitration. A node that loses arbitration re-queues its message for later transmission and the CAN frame bit-stream continues without error until only one node is left transmitting. This means that the node that transmits the first 1 loses arbitration. Since the 11 (or 29 for CAN 2.0B) bit identifier is transmitted by all nodes at the start of the CAN frame, the node with the lowest identifier transmits more zeros at the start of the frame, and that is the node that wins the arbitration or has the highest priority. For example, consider an 11-bit ID CAN network, with two nodes with IDs of 15 (binary representation, 00000001111) and 16 (binary representation, 00000010000). If these two nodes transmit at the same time, each will first transmit the start bit then transmit the first six zeros of their ID with no arbitration decision being made. When the 7th ID bit is transmitted, the node with the ID of 16 transmits a 1 (recessive) for its ID, and the node with the ID of 15 transmits a 0 (dominant) for its ID. When this happens, the node with the ID of 16 knows it transmitted a 1, but sees a 0 and realizes that there is a collision and it lost arbitration. Node 16 stops transmitting which allows the node with ID of 15 to continue its transmission without any loss of data. The node with the lowest ID will always win the arbitration, and therefore has the highest priority. Bit rates up to 1 Mbit/s are possible at network lengths below 40 m. Decreasing the bit rate allows longer network distances (e.g.,500 m at 125 kbit/s). The improved CAN FD standard allows increasing the bit rate after arbitration and can increase the speed of the data section by a factor of up to ten or more of the arbitration bit rate. ID allocation Message IDs must be unique on a single CAN bus, otherwise two nodes would continue transmission beyond the end of the arbitration field (ID) causing an error. In the early 1990s, the choice of IDs for messages was done simply on the basis of identifying the type of data and the sending node; however, as the ID is also used as the message priority, this led to poor real-time performance. In those scenarios, a low CAN bus use of around 30% was commonly required to ensure that all messages would meet their deadlines. However, if IDs are instead determined based on the deadline of the message, the lower the numerical ID and hence the higher the message priority, then bus use of 70 to 80% can typically be achieved before any message deadlines are missed . Bit timing All nodes on the CAN network must operate at the same nominal bit rate, but noise, phase shifts, oscillator tolerance and oscillator drift mean that the actual bit rate might not be the nominal bit rate. Since a separate clock signal is not used, a means of synchronizing the nodes is necessary. Synchronization is important during arbitration since the nodes in arbitration must be able to see both their transmitted data and the other nodes' transmitted data at the same time. Synchronization is also important to ensure that variations in oscillator timing between nodes do not cause errors. Synchronization starts with a hard synchronization on the first recessive to dominant transition after a period of bus idle (the start bit). Resynchronization occurs on every recessive to dominant transition during the frame. The CAN controller expects the transition to occur at a multiple of the nominal bit time. If the transition does not occur at the exact time the controller expects it, the controller adjusts the nominal bit time accordingly. The adjustment is accomplished by dividing each bit into a number of time slices called quanta, and assigning some number of quanta to each of the four segments within the bit: synchronization, propagation, phase segment 1 and phase segment 2. The number of quanta the bit is divided into can vary by controller, and the number of quanta assigned to each segment can be varied depending on bit rate and network conditions. A transition that occurs before or after it is expected causes the controller to calculate the time difference and lengthen phase segment 1 or shorten phase segment 2 by this time. This effectively adjusts the timing of the receiver to the transmitter to synchronize them. This resynchronization process is done continuously at every recessive to dominant transition to ensure the transmitter and receiver stay in sync. Continuously resynchronizing reduces errors induced by noise, and allows a receiving node that was synchronized to a node which lost arbitration to resynchronize to the node which won arbitration. Layers The CAN protocol, like many networking protocols, can be decomposed into the following abstraction layers: Application layer Object layer Message filtering Message and status handling Transfer layer Most of the CAN standard applies to the transfer layer. The transfer layer receives messages from the physical layer and transmits those messages to the object layer. The transfer layer is responsible for bit timing and synchronization, message framing, arbitration, acknowledgement, error detection and signaling, and fault confinement. It performs: Fault confinement Error detection Message validation Acknowledgement Arbitration Message framing Transfer rate and timing Information routing Physical layer CAN bus (ISO 11898-1:2003) originally specified the link layer protocol with only abstract requirements for the physical layer, e.g., asserting the use of a medium with multiple-access at the bit level through the use of dominant and recessive states. The electrical aspects of the physical layer (voltage, current, number of conductors) were specified in ISO 11898-2:2003, which is now widely accepted. However, the mechanical aspects of the physical layer (connector type and number, colors, labels, pin-outs) have yet to be formally specified. As a result, an automotive ECU will typically have a particular—often custom—connector with various sorts of cables, of which two are the CAN bus lines. Nonetheless, several de facto standards for mechanical implementation have emerged, the most common being the 9-pin D-sub type male connector with the following pin-out: pin 2: CAN-Low (CAN−) pin 3: GND (ground) pin 7: CAN-High (CAN+) pin 9: CAN V+ (power) This de facto mechanical standard for CAN could be implemented with the node having both male and female 9-pin D-sub connectors electrically wired to each other in parallel within the node. Bus power is fed to a node's male connector and the bus draws power from the node's female connector. This follows the electrical engineering convention that power sources are terminated at female connectors. Adoption of this standard avoids the need to fabricate custom splitters to connect two sets of bus wires to a single D connector at each node. Such nonstandard (custom) wire harnesses (splitters) that join conductors outside the node reduce bus reliability, eliminate cable interchangeability, reduce compatibility of wiring harnesses, and increase cost. The absence of a complete physical layer specification (mechanical in addition to electrical) freed the CAN bus specification from the constraints and complexity of physical implementation. However it left CAN bus implementations open to interoperability issues due to mechanical incompatibility. In order to improve interoperability, many vehicle makers have generated specifications describing a set of allowed CAN transceivers in combination with requirements on the parasitic capacitance on the line. The allowed parasitic capacitance includes both capacitors as well as ESD protection (ESD against ISO 7637-3). In addition to parasitic capacitance, 12V and 24V systems do not have the same requirements in terms of line maximum voltage. Indeed, during jump start events light vehicles lines can go up to 24V while truck systems can go as high as 36V. New solutions are coming on the market allowing to use same component for CAN as well as CAN FD (see ). Noise immunity on ISO 11898-2:2003 is achieved by maintaining the differential impedance of the bus at a low level with low-value resistors (120 ohms) at each end of the bus. However, when dormant, a low-impedance bus such as CAN draws more current (and power) than other voltage-based signaling busses. On CAN bus systems, balanced line operation, where current in one signal line is exactly balanced by current in the opposite direction in the other signal provides an independent, stable 0 V reference for the receivers. Best practice determines that CAN bus balanced pair signals be carried in twisted pair wires in a shielded cable to minimize RF emission and reduce interference susceptibility in the already noisy RF environment of an automobile. ISO 11898-2 provides some immunity to common mode voltage between transmitter and receiver by having a 0 V rail running along the bus to maintain a high degree of voltage association between the nodes. Also, in the de facto mechanical configuration mentioned above, a supply rail is included to distribute power to each of the transceiver nodes. The design provides a common supply for all the transceivers. The actual voltage to be applied by the bus and which nodes apply to it are application-specific and not formally specified. Common practice node design provides each node with transceivers which are optically isolated from their node host and derive a 5 V linearly regulated supply voltage for the transceivers from the universal supply rail provided by the bus. This usually allows operating margin on the supply rail sufficient to allow interoperability across many node types. Typical values of supply voltage on such networks are 7 to 30 V. However, the lack of a formal standard means that system designers are responsible for supply rail compatibility. ISO 11898-2 describes the electrical implementation formed from a multi-dropped single-ended balanced line configuration with resistor termination at each end of the bus. In this configuration a dominant state is asserted by one or more transmitters switching the CAN− to supply 0 V and (simultaneously) switching CAN+ to the +5 V bus voltage thereby forming a current path through the resistors that terminate the bus. As such the terminating resistors form an essential component of the signalling system and are included not just to limit wave reflection at high frequency. During a recessive state the signal lines and resistor(s) remain in a high impedances state with respect to both rails. Voltages on both CAN+ and CAN− tend (weakly) towards a voltage midway between the rails. A recessive state is present on the bus only when none of the transmitters on the bus is asserting a dominant state. During a dominant state the signal lines and resistor(s) move to a low impedance state with respect to the rails so that current flows through the resistor. CAN+ voltage tends to +5 V and CAN− tends to 0 V. Irrespective of signal state the signal lines are always in low impedance state with respect to one another by virtue of the terminating resistors at the end of the bus. This signalling strategy differs significantly from other balanced line transmission technologies such as RS-422/3, RS-485, etc. which employ differential line drivers/ receivers and use a signalling system based on the differential mode voltage of the balanced line crossing a notional 0 V. Multiple access on such systems normally relies on the media supporting three states (active high, active low and inactive tri-state) and is dealt with in the time domain. Multiple access on CAN bus is achieved by the electrical logic of the system supporting just two states that are conceptually analogous to a ‘wired AND’ network. Frames A CAN network can be configured to work with two different message (or "frame") formats: the standard or base frame format (described in CAN 2.0 A and CAN 2.0 B), and the extended frame format (described only by CAN 2.0 B). The only difference between the two formats is that the "CAN base frame" supports a length of 11 bits for the identifier, and the "CAN extended frame" supports a length of 29 bits for the identifier, made up of the 11-bit identifier ("base identifier") and an 18-bit extension ("identifier extension"). The distinction between CAN base frame format and CAN extended frame format is made by using the IDE bit, which is transmitted as dominant in case of an 11-bit frame, and transmitted as recessive in case of a 29-bit frame. CAN controllers that support extended frame format messages are also able to send and receive messages in CAN base frame format. All frames begin with a start-of-frame (SOF) bit that denotes the start of the frame transmission. CAN has four frame types: Data frame: a frame containing node data for transmission Remote frame: a frame requesting the transmission of a specific identifier Error frame: a frame transmitted by any node detecting an error Overload frame: a frame to inject a delay between data or remote frame Data frame The data frame is the only frame for actual data transmission. There are two message formats: Base frame format: with 11 identifier bits Extended frame format: with 29 identifier bits The CAN standard requires that the implementation must accept the base frame format and may accept the extended frame format, but must tolerate the extended frame format. Base frame format The frame format is as follows: The bit values are described for CAN-LO signal. Extended frame format The frame format is as follows on from here in the table below: The two identifier fields (A & B) combine to form a 29-bit identifier. Remote frame Generally data transmission is performed on an autonomous basis with the data source node (e.g., a sensor) sending out a data frame. It is also possible, however, for a destination node to request the data from the source by sending a remote frame. There are two differences between a data frame and a remote frame. Firstly the RTR-bit is transmitted as a dominant bit in the data frame and secondly in the remote frame there is no data field. The DLC field indicates the data length of the requested message (not the transmitted one). I.e., RTR = 0 ; DOMINANT in data frame RTR = 1 ; RECESSIVE in remote frame In the event of a data frame and a remote frame with the same identifier being transmitted at the same time, the data frame wins arbitration due to the dominant RTR bit following the identifier. Error frame The error frame consists of two different fields: The first field is given by the superposition of ERROR FLAGS (6–12 dominant/recessive bits) contributed from different stations. The following second field is the ERROR DELIMITER (8 recessive bits). There are two types of error flags: Active Error Flag six dominant bits – Transmitted by a node detecting an error on the network that is in error state "error active". Passive Error Flag six recessive bits – Transmitted by a node detecting an active error frame on the network that is in error state "error passive". There are two error counters in CAN: Transmit error counter (TEC) Receive error counter (REC) When TEC or REC is greater than 127 and less than 255, a Passive Error frame will be transmitted on the bus. When TEC and REC is less than 128, an Active Error frame will be transmitted on the bus. When TEC is greater than 255, then the node enters into Bus Off state, where no frames will be transmitted. Overload frame The overload frame contains the two bit fields Overload Flag and Overload Delimiter. There are two kinds of overload conditions that can lead to the transmission of an overload flag: The internal conditions of a receiver, which requires a delay of the next data frame or remote frame. Detection of a dominant bit during intermission. The start of an overload frame due to case 1 is only allowed to be started at the first bit time of an expected intermission, whereas overload frames due to case 2 start one bit after detecting the dominant bit. Overload Flag consists of six dominant bits. The overall form corresponds to that of the active error flag. The overload flag's form destroys the fixed form of the intermission field. As a consequence, all other stations also detect an overload condition and on their part start transmission of an overload flag. Overload Delimiter consists of eight recessive bits. The overload delimiter is of the same form as the error delimiter. ACK slot The acknowledge slot is used to acknowledge the receipt of a valid CAN frame. Each node that receives the frame, without finding an error, transmits a dominant level in the ACK slot and thus overrides the recessive level of the transmitter. If a transmitter detects a recessive level in the ACK slot, it knows that no receiver found a valid frame. A receiving node may transmit a recessive to indicate that it did not receive a valid frame, but another node that did receive a valid frame may override this with a dominant. The transmitting node cannot know that the message has been received by all of the nodes on the CAN network. Often, the mode of operation of the device is to re-transmit unacknowledged frames over and over. This may lead to eventually entering the "error passive" state. Interframe spacing Data frames and remote frames are separated from preceding frames by a bit field called interframe space. Interframe space consists of at least three consecutive recessive (1) bits. Following that, if a dominant bit is detected, it will be regarded as the "Start of frame" bit of the next frame. Overload frames and error frames are not preceded by an interframe space and multiple overload frames are not separated by an interframe space. Interframe space contains the bit fields intermission and bus idle, and suspend transmission for error passive stations, which have been transmitter of the previous message. Bit stuffing To ensure enough transitions to maintain synchronization, a bit of opposite polarity is inserted after five consecutive bits of the same polarity. This practice is called bit stuffing, and is necessary due to the non-return to zero (NRZ) coding used with CAN. The stuffed data frames are destuffed by the receiver. All fields in the frame are stuffed with the exception of the CRC delimiter, ACK field and end of frame which are a fixed size and are not stuffed. In the fields where bit stuffing is used, six consecutive bits of the same polarity (111111 or 000000) are considered an error. An active error flag can be transmitted by a node when an error has been detected. The active error flag consists of six consecutive dominant bits and violates the rule of bit stuffing. Bit stuffing means that data frames may be larger than one would expect by simply enumerating the bits shown in the tables above. The maximum increase in size of a CAN frame (base format) after bit stuffing is in the case 11111000011110000... which is stuffed as (stuffing bits in bold): 111110000011111000001... The stuffing bit itself may be the first of the five consecutive identical bits, so in the worst case there is one stuffing bit per four original bits. The size of a base frame is bounded by since is the size of the frame before stuffing, in the worst case one bit will be added every four original bits after the first one (hence the −1 at the numerator) and, because of the layout of the bits of the header, only 34 out of 44 of them can be subject to bit stuffing. An undesirable side effect of the bit stuffing scheme is that a small number of bit errors in a received message may corrupt the destuffing process, causing a larger number of errors to propagate through the destuffed message. This reduces the level of protection that would otherwise be offered by the CRC against the original errors. This deficiency of the protocol has been addressed in CAN FD frames by the use of a combination of fixed stuff bits and a counter that records the number of stuff bits inserted. CAN lower-layer standards ISO 11898 series specifies physical and data link layer (levels 1 and 2 of the ISO/OSI model) of serial communication category called Controller Area Network that supports distributed real-time control and multiplexing for use within road vehicles. There are several CAN physical layer and other standards: ISO 11898-1:2015 specifies the data link layer (DLL) and physical signalling of the controller area network (CAN). This document describes the general architecture of CAN in terms of hierarchical layers according to the ISO reference model for open systems interconnection (OSI) established in ISO/IEC 7498-1 and provides the characteristics for setting up an interchange of digital information between modules implementing the CAN DLL with detailed specification of the logical link control (LLC) sublayer and medium access control (MAC) sublayer. ISO 11898-2:2016 specifies the high-speed (transmission rates of up to 1 Mbit/s) medium access unit (MAU), and some medium dependent interface (MDI) features (according to ISO 8802-3), which comprise the physical layer of the controller area network. ISO 11898-2 uses a two-wire balanced signalling scheme. It is the most used physical layer in vehicle powertrain applications and industrial control networks. ISO 11898-3:2006 specifies low-speed, fault-tolerant, medium-dependent interface for setting up an interchange of digital information between electronic control units of road vehicles equipped with the CAN at transmission rates above 40 kbit/s up to 125 kbit/s. ISO 11898-4:2004 specifies time-triggered communication in the CAN (TTCAN). It is applicable to setting up a time-triggered interchange of digital information between electronic control units (ECU) of road vehicles equipped with CAN, and specifies the frame synchronisation entity that coordinates the operation of both logical link and media access controls in accordance with ISO 11898-1, to provide the time-triggered communication schedule. ISO 11898-5:2007 specifies the CAN physical layer for transmission rates up to 1 Mbit/s for use within road vehicles. It describes the medium access unit functions as well as some medium dependent interface features according to ISO 8802-2. This represents an extension of ISO 11898-2, dealing with new functionality for systems requiring low-power consumption features while there is no active bus communication. ISO 11898-6:2013 specifies the CAN physical layer for transmission rates up to 1 Mbit/s for use within road vehicles. It describes the medium access unit functions as well as some medium dependent interface features according to ISO 8802-2. This represents an extension of ISO 11898-2 and ISO 11898-5, specifying a selective wake-up mechanism using configurable CAN frames. ISO 16845-1:2016 provides the methodology and abstract test suite necessary for checking the conformance of any CAN implementation of the CAN specified in ISO 11898-1. ISO 16845-2:2018 establishes test cases and test requirements to realize a test plan verifying if the CAN transceiver with implemented selective wake-up functions conform to the specified functionalities. The kind of testing defined in ISO 16845-2:2018 is named as conformance testing. CAN-based higher-layer protocols As the CAN standard does not include tasks of application layer protocols, such as flow control, device addressing, and transportation of data blocks larger than one message, and above all, application data, many implementations of higher layer protocols were created. Several are standardized for a business area, although all can be extended by each manufacturer. For passenger cars, each manufacturer has its own standard. CAN in Automation (CiA) is the international users' and manufacturers' organization that develops and supports CAN-based higher-layer protocols and their international standardization. Among these specifications are: Standardized approaches ARINC 812 or ARINC 825 (aviation industry) CANopen - CiA 301/302-2 and EN 50325-4 (industrial automation) IEC 61375-3-3 (use of CANopen in rail vehicles) DeviceNet (industrial automation) EnergyBus - CiA 454 and IEC 61851-3 (battery–charger communication) ISOBUS - ISO 11783 (agriculture) ISO-TP - ISO 15765-2 (transport protocol for automotive diagnostics) MilCAN (military vehicles) NMEA 2000 - IEC 61162-3 (marine industry) SAE J1939 (in-vehicle network for buses and trucks) SAE J2284 (in-vehicle networks for passenger cars) Unified Diagnostic Services (UDS) - ISO 14229 (automotive diagnostics) LeisureCAN - open standard for the leisure craft/vehicle industry Other approaches CANaerospace - Stock (for the aviation industry) CAN Kingdom - Kvaser (embedded control system) CCP/XCP (automotive ECU calibration) GMLAN - General Motors (for General Motors) RV-C - RVIA (used for recreational vehicles) SafetyBUS p - Pilz (used for industrial automation) UAVCAN (aerospace and robotics) CSP (CubeSat Space Protocol) VSCP (Very Simple Control Protocol) a free automation protocol suitable for all sorts of automation tasks CANopen Lift The CANopen Special Interest Group (SIG) "Lift Control", which was founded in 2001, develops the CANopen application profile CiA 417 for lift control systems. It works on extending the features, improves technical content and ensures that the current legal standards for lift control systems are met. The first version of CiA 417 was published (available for CiA members) in summer 2003, version 2.0 in February 2010, version 2.1.0 in July 2012, version 2.2.0 in December 2015, and version 2.3.1 in February 2020. Jörg Hellmich (ELFIN GmbH) is the chairman of this SIG and manages a wiki of the CANopen lift community with content about CANopen lift. Security CAN is a low-level protocol and does not support any security features intrinsically. There is also no encryption in standard CAN implementations, which leaves these networks open to man-in-the-middle frame interception. In most implementations, applications are expected to deploy their own security mechanisms; e.g., to authenticate incoming commands or the presence of certain devices on the network. Failure to implement adequate security measures may result in various sorts of attacks if the opponent manages to insert messages on the bus. While passwords exist for some safety-critical functions, such as modifying firmware, programming keys, or controlling antilock brake actuators, these systems are not implemented universally and have a limited number of seed/key pairs. Development tools When developing or troubleshooting the CAN bus, examination of hardware signals can be very important. Logic analyzers and bus analyzers are tools which collect, analyse, decode and store signals so people can view the high-speed waveforms at their leisure. There are also specialist tools as well as CAN bus monitors. A is an analysis tool, often a combination of hardware and software, used during development of hardware making use of the CAN bus. Typically the CAN bus monitor will listen to the traffic on the CAN bus in order to display it in a user interface. Often the CAN bus monitor offers the possibility to simulate CAN bus activity by sending CAN frames to the bus. The CAN bus monitor can therefore be used to validate expected CAN traffic from a given device or to simulate CAN traffic in order to validate the reaction from a given device connected to the CAN bus. The python-can library provides both passive, monitoring, and active, control, access to CAN bus on a wide range of platforms. Licensing Bosch holds patents on the technology, though those related to the original protocol have now expired. Manufacturers of CAN-compatible microprocessors pay license fees to Bosch for use of the CAN trademark and any of the newer patents related to CAN FD, and these are normally passed on to the customer in the price of the chip. Manufacturers of products with custom ASICs or FPGAs containing CAN-compatible modules need to pay a fee for the CAN Protocol License if they wish to use the CAN trademark or CAN FD capabilities. See also CANopen - Communication protocol for embedded systems CANpie – Open source device driver for CAN CAN FD – New implementation of CAN with a faster transmission can4linux – Open source Linux device driver for CAN FlexCAN – An alternative implementation. FlexRay – High-speed alternative to CAN Local Interconnect Network – A low cost alternative OBD-II PIDs – List of Parameter IDs SAE J1939 - Communication protocol for trucks and busses SocketCAN – A set of open source CAN drivers and a networking stack contributed by Volkswagen Research to the Linux kernel. References External links Bosch specification (old document — slightly ambiguous/unclear in some points, superseded by the standard ) Bosch CAN FD Specification Version 1.0 Controller Area Network (CAN) Schedulability Analysis: Refuted, Revisited and Revised Pinouts for common CAN bus connectors A webpage about CAN in automotive Controller Area Network (CAN) Schedulability Analysis with FIFO Queues Controller Area Network (CAN) Implementation Guide Freeware Bit-Timing calculator for Windows, supports a lot of microcontrollers, e.g. Atmel, STM32, Microchip, Renesas, ... (ZIPfile) Free e-learning module "Introduction to CAN" ARINC-825 Tutorial (video) from Excalibur Systems Inc. Website of CiA CAN Newsletter Online Understanding and Using the Controller Area Network from UC Berkeley CAN Protocol Tutorial ESD protection for CAN bus and CAN FD Computer networks Serial buses Industrial computing Industrial automation Robert Bosch GmbH	[ 0.18669310212135315, -0.2512149214744568, 0.12881867587566376, 0.5236343145370483, 0.030566150322556496, -0.2148258090019226, -0.25972050428390503, 0.06275346130132675, -0.0379154197871685, -0.5025630593299866, -0.25203216075897217, 0.3385007679462433, -0.12397457659244537, -0.14662297070026398, -0.1696082353591919, 0.04711966589093208, 0.2942905128002167, 0.12653832137584686, -0.047639381140470505, 0.05806548520922661, 0.019461046904325485, 0.03190765529870987, 0.06927131116390228, -0.5672828555107117, 0.031476590782403946, 0.056818507611751556, 0.2796024978160858, 0.46469926834106445, 0.12537382543087006, -0.09337291121482849, 0.5424420237541199, 0.10268305987119675, -0.06648994982242584, 0.0012906945776194334, 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231286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstetric%20fistula	Obstetric fistula	Obstetric fistula is a medical condition in which a hole develops in the birth canal as a result of childbirth. This can be between the vagina and rectum, ureter, or bladder. It can result in incontinence of urine or feces. Complications may include depression, infertility, and social isolation. Risk factors include obstructed labor, poor access to medical care, malnutrition, and teenage pregnancy. The underlying mechanism is poor blood flow to the affected area for a prolonged period of time. Diagnosis is generally based on symptoms and may be supported by use of methylene blue. Obstetric fistulae are almost entirely preventable with appropriate use of cesarean section. Treatment is typically by surgery. If treated early, the use of a urinary catheter may help with healing. Counseling may also be useful. An estimated 2 million women in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the Arab region, and Latin America have the condition, with about 75,000 new cases developing a year. It occurs very rarely in the developed world. It is considered a disease of poverty. Signs and symptoms Symptoms of obstetric fistula include: Flatulence, urinary incontinence, or fecal incontinence, which may be continual or only happen at night Foul-smelling vaginal discharge Repeated vaginal or urinary tract infections Irritation or pain in the vagina or surrounding areas Pain during sexual activity Other effects of obstetric fistulae include stillborn babies due to prolonged labor, which happens 85% to 100% of the time, severe ulcerations of the vaginal tract, "foot drop", which is the paralysis of the lower limbs caused by nerve damage, making it impossible for women to walk, infection of the fistula forming an abscess, and up to two-thirds of the women become amenorrhoeic. Obstetric fistulae have far-reaching physical, social, economic, and psychological consequences for the women affected. According to UNFPA, "Due to the prolonged obstructed labour, the baby almost inevitably dies, and the woman is left with chronic incontinence. Unable to control the flow of urine or faeces, or both, she may be abandoned by her husband and family and ostracized by her community. Without treatment, her prospects for work and family life are virtually nonexistent." Physical The most direct consequence of an obstetric fistula is the constant leakage of urine, feces, and blood as a result of a hole that forms between the vagina and bladder or rectum. This leaking has both physical and societal penalties. The acid in the urine, feces, and blood causes severe burn wounds on the legs from the continuous dripping. Nerve damage that can result from the leaking can cause women to struggle with walking and eventually lose mobility. In an attempt to avoid the dripping, women limit their intake of water and liquid, which can ultimately lead to dangerous cases of dehydration. Ulceration and infections can persist, as well as kidney disease and kidney failure, which can each lead to death. Further, only a quarter of women who suffer a fistula in their first birth are able to have a living baby, and therefore have minuscule chances of conceiving a healthy baby later on. Some women, due to obstetric fistulae and other complications from childbirth, do not survive. Social Physical consequences of obstetric fistulae lead to severe sociocultural stigmatization for various reasons. For example, in Burkina Faso, most citizens do not believe an obstetric fistula to be a medical condition, but as a divine punishment or a curse for disloyal or disrespectful behavior. Other sub-Saharan cultures view offspring as an indicator of a family's wealth. A woman who is unable to successfully produce children as assets for her family is believed to make her and her family socially and economically inferior. A patient's incontinence and pain also render her unable to perform household chores and childrearing as a wife and as a mother, thus devaluing her. Other misconceptions about obstetric fistulae are that they are caused by venereal diseases or are divine punishment for sexual misconduct. As a result, many girls are divorced or abandoned by their husbands and partners, disowned by family, ridiculed by friends, and even isolated by health workers. Divorce rates for women who suffer from an obstetric fistula range from 50% to as high as 89%. Now marginalized members of society, girls are forced to live on the edges of their villages and towns, often in isolation in a hut where they will likely die from starvation or an infection in the birth canal. The unavoidable odor is viewed as offensive, thus their removal from society is seen as essential. Accounts of women who suffer obstetric fistulae proclaim that their lives have been reduced to the leaking of urine, feces, and blood because they are no longer capable or allowed to participate in traditional activities, including the duties of wife and mother. Because such consequences highly stigmatize and marginalize the woman, the intense loneliness and shame can lead to clinical depression and suicidal thoughts. Some women have formed small groups and resorted to walking to seek medical help, where their characteristic odor makes them a target for sub-Saharan predatory wildlife, further endangering their lives. This trip can take on average 12 hours to complete. Moreover, women are sometimes forced to turn to commercial sex work as a means of survival because the extreme poverty and social isolation that result from obstetric fistulae eliminate all other income opportunities. With only 7.5% of women with fistulae able to access treatment, the vast majority of women end up with the consequences of obstructed and prolonged labor simply because options and access to help is so limited. Psychological Some common psychological consequences that women with a fistula face are the despair from losing their child, the humiliation from their smell, and inability to perform their family roles. Additionally, a fear of developing another fistula in future pregnancies exists. Obstetric fistula is not only debilitating physically, but emotionally. A woman is presented with an array of psychological trauma that she must oftentimes deal with herself unless provided with ample resources. Oftentimes ostracized by her community, a woman with obstetric fistula tends to face these issues on her own. In a study of The lived experience of Malawian women with obstetric fistula, the immense psychological trauma is addressed: "For these women, internalizing this constant struggle leads to psychological morbidity." It was striking how many women discussed constant sadness and giving up hope in their interviews." Although the psychological impacts center around the woman experiencing the fistula, others around them, and especially loved ones, feel the impact as well. The same study references this: "This attitude was often shared by their family members, both husbands and female relatives." Women with obstetric fistula face severe mental health issues. Among women with obstetric fistula from Bangladesh and Ethiopia 97% screened positive for potential mental health dysfunctions and about 30% had major depression. Risk factors In less-developed countries, obstetric fistulae usually develop as a result of prolonged labor when a cesarean section cannot be obtained. Over the course of the three to five days of labor, the unborn child presses against the mother's vagina very tightly, cutting off blood flow to the surrounding tissues between the vagina and the rectum and between the vagina and the bladder, causing the tissues to disintegrate and rot away. Obstetric fistulae can also be caused by poorly performed abortions, and pelvic fracture, cancer, or radiation therapy targeted at the pelvic area, inflammatory bowel disease (such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis). Other potential causes for the development of obstetric fistulae are sexual abuse and rape, especially in conflict/postconflict areas, and other trauma, such as surgical trauma. In the developed world, such as the US, the primary cause of obstetric fistulae, particularly rectovaginal fistulae, is the use of episiotomy and forceps. Primary risk factors include early or closely spaced pregnancies and lack of access to emergency obstetric care. For example, a 1983 study in Nigeria found that 54.8% of the people affected were under 20 years of age, and 64.4% gave birth at home or in poorly equipped local clinics. When available at all, cesarean sections and other medical interventions are usually not performed until after tissue damage has already been done. Social, political, and economic causes that indirectly lead to the development of obstetric fistulae concern issues of poverty, malnutrition, lack of education, early marriage and childbirth, the role and status of women in developing countries, harmful traditional practices, sexual violence, and lack of good quality or accessible maternal and health care. Poverty Poverty is the main indirect cause of obstetric fistulae around the world. As obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae account for 8% of maternal deaths worldwide and "a 60-fold difference in gross national product per person shows up as a 120-fold difference in maternal mortality ratio," impoverished countries produce higher maternal mortality rates and thus higher obstetric fistula rates. Furthermore, impoverished countries not only have low incomes, but also lack adequate infrastructure, trained and educated professionals, resources, and a centralized government that exist in developed nations to effectively eradicate obstetric fistulae. According to UNFPA, "Generally accepted estimates suggest that 2.0-3.5 million women live with obstetric fistulae in the developing world, and between 50,000 and 100,000 new cases develop each year. All but eliminated from the developed world, obstetric fistula continues to affect the poorest of the poor: women and girls living in some of the most resource-starved remote regions in the world." Malnutrition One reason that poverty produces such high rates of fistula cases is the malnutrition that exists in such areas. Lack of money and access to proper nutrition, as well as vulnerability to diseases that exist in impoverished areas because of limited basic health care and disease prevention methods, cause inhabitants of these regions to experience stunted growth. Sub-Saharan Africa is one such environment where the shortest women have on average lighter babies and more difficulties during birth when compared with full-grown women. This stunted growth causes expectant mothers to have skeletons unequipped for proper birth, such as an underdeveloped pelvis. This weak and underdeveloped bone structure increases the chances that the baby will get stuck in the pelvis during birth, cutting off circulation and leading to tissue necrosis. Because of the correlation between malnutrition, stunted growth, and birthing difficulties, maternal height can at times be used as a measure for expected labor difficulties. Lack of education High levels of poverty also lead to low levels of education among impoverished women concerning maternal health. This lack of information in combination with obstacles preventing rural women to easily travel to and from hospitals lead many to arrive at the birthing process without prenatal care. This can cause a development of unplanned complications that may arise during home births, in which traditional techniques are used. These techniques often fail in the event of unplanned emergencies, leading women to go to hospital for care too late, desperately ill, and therefore vulnerable to the risks of anesthesia and surgery that must be used on them. In a study of women who had prenatal care and those who had unbooked emergency births, "the death rate in the booked-healthy group was as good as that in many developed countries, [but] the death rate in the unbooked emergencies was the same as the death rate in England in the 16th and 17th centuries." In this study, 62 unbooked emergency women were diagnosed with obstetric fistulae out of 7,707 studied, in comparison to three diagnosed booked mothers out of 15,020 studied. In addition, studies find that education is associated with lower desired family size, greater use of contraceptives, and increased use of professional medical services. Educated families are also more likely to be able to afford health care, especially maternal healthcare. Early childbirth In sub-Saharan Africa, many girls enter into arranged marriages soon after menarche (usually between the ages of 9 and 15). Social factors and economic factors contribute to this practice of early marriages. Socially, some grooms want to ensure their brides are virgins when they get married, so an earlier marriage is desirable. Economically, the bride price received and having one less person to feed in the family helps alleviate the financial burdens of the bride's family. Early marriages lead to early childbirth, which increases the risk of obstructed labor, since young mothers who are poor and malnourished may have underdeveloped pelvises. In fact, obstructed labor is responsible for 76 to 97% of obstetric fistulae. Lack of healthcare Even women who do make it to the hospital may not get proper treatment. Countries that suffer from poverty, civil and political unrest or conflict, and other dangerous public health issues such as malaria, HIV/AIDS, and tuberculosis often suffer from a severe burden and breakdown within the healthcare system. This breakdown puts many people at risk, specifically women. Many hospitals within these conditions suffer from shortages of staff, supplies, and other forms of medical technology that would be necessary to perform reconstructive obstetric fistula repair. There is a shortage of doctors in rural Africa, and studies find that the doctors and nurses who do exist in rural Africa often do not show up for work. Poverty hinders women from being able to access normal and emergency obstetric care because of long distances and expensive procedures. For some women, the closest maternal care facility can be more than 50 km away. In Kenya, a study by the Ministry of Health found that the "rugged landscape, long distances to health facilities, and societal preferences for delivery with a traditional birth attendant contributed to delays in accessing necessary obstetric care." Emergency cesarean sections, which can help avoid fistulae caused by prolonged vaginal deliveries, are very expensive. Status of women In developing countries, women who are affected by obstetric fistulae do not necessarily have full agency over their bodies or their households. Rather, their husbands and other family members have control in determining the healthcare that the women receive. For example, a woman's family may refuse medical examinations for the patient by male doctors, but female doctors may be unavailable, thus barring women from prenatal care. Furthermore, many societies believe that women are supposed to suffer in childbirth, thus are less inclined to support maternal health efforts. Prevention Prevention is the key to ending fistulae. UNFPA states that, "Ensuring skilled birth attendance at all births and providing emergency obstetric care for all women who develop complications during delivery would make fistula as rare in developing countries as it is in the industrialized world." In addition, access to health services and education – including family planning, gender equality, higher living standards, child marriage, and human rights – must be addressed to reduce the marginalization of women and girls. Reducing marginalization in these areas could reduce maternal disability and death by at least 20%. Prevention comes in the form of access to obstetrical care, support from trained health care professionals throughout pregnancy, providing access to family planning, promoting the practice of spacing between births, supporting women in education, and postponing early marriage. Fistula prevention also involves many strategies to educate local communities about the cultural, social, and physiological factors of that condition and contribute to the risk for fistulae. One of these strategies involves organizing community-level awareness campaigns to educate women about prevention methods such as proper hygiene and care during pregnancy and labor. Prevention of prolonged obstructed labor and fistulae should preferably begin as early as possible in each woman's life. For example, improved nutrition and outreach programs to raise awareness about the nutritional needs of children to prevent malnutrition, as well as improve the physical maturity of young mothers, are important fistula prevention strategies. It is also important to ensure access to timely and safe delivery during childbirth: measures include availability and provision of emergency obstetric care, as well as quick and safe cesarean sections for women in obstructed labor. Some organizations train local nurses and midwives to perform emergency cesarean sections to avoid vaginal delivery for young mothers who have underdeveloped pelvises. Midwives located in the local communities where obstetric fistulae are prevalent can contribute to promoting health practices that help prevent future development of obstetric fistulae. NGOs also work with local governments, like the government of Niger, to offer free cesarean sections, further preventing the onset of obstetric fistulae. Promoting education for girls is also a key factor to preventing fistulae in the long term. Former fistula patients often act as "community fistula advocates" or "ambassadors of hope", a UNFPA-sponsored initiative, to educate the community. These survivors help current patients, educate pregnant mothers, and dispel cultural myths that obstetric fistulae are caused by adultery or evil spirits. Successful ambassador programs are in place in Kenya, Bangladesh, Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d'Ivoire, and Liberia. Several organizations have developed effective fistula prevention strategies. One, the Tanzanian Midwives Association, works to prevent fistulae by improving clinical healthcare for women, encouraging the delay of early marriages and childbearing years, and helping the local communities to advocate for women's rights. Treatment Surgery The nature of the injury varies depending on the size and location of the fistula, so a surgeon with experience is needed to improvise on the spot. Before the person undergoes surgery, treatment and evaluation are needed for conditions including anemia, malnutrition, and malaria. Quality treatment in low-resource settings are possible (as in the cases of Nigeria and Ethiopia). Treatment is available through reconstructive surgery. Primary fistula repair has a 91% success rate. The corrective surgery costs about US$100–400, and the cost for the entire procedure, which includes the actual surgery, postoperative care, and rehabilitation support, is estimated to cost $300–450. Initial surgeries done by inadequately trained doctors and midwives increase the number of follow-up surgeries that must be performed to restore full continence. Successful surgery enables women to live normal lives and have more children, but it is recommended to have a cesarean section to prevent the fistula from recurring. Postoperative care is vital to prevent infection. Some women are not candidates for this surgery due to other health problems. In those cases, fecal diversion can help the patient, but not necessarily cure them. Besides physical treatment, mental health services are also needed to rehabilitate fistula patients, who experience psychological trauma from being ostracized by the community and from fear of developing fistulae again. A study on the first formal counseling program for fistula survivors in Eritrea shows positive results, whereby counseling significantly improved the women's self-esteem, knowledge about fistulae and fistula prevention, and behavioral intentions for "health maintenance and social reintegration" following surgery. Challenges Challenges with regards to treatment include the very high number of women needing reconstructive surgery, access to facilities and trained surgeons, and the cost of treatment. For many women, US$300 is a price they cannot afford. Access and availability of treatment also vary widely across different sub-Saharan countries. Certain regions also do not have enough maternal care clinics that are equipped, willing to treat fistula patients, and adequately staffed. At the Evangelical Hospital of Bemberéke in Benin, only one expatriate volunteer obstetrics and gynecology doctor is available a few months per year, with one certified nurse and seven informal hospital workers. In all of Niger, two medical centers treat fistula patients. In Nigeria, more dedicated health professionals operate on up to 1,600 women with a fistula per year. The world is currently severely under capacity for treating the problem; it would take up to 400 years to treat the backlog of patients. To prevent any new cases of obstetric fistulae, about 75,000 new emergency obstetric care facilities would have to be built in Africa alone, plus an increase in financial support and an even higher number of certified doctors, midwives, and nurses needed. Another challenge standing between women and fistula treatment is information. Most women have no idea that treatment is available. Because this is a condition of shame and embarrassment, most women hide themselves and their condition and suffer in silence. In addition, after receiving initial treatment, health education is important to prevent fistulae in subsequent pregnancies. Another challenge is the lack of trained professionals to provide surgery for fistula patients. As a result, nonphysicians are sometimes trained to provide obstetric services. For example, the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital has medical staff without formal degrees, and one of its top surgeons was illiterate, but she had been trained over years and now regularly successfully performs fistula surgery. Catheterization Fistula cases can also be treated through urethral catheterization if identified early enough. The Foley catheter is recommended because it has a balloon to hold it in place. The indwelling Foley catheter drains urine from the bladder. This decompresses the bladder wall so that the wounded edges come together and stay together, giving it a greater chance of closing naturally, at least in the smaller fistulae. About 37% of obstetric fistulae that are treated within 75 days after birth with a Foley catheter resolve. Even without preselecting the least complicated obstetric fistula cases, a Foley catheter by midwives after the onset of urinary incontinence could treat over 25% of all new fistulae. Epidemiology Obstetric fistulae are common in the developing world, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Kenya, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Benin, Chad, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Uganda, and Zambia) and much of South Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Nepal). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 women develop obstetric fistulae each year and over two million women currently live with an obstetric fistula. In particular, most of the two million-plus women in developing nations who suffer from obstetric fistulae are under the age of 30. Between 50 and 80% of women under the age of 20 in poor countries develop obstetric fistulae (the youngest patients are 12–13 years old). Other estimates indicate about 73,000 new cases occur per year. Obstetric fistulae were very common throughout the world, but since the late 19th century, the rise of gynecology developed safe practices for childbirth, including giving birth at local hospitals rather than at home, which dramatically reduced rates of obstructed labor and obstetric fistulae in Europe and North America. Adequate population-based epidemiological data on obstetric fistulae are lacking due to the historic neglect of this condition since it was mostly eradicated in developed nations. Available data are estimations that should be viewed with caution. About 30% of women over age 45 in developed nations are affected by urinary incontinence. The rate of obstetrical fistulae is much lower in places that discourage early marriage, encourage and provide general education for women, and grant women access to family planning and skilled medical teams to assist during childbirth. History Evidence of obstetric fistula dates back to 2050 BCE, when Queen Henhenit suffered a fistula. The first acknowledgments of obstetric fistula date back to various Egyptian documents known as the papyri. These documents, including rare medical engravings, were found of the entrance of a tomb located in the necropolis of Saqquarah, Egypt. The tomb belonged to an unknown physician who lived during the 6th dynasty. The translation of this document became possible with the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799. In 1872, the Ebers papyrus was discovered in a mummy from the Theban acropolis. This papyrus, 65 feet long, 14 inches wide, consisting of 108 columns each about 20 lines, now resides in the library at the University of Leipzig. The gynecological reference in this papyrus addresses uterine prolapse, but at the end of page three, there seems to be a mention of the vesicovaginal fistula, warning the physician against trying to cure it, saying, "prescription for a woman whose urine is in an irksome place: if the urine keeps coming and she distinguishes it, she will be like this forever." This seems to be the oldest reference to vesicovaginal fistula, one which articulates the storied history of the problem. James Marion Sims, in 1852 in Alabama, developed an operation for fistula. He worked at the New York Women's Hospital. Society and culture During most of the 20th century, obstetric fistulae were largely missing from the international global health agenda. This is reflected by the fact that the condition was not included as a topic at the landmark United Nations 1994 International Conference on Population and Development (ICPD). The 194-page report from the ICPD does not include any reference to obstetric fistulae. In 2000, eight Millennium Development Goals were adopted after the United Nations Millennium Summit to be achieved by 2015. The fifth goal of improving maternal health is directly related to obstetric fistula. Since 2003, obstetric fistula has been gaining awareness amongst the general public and has received critical attention from UNFPA, who has organized a global "Campaign to End Fistula". New York Times columnist Nicholas Kristof, a Pulitzer Prize–winning writer, wrote several columns in 2003, 2005, and 2006 focusing on fistula and particularly treatment provided by Catherine Hamlin at the Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. In 2007, Fistula Foundation, Engel Entertainment, and a number of other organizations including PBS NOVA released the documentary film, A Walk to Beautiful, which traced the journey of five women from Ethiopia who sought treatment for their obstetric fistulae at the Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia. The film still airs frequently on PBS in the U.S. and is credited with increasing awareness of obstetric fistulae greatly. Increased public awareness and corresponding political pressure have helped fund the UNFPA's Campaign to End Fistula, and helped motivate the United States Agency for International Development to dramatically increase funding for the prevention and treatment of obstetric fistulae. Countries that signed the United Nations Millennium Declaration have begun adopting policies and creating task forces to address issues of maternal morbidity and infant mortality, including Tanzania, Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Uganda, Eritrea, Niger, and Kenya. Laws to increase the minimum age for marriage have also been enacted in Bangladesh, Nigeria, and Kenya. To monitor these countries and hold them accountable, the UN has developed six "process indicators", a benchmark tool with minimum acceptable levels that measures whether or not women receive the services they need. The UNFPA set out several strategies to address fistulae, including "postponing marriage and pregnancy for young girls, increasing access to education and family planning services for women and men, provide access to adequate medical care for all pregnant women and emergency obstetric care for all who develop complications, and repairing physical damage through medical intervention and emotional damage through counselling." One of the UNFPA's initiatives to reduce the cost of transportation in accessing medical care provided ambulances and motorcycles for women in Benin, Chad, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Rwanda, Senegal, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zambia. Campaign to end fistula The Addis Ababa Fistula Hospital in Ethiopia successfully treats women with obstetric fistulae, even in less than desirable environments. As a result, the UNFPA gathered partners in London in 2001, and officially launched an international initiative to address obstetric fistulae later in 2003. Partners in this initiative include Columbia University's Averting Maternal Death and Disability Program, the International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics, and the World Health Organization. The official international partnership formed by the Campaign to End Fistula is named the Obstetric Fistula Working Group (OFWG) and its purpose is to coordinate and collaborate global efforts to eliminate obstetric fistulae. The initiative's first action was to quantitatively assess the issue in countries where the prevalence is suspected to be high, including nine countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The studies found that fistula patients are mostly illiterate, young, and poor women. Moreover, local legislators and government officials' lack of awareness exacerbate the problem. The OFWG improves awareness for prenatal and neonatal care and develops strategies for clinically managing obstetric fistula cases. To date, the Campaign to End Fistula has involved more than 30 countries in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and the Middle East, and completed rapid needs assessments in many of those countries to continually assess the needs in each country. The strategies that the campaign helps each nation to develop are three-fold: prevention of new cases, treatment for patients, and support for reintegration into society after the operation. Prevention efforts include access to maternal health services and mobilizing communities and legislators to increase awareness of maternal health problems. Training health providers and ensuring affordable treatment services, as well as providing social services such as health education and mental health services, help treat and reintegrate women into their communities. Other tasks undertaken by the campaign include fundraising and introducing new donors and gathering new partners of all perspectives, such as faith-based organizations, NGOs, and private-sector companies. Fistula Fortnight The Fistula Fortnight was a two-week initiative that took place from February 21 to March 6, 2005, where fistula experts treated fistula patients for free at four surgical camps in the northern Nigerian states of Kano, Katsina, Kebbi, and Sokoto. The initiative was collaborated by many partners such as the federal and state governments of Nigeria, 13 Nigerian fistula surgeons, the Nigerian Red Cross, and UNFPA. During the nine-month preparation period, facilities were renovated, equipment were provided, and staff were extensively trained to treat fistula. The goals of this initiative were to alleviate the backlog of patients waiting for surgery, provide treatment services at host sites, and to raise awareness for maternal health. The Fistula Fortnight treated 569 women at no cost, with an 87.8% rate of successful closures. Follow-up treatments and services were provided, such as bed rest, analgesics, oral fluids, visual monitoring of urination by nurses, a catheter, catheter removal, and an examination and discharge from the hospital at a minimum of four weeks, with instruction to avoid sexual intercourse. The Fistula Fortnight also had preoperative and postoperative counseling provided by nurses and social workers and held health education workshops for fistula patients and their families. Community organizations People recovering from a fistula in the postoperative period need support to fully reintegrate into society. In particular, physical labor is limited in the first year of recovery, so women need alternative ways to earn an income. Since poverty is an indirect cause of obstetric fistulae, some community organizations aim to provide postoperative services to enhance the women's socioeconomic situation. Delta Survie, located in Mopti, Mali, is a community center that provides skills training and helps women to produce hand-made jewelry to generate income and meet other women while they recover. Another organization, IAMANEH Suisse, identifies Malian fistula patients, facilitates operations for those without the financial means, and helps them access follow-up services to prevent recurrence of fistulae in their subsequent pregnancies. Other organizations also help to arrange mission trips for medical personnel to visit countries with women affected by fistulae, perform surgeries, and train local doctors to give medical assistance for fistula patients. The International Organization for Women and Development (IOWD) is one such nonprofit organization. The IOWD hosts four to five mission trips per year to provide relief to obstetric fistula patients in West Africa. IOWD mission trip members have evaluated thousands of patients at no cost and performed surgeries for over a thousand women. Treatment centers A complete fistula treatment center includes investigative services like laboratory work, radiology, and a blood bank, to ensure that the medical history of patients is clearly understood before treatment options are evaluated. The surgical services would include operating theaters, postoperative wards, and anesthetic services. Physiotherapy and social-reintegration services are also necessary to arm women affected by obstetric fistula with the tools necessary to re-enter a society from which they have been ostracised. The size of the facility should be tailored to the need in the area, and the most successful centers work in collaboration with other treatment centers and organizations, forming a larger network of resources. The cost of salaries, single-use medical equipment, up to date technology and equipment, and maintenance of infrastructure, collectively provide large economic burdens to treatment centers. A barrier also arises when governments and local authorities require that approval be obtained prior to the construction of centers. There is an uneven distribution of specialized health care providers due to the below optimal training and supervision of health works and the low wages of fistula surgeons. Most fistula surgeons come from developed countries and are brought to developing countries, the nations more often affected by fistula, by a variety of organizations. An example of a well functioning treatment center is in Bangladesh where a facility has been created in association with the Dhaka Medical College Hospital with support from the United Nations Population Fund. Here, 46 doctors and 30 nurses have been trained and have successfully doubled the number of fistula cases addressed and operated on. Another example is a fistula unit in N'djamena, Chad, which has a mobile clinic that travels to rural, hard-to-reach areas, to provide services, and works in association with Liberty Hospital. The World Health Organization has created a manual articulating necessary principles for surgical and pre- and post- operative care regarding obstetric fistula, providing a beneficial outline for affected nations. Treatment centers are crucial for the survival of obstetric fistula patients and well-equipped centers help the emotional, physical, and psychological aspects of their lives. See also Double dye test Shout Gladi Gladi References External links Fistula Foundation Fistula Care Reporting from the Danja Fistula Center, Niger, Nicholas D. 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231287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extreme%20%28band%29	Extreme (band)	Extreme is an American rock band formed in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1985, that reached the height of their popularity in the late 1980s and early 1990s with original lineup Gary Cherone (lead vocals), Nuno Bettencourt (guitars and keyboards), Paul Geary (drums and percussion), and Pat Badger (bass guitar). With the exclusion of Geary, the lineup has remained unchanged. Their current drummer is Kevin Figueiredo. They have released five studio albums, two EPs (in Japan) and two compilation albums since their formation. The band was one of the most successful rock acts of the early 1990s, selling over 10 million albums worldwide. Extreme achieved their greatest success with their 1990 album Pornograffitti, which peaked at number 10 on the Billboard 200, and was certified gold in May 1991 and double platinum in October 1992. That album featured the acoustic ballad single "More Than Words", which reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. History 1985–1989: Formation and debut album Extreme was formed in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1985. Vocalist Gary Cherone and drummer Paul Geary were in a band called "The Dream" ("Extreme" was the evolution of Cherone and Geary's former band "The Dream", meaning "Ex-Dream"). Guitarist Nuno Bettencourt was in a band called "Sinful", and bassist Pat Badger was playing with a Berklee-based act called "In The Pink". Bettencourt joined the group in 1985, followed by Badger in 1986. Cherone and Bettencourt began writing songs together and the band performed continuously in the New England area. Extreme grew a large regional following, and were named "Outstanding Hard Rock/Heavy Metal Act" at the Boston Music Awards in 1986 and 1987. The band had accumulated several original songs by the time A&R director Bryan Huttenhower signed them to A&M Records in 1987 (which was soon sold to PolyGram in 1988). The band recorded their self-titled debut album which was issued in March 1989. The first single was "Kid Ego", a song that Cherone would later admit made him cringe. The final track on the album, "Play With Me", was used as the "mall chase" song in the film Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. 1990–1993: Pornograffitti, III Sides to Every Story and mainstream success Sales of Extreme's first record were sufficient to support a second release. Michael Wagener, who had previously worked with Dokken and White Lion, was hired to produce the band's Extreme II: Pornograffitti album in 1990. The record, which showcased Cherone's lyrics, and Bettencourt's guitar-playing, was a mixture of funk, pop and glam metal sounds. "Decadence Dance" and "Get the Funk Out" were released as singles. "Get the Funk Out" reached No. 19 in the UK charts in June 1991. Neither single was initially successful in the United States, however, and the album had fallen off the charts when A&M sent the third single to a number of US radio stations. The acoustic ballad "More Than Words" entered the Hot 100 on March 23, 1991, at No. 81. It later became a huge smash, hitting No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The subsequent single, "Hole Hearted", another acoustic track, was also successful, rising to No. 4 on the same popular music chart. The band began recording their third album in 1992. Their appearance at the Freddie Mercury Tribute Concert in April 1992 interrupted the recording sessions, but it gave the band considerable exposure beyond the heavy metal fraternity. By playing a medley at the tribute, as well as "Love of My Life" and "More Than Words" acoustically, Extreme gained a considerable number of fans along with the Queen fan base. At the introductory speech before they played, Brian May noted that they were "possibly more than any other group on this planet, the people that understand exactly what Queen have been about all these years, and what Freddie was about all these years". III Sides to Every Story was released on September 22, 1992. The first single from the album, "Rest in Peace", had an accompanying video clip inspired by a film short by the National Film Board of Canada called Neighbours. 1994–1996: Lineup change and Waiting for the Punchline Prior to the band's appearance at Donington's Monsters of Rock festival in the summer of 1994, Geary left the band to pursue a career in artist management. Mike Mangini succeeded him on drums. Waiting for the Punchline, the first record to feature Mangini on three tracks, (Paul Geary played on the rest of the album before departing), was released on February 7, 1995. The singles "Hip Today", "Unconditionally", and "Cynical" were released, but the album was not a commercial sales success. Extreme disbanded after the tour in 1996, on amicable terms, when Bettencourt decided to leave to pursue a solo career. 1997–2003: First hiatus and Van Halen On the recommendation of former Extreme manager Ray Danniels, in 1996, Gary Cherone joined one of the world's most successful rock acts, Van Halen. During 1996, Van Halen's fan-base weathered the acrimonious departures of two of rock's most successful lead singers: first David Lee Roth, the band's original frontman, (1974-1985) and then Sammy Hagar, who had fronted Van Halen since 1985. Into this fractious, and very public situation entered Cherone, whom guitarist Eddie Van Halen later called a "musical soulmate". In 1998, the Cherone-fronted Van Halen released Van Halen III. Van Halen III was a departure for the band—experimental, sometimes acoustic, and socially conscious, lyrically. It bore little resemblance to the band's earlier, riff-driven classic rock. Van Halen III reached No. 4 on Billboards top 200 album charts, and sold over 500,000 copies in the U.S. alone; however, by Van Halen's standards, it was a failure. All 12 of their previous albums had all sold over two million copies in the U.S. alone, with two selling over ten million in the U.S. alone—and the previous five studio albums had all reached No. 1 on the Billboard 200 album charts. Van Halen's tour was successful; however, not as successful as in previous years. In late 1999, after Van Halen's second album with Cherone was "sent back" by Warner Bros. Records, Cherone left the band. He later formed Tribe of Judah, which released an album called Exit Elvis in 2002. In 2005, Cherone released a four-song sampler CD, entitled Need I Say More. In 1997, Nuno Bettencourt released his first solo album titled Schizophonic. In 1998 he formed a group called Mourning Widows who released a self-titled album that year and a follow-up album, Furnished Souls for Rent, in 2000. Following the breakup of that band, he released another solo album under the project name of Population 1 in 2002. Acquiring new members for the tour, he decided to keep the name Population 1 and the first release as a band was a five-song EP entitled Sessions from Room 4 in 2004. They then changed the band's name to DramaGods and created a follow-up CD entitled Love in 2005. Nuno, along with bandmates Kevin Figueiredo and Steve Ferlazzo, then went on to collaborate with Perry Farrell's project Satellite Party. The Best of Extreme: An Accidental Collocation of Atoms?, a 13-track Extreme "best-of" collection featuring tracks from the first three studio albums, was released in 1998. Extreme – The Collection, a later collection including 15-tracks from the first four studio albums, was released in 2002. 2004–2010: Reformation and Saudades de Rock Extreme reformed for a short tour in 2004 playing in the Azores (August), in their hometown of Boston at the WAAF anniversary (September 19) as well as a few concerts in Japan (January 2005). After a hiatus during 2005, the band returned in 2006 with the "classic" Pornograffitti lineup to do a small, three-show reunion tour through New England. In July 2007 Bettencourt quit Satellite Party for the Extreme reunion with Cherone and Pat Badger. On November 26, 2007, the band announced plans for a world tour in the summer of 2008 with King's X as well as a release date for their new album, Saudades de Rock, produced by Bettencourt. Kevin Figueiredo, who played with Bettencourt in DramaGods and Satellite Party, took over drum duties for the band. Original drummer Paul Geary would still remain involved with the band, albeit in a management position. Singles from the album have been available on MySpace including "Star". The album was released on July 28, 2008 in France, August 4, 2008 in Europe, and August 12, 2008 in the United States. The band then embarked on the Take Us Alive World Tour, supported by King's X in the US and Hot Leg in the UK, with various other dates in Europe and Asia, through all of 2008. In 2009, the band continued to tour, co-headlining the East Meets West Tour with Ratt. The final date of this tour, in their hometown of Boston, Massachusetts, was recorded for the release of the band's first live DVD called Take Us Alive. 2010–2015: Second hiatus, Hurtsmile and other projects According to a December 2010 interview with Cherone, Extreme had been writing new material for a new album, which they planned - at the time - to release in 2011. Asked in the same interview if the band will produce the new album by themselves or get an outside producer, Cherone replied, "There's talk of a few people. It would be great to get an A-list name. I don't know if that happens. My dream producer would probably be Rick Rubin. Here's a guy that's done Johnny Cash, the Chili Peppers and you know, Neil Diamond." But due to conflicting schedules with Bettencourt supporting Rihanna on her tour during 2011, plans to go into the studio were postponed to 2012. Also in 2010 rumors started about possible commemorative shows for Extreme II: Pornograffitti, given the 20th anniversary of the record. Finally, in 2012, initially a small string of such shows in Japan had been confirmed, marking the full return of the band's activities after a hiatus when Bettencourt was on tour with Rihanna, as well as other side projects by other members, most notably Cherone's Hurtsmile. Extreme were to tour Australia in April 2013, with Richie Kotzen as support act, but the shows were cancelled due to scheduling conflicts with Rihanna's 2013 North American tour. They then did their first show in Singapore. 2015–present: New album In a May 2015 interview with Eddie Trunk, vocalist Gary Cherone said that Extreme had been writing and demoing new material for their follow-up to Saudades de Rock, and would enter the studio in the fall to begin recording. In a September 2016 interview, guitarist Nuno Bettencourt revealed that Extreme had been working on approximately 17 songs for their new album, and added, "We're about 17 songs into it. We're just wrapping them up. We've got to do vocals, some guitar. Slowly but surely." He also stated that the album was expected to be released in early 2017. In 2016, the band released Pornograffitti Live 25: Metal Meltdown, an audio/video presentation of its 2015 concert at Las Vegas' Hard Rock Casino. During the 2017 KISS Kruise, the band invited original drummer Paul Geary to join them on stage to play "Hole Hearted". Recordings for the new album are being finished and the new album is now being slated for a future release date. In June 2018, Extreme toured Australia with Mr. Big, which marked the latter's first tour of Australia and Extreme's first tour of Australia since 1993. After their Australian tour, they went on to tour Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Bangkok and Taipei. Extreme was among hundreds of artists whose material was destroyed in the 2008 Universal fire. Extreme headlined Shirock 2019 alongside Scottish hard rock band Nazareth. On October 19, 2019, the band performed in India in front of over 30,000 fans in Ukhrul. Personnel Current members Gary Cherone – lead vocals (1985–96, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007–present) Nuno Bettencourt – guitars, 6 and 12-string acoustic guitar, brass/orchestration arrangements, keyboards, piano, backing and lead vocals (1985–96, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007–present) Pat Badger – bass, acoustic bass, backing vocals (1986–96, 2006, 2007–present) Kevin Figueiredo – drums, occasional backing vocals (2007–present) Former members Paul Geary – drums, occasional backing vocals (1985–94, 2004, 2005–06, special guest 2017) Paul Mangone – bass, backing vocals (1985–86) Peter Hunt – lead guitar, backing vocals (1985) Hal Lebeaux – rhythm guitar, backing vocals (1985) Mike Mangini – drums (1994–96, 2004, special guest for three shows 2006) Carl Restivo – bass, backing vocals (2004) Steve Ferlazzo – keyboards (2004) Laurent Duval – bass, backing vocals (2005) Lineups Timeline Discography Extreme (1989) Pornograffitti (1990) III Sides to Every Story (1992) Waiting for the Punchline (1995) Saudades de Rock (2008) Concert tours Extreme Tour Pornograffitti Tour III Sides to Every Story Tour Waiting for the Punchline Tour 2004 Mini-Reunion Tour (Azores, Portugal) 2005 Reunion Tour (Japan) 2006 Reunion Mini-Tour (New England area, US) Take Us Alive World Tour 2008 East Meets West Tour '09 Pornograffitti Live Tour 2014 Pornograffitti 25th Anniversary Tour 2015 2016 Tour 2017 Tour 2018 Australian Tour with Mr. Big 2019 Tour See also List of artists who reached number one in the United States List of artists who reached number one on the U.S. Mainstream Rock chart List of former A&M Records artists List of funk rock bands List of glam metal bands and artists List of people from Boston List of performers on Top of the Pops References External links American funk metal musical groups American glam metal musical groups Hard rock musical groups from Massachusetts Heavy metal musical groups from Massachusetts Musical groups established in 1985 Musical groups disestablished in 1996 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231288	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peristaltic%20pump	Peristaltic pump	A peristaltic pump, also commonly known as a roller pump, is a type of positive displacement pump used for pumping a variety of fluids. The fluid is contained in a flexible tube fitted inside a circular pump casing. Most peristaltic pumps work through rotary motion, though linear peristaltic pumps have also been made. The rotor has a number of "wipers" or "rollers" attached to its external circumference, which compress the flexible tube as they rotate by. The part of the tube under compression is closed, forcing the fluid to move through the tube. Additionally, as the tube opens to its natural state after the rollers pass, more fluid is drawn into the tube. This process is called peristalsis and is used in many biological systems such as the gastrointestinal tract. Typically, there will be two or more rollers compressing the tube, trapping a body of fluid between them. The body of fluid is transported through the tube, toward the pump outlet. Peristaltic pumps may run continuously, or they may be indexed through partial revolutions to deliver smaller amounts of fluid. History A form of peristaltic pump was described in The Mechanics Magazine in 1845. The pump used a leather hose which did not need to self-open when released by the rollers, instead relying on the incoming water having sufficient pressure to fill the open inlet end on each cycle. The peristaltic pump was first patented in the United States by Rufus Porter and J.D. Bradley in 1855 (U.S. Patent number 12753) as a well pump, and later by Eugene Allen in 1881 (U.S. Patent number 249285) for blood transfusions. It was developed by heart surgeon Dr. Michael DeBakey for blood transfusions while he was a medical student in 1932 and later used by him for cardiopulmonary bypass systems. A specialized nonocclusive roller pump (US Patent 5222880) using soft flat tubing was developed in 1992 for cardiopulmonary bypass systems. Applications Peristaltic pumps are typically used to pump clean/sterile or highly reactive fluids without exposing those fluids to contamination from exposed pump components. Some common applications include pumping IV fluids through an infusion device, apheresis, highly reactive chemicals, high solids slurries, and other materials where isolation of the product from the environment are critical. They are also used in heart-lung machines to circulate blood during bypass surgery, and in hemodialysis systems, since the pump does not cause significant hemolysis, or rupture of the blood cells. Key design parameters The ideal peristaltic pump should have an infinite diameter of the pump head and the largest possible diameter of the rollers. Such an ideal peristaltic pump would offer the longest possible tubing lifetime and provide a constant and pulsation-free flow rate. Such an ideal peristaltic pump can not be constructed in reality. However, peristaltic pumps can be designed to approach these ideal peristaltic pump parameters. Careful design can offer constant accurate flow rates for several weeks together with a long tubing lifetime without the risk of tubing rupture. Chemical compatibility The pumped fluid contacts only the inside surface of the tubing. This eliminates fluid compatibility concerns with other pump components such as valves, O-rings, and seals, which must be considered for other pump designs. Therefore, only the composition of the tubing that the pumped medium travels through is considered for chemical compatibility. The tubing needs to be elastomeric to maintain the circular cross-section after millions of cycles of squeezing in the pump. This requirement eliminates a variety of non-elastomeric polymers that have compatibility with a wide range of chemicals, such as PTFE, polyolefins, PVDF, etc. from consideration as material for pump tubing. The popular elastomers for pump tubing are nitrile (NBR), Hypalon, Viton, silicone, PVC, EPDM, EPDM+polypropylene (as in Santoprene), polyurethane and natural rubber. Of these materials, natural rubber has the best fatigue resistance, and EPDM and Hypalon have the best chemical compatibility. Silicone is popular with water-based fluids, such as in bio-pharma industry, but has a limited range of chemical compatibility in other industries. Extruded fluoropolymer tubes such as FKM (Viton, Fluorel, etc.) have good compatibility with acids, hydrocarbons, and petroleum fuels, but have insufficient fatigue resistance to achieve an effective tube life. There are a couple of newer tubing developments that offer broad chemical compatibility using lined tubing and fluoroelastomers. With lined tubing, the thin inside liner is made of a chemically resistant material such as poly-olefin and PTFE that form a barrier for the rest of the tubing wall from coming in contact with the pumped fluid. These liners are materials that are often not elastomeric, therefore the entire tube wall cannot be made with this material for peristaltic pump applications. This tubing provides adequate chemical compatibility and life to be used in chemically challenging applications. There are a few things to keep in mind when using these tubes - any pinholes in the liner during manufacturing could render the tubing vulnerable to chemical attack. In the case of stiff plastic liners like the polyolefins, with repeated flexing in the peristaltic pump they can develop cracks, rendering the bulk material again vulnerable to chemical attack. A common issue with all lined tubing is the delamination of the liner with repeated flexing that signals the end of the tube's life. For those with the need for chemically compatible tubing, these lined tubings offer a good solution. With fluoroelastomer tubing, the elastomer itself has the chemical resistance. In the case of e.g. Chem-Sure, it is made of a perfluoroelastomer, that has the broadest chemical compatibility of all elastomers. The two fluoroelastomer tubes listed above combine the chemical compatibility with a very long tube life stemming from their reinforcement technology but come at a pretty high initial cost. One has to justify the cost with the total value derived over the long tube life and compare with other options such as other tubing or even other pump technologies. There are many online sites for checking the chemical compatibility of the tubing material with the pumped fluid. The tubing manufacturers may also have compatibility charts specific to their tubing production method, coating, material, and the fluid being pumped. While these charts cover a list of commonly encountered fluids, they may not have all the fluids. If there is a fluid whose compatibility is not listed anywhere, then a common test of compatibility is the immersion testing. A 1 to 2 inch sample of the tubing is immersed in the fluid to be pumped for anywhere from 24 to 48 hours, and the amount of weight change from before and after the immersion is measured. If the weight change is greater than 10% of the initial weight, then that tube is not compatible with the fluid, and should not be used in that application. This test is still a one-way test, in the sense that there is still a remote chance that the tubing that passes this test can still be incompatible for the application since the combination of borderline compatibility and mechanical flexing can push the tube over the edge, resulting in premature tube failure. In general, recent tubing developments have brought broad chemical compatibility to the peristaltic pump option that many chemical dosing applications can benefit over other current pump technologies. Occlusion The minimum gap between the roller and the housing determines the maximum squeeze applied on the tubing. The amount of squeeze applied to the tubing affects pumping performance and the tube life - more squeezing decreases the tubing life dramatically, while less squeezing can cause the pumped medium to slip back, especially in high-pressure pumping, and decreases the efficiency of the pump dramatically and the high velocity of the slip back typically causes premature failure of the hose. Therefore, this amount of squeeze becomes an important design parameter. The term "occlusion" is used to measure the amount of squeeze. It is either expressed as a percentage of twice the wall thickness, or as an absolute amount of the wall that is squeezed. Let y = occlusion g = minimum gap between the roller and the housing t = wall thickness of the tubing Then y = 2t - g (when expressed as the absolute amount of squeeze) y = 100% x (2t - g) / (2t) (when expressed as a percentage of twice the wall thickness) The occlusion is typically 10% to 20%, with a higher occlusion for a softer tube material and a lower occlusion for a harder tube material. Thus for a given pump, the most critical tubing dimension becomes the wall thickness. An interesting point here is that the inside diameter (ID) of the tubing is not an important design parameter for the suitability of the tubing for the pump. Therefore, it is common for more than one ID be used with a pump, as long as the wall thickness remains the same. Inside diameter For a given rotational speed of the pump, a tube with a larger inside diameter (ID) will give a higher flow rate than one with a smaller inside diameter. The flow rate is a function of the cross-section area of the tube bore. Flow rate The flow rate is an important parameter for a pump. The flow rate in a peristaltic pump is determined by many factors, such as: Tube inner diameter - higher flow rate with larger inner diameter Pump head outer diameter - higher flow rate with larger outer diameter Pump head rotational speed - higher flow rate with higher speed Inlet Pulsation - the pulse reduces the filling volume of the hose Increasing the number of rollers does not increase the flow rate, instead it will decrease the flow rate somewhat by reducing the effective (i.e. fluid-pumping) circumference of the head. Increasing rollers does tend to decrease the amplitude of the fluid pulsing at the outlet by increasing the frequency of the pulsed flow. The length of the tube (measured from the initial pinch point near the inlet to the final release point near the outlet) does not affect the flow rate. However, a longer tube implies more pinch points between inlet and outlet, increasing the pressure that the pump can generate. The flow rate of a peristaltic pump is in most cases not linear. The effect of pulsation at the inlet of the pump changes the filling degree of the peristaltic hose. With high inlet pulsation, the peristaltic hose may become oval-shaped, resulting in less flow. Accurate metering with a peristaltic pump is therefore only possible when the pump has a constant flow rate, or when inlet pulsation is completely eliminated with the use of correct designed pulsation dampeners. Pulsation Pulsation is an important side effect of the peristaltic pump. The pulsation in a peristaltic pump is determined by many factors, such as: Flow Rate - higher flow rate gives more pulsation Line Length - Long pipelines give more pulsation Higher Pump Speed - higher RPM gives more pulsation Specific gravity of the fluid - higher fluid density gives more Pulsation Variations Hose pumps Higher pressure peristaltic hose pumps which can typically operate against up to in continuous service, use shoes (rollers only used on low-pressure types) and have casings filled with lubricant to prevent abrasion of the exterior of the pump tube and to aid in the dissipation of heat, and use reinforced tubes, often called "hoses". This class of pump is often called a "hose pump". The biggest advantage with the hose pumps over the roller pumps is the high operating pressure of up to 16 bar. With rollers, max pressure can arrive up to without any problem. If the high operating pressure is not required, a tubing pump is a better option than a hose pump if the pumped medium is not abrasive. With recent advances made in the tubing technology for pressure, life, and chemical compatibility, as well as the higher flow rate ranges, the advantages that hose pumps had over roller pumps continues to erode. Tube pumps Lower pressure peristaltic pumps typically have dry casings and use rollers along with non-reinforced, extruded tubing. This class of pump is sometimes called a "tube pump" or "tubing pump". These pumps employ rollers to squeeze the tube. Except for the 360° eccentric pump design as described below, these pumps have a minimum of 2 rollers 180° apart and may have as many as 8, or even 12 rollers. Increasing the number of rollers increases the pressure pulse frequency of the pumped fluid at the outlet, thereby decreasing the amplitude of pulsing. The downside to increasing the number of rollers it that it proportionately increases the number of squeezes, or occlusions, on the tubing for a given cumulative flow through that tube, thereby reducing the tubing life. There are two kinds of roller design in peristaltic pumps: Fixed occlusion - In this kind of pump, the rollers have a fixed locus as it turns, keeping the occlusion constant as it squeezes the tube. This is a simple, yet effective design. The only downside to this design is that the occlusion as a percent on the tube varies with the variation of the tube wall thickness. Typically the wall thickness of the extruded tubes varies enough that the % occlusion can vary with the wall thickness (see above). Therefore, a section of tube with greater wall thickness, but within the accepted tolerance, will have higher percent occlusion, which increases the wear on the tubing, thereby decreasing the tube life. Tube wall thickness tolerances today are generally kept tight enough that this issue is not of much practical concern. For those mechanically inclined, this may be the constant strain operation. Spring-loaded rollers - As the name indicates, the rollers in this pump are mounted on a spring. This design is more elaborate than the fixed occlusion, but helps overcome the variations in the tube wall thickness over a broader range. Regardless of the variations, the roller imparts the same amount of stress on the tubing that is proportional to the spring constant, making this a constant stress operation. The spring is selected to overcome not only the hoop strength of the tubing, but also the pressure of the pumped fluid. The operating pressure of these pumps is determined by the tubing and by the motor's ability to overcome the hoop strength of the tubing and the fluid pressure. Microfluidic pumps In microfluidics, it is often desirable to minimize the circulating volume of fluid. Traditional pumps require a large volume of liquid external to the microfluidic circuit. This can lead to problems due to dilution of analytes and already dilute biological signalling molecules. For this reason, among others, it is desirable to integrate a micro-pumping structure into the microfluidic circuit. Wu et al. presented in 2008 a pneumatically actuated peristaltic micropump which eliminates the need for large external circulating fluid volumes. Advantages No contamination. Because the only part of the pump in contact with the fluid being pumped is the interior of the tube, it is easy to sterilize and clean the inside surfaces of the pump. Low maintenance needs and easy to clean; their lack of valves, seals and glands makes them comparatively inexpensive to maintain. They are able to handle slurries, viscous, shear-sensitive and aggressive fluids. Pump design prevents backflow and siphoning without valves. A fixed amount of fluid is pumped per rotation, so it can be used to roughly measure the amount of pumped fluid. Disadvantages The flexible tubing will tend to degrade with time and require periodic replacement. The flow is pulsed, particularly at low rotational speeds. Therefore, these pumps are less suitable where a smooth consistent flow is required. In applications that require smooth flow, an alternative type of positive displacement pump should then be considered. Effectiveness is limited by liquid viscosity Tubing Considerations for selecting peristaltic pump tubing include appropriate chemical resistance towards the liquid being pumped, whether the pump will be used continuously or intermittently, and cost. Types of tubing commonly used in peristaltic pumps include: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) Silicone rubber Fluoropolymer PharMed Thermoplastic Fluoroelastomer For continuous use, most of the materials perform similarly over short time frames. This suggests that overlooked low cost materials such as PVC might meet the needs of a short-term, one time use medical applications. For intermittent use, compression set is important and Silicone is an optimal material choice. Typical applications Medicine Dialysis machines Open-heart bypass pump machines Medical infusion pumps Testing and research AutoAnalyzer Analytical chemistry experiments Carbon monoxide monitors Media dispensers Agriculture 'Sapsucker' pumps to extract maple tree sap Dosers for hydroponic systems Food manufacturing and sales Liquid food fountains (ex. cheese sauce for nachos) Beverage dispensing Food-service Washing Machine fluid pump Chemical handling Printing, paint and pigments Pharmaceutical production Dosing systems for dishwasher and laundry chemicals Engineering and manufacturing Concrete pump Pulp and paper plants Minimum quantity lubrication Inkjet printers Water and Waste Chemical treatment in water purification plant Sewage sludge Aquariums, particularly calcium reactors Automatic wastewater sampling for wastewater quality indicators See also Stripper (tool) References Pumps	[ 0.049527011811733246, -0.1544884592294693, 0.3232226073741913, 0.49741777777671814, 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231290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor	Rotor	Rotor may refer to: Science and technology Engineering Rotor (electric), the non-stationary part of an alternator or electric motor, operating with a stationary element so called the stator Helicopter rotor, the rotary wing(s) of a rotorcraft such as a helicopter ROTOR, a former radar project in the UK following the Second World War Rotor (turbine), the rotor of a turbine powered by fluid pressure Rotor (crank), a variable-angle bicycle crank Rotor (brake), the disc of a disc brake, in U.S. terminology Rotor (brake mechanism), a device that allows the handlebars and fork to revolve indefinitely without tangling the rear brake cable - see Detangler Rotor (distributor), a component of the ignition system of an internal combustion engine Pistonless rotary engine Rotor (antenna) Computing Rotor machine, the rotating wheels used in certain cipher machines, such as the German Enigma machine Rotor (Enigma machine), a rotating part of the German Enigma machine Rotor (software project), the former code name for Microsoft's shared source implementation of its Common Language Infrastructure Chemistry The rotating part of a centrifuge, which also holds the samples Rigid rotor, a mathematical model for rotating systems (usually molecules) Medicine Rotor syndrome, a rare liver disorder Mathematics Rotor (mathematics), an n-blade object in geometric algebra, which rotates another n-blade object about a fixed or translated point Curl (mathematics), known as rotor in some countries, a vector operator that shows a vector field's rate of rotation Other uses SC Rotor Volgograd, a Russian football club Rotor (Sonic the Hedgehog), a fictional character from the Sonic the Hedgehog universe Rotor (ride), the trade name for an amusement ride Rotor (meteorology), a turbulent horizontal vortex that forms in the trough of lee waves Rotor, a space colony in Isaac Asimov's novel Nemesis R.O.T.O.R., a 1987 science fiction/action movie	[ 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231291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball%20grid%20array	Ball grid array	A ball grid array (BGA) is a type of surface-mount packaging (a chip carrier) used for integrated circuits. BGA packages are used to permanently mount devices such as microprocessors. A BGA can provide more interconnection pins than can be put on a dual in-line or flat package. The whole bottom surface of the device can be used, instead of just the perimeter. The traces connecting the package's leads to the wires or balls which connect the die to package are also on average shorter than with a perimeter-only type, leading to better performance at high speeds. Soldering of BGA devices requires precise control and is usually done by automated processes such as in computer-controlled automatic reflow ovens. Description The BGA is descended from the pin grid array (PGA), which is a package with one face covered (or partly covered) with pins in a grid pattern which, in operation, conduct electrical signals between the integrated circuit and the printed circuit board (PCB) on which it is placed. In a BGA the pins are replaced by pads on the bottom of the package, each initially with a tiny solder ball stuck to it. These solder spheres can be placed manually or by automated equipment, and are held in place with a tacky flux. The device is placed on a PCB with copper pads in a pattern that matches the solder balls. The assembly is then heated, either in a reflow oven or by an infrared heater, melting the balls. Surface tension causes the molten solder to hold the package in alignment with the circuit board, at the correct separation distance, while the solder cools and solidifies, forming soldered connections between the device and the PCB. In more advanced technologies, solder balls may be used on both the PCB and the package. Also, in stacked multi-chip modules, (package on package) solder balls are used to connect two packages. Advantages High density The BGA is a solution to the problem of producing a miniature package for an integrated circuit with many hundreds of pins. Pin grid arrays and dual-in-line surface mount (SOIC) packages were being produced with more and more pins, and with decreasing spacing between the pins, but this was causing difficulties for the soldering process. As package pins got closer together, the danger of accidentally bridging adjacent pins with solder grew. Heat conduction A further advantage of BGA packages over packages with discrete leads (i.e. packages with legs) is the lower thermal resistance between the package and the PCB. This allows heat generated by the integrated circuit inside the package to flow more easily to the PCB, preventing the chip from overheating. Low-inductance leads The shorter an electrical conductor, the lower its unwanted inductance, a property which causes unwanted distortion of signals in high-speed electronic circuits. BGAs, with their very short distance between the package and the PCB, have low lead inductances, giving them superior electrical performance to pinned devices. Disadvantages Lack of compliance A disadvantage of BGAs is that the solder balls cannot flex in the way that longer leads can, so they are not mechanically compliant. As with all surface mount devices, bending due to a difference in coefficient of thermal expansion between PCB substrate and BGA (thermal stress) or flexing and vibration (mechanical stress) can cause the solder joints to fracture. Thermal expansion issues can be overcome by matching the mechanical and thermal characteristics of the PCB to those of the package. Typically, plastic BGA devices more closely match PCB thermal characteristics than ceramic devices. The predominant use of RoHS compliant lead-free solder alloy assemblies has presented some further challenges to BGAs including "head in pillow" soldering phenomenon, "pad cratering" problems as well as their decreased reliability versus lead-based solder BGAs in extreme operating conditions such as high temperature, high thermal shock and high gravitational force environments, in part due to lower ductility of RoHS-compliant solders. Mechanical stress issues can be overcome by bonding the devices to the board through a process called "underfilling", which injects an epoxy mixture under the device after it is soldered to the PCB, effectively gluing the BGA device to the PCB. There are several types of underfill materials in use with differing properties relative to workability and thermal transfer. An additional advantage of underfill is that it limits tin whisker growth. Another solution to non-compliant connections is to put a "compliant layer" in the package that allows the balls to physically move in relation to the package. This technique has become standard for packaging DRAMs in BGA packages. Other techniques for increasing the board-level reliability of packages include use of low-expansion PCBs for ceramic BGA (CBGA) packages, interposers between the package and PCB, and re-packaging a device. Difficulty of inspection Once the package is soldered into place, it is difficult to find soldering faults. X-ray machines, industrial CT scanning machines, special microscopes, and endoscopes to look underneath the soldered package have been developed to overcome this problem. If a BGA is found to be badly soldered, it can be removed in a rework station, which is a jig fitted with infrared lamp (or hot air), a thermocouple and a vacuum device for lifting the package. The BGA can be replaced with a new one, or it can be refurbished (or reballed) and re-installed on the circuit board. Pre-configured solder balls matching the array pattern can be used to reball BGAs when only one or a few need to be reworked. For higher volume and repeated lab work, a stencil-configured vacuum-head pick-up and placement of loose spheres can be used. Due to the cost of visual X-ray BGA inspection, electrical testing is very often used instead. Very common is boundary scan testing using an IEEE 1149.1 JTAG port. A cheaper and easier inspection method, albeit destructive, is becoming increasingly popular because it does not require special equipment. Commonly referred to as dye and pry, the process includes immersing the entire PCB or just the BGA attached module into a dye, and after drying, the module is pried off and the broken joins are inspected. If a solder location contains the dye, then it indicates that the connection was imperfect. Difficulties during circuit development During development it is not practical to solder BGAs into place, and sockets are used instead, but tend to be unreliable. There are two common types of socket: the more reliable type has spring pins that push up under the balls, although it does not allow using BGAs with the balls removed as the spring pins may be too short. The less reliable type is a ZIF socket, with spring pinchers that grab the balls. This does not work well, especially if the balls are small. Cost of equipment Expensive equipment is required to reliably solder BGA packages; hand-soldering BGA packages is very difficult and unreliable, usable only for the smallest packages in the smallest quantities. However, as more ICs have become available only in leadless (e.g. quad-flat no-leads package) or BGA packages, various DIY reflow methods have been developed using inexpensive heat sources such as heat guns, and domestic toaster ovens and electric skillets. Variants CABGA: chip array ball grid array CBGA and PBGA denote the ceramic or plastic substrate material to which the array is attached. CTBGA: thin chip array ball grid array CVBGA: very thin chip array ball grid array DSBGA: die-size ball grid array FBGA: fine ball grid array based on ball grid array technology. It has thinner contacts and is mainly used in system-on-a-chip designs; also known as fine pitch ball grid array (JEDEC-Standard) or fine line BGA by Altera. Not to be confused with fortified BGA. FCmBGA: flip chip molded ball grid array LBGA: low-profile ball grid array LFBGA: low-profile fine-pitch ball grid array MBGA: micro ball grid array MCM-PBGA: multi-chip module plastic ball grid array nFBGA: New Fine Ball Grid Array PBGA: plastic ball grid array SuperBGA (SBGA): super ball grid array TABGA: tape array BGA TBGA: thin BGA TEPBGA: thermally enhanced plastic ball grid array TFBGA or thin and fine ball grid array UFBGA and UBGA and ultra fine ball grid array based on pitch ball grid array. VFBGA: very fine pitch ball grid array WFBGA: very very thin profile fine pitch ball grid array To make it easier to use ball grid array devices, most BGA packages only have balls in the outer rings of the package, leaving the innermost square empty. Intel used a package designated BGA1 for their Pentium II and early Celeron mobile processors. BGA2 is Intel's package for their Pentium III and some later Celeron mobile processors. BGA2 is also known as FCBGA-479. It replaced its predecessor, BGA1. For example, the "micro-FCBGA" (flip chip ball grid array) is Intel's current BGA mounting method for mobile processors that use a flip chip binding technology. It was introduced with the Coppermine Mobile Celeron. Micro-FCBGA has 479 balls that are 0.78 mm in diameter. The processor is affixed to the motherboard by soldering the balls to the motherboard. This is thinner than a pin grid array socket arrangement, but is not removable. The 479 balls of the Micro-FCBGA package (a package almost identical to the 478-pin socketable micro-FCPGA package) are arranged as the 6 outer rings of a 1.27 mm pitch (20 balls per inch pitch) 26x26 square grid, with the inner 14x14 region empty. Procurement Primary end-users of BGAs are original equipment manufacturers (OEMs). There is also a market among electronic hobbyists do it yourself (DIY) such as the increasingly popular maker movement. While OEMs generally source their components from the manufacturer, or the manufacturer's distributor, the hobbyist will typically obtain BGAs on the aftermarket through electronic component brokers or distributors. See also Dual in-line package (DIP) Pin grid array (PGA) Land grid array (LGA) Thin quad flat pack (TQFP) Small-outline integrated circuit (SOIC) Chip carrier: chip packaging and package types list Embedded wafer level ball grid array References External links PBGA Package Information from Amkor Technology PBGA Package Information from J-Devices Corporation Chip carriers	[ 0.5672579407691956, 0.06964333355426788, -0.16925936937332153, 0.021584024652838707, -0.3368682861328125, 0.043501030653715134, -0.6845801472663879, -0.07603702694177628, -0.35173916816711426, -0.44396913051605225, -0.32130077481269836, 0.3690508008003235, -0.555743932723999, 0.2131159007549286, 0.02062893845140934, 0.43674972653388977, 0.7590237259864807, -0.3183705806732178, -0.03690299391746521, 0.21330386400222778, -0.005874479655176401, -0.3095451593399048, 0.3539355993270874, 0.17018742859363556, -0.0739905834197998, -0.009860050864517689, 0.4435473680496216, 0.18755696713924408, 0.05960308760404587, 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231292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadmarks	Roadmarks	Roadmarks is a science fantasy novel by American author Roger Zelazny, written during the late 1970s and published in 1979. Structure and characters The novel postulates a road that travels through time, with a nexus placed every few years where a handful of specially gifted people are able to get on and off. The plot involves a series of assassination attempts on the protagonist, with short vignettes on each of the would-be assassins. The book has two poetry collections as characters. Les Fleurs du Mal by Charles Baudelaire and Leaves of Grass by Walt Whitman appear as cybernetic extensions of themselves. They are companions of the protagonist and his son Randy, and referred to as "Flowers" and "Leaves" respectively. They talk, argue and frequently quote their own content, exhibiting human-like levels of intelligence. The novel alternates between non-linear "Two" and linear "One" chapters. According to Zelazny: I did not decide until I was well into the book that since there was really two time-situations being dealt with (on-Road and off-Road—with off-Road being anywhen in history), I needed only two chapter headings, One and Two, to let the reader know where we are. And since the Twos were non-linear, anyway, I clipped each Two chapter into a discrete packet, stacked them and then shuffled them before reinserting them between the Ones. It shouldn't have made any difference, though I wouldn't have had the guts to try doing that without my experience with my other experimental books and the faith it had given me in the feelings I'd developed toward narrative." The book's editor was confused by the "Two" chapters and required Zelazny to rearrange the order of a few of them before publication. Plot summary The central theme of the novel is time travel using a highway that links all times and all possible histories. Exits from the highway lead to different times and places. Changing events in the past cause some exits further up the road, in the future, to become overgrown and inaccessible and new exits to appear, leading to different alternative futures. The narrator and protagonist, Red Dorakeen, has vague memories of a place or time that is no longer accessible from the Road. He runs guns to the Greeks at Marathon, trying to recreate history as he remembers it in an attempt to open a new exit from the Road to his half-remembered place. The phrase "Last Exit to Babylon" was the manuscript title of the book and appears on the cover art; it was later used as a title for Volume Four in the Collected Stories of Roger Zelazny. All "One" chapters feature Red Dorakeen, and all "Two" chapters feature secondary characters. These are Red's natural son Randy, newly introduced to the Road and tired of his old life in Ohio; a series of potential assassins attempting to kill Red, some of whom are comic references to pulp characters or real people; and Leila, a woman whose destiny is closely connected to Red's. The "One" storyline is fairly linear, but the "Two" storyline jumps around in time and sequence, first introducing Randy and Leila without introduction, then later showing Randy's introduction to the Road and meeting with Leila, who will/has just abandoned Red following an incident in the "One" timeline. The narrative becomes clear in the final chapter. Reception Greg Costikyan reviewed Roadmarks in Ares Magazine #5, commenting that "Roadmarks is a fun book – and, from anyone but Zelazny, it would be considered a tour de force. Its major difficulty would seem to be that Zelazny tried to force too many ideas into a length unsuited for them, thus being unable to exploit all of those ideas to satisfying fullness." Adaptation In February 2021, it was reported that George R.R. Martin and Kalinda Vazquez are developing a TV adaptation of the novel for HBO. 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231294	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Campbell%20%28poet%29	Thomas Campbell (poet)	Thomas Campbell (27 July 177715 June 1844) was a Scottish poet. He was a founder and the first President of the Clarence Club and a co-founder of the Literary Association of the Friends of Poland; he was also one of the initiators of a plan to found what became University College London. In 1799 he wrote "The Pleasures of Hope", a traditional 18th-century didactic poem in heroic couplets. He also produced several patriotic war songs—"Ye Mariners of England", "The Soldier's Dream", "Hohenlinden" and, in 1801, "The Battle of the Baltic", but was no less at home in delicate lyrics such as "At Love's Beginning". Early life Born on High Street, Glasgow in 1777, he was the youngest of the eleven children of Alexander Campbell (1710–1801), son of the 6th and last Laird of Kirnan, Argyll, descended from the MacIver-Campbells. His mother, Margaret (born 1736), was the daughter of John Campbell of Craignish and Mary, daughter of Robert Simpson, "a celebrated Royal Armourer". In about 1737, his father went to Falmouth, Virginia as a merchant in business with his wife's brother Daniel Campbell, becoming a Tobacco Lord trading between there and Glasgow. They enjoyed a long period of prosperity until he lost his property and their old and respectable firm collapsed in consequence of the American Revolutionary War. Having personally lost nearly £20,000, Campbell's father was nearly ruined. Several of Thomas' brothers remained in Virginia, one of whom married a daughter of Patrick Henry. Both his parents were intellectually inclined, his father being a close friend of Thomas Reid (for whom Campbell was named) while his mother was known for her refined taste and love of literature and music. Thomas Campbell was educated at the High School of Glasgow and the University of Glasgow, where he won prizes for classics and verse-writing. He spent the holidays as a tutor in the western Highlands and his poems Glenara and the Ballad of Lord Ullin's Daughter were written during this time while visiting the Isle of Mull. In 1797, Campbell travelled to Edinburgh to attend lectures on law. He continued to support himself as a tutor and through his writing, aided by Robert Anderson, the editor of the British Poets. Among his contemporaries in Edinburgh were Sir Walter Scott, Henry Brougham, Francis Jeffrey, Thomas Brown, John Leyden and James Grahame. These early days in Edinburgh influenced such works as The Wounded Hussar, The Dirge of Wallace and the Epistle to Three Ladies. Career In 1799, six months after the publication of the Lyrical Ballads of Wordsworth and Coleridge, "The Pleasures of Hope" was published. It is a rhetorical and didactic poem in the taste of his time, and owed much to the fact that it dealt with topics near to men's hearts, with the French Revolution, the partition of Poland and with negro slavery. Its success was instantaneous, but Campbell was deficient in energy and perseverance and did not follow it up. He went abroad in June 1800 without any very definite aim, visited Gottlieb Friedrich Klopstock at Hamburg, and made his way to Regensburg, which was taken by the French three days after his arrival. He found refuge in a Scottish monastery. Some of his best lyrics, "Hohenlinden", "Ye Mariners of England" and "The Soldier's Dream" (which was later set by Beethoven), belong to his German tour. He spent the winter in Altona, where he met an Irish exile, Anthony McCann, whose history suggested The Exile of Erin. He had at that time the intention of writing an epic on Edinburgh to be entitled "The Queen of the North". On the outbreak of war between Denmark and England he hurried home, the "Battle of the Baltic" being drafted soon after. At Edinburgh he was introduced to the first Lord Minto, who took him in the next year to London as occasional secretary. In June 1803 appeared a new edition of the "Pleasures of Hope", to which some lyrics were added. In 1803 Campbell married his second cousin, Matilda Sinclair, and settled in London. He was well received in Whig society, especially at Holland House. His prospects, however, were slight when in 1805 he received a government pension of £200. In that year the Campbells removed to Sydenham. Campbell was at this time regularly employed on the Star newspaper, for which he translated the foreign news. In 1809 he published a narrative poem in the Spenserian stanza, Gertrude of Wyoming – referring to the Wyoming Valley of Pennsylvania and the Wyoming Valley Massacre – with which were printed some of his best lyrics. He was slow and fastidious in composition, and the poem suffered from overelaboration. Francis Jeffrey wrote to the author: "Your timidity or fastidiousness, or some other knavish quality, will not let you give your conceptions glowing, and bold, and powerful, as they present themselves; but you must chasten, and refine, and soften them, forsooth, till half their nature and grandeur is chiselled away from them. Believe me, the world will never know how truly you are a great and original poet till you venture to cast before it some of the rough pearls of your fancy." In 1812 he delivered a series of lectures on poetry in London at the Royal Institution; and he was urged by Sir Walter Scott to become a candidate for the chair of literature at Edinburgh University. In 1814 he went to Paris, making there the acquaintance of the elder Schlegel, of Baron Cuvier and others. His pecuniary anxieties were relieved in 1815 by a legacy of £4000. He continued to occupy himself with his Specimens of the British Poets, the design of which had been projected years before. The work was published in 1819. It contains a selection with short lives of the poets, and prefixed to it a critical essay on poetry. In 1820 he accepted the editorship of the New Monthly Magazine, and in the same year made another tour in Germany. Four years later appeared his "Theodric", a not very successful poem of domestic life. Later life Campbell took an active share in the foundation of University College London (originally known as London University), visiting Berlin to inquire into the German system of education, and making recommendations which were adopted by Lord Brougham. He was elected Lord Rector of Glasgow University (1826–1829) in competition against Sir Walter Scott. Campbell retired from the editorship of the New Monthly Magazine in 1830, and a year later made an unsuccessful venture with The Metropolitan Magazine. He had championed the cause of the Poles in "The Pleasures of Hope", and the news of the capture of Warsaw by the Russians in 1831 affected him as if it had been the deepest of personal calamities. "Poland preys on my heart night and day," he wrote in one of his letters, and his sympathy found a practical expression in the foundation in London of the Literary Association of the Friends of Poland. In 1834 he travelled to Paris and Algiers, where he wrote his Letters from the South (printed 1837). His wife died in 1828. Of his two sons, one died in infancy and the other became insane. His own health suffered, and he gradually withdrew from public life. He died at Boulogne on 15 June 1844 and was buried on 3 July 1844 Westminster Abbey at Poet's Corner. Campbell's other works include a Life of Mrs Siddons (1834), and a narrative poem, "The Pilgrim of Glencoe" (1842). See The Life and Letters of Thomas Campbell (3 vols., 1849), edited by William Beattie, M.D.; Literary Reminiscences and Memoirs of Thomas Campbell (1860), by Cyrus Redding; The Complete Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell (1860); The Poetical Works of Thomas Campbell (1875), in the Aldine Edition of the British Poets, edited by the Rev. V. Alfred Hill, with a sketch of the poet's life by William Allingham; and the Oxford Edition of the Complete Works of Thomas Campbell (1908), edited by J. Logie Robertson. See also Thomas Campbell by J. Cuthbert Hadden, (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier, 1899, Famous Scots Series), and a selection by Lewis Campbell (1904) for the Golden Treasury Series. Notes External links Thomas Campbell at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) Index entry for Thomas Campbell at Poets' Corner Thomas Campbell Papers. James Marshall and Marie-Louise Osborn Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. Thomas Campbell Correspondence. General Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Yale University. 1777 births 1844 deaths Scottish poets Writers from Glasgow People educated at the High School of Glasgow Alumni of the University of Glasgow Scottish song collectors Anthologists Burials at Westminster Abbey Rectors of the University of Glasgow People associated with the University of Strathclyde Scottish male writers Scottish folk-song collectors	[ -0.6287649869918823, 0.4010830819606781, -0.4015984833240509, -1.0405547618865967, -0.23907454311847687, 0.6980156898498535, 1.222376823425293, 0.2098393440246582, -0.3293936252593994, -0.29681217670440674, -0.12191163748502731, 0.1491878479719162, -0.5460848212242126, 0.6648869514465332, 0.216029554605484, 0.6844377517700195, -0.29335179924964905, -0.1325247883796692, -0.3814676105976105, -0.37421175837516785, -0.5477057099342346, -0.5643108487129211, 0.5622955560684204, -0.24017906188964844, 0.14972637593746185, -0.02365853264927864, 0.4172990024089813, 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231295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20of%20Light	Lord of Light	Lord of Light (1967) is a science fantasy novel by American author Roger Zelazny. It was awarded the 1968 Hugo Award for Best Novel, and nominated for a Nebula Award in the same category. Two chapters from the novel were published as novelettes in the Magazine of Fantasy and Science Fiction – "Dawn" in April 1967, and "Death and the Executioner" in June 1967. Zelazny noted that Lord of Light was written so that it could be taken as a science fiction or a fantasy novel.On the one hand, I attempted to provide some justifications for what went on in the way of the bizarre; on the other, I employed a style I associate with fantasy in the telling of the story. I wrote it that way on purpose, leaving some intentional ambiguity, because I wanted it to lie somewhat between both camps and not entirely in either. I did this because I did not see much stuff being written at that time which fit that description; because I wanted to see whether I could do it; and because I was curious as to how such a book would be received. The context of the novel – modern western characters in a Hindu-Buddhist-influenced world – is reflected in the book's opening lines: Plot summary Lord of Light is set on a planet colonized by some of the remnants of "vanished Urath", or Earth. The crew and colonists from the spaceship Star of India found themselves on a strange planet surrounded by hostile indigenous races and had to carve a place for themselves or perish. To increase their chances of survival, the crew has used chemical treatments, biofeedback and electronics to mutate their minds and create enhanced self-images, or "Aspects", that "strengthened their bodies and intensified their wills and extended the power of their desires into Attributes, which fell with a force like magic upon those against whom they were turned." The crew has also developed a technology to transfer a person's atman, or soul, electronically to a new body. This reincarnation by mind transfer has created a race of potential immortals and allowed the former crew members to institute the Hindu caste system, with themselves at the top. The novel covers great spans of time. Eventually, the crew used their now-great powers to subjugate or destroy the native non-human races (whom they characterize as demons) while setting themselves up as gods in the eyes of the many generations of colonist progeny. Taking on the powers and names of Hindu deities, these "gods" maintain respect and control of the masses by maintaining a stranglehold on the access to reincarnation and by suppressing any technological advancements beyond a medieval level. The gods fear that any enlightenment or advancement might lead to a technological renaissance that would eventually weaken their power. The protagonist, Sam, who has developed the ability to manipulate electromagnetic forces, is a renegade crewman who has rejected godhood, taking for himself the role of Siddhartha Gautama/Buddha. Sam is the last "Accelerationist": He believes that technology should be available to the masses, and that reincarnation should not be controlled by the elite. Sam introduces Buddhism as a culture jamming tool and strives to cripple the power of the gods with this "new" religion. His carefully planned revolt against the gods takes place in stages: "An army, great in space, may offer opposition in a brief span of time. One man, brief in space, must spread his opposition across a period of many years if he is to have a chance of succeeding." Stories In a monastery, the deathgod Yama – assisted by Tak, the ape (formerly Tak the Archivist for the gods) and Ratri, Goddess of Night – assembles a clandestine radio transceiver to extract Sam's atman, or soul, from the "Bridge of the Gods", the planet's thick ionosphere, and restore it to a body. Sam's bodiless essence was projected by the gods into the ionosphere after his capture in the battle of Keenset. This mode of execution was used because the last time the gods killed his body, Sam returned and stole a new one from one of the lesser gods. When Sam awakes, he claims to be horrified to be back in the flesh, having been aware of his ethereal condition the whole time, and having experienced it as a blissful Nirvana. He wants to return, to "hear the song the stars sing on the shores of the great sea." Eventually, after meditation on and immersion in earthly senses, he returns fully to the world. Shortly after, an encounter with the god Mara, who had come to investigate the disturbances caused by Yama's machinery, causes the conspirators to flee. As they proceed, Sam muses on his past. Prince Siddhartha, entering old age, comes down to the city of Mahartha to obtain a new body. He finds that there have been political and religious changes while he has lived on his estates. Before getting the body, he must submit to a mind-probe, operated by the Masters of Karma, which will be used to determine his fitness for reincarnation. Those judged unfit are given diseased bodies or even reincarnated as animals such as dogs. The dogs then act as spies for the Masters. Siddhartha contacts Jan Olvegg, former captain of the Star of India, and reveals himself as Sam. He talks via a videoscreen with the current Brahma, and sees that Brahma—who he remembers was originally a woman named Madeleine, incarnated into a male body—cannot stop acting like a God, even seeming to believe it himself when he begins to 'curse' Sam. After this Sam cannot remain passive, and must proceed against the Gods. He raids the House of Karma, steals bodies for himself, Olvegg, and others, and causes the former Chief Master of Karma to be reincarnated as a dog. He then disappears to execute the next stage of his plan. The Buddha appears, preaching a philosophy of non-violence that undermines the doctrine of obedience to the gods and the struggle for a better rebirth. Instead, he emphasizes the pursuit of Nirvana and release from the illusion of the world. The goddess Kali, realizing that this is Sam's work, sends her personal executioner, Rild, to kill Sam, but Rild falls ill and is found and tended to by the Buddhist acolytes, as well as by Sam himself. Because he owes Sam his life, Rild renounces his mission after he recovers. He becomes one of Sam's disciples, eventually exceeding his teacher's wisdom. He takes the name Sugata, preaching in earnest what Sam had done only calculatingly as a way to overthrow the gods. Yama descends to kill Sam. Sugata/Rild faces Yama on a treetrunk bridge over a river, knowing he cannot defeat the God of Death, but fighting him anyway. Yama kills Rild and proceeds to find Sam. However, Sam tricks Yama and escapes, promising to return with "new weapons". Sam also warns Yama against the machinations of Yama's beloved Kali, and in so doing makes a personal enemy of Yama. Sam enters Hellwell, a huge pit where he had bound the demons centuries earlier. He negotiates with their leader, Taraka, for allies in his struggle. He frees Taraka to see the world above, but Taraka betrays him by taking possession of Sam's body, promising to resume the bargain "later". While in control of Sam's body, Taraka deposes a local maharajah and takes over his palace and harem. As Sam recovers control of his body, he finds himself becoming more like Taraka, enjoying the pleasures of the flesh. In turn, Taraka takes on some aspects of Sam, and ceases to revel in his life of pleasure. Sam tells him he has suffered the Curse of the Buddha, which is revealed to be a conscience and guilt. Soon after, Agni, God of Fire, arrives to kill Sam, finding instead two spirits in one body. Agni destroys the palace, while Sam/Taraka flees to Hellwell. They decide to free as many demons as possible before the gods arrive. However, even the full might of all the demons of Hellwell cannot stand against the gods. A mere four of the gods, Yama, Kali, Shiva, and Agni, are able to hold off the demons and pursue Sam. Despite his own powers, Sam is captured and Taraka leaves him. Sam is told that he is to be taken to Heaven and made an example of, lest the other gods try to emulate his rebellion. In the place called Heaven, Yama and Kali are to be married. Tak of the Bright Spear is the Archivist of Heaven, but is suspect because he was fathered in lifetimes past by Sam. However, Tak's main concern is seducing comely demi-goddesses such as Maya. Sam is more or less free to wander Heaven, even trysting with Kali, who would like to have him back as her lover. He preaches to any who will listen, and the gods allow this, hoping to flush out sympathizers. However, Sam knows of some of his old gadgetry locked away in one of the museums in Heaven, and with the help of Helba, the Goddess of Thieves, he attempts an escape using a belt that amplifies his powers. This fails, and Kali, disgusted with herself and with him, persuades Brahma to order a human sacrifice, namely Helba and Sam himself, to celebrate her wedding. Sam is set free once more to flee for his life, hunted by the White Tigers of Kaniburrha, some of whom may be reincarnated gods, perhaps even Kali herself. Tak attempts to protect Sam by killing the tigers, but is struck down by Ganesha. For this, Tak is sent out of Heaven in the body of an ape. The wedding proceeds, with Sam apparently dead. Brahma is dead. He has been murdered by persons or gods unknown. Vishnu, Shiva, and Ganesha gather to quickly arrange a replacement. They decide that the only viable candidate is Kali. However, for her to be reincarnated as Brahma (a man), her short marriage to Yama must end. Yama is appalled at how coldly she accepts this. Next, Shiva is found murdered. Yama throws himself into investigating the deaths. His friend, Kubera, approaches the demigod Murugan and accuses him of the murders, finally addressing him as Sam. Taraka, Lord of the Rakshasa, had taken a liking to Sam and 'strengthened his flames' so he could exist as pure energy, and can survive without a body. He displaced Murugan's spirit as Murugan was about to occupy a new body for the wedding feast. Kubera uncovered the deception by examining the brainwave records from the transfer. Instead of turning Sam in, Kubera offers to help him escape. Sam refuses, determined to kill as many gods as he can. Since Kubera's friend, Yama, is the obvious next target, Kubera tricks Sam, who underestimates Kubera's physical strength and the powers of his Attribute, and in a bout of Irish Stand-Down (in which two men take turns hitting each other until one cannot continue), knocks him out and prepares to flee on the giant bird Garuda. They recruit Ratri to stop Yama from interfering, and take her along. They flee to the city of Keenset, which is undergoing a technological revival, and is marked for destruction by the gods. Eventually, Yama, feeling betrayed by Kali and the other gods, joins them. With Yama's weaponry, and various allies, including the zombie army of Nirriti the Black, they fight a titanic battle of gods, men, and monsters, killing thousands of men, demigods, and eventually some gods as well. They go down in defeat, but not before dealing a crushing blow to the hierarchy of heaven. Yama apparently commits suicide, but some suspect that he has invented a remote reincarnation device. Ratri is exiled from heaven and condemned to wander the world in a series of homely bodies. Kubera had hidden himself in a vault, held in suspended animation. Sam, having proved himself unkillable, is instead projected into the magnetized debris ring around the planet, known as the Bridge of the Gods. However, the gods win only a Pyrrhic victory. The most powerful deities, such as Yama, Brahma, Shiva, and Agni, are now dead or sworn enemies of Heaven. Others have gone into exile rather than fight against Sam. While Brahma/Kali is exultant, Ganesha realizes that the days of Heaven are numbered, and he must look out for himself. In the final story, Sam has been returned from Nirvana. Sam, together with Yama, Ratri, and Kubera, plan their next move in their campaign against heaven. They are joined by the drunken god Krishna, who is a great fighter when sober, and who has wandered the world since he went into exile rather than fight at Keenset. Meanwhile, Nirriti, a Christian and the former chaplain of the original ship, has amassed great power in the southern continent. He is laying waste to cities in his attempts to stamp out the Hindu religion that he hates. He has acquired enough technology to challenge anything the gods can muster, even if they resort to "the tall man of smoke who wears a wide hat," apparently a reference to a nuclear device. He is also allied with the freed demons. At first he seems to be a natural ally for Sam and Yama, but they entrust the demon Taraka with conveying a message to him, and Taraka is determined to fight Yama, to prove that Taraka is the mightiest being on the planet. Thus Taraka falsely tells them that Nirriti has refused, and instead they ally with Brahma to defeat Nirriti, if Brahma will consent to their demands. This alliance defeats Nirriti in a final battle, despite Ganesha's attempt at betrayal, but at a huge cost. Brahma (the former Kali), fatally wounded, is conveyed from the battlefield by Yama. Later, Kubera finds Yama with his "daughter", whom he calls "Murga". She is mentally disabled, and Yama admits that this was due to a botched mind-transfer. Kubera, always ready to help his friend, uses his powers to stimulate Murga's mind. Sam sees Tak restored to a young body, as is Ratri. Sam then leaves, no one is sure where to; sometime later, Yama follows. Myths build up around their life and departure. Characters The novel has a range of major and minor characters, each with a backstory which, in some cases, is deliberately vague with the intent of intensifying a sense of mystery. The gods live in Heaven, an artificial plateau in the polar regions "where only the mighty might make their home." It is covered by a giant dome for defense and weather control. Heaven is divided into the Celestial City and the Forest of Kaniburrha. Major characters Sam is one of the crew of the Star of India, the starship which brought the colonists to the planet. He thus belongs to the group who are known as the First, a diminishing group of people. As Sam says, "All the rest are dead, or are gods". He himself had been a god, styling himself Kalkin. Thanks to his several lives and exploits, he is known by many names, such as Maitreya, Lord of Light, Manjusri of the Sword, Binder of Demons and so on. His major contribution to the ascendancy of the Gods was his use of what he termed electrodirection, or mental control of electromagnetics, to control and destroy or bind the worst natives of the planet, who were beings of pure energy known to men as demons. The power can also interfere with electronics and machinery, and, if strengthened, alter gravitation. Eventually disillusioned by the rise of the Gods, he retires to the life of Prince Siddhartha, until he finally rebels. In doing so, he creates more legends, and gains more names, including Buddha, The Enlightened One, Tathagatha, Mahasamatman or Great-Souled Sam etc. After an episode of 'demonic possession' by one of the planet's original inhabitants, his 'mind' can exist outside his body, even if his body is killed. His character is inspired by the Buddhist figure of Siddhartha Gautama. Yama, the God of Death, begins as Sam's enemy, but later becomes his chief ally. He is a third generation colonist with an unusual history. A juvenile scientific genius, he was mortally injured in an accidental explosion, so that he had to be quickly reincarnated into the first available body, which happened to be a middle-aged male. He therefore was "old before he was young", and did not have the same outlook as someone who has "known first love in the days of spring". He is a "master of arms, master of sciences", who has created much of the new technology behind the power of the Gods' regime, while himself being a peerless combatant with both medieval and technologically advanced weaponry. He also has the power of the death gaze, which allows him to kill by looking his victim in the eyes. Asked by Sam how he can bear to serve a "bunch of drunken body changers" he puts forth a "higher cause" rationale. However he also is emotionally involved with Kali, and eventually revolts as a result of her betrayal. Ganesha assesses him as "too serious, too conscientious", and "emotionally unstable". He is loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Kali, Goddess of Destruction, also known as Durga, consort of Kalkin, and once called Candi the Fierce, is another of the First. Over the centuries, she has been Sam's lover, companion, wife, comrade-in-arms, and finally enemy. She yearns for the days when the planet was still wild and unconquered. As Sam warns Yama, who loves her, she loves only "those who bring her gifts of chaos". Like Yama, she has the death-gaze power, along with many others only hinted at. She also carries a weapon, the skull-wheel, which is some kind of ultrasonic emitter that causes confusion and oblivion, even to the demons. She is very loosely based on the Hindu goddess of the same name. Tak, of the Bright Spear, is a former demigod exiled to the world as an ape, as punishment for trying to help Sam while he was in captivity. He is also Sam's son, possibly of Sam's original body, a fact of which Sam may not be aware. Tak is very philosophical and practical, once rationalizing that when people have many bodies, biological parenthood becomes meaningless. However, he seemingly helps Sam exactly because of that connection between them. Kubera is Yama's friend and companion in an order of the Gods called the Lokapalas. He is a man who loves his food and drink; no matter how he is reincarnated, his body always runs to fat. He is however, shrewdly intelligent and a master technologist, surpassing Yama in some areas. He is known as steadfastedly loyal, and has never broken his word once he has given it. He has the unique ability to invest inanimate objects with emotion and feelings, which he uses to create the Pavilion of Silence at Worldsend, a structure at the far end of the place known as Heaven in which rooms are dedicated to emotions such as Despair, Heartbreak, and Fear. This is a place of retreat for the Gods. After centuries of idleness as a God he eventually breaks with the rest and helps Sam. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Ratri, the Goddess of the Night, is Kubera's friend who is drawn into the conflict, not altogether unwillingly. She too is disgusted by the treatment Sam received in Heaven, and goes to Kubera for advice after she witnesses Brahma's last twitches when he is poisoned. Eventually she helps Kubera escape Heaven with Sam. Her power is to cast Night—enforced darkness—across any area, which is used in the Battle of Keenset. After that battle, because she is judged to have been merely weak-willed in helping Sam, she is expelled from Heaven to wander the world in bodies that can not express her powers, or her beauty. In spite of this she can occasionally summon the strength to become the Goddess whose "radiance drives out the dark". In character terms she provides an emotional counterweight to Yama's hatred and Sam's zeal. She is very loosely based on the Hindu goddess of the same name. Minor characters Jan Olvegg, also known as Olvagga, or Janaveg, or Janagga, is another one of the First. In fact, he was the Captain of the colonists' ship. Sam encounters him in exile while still contemplating his own rebellion. He identifies himself to Olvegg with "It's a long way to Tipperary". Olvegg, who at first cannot recognize Sam because of his changing of bodies, brings Sam up to date on the rise of the Gods since Sam retired, and thus precipitates Sam's campaign. He is later captured by, and agrees to fight for, Nirriti the Black. Nirriti remembers that Olvegg was a Christian, although far less fanatical than Nirriti in spreading his faith. Rild, later called Sugata, is introduced as an assassin and master swordsman, a holy disciple of Kali. He is sent to kill Sam while Sam is reviving Buddhism by playing the Buddha, but instead becomes a convert to Buddhist philosophy and eventually attains true enlightenment. This has some similarities to the tale of Angulimala. Trimurti, composed of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, rule in Heaven. Brahma, the Creator, is weak-spirited, mostly concerned with his manliness, since he was originally a woman named Madeleine. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Shiva, the Destroyer, is an "old warhorse" whose main power is a trident made by Yama, which can kill or disintegrate. Shiva also uses the "Thunder Chariot" a jet-powered aircraft. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Vishnu, the Preserver, was the architect of the place called Heaven, but is a passive god who goes along with Brahma's machinations, which in turn seem to be driven by the influence of Kali and Ganesha. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Ganesha is a manipulator, an insider, the self-styled power behind the throne. He pushes the other Gods to consolidate their power, even to the extent of persuading them to allow Sam to preach while held captive in Heaven, hoping to tempt sympathizers into revealing themselves. As the power of the Gods wanes, he tries to maintain his position by betraying them to Nirriti. Asked if he trusts Ganesha, Nirriti replies "Yes, but I would give him his silver afterward", a clear reference to Judas Iscariot, Nirriti being a Christian. He dies in the final battle. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. Agni, the god of fire, is a fearsome character armed with a wand that emits the Universal Fire, a stream of plasma which destroys anything it touches. He and Yama were friends prior to Yama joining Sam. The wand itself can only be held by wearing a special outfit and glove, presumably to protect the holder. He also has goggles that enable him to see in infra-red and ultra-violet wavelengths, and for immense distances. It is said he scarred the faces of the moons with his wand, while standing on the ground. The original Agni replaces Shiva after the latter was killed by Sam, and was replaced himself by subsequent 'lesser' Agnis who died one after another. The character is loosely based on the Vedic Hindu god bearing the same name. Taraka, Lord of the Rakshasa, is a demon, an energy being. Like the rest of his kind he was bound by Sam in the early days, but is set free by Sam as part of a bargain to marshal the demons to oppose the gods. Taraka deceives Sam and possesses his body after his release, resulting in Sam and Taraka simultaneously living in Sam's body. The cohabitation leads them to each gain some of the traits of the other, but the effect is more pronounced upon Taraka, as he learns to feel sorrow, remorse, and guilt. Eventually, out of respect and as a sort of recompense, Taraka 'strengthens the flames' of Sam's soul, enabling him to live as an energy being like the Rakshasa do, if he should be killed. Taraka is killed by Yama's death gaze in the final battle, despite Sam's warnings. He is loosely based on the Hindu Asura Tarakasura. Nirriti the Black was originally Renfrew, the chaplain of the colonists' ship. A staunch Christian, he is disgusted by the ascendancy of Hinduism on the planet and eventually sets himself up with an army of zombie soldiers to conquer and convert the planet. Nirriti is portrayed as a solo megalomaniac, opposed to the pantheon of the Gods. This character is deeply ironic, a Christian who comes to be known as "The Dark Lord", leader of an army of "Soulless Ones" who have no will of their own but kneel to accompany him in his prayers when so ordered. His final irony is to die in the arms of the false Buddha, Sam. As he dies, he asks for Sam's blessing, which is freely given. He is very loosely based on the later Hindu deity Nirṛti. Mara, Lord of Illusion, can project complex illusions across great distances, a power that the Gods use both for entertainment and in battle. He is the one God who can stand against Sam and Yama at Keenset where both exert their full powers, being able to misdirect their attacks. Likewise he frustrates Sam's attempt to escape Heaven by confusing him as to the way out of the dome. Despite this his character is not much in evidence in the novel, only his actions. In the first story he appears in disguise attempting to find out what Yama is doing, but when confronted, apparently unable to use his powers of illusion effectively against Yama within a limited space, the Death God breaks his neck, thus killing him. He is loosely based on the Buddhist demon bearing the same name. Krishna is seen only briefly, and as two different characters. He is characterized as a lord of music and dance, and he wields a power of divine drunkenness. He has enormous charisma. Krishna is mostly an apolitical libertine, but was said to be a deadly wrestler who "broke the black demon Bana" during the battles between the colonists and the native inhabitants of the planet, which suggests that he was one of the First. Eventually, disgusted by the abusive practices of the Gods, he joins Sam's efforts to overthrow them. A 'false Krishna' also is mentioned, as when the original Krishna went missing a replacement was found. The original Krishna was loosely based on the Hindu god of the same name. The "false Krishna" mentioned may have been very loosely inspired by the tale of Paundraka Vasudeva, a mortal King in the Bhagavata Purana who believed himself to be Krishna. Murugan, who when introduced is a god of youth in an older body and is patiently awaiting a new body during the wedding of Yama and Kali. He meets the real death when his new body is stolen by Sam during the reincarnation process. He is very loosely based on the Hindu god Kartikeya. Film version In 1979 it was announced that Lord of Light would be made into a 50 million dollar film. It was planned that the sets for the movie would be made permanent and become the core of a science fiction theme park to be built in Aurora, Colorado. Comic book artist Jack Kirby was contracted to produce artwork for set design. However, due to legal problems the project was never completed. Parts of the unmade film project—the script and Kirby's set designs—were subsequently acquired by the CIA as cover for the "Canadian Caper": the exfiltration of six US diplomatic staff trapped by the Iranian hostage crisis (in Tehran but outside the embassy compound). The rescue team pretended to be scouting a location in Iran for shooting a Hollywood film from the script, which they had renamed Argo. The story of the rescue effort was later told in the 2012 film Argo. TV version In 2017, it was announced by Universal Cable Productions that Lord of Light would be made into a television series. References Sources External links The Lord of Light Site: Jack Kirby's production designs, Barry Geller's synopsis of the screenplay, the True CIA story, and of course the entire Roger Zelazny pages (via archive.org) Lord of Light at Worlds Without End 1967 American novels 1967 science fiction novels American fantasy novels American science fiction novels Buddhist novels Doubleday (publisher) books Hugo Award for Best Novel-winning works Novels about religion Novels by Roger Zelazny Reincarnation in novels Religion in science fiction Science fantasy novels	[ -0.44439175724983215, 0.5409287810325623, 0.09086274355649948, -0.18674731254577637, -0.23455551266670227, 0.19818633794784546, -0.15779681503772736, -0.313571959733963, -0.2782452404499054, -0.5534263849258423, -0.44501543045043945, 0.354954332113266, -0.5521865487098694, 0.5045787692070007, 0.2460399866104126, 0.38530677556991577, 0.17143651843070984, -0.07266324758529663, -0.524198591709137, -0.6896407604217529, 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231296	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Grahame	James Grahame	Rev James Grahame (22 April 1765 – 14 September 1811) was a Scottish poet. His best-known poem, The Sabbath, combines devotional feeling with vivid description of Scottish scenery. Early life He was born at Whitehill House in Glasgow, the son of Thomas Grahame, a successful lawyer. His elder brother was Robert Grahame of Whitehill. He attended University of Glasgow. Career After completing his literary course at the University of Glasgow, Grahame went in 1784 to Edinburgh, where he worked as a legal clerk, and was called to the Scottish bar in 1795. However, he had always wanted to go in for the Church, and when he was 44 he took Anglican orders, and became a curate first at Shipton, Gloucestershire, and then at Sedgefield, Durham. His works include a dramatic poem, Mary Queen of Scots (1801), The Sabbath (1804), The Birds of Scotland (1806), British Georgics (1809), and Poems on the Abolition of the Slave Trade in a joint volume on the subject with Elizabeth Benger and James Montgomery (1809). His principal work, The Sabbath, a sacred and descriptive poem in blank verse, is characterized by devotional feeling and by happy delineation of Scottish scenery. In the notes to his poems he expresses enlightened views on popular education, the criminal law and other public questions. He was emphatically a friend of humanity—a philanthropist as well as a poet. A satirical reference to "Sepulchral Grahame" is found in Lord Byron's English Bards and Scotch Reviewers. Personal life James Grahame was married to Janet Grahame, eldest daughter of Richard Grahame, Esq. They had two sons and a daughter. James Grahame died at Whitehill House, his brother Robert's home in Glasgow, on 14 September 1811. Memorials A memorial to Grahame lies on the inner north wall of Glasgow Cathedral. 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231297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN	CAN	CAN may refer to: Organizations Andean Community of Nations, a South American trade bloc with Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru Campus Antiwar Network, an American network of students opposing the occupation of Iraq Caja Navarra, a former savings banks in Navarre, Spain Chechnya Advocacy Network, an American non-government organization for Chechnya advocacy Christian Association of Nigeria, an umbrella organization containing numerous Christian denominations in Nigeria Climate Action Network, an international non-governmental network to limit human-induced climate change Corporate Angel Network, an American non-profit organization that arranges free air travel for cancer patients Cricket Association of Nepal, governing body of Nepali cricket Cult Awareness Network, an American organization operated by the Church of Scientology Cure Autism Now, a former American organization for autism advocacy Cycling Action Network, a New Zealand cycling advocacy group Science and medicine CAN (gene), a human gene Calcium ammonium nitrate, a fertilizer Ceric ammonium nitrate, an inorganic compound Chronic allograft nephropathy, the leading cause of kidney transplant failure Computing Campus area network or corporate area network, a computer network in a limited geographical area Cancel character, a precision control character in the C0 control code set CAN bus, controller area network bus, a type of microcontroller bus designed for vehicles Computer-assisted notetaking, or electronic notetaking Content addressable network, a distributed hash table for P2P Copper access node, a network device to provide xDSL signals on telephone lines, a.k.a. DSLAM Other Canada (ISO country code, IOC code), a country in North America Coupe d'Afrique des Nations (CAN) or Africa Cup of Nations, an association football competition in Africa Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport (IATA airport code), the main airport in Guangzhou, Guangdong, China See also Can (disambiguation) CANS (disambiguation)	[ 0.42205682396888733, 0.18176552653312683, -0.0819711983203888, 0.24542224407196045, 0.05442270636558533, 0.06491471081972122, 0.10980269312858582, 0.5452957153320312, -0.2317681908607483, -0.017496461048722267, -0.2595894932746887, 0.1185542494058609, -0.10822805762290955, 0.3838496506214142, 0.07701113820075989, 0.09039290249347687, 0.23861218988895416, 0.7128265500068665, -0.13424652814865112, -0.17644022405147552, -0.3915793299674988, 0.04500667378306389, 0.2935011684894562, -0.3737693130970001, 0.008499627001583576, 0.25786149501800537, 0.16785234212875366, -0.015562004409730434, 0.20955470204353333, 0.10920298099517822, 0.6005125641822815, 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231299	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Allingham	William Allingham	William Allingham (19 March 182418 November 1889) was an Irish poet, diarist and editor. He wrote several volumes of lyric verse, and his poem 'The Faeries' was much anthologised; but he is better known for his posthumously published Diary, in which he records his lively encounters with Tennyson, Carlyle and other writers and artists. His wife, Helen Allingham, was a well-known watercolourist and illustrator. Biography William Allingham was born on 19 March 1824 in Ballyshannon, a small town in the south of County Donegal in Ulster in the north of Ireland, which is now in the Republic of Ireland; he was the son of the manager of a local bank who was of English descent. His younger brothers and sisters were Catherine (born 1826), John (born 1827), Jane (born 1829), Edward (born 1831, and lived only a few months) and a still-born brother (born 1833). During his childhood his parents moved twice within the town, where the boy enjoyed the country sights and gardens, learned to paint and listened to his mother's piano-playing. When he was nine, his mother died. He was educated at the Royal Belfast Academical Institution until the age of 14, when he obtained a post in the custom-house of his native town, and held several similar posts in Ireland and England until 1870. During this period were published his Poems (1850; which included his well-known poem, 'The Fairies') and Day and Night Songs (1855; illustrated by Dante Gabriel Rossetti and others). (Rossetti's Letters to Allingham (1854–1870), edited by Dr. Birkbeck Hill, were published in 1897.) Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland, his most ambitious, though not his most successful work, a narrative poem illustrative of Irish social questions, appeared in 1864. He also edited The Ballad Book for the Golden Treasury series in 1864, and Fifty Modern Poems in 1865. In April 1870 Allingham retired from the customs service, moved to London and became sub-editor of Fraser's Magazine, eventually becoming editor in succession to James Froude in June 1874, a post he would hold till 1879. On 22 August 1874 he married the illustrator, Helen Paterson, who was twenty-four years younger than he. His wife gave up her work as an illustrator and would become well known under her married name as a water-colour painter. At first the couple lived in London, at 12 Trafalgar Square, Chelsea, near Allingham's friend, Thomas Carlyle, and it was there that they had their first two children: Gerald Carlyle (born 1875 November) and Eva Margaret (born 1877 February). In 1877 appeared Allingham's Songs, Poems and Ballads. In 1881, after the death of Carlyle, the Allinghams moved to Sandhills near Witley in Surrey, where their third child, Henry William, was born in 1882. At this period Allingham published Evil May Day (1883), Blackberries (1884) and Irish Songs and Poems (1887). John George Adair was known for the evictions of forty-seven families in Derryveagh, County Donegal, Ireland, in 1861. Overnight, 244 men, women and children were evicted from their homes and left to wander the roads seeking shelter. This terrible event earned him the title "Black Jack Adair". It triggered William Allingham to write the poem The Eviction. In 1888, because of William's declining health, they moved back to the capital, to the heights of Hampstead village. But in 1889, on 18 November, William died at Hampstead. According to his wishes he was cremated. His ashes are interred at St. Anne's church in his native Ballyshannon. Posthumously Allingham's Varieties in Prose was published in 1893. William Allingham A Diary, edited by Mrs Helen Allingham and D. Radford, was published in 1907. It contains Allingham's reminiscences of Alfred Tennyson, Thomas Carlyle and other writers and artists. Assessment and influence Working on an un-ostentatious scale, Allingham produced much lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of his pieces are thoroughly national in spirit and local colouring. His verse is clear, fresh, and graceful. His best-known poem remains his early work, "The Faeries". Allingham had a substantial influence on W.B. Yeats; while the Ulster poet John Hewitt felt Allingham's impact keenly, and attempted to revive his reputation by editing, and writing an introduction to, The Poems of William Allingham (Oxford University Press/ Dolmen Press, 1967). Allingham's wide-ranging anthology of poetry, Nightingale Valley (1862) was the inspiration for the 1923 collection Come Hither by Walter de la Mare. We daren't go a-hunting/For fear of little men... was quoted by the character of The Tinker near the beginning of the movie Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, as well as in Mike Mignola's comic book short story Hellboy: The Corpse, plus the 1973 horror film Don't Look in the Basement. The lines Up the airy mountain/Down the rushy glen... form part of the character Magrat's internal monologue in the Discworld novel Lords and Ladies. Several lines of the poem are quoted by Henry Flyte, a character in issue No. 65 of the Supergirl comic book, August 2011. This same poem was quoted in Andre Norton's 1990 science fiction novel Dare To Go A-Hunting (). Up the Airy Mountain is the title of a short story by Debra Doyle and James D. Macdonald; while the working title of Terry Pratchett's The Wee Free Men was "For Fear of Little Men". The Allingham Arms Hotel in Bundoran, Co. Donegal is named after him. See also Notes References Further reading M. McClure, 'Biographical Note: the Allinghams of Ballyshannon', in Donegal Annual; 52 (2000), p. 87–89 M. S. Lasner, 'William Allingham. Some Uncollected Authors LVI Part 1 (2)', in Book Collector; 39 (1991 summer, autumn), p. 174–204 and 321–349 S. A. Husni, William Allingham An Annotated Bibliography (1989) A. Warner, 'William Allingham Bibliographical Survey', in Irish Book Lore; 2 (1976), p. 303–307 P. M. England, 'The Poetry of William Allingham' [M.A. thesis, Birmingham University] (1976) A. Warner, William Allingham (1975) H. Shields, 'William Allingham and folk song', in Hermathena; 117 (1974), p. 23–36 A. Warner, William Allingham An Introduction (1971) W.I.P. McDonough, 'The Life and Work of William Allingham' [PhD thesis, Trinity College, Dublin] (1952) P.S. O'Hegarty, 'A Bibliography of William Allingham', in Dublin Magazine (1945 Jan–Mar and July–September) J. L. Donaghy, 'William Allingham', in Dublin Magazine; 20:2 (1945), p. 34–38 H. Knopf, 'William Allingham und seine Dichtung im Lichte der irischen Freheitsbewegung' [Dissertation] (1928. Biel) Letters to William Allingham, ed. H. Allingham (1911) William Allingham, William Allingham A Diary, ed. H. Allingham and D. Radford (1907) D. G. Rossetti, The Letters of Dante Gabriel Rossetti to William Allingham 1854–1870'', ed. G.B.N. Hill (1897) External links William Allingham at University of Toronto Libraries 1824 births 1889 deaths Irish poets Irish people of English descent People from Ballyshannon 19th-century Irish people 19th-century poets	[ -0.22505103051662445, 0.4771985411643982, -0.8402969241142273, -0.6977912783622742, -0.20989428460597992, 1.0824803113937378, 1.0885756015777588, -0.017814291641116142, -0.4309607446193695, -0.3673308789730072, -0.3490394055843353, -0.37328022718429565, -0.5747566819190979, 0.10561467707157135, 0.1722572147846222, -0.08642816543579102, -0.3035140633583069, -0.20807909965515137, 0.1960979551076889, -0.1325398087501526, -0.20198021829128265, -0.0023484595585614443, 0.3039788603782654, -0.6549985408782959, -0.1586369127035141, -0.30925118923187256, 0.18166041374206543, -0.5196557641029358, -0.0805644541978836, -0.1609264463186264, -0.07215414196252823, 0.9618113040924072, 0.350289523601532, -0.06757882237434387, -0.6001048684120178, -0.13471557199954987, 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231301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive%20cavity%20pump	Progressive cavity pump	A progressive cavity pump is a type of positive displacement pump and is also known as a progressing cavity pump, progg cavity pump, eccentric screw pump or cavity pump. It transfers fluid by means of the progress, through the pump, of a sequence of small, fixed shape, discrete cavities, as its rotor is turned. This leads to the volumetric flow rate being proportional to the rotation rate (bidirectionally) and to low levels of shearing being applied to the pumped fluid. These pumps have application in fluid metering and pumping of viscous or shear-sensitive materials. The cavities taper down toward their ends and overlap. As one cavity diminishes another increases, the net flow amount has minimal variation as the total displacement is equal. This design results in a flow with little to no pulse. It is common for equipment to be referred to by the specific manufacturer or product names. Hence names can vary from industry to industry and even regionally; examples include: Moineau (after the inventor, René Moineau). The original 4 Manufacturing licenses were issued to; MOYNO pump [Americas], Mono pump [UK, Europe], Gardier [Belgium] and PCM. A progressive cavity pump also can act as a motor (mud motor) when fluid is pumped through its interior. Applications include directional well drilling. Theory The progressive cavity pump normally consists of a helical rotor and a twin helix, twice the wavelength helical hole in a stator. The rotor seals tightly against the stator as it rotates, forming a set of fixed-size cavities in between. The cavities move when the rotor is rotated but their shape or volume does not change. The pumped material is moved inside the cavities. The principle of this pumping technique is frequently misunderstood. Often it is believed to occur due to a dynamic effect caused by drag, or friction against the moving teeth of the screw rotor. In reality it is due to the sealed cavities, like a piston pump, and so has similar operational characteristics, such as being able to pump at extremely low rates, even to high pressure, revealing the effect to be purely positive displacement. The rotor "climbs" the inner cavity in an orbital manner (see pump). At a high enough pressure the sliding seals between cavities will leak some fluid rather than pumping it, so when pumping against high pressures a longer pump with more cavities is more effective, since each seal has only to deal with the pressure difference between adjacent cavities. Pump design begins with two (to three) cavities per stage. The number of stages (currently up to 24)is only limited by the ability to machine the tooling. When the rotor is rotated, it rolls/climbs around the inside surface of the hole. The motion of the rotor is the same as the planet gears of a planetary gears system. As the rotor simultaneously rotates and moves around, the combined motion of the eccentrically mounted drive shaft is in the form of a hypocycloid. In the typical case of single-helix rotor and double-helix stator, the hypocycloid is just a straight line. The rotor must be driven through a set of universal joints or other mechanisms to allow for the eccentricity. The rotor takes a form similar to a corkscrew, and this, combined with the off-center rotary motion, leads to the alternative name: eccentric screw pump. Different rotor shapes and rotor/stator pitch ratios exist, but are specialized in that they don't generally allow complete sealing, so reducing low speed pressure and flow rate linearity, but improving actual flow rates, for a given pump size, and/or the pump's solids handling ability. Operation In operation, progressive cavity pumps are fundamentally fixed flow rate pumps, like piston pumps and peristaltic pumps, and this type of pump needs a fundamentally different understanding than the types of pumps to which people are more commonly introduced, namely ones that can be thought of as generating pressure. This can lead to the mistaken assumption that all pumps can have their flow rates adjusted by using a valve attached to their outlet, but with this type of pump this assumption is a problem, since such a valve will have practically no effect on the flow rate and completely closing it will involve very high pressures being generated. To prevent this, pumps are often fitted with cut-off pressure switches, rupture discs (deliberately weak and easily replaced), or a bypass pipe that allows a variable amount of a fluid to return to the inlet. With a bypass fitted, a fixed flow rate pump is effectively converted to a fixed pressure one. At the points where the rotor touches the stator, the surfaces are generally traveling transversely, so small areas of sliding contact occur. These areas need to be lubricated by the fluid being pumped (hydrodynamic lubrication). This can mean that more torque is required for starting, and if allowed to operate without fluid, called 'run dry', rapid deterioration of the stator can result. While progressive cavity pumps offer long life and reliable service transporting thick or lumpy fluids, abrasive fluids will significantly shorten the life of the stator. However, slurries (particulates in a medium) can be pumped reliably if the medium is viscous enough to maintain a lubrication layer around the particles and so protect the stator. Typical design Specific designs involve the rotor of the pump being made of a steel, coated with a smooth hard surface, normally chromium, with the body (the stator) made of a molded elastomer inside a metal tube body. The elastomer core of the stator forms the required complex cavities. The rotor is held against the inside surface of the stator by angled link arms, bearings (immersed in the fluid) allowing it to roll around the inner surface (un-driven). Elastomer is used for the stator to simplify the creation of the complex internal shape, created by means of casting, which also improves the quality and longevity of the seals by progressively swelling due to absorption of water and/or other common constituents of pumped fluids. Elastomer/pumped fluid compatibility will thus need to be taken into account. Two common designs of stator are the "equal-walled" and the "unequal-walled". The latter, having greater elastomer wall thickness at the peaks allows larger-sized solids to pass through because of its increased ability to distort under pressure. The former have a constant elastomer wall thickness and therefore exceed in most other aspects such as pressure per stage, precision, heat transfer, wear, and weight. They are more expensive due to the complex shape of the outer tube. History In 1930, René Moineau, a pioneer of aviation, while inventing a compressor for jet engines, discovered that this principle could also work as a pumping system. The University of Paris awarded René Moineau a doctorate of science for his thesis on “A new capsulism”. His pioneering dissertation laid the groundwork for the progressive cavity pump. Typical application areas Food and drink pumping Oil pumping Coal slurry pumping Sewage and sludge pumping Viscous chemical pumping Stormflow screening Downhole mud motors in oilfield directional drilling (it reverses the process, turning the hydraulic into mechanical power) Limited energy well water pumping Specific uses Grout or cement pumping Lubrication oil pumping Marine diesel fuel pumping Mining slurry pumping Oilfield mud motors References External links Progressive Cavity Pumps - A concise description of progressive cavity pump operation from the Food and Agriculture Organization Pumps	[ -0.4067826271057129, -0.45017510652542114, 0.6504769325256348, -0.42662662267684937, -0.25356346368789673, 0.24494622647762299, 0.2047850489616394, -0.6337505578994751, -0.35964837670326233, -0.1816592812538147, -0.21514421701431274, 0.8072248101234436, -0.35443204641342163, 0.47291943430900574, 0.09532410651445389, 0.9698171615600586, 0.6801691651344299, -0.15966907143592834, 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231302	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Birkbeck%20Norman%20Hill	George Birkbeck Norman Hill	George Birkbeck Norman Hill (7 June 1835 – 24 February 1903) was an English editor and author. Life He was the son of Arthur Hill, headmaster of Bruce Castle School, and was born at Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex. He dropped his third name, Norman, publishing as just George Birkbeck Hill; to family and friends he was known as Birkbeck, not as George. His mother died when he was four years old; on her father's side, she was related to Frederick Denison Maurice. Arthur Hill, with his brothers Rowland Hill, the postal reformer and Matthew Davenport Hill, afterwards recorder of Birmingham had worked out a system of education which was to exclude compulsion of any kind. The school at Bruce Castle, of which Arthur Hill was head master, was founded to carry into execution their theories, known as the Hazelwood system, after Hazelwood School, Birmingham, that preceded it. George Birkbeck Hill was educated in his father's school and at Pembroke College, Oxford, where he made lasting friendships with Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris. It was also at Oxford that he began his writing career, contributing articles to William Fulford's Oxford and Cambridge Magazine. Hill suffered a serious attack of typhoid fever in 1856 which left him in a delicate state of health. Consequently, he only received an 'honorary' fourth class degree in 1858, although he was later awarded a Bachelor of Civil Law in 1866 and a Doctor of Civil Law in 1871 in recognition of his contribution to English letters. In 1858, Hill began to teach at Bruce Castle School, and from 1868 to 1877 was headmaster, succeeding his father. He married Annie Scott, daughter of Edward Scott and the sister of a friend from his schooldays, on 29 December 1858. Partly to relieve what he felt to be the tedium of running the school, Hill returned to writing and reviewing. In 1869, he became a regular contributor to the Saturday Review, with which he remained in connection until 1884. On his retirement from teaching he devoted himself to the study of English 18th century literature, and established his reputation as the most learned commentator on the works of Samuel Johnson. Remaining true to his family's radical roots, Hill was a strong supporter of the Liberal Party and actively campaigned on behalf of Gladstone in the mid-1880s. He settled at Oxford in 1887, and in 1889 made a trip retracing the footsteps of Johnson and Boswell's Scottish trip, but from 1891 onwards his winters were usually spent abroad for his health. George Birkbeck Hill was editor of the published letters (1874–1879) of Charles George Gordon; this editorial role arose from a family connection. Birkbeck Hill's wife Annie was the sister of Sir John Scott (1841–1904), who was judicial advisor to the Khedive from 1891 to 1898 and a close personal friend of Charles George Gordon. Birkbeck Hill's sister Laura was the second wife of Sir John Scott's father. His wife Annie died in Aspley Guise on 30 October 1902, and he died shortly thereafter, at Hampstead, London, on 27 February 1903. Hill and his wife are buried at Aspley Guise, and he bequeathed his Johnsonian library to Pembroke College, Oxford. They had five sons and two daughters; all seven children were born at Tottenham. One son died in 1882. Three of their five sons were knighted: Sir Maurice Hill, a judge on the High Court, Sir Norman Hill, a well-known legal authority on shipping, and Sir Leonard Erskine Hill, a physiologist made F.R.S. Their elder Margaret daughter married Sir William James Ashley. Works George Birkbeck Hill's works include: Dr Johnson, his Friends and his Critics (1878) an edition of Boswell's Correspondence (1879) Boswell's Life of Johnson, including Boswell's Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, and Johnson's Diary of a Journey into North Wales (Clarendon Press, 6 vols., 1887) Footsteps of Dr Johnson in Scotland (1890) ; volume II Johnsonian Miscellanies (2 vols., 1897) [https://archive.org/details/memoirsoflifeofe00gibbThe Memoirs of the Life of Edward Gibbon, with Various Observations and Excursions by Himself], ed. by Hill, George Birkbeck (London: Methuen, 1900) Johnson's Lives of the Poets (3 vols., 1905) See a memoir by his nephew, Harold Spencer Scott, in the edition of the Lives of the English Poets (1905), and the Letters edited by his younger daughter, Lucy Crump, in 1903. Further reading References Attribution External links 1835 births 1903 deaths English writers James Boswell People educated at Bruce Castle School Samuel Johnson People from Tottenham 19th-century diarists	[ -0.10395247489213943, 0.6685321927070618, -0.9969815611839294, -0.39128577709198, -0.16807106137275696, 0.9399624466896057, 0.6638697981834412, 0.07709329575300217, -0.19708161056041718, -0.2380569875240326, -0.12316899001598358, -0.003801487386226654, -0.35341155529022217, -0.06941788643598557, 0.02250068075954914, -0.2035607546567917, -0.7186629176139832, -0.11799175292253494, -0.9315845966339111, -0.08096995204687119, -0.264657586812973, -0.35450148582458496, 0.45043066143989563, -0.2776125371456146, -0.2398943305015564, -0.3609979450702667, 0.1398591250181198, -0.69670569896698, -0.26711228489875793, -0.3720531463623047, 0.20704638957977295, 0.8340945243835449, 0.36646410822868347, 0.05214698240160942, -0.6392209529876709, -0.21612592041492462, -0.70416659116745, 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231303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stator	Stator	The stator is the stationary part of a rotary system, found in electric generators, electric motors, sirens, mud motors or biological rotors. Energy flows through a stator to or from the rotating component of the system. In an electric motor, the stator provides a magnetic field that drives the rotating armature; in a generator, the stator converts the rotating magnetic field to electric current. In fluid powered devices, the stator guides the flow of fluid to or from the rotating part of the system. In motors Depending on the configuration of a spinning electromotive device the stator may act as the field magnet, interacting with the armature to create motion, or it may act as the armature, receiving its influence from moving field coils on the rotor. The first DC generators (known as dynamos) and DC motors put the field coils on the stator, and the power generation or motive reaction coils on the rotor. This is necessary because a continuously moving power switch known as the commutator is needed to keep the field correctly aligned across the spinning rotor. The commutator must become larger and more robust as the current increases. The stator of these devices may be either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it is known as the field coil or field winding. The coil can be either iron core or aluminum. To reduce loading losses in motors, manufacturers invariably use copper as the conducting material in windings. Aluminum, because of its lower electrical conductivity, may be an alternate material in fractional horsepower motors, especially when the motors are used for very short durations. An AC alternator is able to produce power across multiple high-current power generation coils connected in parallel, eliminating the need for the commutator. Placing the field coils on the rotor allows for an inexpensive slip ring mechanism to transfer high-voltage, low current power to the rotating field coil. It consists of a steel frame enclosing a hollow cylindrical core (made up of laminations of silicon steel). The laminations are to reduce hysteresis and eddy current losses. Fluid devices In a turbine, the stator element contains blades or ports used to redirect the flow of fluid. Such devices include the steam turbine and the torque converter. In a mechanical siren, the stator contains one or more rows of holes that admit air into the rotor; by controlling the flow of air through the holes, the sound of the siren can be altered. A stator can be used to great effect to reduce the turbulence and rotational energy introduced by an axial turbine fan, creating a steady column of air with a lower Reynolds number. References External links Electric motors Sirens	[ 0.22531791031360626, -0.1510351300239563, 0.5546094179153442, 0.626865804195404, -0.3313848674297333, 0.2811117470264435, -0.522137463092804, -0.2804161012172699, -0.6230295300483704, -0.16556063294410706, -0.11703969538211823, 0.46158549189567566, -0.34879186749458313, 0.52920001745224, -0.019270971417427063, 0.35820314288139343, 0.46074095368385315, 0.2622511386871338, -0.5529316663742065, -0.07872534543275833, -0.059818170964717865, -0.08732186257839203, 0.9227685332298279, 0.07392964512109756, 0.0714554563164711, -0.05585519224405289, -0.32345032691955566, -0.10217735171318054, -0.27612820267677307, 0.5825372338294983, -0.053072575479745865, 0.5924811959266663, 0.10454695671796799, 0.01055857539176941, 0.1625201553106308, -0.24503734707832336, -0.26941755414009094, -0.1872103214263916, -0.21887049078941345, -0.5109137892723083, -0.03285869583487511, -0.050134822726249695, 0.20635974407196045, 0.12128487974405289, 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231304	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew%20Davenport%20Hill	Matthew Davenport Hill	Matthew Davenport Hill (6 August 1792 – 7 June 1872) was an English lawyer and prison reform campaigner and MP. Life Hill was born at Birmingham, where his father, Thomas Wright Hill, for long conducted the private schools Hazelwood and Bruce Castle. He was a brother of the postal reformer Sir Rowland Hill and the prison inspector Frederic Hill. He acted as assistant in his father's school, but in 1819 was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. In 1832 he was elected one of the Liberal Members of Parliament for Kingston upon Hull, but he lost his seat at the next election in 1834. On the incorporation of Birmingham in 1839 he was appointed as the town's recorder (judge); and in 1851 he was appointed commissioner in bankruptcy for the Bristol district. Taking an interest in questions relating to the treatment of criminal offenders, he publicly aired opinions which were the means of introducing many important reforms in the methods of dealing with crime, drawing notably upon the theories of the Scottish penal reformer, Alexander Maconochie. His book Mettray (1855) describes the Mettray Penal Colony with its then new approach to dealing with young delinquents. One of his principal coadjutors in these reforms was his brother Frederic Hill (1803–1896), whose Amount, Causes and Remedies of Crime, the result of his experience as inspector of prisons for Scotland. marked an era in the methods of prison discipline. Hill was one of the chief promoters of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the originator of the Penny Magazine. He died at Stapleton, near Bristol. In 1868 the West of England Suffrage Society, part of the National Society for Women's Suffrage, was formed at his house. His daughter Florence was one of the first members, and later members included Agnes Beddoe, Emily and Elizabeth Sturge. Two of his daughters wrote an early biography in 1878. Family Hill married Margaret Bucknall on 3 November 1819. Their children were Alfred Hill (born 1821), Rosamond Davenport Hill (born in Chelsea in 1825), Florence Davenport Hill (also born in Chelsea in 1828), Matthew Berkeley Hill, and Joanna Margaret Hill (born in Hampstead in 1836/7). Works His principal works are: Practical Suggestions to the Founders of Reformatory Schools (1855) Suggestions for the Repression of Crime (1857), consisting of charges addressed to the grand juries of Birmingham Mettray (1855) Papers on the Penal Servitude Acts (1864) Journal of a Third Visit to the Convict Gaols, Refuges and Reformatories of Dublin (1865) Addresses delivered at the Birmingham and Midland Institute (1867). See also Rosamond Davenport Hill References External links 1792 births 1872 deaths Penologists People from Birmingham, West Midlands Liberal Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies UK MPs 1832–1835 National Society for Women's Suffrage	[ -0.2563866972923279, 0.06029507890343666, -0.46204933524131775, -0.5654796957969666, -0.1915544867515564, 1.4428883790969849, 1.158785104751587, -0.619925320148468, -0.5463271141052246, 0.035790443420410156, -0.015452472493052483, 0.4378349184989929, -0.5472506880760193, 0.3616844117641449, -0.07939565926790237, 0.13270507752895355, -0.28859567642211914, -0.4615335166454315, -0.2178705930709839, -0.3344680368900299, 0.28517523407936096, -0.20599734783172607, 0.4063257575035095, -0.17638695240020752, -0.3529609441757202, -0.082943856716156, -0.14211472868919373, -0.059611886739730835, -0.3194745182991028, -0.22201299667358398, 0.44786953926086426, 0.5029782652854919, 0.37595438957214355, 0.04942897707223892, -0.34004536271095276, 0.06549394875764847, 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231307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Elton%20%28lawyer%29	Charles Elton (lawyer)	Charles Isaac Elton, QC (6 December 1839 – 23 April 1900) was an English lawyer, antiquary, and politician. He is most famous for being one of the authors of the bestselling book The Great Book-Collectors. He was born in Southampton. Educated at Cheltenham and Balliol College, Oxford, he was elected a fellow of Queen's College in 1862. He was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1865. His remarkable knowledge of old real property law and custom helped him to an extensive conveyancing practice and he took silk in 1885. He sat in the House of Commons for West Somerset in 1884–1885 and for Wellington, Somerset, from 1886 to 1892. In 1869 he succeeded to his uncle's property of Whitestaunton Manor, near Chard, Somerset. During the later years of his life he retired to a great extent from legal practice, and devoted much of his time to literary work. He died at Whitestaunton. Elton's principal works were The Great Book-Collectors (1864); The Tenures of Kent (1867); Treatise on Commons and Waste Lands (1868); Law of Copyholds (1874); Origins of English History (1882); Custom and Tenant Right (1882). William Shakespeare: His Family and Friends (1903), ed. from posthumous papers by A. Hamilton Thompson Virginia Woolf often quotes his poem "Luriana Lurilee" in her novel To the Lighthouse (1927), although the poem itself was not published until 1945. References Virginia Woolf Web. "Luriana Lurilee", retrieved 23 November 2006. External links 1839 births 1900 deaths Members of the Parliament of the United Kingdom for English constituencies English barristers English Queen's Counsel People from Southampton UK MPs 1880–1885 UK MPs 1886–1892 English antiquarians	[ 0.09604525566101074, 0.5188623070716858, -0.29478031396865845, -0.3985387980937958, -0.06460385769605637, 1.358138084411621, 0.8248516917228699, -0.17507120966911316, -0.3721677362918854, -0.09334292262792587, 0.1929006725549698, 0.3898363709449768, -0.3515598475933075, 0.37125474214553833, -0.1251850724220276, 0.31851810216903687, -0.5864743590354919, -0.31934410333633423, -0.550199031829834, -0.6393842697143555, 0.026926856487989426, -0.13812801241874695, 0.10332607477903366, -0.06043734401464462, -0.14327681064605713, 0.007510647643357515, -0.045655738562345505, -0.11264317482709885, -0.24856500327587128, -0.20427420735359192, 0.3708476126194, 0.4437916874885559, 0.3229452073574066, -0.13367152214050293, -0.44861286878585815, -0.18743708729743958, 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231308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20M%C3%B6ssbauer	Rudolf Mössbauer	Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer (German spelling: Mößbauer; ; 31 January 1929 – 14 September 2011) was a German physicist best known for his 1957 discovery of recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence for which he was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. This effect, called the Mössbauer effect, is the basis for Mössbauer spectroscopy. Career Mössbauer was born in Munich, where he also studied physics at the Technical University of Munich. He prepared his Diplom thesis in the Laboratory of Applied Physics of Heinz Maier-Leibnitz and graduated in 1955. He then went to the Max Planck Institute for Medical Research in Heidelberg. Since this institute, not being part of a university, had no right to award a doctorate, Mössbauer remained under the auspices of Maier-Leibnitz, who was his official thesis advisor when he passed his PhD exam in Munich in 1958. In his PhD work, he discovered recoilless nuclear fluorescence of gamma rays in 191 iridium, the Mössbauer effect. His fame grew immensely in 1960 when Robert Pound and Glen Rebka used this effect to prove the red shift of gamma radiation in the gravitational field of the Earth; this Pound–Rebka experiment was one of the first experimental precision tests of Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity. The long-term importance of the Mössbauer effect, however, is its use in Mössbauer spectroscopy. Along with Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Mössbauer was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics. On the suggestion of Richard Feynman, Mössbauer was invited in 1960 to Caltech in USA, where he advanced rapidly from Research Fellow to Senior Research Fellow; he was appointed a full professor of physics in early 1962. In 1964, his alma mater, the Technical University of Munich (TUM), convinced him to go back as a full professor. He retained this position until he became professor emeritus in 1997. As a condition for his return, the faculty of physics introduced a "department" system. This system, strongly influenced by Mössbauer's American experience, was in radical contrast to the traditional, hierarchical "faculty" system of German universities, and it gave the TUM an eminent position in German physics. In 1972, Rudolf Mössbauer went to Grenoble to succeed Heinz Maier-Leibnitz as the director of the Institut Laue-Langevin just when its newly built high-flux research reactor went into operation. After serving a five-year term, Mössbauer returned to Munich, where he found his institutional reforms reversed by overarching legislation. Until the end of his career, he often expressed bitterness over this "destruction of the department." Meanwhile, his research interests shifted to neutrino physics. Rudolf Mössbauer was regarded as an excellent teacher. He gave highly specialized lectures on numerous courses, including Neutrino Physics, Neutrino Oscillations, The Unification of the Electromagnetic and Weak Interactions and The Interaction of Photons and Neutrons With Matter. In 1984, he gave undergraduate lectures to 350 people taking the physics course. He told his students: “Explain it! The most important thing is, that you are able to explain it! You will have exams, there you have to explain it. Eventually, you pass them, you get your diploma and you think, that's it! – No, the whole life is an exam, you'll have to write applications, you'll have to discuss with peers... So learn to explain it! You can train this by explaining to another student, a colleague. If they are not available, explain it to your mother – or to your cat!” Personal life Mössbauer married Elizabeth Pritz in 1957. They had a son, Peter and two daughters Regine and Susi. His second wife was Christel Braun. References External links , a major source for this article Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 3 Jan 2015. Interview with Rudolf Mössbauer (18 minutes) 1929 births 2011 deaths Albert Einstein Medal recipients Experimental physicists German Nobel laureates German nuclear physicists Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences Nobel laureates in Physics Scientists from Munich Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) California Institute of Technology faculty Technical University of Munich faculty Technical University of Munich alumni Technical University of Berlin alumni Technical University of Berlin faculty Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Foreign Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy Spectroscopists Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Fellows of the American Physical Society	[ -0.19446399807929993, 0.0895022451877594, -0.4492641091346741, -0.43404626846313477, -0.36611342430114746, 0.24870428442955017, 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231310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TLP	TLP	TLP may refer to: Places and facilities Tanjung Langsat Port, a shipping terminal in Johor, Malaysia Tarbes–Lourdes–Pyrénées Airport, an international airport in southern France Tirana logistic park, an industrial park in Albania Businesses and organizations Tactical Leadership Programme, a NATO pilot training organization Tanzania Labour Party, a political party in Tanzania Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan, an Islamist political party Telefones de Lisboa e Porto, now Portugal Telecom The Library Project, a non-profit organization that donates books and libraries in China and Vietnam Tradition Records, catalog code TLP, a record label 1956–1966 Transitional Living Program for Older Homeless Youth, an American social assistance program TransMontaigne Partners L.P., stock ticker TLP Trinidad Labour Party, a former political party in Trinidad and Tobago Science and technology Biology and medicine Thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomalidomide, in the development of analogs of thalidomide drugs Thermolysin-like proteinase, an enzyme Transient lingual papillitis, lumps on the tongue Computing, electronics and software Thread level parallelism, an exploitation of task parallelism in computing TLP, an Advanced Power Management for Linux Traffic Light Protocol, a system for classifying sensitive information Transaction layer packet, an encapsulation of data in the PCI Express serial bus specification Transactional license program, a type of open volume software license Transmission level point, a telecommunications signal testing point Transmission-line pulse, a method of testing electronic circuits for tolerance to electrostatic discharge Translinear principle, a concept in translinear circuits Other uses in science and technology Satish Dhawan Space Centre Third Launch Pad, a rocket launch site in India Tension-leg platform, a type of offshore platform used in production of oil or gas Transient lunar phenomenon, a rare illumination event on the surface of the moon Other uses Filomeno Mata Totonac language, ISO 939-3 code TLP Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, a work by Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein	[ 0.675682783126831, -0.3719991147518158, -0.2070082426071167, 0.11234422773122787, 0.39399170875549316, 0.4588829576969147, 0.029130926355719566, 0.08909901976585388, -0.3948982059955597, 0.2288111001253128, -0.618294358253479, 0.027355650439858437, -0.09204831719398499, -0.0060719591565430164, 0.11331959813833237, 0.19298434257507324, 0.6078309416770935, 0.3064880073070526, -0.2328173965215683, -0.33752864599227905, -0.2952173054218292, 0.15918955206871033, 0.07064194232225418, -0.08648297935724258, 0.16659072041511536, 0.027717225253582, 0.16034182906150818, 0.10121996700763702, -0.24575774371623993, 0.17276284098625183, 0.3450818359851837, -0.2103085219860077, -0.1544157713651657, -0.08026793599128723, 0.29808592796325684, 0.28154855966567993, -0.3679983615875244, -0.14234298467636108, 0.030829714611172676, 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231316	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptygma%20Berzerk	Apoptygma Berzerk	Apoptygma Berzerk (; commonly abbreviated to APB or APOP) is a Norwegian musical group. They have achieved success with a brand of synth-pop, and ballads backed with electronic rhythms, commonly known within the scene and referring to themselves as "futurepop". Apoptygma Berzerk has over 30 releases and won awards and Top 10 spots in Germany and Scandinavia. Apoptygma Berzerk has toured Europe, North America, South America, Israel and Australia with bands such as VNV Nation, Beborn Beton, Icon of Coil and Unheilig. Formation The band was formed by Stephan Groth and Jon Erik Martinsen in 1989. Of the songs they wrote together, "Ashes To Ashes" would later be released as a 12-inch single on the Norwegian label Tatra Productions in 1991. Martinsen left the band due to creative differences. Name The name "Apoptygma Berzerk" has no particular meaning; frontman and founding member Stephan Groth claims that it was randomly picked out of a dictionary (the first word being derived from the Ancient Greek word ἀπόπτυγμα meaning "piece of a tunic"). Style The first two albums, Soli Deo Gloria and 7, were a similar style of electropop and EBM. Welcome to Earth eschewed the dark themes of 7 for a lighter, less aggressive sound, and included a few experimental tracks. Harmonizer featured a softer, more synthpop-oriented direction when compared to previous albums, and their 2006 album, You and Me Against the World, represented an almost complete change in style for the band. It featured a more mainstream, indie rock-oriented sound, and the complete departure from the band's traditional electric synthpop and EBM roots that started with 7. With the release of latest album Rocket Science apop still going on the rock vibe while keeping close with synthpop sound like its predecessor YAMATW. Many albums feature a hidden track that can be accessed by fast forwarding through many minutes of silence on the last album track. For instance, on 7, one can hear a remix of Nonstop Violence after Love Never Dies (Part II). The band also features cover songs on several of their albums. For example, on the American version of 7 a cover of "Electricity" by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark (OMD) is featured; similarly, Welcome to Earth features a cover of Metallica's "Fade to Black". You and Me Against the World has a cover of "Cambodia" by Kim Wilde and "Shine On" by The House Of Love. They have also recorded covers of Depeche Mode's "Enjoy the Silence", Suede's "Trash", Keane's "Bend and Break", Kraftwerk's Ohm Sweet Ohm and Marilyn Manson's "Coma White". Most recently, they have covered Peter Schilling's Major Tom (Coming Home). Members Current members Stephan Groth (STP a/k/a Grothesk) – vocals, programming, guitar, samples (1989–present) Ted Skogmann – drums, additional guitar (1999–2002, 2011–present) Jonas Groth – keyboards, production (2009–present) Audun Stengel (Angel) – guitar (2002–2009, 2013–present) Former members Geir Bratland – keyboards, backing vocals (1995–2009) Fredrik Brarud – drums (2002–2009) Brandon Smith – guitar (2009) Jon Erik Martinsen – keyboards (1989) Per Aksel Lundgreen – keyboards (1990–1994) Anders Odden - guitars (1992-1999, 2003-2006) Fredrik Darum – live guitar (1999–2001) Thomas Jakobsen – drums (2009–2011) Live members Leandra Ophelia Dax – keyboards (2010–present) Other collaborators Vegard Blomberg of View Pål Magnus Rybom of Echo Image Claudia Brücken of Propaganda Benji Madden of Good Charlotte Amanda Palmer of The Dresden Dolls Emil Nikolaisen of Serena Maneesh Håvard Ellefsen of Mortiis Kurt Ebelhäuser of Blackmail Anneli Drecker of Bel Canto Vile Electrodes Line-up changes Per Aksel Lundgreen joined Apoptygma Berzerk in 1990, and remained an active member until 1994. He has since pursued numerous other musical projects, most recently joining Rossetti's Compass as a permanent member in March 2013. Anders Odden has been the most reoccurring member of Apop, joining in the live lineup in the early 1990s, and reappearing several times during the next 15 years, both live and in the studio. Geir Bratland also joined in the first part of the 1990s. In 1999, Fredrik Darum and Ted Skogman joined the band for the Welcome To Earth album and world tour. In 2001, Fredrik and Ted were replaced with Fredrik Brarud and Angel. The 2006 release You And Me Against The World and 2009's Rocket Science, are the only albums to feature other persons than main man Stephan as part of the band (Geir Bratland, Angel, Fredrik Brarud and Anders Odden on You And Me Against The World, and without Anders on Rocket Science). In July 2009 Angel, Geir and Fredrik departed from the Apoptygma Berzerk lineup. In August 2009, Brandon Smith (frontman from the electronic rock band The Anix) confirmed that he was joining the band on guitar for the US and Canada legs of the upcoming tour. source- www.theanix.com Brandon wrote on the forum saying, "This is just going to be a test run type of tour, to see how well Apop does in the US, Canada, and South America. I will be playing guitar for them on this tour." On September 3, 2009, Stephan wrote on the official site: In 2010, Leandra Ophelia Dax (the only female member of the band thus far) stood in for Jonas during the support tour for German band Unheilig. In 2011, Thomas Jakobsen was replaced by Ted Skogman, and Angel came back, replacing Brandon (though Brandon has appeared live a few times after this, e.g. in Mexico City 2014). Discography Studio albums Soli Deo Gloria (1993) 7 (1996) Welcome to Earth (2000) Harmonizer (2002) You and Me Against the World (2005) Rocket Science (2009) Exit Popularity Contest (2016) SDGXXV (2019) References External links Apoptygma Berzerk Metropolis Records Interview with Stephan Groth of Apoptygma Berzerk on NXLive.co.uk Italian Fanbase of Apoptygma Berzerk on Facebook.com Norwegian rock music groups Norwegian electronic music groups Norwegian industrial music groups Electronic body music groups Norwegian synthpop groups Norwegian pop music groups Musical groups established in 1989 1989 establishments in Norway Musical groups from Fredrikstad Musical groups from Sarpsborg Metropolis Records artists Dependent Records artists Futurepop music groups GUN Records artists	[ -0.11338676512241364, 0.6449673771858215, -0.4660714566707611, -0.6857157945632935, -0.8663353323936462, 0.30655932426452637, 0.8389467597007751, 0.1530551165342331, -0.6987904906272888, -0.10886266082525253, 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231317	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Augustus%20Freeman	Edward Augustus Freeman	Edward Augustus Freeman (2 August 182316 March 1892) was an English historian, architectural artist, and Liberal politician during the late-19th-century heyday of Prime Minister of the United Kingdom William Gladstone, as well as a one-time candidate for Parliament. He held the position of Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, where he tutored Arthur Evans; later he and Evans were activists in the Balkan uprising of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1874–1878) against the Ottoman Empire. After the marriage of his daughter Margaret to Evans, he and Evans collaborated on the fourth volume of his History of Sicily. He was a prolific writer, publishing 239 distinct works. One of his best known is his magnum opus, The History of the Norman Conquest of England (published in 6 volumes, 1867–1879). Both he and Margaret died before Evans purchased the land from which he would excavate the Palace of Knossos. Biography Early life Freeman was born at Metchley Abbey in Harborne, Warwickshire (now a suburb of Birmingham). His parents, John Freeman and Mary Ann (Carless), used the Latin name of the month in which he was born as his middle name. They were a family of modest means; however, the paternal grandfather, Joseph Freeman (about 1768–1822), had been a wealthy man, and the owner of Pedmore Hall. On his death, his will was disputed, and lawyers' fees consumed the bulk of the estate. Edward's father, the oldest son, and his two paternal uncles, Keelinge and Joseph, received little to sustain them. Edward's mother, Mary Anne, née Carless (or Carlos), had noble ancestry, descending through her father, William, then residing near Birmingham, from the same Colonel William Carless who had assisted the future Charles II as he hid from his enemies in the branches of the Royal Oak after the Battle of Worcester, 1651, the last of the English Civil War. Mary Anne's family still displayed the coat-of-arms given to them. The family was never in good health. They delayed baptising Edward for a year, hoping to avoid public exposure to contagious diseases. The family was struck by tragedy in November 1824, when the father died of unknown disease, the mother died four days later of tuberculosis, and the oldest daughter, Mary Anne, then age 14, died of unknown disease the same day, 25 November. Edward's paternal grandmother, Emmete Freeman, immediately took charge of the three survivors, Edward and his two sisters, Sarah and Emma, aged 13 and 10 respectively, bringing them to her home at Weston-super-Mare. Emma died in 1826 when Edward was three years old. Education and marriage Freeman was educated at private schools and by a private tutor. Even as a boy, he was interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics. He won a scholarship to Trinity College, Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was elected fellow of his college (1845). While at Oxford he was much influenced by the High Church movement, and thought seriously of taking orders, but abandoned the idea. He married Eleanor Gutch (1818–1903) daughter of his former tutor, the Reverend Robert Gutch, on 13 April 1847 at Seagrave, Leicestershire, and entered on a life of study. He lived in Llanrumney Hall, Cardiff, in the mid 19th century. Freeman later bought a house called "Somerleaze", near Wells, Somerset, and settled there in 1860. Death From 1886 Freeman was forced by ill health to spend much of his time abroad. In February 1892 he visited Spain in company with his wife and two younger daughters. He fell ill at Valencia on 7 March, but on the 9th went on to Alicante, where his illness proved to be smallpox. He died at Alicante on 16 March, and was buried in the Protestant cemetery there (now referred to as the "British cemetery" section of the Cementerio de Alicante). He left two sons and four daughters. The Latin inscription on his gravestone was written by his son-in-law, Sir Arthur Evans. Career Historian Freeman was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge honoris causa, and when he visited the United States on a lecture tour was well received at various institutions of learning. In 1884 he was appointed Regius Professor of Modern History at Oxford, and was, for a time, a non-resident professor at Cornell University. Whilst at Oxford, he presided over the Stubbs Society, an exclusive group of high-achieving historians. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1885. He advanced the study of history in England in two directions: by insistence on the unity of history, and by teaching the importance and right use of primary sources. Politics was at the core, for he often said, "History is past politics and politics present history." He urged that history not be divided "by a middle wall of partition" into ancient and modern, nor broken into fragments as though the history of each nation stood apart. He declared it more than a collection of narratives, deeming it a science, "the science of man in his political character." Freeman asserted that the historical student should view all history as within his range, and have his own special range within which he masters every detail (Rede Lecture). Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the earlier part of English history, together with some portions of foreign medieval history, and he had a scholarly though general knowledge of the rest of the history of the European world. Freeman regarded Rome as "the central truth of European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his History of Sicily (1891–1894) partly to illustrate this unity. He believed that all historical study is valueless unless based on a knowledge of original authorities, and explained how they should be weighed and used. He did not use manuscript authorities, however, and maintained he had no need to do so for most of his work, as the authorities he needed were already in print. His reputation as a historian rests chiefly on his six-volume History of the Norman Conquest (1867–1879), his longest completed work. In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by exhaustiveness of treatment and research, critical ability, and general accuracy. He is almost exclusively a political historian, and his works are infused with personal insights he gained from his practical experience of people and institutions. His saying that "history is past politics and politics are present history" is significant of this limitation of his work, which dealt less with other subjects in a nation's life. J. W. Burrow proposed that Freeman, like William Stubbs and John Richard Green, was an historical scholar with little or no experience of public affairs, with views of the present which were Romantically historicised and who was drawn to history by what was in a broad sense an antiquarian passion for the past, as well as a patriotic and populist impulse to identify the nation and its institutions as the collective subject of English history, making Politician Freeman involved himself in politics, was a follower of Gladstone, and approved the Home Rule Bill of 1886, but objected to the later proposal to retain the Irish members at Westminster. To enter Parliament was one of his ambitions, and in 1868 he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign rather than domestic politics were his main interest. He expressed an antipathy for the Turks and was sympathetic with the smaller and subject nationalities of eastern Europe. He was prominent in the agitation which followed "the Bulgarian atrocities" of the April Uprising; his speeches were often intemperate, and he was accused of uttering the words "Perish India!" at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, was a misrepresentation of his words. He was made a knight commander of the Order of the Saviour by the King of Greece, and also received an order from the Prince of Montenegro. For some years he was an active county magistrate. He served on the royal commission on ecclesiastical courts, being appointed in 1881. Prejudices Freeman's attitude towards Jews has been described as one of disdain. His private correspondence had referred to British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli as "the dirty Jew". Of Jews in America more generally, he wrote: In a letter to a friend, describing America, Freeman wrote, "This would be a grand land if only every Irishman would kill a negro, and be hanged for it". Works Architecture Freeman had a particular interest in ecclesiastical architecture and visited many churches. He soon began a practice of making drawings of buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink. His first book, except for his share in a volume of English verse, was a History of Architecture (1849). Though he had not then seen any buildings outside England, it contains a good sketch of the development of the art. In 1851 he published An Essay on the Origin and Development of Window Tracery in England, which proposed the terms "Flowing" and "Flamboyant" (the latter term already in use in France, though not with exactly the same meaning, continuing right through the English Perpendicular Period) instead of Thomas Rickman's "Decorated", which had been generally adopted since it was first published in 1817. The same year Edmund Sharpe published an alternative proposal, The Seven Periods of English Architecture, dividing the fenestration of the Decorated period between a Geometrical Period to 1315 followed by a Curvilinear Period to 1360. Though Rickman's scheme remains in use, the subdivisions proposed by both Freeman and Sharpe are also often found in recent books. Historical works and journalism Freeman's life was marked by a prodigious literary output. His published scholarly works include the six large volumes of Norman Conquest, his unfinished History of Sicily, and his William Rufus (1882). He wrote several others on the early Middle Ages, and produced works on Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William the Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick II and many more. He was also interested in Switzerland and in comparative constitutional history. Freeman wrote articles for various other publications, including reviews for newspapers and other periodicals, and was a prolific contributor to the Saturday Review until 1878, when he ceased to write for it for political reasons. The naturalist William Henry Hudson was dismissive of Freeman's style of argument in his 1920 book Dead Man's Plack and an Old Thorn. Bibliography Books and papers Freeman's personal library of some 6,500 volumes was bought for Owens College, Manchester, by the trustees of Sir Joseph Whitworth, and it remains in the college's successor institution, the University of Manchester, though no longer kept together. A catalogue was published by the college in 1894. Most of Freeman's papers are also now held in the University of Manchester Library, including works in manuscript, correspondence and 6,200 of his architectural sketches of European churches. References Footnotes Citations Sources Further reading [On the American Frederick Jackson Turner] External links Freeman Papers at John Rylands Library, Manchester. 1823 births 1892 deaths 19th-century historians Alumni of Trinity College, Oxford British medievalists Deaths from smallpox English historians Burials in Spain Infectious disease deaths in Spain Members of the Cambrian Archaeological Association Members of the American Antiquarian Society People from Birmingham, West Midlands People from Harborne Regius Professors of History (University of Oxford)	[ 0.3159335255622864, 0.1709345281124115, -0.559168815612793, -0.11418591439723969, 0.19543316960334778, 0.9888898730278015, 0.23358675837516785, -0.3426445722579956, -0.18198680877685547, -0.8010370135307312, -0.4315081834793091, -0.1331779509782791, -0.11458689719438553, 0.6074785590171814, 0.3922480046749115, 0.36901578307151794, -0.6804621815681458, -0.05117429047822952, -0.4138028621673584, 0.04918280988931656, 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231319	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicias	Nicias	Nicias (; Νικίας Nikias; c. 470–413 BC) was an Athenian politician and general during the period of the Peloponnesian War. Nicias was a member of the Athenian aristocracy and had inherited a large fortune from his father, which was invested in the silver mines around Attica's Mt. Laurium. Following the death of Pericles in 429 BC, he became the principal rival of Cleon and the democrats in the struggle for the political leadership of the Athenian state. He was a moderate in his political views and opposed the aggressive imperialism of the democrats. His principal aim was to conclude a peace with Sparta as soon as it could be obtained on terms favourable to Athens. He was regularly elected to serve as strategos (general) for Athens during the Peloponnesian War. He led several expeditions which achieved little. Nevertheless, he was largely responsible for the successful negotiations which led to the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC. Following the Peace, he objected to the ambitious plans of Alcibiades for advancing Athens' interests. Despite this, Nicias was appointed to participate in the Athenian invasion of Sicily. The Athenian siege of Syracuse was nearly successful until the arrival of the Spartan general Gylippus, who turned the situation around so that the Athenians were themselves under siege. Nicias led his forces in a desperate attempt to escape by land. However, they were cut off and he and his Athenian army were overwhelmed and defeated. His army was almost wiped out, and though Nicias was respected by Gylippus who wanted to bring him back to Sparta, Nicias was nevertheless assassinated by allies of Syracuse. Early life Nicias inherited from his father, Niceratus, a considerable fortune, which was invested mainly in the silver mines of Laurium. It is said that Nicias had over 1000 slaves working in the mines. Plutarch states that Nicias was also exceedingly generous with his wealth, using his money for charitable activities in Athens and funding many religious festivals. Nicias' political rise Nicias' rise to prominence occurred while Pericles was at the head of the Athenian government. After Pericles' death in 429 BC, Nicias became an important Athenian politician with the aristocratic (conservative) party looking to him as their leader. As such, Nicias became the rival of Cleon's popular or democratic party. Nicias lacked the eloquence or charm to win popularity among Athenians, according to the later historian Plutarch. Instead, Nicias gained popularity through the use of his wealth. He funded and organized choruses for Athenian dramas, sporting events, public exhibitions, and new or restored statues and temples. Plutarch specifically refers to an example of Nicias' generosity—his funding of the festival of Delos. Nicias funded the building of a bridge of boats between Delos and the Rhenean islands. The ships were decorated with garlands, gilding, and rich tapestry. Then a richly dressed chorus walked across the boats. Nicias then provided a 10,000 drachma fund to the Delians so they would continue this event into the future, praying on his behalf. Such instructions were engraved onto a pillar. Military activities Nicias was Strategos in both 427 BC and 425 BC. During these years, Nicias was a very cautious general. He avoided engaging in any important military enterprise during his time as commander. According to Plutarch this was to his benefit, as Nicias was able to avoid the worst of Athens' misfortunes, both military and political. Plutarch states that "Nicias declined all difficult and lengthy enterprises; if he took a command, he was for doing what was safe." Plutarch also noted that on the battlefield, Nicias was recognized as a fair combatant, fighting as courageously as any other soldier. Peace of Nicias After fighting for a decade in the Peloponnesian War, both Athens and Sparta were exhausted. The Athenian general, Laches, with the support of Nicias, successfully moved in the Athenian Assembly in 423 BC for an armistice with Sparta to check the progress of Sparta's most effective general, Brasidas. However, the "Truce of Laches" had little impact on Brasidas and collapsed within a year. Brasidas proceeded to take Scione and Mende in the hope of reaching Athens and freeing Spartan prisoners. Athens sent reinforcements under Nicias, who recaptured Mende. Cleon then effectively ended the truce between Athens and Sparta after he resolved to rescue the town of Amphipolis in Macedonia. However, through skilful generalship by Brasidas, the Spartans routed the Athenians at the Battle of Amphipolis. Both Brasidas and Cleon were killed in the battle, thereby removing the key members of the pro-war factions on both sides. After the two generals who opposed peace, the Athenian Cleon and the Spartan Brasidas, were slain in battle, Nicias decided to seek peace between all the warring states. Nicias, and Pleistoanax, King of Sparta, negotiated in 421 BC the Peace of Nicias between Athens and Sparta, which brought a temporary end to the Peloponnesian War. The essence of the Peace of Nicias was a return to the pre-war situation: most wartime gains were to be returned. Most notably, Amphipolis would be returned to Athens, and the Athenians would release the prisoners taken at Sphacteria. Temples throughout Greece would be open to worshippers from all cities, and the oracle at Delphi would regain its autonomy. Athens could continue to collect tribute from the states as it had done so since the time of Aristides, but Athens could not force them to become allies. Athens also agreed to come to Sparta's aid if the Helots revolted. All of Sparta's allies agreed to sign the peace, except for the Boeotians, Corinth, Elis, and Megara. Nicias and Alcibiades While the Peace was being negotiated, Alcibiades became more influential in Athens. Alcibiades opposed the Peace and argued strongly for Athens to continue its war against Sparta and its allies. His first move was convincing Argos to form an alliance. Alcibiades first rose to prominence when he began advocating aggressive Athenian action after the signing of the Peace of Nicias. Historians Arnold W. Gomme and Raphael Sealey believe, and Thucydides reports, that Alcibiades was offended that the Spartans had negotiated that treaty through Nicias and Laches, overlooking him on account of his youth. Disputes over the interpretation of the treaty led the Spartans to dispatch ambassadors to Athens with full powers to arrange all unsettled matters. The Athenians initially received these ambassadors well, but Alcibiades met with them in secret before they were to speak to the ecclesia (the Athenian Assembly) and told them that the Assembly was haughty and had great ambitions. He urged them to renounce their diplomatic authority to represent Sparta, and instead allow him to assist them through his influence in Athenian politics. The representatives agreed and, impressed with Alcibiades, they distanced themselves from Nicias, despite him being sincere in wanting to reach an agreement with the Spartans. The next day, during the Assembly, Alcibiades asked them what powers Sparta had granted them to negotiate and they replied, as agreed, that they had not come with full and independent powers. This was in direct contradiction to what they had said the day before, and Alcibiades seized on this opportunity to denounce their character, cast suspicion on their aims, and destroy their credibility. This ploy increased Alcibiades' standing while embarrassing Nicias, and Alcibiades was subsequently appointed General. He took advantage of his increasing power to orchestrate the creation of an alliance between Argos, Mantinea, Elis, and other states in the Peloponnese, threatening Sparta's dominance in the region. This alliance, however, was ultimately defeated in 418 BC at the Battle of Mantinea. Nicias and Hyperbolos During the years 416 BC and 415 BC, a complex struggle took place between Hyperbolos on one side and Nicias and Alcibiades on the other. Hyperbolos tried to bring about the ostracism of one of this pair, but Nicias and Alcibiades combined their influence to induce the people to expel Hyperbolos instead. This incident reveals that Nicias and Alcibiades each commanded a personal following, whose votes were determined by the wishes of the leaders. Plutarch was of the view that the Athenians were so angered by this cynical manoeuvring that the ostracism was never to be used again. The Sicilian Expedition In 415 BC, delegates from the Sicilian city of Segesta () arrived in Athens to plead for the support of the Athenians in their war against Selinus. During the subsequent debates, Nicias vehemently opposed an Athenian intervention, using the argument that the campaign would be excessively costly if it was to be successful. He attacked the character and motives of Alcibiades, who was a strong supporter of the expedition. Alcibiades argued that a Sicilian campaign would bring riches to the city and expand the empire, just as the Persian Wars had. In spite of Alcibiades' enthusiastic advocacy for the plan, it was Nicias, not he, who turned a modest undertaking into a massive campaign and made the conquest of Sicily seem possible and safe. It was at Nicias’ suggestion that the size of the fleet was significantly increased from 60 ships to "140 triremes, 5,100 hoplites, and about 1,300 archers, slingers, and light armed men". It would seem that Nicias' intention was to shock the assembly with his high estimate of the forces required, but, instead of dissuading his fellow citizens, his analysis made them all the more eager. Against his wishes Nicias was appointed General along with Alcibiades and Lamachus, all three of whom were given full powers to do whatever was in the best interests of Athens while in Sicily. One night during preparations for the expedition, the hermai, heads of the god Hermes on a plinth with a phallus, were mutilated throughout Athens. This was a religious scandal and was seen as a bad omen for the mission. Plutarch explains that Androcles, a political leader, used false witnesses who accused Alcibiades and his friends of mutilating the statues, and of profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries. Later his opponents, chief among them being Androcles and Thessalus, Cimon's son, enlisted orators to argue that Alcibiades should set sail as planned and stand trial on his return from the campaign. Alcibiades was suspicious of their intentions, and asked to be allowed to stand trial immediately, under penalty of death, in order to clear his name. This request was denied, and in 415 BC the fleet set sail, with the charges unresolved. Arriving to Catana, Sicily, the three commanders had differing plans for attacking Syracuse. While there, an Athenian ship arrived to inform Alcibiades that he was under arrest, not only for the destruction of the hermai, but also for supposedly profaning the Eleusinian Mysteries. Alcibiades agreed to return in his ship, but when the ship stopped in southern Italy at Thurii, he escaped and sailed to the Peloponnese, where he eventually sought refuge in Sparta. He soon began offering advice to the Spartans on how the situation in Syracuse could be made to benefit them at Athens' expense. In Athens a death sentence was passed in absentia, his guilt seemingly proven. Led by Nicias the Athenian forces landed at Dascon near Syracuse but with little result. Hermocrates led the Syracusan defence. Meanwhile, Alcibiades persuaded the Spartans to send Gylippus to assist Syracuse. As a result, a Spartan fleet soon arrived to reinforce their allies in Syracuse and a stalemate ensued. Athens responded to appeals from Nicias by sending out in 414 BC 73 vessels and 5,000 soldiers to Sicily under the command of Athenian generals, Demosthenes and Eurymedon, to assist Nicias and his forces with the siege of Syracuse. The Athenian army moved to capture Syracuse while the larger fleet of Athenian ships blocked the approach to the city from the sea. After some initial success, the Athenian troops became disorganised in the chaotic night operation and were thoroughly routed by Gylippus. The Athenian commanders Lamachus and Eurymedon were killed. Nicias, although ill, was left in sole charge of the siege of Syracuse. Following this defeat in battle, Demosthenes suggested that the Athenians immediately give up the siege of Syracuse and return to Athens, where they were needed to defend against an Alcibiades’ inspired Spartan invasion of Attica. Nicias refused. According to Plutarch, Nicias explained that he preferred to be killed by the enemy, rather than being killed by the Athenians, who would condemn him if they were defeated. Death However, during 413 BC, the Syracusans and Spartans under Hermocrates were able to trap the Athenians in the harbour and the Athenians sustained heavy losses in the second Battle of Syracuse. Demosthenes was ambushed by the Syracusans and was forced to surrender. Nicias was soon captured as well, and both were executed by allied forces despite Gylippus’ orders to the contrary. Most of the surviving Athenian soldiers were kept in the stone quarries near Syracuse (as there was no other room for them) where many died slowly of disease and starvation. Few survivors returned to Athens. Notes References Besides Thucydides see Plutarch's Nicias and Diod. xii. 83; also the general authorities on the history of Greece. Nicias appears as a character in Plato's dialogue Laches, in which Socrates and others discuss the nature of courage without reaching any firm conclusions. Nicias' silver mines are described by Xenophon, in both "On Revenues" and "The memorable thoughts of Socrates". External links Livius, Nicias by Jona Lendering https://www.academia.edu/38573412/The_risk_of_open_voting._Army_assembly_and_fake_news_at_the_end_of_the_Sicilian_Expedition 470s BC births 413 BC deaths 5th-century BC Athenians Ancient Athenian generals Athenians of the Peloponnesian War	[ -0.043109916150569916, -0.13366949558258057, -0.84771728515625, 0.40235158801078796, -0.10599126666784286, 0.5349158644676208, 0.6671092510223389, -0.004658443387597799, -0.7066764831542969, -0.20700055360794067, 0.16076992452144623, 0.09006721526384354, -0.45100679993629456, -0.010609492659568787, -0.18483327329158783, 0.3343542516231537, 0.14393430948257446, 0.3139147460460663, 0.08164338022470474, -0.7143905162811279, -0.08489926159381866, 0.2820468246936798, 0.29309728741645813, -0.10465254634618759, -0.19467926025390625, 0.6142966151237488, -0.7699402570724487, 0.0358860045671463, -0.305766224861145, -0.035079848021268845, 0.3185048997402191, 0.8115546703338623, -0.39661261439323425, 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231323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Wess	Frank Wess	Frank Wellington Wess (January 4, 1922 – October 30, 2013) was an American jazz saxophonist and flutist. In addition to his extensive solo work, Wess is remembered for his time in Count Basie's band from the early 1950s into the 1960s. Critic Scott Yanow described him as one of the premier proteges of Lester Young, and a leading jazz flutist of his era—using the latter instrument to bring new colors to Basie's music. Biography Wess was born in Kansas City, Missouri, United States, the son of a principal father and a schoolteacher mother. He began with classical music training and played in Oklahoma in high school. He later switched to jazz on moving to Washington, D.C. and by nineteen was working with big bands. His career was interrupted by World War II although he did play with a military band in the period. After leaving the military, he joined Billy Eckstine's orchestra. He returned to Washington D.C. a few years afterwards and received a degree in flute at the city's Modern School of Music. He played tenor sax with Count Basie from 1953 to 1964, doubling on flute. Wess was considered one of the best jazz flutists of his time. From 1959 to 1964, he won the Down Beat magazine critics' poll for flute. He was a member of Clark Terry's big band from 1967 into the 1970s and played in the New York Jazz Quartet (with Roland Hanna). He also did a variety of work for TV. In 1968 he contributed to the album The Jazz Composer's Orchestra. He played tenor and alto sax, doubling on flute throughout his career. In the 1980s and 1990s, he worked with Kenny Barron, Rufus Reid, Buck Clayton, Benny Carter, Billy Taylor, Harry Edison, Mel Tormé, Ernestine Anderson, Louie Bellson, John Pizzarelli, Howard Alden, Dick Hyman, Jane Jarvis, Frank Vignola and was a featured member of the Toshiko Akiyoshi Jazz Orchestra. In the 2000s, Wess released two albums with Hank Jones. In 2007, Wess was named an NEA Jazz Master by the U.S. National Endowment for the Arts. Wess died from a heart attack related to kidney failure on October 30, 2013. Discography As leader Flutes & Reeds (Savoy, 1955) with Ernie Wilkins North, South, East....Wess (Savoy, 1956) Opus in Swing (Savoy, 1956) with Kenny Burrell and Freddie Greene Jazz for Playboys (Savoy, 1957) with Joe Newman, Kenny Burrell and Freddie Greene Wheelin' & Dealin' (Prestige, 1957) with John Coltrane Opus de Blues (Savoy, 1959 [1984]) - also released as I Hear Ya Talkin The Frank Wess Quartet (Moodsville, 1960) Southern Comfort (Prestige, 1962) Yo Ho! Poor You, Little Me (Prestige, 1963) Wess to Memphis (1970) Flute of the Loom (1973) Flute Juice (Progressive, 1981) Two at the Top (Uptown, 1983) with Johnny Coles Two for the Blues (Pablo, 1984) with Frank Foster Frankly Speaking (Concord Jazz, 1985) with Frank Foster Entre Nous (Concord, 1990) Going Wess (1993) Tryin' to Make My Blues Turn Green (Concord, 1994) Surprise, Surprise (Chiaroscuro, 1995) Hank and Frank (2002) Hank and Frank II (2009) Magic 101 (IPO, 2013)With the New York Jazz Quartet In Concert in Japan (Salvation, 1975) Surge (Enja, 1977) Song of the Black Knight (Sonet, 1977) Blues for Sarka (Enja, 1978) New York Jazz Quartet in Chicago (Bee Hive, 1981) Oasis (Enja, 1981) As sidemanWith Toshiko AkiyoshiTen Gallon Shuffle (Victor / BMG, 1984) Wishing Peace (Ken (Japan), 1986) Carnegie Hall Concert (Columbia, 1992)With Manny Albam The Soul of the City (Solid State, 1966)With Lorez AlexandriaEarly in the Morning (Argo, 1960)With Earl Washington (musician) Earl Washington All-Stars (Workshop, 1962)With Gene Ammons Velvet Soul (Prestige, 1960 [1964]) Angel Eyes (Prestige, 1960 [1965])With Dorothy Ashby The Jazz Harpist (Regent, 1957) Hip Harp (Prestige, 1958) In a Minor Groove (New Jazz, 1958)With Count Basie Count Basie and the Kansas City 7 (Impulse!, 1962)With Count Basie Orchestra Dance Session (Clef, 1953) Dance Session Album #2 (Clef, 1954) Basie (Clef, 1954) Count Basie Swings, Joe Williams Sings (Clef, 1955) with Joe Williams April in Paris (Verve, 1956) The Greatest!! Count Basie Plays, Joe Williams Sings Standards with Joe Williams Metronome All-Stars 1956 (Clef, 1956) with Ella Fitzgerald and Joe Williams Hall of Fame (Verve, 1956 [1959]) Basie in London (Verve, 1956) One O'Clock Jump (1957) The Atomic Mr. Basie (Roulette, 1957) aka Basie and E=MC2 Basie Plays Hefti (Roulette, 1958) Chairman of the Board (Roulette 1958) Sing Along with Basie (Roulette, 1958) with Joe Williams and Lambert, Hendricks & Ross Basie One More Time (Roulette, 1959) Breakfast Dance and Barbecue (Roulette, 1959) Everyday I Have the Blues (Roulette, 1959) Dance Along with Basie (Roulette, 1959) String Along with Basie (Roulette, 1960) Not Now, I'll Tell You When (Roulette, 1960) The Count Basie Story (Roulette, 1960) Kansas City Suite (Roulette, 1960) First Time! The Count Meets the Duke (Columbia, 1961) The Legend (Roulette, 1961) Back with Basie (Roulette, 1962) Basie in Sweden (Roulette, 1962) On My Way & Shoutin' Again! (Verve, 1962) This Time by Basie! (Reprise, 1963) More Hits of the 50's and 60's (Verve, 1963) Ella and Basie! (Verve, 1963)With Benny CarterOver the Rainbow (MusicMasters, 1989) Harlem Renaissance (MusicMasters, 1992)With Ron CarterParade (Milestone, 1979) Empire Jazz (RSO, 1980)With Kenny Clarke Telefunken Blues (Savoy, 1955)With Hank Crawford Mr. Blues Plays Lady Soul (Atlantic, 1969)With Charles EarlandInfant Eyes (Muse, 1979)With Harry Edison Swing Summit (Candid, 1990)With Frank Foster No 'Count (Savoy, 1956)With Gene Harris It's the Real Soul (Concord, 1995)With Johnny HartmanOnce in Every Life (Bee Hive, 1980)With Coleman HawkinsThe Saxophone Section (World Wide, 1958)With Johnny HodgesBlue Notes (Verve, 1966) Don't Sleep in the Subway (Verve, 1967) 3 Shades of Blue (Flying Dutchman, 1970)With Bobby Hutcherson Conception: The Gift of Love (Columbia, 1979)With Milt Jackson Meet Milt Jackson (Savoy, 1955) Opus de Jazz (Savoy, 1955) Bags & Flutes (Atlantic, 1957)With J. J. Johnson Broadway Express (RCA Victor, 1965)With Elvin Jones Elvin! (Riverside, 1961–62) And Then Again (Atlantic, 1965) Time Capsule (Vanguard, 1977)With Etta JonesEtta Jones Sings (Roulette, 1965)With Philly Joe Jones DameroniaTo Tadd with Love (Uptown, 1982) Look Stop Listen (Uptown, 1983) With Quincy Jones The Birth of a Band! (Mercury, 1959) Quincy Plays for Pussycats (Mercury, 1959-65 [1965])With Thad Jones Olio (Prestige, 1957) After Hours (Prestige, 1957)With Dick KatzIn High Profile (Bee Hive, 1984)With Yusef Lateef Part of the Search (Atlantic, 1973)With Junior Mance I Believe to My Soul (Atlantic, 1968)With Arif Mardin Journey (Atlantic, 1974)With Les McCann Another Beginning (Atlantic, 1974)With Jimmy McGriff The Big Band (Solid State, 1966) Straight Up (Milestone, 1998)With Charles McPherson Today's Man (Mainstream, 1973)With Helen MerrillYou've Got a Date with the Blues (MetroJazz, 1959)With Oliver Nelson The Spirit of '67 with Pee Wee Russell (Impulse!, 1967)With David Newman The Weapon (Atlantic, 1973)With Joe Newman The Count's Men (Jazztone, 1955) I Feel Like a Newman (Storyville, 1956) The Midgets (Vik, 1956) The Happy Cats (Coral, 1957) Counting Five in Sweden (Metronome, 1958) Jive at Five (Swingville, 1960)With Chico O'Farrill Nine Flags (Impulse!, 1966)With Houston Person Sweet Buns & Barbeque (Prestige, 1972)With Buddy Rich The Wailing Buddy Rich (Norgran, 1955)With A. K. Salim Flute Suite (Savoy, 1957) with Herbie MannWith Woody Shaw Rosewood (Columbia, 1977)With Zoot Sims Passion Flower: Zoot Sims Plays Duke Ellington (1979) With Melvin Sparks Akilah! (Prestige, 1972)With Leon Spencer Where I'm Coming From (Prestige, 1973)With Dakota StatonI Want a Country Man (Groove Merchant, 1973)With Billy Taylor Billy Taylor with Four Flutes (Riverside, 1959) Kwamina (Mercury, 1961)With Charles Williams Stickball (Mainstream, 1972)With Gerald Wilson New York, New Sound (Mack Avenue, 2003)With Lem Winchester'''Another Opus'' (New Jazz, 1960) References External links frankwess.org 1922 births 2013 deaths American jazz bandleaders American jazz flautists American jazz saxophonists American male saxophonists American jazz composers American male jazz composers Bebop flautists Bebop saxophonists Concord Records artists Chiaroscuro Records artists Cool jazz flautists Cool jazz saxophonists Count Basie Orchestra members Mainstream jazz flautists Mainstream jazz saxophonists Modal jazz flautists Modal jazz saxophonists New York Jazz Quartet members Musicians from Kansas City, Missouri Prestige Records artists Savoy Records artists Swing flautists 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231328	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo%20Wright	Leo Wright	Leo Wright (December 14, 1933 in Wichita Falls, Texas – January 4, 1991 in Vienna) was an American jazz musician who played alto saxophone, flute and clarinet. He played with Charles Mingus, Booker Ervin, John Hardee, Kenny Burrell, Johnny Coles, Blue Mitchell and Dizzy Gillespie in the late 1950s, early 1960s and in the late 1970s. Relocating to Europe in 1963, Wright settled in Berlin and later Vienna. During this time he performed and recorded primarily in Europe, using European musicians or fellow American expatriates, such as Kenny Clarke and Art Farmer. He died of a heart attack in 1991 at the age of 57. Discography As leader/co-leader Blues Shout (Atlantic, 1960) Suddenly the Blues (Atlantic, 1961) Soul Talk (Vortex, 1963) Modern Jazz Studio Number 4 (Amiga, 1965 [1970]) Flute + Alto – Sax (Amiga, 1965 [1967]) Alto Summit (MPS, 1968) with Lee Konitz, Pony Poindexter and Phil Woods It's All Wright (MPS, 1972) Evening Breeze (Roulette, 1977) New Horn in Town/Blues Shote (Fresh Sound, 2012) As sideman With Kenny Burrell Bluesin' Around (Columbia, 1962 [1983]) With Gloria Coleman Soul Sisters (Impulse!, 1963) With Johnny Coles Little Johnny C (Blue Note, 1963) With Tadd Dameron The Magic Touch (Riverside, 1962) With Red Garland I Left My Heart... (Muse, 1978 [1985]) With Dizzy Gillespie Copenhagen Concert (SteepleChase) Gillespiana (Verve, 1960) An Electrifying Evening with the Dizzy Gillespie Quintet (Verve, 1961) Carnegie Hall Concert (Verve, 1961) Dizzy on the French Riviera (Philips, 1962) A Musical Safari – Live at the Monterey Jazz Festival 1961 (Booman, 1974) New Wave (Philips, 1963) With Gildo Mahones I'm Shooting High (Prestige, 1963) The Great Gildo (Prestige, 1964) With Jack McDuff Screamin' (Prestige, 1962) With Blue Mitchell Step Lightly (Blue Note, 1964) With Oliver Nelson Berlin Dialogue for Orchestra (Flying Dutchman, 1970) With Dave Pike Limbo Carnival (New Jazz, 1962) With Lalo Schifrin Lalo = Brilliance (Roulette, 1962) Bossa Nova: New Brazilian Jazz (Audio Fidelity, 1962) Samba Para Dos with Bob Brookmeyer (Verve, 1963) With Richard Williams New Horn in Town (Candid, 1960) With Jimmy Witherspoon Baby, Baby, Baby (Prestige, 1963) With Antônio Carlos Jobim The Composer of Desafinado Plays (Verve, 1963) References External links Short biography Another Short Biography A Longer Biography American jazz alto saxophonists American male saxophonists American jazz clarinetists American jazz flautists 1933 births 1991 deaths 20th-century American musicians 20th-century saxophonists 20th-century American male musicians American male jazz musicians Orchestra U.S.A. members	[ -0.15025323629379272, 0.269182413816452, -0.6369856595993042, -0.08109071850776672, 0.20121222734451294, 0.5827754735946655, 0.33081522583961487, -0.03615514934062958, -0.3737700879573822, -0.9515799880027771, 0.17913393676280975, -0.007863380014896393, -0.3676745593547821, -0.07160134613513947, -0.5925182104110718, -0.06564173102378845, 0.29117241501808167, -0.3340342044830322, -0.7238778471946716, -0.7575973868370056, 0.0718410387635231, -0.6955673694610596, 0.3276342451572418, 0.6620581150054932, -0.5798692107200623, 0.35470831394195557, -0.40344029664993286, 0.2932155430316925, 0.2557696998119354, 0.3337209224700928, 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231329	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo	Neo	Neo or NEO may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional entities Neo (The Matrix), the alias of Thomas Anderson, a hacker and the protagonist of the Matrix film series Neo (Marvel Comics species), a fictional race of superhumans Neo Saiba , a character from Digimon Adventure V-Tamer 01 Mettaton NEO, an alternate form of Mettaton in Undertale NEO, a character from Digimon Next Neo, short for Neopolitan, a character from the animated series RWBY Music N.E.O. (band), a Lithuanian band Neo (British band), a post-punk band Neo (Hungarian band), a Hungarian group Neo (Italian band), a prog-jazz group Ne Obliviscaris, sometimes abbreviated NeO, an Australian heavy metal band Neo (album), a 1979 album by Ian North NCT (band), Neo Culture Technology, a K-pop boy band "N.E.O.", a song by Chai Other entertainment Neo (magazine), an anime, manga and Asian film magazine published in the UK Neo (nightclub), a Chicago nightclub opened in 1979 PlayStation 4 Pro (codename Neo), a high end version of the PlayStation 4 console Science and technology Near-Earth object, a Solar System object whose orbit brings it into close proximity with the Earth Neomycin, an antibiotic Nitrogen-enriched organic fertilizer Computing Neo (keyboard), a portable keyboard by AlphaSmart Neo (keyboard layout), an ergonomic keyboard layout NEO (cryptocurrency) (Symbol: NEO), a cryptocurrency and blockchain platform Neo 1973, smartphone running Openmoko software .NEO, the file extension for computer images in the NEOchrome format Neo (French law enforcement agencies mobile terminals) and NeoGend, a project of secure smartphones and tablets for the French National Police and gendarmerie NEO, software products based on Sun Microsystems' Project Distributed Objects Everywhere Surface Neo, an upcoming foldable phone created by Microsoft. Transportation Nissan Ecology Oriented or NEO VVL, an automobile variable valve timing technology New Engine Option, fuel-efficient re-engined versions of certain Airbus aircraft: Airbus A320neo family Airbus A330neo Proton Satria Neo, an automotive brand Youngcopter Neo, a German helicopter design People NEO (Counter-Strike player) (born 1987), screen name of Polish professional Counter-Strike player Filip Kubski Neo Rauch (born 1960), German artist Jack Neo (born 1960), Singaporean actor, host, and director August Neo (1908–1982), Estonian wrestler Other uses Revised NEO Personality Inventory, a psychometric instrument Neo (constructed language), a constructed language created by Arturo Alfandari Neo, Vietnam, a former township in Bac Giang Province, Vietnam NEO Exchange, a Canadian stock exchange New European Order, a neo-fascist Europe-wide alliance set up in 1951 to promote Pan-European nationalism Non-combatant evacuation operation, an operation conducted to evacuate a country's civilians from another country Neo, the Hokkien/Teochew form of the Chinese family name Liang See also NEO Scavenger, a 2014 survival video game released on PC Neos (disambiguation) Ne-Yo (born 1979), American pop and R&B singer-songwriter Nio, two wrath-filled and muscular guardians of the Buddha NIO (disambiguation)	[ 0.2959901988506317, -0.20168347656726837, -0.5532824993133545, 0.5235446691513062, -0.24027575552463531, 0.12937083840370178, 0.16907672584056854, 0.02466854453086853, -0.047148313373327255, -0.03120504505932331, -0.615060031414032, 0.2595370411872864, -0.4755975902080536, 0.4460778832435608, -0.1822010725736618, 0.24333257973194122, 0.388849139213562, 0.3965862989425659, -0.8659346103668213, -0.07728021591901779, -0.5535818338394165, 0.18016520142555237, 0.5435541272163391, -0.3940121829509735, -0.015182066708803177, 0.0713571235537529, -0.019084393978118896, -0.05155682563781738, -0.5159813165664673, 0.4410116970539093, 0.0210625808686018, -0.024335971102118492, 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231331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2082	New Jersey Route 82	Route 82 is a short, state highway in Union County of the US state of New Jersey. It runs southeast from an intersection with Route 124 in Springfield Township along Morris Avenue to Route 439 in the Elizabeth general area. Along the route, it serves local businesses and the main arterial of Union Township. Near its eastern terminus at Route 439, Route 82 passes through Kean University, a state college in New Jersey. Route 82 originates as of one two Route S24 alignments designated in the 1927 state highway renumbering. A spur of Route 24, it lasted for 26 years untouched until the 1953 state highway renumbering, when Union County's Route S-24 was designated as Route 82 and a portion of Route 439. The route's alignment has changed little since the 1953 renumbering. Route description Route 82 begins at a traffic light complex with Route 124 eastbound and County Route 577 (CR 577) eastbound in the community of Springfield, New Jersey. The highway progresses eastward along Morris Avenue through a large business district. A short distance after, Route 82 intersects with Maple Street, which serves Route 124 westbound and the community of Maplewood. The route continues eastward along Morris Avenue, heading through the business district of Springfield. Residential homes begin to appear in the eastbound direction before the highway crosses over the Rahway River. From there, Route 82 enters Union, where it enters a large commercial district once again. During the highway's progression eastward, Route 82 enters more residential regions, intersecting with Liberty Avenue in the northern end of Union. Liberty Avenue connects Route 82 with U.S. Route 22 (US 22) in Union. The highway continues east along Morris Avenue, entering further into Union, where it serves as the main road to the community. At a fork with Elmwood Avenue, Route 82 diverts to the east along Morris, leaving the northern portion of Union. Route 82 continues eastward as the main arterial, passing between many residential homes in both directions. The highway then enters the center of Union Township, where it intersects with CR 619 (Stuyvesant Avenue) and to the north of Friberger Park. Morris Avenue continues through a largely residential and commercial district in Union before crossing under the westbound lanes of US 22 and the eight lanes of the Garden State Parkway. Route 82 then passes under the eastbound lanes of US 22 before continuing along Morris Avenue into Union Township. A short distance later, the route approaches an intersection with a shopping mall access road before passing to the north of the local golf club, Suburban Golf. Route 82 and Morris Avenue continue eastward, passing through the middle of residential neighborhoods as a four-lane boulevard. A short distance after the golf club, the highway intersects CR 509 (Salem Avenue). From there, Route 82 becomes a divided arterial, passing to the south of Elizabeth River Park and crossing under Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Lehigh Line, which also carries NJ Transit's Raritan Valley Line. The nearby intersection for Green Lane serves the nearby Union station along the rail line. After the intersection with Green Lane, Route 82 enters the area of Kean University, which surrounds the highway in both directions. After intersecting with the university's access roads, Route 82 crosses through a wooded area before terminating at an intersection with Route 439 (North Avenue). Morris Avenue continues eastward as CR 629. History The alignment along Morris Avenue through Union and Springfield was originally the alignment of a Lenape trail running from Springfield to Elizabeth. It later became part of the Morris Turnpike, chartered in 1801 to run from Elizabeth to Newton. It became State Highway Route S-24, a prefixed spur of State Highway Route 24, in the 1927 state highway renumbering. This was one of two State Highway Route S-24s designated, with the other out in Warren County. Route S-24 in Union County was designated to run from Route 24 in Springfield (now Route 124) along Morris Avenue to an intersection with Route 25 in Elizabeth. (The alignment of Route 25 is now U.S. Routes 1 and 9.) At the intersection with current-day Route 439, Route S-24 turned off of current-day Route 82 and onto Route 439 southbound towards the Goethals Bridge across the Arthur Kill. Although the route remained intact for twenty-six years, the 1953 state highway renumbering occurred on January 1, and Route S-24 was re-designated as Route 82 and Route 439, while Route 24 through Springifeld remained the same. The route's general alignment has remained virtually unchanged since the 1953 renumbering, with the highway remaining on Morris Avenue. In 2005, the New Jersey Department of Transportation was given $800,000 USD in an earmark to give Route 82 roadway and intersection improvements. Major intersections See also References External links New Jersey Roads – Photos Route 82 end photos Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 82 082 Transportation in Union County, New Jersey	[ -0.6051236391067505, -0.36664101481437683, -0.40257593989372253, 0.17470864951610565, 0.35460108518600464, -0.197275772690773, 0.6249764561653137, 0.7604207396507263, 0.07722542434930801, -0.40531983971595764, -0.24377182126045227, -0.06981220096349716, -0.46218711137771606, -0.5309048891067505, -1.0419635772705078, 0.3955657184123993, 0.5494082570075989, 0.7037761807441711, 0.44927316904067993, -0.7776644825935364, -0.43758025765419006, 0.49696722626686096, -0.01630060188472271, 0.24399158358573914, -0.7473323345184326, -0.3658463656902313, 0.2786687910556793, -0.4843468964099884, 0.501804530620575, 0.33949148654937744, -0.2580533027648926, 0.50081467628479, -0.12639304995536804, -0.6633477210998535, 0.6282244920730591, -0.5208842158317566, 0.22521749138832092, -0.573628842830658, 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231332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irena%20Grafenauer	Irena Grafenauer	Irena Grafenauer, (born June 19, 1957 in Ljubljana, Slovenia), is a Slovenian flute player and soloist, a pupil of Boris Čampa, Karlheinz Zöller and Aurèle Nicolet. Irena Grafenauer started her musical education at the age of 8. After graduating from the Academy of Music in Ljubljana in 1974, she continued her studies with Karlheinz Zöller and Aurèle Nicolet. She won First Prize in three international competitions: in Belgrade (1974), Geneva (1978) and Munich (1979). From 1977 to 1987 she was principal flautist with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra under Rafael Kubelik and Sir Colin Davis. On October 1987 she was appointed Professor at the Salzburg Mozarteum. She has successfully toured most European countries, the United States, Japan, and Australia as a soloist. She has performed regularly at Gidon Kremer’s Lockenhaus Festival since 1981 and toured extensively with ”Kremer & Friends”. Irena Grafenauer formed a duo with the harpist Maria Graf. She has also worked regularly with the Berlin Philharmonic Duo Jörg Baumann and Klaus Stoll, pianists Oleg Maisenberg, Robert Levin, and Helmut Deutsch, Guitar-player Eliot Fisk, and the Cherubini String Quartet. Irena Grafenauer records exclusively for the Philips label. She has been contracted to record concertos and quartets by Mozart with members of the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields and the French album with music by Debussy, Ravel, Ibert and Roussel. She currently teaches in Mozarteum, Salzburg. 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231333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2083	New Jersey Route 83	Route 83 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is completely within Dennis Township, New Jersey, running from an intersection with Route 47 to an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9). The route, which passes through woodland and some residential development, is also known as the Trooper Bertram T. Zimmerman III Memorial Highway in honor of a New Jersey State Police officer who was killed along Route 83 in 2004 while responding to an armed robbery. Between 1927 and 1953, Route 83 was a part of Route 49, which originally ran south of Millville along Route 47 between Millville and South Dennis and along the entire length of Route 83. In 1953, the route became Route 83 when Route 49 was realigned to follow what was then Route 47 between Millville and Tuckahoe and Route 47 was aligned to follow Route S49 between South Dennis and Wildwood. In 2007, the state completed reconstruction of the intersection with Route 47 to include a traffic signal. A school bus accident has prompted the New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) to install a traffic signal at the Y intersection of Route 83 and US 9. Route description Route 83 begins at a traffic light with Route 47 in South Dennis, heading to the east on a four-lane divided highway. The route crosses over the Cape May Seashore Lines railroad line and narrows to a two-lane undivided highway. After this bridge, it intersects West Avenue and then crosses over County Route 628 (Dennisville Road/School House Road). Route 83 then intersects County Road, which heads west to parallel the route to the south. It later crosses Gravel Hole Road, which provides access to County Route 657 (Court House-Dennisville Road). Past that intersection, Route 83 continues to the east through a mix of residential development and woodland. It passes under a set of power lines and comes to an intersection with County Route 608 (Kings Highway). The route continues east to its eastern terminus at a signalized intersection with US 9 in Clermont. Route 83 is a major route that provides access to the Jersey Shore resorts of Sea Isle City and Avalon from Route 47. It also serves as part of an evacuation route for Cape May County that feeds into Route 47 to provide access to inland areas in the event of a hurricane. History Route 83 was originally legislated by the Laws of 1927, Chapter 319 as a part of Route 49, which was to run from Route 4 (now US 9) in Ocean View to Route 44 in Salem. In 1940, a bridge was built over the Pennsylvania-Reading Seashore Lines railroad tracks in South Dennis. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 49 was realigned to head along Route 47 from Millville to Tuckahoe, Route 47 was realigned to head along Route 49 between Millville and South Dennis and Route S49 from South Dennis and Wildwood, and Route 83 was created along the former alignment of Route 49 between South Dennis and Clermont. On December 12, 2004, Route 83 was dedicated as the Trooper Bertram T. Zimmerman III Memorial Highway in honor of a New Jersey State Police trooper who was killed on the route earlier in the year while responding to an armed robbery. In the 2000s, plans were made to improve the intersections at both termini of Route 83. The intersection with Route 47 saw realignment and the installation of a traffic light, along with improvements to Route 47, that cost $6.7 million and was completed in July 2007. In 2006, reconstruction of the Y intersection of US 9 and Route 83 to a T intersection and a new traffic light was planned following a school bus accident. The reconfigured intersection was completed on June 10, 2008. Major intersections See also References External links NJ State Highways: 55-74 - Route 83 Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 83 083 Transportation in Cape May County, New Jersey Dennis Township, New Jersey	[ -0.9651269912719727, -0.22064238786697388, -0.1751185953617096, 0.2644697427749634, 0.024199333041906357, -0.15845206379890442, 0.7189009189605713, 0.483119934797287, 0.058008644729852676, -0.19988831877708435, 0.06591001898050308, -0.0188788790255785, -0.5691202878952026, -0.5609155893325806, -1.0587483644485474, 0.3606460690498352, 0.4696263074874878, 0.7087889909744263, 0.5591076016426086, -0.7424753904342651, -0.35838761925697327, 0.20553100109100342, 0.16974902153015137, 0.181799054145813, -0.7323039770126343, -0.20591318607330322, 0.061702050268650055, -0.36271968483924866, 0.3992176651954651, 0.3322789669036865, -0.17257796227931976, 0.3696434497833252, -0.1030765175819397, -0.39529407024383545, 0.4987545609474182, -0.7265145182609558, 0.2197788804769516, 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231338	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleon	Cleon	Cleon (; , ; died 422 BC) was an Athenian general during the Peloponnesian War. He was the first prominent representative of the commercial class in Athenian politics, although he was an aristocrat himself. He strongly advocated for an offensive war strategy and is remembered for being ruthless in carrying out his policies. He is often depicted in a negative way, predominantly by Thucydides and the comedic playwright Aristophanes, who both represent him as an unscrupulous, warmongering demagogue. Cleon was the son of Cleaenetus. Public service Opposition to Pericles Cleon first came to notice as an opponent of Pericles in the late 430s BC through his opposition to Pericles' strategy of refusing battle against the Peloponnesian League invaders in 431 BC. As a result, he found himself acting in concert with the Athenian aristocratic parties, who stood against the "leaders of the demos", which included Isagoras, Miltiades, Thucydides, Nicias, Theramenes, and Pericles. During 430 BC, after the unsuccessful expedition by Pericles to the Peloponnesus, and when the city was devastated by the plague, Cleon headed the opposition to Pericles' rule. At this time, Pericles was accused by Cleon of maladministration of public money, with the result of Pericles being found guilty and removed from office. However, Pericles' setback was temporary and he was soon reinstated. Rise in popularity The death of Pericles from the plague in 429 BC left the field clear for new leadership in Athens. Hitherto Cleon had only been a vigorous opposition speaker, a trenchant critic and accuser of state officials, but he now came forward as the professed champion and leader of the democracy and rapidly came to dominate Athenian politics. Although rough and unpolished, he was charismatic, with natural eloquence and a powerful voice, and he knew how to work upon the emotions of the Athenian populace. He strengthened his support amongst the poorer citizens by increasing the pay for jury work, which provided a livelihood for many of the poorer Athenians. The fondness of the Athenians for litigation increased his power; and the practice of "sycophancy" (raking up material for false charges) enabled him to remove those who were likely to endanger his ascendancy. In 426 BC, Cleon brought an unsuccessful prosecution against Laches based on his generalship in the unsuccessful first Sicilian expedition. This is one of the very few times that an Athenian general escaped civil punishment for a defeat. Having no further use for his former aristocratic associates, he broke off all connection with them, and thus felt at liberty to attack the secret combinations for political purposes, the oligarchical clubs to which they mostly belonged. He was elected one of the ten strategos for 424–23 BC. Whether he also introduced a property-tax for military purposes, and even held a high position connected with the treasury, is uncertain. War against Sparta, subsequent death Cleon's ruling principles were an inveterate hatred of the nobility, and an equal hatred of Sparta. It was mainly through him that the opportunity of concluding an honourable peace (in 425 BC) was lost, and in his determination to see Sparta defeated, often spoke of dazzling future benefits. He insisted upon Athenian security via strategic possession of territories rather than by Spartan goodwill. In 427 BC, Cleon urged his Athenian countrymen to put to death the whole adult male population of Mytilene, which had put itself at the head of a revolt. His proposal, though at first accepted, was soon rescinded due to a protracted rebuttal by Diodotus. Nonetheless approximately one thousand chief leaders and prominent men of Mytilene were executed. In 425 BC, Cleon reached the summit of his fame by capturing and transporting to Athens the Spartans who had been blockaded at the Battle of Sphacteria. Much of the credit was probably due to the military skill of his colleague Demosthenes (not the orator); but it was due to Cleon's determination that the Ecclesia sent out the additional force that was needed. It was almost certainly due to Cleon that the tribute of the "allies" was doubled in 425 BC. He was not reelected as strategos for 423–22 BC after his strategy suffered a setback when Sparta invaded Amphipolis. In 422 BC he was sent to recapture Amphipolis. This development came with the resurgence of Athenian aggressive policy toward Sparta after the revolt of Scione, an Athenian allied city. During his campaign, however, Cleon was outmaneuvered by the Spartan general Brasidas. He was killed by a peltast when his army was routed at the Battle of Amphipolis. Brasidas also died at Amphipolis and their deaths removed the chief obstacle to peace. Thus, in 421 BC the peace of Nicias was signed. Aristophanes and Thucydides on Cleon The character of Cleon is represented by Aristophanes and Thucydides in a very unfavourable light. Their portrayals may be justified considering he instilled a feeling of mistrust within Athens through a kind of Athenian "McCarthyism", caused by the excessive number of informants he employed to keep watch on the city. Yet, both have been suspected of being prejudiced witnesses: The playwright Aristophanes had a grudge against Cleon, who may have accused him before the Council of having ridiculed (in his lost play Babylonians) the policy and institutions of his city in the presence of foreigners and at the time of a great national danger. Thucydides, believing in the shortcomings of democratic government, had also been prosecuted (unjustly, his ships arriving two days after a town was occupied by Spartan forces) for military incapacity and exiled by a decree proposed by Cleon. Indeed, of all the persons who appear in Thucydides' History, Cleon is treated with the least impartiality. It is therefore possible that Cleon has had injustice done to him in the portraits handed down by these two writers. His influence lay in his forceful and bullying style of oratory, anti-intellectual and anti-aristocratic in tone, and his populism. This might have brought him many enemies. He seems to have aimed at short-term goals, but Athens' poor stood to benefit by his policies, at the expense of heavy taxes levied onto her allies. Authorities For the literature on Cleon see Karl Friedrich Hermann, Lehrbuch der griechischen Antiquitäten, i. pt. 2 (6th ed. by V. Thumser, 1892), p. 709, and Georg Busolt, Griechische Geschichte, iii. pt. 2 (1904), p. 988, note 3. The following are the chief authorities: Favourable to Cleon C. F. Ranke, De Aristophanis Vita Commentatio (Leipzig, 1845) J. G. Droysen, Aristophanes, ii., Introd. to the Knights (Berlin, 1837) G. Grote, History of Greece. chs. 50, 54 W. Oncken, Athen und Hellas, ii. p. 204 (Leipzig, 1866) H. Müller-Strübing, Aristophanes und die historisehe Kritik (Leipzig, 1873) J. B. Bury, Hist, of Greece, i. (1902) Unfavourable J. F. Kortüm, Geschichtliche Forschungen (Leipzig, 1863), and Zur Geschichte hellenichen Statsverfassungen (Heidelberg, 1821) F. Passow, Vermischte Schriften (Leipzig, 1843) C Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 21 E. Curtius, History of Greece (Eng. tr. iii. p. 112) J. Schvarcz, Die Demokratie (Leipzig, 1882) H. Delbrück, Die Strategie des Perikles (Berlin, 1890) E. Meyer, Forschungen zur alten Geschichte, ii. p. 333 (Halle, 1899) Balance between the two extreme views: K. J. Beloch, Die attische Politik seit Perikles (Leipzig, 1884), and Griechische Geschichte, i. p. 537 A. Holm, History of Greece, ii. (Eng. tr.), ch. 23, with the notes. H. Bengtson, History of Greece: From the Beginnings to the Byzantine Era, Cleon p. 140 Notes References External links Livius.org: Cleon 422 BC deaths 5th-century BC Athenians Sicilian Greeks Athenians of the Peloponnesian War Ancient Greeks killed in battle Ancient Greek merchants Year of birth unknown	[ -0.427906334400177, -0.21014761924743652, -0.9773841500282288, 0.7625981569290161, -0.2423791140317917, 1.5574249029159546, 0.06911041587591171, 0.0254727303981781, -0.5339043140411377, -0.05843472108244896, 0.2289423644542694, 0.3288341164588928, -0.6036372780799866, -0.14334751665592194, -0.07902875542640686, -0.004880473017692566, -0.1305789202451706, -0.26083630323410034, 0.20705586671829224, -0.27603909373283386, 0.5351131558418274, 0.15374119579792023, 0.4386676549911499, 0.05840248614549637, -0.23550991714000702, -0.07479521632194519, -0.5323569178581238, 0.07851087301969528, 0.285600483417511, -0.8207113146781921, 0.05859189108014107, 0.5520870089530945, -0.10843776166439056, 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231339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2087	New Jersey Route 87	Route 87 is a state highway located in Atlantic County in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It runs , heading north from Atlantic City at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 (Absecon Boulevard) to Brigantine, where it terminates at the end of the Brigantine Bridge (designated the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge) over the Absecon Inlet, continuing as County Route 638 (Brigantine Boulevard). In Atlantic City, the route runs through the Marina District, which contains a few casinos, along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard. Here, Route 87 intersects with Route 187 (Brigantine Boulevard) and the Atlantic City-Brigantine Connector, the latter providing a limited-access route between Route 87 and the Atlantic City Expressway. Route 87 is the only road to and from Brigantine. What is now Route 87 was initially proposed as Route S4A in 1927, a spur from Route 4 (now U.S. Route 9) in Tuckerton, Ocean County, south through Brigantine to Atlantic City. The portion of this route south of Little Beach was to be built by Atlantic County; however, the state took over plans of building the road in 1938. Despite this, Route S4A was never completed between Brigantine and Little Beach, and the portion of the road that existed in Ocean County was removed from the state highway system by 1941. In 1945, Route S56, a spur of Route 56 (now U.S. Route 30), was proposed to run from Atlantic City to Brigantine along Brigantine Boulevard. Route 87 was created on its current alignment in 1953 as an unsigned route, replacing Route S4A and the proposed Route S56. Previously, Route 87 split into two alignments in Atlantic City along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard; the Brigantine Boulevard alignment eventually became Route 187. Route description Route 87 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City, heading to the northeast on Huron Avenue, an undivided road with two northbound lanes and three southbound lanes. Immediately after beginning, it passes under the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector and comes to a ramp that provides access from southbound Route 87 to the southbound connector. From here, the route widens to seven lanes, with two northbound lanes and five southbound lanes. It passes by the Borgata casino, with a ramp from the casino to the northbound direction. The road becomes a four-lane divided highway and passes under a ramp from the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector to the Borgata before heading under northbound direction of the connector. Here, a ramp from the connector provides access to Route 87. A short distance later, the route comes to the northern terminus of Route 187 and turns north to follow Brigantine Boulevard, which is a four-lane divided highway. The route passes to the west of the Golden Nugget casino and comes to a ramp that provides access from northbound Route 87 to both the Trump Marina and Harrah's Atlantic City casinos before passing under the northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector again. Immediately after, the route has a ramp from the southbound direction that provides access to the connector and westbound U.S. Route 30. The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector parallels Route 87 to the east as it turns northeast and comes to a right-in/right-out in the southbound direction that serves both Harrah's and Borgata. From here, the route passes to the southeast of Harrah's. The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector merges onto northbound Route 87 before the route comes to a ramp that provides access to the northbound direction of the route from Harrah's. Past here, the route crosses over the Absecon Channel on the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge and runs along the border of Atlantic City to the northwest and Brigantine to the southeast. After crossing the Absecon Channel, the route arrives on Brigantine Island and passes through wetlands, with U-turn ramps in both directions. A short distance later, Route 87 ends and County Route 638 continues along Brigantine Boulevard through Brigantine. History In 1927, a spur of Route 4, Route S4A, was proposed as a route running from Route 4 (now U.S. Route 9) in Tuckerton in Ocean County south to Little Beach. In 1929, this route was to continue south through Brigantine to Atlantic City, with the portion south of Little Beach to be built by Atlantic County. The state of New Jersey took over the proposed extension of Route S4A from Little Beach to Atlantic City in 1938. However, the portion of this route between Brigantine and the Atlantic/Ocean County line was never built, and the portion of road that existed in Ocean County, known as Great Bay Boulevard, was removed from the state highway system by 1941. In 1945, another route called Route S56, a spur of Route 56 (now U.S. Route 30), was proposed to run north along Brigantine Boulevard (present-day Route 187 and Route 87) from Atlantic City to Brigantine. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 87 was designated as an unsigned route along the former alignment of Route S4A and the proposed Route S56 between U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City and Brigantine. Following the 1953 renumbering, the southern portion of Route 87 in Atlantic City split into two alignments, with one following Huron Avenue and the other following Brigantine Boulevard. Eventually, the alignment of Route 87 along Brigantine Boulevard between U.S. Route 30 and Huron Avenue became Route 187. In 2001, the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was completed, linking Route 87, the casinos in the Marina District, and Brigantine with the Atlantic City Expressway. Junction list See also References External links New Jersey Roads: Route 87 NJ State Highways: 75-90 - Route 87 New Jersey Highway Ends: Route 87 Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 87 087 Transportation in Atlantic County, New Jersey Brigantine, New Jersey	[ -0.6093177199363708, -0.3924840986728668, -0.164472296833992, 0.3980712890625, 0.5434278845787048, -0.044427864253520966, 0.4963957369327545, 0.39538782835006714, 0.09744670987129211, -0.3676929175853729, 0.2088746577501297, -0.05416000261902809, -0.20249618589878082, -0.48450568318367004, -0.8995898365974426, 0.41870468854904175, 0.28892311453819275, 0.9123552441596985, 0.6260017156600952, -0.7037321925163269, -0.2969857454299927, 0.07343621551990509, 0.47866421937942505, 0.030131153762340546, -0.62578284740448, -0.21804970502853394, 0.10535363852977753, -0.23822012543678284, 0.08953435719013214, 0.3930346965789795, -0.08870179951190948, 0.3859730362892151, -0.27344831824302673, -0.260797381401062, 0.6542937755584717, 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231342	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%2088	New Jersey Route 88	Route 88 is a state highway in the northern part of Ocean County, New Jersey, United States. It runs from an intersection with U.S. Route 9 (US 9) and County Route 547 (CR 547) in Lakewood Township to an intersection with Route 35 in Point Pleasant. It is a two-lane undivided road that passes through mostly residential and commercial areas. The route intersects CR 549 in Lakewood, Route 70 in Brick Township at the former Laurelton Circle, and CR 549 Spur in Point Pleasant. The road is mentioned in the lyrics of the 1973 song "Spirit in the Night" by Bruce Springsteen. The route was built as a gravel county road in 1903 and became part of pre-1927 Route 4, a route that was to run from Absecon to Rahway, in 1916. US 9 was designated along this stretch of road in 1926 when the U.S. Highway System was created. A year later, in 1927, this portion of pre-1927 Route 4 became a part of Route 35, a route from Lakewood to South Amboy. By the 1940s, US 9 was moved off this road to follow its current alignment between Lakewood and South Amboy. In 1953, Route 35 was realigned to follow a portion of Route 37 between Point Pleasant and Seaside Heights, and Route 88 was designated along the former alignment of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant. The Laurelton Circle at Route 70, built in 1937, was replaced with the current intersection by the 1990s. Route description Route 88 begins at an intersection with US 9 and CR 547 in Lakewood Township, and heads eastward on Main Street, a two-lane undivided road. The road heads through the downtown, passing south of the Lakewood Bus Terminal and crossing Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Southern Secondary railroad line, before heading into wooded residential areas, where it becomes Ocean Avenue at the Pearl Street intersection before coming to a junction with CR 20. Past this intersection, the route heads through a mix of residences and businesses with some woodland. Route 88 intersects CR 623, where it heads through a commercial district, crossing CR 549. A short distance later, the route passes under the Garden State Parkway without an interchange before crossing the Metedeconk River into Brick Township. Here, the road heads through a mix of residential and commercial areas, intersecting CR 64, CR 44, CR 40, and CR 16. It turns south and passes west of Ocean Medical Center, intersecting CR 40 before crossing Route 70. Past this intersection, Route 88 briefly splits into a one-way pair. Here, the eastbound direction follows Princeton Avenue southeast before turning north onto Post Road, with CR 630 continuing along Princeton Avenue, while westbound Route 88 follows Princeton Post Road. Past the one-way pair, the route continues northeast on Princeton Post Road, which passes by numerous businesses. Along this stretch of road Route 88 intersects several county routes, including CR 64 again, CR 42, CR 10, and CR 54. The route heads into Point Pleasant, where it intersects CR 56 before crossing Beaver Dam Creek and becoming Sea Avenue. From here, the road crosses CR 632 before heading east and intersecting CR 549 Spur and CR 630. After this intersection, Route 88 crosses the Point Pleasant Canal (part of the Intracoastal Waterway) on the Veterans Memorial Bridge, a lift bridge, before heading east through residential areas with some businesses. Here, the road intersects CR 633/CR 10, CR 6, and CR 604. A short distance later, Route 88 ends at an intersection with Route 35 on the border of Point Pleasant and Point Pleasant Beach. History What is modern-day Route 88 was first built as a hard gravel county road back in 1903, the first such road in Ocean County. This road was incorporated into the Camp Dix Way, an auto trail running from Camden to Seaside Heights. In 1916, this road was designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 4, a state road that was to run from Absecon north to Rahway. With the creation of the U.S. Highway System in 1926, US 9 was also designated along this route, running concurrent with Route 4. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering a year later, Route 35 replaced this portion of pre-1927 Route 4 as part of its route from Lakewood to South Amboy. By the 1940s, US 9 was moved off this portion of Route 35 to follow its current alignment along Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy. In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, Route 35 was realigned to follow what was a part of Route 37 between Point Pleasant and Seaside Heights, and Route 88 was designated along the former alignment of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant. A traffic circle called the Laurelton Circle, built in 1937, once existed at the intersection with Route 70; it was replaced with its current configuration by the 1990s. The current lift bridge that crosses the Point Pleasant Canal, the Veterans Memorial Bridge, opened in 1986 replacing an obsolete bascule lift bridge completed in 1928. Route 88 was referred to in the 1973 song "Spirit in the Night" by Bruce Springsteen on his debut album Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J.. Major intersections See also References External links New Jersey Roads: Route 88 Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 88 088 Transportation in Ocean County, New Jersey	[ -0.6287122368812561, -0.2594383656978607, -0.1111346036195755, 0.09732775390148163, 0.36607828736305237, -0.1196565106511116, 0.548742949962616, 0.5242745876312256, 0.17570942640304565, -0.460392564535141, 0.06395934522151947, -0.03386338800191879, -0.012109748087823391, -0.46180397272109985, -0.9573573470115662, 0.3646974265575409, 0.246461883187294, 0.8837302923202515, 0.5943762063980103, -0.7707449197769165, -0.5081994533538818, 0.22285865247249603, 0.1561398059129715, 0.19179293513298035, -0.6743378639221191, -0.24450929462909698, 0.5216984152793884, -0.41357922554016113, 0.17258010804653168, 0.33222445845603943, -0.21841582655906677, 0.4341929256916046, -0.4198405146598816, -0.48533496260643005, 0.6883763670921326, -0.3840908706188202, 0.2145043909549713, -0.7052395343780518, 0.24448126554489136, 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231343	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurium	Laurium	Laurium or Lavrio (; (later ); before early 11th century BC: Θορικός Thorikos; from Middle Ages until 1908: Εργαστήρια Ergastiria) is a town in southeastern part of Attica, Greece and the seat of the municipality of Lavreotiki. Laurium was famous in Classical antiquity for its silver mines. The metallic silver was mainly used for coinage. The Archaeological Museum of Lavrion shows much of the story of these mines. It is located about 60 km SE of Keratea and N of Cape Sounio. Laurium is situated on a bay overlooking the island of Makronisos (ancient times: Helena) in the east. The port is in the middle and gridded streets cover the residential area of Lavrio. GR-89 runs through Lavrio and ends south in Sounio. History The modern town of Laurium is at the site of the ancient village of Thoricus; its name is taken from that of the entire region of the Mines of Laurium. The earliest evidence for mining dates to the beginning of the Bronze Age, ca. 3200 BC. Systematic exploitation of mineral resources seem to have begun in the 6th century BC under Peisistratus. After the battle of Marathon, Themistocles persuaded the Athenians to devote the anticipated revenue derived from a major silver vein strike in the mines of Laurion circa 483 BC to expanding the Athenian fleet to 200 triremes, and thus laid the foundation of the Athenian naval power. The mines, which were the property of the state, were usually farmed out for a certain fixed sum and a percentage on the working; slave labour was exclusively employed. An unrecorded number were children. It was a miserable, dangerous, and brief life. As many as 20,000 slaves were employed at the height of the mining. A silver mint (Argyrocopeum) was at Laurion. Towards the end of the 5th century, the output fell, partly owing to the Spartan occupation of Decelea. But the mines continued to be worked, though Strabo records that in his time the tailings were being worked over, and Pausanias speaks of the mines as a thing of the past. The ancient workings, consisting of shafts and galleries for excavating the ore, and washing tables for concentrating the ore, may still be seen at many locations. There were well engineered tanks and reservoirs to collect rainwater for washing the ore since abundant supplies from streams or rivers was impossible at the site. The mines were reworked in the early 20th century by French and Greek companies, but mainly for lead, manganese and cadmium. The Mineralogical Museum of Lavrion comprises samples of minerals from the region of Lavrion. Facilities The Eleftherios Venizelos International Airport is 35 km away from Lavrio or about 30 minutes drive. Lavrio is connected to Piraeus by car using the Lavrio/Sounio Leoforos (Highway) and then Attiki Odos. This trip takes about an hour. Drive from Lavrio to Koropi Train Station and there take the train proastiakos or metro that goes straight to Athens. (30 minutes drive + 30 minutes train) Lavrio was the terminal station of the Athens-Lavrion Railway, which was abandoned in 1957. The mining town of Laurium, Michigan was named after the famous Greek Laurium. Sports Laurium hosts the football club Olympiacos Laurium, which played in the Gamma Ethniki in the past, and the basketball club Lavrio B.C., which plays in the Basket League. Twin towns Aleksinac, Serbia Mangalia, Romania See also List of municipalities of Attica References Sources Édouard Ardaillon, "Les Mines du Laurion dans l'antiquité", No. Ixxvii. of the Bibliothéque des Ecoles francaises d'Athênes et de Rome. External links About the abandoned railway line Athens – Lavrio A video podcast made by the MoneyMuseum on the importance of Laurion's silver mines for Greek coinage. 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231344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mishnah%20Berurah	Mishnah Berurah	The Mishnah Berurah ( "Clear Teaching") is a work of halakha (Jewish law) by Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan (Poland, 1838–1933, also known as Chofetz Chaim). It is a commentary on Orach Chayim, the first section of the Shulchan Aruch which deals with laws of prayer, synagogue, Shabbat and holidays, summarizing the opinions of the Acharonim (post-Medieval rabbinic authorities) on that work. The title comes from b. Shabbat 139a, "They will rove, seeking the word of the LORD, but they will not find it (Amos 8:12) -- they will not find clear teaching and clear law in one place." Contents The Mishnah Berurah is traditionally printed in 6 volumes alongside selected other commentaries. The work provides simple and contemporary explanatory remarks and citations to daily aspects of halakha. It is widely used as a reference and has mostly supplanted the Chayei Adam and the Aruch HaShulchan as the primary authority on Jewish daily living among Ashkenazi Jews, particularly those closely associated with haredi yeshivas. The Mishnah Berurah is accompanied by additional in-depth glosses called Be'ur Halakha, a reference section called Sha'ar Hatziyun (these two were also written by the Chofetz Chaim), and additional commentaries called Be'er Hagolah, Be'er Heitev, and Sha'arei Teshuvah. The Mishnah Berurah's "literary style can be described as follows: In relation to a given law of the Shulhan Aruch, he raises a particular case with certain peculiarities that may change the law; then, he enumerates the opinions of the Ahronim (the later authorities, of the 16th century and on) on that case, from the most lenient to the most stringent ; and finally, he decides between them.... Having displayed what we may call the "leniency-stringency spectrum", [he] actually offers the reader an array of conduct options from which he may pick the one that seems right for him. This choice is not altogether free, since [he] shows a clear inclination to one side of the spectrum - the stringent - and encourages the reader to follow it, but still, the soft language of the ruling suggests that if one follows the other side of the spectrum, the lenient, he will not sin, since there are trustworthy authorities that may back his choice." Not all of the Mishnah Brurah was written by Kagan: some parts were instead written by his son or various students, which accounts for the existence of several contradictions between different rulings in the text. Impact Mishnah Berurah has come to play a significant role in the study and practice of contemporary Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews. According to some, it is the "posek acharon" whose rulings are the last word on halachic issues it addresses. As such, the "yeshivish" community tends to follow its rulings almost exclusively. However, R' Yosef Eliyahu Henkin ruled that the Aruch haShulchan should be regarded as more authoritative for a number of reasons: it is the later of the two codes; it covers the entire Shulchan Aruch and not just Orach Chaim; it takes Jewish custom into account; it was written by a practicing rabbi who thus had more experience with halachic dilemmas. R' Moshe Feinstein also preferred the Aruch Hashulchan, for the last of these reasons. Indeed, on a number of key issues, common Orthodox practice does not follow the Mishnah Berurah's stringencies. "Mishnah Berurah Yomit" is a daily study programme initiated by Vaad Daas Halacha and the Chofetz Chaim Heritage Foundation. The study program proceeds either on a 2½-year cycle ("Daf a Day") or a 5-year cycle ("Amud a Day") and includes a focus on each Yom Tov (festival) in the 30 preceding days. See also Chayei Adam, a similar, earlier work Aruch HaShulchan by Yechiel Michel Epstein - a contemporaneous work tracing the development of each halakha from the Talmud through the Rishonim and arriving at a psak supported by the Acharonim Kaf Hachayim by Yaakov Chaim Sofer - a contemporaneous Sephardi work discussing Orach Chayim and some of Yoreh De'ah in light of the Rishonim and Acharonim. Kitzur Shulchan Aruch by Shlomo Ganzfried Other study cycles under Torah study #Study cycles Notes References Further reading Broyde, Michael J. & External links Mishna Berura at Hebrew Wikitext (Hebrew text) Mishna Berura with easy navigation (Hebrew text) Wikisource translation (incomplete, in progress) Torah.org translation (incomplete, in progress) Mishnah Berurah Yomi archives (incomplete, in progress). This website distributes daily MP3 lectures and PDF digests. The PDF digests translate Orach Chayim and summarize the applicable Mishnah Berurah commentary. The website opened in late 2010 and plans to complete the cycle in late 2015. Benjamin Brown, '"Soft Stringency" in the Mishnah Brurah: Jurisprudential, Social and Ideological Aspects of a Halakhic Formulation' Rabbinic legal texts and responsa Hebrew-language religious books Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law Sifrei Kodesh	[ 0.21117743849754333, 0.5687107443809509, -0.9032589197158813, -0.9362255334854126, -0.38806837797164917, 0.582872211933136, 0.6397520899772644, -0.5082966685295105, 0.7607108354568481, -0.6407056450843811, -0.18263836205005646, 0.22871504724025726, -0.22631357610225677, 0.44482704997062683, -0.4576663374900818, 0.40255114436149597, 0.8391807675361633, -0.04438455030322075, -0.007058250717818737, -0.010406595654785633, -0.27665114402770996, -0.18190062046051025, 0.1284908950328827, 0.3569415211677551, 0.3022332191467285, 0.12159524857997894, 0.6226041316986084, -0.009610951878130436, -0.19015154242515564, 0.029271550476551056, 0.42055436968803406, 0.23578321933746338, -0.031322602182626724, -0.13765321671962738, -0.2634262144565582, 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231345	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C837%20Seconds%20of%20Humor	1,837 Seconds of Humor	1,837 Seconds of Humor is the debut album of Ray Stevens, released in 1962. The front of the album shows a sheik that rides a camel, which is a reference to Stevens' song "Ahab the Arab." All of the material on the album was written by Ray Stevens and published by Lowery Music Co., Inc. (BMI). The back of the album cover contains an essay of biographical information of Stevens from his youth in his hometown of Clarkdale, Georgia to the time of this album's release and gives brief descriptions of all the songs on the album. Four singles were lifted from the album: "Jeremiah Peabody's Poly Unsaturated Quick Dissolving Fast Acting Pleasant Tasting Green and Purple Pills" (his first Top 40 hit), "Scratch My Back (I Love It)" (which failed to chart), "Ahab the Arab" (his major breakthrough hit and his biggest until his 1970 hit "Everything Is Beautiful"), and "Further More." The album was re-released by Pickwick Records in 1971 under the title Rock & Roll Show. This version of the album has a rearrangement of the track listing and does not include the songs "The Rockin' Boppin' Waltz" and "Further More." The front of this album cover contains two faces of Stevens making a huge smile, one on the top left and the other on the top right; the center of the front album shows a sketch of Stevens making the exact smile along with references to a few of the songs on the album. The back of the album cover for the re-released version also contains exactly the same essay as the original album. Track listing All songs written by Ray Stevens. Track listing for Rock & Roll Show Personnel Background vocals: the Merry Melody Singers Orchestra conducted by: Jerry Kennedy MG 20732 (Mono LP) MG 60732 (Stereo LP) Charts Album – Billboard (North America) Singles – Billboard (North America) References 1962 debut albums Mercury Records albums Ray Stevens albums Albums conducted by Jerry Kennedy Albums produced by Shelby Singleton Comedy albums by American artists	[ -0.38419806957244873, 0.4828670620918274, -0.13265542685985565, 0.32802605628967285, -0.32529011368751526, 0.17884360253810883, 0.4018280506134033, 0.09634064882993698, -0.31353601813316345, -0.1949796825647354, 0.21348346769809723, 1.00447678565979, -0.5554225444793701, -0.2343824803829193, 0.3282737731933594, -0.3899945914745331, -0.10574666410684586, -0.12323790788650513, 0.09762411564588547, -0.21510112285614014, 0.44253435730934143, -0.11521054059267044, 0.05451764538884163, -0.8719416856765747, -0.34847381711006165, 0.23769953846931458, 0.2071247696876526, 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231349	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardic%20law%20and%20customs	Sephardic law and customs	Sephardic law and customs are the practice of Judaism by the Sephardim, the descendants of the historic Jewish community of the Iberian Peninsula. Some definitions of "Sephardic" inaccurately include Mizrahi Jews, many of whom follow the same traditions of worship but have different ethno-cultural traditions. Sephardi Rite is not a denomination or movement like Orthodox, Reform, and other Ashkenazi Rite worship traditions. Sephardim thus comprise a community with distinct cultural, juridical and philosophical traditions. Sephardim are, primarily, the descendants of Jews from the Iberian peninsula. They may be divided into the families that left in the Expulsion of 1492 and those that remained in Spain as crypto-Jews, fleeing in the following few centuries. In religious parlance, and by many in modern Israel, the term is incorrectly used in a broader sense to include all Jews of Ottoman or other Asian or North African backgrounds, whether or not they have any historic link to Spain, though some prefer to distinguish between Sephardim proper and Mizraḥi Jews. For the purposes of this article there is no need to distinguish Iberian Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews, as their religious practices are basically similar: whether or not they are "Spanish Jews" they are all "Jews of the Spanish rite". There are three reasons for this convergence, which are explored in more detail below: Both groups follow general Jewish law without those customs specific to the Ashkenazic tradition. The Spanish rite was an offshoot of the Babylonian-Arabic family of Jewish rites and retained a family resemblance to the other rites of that family. Following the expulsion the Spanish exiles took a leading role in the Jewish communities of Asia and Africa, who modified their rites to bring them still nearer to the Spanish rite, which by then was regarded as the standard. Law Jewish law is based on the Torah, as interpreted and supplemented by the Talmud. The Babylonian Talmud in its final form dates from the Sassanian period and was the product of a number of colleges in Babylonia. The Geonic period The two principal colleges, Sura and Pumbedita, survived well into the Islamic period. Their presidents, known as Geonim, together with the Exilarch, were recognised by the Abbasid Caliphs as the supreme authority over the Jews of the Arab world. The Geonim provided written answers to questions on Jewish law from around the world, which were published in collections of responsa and enjoyed high authority. The Geonim also produced handbooks such as the Halachot Pesuqot by Yehudai Gaon and the Halachot Gedolot by Simeon Kayyara. Spain The learning of the Geonim was transmitted through the scholars of Kairouan, notably Chananel Ben Chushiel and Nissim Gaon, to Spain, where it was used by Isaac Alfasi in his Sefer ha-Halachot (code of Jewish law), which took the form of an edited and abridged Talmud. This in turn formed the basis for the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. A feature of these early Tunisian and Spanish schools was a willingness to make use of the Jerusalem Talmud as well as the Babylonian. Developments in France and Germany were somewhat different. They too respected the rulings of the Geonim, but also had strong local customs of their own. The Tosafists did their best to explain the Talmud in a way consistent with these customs. A theory grew up that custom trumps law (see Minhag): this had some Talmudic support, but was not nearly so prominent in Arabic countries as it was in Europe. Special books on Ashkenazic custom were written, for example by Yaakov Moelin. Further instances of Ashkenazic custom were contributed by the penitential manual of Eleazar of Worms and some additional stringencies on sheḥitah (the slaughter of animals) formulated in Jacob Weil's Sefer Sheḥitot u-Bediqot. The learning of the Tosafists, but not the literature on Ashkenazic customs as such, was imported into Spain by Asher ben Yeḥiel, a German-born scholar who became chief rabbi of Toledo and the author of the Hilchot ha-Rosh - an elaborate Talmudic commentary, which became the third of the great Spanish authorities after Alfasi and Maimonides. A more popular résumé, known as the Arba'ah Turim, was written by his son, Jacob ben Asher, though he did not agree with his father on all points. The Tosafot were also used by the scholars of the Catalan school, such as Nahmanides and Solomon ben Adret, who were also noted for their interest in Kabbalah. For a while, Spain was divided between the schools: in Catalonia the rulings of Nahmanides and ben Adret were accepted, in Castile those of the Asher family and in Valencia those of Maimonides. (Maimonides' rulings were also accepted in most of the Arab world, especially Yemen, Egypt and the Land of Israel.) After the expulsion Following the expulsion of the Jews from Spain, Jewish law was codified by Joseph Caro in his Bet Yosef, which took the form of a commentary on the Arba'ah Turim, and Shulḥan Aruch, which presented the same results in the form of a practical abridgement. He consulted most of the authorities available to him, but generally arrived at a practical decision by following the majority among the three great Spanish authorities, Alfasi, Maimonides and Asher ben Yeḥiel, unless most of the other authorities were against them. He did not consciously intend to exclude non-Sephardi authorities, but considered that the Ashkenazi school, so far as it had anything to contribute on general Jewish law as opposed to purely Ashkenazi custom, was adequately represented by Asher. However, since Alfasi and Maimonides generally agree, the overall result was overwhelmingly Sephardi in flavour, though in a number of cases Caro set the result of this consensus aside and ruled in favour of the Catalan school (Nahmanides and Solomon ben Adret), some of whose opinions had Ashkenazi origins. The Bet Yosef is today accepted by Sephardim as the leading authority in Jewish law, subject to minor variants drawn from the rulings of later rabbis accepted in particular communities. The Polish rabbi Moses Isserles, while acknowledging the merits of the Shulḥan Aruch, felt that it did not do justice to Ashkenazi scholarship and practice. He accordingly composed a series of glosses setting out all respects in which Ashkenazi practice differs, and the composite work is today accepted as the leading work on Ashkenazi halachah. Isserles felt free to differ from Caro on particular points of law, but in principle he accepted Caro's view that the Sephardic practice set out in the Shulḥan Aruch represents standard Jewish law while the Ashkenazi practice is essentially a local custom. So far, then, it is meaningless to speak of "Sephardic custom": all that is meant is Jewish law without the particular customs of the Ashkenazim. For this reason, the law accepted by other non-Ashkenazi communities, such as the Italian and Yemenite Jews, is basically similar to that of the Sephardim. There are of course customs peculiar to particular countries or communities within the Sephardic world, such as Syria and Morocco. An important body of customs grew up in the Kabbalistic circle of Isaac Luria and his followers in Safed, and many of these have spread to communities throughout the Sephardi world: this is discussed further in the Liturgy section below. In some cases they are accepted by Greek and Turkish Sephardim and Mizrahi Jews but not by Western communities such as the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. These are customs in the true sense: in the list of usages below they are distinguished by an L sign. Liturgy Origins For the outline and early history of the Jewish liturgy, see the articles on Siddur and Jewish services. At an early stage, a distinction was established between the Babylonian ritual and that used in Palestine, as these were the two main centres of religious authority: there is no complete text of the Palestinian rite, though some fragments have been found in the Cairo Genizah. Some scholars maintain that Ashkenazi Jews are inheritors of the religious traditions of the great Babylonian Jewish academies, and that Sephardi Jews are descendants of those who originally followed the Judaean or Galilaean Jewish religious traditions. Others, such as Zunz, maintain precisely the opposite. To put the matter into perspective it must be emphasized that all Jewish liturgies in use in the world today are in substance Babylonian, with a small number of Palestinian usages surviving the process of standardization: in a list of differences preserved from the time of the Geonim, most of the usages recorded as Palestinian are now obsolete. (In the list of usages below, Sephardic usages inherited from Palestine are marked P, and instances where the Sephardic usage conforms to the Babylonian while the Ashkenazic usage is Palestinian are marked B.) By the 12th century, as a result of the efforts of Babylonian leaders such as Yehudai Gaon and Pirqoi ben Baboi, the communities of Palestine, and Diaspora communities such as Kairouan which had historically followed Palestinian usages, had adopted Babylonian rulings in most respects, and Babylonian authority was accepted by Jews throughout the Arabic-speaking world. Early attempts at standardizing the liturgy which have been preserved include, in chronological order, those of Amram Gaon, Saadia Gaon, Shelomoh ben Natan of Sijilmasa (in Morocco) and Maimonides. All of these were based on the legal rulings of the Geonim but show a recognisable evolution towards the current Sephardi text. The liturgy in use in Visigothic Spain is likely to have belonged to a Palestinian-influenced European family, together with the Italian and Provençal, and more remotely the Old French and Ashkenazi rites, but as no liturgical materials from the Visigothic era survive we cannot know for certain. From references in later treatises such as the Sefer ha-Manhig by Rabbi Abraham ben Nathan ha-Yarḥi (c. 1204), it appears that even at that later time the Spanish rite preserved certain European peculiarities that have since been eliminated in order to conform to the rulings of the Geonim and the official texts based on them. (Conversely the surviving versions of those texts, in particular that of Amram Gaon, appear to have been edited to reflect some Spanish and other local usages.) The present Sephardic liturgy should therefore be regarded as the product of gradual convergence between the original local rite and the North African branch of the Babylonian-Arabic family, as prevailing in Geonic times in Egypt and Morocco. Following the Reconquista, the specifically Spanish liturgy was commented on by David Abudirham (c. 1340), who was concerned to ensure conformity with the rulings of halachah, as understood by the authorities up to and including Asher ben Yehiel. Despite this convergence, there were distinctions between the liturgies of different parts of the Iberian peninsula: for example the Lisbon and Catalan rites were somewhat different from the Castilian rite, which formed the basis of the later Sephardic tradition. The Catalan rite was intermediate in character between the Castilian rite and that of Provence: Haham Gaster classified the rites of Oran and Tunis in this group. Post-expulsion After the expulsion from Spain, the Sephardim took their liturgy with them to countries throughout the Arab and Ottoman world, where they soon assumed positions of rabbinic and communal leadership. They formed their own communities, often maintaining differences based on their places of origin in the Iberian peninsula. In Salonica, for instance, there were more than twenty synagogues, each using the rite of a different locality in Spain or Portugal (as well as one Romaniot and one Ashkenazi synagogue). In a process lasting from the 16th through the 19th century, the native Jewish communities of most Arab and Ottoman countries adapted their pre-existing liturgies, many of which already had a family resemblance with the Sephardic, to follow the Spanish rite in as many respects as possible. Some reasons for this are: The Spanish exiles were regarded as an elite and supplied many of the Chief Rabbis to the countries in which they settled, so that the Spanish rite tended to be favoured over any previous native rite; The invention of printing meant that Siddurim were printed in bulk, usually in Italy, so that a congregation wanting books generally had to opt for a standard "Sephardi" or "Ashkenazi" text: this led to the obsolescence of many historic local rites, such as the Provençal rite; R. Joseph Caro's Shulḥan Aruch presupposes a "Castilian rite" at every point, so that that version of the Spanish rite had the prestige of being "according to the opinion of Maran"; The Hakham Bashi of Constantinople was the constitutional head of all the Jews of the Ottoman Empire, further encouraging uniformity. The North Africans in particular were influenced by Greek and Turkish models of Jewish practice and cultural behaviour: for this reason many of them to this day pray according to a rite known as "minhag Ḥida" (the custom of Chaim Joseph David Azulai). The influence of Isaac Luria's Kabbalah, see the next section. Lurianic Kabbalah The most important theological, as opposed to practical, motive for harmonization was the Kabbalistic teachings of Isaac Luria and Ḥayim Vital. Luria himself always maintained that it was the duty of every Jew to abide by his ancestral tradition, so that his prayers should reach the gate in Heaven appropriate to his tribal identity. However he devised a system of usages for his own followers, which were recorded by Vital in his Sha'ar ha-Kavvanot in the form of comments on the Venice edition of the Spanish and Portuguese prayer book. The theory then grew up that this composite Sephardic rite was of special spiritual potency and reached a "thirteenth gate" in Heaven for those who did not know their tribe: prayer in this form could therefore be offered in complete confidence by everyone. Further Kabbalistic embellishments were recorded in later rabbinic works such as the 18th century Ḥemdat Yamim (anonymous, but sometimes attributed to Nathan of Gaza). The most elaborate version of these is contained in the Siddur published by the 18th century Yemenite Kabbalist Shalom Sharabi for the use of the Bet El yeshivah in Jerusalem: this contains only a few lines of text on each page, the rest being filled with intricate meditations on the letter combinations in the prayers. Other scholars commented on the liturgy from both a halachic and a kabbalistic perspective, including Ḥayim Azulai and Ḥayim Palaggi. The influence of the Lurianic-Sephardic rite extended even to countries outside the Ottoman sphere of influence such as Iran. (The previous Iranian rite was based on the Siddur of Saadia Gaon.) The main exceptions to this tendency were: Yemen, where a conservative group called "Baladi" maintained their ancestral tradition based on the works of Maimonides (and therefore do not regard themselves as Sephardi at all), and the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of Western countries, who adopted a certain number of Kabbalistic usages piecemeal in the 17th century but later abandoned them because it was felt that the Lurianic Kabbalah had contributed to the Shabbetai Tzvi disaster. There were also Kabbalistic groups in the Ashkenazic world, which adopted the Lurianic-Sephardic ritual, on the theory of the thirteenth gate mentioned above. This accounts for the "Nusach Sefard" and "Nusach Ari" in use among the Hasidim, which is based on the Lurianic-Sephardic text with some Ashkenazi variations. 19th century From the 1840s on a series of prayer-books was published in Livorno, including Tefillat ha-Ḥodesh, Bet Obed and Zechor le-Abraham. These included notes on practice and the Kabbalistic additions to the prayers, but not the meditations of Shalom Sharabi, as the books were designed for public congregational use. They quickly became standard in almost all Sephardic and Oriental communities, with any local variations being preserved only by oral tradition. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many more Sephardic prayer books were published in Vienna. These were primarily aimed at the Judaeo-Spanish communities of the Balkans, Greece and Turkey, and therefore had rubrics in Ladino, but also had a wider distribution. An important influence on Sephardic prayer and custom was the late 19th century Baghdadi rabbi known as the Ben Ish Ḥai, whose work of that name contained both halachic rulings and observations on Kabbalistic custom based on his correspondence with Eliyahu Mani of the Bet El yeshivah. These rulings and observations form the basis of the Baghdadi rite: both the text of the prayers and the accompanying usages differ in some respects from those of the Livorno editions. The rulings of the Ben Ish Ḥai have been accepted in several other Sephardic and Oriental communities, such as that of Jerba. Present day In the Sephardic world today, particularly in Israel, there are many popular prayer-books containing this Baghdadi rite, and this is what is currently known as Minhag Edot ha-Mizraḥ (the custom of the Oriental congregations). Other authorities, especially older rabbis from North Africa, reject these in favour of a more conservative Oriental-Sephardic text as found in the 19th century Livorno editions; and the Shami Yemenite and Syrian rites belong to this group. Others again, following R. Ovadia Yosef, prefer a form shorn of some of the Kabbalistic additions and nearer to what would have been known to R. Joseph Caro, and seek to establish this as the standard "Israeli Sephardi" rite for use by all communities. The liturgy of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews differs from all these (more than the Eastern groups differ from each other), as it represents an older form of the text, has far fewer Kabbalistic additions and reflects some Italian influence. The differences between all these groups, however, exist at the level of detailed wording, for example the insertion or omission of a few extra passages: structurally, all Sephardic rites are very similar. Instances of Sephardic usage Tefillin Sephardim do not put on tefillin during Ḥol ha-Mo`ed (the middle days of festivals). L They say only one blessing to cover the tefillin of the arm and the head, rather than one for each. However they say the second blessing if they are interrupted and have to say something after placing the arm tefillin. Sephardim wind the tefillin strap anti-clockwise (for a right-handed person). The form of the knot and of the wrappings round the hand is also different from that of the Ashkenazim. The letter shin on the head tefillin has a different calligraphy than on the Ashkenazi tefillin. The script used in Torah scrolls, tefillin and mezuzot is different from the Ashkenazic and nearer to the printed square characters. Tzitzit It's not a Sephardi practice to let the tzitziyot of the tzitzit katan hang out. In the tzitzit, each winding loops through the preceding one, and the pattern of windings between the knots is either 10-5-6-5 (in some communities, L) or 7-8-11-13 (in others, per Shulḥan `Arukh). Mezuzah Mezuzot are placed vertically rather than slanting, except among Spanish and Portuguese Jews in western countries. Liturgy In many of the prayers, Sephardim preserve Mishnaic patterns of vocalization and have mostly not altered them to conform with the rules of Biblical Hebrew: examples are "Naqdishakh" (not "Naqdishkha") and "ha-Gefen" (not "ha-Gafen"). Sephardim read/chant most of the prayers end to end out loud, unlike the Ashkenazi practice that the Hazan reads the first line out loud, followed by silent reading, and finishing up by reading the last couple lines out loud before moving to the next prayer. Sephardim start Mincha with Patach Eliyahu, Leshem Yihud, Ma Yedidot, Korban HaTamid, and Parashat HaKtoret before Ashrei. While Patach Eliyahu is sometimes omitted, the other prayers are standard practice by most Sephardim. Friday evening, they sing the Shir hashirim between Minha and Kabalat Shabat. The order of the prayers in the Zemirot differs from the Ashkenazi practice and has some additional prayers included. Close to the end of the Zermirot, the Sephardi Hazan doesn't sing Shoken ad. Instead, Shavat aniyim is sang. It has many melodies that vary by the Weekly Maqam. Before the Amida they don't sing Tzur Yisrael. The second blessing before the Shema begins "Ahavat `Olam" (and not "Ahavah Rabbah") in all services. Many Sephardim don't take 3 steps back and 3 steps forward before the Amida nor bend their knees. In the summer months they use the words Morid ha-Ṭal in the second blessing of the `Amidah. P The Qedushah of the morning service begins "Naqdishakh ve-Na`ariṣakh", and the Qedushah of musaf (the additional service for Shabbat and festivals) begins "Keter Yitenu L'kha". There are separate summer and winter forms for the "Birkat ha-Shanim". There is no Birkat ha-Kohanim in minḥah (the afternoon service) on any day except Yom Kippur (Ashkenazim also say it on the afternoons of fast days). P Kohanim say the Birkat ha-Kohanim every day during Shaharit and Musaf even outside of Israel, unlike the Ashkenazi practice to say it only during Rosh Ashana, Yom Kippur, Sukot, Pesah, and Shavuot. The last blessing of the `Amidah is "Sim Shalom" (and not "Shalom Rav") in all services. Sephardim stand for the Tahanun. The short Tahanun includes the Vidui, the Thirteen Attributes, and Psalm 25, among others. The order of the long Tahanun varies based on the particular rite and includes 3 additional Thirteen Attributes. When taking out the Tora, some Sephardi communities sing Ata oreta ladaat, rather than Ein kamoha. Some of the Aftara readings are different than the Ashkenazi practice. Close to the end of the Musaf service, Sephardim read Kol Yisrael before Ein Keloheinu. The Hazan calls Barchu before the Aleinu. After Aleinu, some Sephardim say Uvtorateha Hashem Elokeinu katuv leimor ... Sephardim are permitted to sit for Qaddish. The Kaddish is longer and the congregation responds with Amen where Ashkenazim respond with Brichu. Adon Olam has an extra stanza (and is longer still in Oriental communities). Shalom Aleichem has an extra stanza. The Avdala service is different from the Ashkenazi practice. Tora scroll In many communities (mostly Mizrahi rather than Sephardi proper) the Torah scroll is kept in a tiq (wooden or metal case) instead of a velvet mantle. They lift the Torah scroll and display it to the congregation before the Torah reading rather than after. B Synagogue Typically, the Tora reading platform bima is not in the front of the sanctuary but in the center or back of it. The Tora is read on a horizontal box called the Teva/Teba rather than a slanted table as the Ashkenazi tradition. A slanted table would be impractical, as in many congregations the Tora is read upright in a box, called the tik, rather than laid down on the table. The ark where the Torah scrolls are stored is called Hekhal, rather than Aron kodesh. Tora service The blessing after the Tora service includes Torato before Torat emet. After an Aliya, the ole is congratulated by other congregants with Hazak uvaruch rather than Yasher koach and the ole responds with Hazak ve'ematz. Most Sephardim remain seated when the 10 Commandments are being read. However Western Sephardim (UK and the Netherlands) stand, similar to Ashkenazim. Kashrut Most Sephardim regard it as permissible to eat Kitniyot (grains and seeds such as rice or beans) on Passover. Many Sephardim avoid eating fish with milk, as in Eastern Mediterranean countries this is widely considered to be unhealthy (by non-Jews as well as Jews). Ashkenazim argue that this practice originated from a mistake in the Bet Yosef, and that the prohibition really concerned the eating of fish with meat. The laws of sheḥitah are in some respects stricter and in other respects less strict than those of Ashkenazim (modern kashrut authorities try to ensure that all meat complies with both standards). Holidays Yamim Noraim Seliḥot are said throughout the month of Elul in the morning rather than at night. Around Rosh Ashana, the typical new year greeting is "Tizku leshanim rabot" (תזכו לשנים רבות). The answer is "Neimot vetovot" (נעימות וטובות). Sephardic Rishonim (medieval scholars) reject the customs of Tashlikh and Kapparot, though they were re-introduced by the Lurianic school (Spanish and Portuguese Jews still do not observe them). Hanukkah Only one set of Hanukkah lights is lit in each household. The shammash is lit together with the other Hanukkah lights, instead of being used to light them (which would be impractical, given that the lights are traditionally oil lamps rather than candles). Passover Sephardim only say blessings over the first and third cups of Passover wine, instead of over all four. The items on the Seder plate are arranged in a fixed hexagonal order (except among Spanish and Portuguese Jews: this usage is increasingly popular among Ashkenazim). L Bereavement The Sephardi term of commemorating a close relative's death is nahala (נחלה) or meldado. Ashkenazim use the Yiddish term Yahrzeit instead. The common Sephardi greeting to express a condolence is Min hashamayim tenuhamu (מן השמים תנוחמו). If a relative passed away in the month of Adar, in a leap year, most Sephardim commemorate it in Adar II rather than the Ashkenazi practice of Adar I or both. The Sephardi memorial prayers (Hashkabot) serve a similar role to the Ashkenazi Yizkor. Given names Sephardim often name their children after living grandparents, which is a great respect. On the other hand, Ashkenazim never name their children after a living person. Bibliography Rabbinic works Halachah Abudirham, David, Sefer Abudirham Caro, Joseph, Shulḥan Aruch (innumerable editions) Ḥayim, Joseph, Ben Ish Ḥai, tr. Hiley (4 vols.): Jerusalem 1993 Sofer, Ḥayim, Kaf ha-Ḥayim Rakaḥ, Yaakob, Shulḥan Leḥem ha-Panim (6 vols., ed. Levi Nahum), Jerusalem Jacobson, B. S., Netiv Binah: Tel Aviv 1968 Dayan Toledano, Pinchas, Fountain of Blessings, a Code of Jewish Law, mekor bracha: London 1989, Jerusalem 2009 (edited and expanded to 4 volumes). Toledano, E., and Choueka, S., Gateway to Halachah (2 vols.): Lakewood and New York 1988–9. Yitzhak, Hertzel Hillel, Tzel HeHarim: Tzitzit: New York, Feldheim Publishers 2006. HaLevi, Ḥayim David, Mekor Ḥayim haShalem, a comprehensive code of Jewish law Kitzur Shulḥan Arukh Mekor Ḥayim, a digest of the above code Yosef, Ovadia, Ḥazon Obadiah, Yabbia Omer and Yeḥavveh Da'at, responsa Yosef, Yitzḥak, Yalkut Yosef, codifying rulings of Ovadia Yosef Yosef, David, Torat Ha-Mo'adim (rules about the Jewish holidays) Yosef, David, Halachah Berurah, another codification of Rabbi Ovadia Yosef's rulings Kabbalah Vital, Ḥayim, Sha'ar ha-Kavvanot (vol. 8 of the 15 volume collected writings) anon., Ḥemdat Yamim Algazi, Yisrael, Shalme Tsibbur and Shalme Ḥagigah Local customs Mueller, J., Ḥilluf Minhagim she-bein Benei Bavel u-Venei Eretz Yisrael: 1878 Lewin, B. M., Otzar Ḥilluf Minhagim: Thesaurus of Halachic Differences between the Palestinian and Babylonian Schools: Jerusalem 1942 Gaguine, Shem Tob, Keter Shem Tob, 7 vols. (Spanish and Portuguese and comparative): vols. 1-2, vol. 3, vol. 6, vol. 7 Ben Ya'akov, Abraham, Minhage Yahadut Bavel ba-dorot ha-aḥaronim (Iraq) Ades, Abraham, Derech Ere"ts: Bene Berak 1990 (Aleppo) Ben Shimon, Refael Aharon, Nehar Mitzrayim (Egypt): vol. 1, vol. 2 Hacohen, Mosheh, Berit Kehunah, 1941 (Jerba) Messas, Yosef, Mayim Ḥayim (Morocco) Toledano, Shelomo, Divre Shalom ve-Emet: Pisqe Ḥachme Marocco (Morocco) Bitton, Eliyahu, Netivot ha-Ma'arav (Morocco) Prayer books See List of Sephardic prayer books. Secondary literature Angel, Marc D., Voices in Exile: A Study in Sephardic Intellectual History: New York 1991 R. Chouraqui. "The Leadership and Traditions of the Sephardi Sages in the Modern Era." Conversations 1.7 (2010): n. pag. Web. <http://www.jewishideas.org/articles/leadership-and-traditions-sephardi-sages-modern-era>. Dobrinsky, Herbert C., A treasury of Sephardic laws and customs : the ritual practices of Syrian, Moroccan, Judeo-Spanish and Spanish and Portuguese Jews of North America. Revised ed. Hoboken, N.J.: KTAV; New York, N.Y.: Yeshiva Univ. Press, 1988. Ginzberg, Louis, Geonica: New York 1909 Goldschmidt, Meḥqare Tefillah u-Fiyyut (On Jewish Liturgy): Jerusalem 1978 Lavie, Smadar. Wrapped in the Flag of Israel: Mizrahi Single Mothers and Bureaucratic Torture. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. Mauroof, Joshua, Rabbi. "Sephardic Tradition - The Judaism of the Future." University of Maryland. 28 Mar. 2013. Lecture. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG10ZhFN4tM>. Reif, Stefan, Judaism and Hebrew Prayer: Cambridge 1993. Hardback , ; Paperback , Reif, Stefan, Problems with Prayers: Berlin and New York 2006 , Wieder, Naphtali, The Formation of Jewish Liturgy: In the East and the West Zimmels, Ashkenazim and Sephardim: their Relations, Differences, and Problems As Reflected in the Rabbinical Responsa : London 1958 (since reprinted). See also Nusach Yeshiva#Sephardi yeshivas Yeshiva#Israel Notes External links Sephardim Sephardic Siddurim Sephardic Pizmonim Project Sephardic Passover Customs A Modern Reconstruction of the Ari's Siddur Jewish law and rituals Jewish Spanish history Minhagim Mizrahi Jewish culture Sephardi Jewish culture Nusachs	[ 0.6337887048721313, 0.8489133715629578, -0.31138426065444946, -0.4929463565349579, -0.032870471477508545, -0.018358416855335236, 0.7179935574531555, 0.40005189180374146, 0.14853157103061676, -0.6329624056816101, -0.5259429216384888, 0.26717913150787354, -0.1692093312740326, 0.23323257267475128, -0.38424551486968994, 0.35948362946510315, 0.4857211112976074, 0.8010521531105042, 0.28795892000198364, -0.07530516386032104, -0.18919385969638824, -0.477458119392395, -0.12733320891857147, 0.4338313341140747, -0.030569419264793396, -0.13205131888389587, 0.6916147470474243, -0.021114913746714592, -0.9927025437355042, -0.2910202741622925, 0.19159075617790222, 0.7923374772071838, 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231350	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-noise%20block%20downconverter	Low-noise block downconverter	A low-noise block downconverter (LNB) is the receiving device mounted on satellite dishes used for satellite TV reception, which collects the radio waves from the dish and converts them to a signal which is sent through a cable to the receiver inside the building. Also called a low-noise block, low-noise converter (LNC), or even low-noise downconverter (LND), the device is sometimes inaccurately called a low-noise amplifier (LNA). The LNB is a combination of low-noise amplifier, frequency mixer, local oscillator and intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier. It serves as the RF front end of the satellite receiver, receiving the microwave signal from the satellite collected by the dish, amplifying it, and downconverting the block of frequencies to a lower block of intermediate frequencies (IF). This downconversion allows the signal to be carried to the indoor satellite TV receiver using relatively cheap coaxial cable; if the signal remained at its original microwave frequency it would require an expensive and impractical waveguide line. The LNB is usually a small box suspended on one or more short booms, or feed arms, in front of the dish reflector, at its focus (although some dish designs have the LNB on or behind the reflector). The microwave signal from the dish is picked up by a feedhorn on the LNB and is fed to a section of waveguide. One or more metal pins, or probes, protrude into the waveguide at right angles to the axis and act as antennas, feeding the signal to a printed circuit board inside the LNB's shielded box for processing. The lower frequency IF output signal emerges from a socket on the box to which the coaxial cable connects. The LNB gets its power from the receiver or set-top box, using the same coaxial cable that carries signals from the LNB to the receiver. This phantom power travels to the LNB; opposite to the signals from the LNB. A corresponding component, called a block upconverter (BUC), is used at the satellite earth station (uplink) dish to convert the band of television channels to the microwave uplink frequency. Amplification and noise The signal received by the LNB is extremely weak and it has to be amplified before downconversion. The low noise amplifier section of the LNB amplifies this weak signal while adding the minimum possible amount of noise to the signal. The low-noise quality of an LNB is expressed as the noise figure (or sometimes noise temperature). This is the signal to noise ratio at the input divided by the signal to noise ratio at the output. It is typically expressed as a decibels (dB) value. The ideal LNB, effectively a perfect amplifier, would have a noise figure of 0 dB and would not add any noise to the signal. Every LNB introduces some noise but clever design techniques, expensive high performance low-noise components such as HEMTs and even individual tweaking of the LNB after manufacture, can reduce some of the noise contributed by the LNB's components. Active cooling to very low temperatures can help reduce noise too, and is often used in scientific research applications. Every LNB off the production line has a different noise figure because of manufacturing tolerances. The noise figure quoted in the specifications, important for determining the LNB's suitability, is usually representative of neither that particular LNB nor the performance across the whole frequency range, since the noise figure most often quoted is the typical figure averaged over the production batch. Block downconversion Satellites use comparatively high radio frequencies (microwaves) to transmit their TV signals. As microwave satellite signals do not easily pass through walls, roofs, or even glass windows, it is preferable for satellite antennas to be mounted outdoors. However, plastic glazing is transparent to microwaves and residential satellite dishes have successfully been hidden indoors looking through acrylic or polycarbonate windows to preserve the external aesthetics of the home. The purpose of the LNB is to use the superheterodyne principle to take a block (or band) of relatively high frequencies and convert them to similar signals carried at a much lower frequency (called the intermediate frequency or IF). These lower frequencies travel through cables with much less attenuation, so there is much more signal left at the satellite receiver end of the cable. It is also much easier and cheaper to design electronic circuits to operate at these lower frequencies, rather than the very high frequencies of satellite transmission. The frequency conversion is performed by mixing a fixed frequency produced by a local oscillator inside the LNB with the incoming signal, to generate two signals equal to the sum of their frequencies and the difference. The frequency sum signal is filtered out and the frequency difference signal (the IF) is amplified and sent down the cable to the receiver: C-band Ku-band where is a frequency. The local oscillator frequency determines what block of incoming frequencies is downconverted to the frequencies expected by the receiver. For example, to downconvert the incoming signals from Astra 1KR, which transmits in a frequency block of 10.70–11.70 GHz, to within a standard European receiver's IF tuning range of 950–2,150 MHz, a 9.75 GHz local oscillator frequency is used, producing a block of signals in the band 950–1,950 MHz. For the block of higher transmission frequencies used by Astra 2A and 2B (11.70–12.75 GHz), a different local oscillator frequency converts the block of incoming frequencies. Typically, a local oscillator frequency of 10.60 GHz is used to downconvert the block to 1,100–2,150 MHz, which is still within the receiver's 950–2,150 MHz IF tuning range. In a C-band antenna setup, the transmission frequencies are typically 3.7–4.2 GHz. By using a local oscillator frequency of 5.150 GHz the IF will be 950–1,450 MHz which is, again, in the receiver's IF tuning range. For the reception of wideband satellite television carriers, typically 27 MHz wide, the accuracy of the frequency of the LNB local oscillator need only be in the order of ±500 kHz, so low cost dielectric oscillators (DRO) may be used. For the reception of narrow bandwidth carriers or ones using advanced modulation techniques, such as 16-QAM, highly stable and low phase noise LNB local oscillators are required. These use an internal crystal oscillator or an external 10 MHz reference from the indoor unit and a phase-locked loop (PLL) oscillator. Low-noise block feedhorns (LNBFs) With the launch of the first DTH broadcast satellite in Europe (Astra 1A) by SES in 1988, antenna design was simplified for the anticipated mass-market. In particular, the feedhorn (which gathers the signal and directs it to the LNB) and the polarizer (which selects between differently polarized signals) were combined with the LNB itself into a single unit, called an LNB-feed or LNB-feedhorn (LNBF), or even an "Astra type" LNB. The prevalence of these combined units has meant that today the term LNB is commonly used to refer to all antenna units that provide the block-downconversion function, with or without a feedhorn. The Astra type LNBF that includes a feedhorn and polarizer is the most common variety, and this is fitted to a dish using a bracket that clamps a collar around the waveguide neck of the LNB between the feedhorn and the electronics package. The diameter of the LNB neck and collar is usually 40mm although other sizes are also produced. In the UK, the "minidish" sold for use with Sky Digital and Freesat uses an LNBF with an integrated clip-in mount. LNBs without a feedhorn built-in are usually provided with a (C120) flange around the input waveguide mouth which is bolted to a matching flange around the output of the feedhorn or polarizer unit. Polarization It is common to polarize satellite TV signals because it provides a way of transmitting more TV channels using a given block of frequencies. This approach requires the use of receiving equipment that can filter incoming signals based on their polarization. Two satellite TV signals can then be transmitted on the same frequency (or, more usually, closely spaced frequencies) and provided that they are polarized differently, the receiving equipment can still separate them and display whichever one is currently required. Throughout the world, most satellite TV transmissions use vertical and horizontal linear polarization but in North America, DBS transmissions use left and right hand circular polarization. Within the waveguide of a North American DBS LNB a slab of dielectric material is used to convert left and right circular polarized signals to vertical and horizontal linear polarized signals so the converted signals can be treated the same. The probe inside the LNB waveguide collects signals that are polarized in the same plane as the probe. To maximise the strength of the wanted signals (and to minimise reception of unwanted signals of the opposite polarization), the probe is aligned with the polarization of the incoming signals. This is most simply achieved by adjusting the LNB's skew; its rotation about the waveguide axis. To remotely select between the two polarizations, and to compensate for inaccuracies of the skew angle, it used to be common to fit a polarizer in front of the LNB's waveguide mouth. This either rotates the incoming signal with an electromagnet around the waveguide (a magnetic polarizer) or rotates an intermediate probe within the waveguide using a servo motor (a mechanical polarizer) but such adjustable skew polarizers are rarely used today. The simplification of antenna design that accompanied the first Astra DTH broadcast satellites in Europe to produce the LNBF extended to a simpler approach to the selection between vertical and horizontal polarized signals too. Astra type LNBFs incorporate two probes in the waveguide, at right angles to one another so that, once the LNB has been skewed in its mount to match the local polarization angle, one probe collects horizontal signals and the other vertical, and an electronic switch (controlled by the voltage of the LNB's power supply from the receiver: 13 V for vertical and 18 V for horizontal) determines which polarization is passed on through the LNB for amplification and block-downconversion. Such LNBs can receive all the transmissions from a satellite with no moving parts and with just one cable connected to the receiver, and have since become the most common type of LNB produced. Common LNBs C-band LNB Here is an example of a North American C-band LNB: Local oscillator: 5.15 GHz Frequency: 3.40–4.20 GHz Noise temperature: 25–100 kelvins (uses kelvin ratings as opposed to dB rating). Polarization: Linear K-band LNB Standard North America Ku band LNB Here is an example of a standard linear LNB: Local oscillator: 10.75 GHz Frequency: 11.70–12.20 GHz Noise figure: 1 dB typical Polarization: Linear Universal LNB ("Astra" LNB) In Europe, as SES launched more Astra satellites to the 19.2°E orbital position in the 1990s, the range of downlink frequencies used in the FSS band (10.70–11.70 GHz) grew beyond that catered for by the standard LNBs and receivers of the time. Reception of signals from Astra 1D required an extension of receivers' IF tuning range from 950 to 1,950 MHz to 950–2,150 MHz and a change of LNBs' local oscillator frequency from the usual 10 GHz to 9.75 GHz (so-called "Enhanced" LNBs). The launch of Astra 1E and subsequent satellites saw the first use by Astra of the BSS band of frequencies (11.70–12.75 GHz) for new digital services and required the introduction of an LNB that would receive the whole frequency range 10.70–12.75 GHz, the "Universal" LNB. A Universal LNB has a switchable local oscillator frequency of 9.75/10.60 GHz to provide two modes of operation: low band reception (10.70–11.70 GHz) and high band reception (11.70–12.75 GHz). The local oscillator frequency is switched in response to a 22 kHz signal superimposed on the supply voltage from the connected receiver. Along with the supply voltage level used to switch between polarizations, this enables a Universal LNB to receive both polarizations (Vertical and Horizontal) and the full range of frequencies in the satellite under the control of the receiver, in four sub-bands: Here is an example of a Universal LNB used in Europe: Noise figure: 0.2 dB typical Polarization: Linear North America DBS LNB Here is an example of an LNB used for DBS: Local oscillator: 11.25 GHz Frequency: 12.20–12.70 GHz Noise figure: 0.7 dB Polarization: Circular K band LNB Ka band 13v right 20.2–21.2 GHz 18v left 20.2–21.2 GHz local osc. 19.25 GHz IF out 950–1950 MHz 13v right 21.2–22.2 GHz 18v left 21.2–22.2 GHz local osc. 20.25 IF out 950–1950 MHz Norsat Ka band 13v right 18.2–19.2 GHz 18v left 18.2–19.2 GHz local osc. 17.25 IF out 950–1950 MHz Multi-output LNBs Dual, twin, quad, and octo LNBs An LNB with a single feedhorn but multiple outputs for connection to multiple tuners (in separate receivers or within the same receiver in the case of a twin-tuner PVR receiver). Typically, two, four or eight outputs are provided. Each output responds to the tuner's band and polarization selection signals independently of the other outputs and "appears" to the tuner to be a separate LNB. Such an LNB usually may derive its power from a receiver connected to any of the outputs. Unused outputs may be left unconnected (but waterproofed for the protection of the whole LNB). Note: In the US, an LNB with two outputs is termed a "dual LNB" but in the UK, the term "dual LNB" historically described an LNB with two outputs, each producing one polarisation only, for connection to a multiswitch (the term and the LNBs fell out of use with the introduction of the Universal LNB and the multiswitch equivalent, the quattro LNB – see below) and today "dual LNB" (and "dual feed") describes antennas for reception from two satellite positions, using either two separate LNBs or a single Monoblock LNB with two feedhorns. In the UK, the term "twin-output LNB", or simply "twin LNB", is usually used for an LNB with a single feedhorn but two independent outputs. Quattro LNBs A special type of LNB (not to be confused with Quad LNB) intended for use in a shared dish installation to deliver signals to any number of tuners. A quattro LNB has a single feedhorn and four outputs, which each supply just one of the Ku sub-bands (low band/horizontal polarization, high band/vertical polarization, low/vertical and high/horizontal) to a multiswitch or an array of multiswitches, which then delivers to each connected tuner whichever sub-band is required by that tuner. Although a quattro LNB typically looks similar to a quad LNB, it cannot (sensibly) be connected to receivers directly. Note again the difference between a quad and a quattro LNB: A quad LNB can drive four tuners directly, with each output providing signals from the entire Ku band. A quattro LNB is for connection to a multiswitch in a shared dish distribution system and each output provides only a quarter of the Ku band signals. Satellite channel router (SCR), or unicable LNBs Multiple tuners may also be fed from a satellite channel router (SCR) or unicable LNB in a single cable distribution system. A Unicable LNB has one output connector but operates in a different way to standard LNBs so it can feed multiple tuners daisy-chained along a single coax cable. Instead of block-downconverting the whole received spectrum, an SCR LNB downconverts a small section of the received signal (equivalent to the bandwidth of a single transponder on the satellite) selected according to a DiSEqC-compliant command from the receiver, to output at a fixed frequency in the IF. Up to 32 tuners can be allocated a different frequency in the IF range and for each, the SCR LNB downconverts the corresponding individually requested transponder. Most SCR LNBs also include either a legacy mode of operation or a separate legacy output which provides the received spectrum block-downconverted to the whole IF range in the conventional way. Wideband LNB ASTRA Universal Wideband LNBs with an oscillator frequency of 10.40 or 10.41 GHz are entering the market. The intermediate frequency band is much wider than in a conventional LNB, as the high and low band are not split up. Wideband LNB signals can be accepted by new wideband tuners, and by new SCR systems (e.g., Inverto/Fuba, Unitron, Optel, GT-Sat/Astro), with or without optical transmission. Wideband signals can be converted to conventional quattro signals and vice versa. In February 2016, Sky (UK) launched a new LNB only compatible with their new wideband tuner. This LNB has one port for all vertical polarised channels both low and high band, and another port for all low and high band horizontal channels. The basic model has only 2 connections and presumably has a local oscillator of 10.41 GHz with an intermediate frequency of 290–2340 MHz from an input of 10.7–12.75 GHz. This LNB seems to be the same as Unitron's ASTRA Universal Wideband LNB. Two cables minimum are needed to access all channels. In the Sky Q box, multiple tuners can select multiple channels, more than the usual two for dual coax systems. This type of LNB is incompatible with the more common Astra Universal LNB used in the UK meaning the LNB is changed during upgrade. There is a model of the LNB with 6 connections, 2 for Sky Q and 4 Astra Universal LNB for users with multiple legacy systems such as Freesat in addition to Sky Q. In cases where only a single cable is possible, such as apartment blocks, Sky Q compatible multiswitches can be used, which instead use BSkyB SCR. Optical-fibre LNBs LNBs for fibre satellite distribution systems operate in a similar way to conventional electrical LNBs, except that all four of the sub-bands in the entire K band spectrum of 10.70–12.75 GHz across two signal polarisations are simultaneously block-downconverted (as in a quattro LNB). The four sub-bands’ IFs are stacked to create one IF with a range of 0.95–5.45 GHz (a bandwidth of 4.5 GHz), which is modulated on an optical signal using a semiconductor laser, to send down the fibre cable. At the receiver, the optical signal is converted back to the traditional electrical signal to "appear" to the receiver as a conventional LNB. Monoblock LNBs A monoblock (or monobloc) LNB is a single unit comprising two, three or four LNBs and a DiSEqC switch, designed to receive signals from two, three or four satellites spaced close together and to feed the selected signal to the receiver. The feedhorns of the two LNBs are at a fixed distance apart for reception of satellites of a particular orbital separation (often 6°, but also 4°). Although the same functionality can be achieved with separate LNBs and a switch, a monoblock LNB, constructed in one unit, is more convenient to install and enables the two feedhorns to be closer together than individually cased LNBs (typically 60mm diameter). The distance between the feedhorns depends on the orbital separation of the satellites to be received, the diameter and focal length of the dish used, and the position of the reception site relative to the satellites. So monoblock LNBs are usually a compromise solution designed to operate with standard dishes in a particular region. For example, in parts of Europe, monoblocks designed to receive the Hot Bird and Astra 19.2°E satellites are popular because they enable reception of both satellites on a single dish without requiring an expensive, slow and noisy motorised dish. A similar advantage is provided by the duo LNB for simultaneous reception of signals from both the Astra 23.5°E and Astra 19.2°E positions. There are also available triple monoblock LNB units, which enable users to receive three satellites: for example Hotbird 13°E, Eutelsat 16°E and Astra 19.2°E or the same can be used for positions: Eutelsat 7°E, Eutelsat 10°E and Hotbird 13°E. This monoblock can be used for other positions with the same spacing (3°+3°=6°spacing). Other very popular example for different spacing is: Astra 1: 19.2°E, Astra 3: 23.5°E and Astra 2: 28.2°E (4.3°+4.7°=9°spacing). And there are also available four feed monoblock LNB units, which enable users to receive signals from four satellites, for example Eurobird 9°E, Hotbird 13°E, Astra 19.2°E and Astra 23.5°E (4°+6.2°+4.3°=14.5°spacing). Most receivers sold nowadays are compatible with at least DiSeqC 1.0 which allows to switch automatically between 4 satellites (all of contemporary Monoblock LNBs), as user changes channel on remote control. Cold temperatures It is possible for moisture in an LNB to freeze, causing ice to build-up at very low temperatures. This is only likely to occur when the LNB is not receiving power from the satellite receiver (i.e., no programmes are being watched). To combat this, many satellite receivers provide an option to keep the LNB powered while the receiver is on standby. In fact, most LNBs are kept powered because this helps to stabilise the temperature and, thereby, the local oscillator frequency by the dissipated heat from the circuitry of LNB. In the case of UK BSkyB receivers, the LNB remains powered while in standby so that the receiver can receive firmware updates and Electronic Programme Guide updates. In the United States, the LNB connected to a Dish Network receiver remains powered so the system can receive software and firmware updates and guide information over the air at night. In Turkey, another LNB type Digiturk MDUs are kept powered to receive VOD content, STB firmware, EPG data, and pay-TV keys in order to watch encrypted content. See also Bias tee Block upconverter (BUC) Orthomode transducer Signal-to-noise ratio Transmit and receive integrated assembly (TRIA) Duo LNB Single Cable Distribution Fibre satellite distribution References External links LNB mysteries explained. Explanation and block diagram of LNB Noise Temperature and Noise Figure Official Astra consumers/viewers' site SES - Official SES trade/industry site Astra Recommendations (for satellite reception equipment including LNB types) VSAT Installation Manual with explanation of the Low-noise block converter Antennas Analog circuits Satellite broadcasting Telecommunications equipment	[ 0.4897207021713257, 0.2589784562587738, 0.09567432105541229, -0.03548001870512962, -0.18018880486488342, -0.2605176270008087, -0.10176068544387817, -0.21928396821022034, -0.1974503993988037, -0.12391680479049683, -0.8103658556938171, 0.5350981950759888, -0.5068867802619934, -0.022628286853432655, -0.24881654977798462, 0.04784054309129715, 1.0644524097442627, 0.45177584886550903, -0.04877874255180359, -0.4602300822734833, 0.10795402526855469, -0.3641240894794464, 0.4101448655128479, -0.15667855739593506, -0.14580819010734558, 0.24210572242736816, 0.3408656716346741, 0.04766970872879028, -0.0662035271525383, 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231352	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus%20cavaleriei	Citrus cavaleriei	Citrus cavaleriei, the Ichang papeda (Chinese: 宜昌橙), is a slow-growing species of papeda that has characteristic lemon-scented foliage and flowers. It is native to southwestern and west-central China and is likely named for the city of Yichang (宜昌), in China's Hubei province. The Ichang papeda's main claim to fame is its unusual hardiness. With the exception of Poncirus trifoliata, it is the hardiest citrus plant, tolerating both moderate frost and damp conditions. Description Relatively rare in cultivation, the Ichang papeda is a large shrub or small tree, growing to , and produces a small, mandarin-like fruit. Leaves feature a broad petiole, and resemble the leaves of the yuzu and the kaffir lime in appearance. The fruit has a fragrant, but rugged rind, and may be oval, spherical, or flattened in shape, ripening to yellow or orange. It contains many large monoembryonic seeds and a small quantity of bitter or sour juice; some fruits lack juice entirely and are instead filled with a mass of pith and seeds. The Ichang papeda is occasionally grown as an ornamental plant. Hybrids Hyuganatsu Kabosu Shangjuan (also known as the Ichang lemon) Yuzu Both the shangjuan and the yuzu have a number of culinary uses and are notably cold-hardy. 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231355	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights%20of%20Saint%20Thomas	Knights of Saint Thomas	The Hospitallers of St Thomas of Canterbury at Acre, usually called the Knights of St Thomas was a Christian military order of the Catholic Church. Membership was restricted to Englishmen. The emblem of the order was a red cross with a white scallop in the centre and the Knights wore a white habit. History Foundation It was established in 1191, at Acre, after the capture of that city by Richard I of England and Philip II of France. After the capture of the city, William, Chaplain to the Dean of St. Pauls Cathedral at London, formed a small religious order, its members taking vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. The purpose of the Order was tending to the sick and wounded, and burying the Christian knights who fell in battle in the Holy Land. To that, William, as Prior of the Order, added the purpose of raising funds to ransom captives from the Muslim armies of Saladin. The success of the Order enabled it to establish a church and hospital which was dedicated to St Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury. Becket was martyred in 1170 and canonised in 1173. Militarisation It was militarised by Peter of Roche, the Bishop of Winchester, during the Sixth Crusade 1227–1229. According to Pope Gregory IX this was done thanks to the indulgence of the existing canons of the Hospital of St Thomas in Acre. Peter of Roche was the crusader Bishop of Winchester who contributed to the defences of Jaffa and Sidon. In 1236, Pope Gregory IX accorded Papal confirmation to the Order, and the Order became known as the Knights of St Thomas Acon (Acre being Anglicised to Acon). The Order adopted the rule of the Teutonic Knights. For the next 100 years, the crusaders held and defended the city of Acre. During this period, about the year 1279, as the purposes of the Order shifted from that of religious hospitallers to a more military role, the position of Prior, the Order's religious head, lost its pre-eminent position. After that, the pre-eminent position was accorded to the Master of the Order. They acquired property and privileges, and created a provincial organisation in the British Isles, with its headquarters in Cheapside London and a subordinate preceptors in Kilkenny. In 1257 Alexander IV noted that the foundation did not have adequate resources. By 1279 it appealed to Edward I for funds, and the proposal to merge them with the Knights Templar seems to have arisen from their financial problems. However, there was opposition from the knights to this both in the Levant and England. In 1316 members successfully appealed to Edward I against a Templar takeover and also opposed an attempt takeover by the convent of Bonhommes at Ashridge At the fall of Acre, 12 May 1291, the Master and nine knights of the Order were killed. Following the battle, the Holy Land was lost to the Saracens, the Order of St Thomas, along with the Order of Knights Templar, moved their Priory to the island of Cyprus where they erected the beautiful St. Nicholas Church at Nicosia. (The ruins of the Church are still standing and have been recently restored.) However divisions arose between the master in Cyprus and the master of the London headquarters. By 1320, with a deteriorating situation in the Levant, Henry of Bedford, the master in Cyprus, came to London and ousted the incumbent master there. When he then appointed a deputy to handle the situation in Cyprus, the brothers there resisted this move. Although this resistance was overcome, within a few years control of the organisation had once more reverted to Nicosia. However the financial situation continued to deteriorate with reports of the London premises being reported as being in ruins by 1330 and the order ceased to be a viable military organisation with nothing more being heard of the master in Nicosia after 1360. The end and dissolution Having abandoned a military role, they also abandoned the rule of the Teutonic Knights, adopting that of the Augustinians and carrying out charitable work and running a grammar school. Links developed with the Mercers livery company at this time – Becket's father, Gilbert had been a mercer. The latter became their patrons, holding meetings there and using the chapel for prayers. The Order was dissolved in 1538, along with other monastic orders in England, by Henry VIII. The Worshipful Mercers' Company of London After the dissolution of the Order, the King offered the hospital and chapel for sale. It was purchased by the Mercers. But the buildings were destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The Mercers Company is the premier livery company of London, ranking first in the order of precedence of the "Great Twelve City Livery Companies". The second hall, opened in 1676, was destroyed in 1941 during the Blitz. The present-day Mercer's Hall and Chapel, opened in 1958, are built on the site. It incorporates some of the fixtures, 17th-century woodwork and Victorian stained glass from the second hall. All that remains of the original Chapel is the recumbent statue of Christ which lies at the entrance to the Mercer's Chapel. The Worshipful Company of Mercers is one of the few London Livery Companies to have its own private chapel. Bibliography Forey, Alan J. The Military Order of St Thomas of Acre, "English Historical Review", 92 (1977), pp. 481–503. Vincent, N. Peter des Roches: An Alien in English Politics, 1205–1238, Cambridge, 1996. Watney, J. Some Account of the Hospital of St. Thomas of Acon, in the Cheap, London, and of the Plate of the Mercers' Company, London, 1892. King, E. J. Official History of the British Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem, pg. 32 (1934). Demurger, Alain A Brief History of Religious Military Orders – Hospitallers, Templars, Teutonic..., Tiralet (1997). Bartlett, W. B. God Wills It! – An Illustrated History of the Crusades, Gloucestershire (1999). Benvenisti, Meron The Crusaders in the Holy Land, New York (1970). Cross, Peter The Knight in Medieval England, 1000–1400, Gloucestershire (1993). Payne, Robert The Dream and the Tomb: A History of the Crusades, New York (1984). Riley-Smith, Jonathan The Atlas of the Crusades, New York (1991), pp. 106–107. Tyerman, Christopher The Invention of the Crusades, Toronto (1998). Upton-Ward, J. M. A translation of The Rule of the Templars, Suffolk (1992). Walsh, Michael Warriors of the Lord: The Military Orders of Christendom, Cambridge (2003), pg. 203. External links The Bedestan, claimed to have been St. Nicholas Church at Nicosia, Cyprus, 14th-century headquarters of the medieval Order. The Order of St. Thomas of Acre, by Dr. Alan J. Forey Worshipful Company of Mercers, London The current Order of St Thomas of Acre References Thomas, Knights of Saint Thomas Catholic orders of chivalry	[ -0.37785282731056213, -0.15149357914924622, -0.4354637563228607, -0.15388207137584686, -0.6854239106178284, 0.9506246447563171, 0.6715160608291626, 0.11440246552228928, -0.7642844915390015, -0.22035762667655945, -0.39755403995513916, 0.38140326738357544, -0.10131974518299103, -0.2936674952507019, -0.20455460250377655, 0.0442538745701313, 0.5633479952812195, 0.24140188097953796, -0.48502984642982483, -0.6714273691177368, -0.3607717454433441, 0.1093699187040329, 0.27490100264549255, 0.30338016152381897, 0.33988305926322937, 0.041894566267728806, 0.33792299032211304, 0.17794930934906006, 0.1484680473804474, -0.459129273891449, 0.41423216462135315, 0.18996013700962067, -0.14287124574184418, -0.9290963411331177, -0.8612306714057922, -0.23410417139530182, -0.00863101426512003, -0.5576215386390686, -0.2924721837043762, -0.460282564163208, 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231356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel%20Teitelbaum	Joel Teitelbaum	Joel Teitelbaum (, Ashkenazi pronunciation: ; 13 January 1887 – 19 August 1979) was the founder and first Grand Rebbe of the Satmar dynasty. A major figure in the post-war renaissance of Hasidism, he espoused a strictly conservative and isolationist line, rejecting modernity. Teitelbaum was a fierce opponent of Zionism, which he decried as inherently heretical. His role as a Jewish community leader in Transylvania during the Holocaust remains controversial. Biography Early life Teitelbaum was born on January 13, 1887. He was the second son of Grand Rabbi of Sighet, Chananyah Yom Tov Lipa Teitelbaum and his second wife, Chana Ashkenazi. The couple her in 1878, after receiving a special dispensation for him to take a second wife, as his first wife, Reitze – daughter of Rebbe Menashe Rubin of Ropshitz – was unable to bear children. Joel was the youngest child, with four older siblings. Chananyah served as the rabbi of Máramarossziget (shortened to Siget in Yiddish; today Sighetu Marmației, Romania). He was dean of the local Rabbinical seminary, and the leader of the eponymous Hasidic movement based in the city. He was the great-grandson of Moshe Teitelbaum, a disciple of the Seer of Lublin, who was one of the main promulgators of Hasidism in Hungary. The rabbis of the Teitelbaum family were known for their highly conservative stance, and their opposition to the Enlightenment, Neolog Judaism, and Zionism. Joel was renowned for his intellectual capacities from a young age. At his bar mitzvah, he delivered a sermon of several hours concerning an issue from the Shabbat tractate in the Talmud. He was stringent in matters regarding ritual purity, and would lengthily prepare for prayer by meticulously cleaning himself. Even before marrying, he received letters of ordination from eight prominent rabbis, including Moshe Greenwald. In 1904, just several days before his father's death on 15 February, the 17-year-old married Chavah Horowitz, the daughter of Abraham Chaim Horowitz of Polaniec. They had three daughters, none of whom survived their father or had any children: The first, Esther, died in her youth, on 14 September 1921; Rachel died on 19 March 1931, shortly after her wedding. The last, Chaya Roisa (or Reysel), died on 23 October 1953. Teitelbaum's older brother Chaim Tzvi Teitelbaum succeeded their father in all three of his posts. Their mother, along with a small faction of the Hasidim, regarded the younger brother as the appropriate heir. The newlyweds then moved to her father's residence in Radomyśl Wielki, and remained there for over a year. On 8 September 1905, he settled in Szatmárnémeti, or Satmar in Yiddish. Despite his youth, supporters opened a study hall for him. He gradually began to attract a small local following. Journalist Dezső David Schön, who researched the Teitelbaum dynasty, wrote that Teitelbaum started to refer to himself as "Rebbe of Satmar" at that point. Subsequently, he had tense relations with the first to claim the title, Yisaschar Dov Leifer, son of Mordechai of Nadvorna. However, the latter died on 12 September 1906. Rabbinical career In 1911, Teitelbaum was invited by the Jewish community in Ilosva (or Iršiva), to serve as their town's rabbi. Though , then part of the Austro-Hungarian, it is now Irshava, Ukraine. During Teitelbaum's stay there, he established a local seminary and spread the ideas of Hasidism among the populace. Upon the outbreak of World War I, he returned to Szatmárnémeti, where his old study hall gradually developed into a full-fledged seminary. As a young rabbi, he clung to the positions of his father and grandfather: He forbade any contact with Zionists, including the religious Mizrachi, and supported Chaim Elazar Spira in his opposition to Agudath Israel. When the Austro-Hungarian Empire was dissolved under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon (1920), following World War I, Szatmárnémeti and the rest of Partium and Transylvania became part of the Kingdom of Romania. The chief Orthodox rabbi of Satmar, Yehudah Greenwald, died on 9 March 1920. Several of Teitelbaum's supporters advanced his name as a possible candidate for the vacant office, but he was opposed by the non-Hasidic (Ashkenazi) majority in the community, the modernists, and the Zionists, as well as by many Hasidim. Eventually, Eliezer David Greenwald (no relation to the former) was chosen. In 1922, after eight years outside the town, Teitelbaum returned to his community, Iršiva, then in Czechoslovakia. On 29 March 1925, he was appointed chief rabbi of Carei. He moved to the city about a year afterwards. On 21 January 1926, his older brother Chaim Tzvi died unexpectedly of an intracranial hemorrhage. Tzvi's oldest son, Yekusiel Yehuda Teitelbaum (II), was fourteen years old. Although many of his followers suggested that Joel should succeed his brother, custom prevailed, and the boy was given his father's three posts. Yekusiel Judah Gross of Berbești was brought to serve as his tutor and de facto chief rabbi of Sighet. However, most of the Hasidim turned to Joel, who became the dynasty's Rebbe in all but name. When he grew older, Yekusiel established a following of his own from among his father's loyal supporters, but his influence as rebbe never exceeded beyond the city limits. On 20 May 1928, Eliezer David Greenwald of Satmar died, and Teitelbaum ran for the municipal rabbi's office again. An election committee established by the Orthodox community's board chose him to the post on 11 June, with nineteen members in favor, five against, and two abstentions. After a prolonged dispute with his opponents, the parties decided to hold an election among all members of the congregation. It took place on 9 August, and Teitelbaum received 437 votes in favor and 331 against. The opposition did not accept the results. In a second vote, on 27 September, 779 approved of Teitelbaum, and only one rejected him. Chaim Freund, the community's president, and several other members of the board were close supporters of the rabbi, and his opponents accused them of rigging the vote throughout the election process by various means, including granting and withdrawing the right to participate according to criteria which benefited their candidate. Both sides sued their opponents in rabbinical courts, and complained to the civilian authorities. The parties presented their claims in lengthy pamphlets printed in 1929: Freund's faction issued a book under the name Milkhemes Mitzve haKhudosh (The New Commanded War), and the other one published Sfas Emes (Words of Truth). Finally, following the continued refusal of many to accept Teitelbaum, his supporters established their own independent community on 10 December 1929, where he could serve as a rabbi. The fear of losing members' fees motivated the other party to negotiate. An agreement was reached on 11 June 1930, and Joel was invited to serve as Satmar's chief rabbi. He chose not to accept the nomination until he was certain of support from the community council, which took three and a half years. Only then did he move, arriving on 27 February 1934. With 334 students, his rabbinical seminary became Satmar's largest, having more pupils than the other three combined. In August 1932, Teitelbaum visited Jerusalem. A small party there sought to appoint him as the Ashkenazi chief rabbi of the city, in the wake of Yosef Chaim Sonnenfeld's death, but Yosef Tzvi Dushinsky eventually received the post. On 29 January 1936, Teitelbaum's first wife, Chava, died. On 20 August 1937, he remarried with Alte Faige Shapiro, the orphaned 25-year-old daughter of Avigdor Shapiro from Czestochowa, who was half his age. Incident with King Carol II of Romania In the winter of 1936, the Romanian king Carol II made a visit in the city of Satmar. A large parade consisting of thousands of soldiers and courtiers accompanied his arrival. The municipality prepared a large stage upon which all its religious and municipal leaders stood. Teitelbaum was accompanied by his son-in-law, Chananya Yom-Tov Lipa Teitelbaum, rabbi of Szemihály, and community leader Shmuel Rosenberg, and standing beside them were rabbis of the status quo and neolog communities, and other religious leaders. When the king approached the stage, he surveyed all the people who stood on it, and started walking in Teitelbaum's direction, who was holding his rabbinical stick in one hand and his hat in the other. Two priests started walking towards the king, but he ignored them. Teitelbaum, suddenly noticing what was happening, saluted and said the blessing "Shenatan MiChvodo LiVnei Adam" (who gave from his honor to human beings). The king gave Teitelbaum his hand. The moment was documented by a Jewish photographer, and was published in the Romanian press. Several days later, the king was asked why he approached the Orthodox rabbi first, and he responded: "Immediately when I walked toward the stage, I surveyed all those who were standing on it. My heart was attracted to this rabbi due to his appearance that radiated spirituality (lit., Yiddishen geistlichen rabbiner)." The king's response was published in the country's Jewish press. World War II In 1940, following the Second Vienna Award, Satmar again became part of Hungary. Prior to the Holocaust, Teitelbaum ignored the threats to the Jews of Transylvania, and failed to engage in the preparation of rescue and aid plans. As the situation of Hungarian Jews became dangerous, Teitelbaum equipped himself and his closest circle with certificates or visas that would facilitate their escape to Palestine or the United States, while he thwarted all attempts at cooperation between the heads of the ultra-Orthodox communities and the Zionist organizations, which could have helped the rest of the Jewish community to escape. His daughter settled in Jerusalem, while he openly called on his followers to avoid immigrating to Palestine. Teitelbaum's attempts to leave Hungary were part of a broader general phenomenon, which attracted criticism, even then, of rabbis and other public figures fleeing the country. When the Germans invaded Hungary, Teitelbaum's closest associates sought a safer way to smuggle him out by bribing two junior officers, drivers of a Red Cross ambulance, who agreed to drive a group of Jews to Kolozsvár (today Cluj-Napoca) in return for money. The travelers included his family, and several wealthy families who paid most of the costs. The attempt failed, and Teitelbaum was arrested and sent to Kolozsvár Ghetto. Faced with harsh living conditions, he asked his followers to try to transfer him to Budapest, or back to the ghetto of Satmar, where Jews were housed in residential buildings, but they were unable to fulfill his requests. Baron Fülöp von Freudiger, director of the Orthodox congregation in Budapest, selected eighty rabbis and other prominent figures, and paid for their inclusion in the passengers' list of the Kastner train, which was to depart the state for a neutral country. Teitelbaum put himself on the list, despite the fact that the evacuation was organized by a Zionist group. On 30 June 1944, once negotiations with the Germans had been concluded, the passengers boarded a freight train that was planned to proceed to Switzerland, but was eventually diverted to Bergen Belsen. The group was held in a special section, in better conditions than those of other groups. Although the group included several notable figures, Teitelbaum was given special consideration. The group's physician exempted him from roll calls, and volunteers performed the tasks imposed on him. With the help of Kasztner and SS officer Herman Krumey, the final arrangements were made, and Teitelbaum was transferred to Switzerland with some Jews from the group. Upon his arrival in Switzerland, he was accorded preferential treatment by the authorities. Eventually, he decided to immigrate to Palestine. In August 1945, several hundreds of the Kastner train's passengers, Teitelbaum among them, left Switzerland for the port of Taranto in Italy. On the 30th, they boarded the ship Ville d'Oran, which arrived in Haifa in the morning of 2 September. During his stay in Mandatory Palestine, he resided in Jerusalem, at the house of his nephew and son-in-law, Lipa Meir Teitelbaum. When Joel Teitelbaum's institutions became bankrupt after a year, he emigrated to the United States. United States The Satmar Rebbe arrived in New York on the second day of Rosh HaShana (27 September) 1946, aboard the motor vessel Vulcania. He settled in Williamsburg, Brooklyn, with a small group of supporters. In late April 1948, the Satmar Hasidim established "Congregation Yetev Lev", named after his grandfather, which was registered as a religious corporation. The community's regulations, accepted in April 1952, decreed that Teitelbaum was not a salaried office holder, but the supreme spiritual authority over the members. In 1951, although not a resident of Israel, Teitelbaum was appointed to the ceremonial office of President of the anti-Zionist Edah HaChareidis (Congregation of God-Fearers) in Jerusalem. After the death of Zelig Reuven Bengis on 21 May 1953, he also succeeded him as the chairman of Eidah Hacharidis Rabbinical Court . He visited Israel every few years. In 1955, Teitelbaum founded the Central Rabbinical Congress, which he headed for the remainder of his life. From the early 1960s, Teitelbaum's envoys sought to establish a rural settlement, in which the congregants could be secluded from the outside world. They eventually managed to purchase territory in Monroe, New York, where they built Kiryas Joel (Town of Joel). The first families settled there in 1974. On 23 February 1968, Teitelbaum suffered a stroke which left him partially paralyzed and barely functioning. His wife, backed by several sextons and other functionaries, became the behind-the-scenes power in Satmar. In the early hours of 19 August 1979, he complained of aches, and was transported to Mount Sinai Hospital, where he suffered a myocardial infarction and died at approximately 8am. Over 100,000 people attended his funeral in Kiryas Joel. He was succeeded by his nephew, Moshe Teitelbaum, second son of his older brothers. Opinions Opposition to Zionism Teitelbaum was famous for his vocal opposition to Zionism in all arenas. He encouraged his followers in Israel to form self-sufficient communities, without assistance from the State of Israel, and forbade any official engagement with it. Before World War II, most Hasidic rabbis, as well as many other prominent Orthodox rabbis and leaders, believed that God had promised to return the Jewish people to the Land of Israel under the leadership of the Moshiach, who would arrive when the Jewish people had merited redemption. While awaiting the Messiah, the Jewish people were to perform the mitzvot, and were not to antagonize or rebel against the Gentile nations of the world. In the years following the Holocaust, Teitelbaum undertook to strengthen this position. In Teitelbaum's view, the founding of the modern State of Israel by secular as well as religious Jews, rather than the Moshiach, violated a Jewish commandment that Jews should wait for the Messiah. Moreover, Teitelbaum taught that the existence of the Zionist State of Israel was actually preventing the Messiah from coming. Three oaths The core citations from classical Judaic sources cited by Teitelbaum in his arguments against Zionism are based on a passage in the Talmud. Rabbi Yosi b'Rebbi Hanina explains (Kesubos 111a) that the Lord imposed "Three Oaths" on the nation of Israel: a) Israel should not return to the Land together, by force; b) Israel should not rebel against the other nations; and c) The nations should not subjugate Israel too harshly. According to Teitelbaum, the second oath is relevant concerning the subsequent wars fought between Israel and Arab nations. He views the Zionist State of Israel as a form of "impatience", in keeping with the Talmud's warnings that being impatient for God's love leads to "grave danger". The Satmar Hasidim explain that the constant wars in Israel are a result of ignoring this oath. Teitelbaum saw his opposition to Zionism as a way of protecting Jews and preventing bloodshed. Apart from his opposition to the founding and existence of the State as being violations of the Three Oaths, and his opposition to Zionism/Nationalism as an idolatrous replacement or addition to Judaism, Teitelbaum held that participating in the Israeli government, especially voting in the elections, should not be done, because it makes one a "partner" in all of the state's anti-Torah policies. He felt that any participation in the Israeli government, even voting in elections, was a grave sin, because it contributes to the spiritual and physical destruction of innocent people. Although many Haredi rabbis agree with the first two ideas, the general view of Agudath Israel and other Haredi rabbis is that the third idea, participating in the Israeli government, is permitted in order to rescue whatever is possible ("saving from the mouth of the lion.") Teitelbaum, however was openly opposed to the views of Agudath Israel, and until the present time, Satmar refuses to become a member of the Agudath Israel organization or party. The Satmar view is that only the Jewish Messiah can bring about a new Jewish government in the Land of Israel. Even if a government declaring itself religious would be formed before the Messiah, it would be illegitimate due to its "improper arrogation of power". While the Satmar Hasidim are opposed to the present government of Israel, many of them live in and visit Israel. Teitelbaum himself lived for about a year in Jerusalem, after his escape from Europe, but before the establishment of the State of Israel, and visited Israel after moving to the United States. Other opinions Teitelbaum was very stringent in many particulars of Jewish law. He argued with Moshe Feinstein over the proper height of a mechitza (partition between the sexes in the synagogue). Feinstein held that the mechitza need go only up to the shoulders of the average woman, while Teitelbaum opined that the mechitza should not allow women to be seen at all. Teitelbaum was strongly opposed to the use of a tube for metzitza during circumcision of a baby boy, and felt that this change in the procedure would spiritually lead to more promiscuity. Teitelbaum encouraged all married Hasidic men to wear ceremonial fur hats. Although these were not worn by most Hasidic men in Hungary before the war, Teitelbaum felt that in America, it was more important for people to look very different from the rest of the population, in order to prevent assimilation, which was more rampant in America than it had been in Hungary. He held that young men and women should not meet more than two or three times before getting engaged. Teitelbaum stressed the importance of tznius. He was a strong proponent of the Hungarian Hasidic custom for married women to shave their head every month before immersion in the mikveh (ritual bath). He strongly opposed the wearing of wigs by married women. He felt that this was prohibited on Jewish legal ground; he wanted women to cover their hair with something else instead, such as a turban. He insisted that all Satmar women and girls wear thick, brown stockings with seams. The stockings had to be at least 90 denier. Due to the lack of availability of such stockings, Teitelbaum encouraged one of his Hasidim to manufacture the stockings. The stockings are called "Palm", the English translation of Teitelbaum's last name. Teitelbaum prohibited the ownership of a television. This was in the 1950s, when TV was still heavily censored for promiscuous content. He bought and oversaw his own Yiddish-language newspaper, Der Yid, for two reasons: First, he felt that the other Yiddish newspapers at the time contained articles that were prohibited to read – because of their promiscuous content, and because they did not respect Haredi leaders. In addition, Teitelbaum wanted a platform from which to spread his ideas. Works Some of the works Teitelbaum authored himself, or otherwise compiled by students: Vayoel Moshe (1958), explaining his belief that Zionism is prohibited by halakha (Jewish law) Al HaGeulah VeAl HaTemurah (1967, with N. Y. Meisels), further explaining his belief that Zionism is prohibited, in light of the Six-Day War Divrei Yoel, on the Chumash, Talmud, and Jewish festivals Kuntres Chidushai Torah, on the Chumash Kuntres Chidushai Torah, on the festivals Shu"t Divrei Yoel, responsa on halakha Dibros Kodesh, sermons given at shalosh Seudos Agados Maharit, on the Talmud Tiv Levav, on the Chumash Rav Tuv, on the Chumash Teitelbaum authored a brief introduction to the Talmudic tractate Shabbat for a Holocaust-era printing in Romania. There are collections of his speeches entitled Hidushei Torah MHR"I Teitelbaum. See also Hasidic Judaism Neturei Karta Shomer Emunim (Hasidic dynasty) References Further reading Farbstein, Esther, Sermons Speak History: Rabbinic Dilemmas in Internment between Metz and Auschwitz. Modern Judaism, May 2007 Meisels, Dovid. The Rebbe. The extraordinary life and worldview of Rabbeinu Yoel Teitelbaum, the Satmar Rebbe. Distributed by Israel Book Shop, Lakewood, New Jersey, 2010. Weisshaus, Yechezkel Yossef. The Rebbe. A Glimpse into the Daily Life of the Satmar Rebbe Rabbeinu Yoel Teitelbaum. Translated by Mechon Lev Avos from Sefer Eidis B'Yosef by Rabbi Yechezkel Yosef Weisshaus. Machon Lev Avos. Distributed by Israel Book Shop, Lakewood, New Jersey, 2008. Rabbi Chaim Moshe Stauber The Satmar Rebbe The life and times of Rav Yoel Teitlbaum zt"l-a close talmid's personal recollections. Distributed by Feldheim. External links https://www.ou.org/judaism-101/bios/leaders-in-the-diaspora/rav-yoel-teitelbaum-the-satmarer-rebbe/ at OU.org Nadler, Allan, The Riddle of the Satmar. Jewish Ideas Daily, February 17, 2011 1887 births 1979 deaths Anti-Zionist Hasidic rabbis People from Sighetu Marmației Blood for goods Rebbes of Satmar Rabbis of the Edah HaChareidis Kolozsvár Ghetto inmates Hungarian Orthodox rabbis Hasidic rabbis in Europe American Hasidic rabbis 20th-century rabbis Bergen-Belsen concentration camp survivors People from Monroe, New York Rabbis from New York (state) Kiryas Joel, New York People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn Kastner train Teitelbaum family Romanian Orthodox rabbis Jewish anti-Zionism in Romania	[ -0.287654310464859, 0.42867493629455566, -0.361067533493042, -0.47621095180511475, -0.5895017981529236, 0.6492916941642761, 0.8023847937583923, 0.022317901253700256, 0.5162484645843506, -0.4691280722618103, -0.66053706407547, -0.25731733441352844, 0.23991402983665466, 0.5925415754318237, -0.4143560826778412, 0.08052565902471542, 0.4840160608291626, -0.5396919250488281, -0.6902902722358704, -0.13993163406848907, -0.043845515698194504, 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231360	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satmar%20%28Hasidic%20dynasty%29	Satmar (Hasidic dynasty)	Satmar (; ; ; ) is a Hasidic group originating from the city of Satu Mare, Romania, where it was founded in 1905 by Joel Teitelbaum. It is an offshoot of the Sighet Hasidic dynasty. Following World War II, it was re-established in New York. Satmar is now one of the largest Hasidic dynasties in the world. The estimated number of affiliated men, women, and children ranges between 65,000 and 75,000. Like most Hasidic sects it is characterized by extremely strict religious adherence, complete rejection of modern culture, and fierce anti-Zionism. Satmar sponsors a comprehensive education and media system in Yiddish, and its members use Yiddish as a primary language. The sect also heads the Central Rabbinical Congress. After Joel Teitelbaum's death in 1979, he was succeeded by his nephew, Moshe Teitelbaum. Since the latter's death in 2006, the dynasty is split between his two sons, Aaron and Zalman Leib, with each maintaining influence and dominion over separate institutions. History Origins Chananya Yom Tov Lipa Teitelbaum was the Grand Rebbe of the Sighet Hasidic dynasty. He died in 1904, and was succeeded by his oldest son, Chaim Tzvi Teitelbaum. A few Sighet Hasidim preferred his second son, Joel, as their leader. Joel Teitelbaum left the town of Sziget, and on the 8th of September 1905, he settled in Szatmárnémeti (in Yiddish: Satmar). His Sighet supporters followed him, and he began to attract a following. Hungarian journalist Dezső Schön, who researched the Teitelbaum rabbis in the 1930s, wrote that Teitelbaum started referring to himself as the "Rebbe of Satmar" at that time. Teitelbaum's power base grew with the years. In 1911, he received his first rabbinical post as chief rabbi of Ilosva. In 1921, the northeastern regions of Hungary were ceded to Czechoslovakia and Romania, under the terms of the Treaty of Trianon. This areas was densely populated with a segment of Orthodox Jewry known as Unterlander Jews, Many Sziget Hasidim, unable to regularly visit Chaim Tzvi's court, turned to Joel Teitelbaum instead. In 1925, Teitelbaum was appointed chief rabbi of Nagykároly. On 21 January 1926, Chaim Tzvi died unexpectedly, leaving his twelve-year-old son Yekusiel Yehuda to succeed him. Their mother emphasized Joel as successor, her grandson being too young for the position, and Joel returned to Szhiget. However, Chaim Tzvi's followers would only accept Joel as a trustee-leader until Yekusiel became old enough. Although Teitelbaum was highly regarded, he was not well-liked there. Under these conditions, Teitelbaum would have become the dynasty's head in all but name, which was nevertheless unacceptable for him and his mother, and they left Sziget again. In 1928, Teitelbaum was elected as chief rabbi of Szatmárnémeti itself. The appointment resulted in bitter strife within the Jewish community, and he only accepted the post in 1934. Teitelbaum rose to become a prominent figure in Haredi circles, leading an uncompromisingly conservative line against modernization. Among other issues, he was a fierce opponent of Zionism and Agudath Israel. World War II The Jewish population of Hungary, which was concentrated in the Satu Mare ghetto, was spared wholesale destruction until 1944. On 19 March 1944, the German Army occupied the country, and deportations to the concentration camps ensued. Teitelbaum sought to re-assure the frightened people who, for the most part, weren't able to leave the country, saying that by the merit of their religiosity, they would be saved. However, when the Germans invaded, he was saved by his devoted followers, who paid a huge ransom to have him included in the passenger list of the Kastner train. Teitelbaum reached Switzerland on the night of 7–8 December 1944, and soon immigrated to Mandatory Palestine. Many of Satmar's Jews were murdered by the Nazis. 1945–1979 A year after his daughter's death in Jerusalem, Teitelbaum chose to move to the United States, arriving in New York aboard the MS Vulcania on 26 September 1946. Teitelbaum settled in Williamsburg, Brooklyn along with a small group of followers, and set out to re-establish his sect, which was destroyed in the Holocaust. His arrival in America allowed him to fully implement his views: The separation of religion and state enabled the Satmar dynasty, as well as numerous other Jewish groups, to establish independent communities, unlike the state-regulated structures in Central Europe. In April 1948, his adherents founded "Congregation Yetev Lev", which was registered as a religious corporation. Teitelbaum appointed Leopold Friedman (1904–1972), a former bank director, as the congregation's president, while he was declared supreme spiritual authority. AfterFriedman's death, he was replaced by Leopold Lefkowitz (1920–1998). Teitelbaum's policy was to maintain complete independence by refusing to affiliate with, or receive financial aid from, any other Jewish group; his Hasidim established a network of businesses that provided an economic base for the community's own social institutions. The Satmar group grew rapidly, attracting many new followers. A 1961 survey established that its Williamsburg community included 4,500 people. From the 860 household heads, about 40 percent were neither Satmar nor Sighet Hasidim in the pre-war years. In 1968, Satmar was already New York's largest Hasidic group, with 1,300 households in the city. In addition, there are many Satmar Hasidim in other parts of the United States, and worldwide. As part of his vision of complete isolation from the outside world, Teitelbaum encouraged his followers to make Yiddish their primary language, though many had previously used German or Hungarian, being immigrants from former Greater Hungary. The sect has its own Yiddish-oriented education system and several publishing houses which provide extensive reading material. Teitelbaum's work in this matter made him, according to Bruce Mitchell, the "most influential figure" in the maintenance of the language in the post-war period. The uniformity of Satmar in America made it easier to teach young people the language, unlike in Europe: George Kranzler noted already in 1961 that the children speak Yiddish much better than their parents. On 23 February 1968, Teitelbaum suffered a stroke, which left him barely able to function. His second wife, Alte Feiga, administered the sect for the remainder of Teitelbaum's life, with the assistance of several Satmar functionaries. In 1974, the sect began constructing the housing project Kiryas Joel in Monroe, New York, for its members. It was accorded an independent municipal status in 1977. On August 19, 1979, Teitelbaum died of a heart attack. 1980–2006 Teitelbaum was not survived by any children – all three of his daughters died in his lifetime. After prolonged vacillations by the community board, his nephew Moshe, Chaim Tzvi's second son, was appointed as successor, despite Alte Feiga's severe objections. Moshe Teitelbaum was proclaimed Rebbe on 8 August 1980, the first anniversary of his uncle's death by the Hebrew calendar. The great majority of Hasidim accepted the new leader, though a small fraction called Bnei Yoel, which was unofficially led by Feiga, opposed him. The tense relations between both led to several violent incidents in the 1980s. In 1984, Moshe Teitelbaum appointed his oldest son, Aaron, as chief rabbi of Kiryas Joel. Both incurred opposition from elements within the sect. They were blamed for exercising a centralized leadership style, and for lack of sufficient zealotry. In 1994, the U.S. Supreme Court held, in the case of Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet, that a school district whose boundaries had been drawn to include only Satmar children violated the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Until the late 1990s, Moshe Teitelbaum's heir apparent was his oldest son Aaron. In 1999, his third son, Zalman, was recalled from his post as Satmar chief rabbi in Jerusalem, and received the parallel post in the sect's largest enclave, Williamsburg. He was later proclaimed successor, and a struggle between the two brothers ensued. Aaron resided in Kiryas Joel, where he was considered the local authority, while Zalman held sway in Williamsburg. 2006–present Following Moshe Teitelbaum's death in 2006, both groups of followers announced that their candidate was named successor in his will, and they were both declared Rebbes. Zalman and Aaron were engaged in prolonged judicial disputes as to who should control the Congregation's assets in Brooklyn. The sect has effectively split into two independent ones. At the time of Moshe Teitelbaum's death, sources within the sect estimated it had 119,000 members worldwide, making it the world's largest Hasidic group. A similar figure of 120,000 was cited by sociologist Samuel Heilman. However, anthropologist Jacques Gutwirth estimated in 2004 that Satmar numbered about 50,000. As of 2006, the dynasty controlled assets worth $1 billion in the United States. The two largest Satmar communities are in Williamsburg and Kiryas Joel. There are also significant Satmar communities in Borough Park, Brooklyn, and in Monsey and Bloomingburg, New York. Smaller concentrations can be found elsewhere. In North America, there are institutions in Los Angeles; Lakewood, New Jersey; and Montreal. Elsewhere, cities such as Antwerp, London, and Manchester; and in Argentina, Australia have Stamar groups, and there are many spread throughout Israel. Aaron Teitelbaum has stated that he wants to establish a community in Romania too. In addition to the Grand Rabbis' two main congregations, Chaim Yehoshua Halberstam, chief rabbi of the Satmar community in Monsey, became its local leader. Unlike the two brothers, Halberstam does not lay claim to the entire sect, though he conducts himself in the manner of a Hasidic Rebbe, accepting kvitel and holding tish. Another son, Lipa Teitelbaum, established his own congregation and calls himself Zenter Rav, in homage to the town of Senta, Serbia where his father served as rabbi before World War II. During the COVID-19 pandemic, Aaron's wife Soshe fell ill, and was placed on a respirator. At the same time, Lipa was fighting for his life against the virus. This situation led to Zalman making a phone call to Aaron, after not speaking to each other for 20 years, during which they exchanged holiday greetings. The October 15, 2020 wedding of Zalman's grandson, which according to plan was to attract thousands of guests, was reduced to a 50-person affair after New York Governor Andrew Cuomo announced that his office would shut it down due to its being in violation of pandemic-related limits on public gatherings. Another wedding, the November 8 nuptials of Aaron's grandson Yoel, did go forward, with thousands packing a Williamsburg hall in violation of pandemic restrictions. On November 24, New York Mayor Bill de Blasio fined the organizers $15,000. Ideology The ideology and principles of Satmar reflect Joel Teitelbaum's adherence to the Hungarian Haredi school of thought. Although similar in some ways to other Haredi groups' approaches, the Hungarian variety remains fundamentally distinct. The school was founded by Hillel Lichtenstein and his son-in-law Akiva Yosef Schlesinger in the 1860s, on the eve of the Schism in Hungarian Jewry. Faced with rapid acculturation and a decline in religious observance, Lichtenstein preached utter rejection of modernity, widely applying the words of his teacher, Moses Sofer: "All that is new is forbidden by the Torah." Schlesinger accorded Yiddish and traditional Jewish garb a religious status, idealizing them as a means of separation from the outside world. To reinforce his opposition to secular studies and the use of a vernacular, Schlesinger ventured outside the realm of strict halakha (Jewish law), and based his rulings on the non-legalistic Aggadah. The Haredim believed that the main threat did not come from liberal Jewish Neologs, who advocated religious reform, but from the moderate traditionalists; they directed their attacks chiefly against the modern Orthodox Azriel Hildesheimer. Their power base lay among the Unterlander Jews of northeastern Hungary – roughly present-day eastern Slovakia, Zakarpattia Oblast, and Northern Transylvania – where modernity made little headway, and the local Galician-descended Jews were poor, unacculturated, and strongly influenced by Hasidism. Sighet, as well as most other Hungarian Hasidic dynasties, originated from these regions. Lichtenstein's successors were no less rigid; the leading Haredi authority in the Inter-war period, Chaim Elazar Spira of Mukačevo, regarded the Haredi Agudath Israel as a demonic force, as much as both the religious and secular streams of Zionism. He demanded complete political passivity, stating that any action to the contrary was akin to disbelief in divine providence. While Agudah opposed Zionism for seeing it as anti-religious, Spira viewed their plan for establishing an independent state before the arrival of the Messiah as "forcing of the end", trying to bring Redemption before God prescribed it. In addition, he was an avowed anti-modernist: He sharply denounced Avraham Mordechai Alter, Rebbe of Ger, for introducing secular studies and allowing girls to attend school, and criticized modern medicine, believing the treatments recorded in the Talmud to be superior. Though personal relations between Spira and Joel Teitelbaum were tense, his ideological stance had a strong influence over the younger rabbi. Aviezer Ravitzky believed it remained unacknowledged in the latter's writings due to the personal animosity between both. Already firmly anti-Agudist and anti-Zionist in the inter-war period, Teitelbaum had to contend with the issues which baffled world Jewry in the aftermath of World War II: the Holocaust, and the establishment of the State of Israel. In 1959, he enunciated his theological response in the book Vayoel Moshe (; the title is from Exodus ). The book contained three segments; the first was devoted to Teitelbaum's interpretation of an Aggadatic text from the Ketubot in the Talmud, the Midrash of the Three Oaths. It discusses the meaning of a phrase quoted thrice in the Song of Songs (, , ): "I adjure you [...] that ye awaken not, nor stir up love until it please." The passage explains it as a reference to three oaths forced by God; two on the Children of Israel – that they "shall not go up" (migrate en masse) to their land before redemption, and neither rebel against the Gentile nations among which they are exiled – and the third upon all nations, "that they shall not oppress Israel too much". Teitelbaum argued that the first two are binding and eternal, and that their intent was to keep the people in divinely decreed exile until they would all fully repent their sins and earn solely miraculous salvation, without human interference. He sought to demonstrate that Rabbinic sages of the past were all aware of the Oaths, and even those who did not mention it, like Maimonides, did so because it was self-evident. His thesis was also meant to refute contrary pro-Zionist religious arguments: that its aggadic source made it non-binding, or that the Oaths were no longer valid, especially after the Gentiles "oppressed Israel too much" in the Holocaust. Based on this, Teitelbaum stated that Zionism was a severe heresy and a rebellion against God, and that its pursuit brought about the Holocaust as a divine punishment; the continued existence of Israel was a major sin in itself, and would unavoidably lead to further retribution, as well as to the delaying of redemption. Vayoel Moshe crystallized the Rabbi's uncompromisingly hostile stance toward the State. The Oaths were not utilized as a central argument beforehand, and his analysis of them is Teitelbaum's most notable contribution to rabbinic literature. The link between Zionism and the Holocaust became a hallmark of his religious worldview. Teitelbaum's rabbinic authority and wealthy supporters in the United States made him the leader of the radical, anti-Zionist flank of the Haredi Jewish world. He adopted a policy of utter non-recognition towards the State of Israel, banning his adherents residing there from voting in the elections or from affiliating in any way with the state's institutions. When he visited the country in 1959, a separate train was organized for him, with no Israeli markings. The Israeli educational networks of Satmar and Edah HaChareidis, the latter also led by the Grand Rebbe, are fully independent and receive funding from abroad. Satmar and allied elements refuse to receive social benefits or any other monetary aid from the Israeli state, and criticize those non-Zionist Haredim who do. Teitelbaum and his successors routinely condemned the Agudah and its supporters for taking part in Israeli politics. As to Religious Zionism, the Satmar Rebbe described its chief theologian, Abraham Isaac Kook, as "wicked adversary and enemy of our Holy Faith". In 1967, when the Western Wall and other holy places fell under Israel's control after the Six-Day War, Teitelbaum reinforced his views in the 1968 pamphlet Concerning Redeeming and Concerning Changing (; Ruth ), arguing the war was no miracle, as opposed to statements by Menachem Mendel Schneerson of Chabad and others, whom he condemned severely, and forbade prayer at the Wall or at the other liberated holy sites, as he believed it would grant legitimacy to Israel's rule. While providing some support for the otherwise unrelated Neturei Karta, Satmar has not always condoned its actions. Teitelbaum denounced them in 1967, when they co-operated with Arabs, and in 2006, the rabbinic court of Zalman Leib Teitelbaum's group placed an anathema upon those who visited the International Conference to Review the Global Vision of the Holocaust. Women's role Satmar women are required to cover their necklines fully, and to wear long sleeves, long, conservative skirts, and full stockings. Whereas married Orthodox Jewish women do not show their hair in public, in Satmar, this is taken a step further: Satmar women shave their heads after their weddings, and wear a wig or other covering over their heads, while some cover the wig with a small hat or scarf. The Grand Rebbe also insisted that the stockings of women and girls be fully opaque, a norm accepted by other Hungarian Hasidic groups which revered him. Joel Teitelbaum opened Satmar's "Bais Ruchel" school network only because he feared that if he did not, many parents would send their daughters to Bais Yaakov. In 2016, the sect issued a decree warning that university education for women is "dangerous". Written in Yiddish, the decree warns: Institutions The sect operates numerous community foundations. Bikur Cholim ("Visiting the sick"), established in 1957 by Teitelbaum's wife Alte Feiga, concerns itself with helping hospitalized Jews, regardless of affiliation. Rav Tuv, founded in the 1950s to help Jews in the Soviet Union, aids Jewish refugees. Today, the organization mostly helps Jews from Iran and Yemen. Keren Hatzolah is a charitable fund to support yeshivas and the poor in Israel, providing for those who shun government benefits. Teitelbaum founded a network of large educational institutions, both yeshivas and girls' schools. If its schools in New York were a public school system, it would be the fourth-largest system in the state, after those of New York City, Buffalo, and Rochester. In most places, the girls' schools are called Beis Rochel, and the yeshivas Torah VeYirah. In 1953, Teitelbaum founded the Central Rabbinical Congress of the United States and Canada, which provides various services, including kashrut supervision. Satmar also operates its own rabbinical courts, which settle various issues within the community by the principles of Jewish Law. The sect has a Yiddish newspaper called Der Yid, now privatized, and various other Yiddish publications. It is currently identified with Zalman's Hasidim; whereas Der Blatt, established in 2000, is owned and run by a follower of Aaron's. In media The Satmar community of Williamsburg was portrayed in the controversial Netflix miniseries Unorthodox in 2020, with consultation from Eli Rosen, a former Hasidic community member. A majority of the show's dialogue is in Yiddish. Notable Satmar people Aaron Teitelbaum (born 1947), rebbe of Satmar in Kiryas Yoel, New York Chaim Yehoshua Halberstam, Satmar rabbi in Monsey, New York Joel Teitelbaum (1887–1979), founding rebbe of Satmar Louis Kestenbaum (born 1952), American real estate developer Meilech Kohn (born 1969), American singer Moshe Teitelbaum (1914–2006), rebbe Shmueli Ungar, singer Yossi Green (born 1955), American composer Zalman Teitelbaum (born 1951), rebbe of Satmar in Williamsburg, Brooklyn See also History of the Jews in Hungary Jewish anti-Zionism Neturei Karta References Further reading Feldman, Deborah (2012). Unorthodox: The Scandalous Rejection of my Hasidic Roots. New York: Simon & Schuster. . Roberts, Sam, "Embracing a Race and Rejecting a Sect". Bookshelf. The New York Times, February 12, 2012. The New York Times Bestseller: Non-fiction, October 21, 2012. Weisshaus, Yechezkel Yossef (2008). The Rebbe: A Glimpse into the Daily Life of the Satmar Rebbe Rabbeinu Yoel Teitelbaum. Translated by Mechon Lev Avos from Sefer Eidis B'Yosef by Rabbi Yechezkel Yosef Weisshaus. Machon Lev Avos. Lakewood, New Jersey: Distributed by Israel Book Shop. . External links Goldstein, Joseph (March 22, 2006). "Satmar Dispute Over Many Millions To Be Decided by a Secular Court", New York Sun. Retrieved 30 April 2020. One Rebbe or Two? (05/05/06) from The Forward Satmar Hasidic Williamsburg by Suzanne Stein Hats On, Gloves Off (05/08/06) from New York Magazine. 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231362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus%20myrtifolia	Citrus myrtifolia	Citrus myrtifolia, the myrtle-leaved orange tree, is a species of Citrus with foliage similar to that of the common myrtle. It is a compact tree with small leaves and no thorns which grows to a height of and can be found in Malta, Libya, the south of France and Italy (primarily in Liguria, typically Savona, and also in Tuscany, Sicily and Calabria). The fruit of the tree resemble small oranges. It has a bitter flavor and is commonly called by its Italian name, chinotto (). It is an essential flavoring agent of most Italian amari, of the popular Campari apéritif, and of several brands of carbonated soft drinks that are generically called "chinotto". Citrus myrtifolia is sometimes planted in gardens. Due to its compactness, it can also be planted in a pot or other container. Synonyms Citrus aurantium var. myrtifolia Ker-Gawl. in Bot. Reg. vol. 4, t. 346, in textu. 1818. Citrus pumila Marc. in Izv. Sochin. Obl. Sukhum. Stants. vol. 2. 1921. References Chandler, W. H., S. N. Hooper & M. J. Harvey - Evergreen Orchards. Kimpton London 1958: 535 pp. Facciola, S. - Cornucopia. A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publ. Vista 1990: 677 pp. Hodgson, R. W. (1965): "Taxonomy and nomenclature in the Citrus" (pp 317–331) - In: S. Krishnamurthi (ed.) - Advances in Agriculture Sciences and Their Applications. Agric. Coll. Res. Inst. Coimbatore. Mortensen, E. & E. T. Bullard - Handbook of Tropical and Subtropical Horticulture. (3rd ed. 1966). Department of State Agency for International Development Washington 1964: 260 pp. Morton, J. F. (ed.) - Fruits of Warm Climates. Creative Resource System, Winterville, N.C. 1987: 505 pp. Swingle, W. T. (1946): "The botany of Citrus and its wild relatives of the orange subfamily (family Rutaceae, subfamily Aurantioideae)" (pp 129–474) - In: H. J. Webber & L. D. Batchelor (eds.) - The Citrus Industry. Vol. 1. History, botany and breeding Univ. of California Press Berkeley: 1028 pp. Tanaka, T. - Species problem in Citrus. A critical study of wild and cultivated units of Citrus, based upon field studies in their native homes. Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science Ueno 1954: 152 pp. Webber, H. J. (1946): "Cultivated varieties of Citrus" (pp 475–668) - In: H. J. Webber & L. D. Batchelor (eds.) - The Citrus Industry; 1. History, botany and breeding Univ. of California Press Berkeley: 1028 pp. External links NCBI Taxonomy Database Mansfield's World Database of Agricultural and Horticultural Crops USDA Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) entry myrtifolia Citrus Ornamental trees Taxa named by Constantine Samuel Rafinesque	[ 0.06980770826339722, -0.00014641961024608463, -0.5360737442970276, -0.1510453075170517, 0.17000477015972137, 0.04727739840745926, 0.23746395111083984, 0.7530860304832458, -0.16612984240055084, 0.13693365454673767, -0.2605304419994354, 0.18594038486480713, -0.5621387362480164, 0.3804757595062256, -0.3638424873352051, 0.4100460112094879, 0.8427726626396179, 1.1102691888809204, -0.1596347689628601, -0.1115264892578125, -0.24494688212871552, -0.20118798315525055, 0.12144660204648972, -0.2331019788980484, 0.6165134906768799, -0.8307689428329468, 0.4253610372543335, 0.2153688222169876, 0.6755648255348206, 0.03978918865323067, -0.549452006816864, 0.44904500246047974, 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231364	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Bosch%20GmbH	Robert Bosch GmbH	Robert Bosch GmbH (; ), commonly known as Bosch, is a German multinational engineering and technology company headquartered in Gerlingen. The company was founded by Robert Bosch in Stuttgart in 1886. Bosch is 92% owned by Robert Bosch Stiftung, a charitable institution. Bosch's core operating areas are spread across four business sectors: mobility (hardware and software), consumer goods (including household appliances and power tools), industrial technology (including drive and control) and energy and building technology. History 1886–1920 The company started in a backyard in Stuttgart-West as the Werkstätte für Feinmechanik und Elektrotechnik (Workshop for Precision Mechanics and Electrical Engineering) on 15 November 1886. The next year Bosch presented a low voltage magneto for gas engines. From 1897, Bosch started installing magneto ignition devices into automobiles and became a supplier of an ignition system. In 1902, the chief engineer at Bosch, Gottlob Honold, unveiled the high-voltage magneto ignition system with spark plug. In 1901 Bosch opened its first factory, in Stuttgart and introduced the 8-hour day for workers. In 1910, the Feuerbach plant was built near Stuttgart, where Bosch started to produce headlights in 1913. In 1917, Bosch became a corporation. 1920s and 30s Bosch started to produce windshield wipers in 1926 and diesel injection pumps in 1927. In 1932 it bought Junkers & Co's gas appliances production and developed its first power drill and first car radio. Nazi collaboration In late 1933 negotiations between Robert Bosch AG and the Nazi Party began on relocating parts of armaments production Germany's interior. Bosch founded two such alternative plants in 1935 and 1937: Dreilinden Maschinenbau GmbH in Kleinmachnow near Berlin and Elektro- und Feinmechanische Industrie GmbH (later Trillke-Werke GmbH) in Hildesheim. Both plants were used exclusively for armaments production. These "shadow factories" were built under great secrecy and in close cooperation with the Nazi authorities. In 1937, Bosch AG became a limited liability company (GmbH). The Bosch subsidiary Dreilinden Maschinenbau GmbH (DLMG) in Kleinmachnow employed around 5,000 people, more than half of whom were forced laborers, prisoners of war, and female concentration camp prisoners, including many women from the Warsaw Uprising. They had to produce accessories for German Luftwaffe aircraft. In Hildesheim, a secret plant for the entire electrical equipment of tanks, tractors, and trucks of the Wehrmacht was built. In 1944, 4,290 men and women worked in the Trillke factory, 2,019 of whom were forced laborers, prisoners of war and military internees. During the Second World War, a total of 2,711 people who had been deported to Germany from the occupied countries had to work at the Bosch plant in Hildesheim. In the last years of the war, no new German tank ever drove without the starter elements from the Bosch factory in Hildesheim. Bosch also had a monopoly position in the outfitting of German Luftwaffe aircraft. During the war, production was further decentralized, Bosch produced in an ever larger number of factories, and relocated parts of its production to 213 plants in more than 100 locations. On 12 March 1942, the company's founder, Robert Bosch, died at the age of 80. Angela Martin and Ewa Czerwiakowski interviewed numerous former forced laborers and concentration camp prisoners of Dreilinden Maschinenbau GmbH and Trillke-Werke as part of a Berliner Geschichtswerkstatt project, researched the history of the two shadow factories, and published several books and exhibitions on the subject. Until 2000 After the second world war, Bosch established a partnership with the Japanese company Denso. In 1964, Robert Bosch Stiftung was founded. Bosch founded a new development center in Schwieberdingen in 1968, and the headquarters moved to Gerlingen in 1970. In 1981, the company participated on an equity basis in the Telefonbau & Normalzeit GmbH that was renamed Telenorma in 1985, and acquired completely in 1987. In 1994, this part of the company was renamed as Bosch Telecom GmbH. The most relevant inventions of the company until 2000 were the oxygen sensor (1976), the electric motor control (1979), the traction control system (1986), the xenon light for cars (1991), the electronic stability control (1995), further development of the common rail direct fuel injection (invented by Magneti Marelli) (1997), and the direct fuel injection (2000). In 2000, Bosch sold the Private Networks area (nowadays, Tenovis and Avaya, respectively). 21st century In 2001, Bosch acquired the Mannesmann Rexroth AG, which they later renamed to Bosch Rexroth AG. In the same year, the company opened a new testing center in Vaitoudden, close to Arjeplog in north Sweden. A new developing center in Abstatt, Germany followed in 2004. In 2002, Bosch acquired Philips CSI, which at the time was manufacturing a broad range of professional communication and security products and systems including CCTV, congress and public address systems. Important inventions in these years were the electric hydraulic brake in 2001, the common rail fuel injection with piezo-injectors, the digital car radio with a disc drive, and the cordless screwdriver with a lithium-ion battery in 2003. Bosch received the Deutsche Zukunftspreis (German Future Prize) from the German president in 2005 and 2008. A new development center was planned in 2008 in Renningen. In 2014, the first departments moved to the new center, while the remaining departments followed in 2015. In 2006, Bosch acquired Telex Communications and Electro-Voice. In 2009, Bosch invested about 3.6 billion Euro in development and research. Approximately 3900 patents are published per year. In addition to increasing energy efficiency by employing renewable energies, the company plans to invest into new areas such as biomedical engineering. China has developed into an important market and manufacturing base for Bosch. In 2012, Bosch had 34,000 employees and a revenue of 41.7 billion Yuan (about 5 billion Euro) in China. 2012 – Purchased SPX Service Solutions 2012 – Bosch sold its foundation brakes activities to KPS Capital Partners, that led to the establishment of Chassis Brakes International 2013 – Bosch announced it would exit its solar business 2014 – Bosch entered talks to acquire Red Bend Software. 2014 – Bosch takes over 100% of the shares from the former BSH Bosch and Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH joint venture (home appliances) 2014 – Bosch received the 2014 U.S. Smart Partner award for Physical Security from Ingram Micro Inc. 2015 – Bosch takes over 100% of the shares of the former ZF Lenksysteme (Steering Systems) GmbH joint venture (was 50/50 with ZF Friedrichshafen) 2015 – Bosch purchases Seeo, Inc, a start-up working on solid state lithium ion batteries. In January 2020, Bosch Packaging Technology became Syntegon In June 2021, Bosch christened its newly built semiconductor manufacturing plant in which it invested $1.2 billion, its largest-ever spending on a single project. Operations The majority of Bosch Group businesses are grouped into the following four business sectors. Mobility solutions The Mobility Solutions business sector accounts for 60 percent of total sales in 2019. Its main areas of activity are injection technology and powertrain peripherals for internal-combustion engines, powertrain electrification, steering systems, safety and driver-assistance systems, infotainment technology as well as vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication, repair-shop concepts, and technology and services for the automotive aftermarket. Particular strategic priorities for the sector include transforming the powertrain and expanding the business in the areas of electrification, automated driving, new electrical and electronic architectures for vehicles, accessing adjacent market segments, and developing additional services. The new Powertrain Solutions division was formed effective 1 January 2018, in order to develop powertrain technology products, regardless of the energy source. The new division resulted from the merger of the former Gasoline Systems and Diesel Systems divisions. It offers products for powertrain technology, from gasoline and diesel direct injection to electrified powertrains with battery systems and, in the future, it will offer fuel-cell technologies as well. Brands within this sector include: AutoCrew Bosch Car Service ITK Engineering Robinair HC Cargo Zexel ETAS Industrial technology In the 2019 business year, the Industrial Technology business sector generated roughly 10 percent of total Bosch Group sales. The sector includes the Drive and Control Technology division, whose products include customized drive, control, and linear motion for factory automation, plant construction and engineering, and mobile machinery. The second division, Packaging Technology, provides process and packaging for the pharmaceuticals and foodstuffs industries. Its range includes stand-alone machines, systems, and service. In 2018, Bosch decided to look for a new owner for this business. Bosch's in-house provider of assembly systems, Robert Bosch Manufacturing Solutions GmbH, Stuttgart, remains part of the Bosch Group; up to now, it has been part of the Packaging Technology division. In addition, the Bosch Connected Industry business unit, which develops software and carries out Industry 4.0 projects for internal and external customers, has been part of the Industrial Technology business sector since the start of 2018. In January 2020, Bosch Packaging Technology became Syntegon Consumer goods The Consumer Goods business sector contributed some 23 percent of total Bosch Group sales in 2019. Its Power Tools division is a supplier of power tools, power-tool accessories, and measuring technology. In addition to power tools such as hammer drills, cordless screwdrivers, and jigsaws, its products also include gardening equipment such as lawnmowers, hedge trimmers, and high-pressure cleaners. One of the division's focal points is convenient, high-performance cordless tools, and increasingly also web-enabled tools and services. The Consumer Goods business sector also includes BSH Hausgeräte GmbH, which offers a broad range of modern, energy-efficient, and increasingly connected household appliances. Its products range from washing machines and tumble dryers through refrigerators and freezers, stoves and ovens, and dishwashers, to small appliances such as vacuum cleaners, coffee makers, and food processors. Brands within this sector include: Dremel Siemens (under licence) Neff GmbH Gaggenau Hausgeräte Energy and building technology In 2019, the Energy and Building Technology business sector generated 7 percent of total Bosch Group sales. Its Building Technologies division (formerly Security Systems) has two areas of business: the global product business for security and communications, and the regional integrator business. The latter offers services for building security, energy efficiency, and building automation in selected countries. Both units focus on commercial applications. The products encompass video-surveillance, intrusion-detection, fire-detection, and voice-alarm systems, as well as access-control and professional audio and conference systems. The Thermotechnology division offers systems for air conditioning, hot water, and decentralized energy management. It provides heating systems and energy management for residential buildings, water heaters, and commercial and industrial heating and air-conditioning systems. The Bosch Global Service Solutions division offers outsourcing for business processes and services, primarily for customers in the automotive, travel, and logistics industries and in information and communications technology. Within Bosch, it also provides shared-service functions. Robert Bosch Smart Home GmbH offers web-enabled, app-controlled products for the home. Brands within this sector: Dynacord Electro-Voice Telex Worcester Bosch Junkers Other business areas The Bosch Group also operates in other business areas that are not assigned to a particular sector. Bosch Healthcare Solutions GmbH is a wholly owned subsidiary of Robert Bosch GmbH. The subsidiary was established in 2015 with the aim of developing products and services that improve people's health and quality of life. The business offers customers connected products and services in the area of healthcare and medical technology. In March 2020, Bosch Healthcare Solutions announced that it has developed a diagnostic tool for detecting the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic in under three hours. According to Bosch, the test can be performed directly at the point of care, eliminating the need to transport samples. Bosch Software Innovations has been active on the internet of things for nearly ten years. Its team takes IoT ideas from the level of strategy to practical implementation, and helps companies manage the process of digital transformation. The Grow Platform GmbH is the legal entity of Grow and a 100% subsidiary of the Bosch corporation. Grow is an internal start-up incubator. Robert Bosch Venture Capital GmbH (RBVC) is the corporate venture capital company of the Bosch Group. RBVC invests worldwide in innovative start-up companies. Its investment activities focus on technology companies working in areas of business of current and future relevance for Bosch, above all, automation and electrification, energy efficiency, enabling technologies, and healthcare systems. RBVC also invests in services and business models as well as new materials that are relevant to the above-mentioned areas of business. Locations Through a complex network of over 440 subsidiaries and regional entities, the company operates in over 60 countries worldwide. Including sales and service partners, Bosch's global manufacturing, engineering, and sales network covers nearly every country in the world. At 125 locations across the globe, Bosch employs roughly 64,500 associates in research and development. British operations In the UK, Bosch has its corporate head office in Denham, Buckinghamshire, and employs circa. 5200 associates. There are also around 40 other Bosch Group locations throughout the country, including Coventry, Glenrothes, St Neots, Stockport, Stowmarket, Liverpool, Milton Keynes, Worcester and York. Alongside sales and support functions for all Bosch business sectors in the region, the company also manufactures boiler systems, mobile hydraulics, packaging machinery alongside lawn and garden products in the UK. In March 2019, Bosch opened its London Connectory, a Shoreditch-based "co-innovation space" open to partners from the public, private and academic sectors, from start-ups to multinational organisations. North American operations In North America, Robert Bosch LLC (a wholly owned Bosch subsidiary) has corporate headquarters in Farmington Hills, Michigan. Three Research Technology Centers are located in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, Sunnyvale, California, and Cambridge, Massachusetts. Factories and distribution facilities are located in Mt. Prospect, Illinois; Hoffman Estates, Illinois; Broadview, Illinois; Kentwood, Michigan; Warren, Michigan; Owatonna, Minnesota; Waltham, Massachusetts; Clarksville, Tennessee; Anderson, South Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; and 11 other cities. There are also two corporate sites in Brazil and ten in Mexico where a central purchasing office for all divisions of Bosch Group is located in Broadview, Illinois. In North America, Bosch employs about 24,750 people in 80 locations, generating $8.8 billion in sales in 2006. In May 2015, Bosch Security Systems opened its newly constructed distribution center in Greer, South Carolina. The distribution center adds more than 50 new associates in the state and will receive, store and ship more than 50,000 different products for video surveillance, intrusion and fire detection, access control and management systems and professional audio and conference systems. Indian operations Bosch entered India in 1922, when Illies & Company set up a sales office in Calcutta. For three decades, the company operated in the Indian market only through imports. In 1951, the Motor Industries Company Ltd. (MICO) was founded, with Bosch instantly buying 49% of its stock. MICO became the sole distributor and, after the Indian state implemented restrictive import regulations, a factory was set up at Adugodi, Bangalore in 1953, to manufacture various products with Bosch licensing. From this point onward, vocational training took place as well, culminating in the creation of a Vocational Centre in 1960. By 1961, 2,000 people worked at the Bangalore plant, which had already started export business, and 57.5% of MICO shares had been bought by Bosch. This was followed by increased investments into MICO plants in India in the late 1960s and early 1970s; a second plant was installed in Nasik in 1969–1971, a third in Naganathapura in 1988. In the late 1980s, the second-largest contingent of Bosch employees outside of Germany was based in India until eventually, in 2008, MICO was renamed Bosch Limited. Bosch India has a turnover of over US$3 billion and over 31,000 employees spread across 10 locations and 7 application development centers. 84% of Bosch India revenues come from its automotive business, with the remaining 16% split between its non-automotive businesses that include packaging, energy and building solutions, power tools and consumer retail. Bosch also has R & D facilities in Coimbatore and Bangalore, India. This is Bosch's largest R & D operation outside its home market of Germany. In September 2014, Bosch announced the launch of a locally developed eye-care solution in India. The company's new eye screening and detection system offers a combination of hardware and software and provides affordable eye care. Bosch India is listed on the Indian stock exchanges and has a market capitalization of over US$12 billion. In 2022, Bosch's engineering and software solution arm Robert Bosch Engineering and Business Solutions (abbreviated as RBEI), changed its name to Bosch Global Software Technologies. Joint ventures BSH Hausgeräte BSH Hausgeräte GmbH, in which Bosch acquired all shares in 2014, is one of the world's top three companies in the household appliances industry. In Germany and Western Europe, BSH is the market leader. It includes the principal brand names Bosch and Siemens, Gaggenau, Balay, Neff, Thermador, Constructa, Viva and Ufesa brands, and further six regional brands. Bosch household appliances for the North American market are mainly manufactured at its factory near New Bern, North Carolina. EM-motive Daimler AG and Bosch established a 50:50 joint venture (JV) to develop and manufacture electric motors in 2011. The JV, called EM-motive GmbH, manufactures traction motors for electric, fuel cell and extended-range vehicles at a facility in Hildesheim, Germany. In 2019 Bosch acquired the remaining shares and assumed full control of the company. Purolator filters Bosch co-owned Purolator Filters in a joint venture with Mann+Hummel until 2013. In 2013 the Mann+Hummel Group acquired Bosch's stake. SB LiMotive In June 2008 Bosch formed SB LiMotive, a 50:50 joint company with Samsung SDI. The company held ground breaking ceremony for a 28.000 m2 lithium-ion battery cell manufacturing plant in September 2009 and it is scheduled to start production for hybrid vehicles in 2011 and for electric vehicles in 2012. The plant will generate 1,000 jobs in Ulsan, Korea in addition to the 500 employees in Korea, Germany and the United States. SB LiMotive was officially ended in September 2012 with both companies focusing on automotive batteries alone. Static ADAS Calibration In October 2020, Bosch and Mitchell International paired up to develop the MD-500, a wireless tablet that repair planners can use to link directly to OEM repair procedures from Diagnostic Trouble Codes (DTCs), automatically upload pre-scan and post-scans, and write estimates and calibration reports. Bosch and Mitchell launched the MD-TS21, a target system which permits repair facilities to quickly and accurately calibrate blind-spot monitors, front-facing camera, and radar sensors in automobile models with ADAS, in February 2021. Corporate affairs Robert Bosch GmbH, including its wholly owned subsidiaries such as Robert Bosch LLC in North America, is unusual in that it is an extremely large, privately owned corporation that is almost entirely (92%) owned by a charitable foundation. Thus, while most of the profits are invested back into the corporation to build for the future and sustain growth, nearly all of the profits distributed to shareholders are devoted to humanitarian causes. As shown in the diagram (above), the Robert Bosch Stiftung (Robert Bosch Foundation) holds 92% of the shares of Robert Bosch GmbH, but no voting rights. The Robert Bosch Industrietreuhand KG (Robert Bosch Industrial Trust KG), with old members of the company management, agents of the Bosch family, and other eminent people from the industry (such as Jürgen Hambrecht, CEO of BASF), have 93% of the votes, but no shares (0.01%). The remaining 8% of shares and 7% of voting-rights are held by the descendants of the company founder Robert Bosch. For example, in 2004, the net profit was US$2.1 billion, but only US$78 million was distributed as dividends to shareholders. Of that figure, US$72 million was distributed to the charitable foundation, and the other US$6 million to Bosch family stockholders. The remaining 96% of the profits were invested back into the company. In its core automotive technology business, Bosch invests 9% of its revenue on research and development, nearly double the industry average of 4.7%. Accreditations Almost all Bosch locations are both ISO 9001 (quality) and ISO 14001 (environmental protection) certified. In addition to that, their management is compliant with OHSAS 18001. Environmental practices and initiatives In May 2019, Bosch said it plans to be "fully carbon-neutral” by 2020 – a decade or more earlier than most of its rivals – thanks to big investments in clean electricity and an ambitious carbon offset program. Controversy Role in emission cheating software In 2006, Volkswagen executives asked Bosch for help in developing software for their emission defeat devices. Volkswagen is one of Bosch's biggest customers. Volkswagen engineers provided detailed specifications to Bosch, which wrote the necessary code. Bosch was apparently concerned about the legality of software and asked Volkswagen to assume responsibility if the fraud was discovered, but Volkswagen refused. Starting in 2008, Bosch supplied approximately 17 million motor control and mixture control devices containing illegal software to various manufacturers both domestically and globally. With such software, the automobiles fitted with Bosch's devices emitted more nitrogen oxides than allowed under regulations. On 1 February 2017, Bosch agreed to pay consumers in the United States $327.5 million as compensation for its role in devising the software. Bosch also provided emissions software for Fiat Chrysler's 3.0 L V6 diesel engine used in 100,000 model year 2014–2016 Grand Cherokee SUVs and Ram Trucks and agreed to pay affected consumers $27.5 million as part of a broader settlement in January 2019. In May 2019, Bosch paid another $100 million fine for its connection to the Dieselgate scandal. Role in Astongate greenwashing campaign In 2020, Bosch funded the creation of a 20-page report entitled Decarbonising Road Transport: There Is No Silver Bullet, which was widely debunked for promoting misleading information about the CO2 emissions created in the manufacture of electric vehicles, following the UK's declaration to ban the sale of new internal combustion engine vehicles from 2030. The report compared the emissions created in the production of the all-electric Polestar 2 car, which it claimed would emit 24 tonnes of CO2 over its life, with a petrol-powered Volvo XC40, which the report claimed would create 14 tonnes of CO2. Based on the comparison of these two cars alone the study promoted by Clarendon Communications claimed that all electric vehicles would need to drive in order to offset the emissions from manufacture – when, in reality, a typical EV need only drive in order to offset the emissions from manufacture. While Bosch was a key funder of the report, the scandal became known as Astongate given the relationship between British automotive manufacturer, Aston Martin and Clarendon Communications, a shell company posing as a PR agency which set up to promote the report, and which was registered to James Michael Stephens – the Director Global Government & Corporate Affairs at Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd. Chip Shortage Class Action In January 2021, Volkswagen filed a $1.2 billion class-action against Bosch and Continental AG after VW was forced to reduce production due to a lack of automotive microchips. On January 26, 2021, the Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit affirmed that Bosch won on all claims. Partnership with universities Bosch has formed a strategic alliance with the Technische Universität Darmstadt. See also Continental AG Knorr-Bremse Siemens References External links Auto parts suppliers of Germany Automotive companies of Germany Engineering companies of Germany Electronics companies of Germany Tool manufacturing companies of Germany Home appliance brands Home appliance manufacturers of Germany Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning companies Power tool manufacturers Plug-in hybrid vehicle industry Multinational companies headquartered in Germany Manufacturing companies established in 1886 1886 establishments in Germany Privately held companies of Germany German brands German companies established in 1886	[ 0.6139636635780334, 0.6565132737159729, 0.007860246114432812, -0.24786384403705597, -0.06738653033971786, 0.4621610939502716, 0.5326241254806519, 0.04354873672127724, -0.09053893387317657, 0.4507104754447937, -0.5211513638496399, 0.15062017738819122, 0.22440990805625916, 0.5339475870132446, -0.4712405502796173, 0.21081916987895966, 0.15397703647613525, 0.4334259331226349, 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231367	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosch	Bosch	Bosch may refer to: People Bosch (surname) Hieronymus Bosch (c. 1450 – 1516), painter Van den Bosch, a Dutch toponymic surname Robert Bosch, founder of Robert Bosch GmbH Places Bosch (island), a former island in the Wadden Sea Bosch, Netherlands, a hamlet in North Brabant 7414 Bosch, a main-belt asteroid Bosch en Duin, Netherlands Den Bosch, colloquial name of 's-Hertogenbosch, Netherlands Villa Bosch, Argentina Arts, entertainment, and media Harry Bosch, the nickname of Hieronymus Bosch, a fictional detective created by Michael Connelly Bosch (TV series), an American TV series based on Connelly's novels Huis Ten Bosch (theme park), Japan Buildings Bosch Palace, the official residence of the U.S. Ambassador to Argentina Huis ten Bosch, an official palace of the Dutch Royal Family in The Hague, Netherlands Villa Bosch, a villa in Heidelberg and former residence of Carl Bosch, now the location of the Klaus Tschira Foundation Companies and organisations Bosch Brewing Company, a small beer brewery founded by Joseph Bosch in Michigan, USA , a home appliance joint venture between Bosch and Siemens , a German engineering and technology company , a private charitable foundation and majority shareholder in Science and technology Bosch reaction, a chemical reaction between carbon dioxide and hydrogen producing carbon, water and heat; named after Carl Bosch Bosch's Pitcher-Plant, named after Johannes van den Bosch Other uses Boche or Bosche, see a List of terms used for Germans, generally pejorative See also Boch (disambiguation) Boche (disambiguation) Bochs, computer emulator Borsch (disambiguation) Bosc (disambiguation) Bosco (disambiguation) Bosh (disambiguation) Haber-Bosch, a process named after Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch	[ 0.05670734867453575, 0.31324663758277893, -0.4479389786720276, 0.013882015831768513, -0.5148690938949585, 0.766197144985199, 0.8284575343132019, -0.1479402482509613, -0.6993560791015625, 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231368	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brasidas	Brasidas	Brasidas (, died 422 BC) was the most distinguished Spartan officer during the first decade of the Peloponnesian War. He died during the Second Battle of Amphipolis while winning one of his most spectacular victories. Biography Brasidas was the son of Tellis (Τέλλις) and Argileonis, and won his first laurels by the relief of Methone, which was besieged by the Athenians (431 BC). During the following year he seems to have been eponymous ephor, and in 429 he was sent out as one of the three commissioners to advise the admiral Cnemus. As trierarch he distinguished himself in the assault on the Athenian position at the Battle of Pylos, during which he was severely wounded In 424 BC, while Brasidas mustered a force at Corinth for a campaign in Thrace, he frustrated an Athenian attack on Megara. Immediately afterwards he marched through Thessaly at the head of 1,700 hoplites (700 helots and 1000 Peloponnesian mercenaries) and joined Perdiccas II of Macedon. The Macedonian king tried to use the Peloponnesian taskforce against the Lyncestians, a Macedonian tribe that had fallen out with their king, but Brasidas refused to be made a tool for the furtherance of Perdiccas's ambitions; he ignored the king's objections and received and negotiated with Arrhabaeus, the leader of the Lyncestians. After he settled with Arrhabaeus, Brasidas set about the accomplishment of his main object, and, partly by the rapidity and boldness of his movements, partly by his personal charm and the moderation of his demands, succeeded during the course of the winter in winning over the important cities of Acanthus, Amphipolis (the main objective), Stagirus and Toroni as well as a number of minor towns, and most of the Chalcidic peninsulas . An attack on Eion was foiled by the arrival of Thucydides (the famous historian of the war, who at this time was serving as one of the Athenian generals) at the head of an Athenian squadron. In the spring of 423 a truce was concluded between Athens and Sparta, but its operation was at once imperiled by the city of Scione, which it transpired had come over to Brasidas two days after the truce began, which led to the Athenian requiring it to be returned to them. Brasidas refused to return Scione; and also accepted the revolt of Mende shortly afterwards. The Scionians granted Brasidas a golden crown and named him the liberator of Hellas. An Athenian fleet under Nicias and Nicostratus recovered Mende and blockaded Scione, which fell two years later (421 BC). Meanwhile, Perdiccas forced Brasidas to join him in a campaign against Arrhabaeus and the Lyncestians. They soon met the Lyncestians in a pitched battle and were victorious, driving Arrhabaeus into the mountains. On the approach of a body of Illyrians, who, though summoned by Perdiccas, unexpectedly declared for Arrhabaeus, the Macedonians fled, and Brasidas's force was rescued from a critical position only by his coolness and ability (Battle of Lyncestis). This brought to a head the quarrel between Brasidas and Perdiccas (I.G. i. 42). In April 422, the truce with Sparta expired, and in the same summer Cleon was dispatched to Thrace, where he stormed Toroni and Galepsus and prepared for an attack on Amphipolis, the most important Athenian subject city in Chalcidice. When Cleon brought part of his army forward to probe the defenses, Brasidas recognized an opportunity to defeat his superior force in detail. Brasidas' plan for his final victory was typical of his campaigns in Thrace. It was a boldly aggressive surprise attack aimed to throw the enemy into confusion and it made the best possible use of both his small force of Spartan hoplites and his allies who made up the bulk of his army, in this case mostly Edonians from the city of Myrkinos. Brasidas personally led the Spartans in a sudden charge from Amphipolis, routing the left wing of the Athenian army. His allies sallied from the northeastern gate and attacked from the north, breaking the enemy's right wing. Edonian and Chalcidian cavalry and light infantry pursued the fleeing Athenians, killing 600 men, including Cleon. On the Spartan side only seven fatalities are reported, but one of them was Brasidas, who was mortally wounded at the head of his Spartan troops. He was buried at Amphipolis within the city limits (an extraordinary honor among the ancient Greeks) with impressive pomp, and for the future was regarded as the founder (oikistes) of the city and honored with yearly games and sacrifices. At Sparta a cenotaph was erected in his memory near the tombs of Pausanias and Leonidas, and yearly speeches were made and games celebrated in their honor, in which only Spartiates could compete. Legacy Ch. Koukouli-Chrysanthaki in her three-decade research at Amphipolis offers evidence of the recovery and identification of Brasidas' burial at the ancient Amphipolis' agora. According to the Greek historian Thucydides, Brasidas's grave was placed in front of the new, relocated agora of Amphipolis. An archaeological dig at Amphipolis unearthed the foundations of a small building, and a cist grave containing the remains of a silver ossuary accompanied by a gold wreath, believed to hold the remains of Brasidas. This ossuary is currently located in the Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis. The grave itself was a hole dug into the existing rock, with limestone blocks and mortar used to create the cist grave. Thucydides' characterization of Brasidas suggests that Brasidas united in himself the stereotypical Spartan courage with those virtues in which regular Spartans were most signally lacking. Brasidas was apparently quick in forming his plans and carried them out without delay or hesitation. Furthermore, the rhetoric in the speech of Brasidas to the Acanthians is of noticeably higher quality than the other Spartan speeches recorded by Thucydides (Thuc. iv. 84-89). It appears that Brasidas's un-Spartan virtues raised jealousy and suspicion at Sparta. See in particular Thucydides; what Diodorus xii. adds is mainly oratorical elaboration or pure invention. A fuller account will be found in the histories of Greece (e.g. those of George Grote, Karl Julius Beloch, Georg Busolt, Meyer) and in G. Schimmelpfeng, De Brasidae Spartani rebus gestis atque ingenio (Marburg, 1857). In popular culture Brasidas appears in the 2018 video game Assassin's Creed Odyssey. Brasidas is portrayed in the game as a powerful warrior and close friend of the protagonist. Quotes "Make no show of cowardice then on your part, seeing the greatness of the issues at stake, and I will show that what I preach to others I can practice myself" (Strassler 307/5.9.10). "Not a bad speaker either, for a Spartan" (Thucydides 4.84) "He did the Lacedaemonians very great service" (Thucydides 4.81) See also History of the Peloponnesian War References External links Brasidas by Jona Lendering 422 BC deaths Ancient Spartan generals 5th-century BC Spartans Spartans of the Peloponnesian War Ancient Greeks killed in battle Ancient Amphipolis Year of birth unknown	[ -0.46102195978164673, -0.20481689274311066, -1.0270394086837769, 0.3832055926322937, -0.26384589076042175, 1.0357404947280884, 0.4226573705673218, 0.029838325455784798, -0.3163265287876129, -0.34325677156448364, 0.19921879470348358, 0.25757068395614624, -0.6462680101394653, -0.4215271770954132, -0.05125582963228226, 0.3847047686576843, -0.004351413808763027, -0.2354203462600708, 0.34472182393074036, 0.020459694787859917, 0.34903275966644287, 0.3694571554660797, 0.3310478925704956, 0.0733601376414299, 0.015510604716837406, 0.23588871955871582, 0.056205034255981445, 0.627034604549408, 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231369	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shulchan%20Aruch%20HaRav	Shulchan Aruch HaRav	The Shulchan Aruch HaRav (; also romanized Shulkhan Arukh HaRav) is especially a record of prevailing halakha by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi (1745–1812), known during his lifetime as HaRav (Hebrew for "The Rabbi") and as the first Rebbe (Yiddish for "rabbi") of Chabad. Within the Chabad community the work is known as the Alter Rebbe's Shulchan Aruch. New edition of the Shulchan Aruch Rabbi Shneur Zalman was asked by his teacher, Rabbi Dov Ber, the Maggid of Mezritch, to write an adjusted version of the Shulchan Aruch (1562 CE) of Rabbi Joseph Karo with reference to later commentaries, as well as subsequent responsa, for nascent Hassidism. The Shulchan Aruch (and its forerunner, the Beit Yosef) was written from the standpoint of Sephardi Minhag. Rabbi Shneur Zalman composed his updated and adapted Shulchan Aruch (c. 1800), so that Hassidic laymen would be able to study the corresponding Jewish law, and in an attempt to reference halakha (Jewish law) as it stood at his time and place. Aiming to avoid ambiguity or obscurity, the work references the common Hassidic halakha with its underlying reasoning. Chabad-hagiography has it that Shneur Zalman—his works form the very foundation of Chabad philosophy—finished the composition at age of twenty. However, most of the work was lost prior to publication. Influence The Shulchan Aruch HaRav is today used by most Hasidim as their basis for daily practice. The work is broadly considered an authoritative halachic text, and is frequently cited by later authorities such as Rabbi Yisrael Meir Kagan in his Mishnah Berurah and the Ben Ish Chai of Rabbi Yosef Chaim of Baghdad, as well as in many contemporary responsa by leading halachic authorities of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Shulchan Aruch HaRav is also one of the three works on which Shlomo Ganzfried based his Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, the well-known precis of customary Ashkenazi Halakha. Although widely accepted, the work was originally limited in printings. Much of the original text was destroyed in a fire in Lubavitch, and only parts of copies of the draft survived. Kehot Publication Society (2002) has recently begun publication of a Bilingual Edition; in this work notations appear whenever Shneur Zalman's rulings are at variance with those in Yosef Karo's Shulchan Aruch. References External links Fulltext (Hebrew), chabadlibrary.org Shulchanaruchharav.com Chabad-Lubavitch texts Rabbinic legal texts and responsa Shneur Zalman of Liadi Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law Hebrew-language religious books Sifrei Kodesh	[ -0.005758005194365978, 0.7284525632858276, -0.4397496283054352, -1.119943380355835, -0.61812424659729, 0.8404936790466309, 0.45920097827911377, -0.12984687089920044, 0.2731761038303375, -0.47845104336738586, -0.28552955389022827, -0.37884509563446045, 0.16820494830608368, 0.37799257040023804, -0.4614528715610504, 0.6497538089752197, 0.3519168496131897, -0.08019383251667023, -0.4933829605579376, -0.17648649215698242, -0.0637018159031868, -0.20068144798278809, 0.18022030591964722, 0.3628081679344177, -0.010898429900407791, -0.09336744248867035, 0.4364122152328491, -0.42939063906669617, -0.2855342626571655, 0.0265914648771286, 0.06069030985236168, 0.5172551274299622, 0.24932017922401428, -0.38865214586257935, -0.13230517506599426, 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231372	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phang%20Nga%20province	Phang Nga province	Phang Nga (, ) is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand, on the shore of the Andaman Sea to the west and Phang Nga Bay to the south. Neighboring provinces are (from north, clockwise) Ranong, Surat Thani, and Krabi. To the south is the Phuket province, connected by the Sarasin Bridge. Geography The province is on the west side of the Malay Peninsula, and includes the many islands of the Phang Nga Bay. The most famous one is the so-called James Bond Island, a needle formed limestone rock in the sea, which featured in the 1974 movie The Man with the Golden Gun. Ao Phang Nga (Phang Nga Bay) National Park was established in 1981 to protect the many islands. The Similan Islands and Surin Islands, two of Thailand's main diving destinations, are also part of Phang Nga province. The total forest area is or 32.4 percent of provincial area. Toponymy Phang Nga is the modern Thai transliteration of the archaic Malay word pangan, literally 'jungle'. The phrase orang pangan denotes 'heathen, pagan, primitive people', in reference to a generalised tribe or people typically inhabiting jungle areas of the Malay Peninsula and its offshore islands. History Phang Nga province originally believed that the name was "Mueang Phu Nga", In the past, Phu Nga city depended on Nakhon Si Thammarat. From the chronicles it appears that before the Rattanakosin period, Phang Nga was a sub-district with Takua Pa city. Until the reign of King Rama I of Rattanakosin, Phang Nga has been elevated to a city equivalent to the city of Takua Pa and Takua Thung. Rattanakosin period Phang Nga was officially established in the reign of King Rama II of Rattanakosin in 1809. In that year, The Burmese attacked the towns of Takua Pa, Takua Thung and Thalang, King Rama II ordered to gather immigrants to establish a new community in Phang Nga town at "Kra Phu Nga". Later in the reign of King Rama III, Phraya Borirak Phuthon (Saeng Na Nakhon) was appointed as the first governor of Phang Nga in 1840, and has dissolved the city of Takua Thung into a district of Phang Nga and later Takua Pa was included as a district of Phang Nga in 1931. In 1890, King Rama V travelled to Phang Nga and recorded about the state of Phang Nga that is Phang Nga is a beautiful fertile city. Many years later in 1916, has changed the name of "Phang Nga Town" to "Phang Nga province". Later, when the economic downturn occurred in the reign of King Rama VII, has collapsed Takua Pa, which has status as a province in the district up to Phang Nga. Symbols The provincial seal shows the Phu Khao Chang mountains in the background, with city hall in front. It also shows a dredge to represent the tin mining in the province. The provincial slogan is, "Massive mining industry, Ban Klang Nam 'floating house', delightful caves, strangely shaped hills, Jampun flower, rich in resources". The provincial tree is Cinnamomum porrectum (hardy cinnamon), and the provincial flower is Anaxagorea javanica. Administrative divisions Provincial government Phang Nga is divided into eight districts (amphoes), which are further divided into 48 subdistricts (tambons) and 314 villages (mubans). Local government As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Phang Nga Provincial Administration Organisation () and 15 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Phang Nga and Takua Pa have town (thesaban mueang) status. Further 13 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 36 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon). Transportation Roads: Hwy 4 is the main route that connects all districts in Phang Nga (except Kapong and Ko Yao). Hwy 401 connects Phang Nga to Surat Thani. Hwy 402 connects Phang Nga to Phuket province. Hwy 4090 connects Muang to Kapong District. Railways: There is no rail system in Phang Nga province. The nearest railway station is at Phunphin, Surat Thani province. Bus: There are frequent buses to Bangkok and other provinces. There are also non air conditioned intra-provincial buses. Public transit: songthaews are the most popular mode of public transportation in Phang Nga. Motorbike-taxi: These are found mainly in Phang Nga town and are used mainly for very short distances. Charges correspond to distance traveled. Airport: There is no airport in Phang Nga province. The nearest airport is Phuket International Airport. Human achievement index 2017 Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017. National parks Ao Phang Nga (Phang Nga Bay) National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติอ่าวพังงา) was declared a national park in 1981. It has scenic views and features mass limestone formations scattered around in the sea near the shore. The same factors contribute to the density of caves in the area. The park is fertile with mangroves and there are a number of islands in the vicinity. Mu Ko Surin National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติหมู่เกาะสุรินทร์) is an archipelago of five islands: Ko Surin Nuea, Ko Surin Tai, Ko Ri, Ko Khai, and Ko Klang. It was declared a national park on 9 July 1981. The archipelago is in the Andaman Sea, near the Thai-Burmese oceanic border. Khao Lak–Lam Ru National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติเขาหลัก-ลำรู่) was declared a national park in August 1991. The park occupies an area of and covers Thai Mueang District, Kapong District, Takua Pa District, and Mueang District. The interesting attractions are: Khao Lak (เขาหลัก), which has the Chao Pho Khao Lak Shrine, Laem Pakarang (แหลมปะการัง) which has groves of pine, making it good for camping and relaxation, and Namtok Ton Chong Fa (น้ำตกโตนช่องฟ้า) or Ton Chong Fa Waterfall. Khao Lampi–Hat Thai Mueang National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติเขาลำปี-หาดท้ายเหมือง) The park occupies an area of . It was declared a national park on 14 April 1988. Interesting attractions in the park include: Namtok Lampi (น้ำตกลำปี) is a 6-tiered waterfall that runs all year round; Namtok Ton Phrai (น้ำตกโตนไพร), a huge waterfall that runs all year round; and Hat Thai Mueang (หาดท้ายเหมือง), a long beach where the Sea Turtle Festival is held annually. Mu Ko Similan National Park (อุทยานแห่งชาติหมู่เกาะสิมิลัน) was declared a national park in 1982. Similan is a group of nine islands. Off-season is 16 May–31 October. 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231376	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pluralism%20%28philosophy%29	Pluralism (philosophy)	Pluralism is a term used in philosophy, meaning "doctrine of multiplicity," often used in opposition to monism ("doctrine of unity") and dualism ("doctrine of duality"). The term has different meanings in metaphysics, ontology, epistemology and logic. In metaphysics, pluralism is the doctrine that—contrary to the assertions of monism and dualism—there are in fact many different substances in nature that constitute reality. In ontology, pluralism refers to different ways, kinds, or modes of being. For example, a topic in ontological pluralism is the comparison of the modes of existence of things like 'humans' and 'cars' with things like 'numbers' and some other concepts as they are used in science. In epistemology, pluralism is the position that there is not one consistent means of approaching truths about the world, but rather many. Often this is associated with pragmatism, or conceptual, contextual, or cultural relativism. In the philosophy of science it may refer to the acceptance of co-existing scientific paradigms which though accurately describing their relevant domains are nonetheless incommensurable. In logic, pluralism is the view that there is no one correct logic, or alternatively, that there is more than one correct logic. One may, for instance, believe that classical logic is the correct logic generally, but believe that paraconsistent logic is the correct logic for dealing with certain paradoxes. However, there are different versions of logical pluralism depending on what one believes 'logic' to be and what it means for a logical system to be 'correct'. Metaphysical pluralism Metaphysical pluralism in philosophy is the multiplicity of metaphysical models of the structure and content of reality, both as it appears and as logic dictates that it might be, as is exhibited by the four related models in Plato's Republic and as developed in the contrast between phenomenalism and physicalism. Pluralism is in contrast to the concept of monism in metaphysics, while dualism is a limited form, a pluralism of exactly two models, structures, elements, or concepts. A distinction is made between the metaphysical identification of realms of reality and the more restricted sub-fields of ontological pluralism (that examines what exists in each of these realms) and epistemological pluralism (that deals with the methodology for establishing knowledge about these realms). Ancient pluralism In ancient Greece, Empedocles wrote that they were fire, air, water and earth, although he used the word "root" rather than "element" (στοιχεῖον; stoicheion), which appeared later in Plato. From the association (φιλία; philia) and separation (νεῖκος; neikos) of these indestructible and unchangeable root elements, all things came to be in a fullness (πλήρωμα; pleroma) of ratio (λόγος; logos) and proportion (ἀνάλογος; analogos). Similar to Empedocles, Anaxagoras was another Classical Greek philosopher with links to the Pluralist school. His metaphysical system is centered around mechanically necessitated nous which governs, combines and diffuses the various "roots" of reality (known as homoioneroi). Unlike Empedocles' four "root elements" and similar to Democritus' multitude of atoms (yet not physical in nature), these homoioneroi are used by Anaxagoras to explain the multiplicity in reality and becoming. This pluralist theory of being influenced later thinkers such as Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's theory of monads and Julius Bahnsen's idea of will henades. The notion of a governing nous would also be used by Socrates and Plato, but they will assign it a more active and rational role in their philosophical systems. Aristotle incorporated these elements, but his substance pluralism was not material in essence. His hylomorphic theory allowed him to maintain a reduced set of basic material elements as per the Milesians, while answering for the ever-changing flux of Heraclitus and the unchanging unity of Parmenides. In his Physics, due to the continuum of Zeno's paradoxes, as well as both logical and empirical considerations for natural science, he presented numerous arguments against the atomism of Leucippus and Democritus, who posited a basic duality of void and atoms. The atoms were an infinite variety of irreducibles, of all shapes and sizes, which randomly collide and mechanically hook together in the void, thus providing a reductive account of changeable figure, order and position as aggregates of the unchangeable atoms. Ontological pluralism The topic of ontological pluralism discusses different ways, kinds, or modes of being. Recent attention in ontological pluralism is due to the work of Kris McDaniel, who defends ontological pluralism in a number of papers. The name for the doctrine is due to Jason Turner, who, following McDaniel, suggests that "In contemporary guise, it is the doctrine that a logically perspicuous description of reality will use multiple quantifiers which cannot be thought of as ranging over a single domain." "There are numbers, fictional characters, impossible things, and holes. But, we don't think these things all exist in the same sense as cars and human beings." It is common to refer to a film, novel or otherwise fictitious or virtual narrative as not being 'real'. Thus, the characters in the film or novel are not real, where the 'real world' is the everyday world in which we live. However, some authors may argue that fiction informs our concept of reality, and so has some kind of reality. One reading of Ludwig Wittgenstein's notion of language-games argues that there is no overarching, single, fundamental ontology, but only a patchwork of overlapping interconnected ontologies ineluctably leading from one to another. For example, Wittgenstein discusses 'number' as technical vocabulary and in more general usage: Wittgenstein suggests that it is not possible to identify a single concept underlying all versions of 'number', but that there are many interconnected meanings that transition one to another; vocabulary need not be restricted to technical meanings to be useful, and indeed technical meanings are 'exact' only within some proscribed context. Eklund has argued that Wittgenstein's conception includes as a special case the technically constructed, largely autonomous, forms of language or linguistic frameworks of Carnap and Carnapian ontological pluralism. He places Carnap's ontological pluralism in the context of other philosophers, such as Eli Hirsch and Hilary Putnam. Epistemological pluralism Epistemological pluralism is a term used in philosophy and in other fields of study to refer to different ways of knowing things, different epistemological methodologies for attaining a full description of a particular field. In the philosophy of science epistemological pluralism arose in opposition to reductionism to express the contrary view that at least some natural phenomena cannot be fully explained by a single theory or fully investigated using a single approach. Logical pluralism Logical pluralism can be defined a number of ways: the position that there is more than one correct account of logical consequence (or no single, 'correct' account at all), that there is more than one correct set of logical constants or even that the 'correct' logic depends on the relevant logical questions under consideration (a sort of logical instrumentalism). Pluralism about logical consequence says that because different logical systems have different logical consequence relations, there is therefore more than one correct logic. For example, classical logic holds that the argument from explosion is a valid argument, but in Graham Priest's paraconsistent logic—LP, the 'Logic of Paradox'—it is an invalid argument. However, logical monists may respond that a plurality of logical theories does not mean that no single one of the theories is the correct one. After all, there are and have been a multitude of theories in physics, but that hasn't been taken to mean that all of them are correct. Pluralists of the instrumentalist sort hold if a logic can be correct at all, it based on its ability to answer the logical questions under consideration. If one wants to understand vague propositions, one may need a many-valued logic. Or if one wants to know what the truth-value of the Liar Paradox is, a dialetheic paraconsistent logic may be required. Rudolf Carnap held to a version of logical pluralism: See also Anekantavada Legal pluralism Nelson Goodman Panarchism Pantheism Pluralism in political philosophy Pluralism in political theory Postmodernism Quantifier variance Religious pluralism Value pluralism Notes Further reading Goodman, Nelson, 1978, Ways of Worldmaking, Hackett, , paperback Epistemological theories Metaphysical theories Philosophy of mind	[ -0.30471059679985046, 0.1980990469455719, -0.4611203372478485, 0.05033945292234421, -0.7965468764305115, 0.35574740171432495, 0.5876652598381042, 0.0010690108174458146, -0.3071674406528473, -0.5379104614257812, -0.3600173592567444, 0.5556451082229614, -0.5162875056266785, 0.4119507968425751, 0.27065426111221313, 0.3946473002433777, 0.3469947874546051, -0.05680341273546219, -0.47154200077056885, 0.32598593831062317, 0.13629087805747986, 0.28501155972480774, -0.14033769071102142, -0.5697982907295227, -0.16273202002048492, 0.07075230032205582, 0.7370814085006714, 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231378	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Birch%20Society	John Birch Society	The John Birch Society (JBS) is an American right-wing political advocacy group. Founded in 1958, it supports anti-communism and social conservatism and is associated with ultraconservative, radical right, or far-right politics. The society's founder, businessman Robert W. Welch Jr. (1899–1985), developed an organizational infrastructure of nationwide chapters in December 1958. The society rose quickly in membership and influence, and was controversial for its promotion of conspiracy theories. In the 1960s the conservative William F. Buckley Jr. and National Review pushed for the JBS to be exiled to the fringes of the American right. More recently Jeet Heer has argued in The New Republic that while the organization's influence peaked in the 1970s, "Bircherism" and its legacy of conspiracy theories have become the dominant strain in the conservative movement. Politico has asserted that the JBS began making a resurgence in the mid-2010s, while the JBS has argued that it shaped the modern conservative movement and especially the Trump administration. Writing in The Huffington Post, Andrew Reinbach called the JBS "the intellectual seed bank of the right." Originally based in Belmont, Massachusetts, the John Birch Society is now headquartered in Grand Chute, Wisconsin, a suburb of Appleton, Wisconsin, with local chapters throughout the United States. It owns American Opinion Publishing, which publishes the magazine The New American. Political positions The John Birch Society supports limited government and contends that the United States is a republic, not a democracy. It opposes collectivism and, by extension, communism and big government. It also opposes wealth redistribution, economic interventionism, totalitarianism, and anarchism. Welch, its founder, infused constitutionalist and classical liberal principles, in addition to his conspiracy theories, into the JBS’s ideology and rhetoric. In a 1983 edition of the political-debate television program Crossfire, Congressman Larry McDonald (a conservative Democrat from Georgia), then the society's newly appointed chairman, characterized it as belonging to the Old Right rather than the New Right. The society opposes "one world government", and it has an immigration reduction view on immigration reform. It opposes the United Nations, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Central America Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA), and other free trade agreements. It argues the U.S. Constitution has been devalued in favor of political and economic globalization, and that this alleged trend is not accidental. It has cited the existence of the former Security and Prosperity Partnership as evidence of a push towards a North American Union. The JBS supports auditing and eventually dismantling the Federal Reserve System. The JBS holds that the United States Constitution gives only Congress the ability to coin money, and does not permit it to delegate this power, or to transform the dollar into a fiat currency not backed by gold or silver. The JBS opposes modern-day efforts to call an Article V convention to propose amendments to the United States Constitution, advocating instead both putting pressure on Congress to follow the existing Constitution and using state nullification as outlined in Article VI. The JBS has been described as "ultraconservative", "far right", and "extremist". The Southern Poverty Law Center lists the society as a "Patriot" group, a group that "advocate[s] or adhere[s] to extreme antigovernment doctrines". By the 1990s, the JBS was perceived as "more mainstream conservative" than in the 1960s. It has also been associated with the libertarian movement and business nationalism. Influence on conservatism The JBS contributed to the development of modern American conservatism through its organizational tactics and its promotion of right-wing political views. Despite never considering itself a religious organization, the JBS played a role in the rise of the Moral Majority and the Christian right as major political forces, ideologically and tactically influencing multiple leaders in that movement including Tim LaHaye and Phyllis Schlafly. The historian D. J. Mulloy wrote in 2014 that the JBS has served as "a kind of bridge" between the Old Right (including the McCarthyites) of the 1940s50s, the New Right of the 1970s80s, and the Tea Party right of the 21st century. History Origins The John Birch Society was established in Indianapolis, Indiana, during a two-day session on December 8 and 9, 1958, by a group of twelve led by Robert W. Welch Jr., a retired candy manufacturer from Belmont, Massachusetts, who had been a state Republican Party official and had run unsuccessfully in its 1950 lieutenant governor primary. In 1954, Welch authored the first book about John Birch titled The Life of John Birch. He organized an anti-communist society to "promote less government, more responsibility, and a better world". He named his new organization in memory of Birch, saying that Birch was an unknown but dedicated anti-communist, and the first American casualty of the Cold War. Birch was an American Baptist missionary in China since 1940. During World War II, he was a U.S. military intelligence officer under Brigadier General Claire Chennault in China. Chennault commanded the "Flying Tigers" and afterwards U.S. Army Air Forces units in China. In April 1942, Birch helped Lieutenant Colonel Doolittle and his flight crew (and other crews) a few days after they bailed out of their B-25 bomber over Japanese-held territory in China. Sixteen B-25's led by Doolittle bombed Tokyo ("Doolittle raid") off the Navy aircraft carrier USS Hornet during the United States' first attack on Japan. Beginning in July 1942, Birch, who spoke Chinese, became an Army intelligence officer. He operated alone or with Nationalist Chinese soldiers, and regularly risked his life in Japanese-held territory in China. His many activities included setting up Chinese agent and radio intelligence networks, and rescuing downed American pilots; he had two emergency aircraft runways built. Although he suffered from malaria, he refused furloughs. In 1945, Birch was promoted to captain and began working in China for and with the OSS, the U.S. wartime intelligence service in World War II. In August, after the Japanese surrendered, Birch was ordered by the OSS to northern China to get the surrender of the Japanese commanders at their installations. On August 24, nine days after the war, Birch left by train with his party which included two American soldiers, five Chinese officers, and two Koreans who spoke Japanese. After spending a night in a village, the party proceeded by handcar the next morning, and ran into a group of 300 armed Chinese communists. Birch and his Chinese officer aide approached them and were told to surrender their weapons and the group's equipment. Birch refused, and after arguing about it with their commander, they were allowed to proceed. Along the way, Birch's party encountered more groups of communists. The party arrived at a train station at Hwang Kao which was occupied by more Chinese communists. Birch requested to speak with their leader. Birch and his aide approached the group's leader and after Birch refused to give up his sidearm, both were beaten and shot. Birch's corpse was bayonetted. The rest of Birch's party were taken prisoner. Birch's aide survived and the prisoners were later released. Birch's remains were recovered, and a Catholic burial service was held with military honors on a hillside outside of Suzhou, in eastern China. The Chinese communists, who were active in northern China and Manchuria, were supposedly WWII allies with the United States. Birch believed that Mao Zedong and the Chinese communists intended to take over China after the war (as they did in 1949) and move into Korea. The founding members of the JBS included Harry Lynde Bradley, co-founder of the Allen Bradley Company and the Lynde and Harry Bradley Foundation, Fred C. Koch, founder of Koch Industries and Robert Waring Stoddard, President of Wyman-Gordon, a major industrial enterprise. Another was Revilo P. Oliver, a University of Illinois professor who was later expelled from the Society and helped found the National Alliance. Koch became one of the organization's primary financial supporters. According to investigative journalist Jane Mayer, Koch's sons, David and Charles Koch, were also members of the JBS. However, both left it before the 1970s. A transcript of Welch's two-day presentation at the founding meeting was published as The Blue Book of the John Birch Society, and became a cornerstone of its beliefs, with each new prospective member receiving a copy. According to Welch, "both the U.S. and Soviet governments are controlled by the same furtive conspiratorial cabal of internationalists, greedy bankers, and corrupt politicians. If left unexposed, the traitors inside the U.S. government would betray the country's sovereignty to the United Nations for a collectivist New World Order, managed by a 'one-world socialist government. Welch saw collectivism as the main threat to western culture, and American liberals as "secret communist traitors" who provided cover for the gradual process of collectivism, with the ultimate goal of replacing the nations of western civilization with a one-world socialist government. "There are many stages of welfarism, socialism, and collectivism in general," he wrote, "but Communism is the ultimate state of them all, and they all lead inevitably in that direction." The JBS was organized to be, in Welch's words, "under completely authoritative control at all levels". It incorporated aspects of business hierarchies and also the communist cells Welch opposed but whose discipline he admired. Chapters of 10 to 20 members each had a leader appointed from above, and were expected to meet twice a month. Members of chapters that grew larger than 20 members were expected to break off and form a new small chapter. The activities of the JBS include distributing literature, pamphlets, magazines, videos and other material; the society also sponsors a Speaker's Bureau, which invites "speakers who are keenly aware of the motivations that drive political policy". One of the first public activities of the society was a "Get US Out!" (of membership in the UN) campaign, which claimed in 1959 that the "Real nature of [the] UN is to build a One World Government". The society also alleged that communists and UN supporters were conducting an "assault on Christmas" to "destroy all religious beliefs and customs". In 1960, Welch advised JBS members to: "Join your local P.T.A. at the beginning of the school year, get your conservative friends to do likewise, and go to work to take it over." One Man's Opinion, a magazine launched by Welch in 1956, was renamed American Opinion and became the society's official publication. The society publishes The New American, a biweekly magazine. 1960s In the 1960s, the JBS was known as a right-wing organization with anti-communist ideology. By March 1961, the JBS had 60,000 to 100,000 members and, according to Welch, "a staff of 28 people in the Home Office; about 30 Coordinators (or Major Coordinators) in the field, who are fully paid as to salary and expenses; and about 100 Coordinators (or Section Leaders as they are called in some areas), who work on a volunteer basis as to all or part of their salary, or expenses, or both". According to Political Research Associates (a non-profit research group that investigates the far right), the society "pioneered grassroots lobbying, combining educational meetings, petition drives and letter-writing campaigns. Rick Perlstein described its main activity in the 1960s as "monthly meetings to watch a film by Welch, followed by writing postcards or letters to government officials linking specific policies to the Communist menace". One early campaign against the second summit between the United States and the Soviet Union (which urged President Dwight D. Eisenhower, "If you go, don't come back!") generated over 600,000 postcards and letters, according to the society. In 1961 Welch offered $2,300 in prizes to college students for the best essays on "grounds of impeachment" of Chief Justice Warren, a prime target of ultra-conservatives. A June 1964 society campaign to oppose Xerox corporate sponsorship of TV programs favorable to the UN produced 51,279 letters from 12,785 individuals." In 1962, William F. Buckley Jr., editor of the National Review, an influential conservative magazine, denounced Welch and the John Birch Society as "far removed from common sense" and urged the GOP to purge itself of Welch's influence. In the late 1960s, Welch insisted that the Johnson administration's fight against communism in Vietnam was part of a communist plot aimed at taking over the United States. Welch demanded that the United States get out of Vietnam, thus aligning the Society with the left. The society opposed water fluoridation, which it called "mass medicine". The JBS was moderately active in the 1960s with numerous chapters, but rarely engaged in coalition building with other conservatives. It was rejected by most conservatives because of Welch's conspiracy theories. The philosopher Ayn Rand said in a 1964 Playboy interview, "I consider the Birch Society futile, because they are not for capitalism but merely against communism ... I gather they believe that the disastrous state of today's world is caused by a communist conspiracy. This is childishly naïve and superficial. No country can be destroyed by a mere conspiracy, it can be destroyed only by ideas." Former Eisenhower cabinet member Ezra Taft Benson—a leading Mormon—spoke in favor of the JBS, but in January 1963 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints issued a statement distancing itself from the Society. Antisemitic, racist, anti-Mormon, anti-Masonic groups criticized the organization's acceptance of Jews, non-whites, Masons, and Mormons as members. These opponents accused Welch of harboring feminist, ecumenical, and evolutionary ideas. Welch rejected these accusations by his detractors: "All we are interested in here is opposing the advance of the Communists, and eventually destroying the whole Communist conspiracy, so that Jews and Christians alike, and Mohammedans and Buddhists, can again have a decent world in which to live." In a 1963 report, the California Senate Factfinding Subcommittee on Un-American Activities, following an investigation into the JBS, found no evidence it was “a secret, fascist, subversive, un-American, [or] anti-Semitic organization.” In 1964, Welch favored Barry Goldwater for the Republican presidential nomination, but the membership split, with two-thirds supporting Goldwater and one-third supporting Richard Nixon, who did not run. A number of Birch members and their allies were Goldwater supporters in 1964 and a hundred of them were delegates at the 1964 Republican National Convention. The JBS opposed the 1960s civil rights movement and claimed the movement had communists in important positions. In the latter half of 1965, the JBS produced a flyer titled "What's Wrong With Civil Rights?" and used the flyer as a newspaper advertisement. In the piece, one of the answers was: "For the civil rights movement in the United States, with all of its growing agitation and riots and bitterness, and insidious steps towards the appearance of a civil war, has not been infiltrated by the Communists, as you now frequently hear. It has been deliberately and almost wholly created by the Communists patiently building up to this present stage for more than forty years." The society believed that the ultimate aim of the civil rights movement was the creation of a "Soviet Negro Republic" in the southeastern United States and opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, claiming it violated the Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and overstepped individual states' rights to enact laws regarding civil rights. Some prominent black conservatives such as George Schuyler and Manning Johnson joined forces with the JBS during this period and echoed the Society's rhetoric about the civil-rights movement and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. In April 1966, a New York Times article on New Jersey and the society voiced—in part—a concern for "the increasing tempo of radical right attacks on local government, libraries, school boards, parent-teacher associations, mental health programs, the Republican Party and, most recently, the ecumenical movement." It then characterized the society as "by far the most successful and 'respectable' radical right organization in the country. It operates alone or in support of other extremist organizations whose major preoccupation, like that of the Birchers, is the internal Communist conspiracy in the United States." The JBS also opposed the creation of the first sex education curriculum in the United States through a division called the Movement to Restore Decency (MOTOREDE). Surviving MOTOREDE pamphlets date from 1967 to 1971. Eisenhower issue Welch wrote in a widely circulated 1954 statement, The Politician, "Could Eisenhower really be simply a smart politician, entirely without principles and hungry for glory, who is only the tool of the Communists? The answer is yes." He went on. "With regard to ... Eisenhower, it is difficult to avoid raising the question of deliberate treason." The controversial paragraph was removed before final publication of The Politician. The sensationalism of Welch's charges against Eisenhower prompted several conservatives and Republicans, most prominently Goldwater and the intellectuals of William F. Buckley's circle, to renounce outright or quietly shun the group. Buckley, an early friend and admirer of Welch, regarded his accusations against Eisenhower as "paranoid and idiotic libels" and attempted unsuccessfully to purge Welch from the Birch Society. From then on, Buckley became the leading intellectual spokesman and organizer of the anti-Bircher conservatives. Buckley's biographer, John B. Judis, wrote that "Buckley was beginning to worry that with the John Birch Society growing so rapidly, the right-wing upsurge in the country would take an ugly, even Fascist turn rather than leading toward the kind of conservatism National Review had promoted." The booklet found support from Ezra Taft Benson, then Eisenhower's Secretary of Agriculture and later the 13th President of the LDS Church. In a letter to his friend FBI chief J. Edgar Hoover, Benson asked "how can a man [Eisenhower] who seems to be so strong for Christian principles and base American concepts be so effectively used as a tool to serve the communist conspiracy?" Benson privately fought to prevent the bureau from condemning the JBS, which prompted Hoover to distance himself from Benson. At one point in 1971, Hoover directed his staff to lie to Benson to avoid having to meet with him about the issue. 1970s The JBS was at the center of a free-speech law case in the 1970s, after American Opinion accused a Chicago lawyer, Elmer Gertz, who was representing the family of a young man killed by a police officer, of being part of a communist conspiracy to merge all police agencies in the country into one large force. The resulting libel suit, Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., reached the United States Supreme Court, which held that a state may allow a private figure such as Gertz to recover actual damages from a media defendant without proving malice, but that a public figure does have to prove actual malice, according to the standard laid out in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, in order to recover presumed damages or punitive damages. The court ordered a retrial in which Gertz prevailed. Key causes of the JBS in the 1970s included opposition to both the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and to the establishment of diplomatic ties with the People's Republic of China. The JBS claimed in 1973 that the regime of Mao Zedong had murdered 64 million Chinese as of that year and that it was the primary supplier of illicit heroin into the United States. This led to bumper stickers showing a pair of scissors cutting a hypodermic needle in half accompanied by the slogan "Cut The Red China Connection". The society also was opposed to transferring control of the Panama Canal from American to Panamanian sovereignty. The John Birch Society, along with other conservative groups such as the Eagle Forum and the Christian right, successfully opposed the Equal Rights Amendment in the 1970s. JBS accused the ERA's supporters of subversion, asserting that the ERA was part of a communist plot "to reduce human beings to living at the same level as animals." In the 1970s, the JBS played a prominent role in promoting the false claim that laetrile was a cancer cure, and in advocating for the legalization of the compound as a drug. A New York Times review in 1977 found identified JBS and other far-right groups were involved in pro-laetrile campaigns in at least nine states. "Virtually all" of the officers of the "Committee for Freedom of Choice in Cancer Therapy," the leading pro-laetrile group, were JBS members. Congressman and Birch Society leader Lawrence P. McDonald was involved in the campaign as a member of the Committee. The JBS also opposed Earth Day, suggesting that it was a communist plot and noting that the first celebration fell on the 100th anniversary of Vladimir Lenin's birth. The JBS was organized into local chapters during this period. Ernest Brosang, a New Jersey regional coordinator, claimed that it was virtually impossible for opponents of the society to penetrate its policy-making levels, thereby protecting it from "anti-American" takeover attempts. Its activities included the distribution of literature critical of civil rights legislation, warnings over the influence of the United Nations, and the release of petitions to impeach United States Supreme Court Justice Earl Warren. To spread their message, members held showings of documentary films and operated initiatives such as "Let Freedom Ring", a nationwide network of recorded telephone messages. After Welch After the Vietnam War, the JBS's membership and influence declined. This decline continued through the 1980s and 1990s due to Welch's death in 1985 and the end of the Cold War in 1991. By the mid-1990s, membership in the JBS was estimated between 15,000 and 20,000. While other anti-communist organizations faded away following the Cold War's end, the JBS survived and even experienced "newfound energy and growth in the 1990s." The society campaigned against the ratification of the Genocide Convention, arguing it would erode U.S. national sovereignty. The JBS continues to press for an end to United States membership in the United Nations. As evidence of the effectiveness of JBS efforts, the society points to the Utah State Legislature's failed resolution calling for United States withdrawal, as well as the actions of several other states where the Society's membership has been active. Since its founding, the society has repeatedly opposed United States military intervention overseas, although it strongly supports the American military. It has issued calls to "Bring Our Troops Home" in every conflict since its founding, including Vietnam. The society also has a national speakers' committee called American Opinion Speakers Bureau (AOSB) and an anti-tax committee called Tax Reform IMmediately (TRIM). The second head of the JBS was Congressman Larry McDonald (D) from Georgia. McDonald's first wife "estimated that, over the years, he had hosted 10,000 people in his living room for Bircher-inspired lectures and documentaries." In 1982, McDonald was appointed as national chairman of the Society. McDonald was killed in 1983 when airliner KAL 007 was shot down by a Soviet interceptor. William P. Hoar has been active as a writer for the JBS. He is noted for very strong attacks on mainstream politicians from Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush. He publishes regularly in The New American and its predecessor American Opinion. He coauthored The Clinton Clique with Larry Abraham alleging that Clinton was part of the Anglo-American conspiracy supposedly ruled through the Council on Foreign Relations and the Trilateral Commission. The Birch Society publications arm, "Western Islands" published his Architects of Conspiracy: An Intriguing History (1984) and Huntington House Publishers published his Handouts and Pickpockets: Our Government Gone Berserk (1996). In the mid-2000s, the JBS, along with the Eagle Forum, mobilized conservative opposition to a so-called North American Union and the Security and Prosperity Partnership of North America. As a result of two organizations' activities, 23 state legislatures saw bills introduced condemning an NAU while the Bush and Obama administrations were deterred "from any grand initiatives." 2009–present The JBS was a co-sponsor of the 2010 Conservative Political Action Conference (CPAC), ending its decades-long split with the mainstream conservative movement. Although JBS membership numbers are kept private, it has reported a resurgence of members during the Donald Trump presidency, specifically in Texas. The organization's goals in Texas include opposition to the UN's Agenda 21 based on a conspiracy theory that it will "establish control over all human activity", and opposition to a bill that would allow people who entered The United States illegally to pay in-state tuition for Texas state colleges. The JBS has been associated with the Trump presidency by political commentators such as Jeet Heer (now of The Nation magazine), who argued while writing for The New Republic in June 2016, that "Trumpism" is essentially Bircherism. Trump confidante and longtime advisor Roger Stone said that Trump's father Fred Trump was a financier of the JBS and a personal friend of founder Robert Welch. Trump's former Chief of Staff Mick Mulvaney was the speaker at the John Birch Society's National Council dinner shortly before joining the Trump administration. Former Congressman Ron Paul (R-Texas), has had a long and very close relationship with the JBS, celebrating its work in his 2008 keynote speech at its 50th anniversary event and saying that the JBS was leading the fight to restore freedom. The keynote speaker at the organization's 60th anniversary celebration was Congressman Thomas Massie (R-Kentucky.), who maintains a near-perfect score on the JBS's "Freedom Index" ranking of members of Congress. Right-wing conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, who hosted Trump on his Infowars radio show and claims to have a personal relationship with the president, called Trump a "John Birch Society president" and previously claimed Trump was "more John Birch Society than the John Birch Society." In July 2021, the Republican central committees of Kootenai County, Idaho, and Benewah County, Idaho, unanimously approved resolutions calling JBS "a valuable organization that is dedicated to restoring the Republic according to the vision of the Founding Fathers." The Idaho Republican Party declined to endorse the resolutions. Officers Chairmen and presidents Robert W. Welch Jr. (1958–1983) Larry McDonald (1983), a U.S. Representative who was killed in the KAL-007 shootdown incident Robert W. Welch Jr. (1983–1985) Charles R. Armour (1985–1991) John F. McManus (1991–2004) G. Vance Smith (2004–2005) John F. McManus (2005–2016) Ray Clark (2016–2019) Martin Ohlson (2019–present) CEOs G. Allen Bubolz (1988–1991) G. Vance Smith (1991–2005) Arthur R. Thompson (2005–2020) Bill Hahn (2020–present) In popular culture Pete Seeger lampooned the John Birch Society with a song called "The Jack Ash Society", recorded on his 1961 Folkways Records LP album Gazette vol. 2. The name is a pun. On the surface, it's changing the name from one type of tree, birch to another, ash. However, the name "Jack Ash" also sounds like the word "jackass" which means "a foolish person". In 1962, Bob Dylan recorded "Talkin' John Birch Paranoid Blues", which poked fun at the society and its tendency to see Communist conspiracies in many situations. When he attempted to perform it on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1963, however, CBS's Standards and Practices department forbade it, fearing that lyrics equating the Society's views with those of Adolf Hitler might trigger a defamation lawsuit. Dylan was offered the opportunity to perform a different song, but he responded that if he could not sing the number of his choice he would rather not appear at all. The story generated widespread media attention in the days that followed; Sullivan denounced the network's decision in published interviews. In 1962 The Chad Mitchell Trio recorded a satirical song "The John Birch Society" which made its way to no. 99 in the Billboard Hot 100. The 1973 song "Uneasy Rider" by Charlie Daniels contains a reference to "Brother John Birch" in the lyrics. In 2020, American journalist Robert Evans released a multi-part series on his podcast Behind the Bastards entitled "How The John Birch Society Invented The Modern Far Right". See also Granville Knight Rousas Rushdoony W. Cleon Skousen Edmund Burke Society References Bibliography Further reading Scholarly studies McGirr, Lisa. Suburban Warriors: The Origins of the New American Right (2001), focus on Los Angeles suburbs in 1960s Schoenwald, Jonathan M. A Time for Choosing: The Rise of Modern American Conservatism (2002) pp 62–99 excerpt and text search, a national history of the party Stone, Barbara S. "The John Birch Society: a Profile", Journal of Politics 1974 36(1): 184–197, in JSTOR Wander, Philip. "The John Birch and Martin Luther King, Symbols in the Radical Right", Western Speech (Western Journal of Communication), 1971 35(1): 4–14. Wilcox, Clyde. "Sources of Support for the Old Right: A Comparison of the John Birch Society and the Christian Anti-Communism Crusade". Social Science History 1988 12(4): 429–450, in JSTOR Wright, Stuart A. Patriots, politics, and the Oklahoma City Bombing. Cambridge University Press. June 11, 2007. Primary sources Robert W. Welch Jr. The New Americanism and Other Speeches. Boston: Western Islands, 1966. Gary Allen. None Dare Call It Conspiracy. G S G & Associates, Inc., 1971. Criticizing the John Birch Society Buckley, William F. Jr. (2008) "Goldwater, the John Birch Society, and Me". Commentary (March 2008) online De Koster, Lester. (1967). The Citizen and the John Birch Society. A Reformed Journal monograph. Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans. Epstein, Benjamin R., and Arnold Forster. (1966). The Radical Right: Report on the John Birch Society and Its Allies. New York: Vintage Books. Grove, Gene. (1961). Inside the John Birch Society. Greenwich, CT: Fawcett. Grupp, Fred W. Jr. (1969). "The Political Perspectives of Birch Society Members". In Robert A. Schoenberger, ed., The American Right Hardisty, Jean V. (1999). Mobilizing Resentment: Conservative Resurgence from the John Birch Society to the Promise Keepers. Boston: Beacon. External links The New American, JBS biweekly publication which publishes the Freedom Index congressional scorecard twice a year John Birch Society at Political Research Associates Report of the California Senate Fact finding Subcommittee on Un-American Activities on the John Birch Society "What is the John Birch Society?", short excerpt of a film, released c. 1965, of Robert W. Welch Jr., explaining why he founded the John Birch Society and its aims. Rating group positions by year at Project Vote Smart John Birch Society sound recordings collection at Stuart A. Rose Manuscript, Archives, & Rare Book Library Appleton, Wisconsin Anti-communist organizations Politics and race in the United States Organizations established in 1958 Political organizations based in the United States 1958 establishments in Indiana Paleoconservative organizations Right-wing populism in the United States Critics of the United Nations Conservative political advocacy groups in the United States	[ 0.019399775192141533, 0.5565850734710693, -0.4412698745727539, -0.3388047218322754, -0.574533998966217, -0.6922402381896973, 0.5991221070289612, 0.3103882372379303, -0.39344868063926697, 0.03059205785393715, -0.08084764331579208, -0.49206340312957764, -0.1775970458984375, 0.3622331917285919, -0.7109447717666626, 0.12125039100646973, 0.21174292266368866, 0.5970531702041626, 0.11497320234775543, -0.1612401008605957, -0.4144893288612366, -0.28257784247398376, 0.4825330376625061, -0.45180001854896545, -0.044409770518541336, 0.15036891400814056, 0.10506279021501541, 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231384	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacated%20judgment	Vacated judgment	A vacated judgment (also known as vacatur relief) makes a previous legal judgment legally void. A vacated judgment is usually the result of the judgment of an appellate court, which overturns, reverses, or sets aside the judgment of a lower court. An appellate court may also vacate its own decisions. A trial court may have the power under certain circumstances, usually involving fraud or lack of jurisdiction over the parties to a case, to vacate its own judgments. A vacated judgment may free the parties to civil litigation to re-litigate the issues subject to the vacated judgment. Another means of having a vacated judgment would be if the defendant dies prior to all appeals being exhausted. Notable defendants having their convictions vacated under this include Kenneth Lay, the former Chairman/CEO of Enron who died before sentencing, and Aaron Hernandez, a former football player who killed himself in jail before his appeals were exhausted. In March, 2019, the vacated judgment of Hernandez was itself overturned, and his murder conviction upheld. On June 30th, 2021, the Pennsylvania Supreme Court vacated the sexual assault charges against Bill Cosby due to violations of his right to due process. United States "Relief from judgment" of a United States District Court is governed by Rule 60 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. The United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit has noted that a vacated judgment "place[s] the parties in the position of no trial having taken place at all; thus a vacated judgment is of no further force or effect." One form of a vacatur in the United States legal system was established by United States v. Munsingwear, Inc. , otherwise known as the Munsingwear vacatur. This approach is used when while a case is being held on appeal, whether at the Circuit Court or Supreme Court level, underlying factors make the case moot. The higher court will vacate the lower court's ruling, send the case back to the lower court, and have them render the case moot. Certain conditions must be met before the higher court can give a Munsingwear vacatur, generally allowing this vacatur to be used in three situations: in the matter of "happenstance" (such as the death of a litigant), through a settlement of the parties, or a unilateral action by the prevailing party in the lower court. 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231386	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navel	Navel	The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, commonly known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the abdomen at the attachment site of the umbilical cord. All placental mammals have a navel. Structure The umbilicus is used to visually separate the abdomen into quadrants. The umbilicus is a prominent scar on the abdomen, with its position being relatively consistent among humans. The skin around the waist at the level of the umbilicus is supplied by the tenth thoracic spinal nerve (T10 dermatome). The umbilicus itself typically lies at a vertical level corresponding to the junction between the L3 and L4 vertebrae, with a normal variation among people between the L3 and L5 vertebrae. Parts of the adult navel include the "umbilical cord remnant" or "umbilical tip", which is the often protruding scar left by the detachment of the umbilical cord. This is located in the center of the navel, sometimes described as the belly button. Around the cord remnant, is the "umbilical collar", formed by the dense fibrous umbilical ring. Surrounding the umbilical collar is the periumbilical skin. Directly behind the navel is a thick fibrous cord formed from the umbilical cord, called the urachus, which originates from the bladder. Forms The navel is unique to each individual due to its being a scar, and various general forms have been classified by medical practitioners. Outie: A navel consisting of the umbilical tip protruding past the periumbilical skin is an outie. Essentially any navel which is not concave. Swirly/Spiral: A rare form in which the umbilical cord scar forms a swirl shape. Split: The protruding umbilical cord scar extends outwards, but is cleft in two by a fissure which extends part or all the way through the umbilical cord scar. This form is similar in appearance to a coffee bean. Protrusion: The umbilical cord remnant is completely divulged, exposing the full umbilical scar. Circlet: Although the entirety of the umbilical cord remnant sits out with the umbilical collar, the centre of the knot is inset by a deep fissure. Unlike a split outie, in this form the fissure is contained centrally and does not extend past the umbilical cord remnant in any direction, much akin to a 'donut' shape. Innie: A navel in which the umbilical tip does not protrude past the periumbilical skin. Any navel which is concave. Round: Round navels are completely circular with no hooding. Vertical: Some navels present in the form of a more elongate hollow parallel with the linea alba. Oval: This form consists of three variants; superior hooding, inferior hooding, no hooding. T-shaped: As the name states, the scar is in the shape of a T, and may have superior hooding to various extent. Horizontal: The scar is least visible as the natural lines of the tendinous intersection fold over the scar. Distorted: Any navel which does not fit well into any of the other categories. Clinical significance Disorders Outies are sometimes mistaken for umbilical hernias; however, they are a completely different shape with no health concern, unlike an umbilical hernia. The navel (specifically abdominal wall) would be considered an umbilical hernia if the protrusion were 5 centimeters or more. The diameter of an umbilical hernia is usually 1/2-inch or more. Navels that are concave are nicknamed "innies". While the shape of the human navel may be affected by longterm changes to diet and exercise, unexpected change in shape may be the result of ascites. In addition to change in shape being a possible side effect from ascites and umbilical hernias, the navel can be involved in umbilical sinus or fistula, which in rare cases can lead to menstrual or fecal discharge from the navel. Menstrual discharge from the umbilicus is a rare disorder associated with umbilical endometriosis. Other disorders Omphalitis, an inflammatory condition of the umbilicus in the newborn, usually caused by a bacterial infection. Omphalophobia is the fear of belly buttons. People suffering from Omphalophobia are terrified of belly buttons—their own or, in some cases, those of others. They do not like touching their belly buttons (or even other people touching it). Sometimes just seeing a belly button is enough to make them feel disgusted or terrified. Surgery To minimize scarring, the navel is a recommended site of incision for various surgeries, including transgastric appendicectomy, gall bladder surgery, and the umbilicoplasty procedure itself. Fashion, society and culture The public exposure of the male and female midriff and bare navel was considered taboo at times in the past in Western cultures, being considered immodest or indecent. Female navel exposure was banned in some jurisdictions, but community perceptions have changed to this now being acceptable. The crop top is a shirt that often exposes the belly button and has become more common among young men and women. Exposure of the male navel has rarely been stigmatised and has become particularly popular in recent years, due to the strong resurgence of the male crop top and male navel piercing. The navel and midriff are often also displayed in bikinis, or when low-rise pants are worn. While the West was relatively resistant to navel-baring clothing until the 1980s, it has long been a fashion with Indian women, often displayed with Saris or Lehengas. The Japanese have long had a special regard for the navel. During the early Jōmon period in northern Japan, three small balls indicating the breasts and navel were pasted onto flat clay objects to represent the female body. The navel was exaggerated in size, informed by the belief that the navel symbolized the center where life began. In Arabic-Levantine culture, belly dancing is a popular art form that consists of dance movements focused on the torso and navel. Buddhism and Hinduism refer to the chakra of the navel as the manipura. In qigong, the navel is seen as the main energy centre, or dantian. In Hinduism, the Kundalini energy is sometimes described as being located at the navel. See also Navel fetishism Alvinolagnia Omphaloskepsis Umbilical microbiome Omphalos hypothesis References Further reading Abdomen	[ -0.13592727482318878, -0.11122936010360718, 0.11839654296636581, 0.041812047362327576, 0.29660311341285706, 0.771412193775177, 0.48288387060165405, 0.8066514134407043, 0.017303070053458214, -0.9566574692726135, -0.5059309601783752, 0.5481454133987427, -0.22534090280532837, 0.1141660213470459, -0.067574642598629, 0.3911532163619995, 0.5482776165008545, 0.2736683487892151, 0.14897647500038147, -0.22639986872673035, -0.37920239567756653, -0.7108836770057678, -0.06976845860481262, -0.18642207980155945, 0.8565079569816589, -0.4001803994178772, -0.5144588947296143, -0.010860624723136425, 0.2887229919433594, 0.10934782773256302, -0.12449739873409271, 0.22161369025707245, 0.3248155117034912, -1.1936988830566406, -0.24011872708797455, -0.58538818359375, -0.03564605116844177, -0.5277147889137268, -0.24624896049499512, -0.3010462820529938, -0.9209738373756409, 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231387	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modified%20discrete%20cosine%20transform	Modified discrete cosine transform	The modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT) is a transform based on the type-IV discrete cosine transform (DCT-IV), with the additional property of being lapped: it is designed to be performed on consecutive blocks of a larger dataset, where subsequent blocks are overlapped so that the last half of one block coincides with the first half of the next block. This overlapping, in addition to the energy-compaction qualities of the DCT, makes the MDCT especially attractive for signal compression applications, since it helps to avoid artifacts stemming from the block boundaries. As a result of these advantages, the MDCT is the most widely used lossy compression technique in audio data compression. It is employed in most modern audio coding standards, including MP3, Dolby Digital (AC-3), Vorbis (Ogg), Windows Media Audio (WMA), ATRAC, Cook, Advanced Audio Coding (AAC), High-Definition Coding (HDC), LDAC, Dolby AC-4, and MPEG-H 3D Audio, as well as speech coding standards such as AAC-LD (LD-MDCT), G.722.1, G.729.1, CELT, and Opus. The discrete cosine transform (DCT) was first proposed by Nasir Ahmed in 1972, and demonstrated by Ahmed with T. Natarajan and K. R. Rao in 1974. The MDCT was later proposed by John P. Princen, A.W. Johnson and Alan B. Bradley at the University of Surrey in 1987, following earlier work by Princen and Bradley (1986) to develop the MDCT's underlying principle of time-domain aliasing cancellation (TDAC), described below. (There also exists an analogous transform, the MDST, based on the discrete sine transform, as well as other, rarely used, forms of the MDCT based on different types of DCT or DCT/DST combinations.) In MP3, the MDCT is not applied to the audio signal directly, but rather to the output of a 32-band polyphase quadrature filter (PQF) bank. The output of this MDCT is postprocessed by an alias reduction formula to reduce the typical aliasing of the PQF filter bank. Such a combination of a filter bank with an MDCT is called a hybrid filter bank or a subband MDCT. AAC, on the other hand, normally uses a pure MDCT; only the (rarely used) MPEG-4 AAC-SSR variant (by Sony) uses a four-band PQF bank followed by an MDCT. Similar to MP3, ATRAC uses stacked quadrature mirror filters (QMF) followed by an MDCT. Definition As a lapped transform, the MDCT is a bit unusual compared to other Fourier-related transforms in that it has half as many outputs as inputs (instead of the same number). In particular, it is a linear function (where R denotes the set of real numbers). The 2N real numbers x0, ..., x2N-1 are transformed into the N real numbers X0, ..., XN-1 according to the formula: (The normalization coefficient in front of this transform, here unity, is an arbitrary convention and differs between treatments. Only the product of the normalizations of the MDCT and the IMDCT, below, is constrained.) Inverse transform The inverse MDCT is known as the IMDCT. Because there are different numbers of inputs and outputs, at first glance it might seem that the MDCT should not be invertible. However, perfect invertibility is achieved by adding the overlapped IMDCTs of subsequent overlapping blocks, causing the errors to cancel and the original data to be retrieved; this technique is known as time-domain aliasing cancellation (TDAC). The IMDCT transforms N real numbers X0, ..., XN-1 into 2N real numbers y0, ..., y2N-1 according to the formula: (Like for the DCT-IV, an orthogonal transform, the inverse has the same form as the forward transform.) In the case of a windowed MDCT with the usual window normalization (see below), the normalization coefficient in front of the IMDCT should be multiplied by 2 (i.e., becoming 2/N). Computation Although the direct application of the MDCT formula would require O(N2) operations, it is possible to compute the same thing with only O(N log N) complexity by recursively factorizing the computation, as in the fast Fourier transform (FFT). One can also compute MDCTs via other transforms, typically a DFT (FFT) or a DCT, combined with O(N) pre- and post-processing steps. Also, as described below, any algorithm for the DCT-IV immediately provides a method to compute the MDCT and IMDCT of even size. Window functions In typical signal-compression applications, the transform properties are further improved by using a window function wn (n = 0, ..., 2N−1) that is multiplied with xn and yn in the MDCT and IMDCT formulas, above, in order to avoid discontinuities at the n = 0 and 2N boundaries by making the function go smoothly to zero at those points. (That is, we window the data before the MDCT and after the IMDCT.) In principle, x and y could have different window functions, and the window function could also change from one block to the next (especially for the case where data blocks of different sizes are combined), but for simplicity we consider the common case of identical window functions for equal-sized blocks. The transform remains invertible (that is, TDAC works), for a symmetric window wn = w2N−1−n, as long as w satisfies the Princen-Bradley condition: . Various window functions are used. A window that produces a form known as a modulated lapped transform (MLT) is given by and is used for MP3 and MPEG-2 AAC, and for Vorbis. AC-3 uses a Kaiser-Bessel derived (KBD) window, and MPEG-4 AAC can also use a KBD window. Note that windows applied to the MDCT are different from windows used for some other types of signal analysis, since they must fulfill the Princen-Bradley condition. One of the reasons for this difference is that MDCT windows are applied twice, for both the MDCT (analysis) and the IMDCT (synthesis). Relationship to DCT-IV and Origin of TDAC As can be seen by inspection of the definitions, for even N the MDCT is essentially equivalent to a DCT-IV, where the input is shifted by N/2 and two N-blocks of data are transformed at once. By examining this equivalence more carefully, important properties like TDAC can be easily derived. In order to define the precise relationship to the DCT-IV, one must realize that the DCT-IV corresponds to alternating even/odd boundary conditions: even at its left boundary (around n = −1/2), odd at its right boundary (around n = N − 1/2), and so on (instead of periodic boundaries as for a DFT). This follows from the identities and . Thus, if its inputs are an array x of length N, we can imagine extending this array to (x, −xR, −x, xR, ...) and so on, where xR denotes x in reverse order. Consider an MDCT with 2N inputs and N outputs, where we divide the inputs into four blocks (a, b, c, d) each of size N/2. If we shift these to the right by N/2 (from the +N/2 term in the MDCT definition), then (b, c, d) extend past the end of the N DCT-IV inputs, so we must "fold" them back according to the boundary conditions described above. Thus, the MDCT of 2N inputs (a, b, c, d) is exactly equivalent to a DCT-IV of the N inputs: (−cR−d, a−bR), where R denotes reversal as above. (In this way, any algorithm to compute the DCT-IV can be trivially applied to the MDCT.) Similarly, the IMDCT formula above is precisely 1/2 of the DCT-IV (which is its own inverse), where the output is extended (via the boundary conditions) to a length 2N and shifted back to the left by N/2. The inverse DCT-IV would simply give back the inputs (−cR−d, a−bR) from above. When this is extended via the boundary conditions and shifted, one obtains: IMDCT (MDCT (a, b, c, d)) = (a−bR, b−aR, c+dR, d+cR) / 2. Half of the IMDCT outputs are thus redundant, as b−aR = −(a−bR)R, and likewise for the last two terms. If we group the input into bigger blocks A,B of size N, where A = (a, b) and B = (c, d), we can write this result in a simpler way: IMDCT (MDCT (A, B)) = (A−AR, B+BR) / 2 One can now understand how TDAC works. Suppose that one computes the MDCT of the subsequent, 50% overlapped, 2N block (B, C). The IMDCT will then yield, analogous to the above: (B−BR, C+CR) / 2. When this is added with the previous IMDCT result in the overlapping half, the reversed terms cancel and one obtains simply B, recovering the original data. Origin of TDAC The origin of the term "time-domain aliasing cancellation" is now clear. The use of input data that extend beyond the boundaries of the logical DCT-IV causes the data to be aliased in the same way that frequencies beyond the Nyquist frequency are aliased to lower frequencies, except that this aliasing occurs in the time domain instead of the frequency domain: we cannot distinguish the contributions of a and of bR to the MDCT of (a, b, c, d), or equivalently, to the result of IMDCT (MDCT (a, b, c, d)) = (a−bR, b−aR, c+dR, d+cR) / 2. The combinations c−dR and so on, have precisely the right signs for the combinations to cancel when they are added. For odd N (which are rarely used in practice), N/2 is not an integer so the MDCT is not simply a shift permutation of a DCT-IV. In this case, the additional shift by half a sample means that the MDCT/IMDCT becomes equivalent to the DCT-III/II, and the analysis is analogous to the above. Smoothness and discontinuities We have seen above that the MDCT of 2N inputs (a, b, c, d) is equivalent to a DCT-IV of the N inputs (−cR−d, a−bR). The DCT-IV is designed for the case where the function at the right boundary is odd, and therefore the values near the right boundary are close to 0. If the input signal is smooth, this is the case: the rightmost components of a and bR are consecutive in the input sequence (a, b, c, d), and therefore their difference is small. Let us look at the middle of the interval: if we rewrite the above expression as (−cR−d, a−bR) = (−d, a)−(b,c)R, the second term, (b,c)R, gives a smooth transition in the middle. However, in the first term, (−d, a), there is a potential discontinuity where the right end of −d meets the left end of a. This is the reason for using a window function that reduces the components near the boundaries of the input sequence (a, b, c, d) towards 0. TDAC for the windowed MDCT Above, the TDAC property was proved for the ordinary MDCT, showing that adding IMDCTs of subsequent blocks in their overlapping half recovers the original data. The derivation of this inverse property for the windowed MDCT is only slightly more complicated. Consider to overlapping consecutive sets of 2N inputs (A,B) and (B,C), for blocks A,B,C of size N. Recall from above that when and are MDCTed, IMDCTed, and added in their overlapping half, we obtain , the original data. Now we suppose that we multiply both the MDCT inputs and the IMDCT outputs by a window function of length 2N. As above, we assume a symmetric window function, which is therefore of the form where W is a length-N vector and R denotes reversal as before. Then the Princen-Bradley condition can be written as , with the squares and additions performed elementwise. Therefore, instead of MDCTing , we now MDCT (with all multiplications performed elementwise). When this is IMDCTed and multiplied again (elementwise) by the window function, the last-N half becomes: . (Note that we no longer have the multiplication by 1/2, because the IMDCT normalization differs by a factor of 2 in the windowed case.) Similarly, the windowed MDCT and IMDCT of yields, in its first-N half: . When we add these two halves together, we obtain: recovering the original data. See also Discrete cosine transform Other overlapping windowed Fourier transforms include: Modulated complex lapped transform Short-time Fourier transform Welch's method Audio coding format Audio compression (data) References Bibliography Henrique S. Malvar, Signal Processing with Lapped Transforms (Artech House: Norwood MA, 1992). A. W. Johnson and A. B. Bradley, "Adaptive transform coding incorporating time domain aliasing cancellation," Speech Comm. 6, 299-308 (1987). For algorithms, see examples: Chi-Min Liu and Wen-Chieh Lee, "A unified fast algorithm for cosine modulated filterbanks in current audio standards", J. Audio Engineering 47 (12), 1061-1075 (1999). V. Britanak and K. R. Rao, "A new fast algorithm for the unified forward and inverse MDCT/MDST computation," Signal Processing 82, 433-459 (2002) Vladimir Nikolajevic and Gerhard Fettweis, "Computation of forward and inverse MDCT using Clenshaw's recurrence formula," IEEE Trans. Sig. Proc. 51 (5), 1439-1444 (2003) Che-Hong Chen, Bin-Da Liu, and Jar-Ferr Yang, "Recursive architectures for realizing modified discrete cosine transform and its inverse," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. II: Analog Dig. Sig. Proc. 50 (1), 38-45 (2003) J.S. Wu, H.Z. Shu, L. Senhadji, and L.M. Luo, "Mixed-radix algorithm for the computation of forward and inverse MDCTs," IEEE Trans. Circuits Syst. I: Reg. Papers 56 (4), 784-794 (2009) V. Britanak, "A survey of efficient MDCT implementations in MP3 audio coding standard: retrospective and state-of-the-art," Signal. 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231388	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Edward%20Brown	Thomas Edward Brown	Thomas Edward Brown (5 May 183029 October 1897), commonly referred to as T. E. Brown, was a late-Victorian scholar, schoolmaster, poet, and theologian from the Isle of Man. Having achieved a double first at Christ Church, Oxford, and election as a fellow of Oriel in April 1854, Brown served first as headmaster of the Crypt School, Gloucester, then as a young master at the fledgling Clifton College, near Bristol (influencing, among others, poet W.E. Henley at Crypt School. Writing throughout his teaching career, Brown developed a poetry corpus—with Fo'c's'le Yarns (1881), The Doctor (1887), The Manx Witch (1889), and Old John (1893)—of narrative poetry in Anglo-Manx, the historic dialect of English spoken on the Isle of Man that incorporates elements of Manx Gaelic. It was Brown's role in creating the verse, with scholarly use of language shaping a distinct regional poetic form—featuring a fervour of patriotism and audacious and naturally pious philosophy of life unique to the islands, and interspersing pauses and irregularity of rhythm, an emotive admixture of mirth and sorrow, and a tenderness described by Quiller-Couch as rugged—that earned him the appellation of "Manx national poet". Retiring in 1892 to focus on writing, Brown died in 1897 (age 67), while again at the rostrum during a return visit to Clifton. Life Brown was born on 5 May 1830 at Douglas, Isle of Man, the sixth of ten children born to Rev. Robert Brown and his wife, Dorothy. His older brother became the Baptist preacher, pastor and reformer Hugh Stowell Brown (10 August 182324 February 1886). The family moved to Kirk Braddan when Thomas was two years old. Brown's father is described as a rather "...stern, undemonstrative, evangelical preacher". As Rev. Brown was partially blind, he employed his sons in reading to him from a wide variety of works, excepting novels. Brown undertook the boy's education, assisted by the parish schoolmaster. Young Brown was a shy and timid boy; the family gardener instilled in him a love of nature, and introduced him to Scott's Waverley Novels. At the age of fifteen, Thomas went to King William's College in Castletown. It was at this time that he began to write poetry. As Arthur Thomas Quiller-Couch notes: Brown left the Isle soon afterward, c. 1857, to accept the position of headmaster of The Crypt School, in Gloucester, where a commission had, through the hiring and other efforts, been attempting to revive the school. Brown was viewed as brilliant and academically distinguished; while his tenure at the school was relatively brief (c. 1857–1863)—he reportedly found the burden of administration at the school intolerable—Brown made a profound impact in this period, including on William Ernest Henley with whom he overlapped from 1861 to 1863. Years later, after becoming a successful published poet (e.g., of Invictus and other works), Henley would recall Headmaster Brown as a "revelation" and "a man of genius... the first I'd ever seen," and would eulogize his passing as one "singularly kind… at a moment… I needed kindness even more than I needed encouragement." Quiller-Couch continues: Hence, Brown created a distinct regional poetic form close to its native language, with scholarly use of the language, unique pacing and irregularity of rhythm, and a ruggedly tender admixture of mirth and sorrow that exhibited a fervent island patriotism and an audacious, naturally pious philosophy of life, a combination of man and art that earned T.E. Brown the appellation of "Manx national poet". Works Poetry Fo'c's'le Yarns. Including the poem "Betsy Lee", First Edition, Macmillan, 1881. New Edition, Macmillan, 1889. The Doctor, and Other Poems, contains the title poem, as well as "Kitty of the Sherragh Vane" and "The Schoolmasters". The title poem is the source of the humorous doublet "Money is honey—my little sonny! / And a rich man's joke is allis funny!" The Manx Witch, and other poems, Macmillan & Co., 1889. Old John: And Other Poems. Including the poem "Indwelling" – "If thou couldst empty all thyself of self, Like to a shell dishabited, Then might He find thee on the Ocean shelf, And say—" This is not dead,"—..." The Collected Poems of T.E. Brown, Macmillan & Co., 1900. Poems of T. E. Brown, 1922, a compilation of many of Brown's most important poetic works. References and notes Further reading Anon., 2015, "T E Brown – The Manx National Poet," at Medium (online), see , accessed 9 May 2015. Neil Hultgren, 2014, Melodramatic Imperial Writing: From the Sepoy Rebellion to Cecil Rhodes, Athens, OH:Ohio University Press, pp. 5–7, 16, 24, and 93–127 passim, and corresponding notes, pp. 213–259 passim, , see , accessed 12 May 2015. MNHL, 2007, "The Manx National Poet: Thomas Edward Brown," at Manx National Heritage Library [Eiraght Ashoonagh Vannin], Public Information Sheet No.10, March 2007 [RS: 03.07], see , accessed 9 May 2015. Joanne Shattock, 1999, "Thomas Edward Brown 1830–97," in The Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature: 1800–1900, pp. 543f, 1989, Cambridge, U.K.:CUP, (Volume 4 of The Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, ), see , accessed 9 May 2015. Max Keith Sutto, 1991, The Drama of Storytelling in T.E. Brown's Manx Yarns, Newark, DE:University of Delaware Press, , see , accessed 9 May 2015. Frederick Wilse Bateson, Ed., 1966 [1940], "Thomas Edward Brown (1830–1897)," in The Cambridge Bibliography of English Literature, Volume 2, p. 282, Cambridge, U.K.:CUP, see , accessed 9 May 2015. Arthur Quiller-Couch, Ed., 2015 [1930], "Thomas Edward Brown, Volumes 1830–1930," Cambridge, U.K.:Cambridge University Press, , see , accessed 9 May 2015. [Quote: "Originally published in 1930, this book contains recollections from the friends of the Manx poet and theologian Thomas Edward Brown on the occasion of the centenary of his birth. The volume includes a preface from the then Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man, Sir Claude Hill, as well as some unpublished letters written by Browne and a brief biography written by Sir Arthur Quiller-Couch."] Brown, Theron & Hezekiah Butterworth, 1906, "Thomas E. Brown, 'Three Kings from out of the Orient'," in The Story of the Hymns and Tunes, New York, NY:American Tract Society, pp. 1555, 1616, see and , accessed 9 May 2015. Brown, T. E. & Irwin, Sidney Thomas, (Ed.), 1900, "Letters of Thomas Edward Brown, author of 'Fo'c'sle yarns,'" Vol. 1, Westminster:A. Constable and Co., see , accessed 9 May 2015. Derek Winterbottom, T. E. Brown: his life and legacy (The Manx Experience, Douglas, 1997) External links Collected Poems of T. E. 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231391	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Leyden	John Leyden	John Caspar Leyden, M.D., (8 September 1775 – 28 August 1811) was a Scottish indologist. Biography Leyden was born at Denholm on the River Teviot, not far from Hawick. His father, a shepherd, had contrived to send him to Edinburgh University to study for the ministry. Leyden was a diligent but somewhat haphazard student, apparently reading everything except theology, for which he seems to have had no taste. Though he completed his divinity course, and in 1798 was licensed to preach from the presbytery of St Andrews, it soon became clear that the pulpit was not his vocation. In 1794, Leyden formed an acquaintance with Dr Robert Anderson, editor of The British Poets, and of The Literary Magazine. It was Anderson who later introduced him to Dr Alexander Murray, and Murray, probably, who led him to the study of Eastern languages. They became warm friends and generous rivals, though Leyden excelled, perhaps, in the rapid acquisition of new tongues and acquaintance with their literature, while Murray was the more scientific philologist. Through Anderson also he came to know Richard Heber, by whom he came to the notice of Walter Scott, who was then collecting materials for his Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802). Leyden was admirably fitted for helping in this kind of work, for he was a borderer himself, and an enthusiastic lover of old ballads and folklore. Scott tells how, on one occasion, Leyden walked 40 miles to get the last two verses of a ballad, and returned at midnight, singing it all the way with his loud, harsh voice, to the wonder and consternation of the poet and his household. Other work on Scottish customs includes the editing of the 16th-century tract The Complaynt of Scotland, adding an essay exploring Scottish folk music and customs, printing a volume of Scottish descriptive poems, and nearly finishing his Scenes of Infancy, a diffuse poem based on border scenes and traditions. Leyden meanwhile compiled a work on the Discoveries and Settlements of Europeans in Northern and Western Africa, suggested by Mungo Park's travels, He also made some translations from Persian and Arabic poetry. At last his friends got him an appointment in India on the medical staff, for which he qualified by a year's hard work. In 1803, he sailed for Madras, and took his place in the general hospital there. He was promoted to be naturalist to the commissioners going to survey Mysore, and in 1807, his knowledge of the languages of India procured him an appointment as professor of Hindustani at Calcutta; this he soon after resigned for a judgeship, and that again to be a commissioner in the court of requests in 1805, a post which required a familiarity with several Eastern languages. In 1811, Leyden joined Lord Minto in the expedition to Java. Having entered a library which was said to contain many Eastern manuscripts, without having the place aired, he was seized with Batavian fever (possibly malaria or dengue) and died, after three days' illness, on 28 August 1811. He was buried on the island, underneath a small firefly colony, which remains as his tombstone to this day. Leyden has importance for the Punjab and the Sikh community. Recently surfaced manuscripts in the British Library show he translated Punjabi works into English. These have been commented on and discussed by Sikh historian Gurinder Singh Mann from Leicester, UK. The Panjab Cultural Association created the website www.drleyden.co.uk and a booklet regarding the project in November 2011. The manuscript of Leyden's Journal of a Tour in the Highlands and Western Islands of Scotland in 1800 was published posthumously in 1903. It was edited, with a comprehensive bibliography of Leyden's works and manuscripts, by the antiquary James Sinton. Works Memoirs of Zehir-Ed-Din Muhammed Babur, emperor of Hindustan Translations Malay Annals, Translated from the Malay Language By... John Leyden... Memoirs The Poetical Remains of the Late Dr. John Leyden,: With Memoirs of His Life, By John Leyden, James Morton The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, : with memoirs of his life, (1819) The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, : with memoirs of his life, (1819) The Poetical Works of Dr. John Leyden (1875) The poetical remains of the late Dr. John Leyden, with memoirs of his life (1819) Notes References The Poetical Remains of the Late Dr. John Leyden,: With Memoirs of His Life at Google Books. External links Inauguration of the Leyden Monument, 19 October 1861 1775 births 1811 deaths Infectious disease deaths in Indonesia Scottish orientalists Alumni of the University of Edinburgh Deaths from dengue fever Deaths from malaria	[ -0.2235095202922821, 0.6148061752319336, -0.06392840296030045, -0.36695247888565063, -0.3087254464626312, 1.07524836063385, 0.8282960057258606, 0.2716321349143982, -0.5855783224105835, -0.1883634775876999, -0.3764339089393616, -0.15805523097515106, 0.03330421820282936, 0.4638252258300781, 0.06753738224506378, 0.3376898467540741, -0.5024007558822632, 0.7409116625785828, -0.1569003015756607, -0.3220984935760498, -0.2710832357406616, -0.16892188787460327, -0.0747629702091217, -0.2982137203216553, -0.04633207619190216, -0.06431557238101959, -0.01344492007046938, -0.07777567207813263, 0.018977168947458267, 0.018467778339982033, 0.04183093458414078, 0.7431109547615051, 0.07919541001319885, -0.2059566080570221, -0.4026382267475128, -0.27208662033081055, 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231394	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitzvah	Mitzvah	In its primary meaning, the Hebrew word (, meaning "commandment", , , Biblical: ; plural , Biblical: ; from "command") refers to a commandment commanded by God to be performed as a religious duty. Jewish law (halakha) in large part consists of discussion of these commandments. Traditionally, it is held that there are 613 such commandments. In its secondary meaning, the word mitzvah refers to a deed performed in order to fulfill such a commandment. As such, the term mitzvah has also come to express an individual act of human kindness in keeping with the law. The expression includes a sense of heartfelt sentiment beyond mere legal duty, as "you shall love your neighbor as yourself" (Leviticus 19:18). The opinions of the Talmudic rabbis are divided between those who seek the purpose of the mitzvot and those who do not question them. The latter argue that if the reason for each mitzvah could be determined, people might try to achieve what they see as the purpose of the mitzvah, while rejecting the mitzvah itself. The former believe that if people were to understand the reason and the purpose for each mitzvah, it would actually help them to observe and perform the mitzvah. For some mitzvot, the reason is specified in the Torah. Hebrew Bible The feminine noun () occurs over 180 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible. The first use is in Genesis where God says that Abraham has "obeyed my voice, and kept my charge, my commandments ( ), my statutes, and my laws". In the Septuagint the word is usually translated with entolē (). In Second Temple period funeral inscriptions the epithet phil-entolos, "lover of the commandments", was sometimes inscribed on Jewish tombs. Other words are also used in Hebrew for commands and statutes; the Ten Commandments (עשרת הדיברות), for example, are the "Ten Words". Enumeration Jewish tradition states that there exist 613 commandments. This number does not appear in the Hebrew Bible. The tradition that the number is 613 is first recorded in the 3rd century CE, when Rabbi Simlai claimed it in a sermon, perhaps to make the point that a person should observe the Torah every day with his whole body. However, this opinion was not universally accepted. Abraham ibn Ezra observed that there were over a thousand divine commandments in the Bible, but fewer than 300 applied to his time. Nachmanides found that the number was in dispute and uncertain. The number 613 is a rabbinical tradition rather than an exact count. In rabbinic literature there are a number of works, mainly by the Rishonim, that attempt to enumerate 613 commandments. Probably the most famous of these is Sefer Hamitzvot by Maimonides. Rabbinic mitzvot The Biblical mitzvot are referred to in the Talmud as mitzvot d'oraita, translated as commandments of the Law (Torah). In addition, rabbis of later generations decreed a number of additional laws, which are known as rabbinic laws (mitzvot derabbanan). Types of rabbinic laws include the takkanah and the gezeirah. Medieval rabbis discussed the question of why a Jew should be required to follow rabbinic mitzvot, as they were not commanded by God, but rather by the rabbis. According to Maimonides, one who keeps rabbinic mitzvot is in fact following a Biblical commandment to obey the decisions of the Jewish religious authorities (, ) According to Nahmanides, there is no biblical source for the obligation to keep rabbinic mitzvot. In addition, many of the specific details of the Biblical mitzvot are only derived via rabbinical application of the Oral Torah (Mishna/Gemarah); for example, the three daily prayers in any language and the recitation of the Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4-7) twice a day in any language, the binding of the tefillin and the fixing of the mezuzah (Deuteronomy 6:8-9), and the saying of Grace After Meals (Deuteronomy 8:10). The seven rabbinic mitzvot Seven notable mitzvot d'rabbanan are as follows: To recite a blessing for each enjoyment To ritually wash the hands before eating bread To prepare lights in advance of Shabbat (to have peace in the home, and to act in contradiction to customs of Karaite Judaism) To construct an eruv to permit carrying to and within public areas on Shabbat To recite the Hallel psalms on holy days To light the Hanukkah lights To read the Scroll of Esther on Purim These seven rabbinical commandments are treated like Biblical commandments insofar as, prior to the performance of each, a benediction is recited ("Blessed are You, O our God, King of the universe, Who has commanded us ..."). In gematria, these seven, added to the 613 Biblical commandments, form a total of 620, corresponding to the numerical value of the phrase Keter Torah ("The Crown of the Torah"). Categories of mitzvot The commandments have been divided also into three general categories: mishpatim; edot; and chukim. Mishpatim ("laws") include commandments that are deemed to be self-evident, such as not to murder and not to steal. Edot ("testimonies") commemorate important events in Jewish history. For example, the Shabbat is said to testify to the story that Hashem created the world in six days and rested on the seventh day and declared it holy. Chukim ("decrees") are commandments with no known rationale, and are perceived as pure manifestations of the Divine will. The commandments are divided into positive ("thou shalt") and negative ("thou shalt not") commandments. According to Jewish tradition, the 613 commandments contain 365 negative commandments and 248 positive commandments. Many commandments concern only special classes of peoplesuch as kings, Kohanim (the priesthood), Levites, or Nazaritesor are conditioned by local or temporary circumstances of the Jewish nation, as, for instance, the agricultural, sacrificial, and Levitical laws. Three types of negative commandments fall under the self-sacrificial principle yehareg ve'al ya'avor, meaning "One should let oneself be killed rather than violate it". These are murder, idolatry, and forbidden sexual relations. For all other commandments, one must violate the commandment if the only alternative is to be killed. According to Rabbi Ishmael, only the principal commandments were given on Mount Sinai, the remainder having been given in the Tent of Meeting. Rabbi Akiva, on the other hand, was of the opinion that they were all given on Mount Sinai, repeated in the Tent of Meeting, and declared a third time by Moses before his death. According to the Midrash, all divine commandments were given on Mount Sinai, and no prophet could add any new ones. Six constant mitzvot Out of the 613 Mitzvot mentioned in the Torah, there are six mitzvot which the Sefer Hachinuch calls "constant mitzvot": "We have six mitzvot which are perpetual and constant, applicable at all times, all the days of our lives". To know God, and that God created all things. Not to have any god(s) beside God To know God's Oneness. To fear God. To love God. Not to pursue the passions of your heart and stray after your eyes. Mitzvot and Jewish law In rabbinic thought, the commandments are usually divided into two major groups, positive commandments (obligations) – mitzvot aseh [] and negative commandments (prohibitions) – mitzvot lo ta'aseh []. The system describing the practical application of the commandments is known as Halakha. Halakha is the development of the mitzvot as contained in the Written Law (Torah), via discussion and debate in the Oral Law, as recorded in the rabbinic literature of the classical era, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud. The halakha dictates and influences a wide variety of behavior of traditionalist Jews. Applicability in the messianic age The majority view of classical rabbis was that the commandments will still be applicable and in force during the Messianic Age. However, a significant minority of rabbis held that most of the commandments will be nullified by, or in, the messianic era. Examples of such rabbinic views include: that the grain-offering of Judah and Jerusalem will be pleasing to God as in the days of old, and as in ancient years (Malachi 3:4) that today we should observe the commandments (Babylonian Talmud, Tractate Avodah Zarah 3a, 4b); because we will not observe them in the world to come (Rashi) that in the future all sacrifices, with the exception of the Thanksgiving-sacrifice, will be discontinued (Midrash Vayikra Rabbah 9:7) that all sacrifices will be annulled in the future (Tanchuma Emor 19, Vayikra Rabbah 9:7) that God will permit what is now forbidden (Midrash Tehillim, Mizmor 146:5) that most mitzvot will no longer be in force (Babylonian Talmud, Niddah 61b and Shabbat 151b). There is no accepted authoritative answer within Judaism as to which mitzvot, if any, would be annulled in the Messianic era. This is a subject of theoretical debate and, not being viewed as an immediately practical question, is usually passed over in favor of answering questions of the practical halakha. See also Aveira (Transgression) Dharma (Hindu/Buddhist/Sikh) Emil Fackenheim Fard (Islamic) Law given to Moses at Sinai Mitzvah goreret mitzvah Pay it forward Seven Laws of Noah Tao (Chinese) Volunteerism References External links Maimonides Sefer HaMitzvot (Hebrew full text) Commandments Jewish law and rituals Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law	[ 0.19081272184848785, 0.6828519701957703, -0.4019552767276764, -0.8831907510757446, 0.1001429408788681, 0.1373496949672699, 0.5007078647613525, 0.14350493252277374, 0.1262965202331543, -0.5037155747413635, -0.36905601620674133, 0.7367560863494873, 0.18951985239982605, 0.12498657405376434, -0.8785586953163147, 0.19727212190628052, 0.9770756363868713, 0.4370458424091339, -0.0925218015909195, -0.4994160234928131, -0.20445513725280762, -0.01720614917576313, 0.07477539032697678, 0.4309793710708618, 0.31773582100868225, 0.035785868763923645, 0.2830922603607178, -0.450888991355896, -0.20005132257938385, -0.06598266214132309, 0.04251863434910774, 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231395	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Baddow	Great Baddow	Great Baddow is an urban village and civil parish in the Chelmsford borough of Essex, England. It is close to the county town, Chelmsford and, with a population of over 13,000, is one of the largest villages in the country. Great Baddow's name is believed to have been derived from the River Beadwan, now known as the River Chelmer, which marks the northern boundary of the village. Beadwan is thought to be a Celtic word of uncertain meaning, possibly "birch stream" or a reference to the goddess Badbh. The centre of Great Baddow is now a Conservation Area and contains over 30 listed buildings. Development During the early part of the 20th century, Great Baddow grew through ribbon development towards Chelmsford and Galleywood. In 1936, Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company opened the Marconi Research Laboratory in Great Baddow (now BAE Systems Applied Intelligence Laboratories), bringing together their various radio, television and telephony research teams in a single location. As the electronics industry developed, the campus expanded during the 1940s and 1950s to include research into radar, general physics, high voltage, vacuum physics and semiconductors. Great Baddow expanded considerably in the 1950s with the construction of Rothmans Estate, which provided housing for workers at Marconi's and English Electric Valve Company in Chelmsford. The village has continued to expand over subsequent years. The Vineyards, located in the centre of the old village, was once a fine Georgian house set in attractive wooded grounds which later became a hotel. It was demolished in the mid 1960s prior to the advent of conservation legislation, to make way for the construction of the Vineyards shopping centre and later the Marrable House office block, both constructed with a 'scale, form, layout and architecture' that Chelmsford Council now considers to 'jar with its historic surroundings'. Despite this, the shopping centre continues to thrive and, since refurbishment in the 2000s, the flats above are highly regarded and sought-after properties. Marrable House, a six-storey office block was described at the time of its construction in 1968 as 'one of the worst examples of town and country planning in the country' and subsequently once voted as one of England's ugliest buildings, was demolished in the Spring of 2016, and was replaced with a 53-flat development made up of one to two bedrooms in two buildings named Heron Gate. The development was completed in spring 2018. A corner of the grounds of the former Vineyards mansion were retained and form a green area to the west of the Vineyards development. A library was also opened on the western edge of the development in September 1981, replacing the former building in Bell Street. In 1967, a fire station was opened in Great Baddow to replace the former station which occupied a converted hut in Brewery Fields, Galleywood, once part of the Galleywood race course complex. Great Baddow has four pubs – The White Horse, The Blue Lion, The Kings Head and The Star. Recently closed was The Beehive Pub. The former Baddow Brewery, previously owned by the Baddow Brewery Co Ltd, built in 1868 and extended in 1878 by George Scamell, is now a Grade II building and houses local businesses. Great Baddow is also home to the Pontlands Park Country Hotel and the Baddow Antique Centre. Schools The village is home to Great Baddow High School, situated on Duffield Road. The school is a sports and science college and shows exceptional performances in these fields. As well as the high school it is also home to Baddow Hall Infant and Junior Schools these schools are situated by the border of Great Baddow, Beehive Lane County Primary School, Larkrise Primary School, (formerly Rothmans Primary School), and Meadgate County Primary Schools. Geology Great Baddow lies to the south east to central Chelmsford, on higher ground that is thought to mark the edge of the main ice mass during the Anglian glaciation. An outcrop of glacial sand and gravel 3 km long and 0.8 km wide is located beneath the village, which used to be extracted from several pits in the area, including Beehive Pit (now beneath Harbeard Tye), Baddow Hall Pit (now beneath Baden-Powell Close), to the south of the A1114 Princes Road (now in the grounds of Moulsham High School) and on what is now an area of open land off Waterson Vale. Smaller pits were also located off the Galleywood Road (near what is now Hollywood Close) and off Pitt Chase. The area is overlain with head, while the lower levels of the sand and gravel are mixed with London Clay. A Sarsen stone from the Beehive Pit used to stand outside The Beehive pub. History In Saxon times, the manor of Great Baddow was held by the Earls of Mercia, and in the 13th century by Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale whose widow launched a legal challenge over its ownership on his death in March 1295. After passing to the Crown, Henry VIII later granted it to Catherine of Aragon. During the reign of Edward VI it was held by the Paschals, before being sold to J.A. Houblon in 1736. According to information in the local church of St Mary, the rebel leader Jack Straw led an ill-fated crowd (the "men of Essex") from the churchyard to London, in one of the risings in the 1381 Peasants' Revolt. In 1731, Jasper Jeffrey founded Great Baddow Free School, and in 1830 two National Schools were built. By 1933, there were 7 daily schools, 2 daily and Sunday schools, and a further 2 boarding schools. Great Baddow is recorded as having had a population of 1,445 in 1801, a figure that had risen to 2,022 in 1841. White's Directory of Essex 1848 reports Great Baddow as being 'one of the handsomest villages in Essex' having 'many scattered farms and neat houses', also noting that it had an annual pleasure fair on 14 May. Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834, responsibility for the poor of Great Baddow was removed from the parish and transferred to the Chelmsford Union on 10 August 1835. The Post Office Directory of Essex 1851, which lists the principal residents and trade persons of the parish of Great Baddow, includes 24 farmers, 8 beer retailers, 4 shoemakers, 3 blacksmith, 2 dressmakers, and notes that the vicar is residing in the Vineyards. The Great Baddow Mast – a former Chain Home radar transmitter tower, originally sited at RAF Canewdon – was moved to the outskirts of Great Baddow around 1954 and is used by BAE Systems for equipment testing. The last remaining example of a Chain Home tower maintaining its platforms, it was made a listed building by Historic England in October 2019 and given a Grade II status. Nearby villages include Galleywood Sandon Danbury Little Baddow Rettendon Moulsham Chelmer Village External links http://www.ingreatbaddow.co.uk/ Business and Community Life in Great Baddow. Replacing Great Baddow On-line, which goes offline on 30 January 2011. The Great Baddow Blog - News From Around Great Baddow Great Baddow Parish Council Website for the Great Baddow Team Ministry - includes a history of the village Great Baddow Online - Website for the village community Pictures of Great Baddow Pubs in the 1970s The Beehive Public House Baddow Life - The Life of Great Baddow References Villages in Essex Civil parishes in Essex Chelmsford	[ -0.4527178108692169, 0.4632328450679779, -0.024357514455914497, -1.2960987091064453, -0.1468169242143631, 0.13435596227645874, 0.7601398229598999, 0.2805264890193939, -0.19867804646492004, -0.04823178052902222, -0.09697984904050827, 0.304079532623291, -0.278925359249115, 0.40714284777641296, -0.6417659521102905, 0.09262517094612122, -0.02930366061627865, 0.2233281433582306, 0.4141182601451874, -0.605890154838562, 0.31944024562835693, -0.7761644721031189, -0.5007941126823425, 0.7123056054115295, 0.16490601003170013, -0.13577799499034882, 0.3788307309150696, -0.15843702852725983, 0.06106789782643318, 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231399	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brentwood	Brentwood	Brentwood may refer to: Cities, towns and other places Australia Brentwood, Western Australia Brentwood, South Australia Canada Brentwood, Calgary, a neighbourhood in Calgary, Alberta Brentwood, Nova Scotia Brentwood, Ontario, a community within the township of Clearview, Ontario Brentwood Bay, British Columbia Brentwood Boulevard, Sherwood Park, Alberta Brentwood Park (or "Brentwood"), a neighbourhood in Burnaby, British Columbia Brentwood Town Centre, shopping mall in Burnaby, BC New Zealand Brentwood, a neighborhood in Upper Hutt, Wellington United Kingdom Borough of Brentwood, a local government district Brentwood, Essex, a town in the borough Brentwood and Ongar (UK Parliament constituency) United States alphabetical by state Brentwood, California, a city in the San Francisco Bay Area Brentwood, Los Angeles, a district of Los Angeles Brentwood Circle, Los Angeles Brentwood Glen, Los Angeles Brentwood, Maryland North Brentwood, Maryland Brentwood, a historic district in Holliston, Massachusetts Brentwood (McComb, Mississippi), listed on the NRHP in Mississippi Brentwood, Missouri Brentwood, New Hampshire Brentwood, New York Brentwood, North Carolina, a neighborhood in Raleigh, North Carolina Brentwood-Darlington, Portland, Oregon Brentwood, Pennsylvania Brentwood, Tennessee Brentwood, Austin, Texas Brentwood, Houston, Texas Brentwood (Washington, D.C.), a neighborhood in Washington, D.C. Schools Australia Brentwood Secondary College, Glen Waverley, Melbourne Canada Brentwood College School, Mill Bay, British Columbia United Kingdom Brentwood County High School, Essex Brentwood School, Essex United States Brentwood Academy, Tennessee Brentwood High School (New York) Brentwood School (Los Angeles) Other uses Brentwood Associates, a long-time USA private equity firm Brentwood (CTrain), a light rail station in Calgary, Alberta, Canada Brentwood Magazine, a magazine that covers fashion, travel, and entertainment news for Los Angeles See also Brent Wood, Canadian politician Brent Woods (1855–1906), American soldier Brentwood School (disambiguation)	[ 0.22448746860027313, -0.05429771915078163, 0.37114831805229187, 0.24266357719898224, 0.11767899990081787, 0.12609735131263733, 0.267849862575531, 0.2397201955318451, -0.3305506408214569, -0.39972448348999023, -0.6935641169548035, -0.08088632673025131, 0.01805170439183712, 0.3944888710975647, -0.4425824284553528, 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231400	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand%20of%20Glory	Hand of Glory	A Hand of Glory is the dried and pickled hand of a hanged man, often specified as being the left () hand, or, if the person was hanged for murder, the hand that "did the deed." Old European beliefs attribute great powers to a Hand of Glory combined with a candle made from fat from the corpse of the same malefactor who died on the gallows. The candle so made, lighted, and placed (as if in a candlestick) in the Hand of Glory, would have rendered motionless all persons to whom it was presented. The process for preparing the hand and the candle are described in 18th-century documents, with certain steps disputed due to difficulty in properly translating phrases from that era. The concept inspired short stories and poems in the 19th century. History of the term Etymologist Walter Skeat reports that, while folklore has long attributed mystical powers to a dead man's hand, the specific phrase Hand of Glory is in fact a folk etymology: it derives from the French , a corruption of mandragore, which is to say mandrake. Skeat writes, "The identification of the hand of glory with the mandrake is clinched by the statement in Cockayne's Leechdoms, i. 245, that the mandrake "shineth by night altogether like a lamp"". Cockayne in turn is quoting Pseudo-Apuleius, in a translation of a Saxon manuscript of his . Powers attributed According to old European beliefs, a candle made of the fat from a malefactor who died on the gallows, lighted, and placed (as if in a candlestick) in the Hand of Glory, which comes from the same man as the fat in the candle, would render motionless all persons to whom it was presented. The method for holding the candle is sketched in . The candle could be put out only with milk. In another version, the hair of the dead man is used as a wick, and the candle would give light only to the holder. The Hand of Glory also purportedly had the power to unlock any door it came across. The method of making a Hand of Glory is described in , and in the . Process The 1722 describes in detail how to make a Hand of Glory, as cited from him by Émile-Jules Grillot de Givry: De Givry points out the difficulties with the meaning of the words zimat and ponie, saying it is likely "ponie" means horse-dung. De Givry is expressly using the 1722 edition, where the phrase is, according to John Livingston Lowes "" and de Givry notes that the meaning of "ponie" as "horse dung" is entirely unknown "to us", but that in local Lower Normandy dialect, it has that meaning. His reason for regarding this interpretation as "more than probable" is that horse-dung is "very combustible, when dry". In the French 1752 edition (called , i.e., "New Edition, corrected and augmented"), however, this reads as "", that is, in Francis Grose's translation from 1787, "sisame of Lapland", or Lapland sesame. This interpretation can be found many places on the Internet, and even in books published at university presses. Two books, one by Cora Daniels, another by Montague Summers, perpetuate the Lapland sesame myth, while being uncertain whether zimat should mean verdigris or the Arabian sulphate of iron. The also provides a way to shield a house from the effects of the Hand of Glory: An actual Hand of Glory is kept at the Whitby Museum in North Yorkshire, England, together with a text published in a book from 1823. In this manuscript text, the way to make the Hand of Glory is as follows: Cultural references In comics In Hellboy'''s Box Full of Evil story and Being Human story, a Hand of Glory is used to paralyze everyone except the holder of the hand. In The Invisibles by Grant Morrison large parts of the plot surround attempts from both the Invisibles and the Outer Church to obtain, and find out how to control, a Hand of Glory. In the comic, it is seen as having the propensity to open doors in timespace - i.e. open gates to other worlds and ages. In Black Magick by Greg Rucka, a hand of glory is crafted from the corpse of a hanged rapist and murderer, Bruce Dunridge. The body was found washed on shore, missing his sinister hand. In Marvel Comics, the Hand of Glory is a technique used by the Goddess of Death Hela to enhance her strength with mystical energy and kill anybody with her fist. In crime A Hand of Glory was proposed as one of the motives for an unsolved murder that occurred in wartime England some time in mid-late 1941. The case was made more mysterious by numerous graffiti that appeared later stating "Who put Bella in the Wych Elm?", referring to the woman's corpse which was found inside a tree. In literature Severed hands in an occult context occur as early as Herodotus's "Tale of Rhampsinitus" (ii, 121), in which a clever thief leaves a dead hand behind in order to avoid capture. They also appear in early stories of lycanthropy, such as Henry Boguet's in 1590. In 1832 wrote the short story "" ("The Hand of Glory, a Macaronic Story"). The same year Aloysius Bertrand published "" ("The Hour of the Sabbat"). Guy de Maupassant made his debut with "" ("The Flayed Hand") (1875) one of his first stories in the under the pseudonym Joseph Prunier. Marcel Schwob wrote an uncollected short story about it: "" ("The Hand of Glory"), which was published in on March 11, 1893. The second of the Ingoldsby Legends, "The Hand of Glory, or, The Nurse's Story", describes the making and use of a Hand of Glory. The first lines are: Now open, lock! To the Dead Man's knock! Fly, bolt, and bar, and band! Nor move, nor swerve, Joint, muscle, or nerve, At the spell of the Dead Man's hand! Sleep, all who sleep! -- Wake, all who wake! But be as the dead for the Dead Man's sake! wrote a poem titled "" ("Studies of Hands") on the subject of the hand of the poet-thief Lacenaire, severed after his execution for a double murder, presumably for future use as a Hand of Glory. In "The Eyes Have It", a short story from the Lord Darcy fantasy series, published in 1964, a Hand of Glory is found among the belongings of a nobleman dabbling in black magic. In John Bellairs' novel, The House with a Clock in Its Walls, the resurrected witch Selenna Izard uses a hand of glory to paralyze the two good magicians, Jonathan Barnavelt and Florence Zimmermann. It is later implied that the hand may have been that of a hobo named "Hammerhandle", who had disappeared after aiding Selenna Izard in her doomsday scheme. In J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, Draco Malfoy sees a Hand of Glory in Borgin and Burkes, a specialist Dark Arts shop. He is told by Mr. Borgin that it "gives light only to the holder". Draco later buys the hand and uses it in Harry Potter and the Half Blood Prince. The Hand of Glory device makes multiple appearances in the Laundry Files series by Charles Stross. Multiple Hands of Glory appear in Cassandra Clare's book Lady Midnight, where they are harvested from murderers and used in a dark ritual to raise the main antagonist's true love from the dead. A Hand of Glory is mentioned as an item for sale at the floating market in Neil Gaiman's Neverwhere. The hand of a man with Dupuytren's contracture is brought aboard ship by the naval surgeon Stephen Maturin in the Patrick O'Brian novel The Hundred Days. The ship's crew assume it's a Hand of Glory and it is thought to bring good fortune to the voyage. A Hand of Glory, stolen from the Pannett Park museum, allows the protagonist to search several houses without being witnessed, in The Whitby Witches by Robin Jarvis. In Surfeit of Lampreys, the crime novel by Ngaio Marsh, a hand is severed from the dead body of the Marquess of Wutherwood and Rune in an attempt to make a Hand of Glory. In "Hand of Glory", a short story by Laird Barron, a hand is taken from a dead body and used to keep the protagonist from moving his body (except his mouth). A Hand of Glory is depicted on the cover of Middlegame by Seanan McGuire, as well as being frequently mentioned and used throughout the book. It effectively turns the user indetectable, and sometimes turns someone else indetectable. It is used by alchemists, and is the hand of any murdered person dipped in wax with each of the fingers lit. In music "Hand of Glory" is a song by The Smithereens from their album Especially for You. The story by Gérard de Nerval was adapted as an opera by Jean Françaix, after a scenario by Vanni-Marcoux; it was premiered at the Bordeaux Festival in 1951. Andrew Bird mentions the Hand of Glory in his song "Measuring Cups". He later named an album Hands of Glory. The Flesh Eaters reference the concept several times. The cover of their 1981 album A Minute to Pray, a Second to Die appears to depict a Hand of Glory. Their next album, 1982's Forever Came Today, has a song titled "Hand of Glory", and the lyrics of "The Wedding Dice" also include the phrase. U.K. noise group Ramleh (band) released an EP in 1983 titled The Hand of Glory. It also features a two-part song of the same name. Royal Trux released a 2002 album titled Hand Of Glory. In television A Hand of Glory appears in the sixth episode of Supernaturals third season where it is stolen by the thief Bela Talbot, only to find that the Hand is haunted by a vengeful spirit. A Hand of Glory was used in the thirteenth episode of The Originals third season by the witch Davina Claire to open a window to the afterlife to communicate with her dead boyfriend. A Hand of Glory was also used by the protagonist John Constantine in the third episode of the first season of Constantine. Here, the candle is used to briefly resurrect a dead friend of John's by using a spell and lighting all five fingers. The spell also briefly resurrects every other dead body inside the morgue. The spell lasts as long as the fingers are burning. Graceland, season three, episode nine, titled "Hand of Glory", a brief description is given to the origins of a Hand of Glory during a torture scene. In The Dresden Files, season one, episode seven, titled "Walls", three college students use a possessed Hand of Glory to commit robberies. In Lost Girl, season two, episode seven, titled "Fae Gone Wild", a group of selkies use a Hand of Glory to steal their pelts from a holographic safe. In The Chilling Adventures of Sabrina, Part two, episode six, titled "The missionaries", Sabrina uses a hand of glory to gain entrance to the academy of unseen arts. In Buffy the Vampire Slayer, season 5 episode 5 former vengeance demon Anya states to Rupert Giles, watcher of the slayer Buffy and the owner of the magic store she helped out that day that a "Hand of Glory packs some serious raw power. Better institute a seven-day background check for-" This is the first episode you see the villain for this season, named "Glorificus", "Glory" for short. In film In the film 'A Canterbury Tale(1944) a pub called 'The Hand of Glory' is featured. Terror in the Crypt (1964), with candles burning on each fingertip, the hand is used by a witch in an occult ceremony to contact Satan. The Skull (1965), there is a hand of glory in Dr. Maitland's study, which is referred to by Anthony Marco. In the 1973 film The Wicker Man, the innkeeper tries to put Sergeant Howie to sleep using a Hand of Glory. Its power is such that the innkeeper's daughter expresses concern that "he might sleep for days." In the 1987 film Angel Heart Mickey Rourke's character finds a Hand of Glory in Margaret Krusemark's apartment. In the 2002 film Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets A Hand of Glory appears when Harry Potter finds himself in Knockturn Alley. In video games In the 1998 video game Thief: The Dark Project by Looking Glass Studios, Garrett, the protagonist, searches for his lost Lucky Hand of Glory that he had lent to Issyt the beggar who was caught and thrown into Cragscleft Prison. In mission #2 of that game, Garrett must break his friend Basso the Boxman and his fence Cutty out of the prison, where he also takes the opportunity to find his Lucky Hand of Glory from Issyt's cell. In the video game series Conquest of Elysium by Illwinter Games, hands of Glory are resources used by players to perform Necromantic rituals In the 2016 video game Darkest Dungeon, three "Hand of Glory" provision items are provided in the second quest of the titular Darkest Dungeon, "Lighting the Way". They are described as "The left hand of some malefactor who died on the gallows, made into a candle with the man's own fat." The items are placed on altars called "Iron Crowns" in order to weaken the eldritch horror the player must defeat to beat the game. The Hand of Glory is one of the Artifacts that can be obtained with the Archaeology skill in RuneScape. In Board Game Online'', the Hand of Glory is one of the Artifacts obtained in the Archaeology Dig Site, where it passively grants Sneaky and Arcane Vision, and can remove fire from the player and root other nearby players. In podcasts In the 2007 podcast series "Wormwood: A Serialized Mystery", the main protagonist Dr. Xander Crowe has replaced his left hand with a Hand of Glory. Among other things it gives him the power to open any lock, and a running gag in the series is that it disassembles his cell phone while he sleeps. The horror podcast The NoSleep Podcast features a tale entitled "The Hand of Glory" by author Colin Harker about a drug addict who crafts a hand of glory from the corpse of an erotic asphyxiation victim. There are predictably gruesome consequences. The horror podcast Lore (podcast) describes the origins and purpose of the Hand of Glory in episode 113. Pastor Drom occasionally makes use of a Hand of Glory when she and Mord go on dangerous outings in The Hidden Almanac. It is implied to be synthetic, or at least that synthetic Hands of Glory are available. Drom's Hand of Glory has a fairly extensive utility, offering a number of powers, spells, and effects depending on the manner and configuration in which the hand is lit, although it's not always 100% reliable and the fingers need twiddling from time to time. See also Order of the Occult Hand References External links The Hand of Glory and other gory legends about human hands – Edited by D. L. Ashliman. 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231405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphonse%20Briart	Alphonse Briart	Alphonse Briart (1825–1898) was supervisor of the coal mines at Bascoup and Mariemont near Morlanwelz in the Hainaut province of Belgium, and a geologist who studied that region. During the period 1863-1896 he and Francois Cornet published a number of books and papers describing fossils and geological structures found near Mons. They devised theories - now generally accepted - as to the geological history of the region. After Cornet's death in 1887, Briart continued to write alone. The mineral Briartite is named for his grandson, Gaston Briart. In 1890 his son Paul took part in Delcommune's Katanga expedition. Life events Briart was born at Chapelle-lez-Herlaimont on 25 February 1825, the son of a military surgeon. In 1844 he graduated from the École des Mines in Mons as an engineer. For most of his career he worked for the Mariemont & Bascoup coal-mining company. In 1868 he was appointed the company's Chief Engineer, and in 1888 the company's president. He married Elise Deltenre in 1855. His first geological publication, in collaboration with Fr. Cornet, was published in 1863. In 1866 the two of them received the gold medal of the Société des sciences, arts, et lettres du Hainaut for a paper on the Cretaceous terrain of Hainaut. In 1867, together with Cornet and A. Houzeau de Lehaie, Briart undertook the excavation of the Neolithic flint mines of Spiennes, and at nearby Mesvin, during the construction of the railway line between Mons and Charleroi. Findings were presented to the International Prehistoric Congress held in Brussels in 1872. Briart became a corresponding member of the Royal Academy of Belgium in 1867, and a full member in 1874. In 1889 he became head of the Sciences section. He was a founding member of the Société géologique de Belgique (1871). In 1895 he undertook a geological expedition in Chile. He died at Morlanwelz on 15 March 1898. His paleontological collection was acquired by the École des Mines de Mons. Honours In 1875 Briart became a knight, in 1890 an officer, and in 1897 commander of the Order of Leopold. Publications Communication relative à la grande faille limite au sud le terrain houiller belge (1863) Note sur la découverte dans le Hainaut, en dessous des sables rapportés par Dumont au système landenien, d’un calcaire grossier avec faune tertiaire (1865) Description minéralogique et stratigraphique de l'étage inférieur du terrain crétacé (1867) Description des fossiles du calcaire grossier de Mons (1871) Rapport sur les découvertes géologiques & archéologiques faites à Spiennes en 1867 (1872), on Google Books Sur le relief du sol en Belgique après les temps paléozoïques (1877) Etude sur les limons Hesbayens et les temps quaternaires en Belgique (1892) La Géologie des environs de Fontaine-l'Évêque et de Landelies (1894) References External links Some books by Briart & Cornet Briart's summary of Morlanwelz geology (French language) 1825 births 1898 deaths Walloon people Belgian geologists	[ -0.5767853856086731, 0.9592496752738953, -0.48289522528648376, -0.15612080693244934, 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231407	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abraham%20ibn%20Daud	Abraham ibn Daud	Abraham ibn Daud (; ) was a Spanish-Jewish astronomer, historian, and philosopher; born at Córdoba, Spain about 1110; died in Toledo, Spain, according to common report, a martyr about 1180. He is sometimes known by the abbreviation Rabad I or Ravad I. His mother belonged to a family famed for its learning. Some scholars believe he is the Arabic-into-Latin translator known as “Avendauth.” Works His chronicle, a work written in 1161 under the title of Sefer ha-Qabbalah (Book of Tradition), in which he fiercely attacked the contentions of Karaism and justified Rabbinic Judaism by the establishment of a chain of traditions from Moses to his own time, is replete with valuable general information, especially relating to the time of the Geonim and to the history of the Jews in Spain. An astronomical work written by him in 1180 is favorably noticed by Isaac Israeli the Younger. His philosophical work, al-ʿaqida l-Rafiya (The Sublime Faith), written in 1168, in Arabic, has been preserved in two Hebrew translations: one by Solomon ben Labi, with the title Emunah Ramah; the other by Samuel Motot. Labi's translation was retranslated into German and published by Simshon Weil. Philosophy Aristotelian approach Ibn Daud was the first to introduce the phase of Jewish philosophy which is generally attributed to Maimonides and which differs from former systems of philosophy mainly in its more thorough systematic form derived from Aristotle. Accordingly, Hasdai Crescas mentions Ibn Daud as the only Jewish philosopher among the predecessors of Maimonides. But having been completely overshadowed by Maimonides' Guide for the Perplexed, Abraham ibn Daud's Emunah Ramah ("Sublime Faith"), a work to which Maimonides himself was indebted for many valuable suggestions, received scant notice from later philosophers. The only Jewish philosophical works that Ibn Daud had before him, according to his own statement, were Saadia's Emunoth ve-Deoth, and "The Fountain of Life" by Solomon ibn Gabirol. On the one hand, he fully recognizes the merits of Saadia Gaon, although he does not adopt his views on the freedom of the will, notwithstanding that the solution of this problem was to be the chief aim and purpose of his whole system. On the other hand, his attitude toward Gabirol is entirely antagonistic, and even in the preface to his "Emunah Ramah" he pitilessly condemns Gabirol's "Fountain of Life." Being the first strict Aristotelian among the Jews—who considered Aristotle and his Arabic commentators, Alfarabi and Ibn Sina, to be the only true philosophers—Ibn Daud was provoked to constant opposition by the doctrines of Gabirol, who represented Neoplatonism. Impartial enough to accord to childlike faith its full rights, Ibn Daud desired also to defend the rights of reason, and, consequently, resisted with the utmost energy any attempt to set bounds to science; regarding this as a culpable encroachment upon the Divine plan, who did not endow man with the faculty of thought without intent. True philosophy, according to Ibn Daud, does not entice us from religion; it tends rather to strengthen and solidify it. Moreover, it is the duty of every thinking Jew to become acquainted with the harmony existing between the fundamental doctrines of Judaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode of reconciling them. Ibn Daud insists that, however highly philosophy may be valued, the religion of Judaism is preferable. Knowledge, which had been acquired by philosophers through the evolution of several thousand years, and after overcoming the most serious errors, had been bestowed upon Judaism from the beginning through revelation. As to moral truths, it may be even assumed as probable that the philosophers did not attain to them through independent study, but rather under the influence of the doctrines of Holy Scripture. Dissent from Aristotle It is true that on certain points ibn Daud could not always avoid conflict with the doctrines of Aristotle: this was especially true regarding Aristotle's theory of creation. According to Aristotle, all coming into being results from the fusion of matter into a certain form; matter, therefore, is the necessary basis for any genesis; primary matter itself, as the substance common to all things existent, must, therefore, be without beginning and must be eternal. But the acceptance of preexistent and eternal matter cannot be reconciled with the Biblical history of creation, which implies a creation out of nothing, and subject to time. From this conflict, which later caused Maimonides to dispute the authority of Aristotle in all matters transcendental, Ibn Daud was not able to extricate himself; and, therefore, he rather tries to glide over the existing difficulties than to solve them. For he represents the course of creation as a series of creative acts; which recalls Gabirol's doctrine concerning the succession of the various substances. But he himself subsequently admits that this was only a hypothesis to satisfy the need of giving an architectonic finish to our notions, intended to mark that gradual process of things which would result, had creation really gone through all the stages of existence, from primary matter, which is imperceptible to us, to all individual things, though some of these stages may be regarded as partly existing only in abstract notions. To concede the possibility of such a gradual process of creation, however, would be, according to ibn Daud, a contradiction of our conception of God's mode of acting. Theology As to the doctrine of God, Abraham ibn Daud, like Aristotle and his Arabic interpreters, proceeding from the principle of motion, and basing his argument upon the proof of the impossibility of a regressus in infinitum, arrives at the conception of a First Cause of all motion, or of a Prime Mover, who Itself, as First Cause, can not have any other cause of motion above It, and must, therefore, be thought of as motionless. The Prime Mover is God. But this proof of the existence of God leaves still open two important questions relating to the truth of our knowledge of God: one concerning the incorporeality, and the other respecting the unity of God. As to the incorporeality of God, it follows logically from the notion of infinity which belongs to the First Cause of motion that no corporeal thing can be infinite itself; nor can infinite force be attributed to it. But the Prime Mover is infinite; for, since it itself is without motion, its force also remains unaffected by the motion of change and transformation. Therefore, the Prime Mover—that is, God—cannot be corporeal. But as a being of necessary existence, God must also be absolutely simple and single; inasmuch as the conception of a plurality in its essence would, at the same time, nullify the notion of the necessity of Its existence. For the consolidation of this plurality into a unity must have been effected by another being different from itself; hence the existence of this plural being would be no more necessary, that is, determined by its own essence, but would be dependent upon that other being which brought about the unification. From the notion of absolute unity results the conception of the uniqueness of God; for if two beings of this kind could exist, the unity of God would be nullified, since to one, at least, of the units a special character must be attributed so as to distinguish it from the other. With the doctrine of the unity of God is connected the doctrine of the divine attributes, which is preceded in Abraham ibn Daud's system by the doctrine of the negative attributes, already accepted by Bahya ibn Paquda. and by Judah ha-Levi from the older Arabic theology. According to Ibn Daud, only negative attributes, in the strict and proper sense, can be imputed to God; so that, whatever multiplicity of these negative attributes may be ascribed to It, no multiplicity in the essence of God can result. Certainly this is equivalent to a renunciation of a positive conception of the Divine Being; for negative statements may suffice to prevent erroneous ideas, but a positive knowledge can never be obtained through them alone. Indeed, our whole knowledge of God is limited to two certainties, (1) that It exists and (2) that Its essence is incomprehensible. In addition to the negative attributes, only relative attributes can be predicated of God; for even these latter, however many may be assumed, since they do not apply to the essence of God but only to Its relation to the world, produce no modification in the notion of the unity of the Divine Being. From the speculative doctrines of faith, the truth of which can be proved only by reasoning, are to be distinguished the historical dogmas whose authenticity is based principally upon divine revelation, or (more precisely) upon the historical tradition of such a revelation. The tradition concerning an event that is reported to have taken place publicly before a great body of men, which originated, so to say, under the control of public opinion, without having been disputed by contemporaries, and has descended with an uninterrupted continuity, is persuasive which cannot be controverted even by the professional logician. The trustworthiness of historical tradition forms a presumption in favor of the truth of prophecy. This trust only applies when the divine revelations apply to important public matters, but not when they relate to less important matters, or to the personal affairs of a single individual. Thus, as ibn Daud remarks (perhaps referring to the miracles attributed to Jesus), the authenticity of the Torah would be in a difficult situation if, instead of being based historically certain miracles such as those of Moses, it were supported only by private miracles such the resurrections by Elijah and Elisha. Theory of prophecy Relying upon the doctrines of Alfarabi and Avicenna, Ibn Daud (whom Maimonides follows in many ways in his conception of prophecy) further argues that the gift of prophecy must not be considered as a phenomenon, interrupting the continuity of the development of the human mind, but in a certain sense as the final stage of a natural evolution whose lower phases, though they must be distinguished from prophecy proper, are nevertheless connected with the same faculty through a certain identity of nature. And even if the true stage of prophecy is reached, this gift is, nevertheless, still capable of progressive development, although it may exceptionally at once reach the highest perfection in particularly gifted individuals. The connection between the mind of the prophet and the higher intellects, principally with the Active Intelligence, furnishes a sufficient explanation of the higher cognitive faculty of the prophet, as well as of his power of transcending natural law. Appointed to become an intermediary between God and man, the prophet is elevated almost to the plane of the separated intelligences, or angels. On predestination Based upon the philosophical system developed above, and after the exposition of the doctrine of faith, the problem of human free will and its relation to faith in a divine providence, or predestination, may be regarded as much nearer its solution. The objection that faith in a divine providence is inconsistent with the existence of evil in the world, because God can not be the author of evil and good at the same time, is refuted by the fact that evil has no existence in itself, but is only the natural result of the absence of actual good, and that, consequently, evil needs no creator. The defects and imperfections which appear in this world in no way contradict the wisdom and goodness of God. The defects appear only to a finite conception which considers things separately and in themselves, and not in their connection with the whole. Viewed from a higher standpoint the imperfections adhering to things or individuals would perhaps, in their relation to the whole, even prove to be perfections and advantages. The human free-will as a subjective principle has for its objective correlate the notion of possibility, by which one of two alternatives may occur. This does not limit divine omniscience in any way; unless, misled by common usage, one should designate as "possible" those things whose undetermined state results not from their own essence, but only from our deficient knowledge of the essence. But this kind of possibility, which, indeed, is no possibility at all, must be eliminated from God as quite irreconcilable with His omniscience. In its strict and precise form, the notion of possibility is not at all antagonistic to the omniscience of God; for it is easily conceivable that God from the beginning regulated creation, so that for certain cases both alternatives should be "possible" events; that the Creator, in order to grant to human liberty the opportunity to display its own energy, left the final issue of certain actions undecided even for His own knowledge. Ibn Daud admits that human free will is somewhat limited through the variety of moral dispositions, partly due to natural causes, to be found both in single individuals and in entire nations. But man is able to overcome his natural disposition and appetites, and to lift himself to a higher plane of morality, by purifying and ennobling himself. The Torah, and the study of ethics which forms a part of practical philosophy and is designated, by an expression borrowed from Plato, as the "doctrine of the healing of souls," are the guiding stars to this exalted plane; but no scientific presentation of practical philosophy approaches in this regard the lofty heights of the Scriptures, wherein are clearly expressed the most sublime moral principles known to philosophers. The ceremonial laws also serve the purpose of moral education. Therefore, they too qualify as moral laws; although when compared with the doctrines of faith and the ethical laws proper, they have only a subordinate importance, just as the Bible also attribute to the sacrifices a relatively minor importance in comparison with the moral laws. See also Latin translations of the 12th century References Sefer ha-Kabbalah, with Latin translation by G. Génébrard, Mantua, 1519, Paris, 1572, Cracow, 1820; Neubauer, Mediæval Jew. Chron., i; Emunah Ramah, German translation by S. Weil, Frankfort, 1882; Joseph Guggenheimer, Die Religionsphilosophie des Abraham ben David, Augsburg, 1850; J. Guttmann, Die Religionsphilosophie des Abraham ibn Daud aus Toledo, Göttingen, 1879. External links Jewish Encyclopedia article Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry Britannica article ibn Daud at Sephardic Sages 1110s births 1180 deaths People from Toledo, Spain 12th-century Jews of Al-Andalus Rishonim 12th-century rabbis Jewish historians 12th-century historians Philosophers of Judaism Chronologists	[ -0.5315960049629211, 0.7317392230033875, -0.9303262829780579, -0.4430718421936035, -0.36553385853767395, 0.6142259240150452, 0.5677738189697266, -0.028925389051437378, -0.08118250966072083, -0.7001140713691711, -0.13151337206363678, 0.12418489158153534, -0.31581953167915344, 0.08567067235708237, -0.11427335441112518, 0.214663565158844, 0.026982691138982773, -0.3141777515411377, -0.4577758014202118, 0.07894430309534073, 0.07511086016893387, 0.013203227892518044, -0.24295400083065033, 0.2762243151664734, -0.09757973253726959, 0.22853799164295197, 0.35667768120765686, 0.09753971546888351, -0.5423763394355774, -0.07252804189920425, -0.010851195082068443, 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231410	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban%20seismic%20risk	Urban seismic risk	Urban seismic risk is a subset of the general term seismic risk which describes the problems specific to centers of population when they are subjected to earthquakes. Many risks can be minimized with good earthquake construction, and seismic analysis. One of the best ways to deal with the issue is through an earthquake scenario analysis. Toronto Toronto, Ontario, Canada is used as an example city in this article. The general issues are common to all cities subject to earthquakes. Cities are a mixture of old and new construction as in this picture. Note the old brick building mixed in with the new highrises, and the famous Toronto CN Tower. Similar to methodologies used in nuclear reactors, a seismic walk down of the city is the best way to identify vulnerabilities and possible places for improvement. Toronto is located on the shores of Lake Ontario, the site of much microseismicity. Historic records indicate that energetic earthquakes occur infrequently in the region, as with many other cities in the world, though Toronto was struck by a 5.0 magnitude earthquake on June 23, 2010, and a 5.1 magnitude earthquake on May 17, 2013. Most new construction complies with strict building codes, and buildings designed for loads that go beyond seismic. For example, Toronto's highrises are, for the most part, firmly situated on bedrock (for settlement reasons), and are designed for hurricane wind loads. They are not expected to have any problems structurally during an earthquake, although they may sway noticeably. There are many places where the risk of seismic damage to older buildings is quite high. Old brick buildings on poor soils are highly vulnerable to earthquake damage, particularly when the mortar holding the bricks together has decayed. This picture shows an elevated expressway on filled land. Although there may not be total collapse, there will be sufficient damage to incapacitate the structure. Problems increase if there is the possibility for soil or soil liquefaction. Even in buildings which are capable of withstanding an earthquake without structural failure there may be risk to people due to interior hazards. Items such as suspended ceilings and light fixtures have almost no seismic ruggedness. Warehouse stores where heavy merchandise is stacked are a particular hazard. International projects The IDNDR secretariat launched the RADIUS (risk assessment tools for diagnosis of urban areas against seismic disasters) initiative in 1996 to promote worldwide activities for the reduction of urban seismic risk, which experienced rapid growth particularly in developing countries, by helping to raise public awareness. Urban risk & planning One of the disaster risk reduction themes set forth by the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction project PreventionWeb, is urban risk and planning. This theme refers to the measurement and management of urban hazards and vulnerability in order to improve awareness and local capacity to effectively reduce disaster risk. References External links Realistic seismic appraisal of New York City Infrastructure Risk Research Project at The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada PreventionWeb Earthquake and seismic risk mitigation	[ 0.12631887197494507, 0.3580414056777954, -0.40327951312065125, 0.015805091708898544, -0.19282256066799164, 0.09031771123409271, 0.7070803046226501, 0.19320039451122284, -0.4146774411201477, -0.5857674479484558, -0.716266930103302, 0.8144316673278809, -0.32660529017448425, 0.47945931553840637, 0.02738766185939312, 0.5057685971260071, 0.26371675729751587, 0.542888879776001, -0.3673838973045349, -0.03965391218662262, -0.25014710426330566, -0.7611196041107178, 0.24584585428237915, -0.13366782665252686, -0.2727672755718231, -0.2533017694950104, 0.18526916205883026, 0.33236077427864075, -0.05179490149021149, 0.11425043642520905, 0.1070377379655838, 0.9633176922798157, -0.45138221979141235, -0.16085191071033478, 0.2423042356967926, 0.2530328333377838, 0.0999537855386734, 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231420	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmaduke%20Langdale%2C%201st%20Baron%20Langdale%20of%20Holme	Marmaduke Langdale, 1st Baron Langdale of Holme	Marmaduke Langdale, 1st Baron Langdale ( – 5 August 1661) was a landowner and soldier from Yorkshire who fought with the Royalists during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. An only child who inherited large estates, he served in the 1620 to 1622 Palatinate campaign before returning home; during the period of Personal Rule by Charles I from 1629 to 1640, he opposed both the Forced Loan and Ship Money. Nevertheless, when the civil war began in 1642 he joined the Royalist Northern Army, although with little enthusiasm. He proved a talented commander of cavalry; after defeat at Marston Moor in 1644, he formed the survivors into the Northern Horse, which quickly gained a reputation for ill-discipline. After Royalist defeat in the Second English Civil War in 1648, he went into exile and served briefly in the Venetian army before forced to retire by sickness. In 1653, he converted to Catholicism and later resided in Lamspringe Abbey, Westphalia. Created Baron Langdale in 1658 by Charles II, after The Restoration in 1660 he returned home and was appointed Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire. His health and finances had been destroyed by the war and he died at his home of Holme Hall in August 1661. Family Marmaduke Langdale was born in 1598, only son of Peter Langdale (d.1617) and his wife Anne Wharton (1576–1646), who in 1606 purchased Pighill Hall, Molescroft, near Beverley in Yorkshire. The name 'Langdale' allegedly came from the manor of Langdale in Yorkshire. In 1626 Langdale married Lenox Rodes (d.1639), daughter of Sir John Rodes (1562–1639) of Barlborough Hall, Derbyshire; before she died in childbirth in 1639, they had seven children. Four of these survived to adulthood; sons Marmaduke (1627–1703) and Philip (died 1672), and daughters Lenox (died 1658) and Mary (died 1678). Career Langdale attended St John's College, Cambridge in 1612 and inherited his father's estates in 1617. His sister-in-law Katherine was the first wife of Sir John Hotham (1589–1645); in 1620, the two went to Europe and briefly fought for Elizabeth of Bohemia, sister of Charles I. Sir John was appointed Parliamentarian Governor of Hull, Yorkshire in 1642 and executed for treason in 1645 along with his son John, whom Clarendon describes as a close friend. During the 1620s and 1630s, Langdale became an increasingly important local political figure and knighted in 1628; however, during the period of Personal Rule by Charles from 1629 to 1640, he opposed the Forced Loan and payment of Ship money. In 1638, the Earl of Strafford, Charles' chief minister and President of the Council of the North identified Langdale as a person of "ill affections to the Provincial, if not to the Regal Power". He was punished by being appointed Sheriff of Yorkshire in 1639, making him personally liable for any shortfalls in collecting the taxes. He eventually complied but was removed in July 1640 after organising a petition signed by leading members of the Yorkshire gentry listing their 'grievances.' Langdale provides a good example of the complex motives driving individuals to choose a particular side during the War of the Three Kingdoms. Despite his previous opposition and ill-health, when the war began in August 1642 he joined the Royalists and fought under the Marquess of Newcastle, Royalist commander in Northern England. During the Siege of Newcastle in February 1644, he scattered the Covenanter cavalry at Corbridge, before the loss of Selby forced the main Royalist army to retreat into York. At the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, he commanded part of the Royalist left wing and after their defeat formed the surviving cavalry into the "Northern Horse". A collection of the remnants of an estimated 30 regiments, it was later described as a "rabble of gentility" and quickly gained a reputation for poor discipline. In March 1645, Langdale dispersed a Parliamentarian force under John Lambert outside Wentbridge, and relieved Pontefract Castle, one of the last Royalist positions in the north. However, without infantry support, he was forced to retreat; the Northern Horse rejoined the main Royalist field army and formed the left wing at the Battle of Naseby in June. Although they initially held their ground against Oliver Cromwell's more numerous and better disciplined troopers, they were later outflanked and driven from the field. The survivors of Naseby, which included the Northern Horse, withdrew to Raglan Castle in South Wales, but on 10 July the last significant Royalist field army in England was destroyed at the Battle of Langport. Langdale and other Yorkshire Royalists wanted to go north to link up with Montrose, who won a series of victories in Scotland from 1644 to 1645. Charles agreed but first insisted on relieving Chester, a port vital for communication with his Irish supporters; on 24 September the Royalists were defeated at the Battle of Rowton Heath. Shortly after this, news came of Montrose's defeat at the Battle of Philiphaugh on 13 September. Langdale and Lord Digby escaped from Chester with about 2,400 cavalry, but on 15 October a Parliamentarian army intercepted and dispersed their forces at Sherburn-in-Elmet. Digby and Langdale escaped to France and the First English Civil War came to an end in June 1646. An alliance between Royalists, Parliamentarian moderates and the Scots led to the Second English Civil War in 1648; Langdale returned from exile to lead the Royalists in Cumberland and seized the border town of Berwick-upon-Tweed to enable his Scottish allies to invade England. In August, John Lambert, Parliamentarian commander in the North, was reinforced by Cromwell and Fairfax who had defeated Royalist risings in Wales and Southern England. Although Langdale linked up with the Scottish army under the Duke of Hamilton, they were decisively defeated at the Battle of Preston, over a period of three days between 17 and 19 August. Along with much of the cavalry, Langdale and Hamilton evaded capture at Preston but were taken shortly afterwards and imprisoned in Nottingham Castle. The Second Civil War convinced Parliamentarians, including Cromwell, that peace could only be assured by the death of prominent Royalists; Hamilton was executed, as was Charles himself in January 1649. As one of seven Royalists excluded by name from pardon, Langdale avoided a similar fate by escaping dressed as a milkmaid and made his way to France once again. Under the 1650 Treaty of Breda, the Covenanters agreed to restore Charles II to the English and Scots thrones but insisted on the exclusion of many who followed him into exile. As a result, Langdale did not participate in the Third English Civil War; he converted to Catholicism in 1652 and joined the army of the Republic of Venice but was forced to retire due to poor health. In 1655, poverty led him to take refuge at the English Benedictine Congregation at Lamspringe Abbey in Westphalia. In 1658, Charles created him Baron Langdale; after the Restoration in 1660, he was appointed Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire but claimed he was too poor to attend Charles' coronation. He died in August 1661 at Holme and was buried in All Saints Church, Sancton, where his memorial survives, along with others belonging to the Langdale family. Notes References Sources \|- 1598 births 1661 deaths Barons in the Peerage of England Lord-Lieutenants of the West Riding of Yorkshire Cavaliers Converts to Roman Catholicism High Sheriffs of Yorkshire Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge People from Holme-on-Spalding-Moor Military personnel of the English Civil War	[ -1.0439730882644653, 0.14938877522945404, 0.5243262648582458, -0.6117954850196838, 0.1946713626384735, 0.712163507938385, 0.7384082078933716, -0.026719147339463234, -0.4479081332683563, -0.1393992006778717, -0.023246092721819878, -0.06316785514354706, -0.48587310314178467, -0.07118906080722809, -0.2408541738986969, 0.7195556163787842, 0.08521805703639984, -0.03522534295916557, -0.31237876415252686, -0.7581178545951843, 0.23854760825634003, -0.43253692984580994, 0.1914045363664627, 0.1873708963394165, 0.6924700140953064, 0.08605274558067322, 0.4973054528236389, 0.25906381011009216, -0.16261090338230133, 0.04186650365591049, 0.2237362265586853, 0.24257206916809082, 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231421	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Triton	HMS Triton	Eight vessels of the Royal Navy have been named HMS Triton or HMS Tryton, after Triton, the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, and the personification of the roaring waters: was a 42-gun fifth rate, originally the French ship Triton, captured by the British in 1702 at the Battle of Vigo Bay, and sold in 1709. was a sloop in commission in 1741. was a 24-gun sixth-rate frigate launched in 1745 and burned on 28 April 1758 to avoid capture by the French. was a 28-gun sixth-rate frigate launched in 1773. She served with Rear Admiral Sir Samuel Hood's fleet off Nevis on 25 January 1782. She was broken up in 1796. was a 32-gun fifth-rate frigate launched in 1796. She served in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and was broken up in 1820. was an iron paddle sloop launched in 1846 and sold in 1872. was a paddle survey vessel launched in 1882. She was a school ship at Gravesend from 1919, and was broken up in 1961. was a T-class submarine launched in 1937 and sunk in 1940. See also was a 28-gun sixth rate, formerly the French privateer Royal. She was captured in 1705 by and was sold in 1709. was an experimental trimaran operated by the Royal Navy in the early 2000s before being sold to the Maritime and Coastguard Agency in 2005 as a survey vessel. She was not commissioned however and did not carry the HMS prefix. 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