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231432	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%204	Apollo 4	Apollo 4 (November 9, 1967), also known as AS-501, was the first, uncrewed, flight in the United States's Apollo program, and the first test of the Saturn V launch vehicle, the rocket that would be used to send astronauts to the Moon. The space vehicle was assembled in the Vehicle Assembly Building, and was the first to be launched from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida, ascending from Launch Complex 39, where facilities built specially for the Saturn V had been constructed. Apollo 4 was an "all-up" test, meaning all rocket stages and spacecraft were fully functional on the initial flight, a first for NASA. It was the first time the S-IC first stage and S-II second stage flew. It also demonstrated the S-IVB third stages' first in-flight restart. The mission used a Block I command and service module (CSM) modified to test several key Block II revisions, including its heat shield at simulated lunar-return velocity and angle. The original launch date was planned for late 1966, but was delayed to November 9, 1967, due to a myriad of problems with various elements of the spacecraft, and difficulties during pre-flight testing. Also contributing to the delays was the need for additional inspections following the Apollo 1 fire that killed the first Apollo crew in January 1967. These issues delayed the flight through much of 1967. The mission splashed down in the Pacific Ocean slightly less than nine hours after launch, having achieved its objectives. NASA deemed the mission a complete success, as it proved the Saturn V worked, which was an important step towards achieving the main objective: landing astronauts on the Moon and bringing them back safely, before the end of the 1960s. Background In 1961, U.S. President John F. Kennedy proposed that his nation land an astronaut on the Moon by the end of the decade, with a safe return to Earth. One of the early choices that had to be made to accomplish this goal was what launch vehicle to use. NASA decided on the Saturn C-5 rocket, a three-stage launch vehicle based on rockets already in development. In 1962, this was formally approved by NASA, which contemplated an initial test launch in 1965 and a first crewed flight by 1967, leaving plenty of time to accomplish Kennedy's goal. In early 1963, NASA redesignated the C-5 as the Saturn V. After considerable debate within NASA, it was decided in late 1962 that lunar missions would have a "lunar orbit rendezvous" mode whereby the complete Apollo spacecraft would be propelled towards lunar orbit by the third stage of the launch vehicle, the S-IVB. Once in lunar orbit, the astronauts who would land would enter what was then known as the Lunar Excursion Module, which would separate from the rest of the spacecraft, land, and after taking off again be discarded once the crew had transferred back. The remainder of the vehicle would then return to Earth. The launch facilities under development would not be sufficient for the new launch vehicle, and in 1962, NASA announced plans for a new complex on the Florida coast from which the Apollo lunar missions could be launched. This was dubbed the Launch Operations Center, but after Kennedy's assassination in November 1963 was renamed the John F. Kennedy Space Center (KSC). Apollo 4 was the first flight from KSC, and the first using Launch Complex 39 (LC-39) there, built to accommodate the Saturn V. The first three flights carrying Apollo equipment were launched using Saturn IBs. This smaller launch vehicle did not use the facilities at KSC, but issues resolved by Saturn IB flights would be valid for those to be launched by the Saturn V. Both the Saturn IB and the Saturn V would use a S-IVB, though the IB would use it as its second, final stage, rather than the third stage as on the Saturn V. Thus, many of the flight qualifications for the payload the Saturn V would carry could be resolved without having to expend one of the large launch vehicles. In addition to flight-qualifying the hardware, it was necessary to prove that the ground systems at KSC could successfully launch a Saturn V before risking the lives of astronauts on one. Three Saturn IB launches (AS-201, AS-202 and AS-203) took place in 1966; all were successful. According to Charles D. Benson and William B. Flaherty in their history of KSC, "The Apollo-Saturn IB launches of 1966 represented important gains for NASA's launch team. LC-34 and LC-37, testbeds for automated checkout, were found wanting. In the 20 months between AS-201 and AS-501 [Apollo 4], KSC corrected the major automation problems. Without these trial and error advances, AS-501, the toughest launch in Apollo's history, would have been far more difficult." Delays In January 1965, Major General Samuel C. Phillips, the Apollo Program Director, scheduled AS-501 (as Apollo 4 was then known), the first test flight of the Saturn V, for January 1967. This left little spare time for delay, especially since two additional Saturn V launches were planned to follow in 1967. Many Apollo officials lacked confidence in the proposed launch date, and these misgivings proved accurate. After an explosion involving a liquid oxygen line flowing to LC-39, from which AS-501 was to be launched, there was a potential for a delay of several weeks. North American Aviation was the contractor for both the S-II Saturn V second stage, and the Apollo command and service module (CSM) spacecraft. NASA had been experiencing problems with North American's schedule, cost, and quality performance on both programs, severe enough that Phillips led a team to North American's facility in California in November and December 1965 to investigate matters, and recommend solutions to the program management problems. He published his findings in a report to his supervisor, George Mueller. Technicians found cracks in the S-II, delaying its test firings prior to acceptance by NASA. As North American worked to fix the S-II, parts of the rocket began to arrive at KSC, beginning with the S-IVB on August 14, 1966 (by Pregnant Guppy aircraft) and followed closely by the first stage S-IC on September 12 (by barge). A spool-shaped "spacer" that took the place of the S-II allowed NASA to stack the vehicle as its checkout proceeded in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB). With the S-II still not arrived by November 1966 (it had originally been planned for July), NASA planned January 1967 for its arrival, with launch three months later. The CSM arrived on December 24, 1966, with the S-II arriving on January 21, 1967. Last to arrive was the aft interstage (the structure between the first and second stages), on January 31. The Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, that killed three astronauts during a launch pad test, threw NASA's schedules into further question—even though AS-501 was uncrewed, NASA officials wanted to closely examine its CSM. NASA had planned to restack the vehicle once this was done, but instead the inspections that took place found a total of 1,407 errors in the spacecraft. Inspectors found many haphazardly routed and skinned wires, prime material for short circuits. Other problems were discovered, such as the discovery of an errant bolt in one of the J-2 engines, with NASA concerned not only to retrieve the surplus hardware item but to discover how it got there, to ensure that nothing similar happened again. A meeting in March 1967, with Phillips in attendance, disclosed 1,200 problems with the Saturn V, which the technicians proposed to deal with at the rate of 80 per day. While the CSM was undergoing repairs, the spacer was removed from the vehicle stack, and the S-II positioned. On May 24, it was announced that the S-II would be removed for inspection following the discovery of hairline cracks in another S-II then being constructed, this work being completed by mid-June, after which the CSM was also returned to the stack, the first time the launch vehicle and spacecraft had been fully assembled. It was rolled out to LC-39 on August 26, 1967, where it was joined by the Mobile Servicing Structure that allowed access to the launch vehicle and spacecraft two days later, also transported by crawler. This was the first time a NASA spacecraft had been assembled away from its launch site, something allowing protection from Florida's hot and humid climate for equipment and personnel. The countdown demonstration test had been scheduled for September 20 but was soon rescheduled for the 25th and did not begin until the evening of the 27th. By October 2, another two days had been lost to delays, but by October 4 it reached launch minus 45 minutes. Then a computer failed, and the count, reset to 13 hours before launch, resumed on October 9. More computer and equipment problems appeared. By then, the launch team was exhausted and a two-day break was declared. The test was completed on October 13, meaning that it took three weeks rather than the expectation of a week or slightly over. With world attention on the launch, NASA public relations head Julian Scheer brought the skeptical questions from the media as to whether Apollo 4 would ever fly to the attention of NASA Administrator James E. Webb, leading to a heated meeting in which Webb stated that he would announce the launch date when he wanted to. These difficulties provided the launch crew with valuable experience, but meant that Apollo 4 could not be launched at the earliest until November 7. A flight readiness review on October 19 cleared Apollo 4 for launch, assuming the remaining tests and modifications were satisfactorily completed. On November 2, concerned about the potential for leaks in the Teflon seal rings and drain valves of the liquid oxygen tanks on board the vehicle due to the long time it had been sitting on the launch pad in the Florida sun, Phillips postponed the launch until November9. Objectives The purpose of Apollo 4 (together with the Saturn V's other uncrewed test flight, Apollo 6) was to qualify the launch vehicle, the Apollo spacecraft, and the ground systems, for the crewed lunar landing missions that would follow. In addition to being the first flight of the Saturn V, Apollo 4 marked the first flight for two of its stages: the S-IC first stage and the S-II second stage (the S-IVB had flown as part of the Saturn IB). Objectives for the Apollo 4 mission were to gain flight data on the Saturn V and spacecraft structural integrity and mutual compatibility, including on flight loads and during the separations as each Saturn V stage was exhausted and was discarded. NASA also wanted data on subsystem operations, including the emergency detection subsystem, and sought to evaluate the Apollo CM's heat shield under conditions simulating a return from a lunar mission. NASA was also seeking to test the restart capability of the S-IVB in space. These objectives would all be achieved. Equipment Apollo 4 carried CSM-017, a Block I design of the command and service modules meant for testing and for Apollo's early Earth orbit flights. Unlike the Block II spacecraft which would go to the Moon, it lacked the capability to dock with a lunar module (LM). CSM-017 was made up of command module CM-017 and service module SM-020. CM-017 was the second fully-functional CM to be delivered to NASA; the first, CM-012, was designated for Apollo1, and was severely damaged in the fire. SM-020 was originally to be used in CSM-020, slated for the second Saturn V test, but this changed after SM-017, which was intended to be part of CSM-017, was damaged in an explosion and was scrapped. Several significant Block II modifications were made to CSM-017 for certification purposes, since no Block II spacecraft would fly without a crew. These included upgrading the heat shield to Block II standards, using a Block II CM-to-SM umbilical connector, and installing Block II-style VHF and S-band antennae. Additionally, there were modifications to the CM's hatch. The fact that the spacecraft hatch could not be readily opened in case of emergency had trapped the Apollo 1 astronauts in the fire that took their lives, and led to a redesign of the hatch. The new hatch was not scheduled to fly until the second Saturn V test (Apollo 6), but its seals were to be flight-qualified on Apollo 4—the hatch window was replaced with a test panel simulating the seals and exterior heat shield. The heat shield was upgraded to Block II standards since Apollo 4's high-speed re-entry into Earth's atmosphere was intended to simulate a return from the Moon. Special equipment had been installed to allow Mission Control to operate the CSM's systems remotely, and there was a camera that would automatically take pictures out of one of the CM's windows on its final orbit. Since Apollo 4 carried no crew, the CM lacked couches, controls and displays. A Lunar Module Test Article, LTA-10R, was carried, and remained inside the Spacecraft–Lunar Module Adapter, numbered as SLA-8, on the third stage of the Saturn V throughout its flight. The LTA consisted of a flight-type descent stage lacking landing gear, with its fuel and oxidizer tanks containing a mixture of water and glycol, and freon. There was an ascent stage mockup atop it, made of aluminum with ballast, and having no flight systems. The SLA and LTA were instrumented to measure stress on them as the Saturn V made its way to orbit. LTA-10R would be destroyed when the S-IVB re-entered the atmosphere. Apollo 4 was the first flight of a Saturn V. At the time, it was the largest launch vehicle to ever attempt a flight. This mission was the first time NASA used "all-up" testing, requiring that each stage of the launch vehicle work and that the vehicle carry a working spacecraft; a decision that goes back to late 1963. Mueller, the head of the NASA Office of Manned Space Flight at that time, was a systems engineer who previously worked on military missile projects. He had recognized that all-up testing was successfully used to rapidly develop the Air Force's Minuteman ICBM program, and thought it could be used to meet Apollo's schedule. In a 1963 memo, he ordered that both the first Saturn IB flight and the first Saturn V flight be uncrewed, that each stage be fully functional, and that each carry a working spacecraft. The second flight of each type of rocket would also be an uncrewed test flight, and the third flight would be crewed. Previously, the way Wernher von Braun's team at the Marshall Space Flight Center tested new rockets was by testing each stage incrementally. The Saturn V would be tested all at once, with all stages live and fully flight-worthy, including an Apollo CSM. This decision dramatically streamlined the program's test flight phase, eliminating four missions, but it required everything to work properly the first time. Apollo program managers had misgivings about all-up testing but agreed to it with some reluctance since incremental component tests would inevitably push the lunar landing mission past the 1970 goal. Mission numbering Apollo 4 was the first mission to fly under the official Apollo mission numbering scheme approved by Mueller on April 24, 1967; the planned first crewed flight, in preparation for which three astronauts had died, was retroactively designated Apollo 1 as the widows of the crew members had requested. Although three uncrewed Saturn IB flights already occurred, only two contained an Apollo spacecraft (AS-203 carried only the aerodynamic nose cone). Mueller resumed the numbering sequence at Apollo 4, without designating an Apollo 2 or 3. Public interest and media coverage VIPs swarmed to KSC in the days before the launch. Von Braun arrived on November 6, scheduled for an exclusive executive dinner and conference that evening. NASA executives, figures from industry, Congressional leaders and diplomats also came for the launch. Each NASA center involved had a list of VIP guests, as did NASA headquarters in Washington, and duplications were sorted out so each center's director could invite guests personally. They watched the launch from uncovered bleachers near the VAB. NASA set up press headquarters in Cocoa Beach, where media representatives were accredited, and offered tours of KSC to visiting journalists, as well as a half-hourly shuttle service. NASA provided extensive telephone facilities for the media at the press site near LC-39, at their expense. KSC workers and their dependents watched the launch from near their work assignments. In addition, 43 employees of contractors who had performed in an exemplary manner were selected as "Manned Flight Awareness" honorees, given a VIP tour of KSC, a social evening in which six astronauts participated, and a view of the launch. Apollo 4, being the first flight of the Saturn V, gained intense media coverage, and writers struggled to convey to the public the size of the launch vehicle, stating that it would tower well over the Statue of Liberty and be 13 times as heavy. North American, in a handout to the media, noted that the Saturn V comfortably outweighed a battleship. On the day before launch, Mueller, Phillips, von Braun, Deputy Administrator Robert C. Seamans and Kennedy Space Center Director Kurt Debus held an outdoor press conference for over 1,000 journalists, including some from the Soviet Union, with the Saturn V in the background. Launch and flight On November 6, 1967 at 10:30pm EST (03:30 on November 7 UTC), the 56½ hour countdown sequence began with propellant loading. In total there were 89 trailer-truck loads of liquid oxygen, 28 trailer loads of LH2 (liquid hydrogen), and 27 rail cars of RP-1 (refined kerosene). This time the problems encountered were few and minor, and did not delay the launch due to the use of built-in holds in the countdown, during which time accumulated delays were made good. Launch occurred on November 9 at 7:00 am EST (12:00 UTC). Eight seconds before liftoff, the five F-1 engines ignited, sending tremendous amounts of noise across Kennedy Space Center. Even though the launch pads at LC-39 were located more than five kilometers (three miles) from the Vehicle Assembly Building, the sound pressure was much stronger than expected and buffeted the VAB, Launch Control Center and press buildings. Dust was dislodged from the ceiling of the Launch Control Center and formed a layer on the consoles of mission controllers. Dr. William Donn of Columbia University described the blast as one of the loudest noises, natural or artificial, in human history, excepting nuclear explosions. CBS's commentator, Walter Cronkite, and producer Jeff Gralnick put their hands on their trailer's observation window to stop it from shattering as ceiling tiles fell from above. Cronkite found Apollo 4 to be the most frightening space mission he covered. The launch placed the S-IVB and CSM into a nearly circular orbit, a nominal parking orbit that would be used on the actual lunar missions. After two orbits, in a simulation of the trans-lunar injection burn that would take later Apollo missions towards the Moon, the S-IVB's first in-space re-ignition put the spacecraft into an elliptical orbit with an apogee of and a perigee deliberately aimed below the Earth's surface; this would ensure both a high-speed atmospheric re-entry of the command module, and destruction after re-entry of the S-IVB. Shortly after this burn, the CSM separated from the S-IVB and fired its service module engine to adjust the apogee to . After passing apogee, the service module engine fired again for 281 seconds to increase re-entry speed to , at an altitude of and a flight path angle of −6.93 degrees, simulating conditions on a return from the Moon. The CM landed approximately from the target landing site northwest of Midway Island in the North Pacific Ocean. Its descent was visible from the deck of the aircraft carrier , the prime recovery ship, which within two hours had recovered it and one of its parachutes, the first time an Apollo parachute had been recovered for inspection. The spacecraft was brought to Hawaii for deactivation, after which it was taken to North American's facility in Downey, California for post-flight analysis. Onboard cameras Two motion-picture cameras were carried by Apollo 4. These were mounted on the Saturn V so as to capture the separation of the first stage and interstage from the launch vehicle. They would then be ejected, descend to the Atlantic Ocean in pods with parachutes and radio beacons, and be recovered about downrange of KSC. The command module contained an automatic 70 mm film camera which captured photographs of almost the entire Earth. For a period of two hours and thirteen minutes as the craft approached and passed its apogee, a total of 755 color images were taken through the Command Pilot's (left-hand) forward-looking window, at altitudes ranging from . These were the color images taken from the highest altitude at that time. The photographs were not of sufficient resolution to obtain detailed scientific data, but were still of interest to those involved in the Earth sciences. Aftermath, assessment and spacecraft location All Apollo 4 launch vehicle and spacecraft systems performed satisfactorily. On the climb to orbit, each of the Saturn V's three stages burned for slightly longer than expected, but this left the craft in an orbit roughly one kilometer higher than expected, something well within tolerance. A burn 11 seconds longer than planned meant that the CM entered the Earth's atmosphere slightly faster and at a shallower angle than planned, but still within tolerance. This discrepancy happened not because of the performance of the guidance system (which was exemplary), but because the burn had been controlled from Earth. The CM's environmental control system kept the ship's cabin within acceptable temperatures and pressures throughout the mission, increasing by only during atmospheric entry. President Lyndon Johnson described the launch, "The whole world could see the awesome sight of the first launch of what is now the largest rocket ever flown. This launching symbolizes the power this nation is harnessing for the peaceful exploration of space." Von Braun spoke of the mission as "an expert launching all the way through, from lift-off exactly on time to performance of every single stage". In his history of the Saturn V, Roger E. Bilstein wrote that "the flawless mission of Apollo 4 elated the entire NASA organization; everyone looked ahead with buoyant spirits." Mueller stated that Apollo 4 dramatically increased the confidence of many and showed it should be possible for astronauts to land on the Moon by mid-1969. Apollo 6, the second flight of the Saturn V, was launched on April 4, 1968. Although the Saturn V's stages gave more trouble than on Apollo 4 (the mission experienced pogo oscillation during its first stage and had an early second-stage engine shutdown), it was decided that a third uncrewed flight was unnecessary. The Saturn V flew with a crew for the first time on Apollo 8. A Saturn V launched astronauts into space, and in most cases towards the Moon, on each of the Apollo program missions that followed. In January 1969, CM-017 was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution. As of 1978, it was on display at the North Carolina Museum of Life and Science. The CM was subsequently put on public display at NASA's Stennis Space Center, where it remained until early 2012. It is currently on display at Stennis Space Center's visitor center, the Infinity Science Center, in Pearlington, Mississippi. 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231435	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%205	Apollo 5	Apollo 5 (launched January 22, 1968), also known as AS-204, was the uncrewed first flight of the Apollo Lunar Module (LM) that would later carry astronauts to the surface of the Moon. The Saturn IB rocket bearing the LM lifted off from Cape Kennedy on January 22, 1968. The mission was successful, though due to programming problems an alternate mission to that originally planned was executed. Like Apollo 4, this flight was long-delayed, due in part to setbacks in development of the LM at Grumman, the manufacturer. The original Saturn IB rocket that was to take the first LM (LM-1) to space was taken down during the delays and replaced with the one from Apollo 1 (in which the fire that killed three astronauts had taken place). LM-1 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center in June 1967; the following months were occupied in testing and placing the LM atop the Saturn IB. After final delays due to equipment trouble, the countdown began on January 21, 1968, and the space vehicle was launched the following day. Once the craft reached orbit and the LM separated from the S-IVB booster, the program of orbital testing began, but a planned burn was aborted automatically when the Apollo Guidance Computer detected the craft was not going as fast as planned. Flight Director Gene Kranz and his team at Mission Control in Houston quickly decided on an alternate mission, during which the mission's goals of testing LM-1 were accomplished. The mission was successful enough that a contemplated second uncrewed mission to test the LM was cancelled, advancing NASA's plans to land an astronaut on the Moon by the end of the 1960s. Background In 1961, United States President John F. Kennedy challenged his nation to land an astronaut on the Moon by the end of the decade, with a safe return to Earth. After considerable debate, NASA (the US government's spaceflight agency) decided in late 1962 that lunar missions would use a lunar orbit rendezvous in which the complete Apollo spacecraft would be propelled towards lunar orbit by the Saturn V launch vehicle's third stage (called the S-IVB). Once in lunar orbit, those astronauts who would land on the Moon would enter what was then called the lunar excursion module (LEM) (later called the lunar module (LM)). This craft would separate from the Apollo's command and service module (CSM) and land on the Moon. When the astronauts were ready to return, they would enter the LM, take off, and re-dock with the CSM. Once the crew reentered the CSM, they would discard the lunar module and return to Earth in the CSM. In 1962, NASA invited eleven companies to bid for the contract to construct the LM. On November 7, 1962, NASA announced that it had awarded the contract to Grumman in Bethpage, New York. Delays As with Apollo 4, there were significant delays for Apollo 5. The primary cause of the Apollo 5 delays was the LM, which was behind schedule. Apollo Program Manager Major General Samuel C. Phillips had originally hoped that the uncrewed test flight of LM-1, the first lunar module, would launch in April 1967. Anticipating six months for checkout and testing of the vehicle, NASA asked Grumman to have LM-1 delivered to Kennedy Space Center in Florida by September 1966, but due to difficulties in manufacturing LM-1, delivery was repeatedly delayed. The delivery date was still uncertain when AS-206, the Saturn IB launch vehicle planned to boost LM-1 to orbit, was erected at Launch Complex 37 in January 1967. After the fire that month that killed the Apollo 1 crew, the launch vehicle planned for Apollo 1, AS-204, was moved from Launch Complex 34 to Launch Complex 37 and replaced AS-206. This was done because AS-204 was the last Saturn IB with full research and development instrumentation, and, with crewed flight on hold, NASA wanted to use that booster for the first flight of the LM. With no LM yet available, Grumman built a plywood mockup of one at Launch Complex 37 to aid in facilities verification. On May 12, 1967, Apollo Program Spacecraft Manager George M. Low informed NASA headquarters that Grumman was committed to a June 28 delivery of LM-1, though Low noted that the goal would be hard to meet. On June 23, LM-1 arrived at Cape Kennedy on board Aero Spacelines' Super Guppy; the stages were mated to each other four days later. A 400-person team under John J. Williams, a veteran of launch operations for both Mercury and Gemini, checked to see that LM-1 met specifications, after which they supervised Grumman technicians, who tested and modified the vehicle. Due to leaks in the LM's ascent stage, the two stages were demated in August, and after these were fixed and the stages remated, another leak developed and the stages were demated again in September. During this time, several pieces of equipment were removed for repair by Grumman; the stages were remated again in October. As of September 6, 1967, Apollo 5 was running about 39 days behind the plan established on July 18, but all known issues were being dealt with, with the exception of some leaks from the propulsion system. Most mission documents were ready by late 1967; Mission Director William C. Schneider issued mission rules on November 18, 1967. The following day, LM-1 was mated to its launch vehicle, and the space vehicle readiness test was completed in December. In early January 1968, the office of NASA Administrator James E. Webb announced that Apollo 5 would be launched no earlier than January 18, 1968. Minor faults such as clogged filters led to some additional delays. The countdown demonstration test concluded on January 19 and an abbreviated 22-hour countdown began on January 21. Objectives Apollo 5 was intended to verify the operation of the subsystems of the LM. During the flight, the ascent and descent engines would be fired. A "fire in the hole" test would be conducted to verify that the ascent stage could still fire while attached to the descent stage, a procedure that would be used on the lunar surface and in the event of an aborted lunar landing. It involved shutting down the descent stage, switching control and power to the ascent stage, and starting the ascent engine while the two stages were still mated. The term "fire in the hole" derived from a term used in mining when explosives are about to be used. Additional testing was to check that the LM engines could be restarted after initial use. In addition to testing LM systems, Apollo 5 was to test the Instrument Unit in its Saturn V configuration. It was expected that the ascent stage of LM-1 would remain in orbit for about two years before re-entering the atmosphere and disintegrating, and the descent stage for about three weeks. Equipment Apollo 5 was launched into orbit by the Saturn IB, designated SA-204R, which had been assigned to Apollo 1. Originally brought to Cape Kennedy in August 1966, it had survived the fire unscathed, having been inspected after the fire for corrosion or other damage. Ignition weight for the launch vehicle, including the spacecraft and propellant, was . The space vehicle for this mission was tall, but had a stubby appearance since it had neither a CSM nor a launch escape system. Instead, the LM was housed within the spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA) at the top of the vehicle stack. The SLA, numbered as SLA-7, was just below the nose cap in the stack, and had four panels that would open once the nose cap was jettisoned in orbit, allowing the LM room to separate and move away. The LM, designated as LM-1, was the first flight-ready Apollo lunar module. To save weight, and because they would not be necessary during the test mission, LM-1 had no landing legs.<ref name = "legs" After one of the windows of LM-5 (which would fly on Apollo 11) broke during testing in December 1967, NASA officials decided to replace the windows of LM-1 with aluminum plates out of concern a window might fail in flight. Since there would be no astronauts aboard, LM-1 had a mission programmer installed, which could control the craft remotely. Not all LM-1 systems were fully activated nor was it given a full load of consumables: for example, its primary batteries were partially discharged to avoid over-voltage complications, and the oxygen tanks for the environmental control systems were only partially full. Flight On January 22, 1968, Apollo 5 lifted off from Launch Complex 37B at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station at 17:48:08 Eastern Standard Time (22:48:08 UTC). The Saturn IB worked perfectly, inserting the second stage and LM into a orbit. The nose cone was jettisoned, and after a coast of 43 minutes 52 seconds, the LM separated from its adapter, in a orbit. After two orbits, the first planned 39-second descent-engine burn was started, but this was aborted after only four seconds by the Apollo Guidance Computer, which detected that the spacecraft was not going as fast as expected. This happened because one of the engine's valves was suspected of being leaky and was not armed until it was time to ignite the engine, in orbit, which meant that the propellant took longer to reach the engine, leading to the lag. Programmers could have adjusted the software to account for this, but were not told. In addition, the tanks were only half full, and this contributed to the slowness of the ship. Had this occurred on a crewed mission, the astronauts would have been able to analyze the situation and decide whether the engine should be restarted. Gene Kranz was the flight director for Apollo 5. Mission Control, under Kranz's command, decided on a plan to conduct the engine and "fire-in-the-hole" tests under manual control. There were communication problems with the spacecraft, and omitting these tests would have meant the mission was a failure. Despite this, Kranz's team accomplished every burn. The ascent stage spun out of control eight hours into the mission, after completion of the engine burns, due to a problem with the guidance system. The stages were left in a low enough orbit that atmospheric drag would soon cause their orbits to decay and re-enter the atmosphere. The ascent stage re-entered on January 24 and burned up; the descent stage re-entered on February 12, falling into the Pacific several hundred miles southwest of Guam. Simulations showed that the S-IVB stage of the launch vehicle (1968-007B) re-entered about 15.5 hours into the flight. Apollo Spacecraft Program Manager George M. Low said that Apollo 5's success "was due to the fact that we had a good piece of hardware; it was due to the fact that we had outstanding flight control teams under Gene Kranz' able leadership." Despite the trouble during the descent-engine burn, NASA deemed the mission a success in demonstrating the LM systems, and a second uncrewed flight test using LM-2 was cancelled. The first crewed LM flight took place on Apollo 9 in March 1969. Notes References Sources External links U.S. Registry of Objects Launched into Outer Space Apollo 05 1968 in the United States Spacecraft launched in 1968 January 1968 events Spacecraft launched by Saturn rockets	[ -0.3353218734264374, 0.4414346218109131, 0.21045809984207153, 0.1499580591917038, 0.15767085552215576, 0.3703537881374359, -0.06876122951507568, 0.06674693524837494, -0.4464954733848572, 0.08475934714078903, -0.3139685392379761, 0.3962869644165039, 0.12486681342124939, -0.026422331109642982, -0.11542478203773499, -0.36473116278648376, 0.7737733721733093, -0.3259240388870239, -0.24891385436058044, -0.4643459916114807, -0.14330419898033142, -0.04436904564499855, 0.8678650856018066, -0.18078279495239258, -0.24111348390579224, 0.05909695103764534, 0.2058512419462204, 0.3258393108844757, 0.633499801158905, 0.7373643517494202, 0.10502497106790543, -0.4037914574146271, 0.7270424365997314, -0.06585878878831863, 0.019955776631832123, 0.15237657725811005, -0.2725093960762024, 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231436	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo%206	Apollo 6	Apollo 6 (April 4, 1968), also known as AS-502, was the third and final uncrewed flight in the United States' Apollo Program, and the second test of the Saturn V launch vehicle. It qualified the Saturn V to be used on crewed missions, as happened for the first time on Apollo 8 in December 1968. Apollo 6 was intended to demonstrate the ability of the Saturn V's third stage, the S-IVB, to propel itself and the Apollo spacecraft to lunar distances. Its components began arriving at the Kennedy Space Center in early 1967. Testing proceeded slowly, often delayed by testing of the Saturn V intended for Apollo 4. Once that uncrewed mission launched in November 1967, there were fewer delays, but there were enough so that the flight was postponed from March to April 1968. The flight plan called for following trans-lunar injection with a direct return abort using the service module's main engine, with a total flight time of about 10 hours. Instead, a phenomenon known as pogo oscillation damaged some of the Rocketdyne J-2 engines in the second and third stages by rupturing internal fuel lines, causing two second-stage engines to shut down early. The vehicle's onboard guidance system was able to compensate by burning the second and third stages longer, though the resulting parking orbit was more elliptical than planned. The damaged third-stage engine failed to restart for trans-lunar injection. Flight controllers elected to repeat the flight profile of the previous Apollo 4 test, achieving a high orbit and high-speed return. Despite the engine failures, the flight provided NASA with enough confidence to use the Saturn V for crewed launches; a potential third uncrewed flight was cancelled. Objectives Apollo 6, the second test flight of the Saturn V rocket, was intended to send a command and service module (CSM) plus a Lunar Module Test Article (LTA), a simulated lunar module (LM) with mounted structural vibration sensors, into a translunar trajectory, with the boost from orbit to translunar velocity powered by the Saturn V's third stage, the S-IVB. That trajectory, although passing beyond the Moon's orbit, would not encounter that body. The CSM was to separate from the S-IVB soon after the burn, and the SM engine would then fire to slow the craft, dropping its apogee to and causing the CSM to return to Earth, simulating a "direct-return" abort. On the return leg, the engine was to fire once more to accelerate the craft to simulate conditions that the Apollo spacecraft would encounter on its return from the Moon, with a re-entry angle of −6.5 degrees and velocity of . The entire mission was to last about 10 hours. The mission was intended to test the Saturn V launch vehicle's ability to send the entire Apollo spacecraft to the Moon, and in particular test the stresses on the LM and the vibration modes of the entire Saturn V with near-full loads. With the spacecraft having been qualified for crewed flight through the Apollo 4 mission (the first flight of the Saturn V), the focus was on fully qualifying the launch vehicle. Nominal completion of planned mission events through attainment of the initial parking orbit, and the restarting of the S-IVB to propel the space vehicle towards the planned distance, beyond the Moon's orbit, was deemed sufficient to fulfill Apollo 6's main objectives. Equipment Apollo 6's launch vehicle was designated AS-502, the second flight-capable Saturn V. Its payload included CSM-020, a Block I CSM that had some Block II modifications. The Block I CSM did not have the capability of docking with a Lunar Module, as the Block II did. Among the modifications to CSM-020 was a new crew hatch, intended to be tested under lunar return conditions. This new hatch replaced the one which was condemned by the Apollo 1 investigation board as too difficult to open in case of emergency, circumstances that had contributed to the deaths of three astronauts in the Apollo 1 fire of January 27, 1967. The CM used was CM-020; it carried a mission programmer and other equipment to allow it to be operated remotely. The service module used was SM-014—the originally-planned SM for Apollo 6, SM-020, was used for Apollo 4 after its SM, SM-017, was damaged in an explosion and had to be scrapped. CM-014 was unavailable for flight as it was being used to aid the Apollo 1 investigation. Not all SM systems were activated for the short Apollo 6 mission: the radiators to remove excess heat from the electrical power system and the environmental control system were not connected. Kenneth S. Kleinknecht, Command and Service Module manager at the Manned Spaceflight Center in Houston, was pleased with CSM-020 when it arrived at KSC from North American Rockwell, the manufacturer, though he was upset it arrived wrapped in flammable mylar. In contrast with Apollo 1's ill-fated CSM, which arrived with hundreds of unresolved issues, CSM-020 had only 23, with most the sort of problems that could be dealt with as a matter of routine. Also flown on Apollo 6 was a lunar test article, a simulated lunar module, designated as LTA-2R. It consisted of a flight-type descent stage without landing gear, its fuel tanks filled with a water-glycol mixture and freon in its oxidizer tanks. Instrumented to show vibration, acoustics and structural integrity, its ascent stage contained no flight systems, but was made of ballasted aluminum. LTA-2R remained inside the Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter, numbered as SLA-9, throughout the flight. Preparation The S-IC first stage arrived by barge on March 13, 1967, and was erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) four days later, with the S-IVB third stage and Instrument Unit computer also arriving on March 17. The S-II second stage was not yet ready and so the dumbbell-shaped spacer used in preparation for Apollo 4 was substituted so testing could proceed. This had the same height and mass as the S-II along with all the electrical connections. The S-II arrived May 24. It was stacked and mated into the rocket on July 7. This was the first time that High Bay 3 of the VAB would be used, and it was quickly discovered that its air conditioning facilities were inadequate. Portable high-capacity units were brought in to keep equipment and workers cool. There were delays in April 1967 as personnel and equipment were busy with Apollo 4 and were not available for tests on Apollo 6. The S-II second stage arrived on May 25 and was erected in one of the VAB's low bays, but work on Apollo 6 continued to be plagued by delays, many occasioned by work on Apollo 4. The vehicle was erected on Mobile Service Launcher 2, but work on the launcher's arms, which would swing back at launch, proceeded slowly. Also slow to arrive was the CSM itself, with the planned late-September arrival pushed back two months. Once Apollo 4 launched on November 9, 1967, the pace of operations picked up, but there were many problems with flight hardware. The CSM was erected atop the launch vehicle on December 11, 1967, and the spacecraft stack was rolled out to Launch Complex 39A on February 6, 1968. The rollout was an all-day affair, beginning in the morning and much of it conducted in heavy rain. The crawler had to halt for two hours when communications failed, meaning that the vehicle did not arrive at the launch pad until it was dark. The mobile servicing structure could not be moved to the launch pad for two days due to high winds. The flight readiness test concluded on March 8, 1968, and at a review held three days later, Apollo 6 was cleared for launch contingent on the successful completion of testing and some action items identified at the meeting. Launch was set for March 28, 1968, but was postponed to April 1 and then April 3 when there were problems with some of the guidance system equipment and with the fueling. The countdown demonstration test began on March 24. Though it was completed within a week, the launch had to be slipped one more time: On April 3, the final countdown began with liftoff scheduled for the following day. All problems that developed were dealt with during the built-in holds in the countdown and did not delay the mission. Flight Launch Apollo 6 launched from Launch Complex 39A at KSC on April 4, 1968, at 7:00 am (1200 UT). For the first two minutes, the Saturn V launch vehicle behaved normally. Then, as the Saturn V's S-IC first stage burned, pogo oscillations shook the vehicle. The thrust variations caused the Saturn V to experience ±0.6 g, though it had only been designed for a maximum of ±0.25 g. The vehicle suffered no damage other than the loss of one of the panels of the Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter (SLA). George Mueller explained the cause to a congressional hearing: After the first stage was jettisoned, the S-II second stage began to experience its own problems with its J-2 engines. First, engine number two had performance problems from 225 seconds after liftoff, which abruptly worsened at T+319 seconds, and then at T+412 seconds the Instrument Unit shut it down altogether. Then two seconds later, engine number three shut down as well. The fault was in engine two, but due to cross-connection of wires, the command from the Instrument Unit not only shut down engine two, but engine three as well, which had been running normally. The Instrument Unit was able to compensate, and the remaining three engines burned for 58 seconds longer than normal. The S-IVB third stage also had to burn for 29 seconds longer than usual. The S-IVB also experienced a slight performance loss. Orbit Due to the less than nominal launch, the CSM and S-IVB were inserted into a by parking orbit, instead of the planned circular parking orbit. This variation from the flight plan did not preclude continuing with the mission. During the first orbit, the S-IVB maneuvered, changing its attitude towards the horizon to qualify techniques that future astronauts could use in landmark tracking. Then, after the standard two orbits to check out the vehicle's readiness for Trans-lunar injection (TLI), the S-IVB was ordered to restart, but failed to do so. Deciding on a pre-planned alternate mission, Flight Director Clifford E. Charlesworth and his team in Mission Control chose to use the SM's Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine to raise the spacecraft into a high-apogee orbit, with a low perigee that would result in re-entry, as had been done in Apollo 4. This would complete some of the mission objectives. The SPS engine burned for 442 seconds to get to the planned apogee. There was now however, not enough propellant to speed up the atmospheric reentry with a second SPS engine burn, and the spacecraft only entered the atmosphere at a speed of instead of the planned which would simulate a lunar return. While at high altitudes, the CM was able to return data on the extent to which future astronauts would be protected from the Van Allen Belts by the skin of the spacecraft. Ten hours after launch, the CM landed from the planned touchdown point in the North Pacific Ocean north of Hawaii, and was lifted on board the USS Okinawa. The SM was jettisoned just before reaching the atmosphere, and burned up in it. The S-IVB's orbit gradually decayed, and it reentered the atmosphere on April 26, 1968. Aftermath In a post-launch press conference, Gen. Samuel C. Phillips, the Apollo Program Director, characterized Apollo 6, "there's no question that it's less than a perfect mission", but stated that learning that the launch vehicle could still reach orbit despite the loss of two engines in the S-II stage was "a major unplanned accomplishment". Mueller called Apollo 6 "a good job all around, an excellent launch, and, in balance, a successful mission ... and we have learned a great deal", but later stated that Apollo 6 "will have to be defined as a failure". The phenomenon of pogo, experienced during the first stage of the flight, was well known. However, NASA thought that the Saturn V had been "detuned", that is, prevented from oscillating at its natural frequencies. Soon after the Apollo 6 flight, NASA and its contractors sought to eliminate the problems for future flights, and about 1,000 government and industry engineers were put to work. To damp pressure oscillations in the J-2 engines, cavities in these systems were filled with helium gas shortly before takeoff, which served as a shock absorber. The problems with the S-II and the S-IVB were traced to the J-2 engines, present in both stages. Tests showed that the spark igniters on the propellant lines could fail in low atmospheric pressure conditions or in vacuum. This would not happen in ground testing, where the liquid gases passing through the propellant lines would cause a protective layer of frost to form, and during such testing, liquid air was sprayed over the exteriors of the engines, damping out any vibrations. In vacuum, there was no such protection and the bellows adjacent to the spark igniters vibrated rapidly and failed at peak flow, causing a burn-through of the propellant lines. The bellows were eliminated, and the lines strengthened. In the wake of Apollo 6, there had been debate within NASA as to whether to configure the spacecraft's emergency detection system to automatically abort in the event of excessive pogo, with Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton opposing. Instead, work began on having a "pogo abort sensor" to allow the flight crew to judge whether to abort, but by August 1968, it had become clear that pogo would be overcome, and work on it was abandoned. The SLA problem was caused by its honeycomb structure. As the rocket accelerated through the atmosphere, the cells expanded due to trapped air and water. This would cause the adapter surface to break free. To stop this occurring again, small holes were drilled in the surface to allow trapped gases to dissipate, and a thin layer of cork was placed on the adapter to help absorb moisture. NASA's efforts were enough to satisfy the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences. That committee in late April reported that the agency had quickly analyzed and diagnosed the abnormalities of Apollo 6, and had taken corrective action. After detailed analysis of the Saturn V's performance, and of the fixes for future launch vehicles, engineers at the Marshall Space Flight Center in Alabama concluded that a third uncrewed test flight of the Saturn V was not necessary. Therefore, the next Saturn V to fly, on Apollo 8, would carry a crew (Apollo 7, the first crewed Apollo mission to fly, would be launched by a S-IB). After the mission, CM-020 was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution. The Apollo 6 command module is on display at the Fernbank Science Center in Atlanta, Georgia. Cameras The Saturn V had several cameras affixed to it, intended to be ejected and later recovered. Three of the four cameras on board the S-IC failed to eject and thus were destroyed, and only one of the two cameras on the S-II was recovered. Two of these cameras were intended to film the S-IC/S-II separation and the other two were to film the liquid oxygen tank; the one that was recovered had filmed separation. The failure to eject was attributed to a lack of nitrogen pressure in the bottles that were to cause the ejection. The command module carried a motion picture camera, intended to be activated during launch and during re-entry. The mission took about ten minutes longer than planned, though, and re-entry events were not filmed. A 70mm still camera operated in the CM during part of the mission, pointed at the Earth through the hatch window. Coverage included parts of the United States, the Atlantic Ocean, Africa, and the western Pacific Ocean. The camera had haze-penetrating film and filter combination, with better color balance and higher resolution than photographs taken on previous American crewed missions. These proved excellent for cartographic, topographic, and geographic studies. Public impact There was little press coverage of the Apollo 6 mission mainly because on the same day as the launch, Martin Luther King Jr. was murdered in Memphis, Tennessee, and President Lyndon B. Johnson had announced he would not seek reelection only four days earlier. See also Splashdown (spacecraft landing) References Sources External links "Apollo 6" at NASA's National Space Science Data Center Fernbank Science Center Apollo 6 16 mm on-board film. 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231437	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sesame%20Street%20international%20co-production%20characters	List of Sesame Street international co-production characters	Sesame Street has many international versions across the world. Each uses some original characters, created specifically to represent their own culture. The following list highlights some of these characters. All characters are Muppets, unless otherwise mentioned. Open Sesame (Australia) Ollie - A yellow orange monster who is the cousin of Elmo, and has been stated to be four-and-a-half years old. Segments involving him commonly play before and after episodes of Open Sesame on Nick Jr. Sésamo first show (Brazil) Garibaldo - A giant, shy, blue (yellow in the 2007 version) bird. Similar to Big Bird. Gugu - A green Muppet monster with a blue nose and orange cheeks. Similar to Oscar the Grouch. Juca (Armando Bogus) - A toy maker who taught children his craft. Ana Maria (Sonia Braga) - A teacher and Juca's cousin. Gabriela (Aracy Balabanian) - The wife of Juca Funga-funga - A red Muppet elephant who didn't like how others looked at him. Bel - A pink/purple Muppet monster that appeared in the 2007 version Canadian Sesame Street, later Sesame Park (Canada) Louis - A French-Canadian otter Basil - A polar bear Dodi - A Muppet who is essentially a Jack-Of-All-Trades, though most commonly known as a bush pilot. Katie - A girl who uses a wheelchair. Chaos - A cat Beau Beaver - A beaver (animated) Zhima Jie (China) Da Niao - A Chinese version of Big Bird. Hu Hu Zhu - A furry blue pig. Appeared in the 1998 version. Xiao Mei Zi - A red Elmo-like monster. Appeared in the 1998 version. Lily - A young female tiger cub. Appeared in the 2010 version. Sesamstraße (Germany) Samson - A male bear, similar in role and full-body puppet, to Big Bird (1978–2008, 2013-present) Simson - Samson's cousin and lookalike, often seen with a hat or a tie to distinguish him from Samson (on and off in 1989-1998) Tiffy - A pink female bird (1978–2005) Finchen - A (former male, now female) snail (on and off from 1983, 1989–present) Rumpel - A green Grouch that lives in a rainbarrel. He has Gustav, a pet caterpillar (1989–2008) Buh - A male owl (1989–2002) Feli Filu - A blue female monster reporter (2000–2007) Pferd - A male horse (2002–present) Wolle - A male lamb (2002–present) Lena - A pink monster baby (2005–2009) Moni - A female photographer (2005–2007) Ulli von Bödefeld - An androgyne hedgehog-like creature (1978-early 1986) Wolf vom Wortersee - A green wolf (2007-present) Humans in Sesamstraße 1978-1986 Henning (Henning Venske, a West German actor - 1978-1979) - Lilo (Lieselotte Pulver, a Swiss actress 1978-1986) - Uwe (Uwe Friedrichsen, a West German actor 1979-1982) - Horst (Horst Janson, a West German actor 1979-1986) - Ute (Ute Willing, a German actress 1979-1986) - Ilse (Ilse Biberti, a German actress 1979-1982) - Elisabeth (Elisabeth Vitouch, a German actress 1979-1982) - Manfred (Manfred Krug, an East German actor - 1982-1986) - Humans in Sesamstraße 1986-present Georg (Gernot Endemann, a German actor - 1986-1999) - Bettina (Hildegard Krekel, a German actress - 1986-1989, Kirsten Spick, a German actress - 1989-1999) - Opa Brass (Ferdinand Dux, a German actor - 1992-2000) - Pensionswirtin Helmi (Senta Bonneval, a German actress - 1995-1999) - Musiker Alex (Alexander Geringas, a German-Greek actor - 1995-2000) - Jiviana (Vijak Bajani, a German-Turkish actress - 1995-2001) - Nils (Nils Julius, a German actor - 2000–present) - Caro (Caroline Kiesewetter, a German actress - 2000-2002, Miriam Krause, a German actress - 2002–present) - Zauberer PePe (Dirk Bach, a German comedian - 2000–2012) - Anke (Anke Engelke, a German comedian - 2003–present) - Mehmet (Mehmet Yilmaz, a German-Turkish actor - 2003–present) - Ella (Franziska Troegner, a German actress - 2003–present) - Sesame Tree (Northern Ireland) Potto - A male 'monster' style Muppet and the cousin of Telly Monster. Hilda - A female Irish Hare Claribelle - A red Muppet bird. Archie - A bespectacled squirrel. Bookworms – A bunch of Bookworms live amongst Potto's books. Weatherberries – A bunch of singing fruit. They often announce the weather whenever Hilda asks what the weather will be like today. Play with Me Sesame (United Kingdom) Domby - A male 'monster' style Muppet, originally from Scotland. He and his friend, Kit, live in a castle on top of a hill. Kit - Domby's best friend. They spend most of their time in the castle kitchen, bedroom and living room (very similar to Ernie and Bert sketches). He is originally from Manchester. They sometimes visit schools and playgroups to sing or talk with the children. Rechov Sumsum / Shalom Sesame (Israel) Kipi Ben Kipod/Kippi Kippod - A giant porcupine analogous to Big Bird Moishe Oofnik - Oscar the Grouch's cousin Abigail - A purple female monster Brosh - An orange monster Mahboub - A blue monster Noah - A red monster Sivan - A girl who uses a wheelchair. She moved to Sésamo near the end of its second run. Iftah Ya Simsim (Kuwait) No'Man - A camel equivalent of Big Bird Melsoon - A light green parrot wearing a tie (blue in the 2015 version) Yaqut - A lavender monster with a long nose Abla - A full-body lavender cat Shams - a yellow monster that appeared in the 2015 version Sésamo (Mexico/Latin America) Abelardo Montoya - A large parrot equivalent of Big Bird, with Green and Red feathers (Mexico's National colours; also the colors of a Parrot, one of Mexico's most numerous and representative birds). He is also the cousin of Big Bird. Abelardo - A red dragon equivalent of Big Bird. Bodoque - A Grouch that lives in boxes. He is the cousin of Oscar the Grouch. Cuernos (Horns) - A red monster with a characteristic couple of horns and vicious teeth. El Barón Púrpura (The Purple Baron) - A Muppet portraying a lackluster air pilot. A satire of The Red Baron. Lola - A female relative of Pancho and Abelardo's best friend; a joyful young pink monster. She is the cousin of Elmo and Zoe. Paco - A parrot, the equivalent of America's Oscar the Grouch Pancho - A blue-colored monster with a gruff voice. Elefancio - Pancho's pet elephant. Only the trunk is ever seen like the trunk Oscar the Grouch's pet elephant Fluffy. Multimonstruos - Red Anything Monsters, appear as babies, pirates, etc. Multimuppets - Brown Anything Muppets Four birds A macaw Poco Loco A penguin A chicken Stuckweed A watermelon Anything Muppets Monsters Grouches Other animals Humans in Sésamo Carlos José - The Storekeeper Alicia Fernando (Justo Martinez) - The police officer Mercedes Teresa (Romelia Aguero) - Sandra (Ana Silvia Garza) - Sebastian (Jaime Garza) - Miguel (Alejandro Ibarra) - Ana (Rocio Ortiz) - Goyo (Raoul Rossi) - Pepe (Salvador Sanchez) - Paula (Rosalia Valdez) - La Abuela (Evita Muñoz, Beatriz Aguirre) - Don Boni (Edgar Vivar, Sergio Corona) - Carmen (María Del Sol) - Gertrudis (Socorro Bonilla, Leonorilda Ochoa) - Pablo (Ariel López Padilla, Benjamin Rivero) - Maria (Paty Díaz, M'Balia Marichal Ibar) - Susana (Liza Echeverria, Mariana Garza) - Juan (Alberto Mayagoitia, Raúl Magaña) - Neftalí (Héctor Hernández, Pedro Romo) - Daniela (Maria Fernanda Urdapilleta, Mariana Botas, Paula Gutiérrez) - Manuel (Manuel Bermudez, Charlie Santana, Alan Sanchez, Santiago Hernández) - ToNo (Isaac Castro) - Romina (Anahí Sánchez) - Sesamstraat (Netherlands) Pino - A blue swan equivalent of Big Bird, with blue feathers and an orange beak. He is also the cousin of Big Bird. Tommie - A Muppet dog Ieniemienie - A Muppet mouse Purk - A Muppet pig Troel - Tommie's girlfriend Bert - A yellow Anything Muppet. Ernie - An orange Anything Muppet. Grover - A blue monster Elmo - A red monster Humans in Sesamstraat Buurman Baasje - male Elvan - female Frank - male Gerda - female Hakim - male Lot - female Meneer Aart - male Paula - female Rik - male Sien - female Sesam Stasjon (Norway) Max Mekker - A big blue monster who owns a train station called "Sesam Stasjon". Alfa - A female yellow monster. Bjarne - A pink man who owns a ticket booth. Py - A red monster who hatched from a blue egg. Humans in Sesam Stasjon O. Tidemann - A kind but somewhat blustery grandfatherly-type of a station master who generally manages to keep the station running smoothly, even if he doesn't always get the peace and quiet he wants. Leonora Dorothea Dahl - A former world-famous singer who used to travel around the world. She still likes to sing at any opportunity, and is a good cook. Sesame (Philippines) Pong Pagong - A clumsy, pink full-body turtle wearing a baseball cap. Kiko Matsing - A brown monkey. Human Characters Kuya Mario portrayed by Junix Inocian Ate Sylvia portrayed by Susan Africa. Aling Nena portrayed by Angie Ferro. Mang Lino portrayed by Joe Gruta. Luz portrayed by Dessa Quesada. Ben portrayed by Tito Quesada. Rua Sésamo (Portugal) Poupas - An orange bird and the cousin of Big Bird. Ferrão - A brown-colored version of Oscar the Grouch that lived inside a bottomless barrel in the town square on the street. Tita - A gray Muppet cat. Ulitsa Sezam (Russia) Zeliboba - A 9-foot furry blue Dvorovoi (tree spirit) who enjoys dancing Businka - A bright pink monster who finds joy in everything Kubik - An orange monster who is the resident pensive problem-solver who used to be a school teacher Takalani Sesame (South Africa) Kami - A yellow monster who raised controversy in the USA due to her HIV+ status Moshe - A four year old, vegetarian meerkat who is extremely optimistic and loves to dance. He is Takalani Sesame's equivalent to Big Bird. Zikwe - A blue monster who owns a taxi cab with no wheels Kupukeji - A green worm found by Zikwe and cared for by Moshe Elmo - A Muppet red monster who loves to play with Zuzu and explore new things. He is from the same model as on the American series. Zuzu - A young purple monster who loves acting Basma - A young purple monster who loves new experiences and music Jad - A young yellow monster who has a passion with visual arts and is a good organizer Grover - A blue monster who appears in the Playtime segments along with Basma and Jad Barrio Sésamo (Spain) Espinete - A large pink hedgehog. Don Pimpón - A monster of an unknown species who is another Full-Bodied Muppet that works as a farmer. Caponata - A chicken equivalent to Big Bird. Perezgil - A male green snail. Bluki - A blue cat-like Muppet. Gaspar - A red-haired man who works at a market. Vera - A female yellow monster who is similar to Elmo, serving the same role. Bubo - A brown owl. Epi y Blas - Two characters serving the same roles as Ernie and Bert Ahlan Simsim (Syria) Basma – a purple monster who loves new experiences Jad – a yellow monster who loves to paint Ma'zooza – a baby goat Susam Sokağı (Turkey) Kirpik - A Grouch who lives in a pile of boxes. Minik Kuş - A red version of Big Bird. Kurabiye Canavarı - A Turkey counterpart of Cookie Monster. Alam Simsim (Egypt) Nimnim - A tall furry green creature with orange legs, having a similar role to Big Bird. Filfil - A fuzzy-bearded purple monster who likes to eat 'Asilaya (honey sesame sticks), similar to Cookie Monster. Khokha - A furry peach-colored monster who likes to play pretend. Am Gherghis - A human who is the local shopkeeper. Am Hussein - A human who is a carpenter. Ama Kheireya - A human. Also called Um Kareem, she is the wife of Am Hussein, mother of Mona and Kareem. Mona - A human who is the teenage daughter of Kheireya and Hussein. Kareem - A human who is the pre-teen brother of Mona. Ama Nabila - A human who is the proprietress of the bookstore/library. Jalan Sesama (Indonesia) Momon - A five-year-old yellow monster who learns to draw letters and loves drawing and counting. Putri - An active young girl who is always asking Momon for help. Tantan - A wise female orangutan that settles every dispute on Jalan Sesama. Jabrik - A baby rhinoceros that is always complaining and laughing. Agen Rahasia 123 (Secret Agent 123) - A James Bond-like agent who have a mission to solve a problem caused by a Goat Ulica Sezamkowa (Poland) Bazyli - A large multicolored dragon. Beata - A short female sheep. Pędzipotwór - A turquoise female monster. Humans on Ulica Sezamkowa Mom (Anna Radwan, Polish actress) - Dad (Artur Dziurman, Polish actor) - Grandpa (Andrzej Buszewicz, Polish actor) - Kasia - A girl. Krzyś - A boy. 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231442	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference%20range	Reference range	In medicine and health-related fields, a reference range or reference interval is the range or the interval of values that is deemed normal for a physiological measurement in healthy persons (for example, the amount of creatinine in the blood, or the partial pressure of oxygen). It is a basis for comparison for a physician or other health professional to interpret a set of test results for a particular patient. Some important reference ranges in medicine are reference ranges for blood tests and reference ranges for urine tests. The standard definition of a reference range (usually referred to if not otherwise specified) originates in what is most prevalent in a reference group taken from the general (i.e. total) population. This is the general reference range. However, there are also optimal health ranges (ranges that appear to have the optimal health impact) and ranges for particular conditions or statuses (such as pregnancy reference ranges for hormone levels). Values within the reference range (WRR) are those within normal limits (WNL). The limits are called the upper reference limit (URL) or upper limit of normal (ULN) and the lower reference limit (LRL) or lower limit of normal (LLN). In health care–related publishing, style sheets sometimes prefer the word reference over the word normal to prevent the nontechnical senses of normal from being conflated with the statistical sense. Values outside a reference range are not necessarily pathologic, and they are not necessarily abnormal in any sense other than statistically. Nonetheless, they are indicators of probable pathosis. Sometimes the underlying cause is obvious; in other cases, challenging differential diagnosis is required to determine what is wrong and thus how to treat it. A cutoff or threshold is a limit used for binary classification, mainly between normal versus pathological (or probably pathological). Establishment methods for cutoffs include using an upper or a lower limit of a reference range. Standard definition The standard definition of a reference range for a particular measurement is defined as the interval between which 95% of values of a reference population fall into, in such a way that 2.5% of the time a value will be less than the lower limit of this interval, and 2.5% of the time it will be larger than the upper limit of this interval, whatever the distribution of these values. Reference ranges that are given by this definition are sometimes referred as standard ranges. Regarding the target population, if not otherwise specified, a standard reference range generally denotes the one in healthy individuals, or without any known condition that directly affects the ranges being established. These are likewise established using reference groups from the healthy population, and are sometimes termed normal ranges or normal values (and sometimes "usual" ranges/values). However, using the term normal may not be appropriate as not everyone outside the interval is abnormal, and people who have a particular condition may still fall within this interval. However, reference ranges may also be established by taking samples from the whole population, with or without diseases and conditions. In some cases, diseased individuals are taken as the population, establishing reference ranges among those having a disease or condition. Preferably, there should be specific reference ranges for each subgroup of the population that has any factor that affects the measurement, such as, for example, specific ranges for each sex, age group, race or any other general determinant. Establishment methods Methods for establishing reference ranges can be based on assuming a normal distribution or a log-normal distribution, or directly from percentages of interest, as detailed respectively in following sections. When establishing reference ranges from bilateral organs (e.g., vision or hearing), both results from the same individual can be used, although intra-subject correlation must be taken into account. Normal distribution The 95% interval, is often estimated by assuming a normal distribution of the measured parameter, in which case it can be defined as the interval limited by 1.96 (often rounded up to 2) population standard deviations from either side of the population mean (also called the expected value). However, in the real world, neither the population mean nor the population standard deviation are known. They both need to be estimated from a sample, whose size can be designated n. The population standard deviation is estimated by the sample standard deviation and the population mean is estimated by the sample mean (also called mean or arithmetic mean). To account for these estimations, the 95% prediction interval (95% PI) is calculated as: , where is the 97.5% quantile of a Student's t-distribution with n−1 degrees of freedom. When the sample size is large (n≥30) This method is often acceptably accurate if the standard deviation, as compared to the mean, is not very large. A more accurate method is to perform the calculations on logarithmized values, as described in separate section later. The following example of this (not logarithmized) method is based on values of fasting plasma glucose taken from a reference group of 12 subjects: As can be given from, for example, a table of selected values of Student's t-distribution, the 97.5% percentile with (12-1) degrees of freedom corresponds to Subsequently, the lower and upper limits of the standard reference range are calculated as: Thus, the standard reference range for this example is estimated to be 4.4 to 6.3 mmol/L. Confidence interval of limit The 90% confidence interval of a standard reference range limit as estimated assuming a normal distribution can be calculated by: Lower limit of the confidence interval = percentile limit - 2.81 × Upper limit of the confidence interval = percentile limit + 2.81 × , where SD is the standard deviation, and n is the number of samples. Taking the example from the previous section, the number of samples is 12 and the standard deviation is 0.42 mmol/L, resulting in: Lower limit of the confidence interval of the lower limit of the standard reference range = 4.4 - 2.81 × ≈ 4.1 Upper limit of the confidence interval of the lower limit of the standard reference range = 4.4 + 2.81 × ≈ 4.7 Thus, the lower limit of the reference range can be written as 4.4 (90% CI 4.1–4.7) mmol/L. Likewise, with similar calculations, the upper limit of the reference range can be written as 6.3 (90% CI 6.0–6.6) mmol/L. These confidence intervals reflect random error, but do not compensate for systematic error, which in this case can arise from, for example, the reference group not having fasted long enough before blood sampling. As a comparison, actual reference ranges used clinically for fasting plasma glucose are estimated to have a lower limit of approximately 3.8 to 4.0, and an upper limit of approximately 6.0 to 6.1. Log-normal distribution In reality, biological parameters tend to have a log-normal distribution, rather than the arithmetical normal distribution (which is generally referred to as normal distribution without any further specification). An explanation for this log-normal distribution for biological parameters is: The event where a sample has half the value of the mean or median tends to have almost equal probability to occur as the event where a sample has twice the value of the mean or median. Also, only a log-normal distribution can compensate for the inability of almost all biological parameters to be of negative numbers (at least when measured on absolute scales), with the consequence that there is no definite limit to the size of outliers (extreme values) on the high side, but, on the other hand, they can never be less than zero, resulting in a positive skewness. As shown in diagram at right, this phenomenon has relatively small effect if the standard deviation (as compared to the mean) is relatively small, as it makes the log-normal distribution appear similar to an arithmetical normal distribution. Thus, the arithmetical normal distribution may be more appropriate to use with small standard deviations for convenience, and the log-normal distribution with large standard deviations. In a log-normal distribution, the geometric standard deviations and geometric mean more accurately estimate the 95% prediction interval than their arithmetic counterparts. Necessity The necessity to establish a reference range by log-normal distribution rather than arithmetic normal distribution can be regarded as depending on how much difference it would make to not do so, which can be described as the ratio: where: Limitlog-normal is the (lower or upper) limit as estimated by assuming log-normal distribution Limitnormal is the (lower or upper) limit as estimated by assuming arithmetically normal distribution. This difference can be put solely in relation to the coefficient of variation, as in the diagram at right, where: where: s.d. is the arithmetic standard deviation m is the arithmetic mean In practice, it can be regarded as necessary to use the establishment methods of a log-normal distribution if the difference ratio becomes more than 0.1, meaning that a (lower or upper) limit estimated from an assumed arithmetically normal distribution would be more than 10% different from the corresponding limit as estimated from a (more accurate) log-normal distribution. As seen in the diagram, a difference ratio of 0.1 is reached for the lower limit at a coefficient of variation of 0.213 (or 21.3%), and for the upper limit at a coefficient of variation at 0.413 (41.3%). The lower limit is more affected by increasing coefficient of variation, and its "critical" coefficient of variation of 0.213 corresponds to a ratio of (upper limit)/(lower limit) of 2.43, so as a rule of thumb, if the upper limit is more than 2.4 times the lower limit when estimated by assuming arithmetically normal distribution, then it should be considered to do the calculations again by log-normal distribution. Taking the example from previous section, the arithmetic standard deviation (s.d.) is estimated at 0.42 and the arithmetic mean (m) is estimated at 5.33. Thus the coefficient of variation is 0.079. This is less than both 0.213 and 0.413, and thus both the lower and upper limit of fasting blood glucose can most likely be estimated by assuming arithmetically normal distribution. More specifically, the coefficient of variation of 0.079 corresponds to a difference ratio of 0.01 (1%) for the lower limit and 0.007 (0.7%) for the upper limit. From logarithmized sample values A method to estimate the reference range for a parameter with log-normal distribution is to logarithmize all the measurements with an arbitrary base (for example e), derive the mean and standard deviation of these logarithms, determine the logarithms located (for a 95% prediction interval) 1.96 standard deviations below and above that mean, and subsequently exponentiate using those two logarithms as exponents and using the same base as was used in logarithmizing, with the two resultant values being the lower and upper limit of the 95% prediction interval. The following example of this method is based on the same values of fasting plasma glucose as used in the previous section, using e as a base: Subsequently, the still logarithmized lower limit of the reference range is calculated as: and the upper limit of the reference range as: Conversion back to non-logarithmized values are subsequently performed as: Thus, the standard reference range for this example is estimated to be 4.4 to 6.4. From arithmetic mean and variance An alternative method of establishing a reference range with the assumption of log-normal distribution is to use the arithmetic mean and arithmetic value of standard deviation. This is somewhat more tedious to perform, but may be useful for example in cases where a study that establishes a reference range presents only the arithmetic mean and standard deviation, leaving out the source data. If the original assumption of arithmetically normal distribution is shown to be less appropriate than the log-normal one, then, using the arithmetic mean and standard deviation may be the only available parameters to correct the reference range. By assuming that the expected value can represent the arithmetic mean in this case, the parameters μlog and σlog can be estimated from the arithmetic mean (m) and standard deviation (s.d.) as: Following the exampled reference group from the previous section: Subsequently, the logarithmized, and later non-logarithmized, lower and upper limit are calculated just as by logarithmized sample values. Directly from percentages of interest Reference ranges can also be established directly from the 2.5th and 97.5th percentile of the measurements in the reference group. For example, if the reference group consists of 200 people, and counting from the measurement with lowest value to highest, the lower limit of the reference range would correspond to the 5th measurement and the upper limit would correspond to the 195th measurement. This method can be used even when measurement values do not appear to conform conveniently to any form of normal distribution or other function. However, the reference range limits as estimated in this way have higher variance, and therefore less reliability, than those estimated by an arithmetic or log-normal distribution (when such is applicable), because the latter ones acquire statistical power from the measurements of the whole reference group rather than just the measurements at the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles. Still, this variance decreases with increasing size of the reference group, and therefore, this method may be optimal where a large reference group easily can be gathered, and the distribution mode of the measurements is uncertain. Bimodal distribution In case of a bimodal distribution (seen at right), it is useful to find out why this is the case. Two reference ranges can be established for the two different groups of people, making it possible to assume a normal distribution for each group. This bimodal pattern is commonly seen in tests that differ between men and women, such as prostate specific antigen. Interpretation of standard ranges in medical tests In case of medical tests whose results are of continuous values, reference ranges can be used in the interpretation of an individual test result. This is primarily used for diagnostic tests and screening tests, while monitoring tests may optimally be interpreted from previous tests of the same individual instead. Probability of random variability Reference ranges aid in the evaluation of whether a test result's deviation from the mean is a result of random variability or a result of an underlying disease or condition. If the reference group used to establish the reference range can be assumed to be representative of the individual person in a healthy state, then a test result from that individual that turns out to be lower or higher than the reference range can be interpreted as that there is less than 2.5% probability that this would have occurred by random variability in the absence of disease or other condition, which, in turn, is strongly indicative for considering an underlying disease or condition as a cause. Such further consideration can be performed, for example, by an epidemiology-based differential diagnostic procedure, where potential candidate conditions are listed that may explain the finding, followed by calculations of how probable they are to have occurred in the first place, in turn followed by a comparison with the probability that the result would have occurred by random variability. If the establishment of the reference range could have been made assuming a normal distribution, then the probability that the result would be an effect of random variability can be further specified as follows: The standard deviation, if not given already, can be inversely calculated by the fact that the absolute value of the difference between the mean and either the upper or lower limit of the reference range is approximately 2 standard deviations (more accurately 1.96), and thus: . The standard score for the individual's test can subsequently be calculated as: . The probability that a value is of a certain distance from the mean can subsequently be calculated from the relation between standard score and prediction intervals. For example, a standard score of 2.58 corresponds to a prediction interval of 99%, corresponding to a probability of 0.5% that a result is at least such far from the mean in the absence of disease. Example Let's say, for example, that an individual takes a test that measures the ionized calcium in the blood, resulting in a value of 1.30 mmol/L, and a reference group that appropriately represents the individual has established a reference range of 1.05 to 1.25 mmol/L. The individual's value is higher than the upper limit of the reference range, and therefore has less than 2.5% probability of being a result of random variability, constituting a strong indication to make a differential diagnosis of possible causative conditions. In this case, an epidemiology-based differential diagnostic procedure is used, and its first step is to find candidate conditions that can explain the finding. Hypercalcemia (usually defined as a calcium level above the reference range) is mostly caused by either primary hyperparathyroidism or malignancy, and therefore, it is reasonable to include these in the differential diagnosis. Using for example epidemiology and the individual's risk factors, let's say that the probability that the hypercalcemia would have been caused by primary hyperparathyroidism in the first place is estimated to be 0.00125 (or 0.125%), the equivalent probability for cancer is 0.0002, and 0.0005 for other conditions. With a probability given as less than 0.025 of no disease, this corresponds to a probability that the hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place of up to 0.02695. However, the hypercalcemia has occurred with a probability of 100%, resulting adjusted probabilities of at least 4.6% that primary hyperparathyroidism has caused the hypercalcemia, at least 0.7% for cancer, at least 1.9% for other conditions and up to 92.8% for that there is no disease and the hypercalcemia is caused by random variability. In this case, further processing benefits from specification of the probability of random variability: The value is assumed to conform acceptably to a normal distribution, so the mean can be assumed to be 1.15 in the reference group. The standard deviation, if not given already, can be inversely calculated by knowing that the absolute value of the difference between the mean and, for example, the upper limit of the reference range, is approximately 2 standard deviations (more accurately 1.96), and thus: . The standard score for the individual's test is subsequently calculated as: . The probability that a value is of so much larger value than the mean as having a standard score of 3 corresponds to a probability of approximately 0.14% (given by , with 99.7% here being given from the 68–95–99.7 rule). Using the same probabilities that the hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place by the other candidate conditions, the probability that hypercalcemia would have occurred in the first place is 0.00335, and given the fact that hypercalcemia has occurred gives adjusted probabilities of 37.3%, 6.0%, 14.9% and 41.8%, respectively, for primary hyperparathyroidism, cancer, other conditions and no disease. Optimal health range Optimal (health) range or therapeutic target (not to be confused with biological target) is a reference range or limit that is based on concentrations or levels that are associated with optimal health or minimal risk of related complications and diseases, rather than the standard range based on normal distribution in the population. It may be more appropriate to use for e.g. folate, since approximately 90 percent of North Americans may actually suffer more or less from folate deficiency, but only the 2.5 percent that have the lowest levels will fall below the standard reference range. In this case, the actual folate ranges for optimal health are substantially higher than the standard reference ranges. Vitamin D has a similar tendency. In contrast, for e.g. uric acid, having a level not exceeding the standard reference range still does not exclude the risk of getting gout or kidney stones. Furthermore, for most toxins, the standard reference range is generally lower than the level of toxic effect. A problem with optimal health range is a lack of a standard method of estimating the ranges. The limits may be defined as those where the health risks exceed a certain threshold, but with various risk profiles between different measurements (such as folate and vitamin D), and even different risk aspects for one and the same measurement (such as both deficiency and toxicity of vitamin A) it is difficult to standardize. Subsequently, optimal health ranges, when given by various sources, have an additional variability caused by various definitions of the parameter. Also, as with standard reference ranges, there should be specific ranges for different determinants that affects the values, such as sex, age etc. Ideally, there should rather be an estimation of what is the optimal value for every individual, when taking all significant factors of that individual into account - a task that may be hard to achieve by studies, but long clinical experience by a physician may make this method preferable to using reference ranges. One-sided cut-off values In many cases, only one side of the range is usually of interest, such as with markers of pathology including cancer antigen 19-9, where it is generally without any clinical significance to have a value below what is usual in the population. Therefore, such targets are often given with only one limit of the reference range given, and, strictly, such values are rather cut-off values or threshold values. They may represent both standard ranges and optimal health ranges. Also, they may represent an appropriate value to distinguish healthy person from a specific disease, although this gives additional variability by different diseases being distinguished. For example, for NT-proBNP, a lower cut-off value is used in distinguishing healthy babies from those with acyanotic heart disease, compared to the cut-off value used in distinguishing healthy babies from those with congenital nonspherocytic anemia. General drawbacks For standard as well as optimal health ranges, and cut-offs, sources of inaccuracy and imprecision include: Instruments and lab techniques used, or how the measurements are interpreted by observers. These may apply both to the instruments etc. used to establish the reference ranges and the instruments, etc. used to acquire the value for the individual to whom these ranges is applied. To compensate, individual laboratories should have their own lab ranges to account for the instruments used in the laboratory. Determinants such as age, diet, etc. that are not compensated for. Optimally, there should be reference ranges from a reference group that is as similar as possible to each individual they are applied to, but it's practically impossible to compensate for every single determinant, often not even when the reference ranges are established from multiple measurements of the same individual they are applied to, because of test-retest variability. Also, reference ranges tend to give the impression of definite thresholds that clearly separate "good" or "bad" values, while in reality there are generally continuously increasing risks with increased distance from usual or optimal values. With this and uncompensated factors in mind, the ideal interpretation method of a test result would rather consist of a comparison of what would be expected or optimal in the individual when taking all factors and conditions of that individual into account, rather than strictly classifying the values as "good" or "bad" by using reference ranges from other people. In a recent paper, Rappoport et al. described a novel way to redefine reference range from an electronic health record system. In such a system, a higher population resolution can be achieved (e.g., age, sex, race and ethnicity-specific). Examples Reference ranges for blood tests Reference ranges for urine tests See also Clinical pathology Joint Committee for Traceability in Laboratory Medicine Medical technologist Reference ranges for blood tests References Further reading The procedures and vocabulary referring to reference intervals: CLSI (Committee for Laboratory Standards Institute) and IFCC (International Federation of Clinical Chemistry) CLSI - Defining, Establishing, and Verifying Reference Intervals in the Laboratory; Approved guideline - Third Edition. Document C28-A3 ()Wayne, PA, USA, 2008 Reference Value Advisor : A free set of Excel macros allowing the determination of reference intervals in accordance with the CLSI procedures. 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231443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspasia	Aspasia	Aspasia (; ; after 428 BC) was a metic woman in Classical Athens. Born in Miletus, she moved to Athens and began a relationship with the statesman Pericles, with whom she had a son, Pericles the Younger. According to the traditional historical narrative, she worked as a courtesan and was tried for asebeia (impiety), though modern scholars have questioned the factual basis for either of these claims, which both derive from ancient comedy. Though Aspasia is one of the best-attested women from the Greco-Roman world, and the most important woman in the history of fifth-century Athens, almost nothing is certain about her life. Aspasia was portrayed in Old Comedy as a prostitute and madam, and in ancient philosophy as a teacher and rhetorician. She has continued to be a subject of both visual and literary artists until the present. From the twentieth century, she has been portrayed as both a sexualised and sexually liberated woman, and as a feminist role model fighting for women's rights in ancient Athens. Sources Aspasia was an important figure – and the most important woman – in the history of fifth-century Athens, and is one of the women from the Greco-Roman world with the most substantial biographical traditions. The earliest literary sources to mention Aspasia, written during her lifetime, are from Athenian comedy, and in the fourth century BC she appears in Socratic dialogues. After the fourth century, she appears only in brief mentions of complete texts, or in fragments whose full context is now lost, until the second century AD, when Plutarch wrote his Life of Pericles, the longest and most complete ancient biographical treatment of Aspasia. Modern biographies of Aspasia are dependent on Plutarch, despite his writing nearly seven centuries after her death. It is difficult to draw any firm conclusions about the real Aspasia from any of these sources: as Robert Wallace puts it, "for us Aspasia herself possesses and can possess almost no historical reality". Aside from her name, father's name, and place of birth, Aspasia's biography is almost entirely unverifiable, and the ancient writings about her are frequently more of a projection of their own (without exception male) preconceptions than they are historical fact. Madeleine Henry's full-length biography covers what is known of Aspasia's life in only nine pages. Life Early life Aspasia was born, probably no earlier than 470 BC, in the Ionian Greek city of Miletus (in modern Aydın Province, Turkey), the daughter of a man called Axiochus. A scholiast on Aelius Aristides wrongly claims that Aspasia was a Carian prisoner of war and a slave; this is perhaps due to confusion with the concubine of Cyrus the Younger, also called Aspasia. The circumstances surrounding Aspasia's move to Athens are unknown. One theory, first put forward by Peter Bicknell based on a fourth-century tomb inscription, suggests that Alcibiades of Scambonidae, the grandfather of the famous Alcibiades, married Aspasia's sister while he was in exile in Miletus following his ostracism, and Aspasia went with him when he returned to Athens. Bicknell speculates that this was motivated by the death of Aspasia's father Axiochus in the upheaval in Miletus following its secession from the Delian League in 455/4 BC. Life in Athens According to the conventional understanding of Aspasia's life, she worked as a courtesan and then ran a brothel. Some scholars have challenged this view. Peter Bicknell notes that the "pejorative epithets applied to her by comic dramatists" are unreliable. Madeleine Henry argues in her biography of Aspasia that "we are not required to believe that Aspasia was a whore because a comic poet says she was", and that the portrayal of Aspasia as involved in the sex trade should "be looked upon with great suspicion". Cheryl Glenn contends that Aspasia actually opened an academy for women that became "a popular salon for the most influential men of the day", including Socrates, Plato, and Pericles, and Rebecca Futo Kennedy suggests that the accusations in comedy that she was a brothel-keeper derived from this. Despite these challenges to the traditional narrative, many scholars continue to believe that Aspasia worked as a courtesan or madam. Konstantinos Kapparis argues that the kinds of comic attacks made on Aspasia would not have been acceptable to make about a respectable woman, and that it is therefore likely that Aspasia did have a history as a sex-worker before she began her relationship with Pericles. Whether or not Aspasia worked as a courtesan, her later life, in which she apparently achieved some degree of power, reputation, and independence, has similarities to the lives of other prominent hetairai ("courtesans") such as Phryne. In Athens, Aspasia met and began a relationship with the statesman Pericles. It is uncertain how they met; if Bicknell's thesis is correct then she may have met him through his connection to Alcibiades' household. Kennedy speculates that when Cleinias, the son of the elder Alcibiades, died at the Battle of Coronea, Pericles may have become the kurios (guardian) of Aspasia. Aspasia's relationship with Pericles began some time between 452 and 441. The exact nature of Pericles and Aspasia's relationship is disputed. Ancient authors variously portrayed her as a prostitute, his concubine, or his wife. Modern scholars are also divided. Rebecca Futo Kennedy argues that they were married; Debra Nails describes Aspasia as "the de facto wife of Pericles"; Madeleine Henry believes that Pericles' citizenship law of 451/0 made marriage between an Athenian and a metic illegal, and suggests a quasi-marital pallakia ("concubinage") enforced by contract; and Sue Blundell describes Aspasia as a hetaira and mistress of Pericles. Aspasia and Pericles had a son, Pericles the Younger, born no later than 440/39 BC. At the time of Pericles the Younger's birth, Pericles had two legitimate sons, Paralus and Xanthippus. In 430/29, after the death of his two elder sons, Pericles proposed an amendment to his citizenship law of 451/0 which would have made Pericles the Younger able to become a citizen and inherit. Though many scholars believe that this was specifically for Pericles, some have suggested that a more general exception was introduced, in response to the effect of the Plague of Athens and Peloponnesian War on citizen families. According to Plutarch, Aspasia was prosecuted for asebeia (impiety) by the comic poet Hermippus. She was supposedly defended by Pericles and acquitted. Many scholars have questioned whether this trial ever took place, suggesting that the tradition derives from a fictional trial of Aspasia in a play by Hermippus. Vincent Azoulay compares the trial of Aspasia to those of Phidias and Anaxagoras, both also connected to Pericles, and concludes that "none of the trials for impiety involving those close to Pericles is attested with certainty". In 429 BC, Pericles died. According to ancient sources, Aspasia then married another politician, Lysicles, and gave birth to another son, Poristes. As "Poristes" is not otherwise known as a name – it means "supplier" or "provider", and was a euphemism for "thief" – some scholars have argued that the name comes from a misunderstanding of a joke in a comedy. Henry doubts whether Aspasia had a child with Lysicles, and Kennedy questions whether she married Lysicles at all. Pomeroy, however, suggests that Poristes' unusual name may have been chosen by Lysicles for political reasons, to draw attention to his providing for the people of Athens. Lysicles died a year after Pericles, in 428, and nothing is recorded of Aspasia's life after this point. It is unknown where or when she died, though the structure of Aeschines' dialogue Aspasia implies that it was before the death of Socrates in 399. Legacy Ancient reception In the classical period, two schools of thought developed around Aspasia. One tradition, deriving from Old Comedy, emphasises her influence over Pericles and her involvement in the sex trade; the other, which can be traced back to fourth-century philosophy, concentrates on her intellect and rhetorical skill. Comic tradition The only surviving ancient sources to discuss Aspasia contemporary with her life are from comedy. The surviving comic tradition about Aspasia – unlike her male contemporaries – focuses on her sexuality. Aristophanes, the only writer of Old Comedy for whom complete works survive, refers to Aspasia only once in his surviving corpus, in Acharnians. In a passage parodying the beginning of Herodotus' Histories, Aristophanes jokes that the Megarian decree was retaliation for the kidnapping of two pornai ("prostitutes") from Aspasia. A similar charge, attributed by Plutarch to Duris of Samos, that Aspasia was responsible for Athens' involvement in the Samian War, may have derived from this. The mention of Aspasia's pornai in Acharnians is also the earliest known instance of the tradition that she worked as a brothel-keeper. Outside of Aristophanes, mentions of Aspasia are known from the surviving fragments of Cratinus and Eupolis. In a fragment of Cratinus' Cheirons, Aspasia is described as "Hera-Aspasia, a dog-eyed concubine". Eupolis mentions Aspasia by name in three surviving fragments. In Proslapatians, she is compared to Helen of Troy – like Aspasia, blamed for starting a war – and in Philoi to Omphale, who owned Herakles as a slave. Eupolis also alluded to Aspasia in Demes, where Pericles, having been brought back from the dead, asks after his son; he is informed that he is alive, but is ashamed of having a porne as a mother. Aspasia is also known to have been mentioned by Kallias, though the scholion to Plato's Menexenus which reports this is garbled and it is uncertain what Kallias said about her. She may also have appeared in a play by Hermippus – this is possibly the source of the anecdote told by Plutarch that Aspasia was prosecuted by him for asebeia and for supplying free-born women for Pericles to have sex with. Later authors to follow the comic tradition in focusing on Aspasia's sexuality and improper influence over Pericles, for example in Clearchus' Erotika. Philosophical tradition In the fourth century, four philosophers are known to have written Socratic dialogues which feature Aspasia. Those by Antisthenes and Plato portray her negatively, in a way resembling her portrayal in comedy; Aeschines and Xenophon show her in a more positive light. In the dialogues by Plato, Xenophon, and Aeschines, Aspasia is portrayed as an educated, skilled rhetorician, and a source of advice for marital concerns. In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, some authors followed Aspasia's more positive portrayal in Socratic literature, distancing her from prostitution and situating her in a tradition of wise women. Didymus Chalcenterus wrote about exceptional women in history in his Symposiaka, downplaying her sexuality but noting her influence on Socrates' philosophy and Pericles' rhetoric. In Rome, Cicero and Quintillian used the conversation between Aspasia and Xenophon in Aeschines' dialogue as a good example of inductio. Modern reception Aspasia's earliest post-classical portrayal is in the letters of Héloïse to Abelard. Héloïse cites Aspasia's conversation with Xenophon and his wife in Aeschines' dialogue, which she probably knew through Cicero's reference to it, and proposes Aspasia as an example for how she should live her own life. In the late medieval and early modern periods, Aspasia appeared in several catalogues, a fashionable genre at the time. She was included in three "medallion books", with an imagined portrait and a brief biography. The first of these was Guillaume Rouille's Promptuarium Iconum, which derives its depiction of Aspasia from Plutarch and focuses on her relationship with Pericles; In Giovanni Angelo Canini's Iconografia, Aspasia is depicted wearing a helmet and shield. Aspasia also featured in two catalogues of women in this period as a teacher and philosopher; in Arcangela Tarabotti's Tirannia Paterna, which portrays her as a teacher of rhetoric, and Gilles Ménage's Historia Mulierum Philosopharum, in which Aspasia is described as teaching rhetoric to Pericles and Socrates, and philosophy to Socrates. By the eighteenth century, Aspasia was widely enough known to be included in dictionaries and encyclopedias, where depictions of her were largely based off of Plutarch. In 1736, Jean Leconte de Bièvre published a Histoire de deux Aspasies, also based on Plutarch's depiction, which portrayed Aspasia as an educated woman and Pericles' teacher as well as his wife. The eighteenth century also saw the first known image of Aspasia to be created by a woman, Marie Bouliard's Aspasie. The painting depicts Aspasia with one breast bared, looking into a handheld mirror and with a scroll in her other hand. Though the bare breast references the eroticised traditions surrounding Aspasia, Madeleine Henry argues that the portrait differs from more pornographic depictions of women, with Aspasia looking into the mirror rather than out at the viewer, and holding a scroll rather than a cosmetic object such as a comb. In the nineteenth century, Plutarch's narrative dominated the interpretation of Aspasia in both novels and paintings. In the visual arts, the sexualised side of Aspasia was represented by Jean-Léon Gérôme's painting Socrates Seeking Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia, but this pornographised representation was relatively uncommon. Honoré Daumier's lithograph of Socrates at the House of Aspasia depicts as an Aspasia identified in its caption as a "lorette", an ambiguous social position which referred to "loose, vulgar or 'liberated' women". Other artists of the period depicted an Aspasia active in public life, and interacting with the most renowned men of the period. In Henry Holiday's painting of Aspasia on the Pnyx, she is shown with another woman at the site of the Athenian assembly, the cente of male public space in the city, while in two paintings by Nicolas-André Monsiau she is shown at the centre of discussions with celebrated Athenian intellectuals and politicians. In Socrates and Aspasia, she converses with Socrates and Pericles; in Aspasia in Conversation with the Most Illustrious Men of Athens, Euripides, Sophocles, Plato, and Xenophon are also among those included. In both of these paintings, Aspasia is speaking and commanding the attention of these men. Melissa Ianetta argues that Germaine de Staël's novel Corinne models its heroine after Aspasia, placing her in the same tradition of feminine rhetorical skill. Meanwhile, the authors Walter Savage Landor and Elizabeth Lynn Linton portrayed Aspasia as a good Victorian wife to Pericles in their novels Pericles and Aspasia and Amymone: A Romance of the Days of Pericles. Laurence Alma-Tadema's painting Phidias and the Frieze of the Parthenon also shows Aspasia as a respectable companion to men. By contrast, Robert Hamerling's novel Aspasia showed her as a proto-feminist with far more agency than these romanticised accounts. The twentieth century saw both interest in Aspasia separately from her relationships with men, and on the other hand more prurient concern with her sexuality. The former strand of Aspasia's reception saw the Latvian author, feminist, and politician Elza Rozenberga, who took the pseudonym Aspazija, model her campaigning for women's rights after what she saw as Aspasia's example. Aspasia was also taken on as a feminist role-model by Judy Chicago, who included her as one of the thirty-nine women given a place in her artwork The Dinner Party. Recent novels have tended towards the more explicitly sexualised portrayal of Aspasia, including Achilles His Armour by the classicist Peter Green, Madelon Dimont's Darling Pericles, and Taylor Caldwell's Glory and Lightning, in which Aspasia is raised as a courtesan. Notes References Bibliography 470s BC births 400s BC deaths 5th-century BC Athenians 5th-century BC Greek women 5th-century BC philosophers Ancient Athenian women Ancient Greek rhetoricians Ancient Greek women philosophers Ancient Milesians Conversationalists Hetairai Metic philosophers in Classical Athens Philosophers of ancient Ionia Rhetoric	[ 0.3468964397907257, -0.2065003365278244, -0.7691736221313477, -0.05123545974493027, -0.2428644448518753, 1.4060884714126587, 0.19188202917575836, 0.2584002614021301, -0.9171707034111023, -0.36522993445396423, 0.14652954041957855, 0.10314951092004776, -0.3193339705467224, -0.40501275658607483, -0.5240510702133179, -0.4661426246166229, -0.0523439384996891, 0.3144139051437378, 0.17526677250862122, -0.09477086365222931, 0.012885731644928455, 0.5765300393104553, 0.6069191098213196, -0.3571467101573944, -0.3078785240650177, 0.1551567167043686, -0.17081069946289062, 0.04192880541086197, 0.0024682357907295227, -0.41440990567207336, 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231444	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachial%20artery	Brachial artery	The brachial artery is the major blood vessel of the (upper) arm. It is the continuation of the axillary artery beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the ventral surface of the arm until it reaches the cubital fossa at the elbow. It then divides into the radial and ulnar arteries which run down the forearm. In some individuals, the bifurcation occurs much earlier and the ulnar and radial arteries extend through the upper arm. The pulse of the brachial artery is palpable on the anterior aspect of the elbow, medial to the tendon of the biceps, and, with the use of a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff), often used to measure the blood pressure. The brachial artery is closely related to the median nerve; in proximal regions, the median nerve is immediately lateral to the brachial artery. Distally, the median nerve crosses the medial side of the brachial artery and lies anterior to the elbow joint. Structure The brachial artery gives rise to the following branches: Profunda brachii artery (deep brachial artery) Superior ulnar collateral artery Inferior ulnar collateral artery Radial artery (a terminal branch) Ulnar artery (a terminal branch) Nutrient branches to the humerus It also gives rise to important anastomotic networks of the elbow and (as the axillary artery) the shoulder. The biceps head is lateral to the brachial artery. The median nerve is medial to the brachial artery for most of its course. Additional images See also Femoral artery, a leg-based artery with a similar function References External links Dissection at mvm.ed.ac.uk Image at umich.edu - pulse Arteries of the upper limb	[ -0.14055000245571136, 0.1865939050912857, 0.13472400605678558, 0.09576567262411118, -0.11503061652183533, 0.7522302269935608, 0.5066969990730286, 0.6160683035850525, -0.47100627422332764, -0.5975819826126099, -0.20267798006534576, 0.7101857662200928, -0.04479128122329712, -0.283881813287735, -0.01900600641965866, 0.3450096547603607, 0.7520756721496582, 0.0585002563893795, 0.24416378140449524, -0.5246450901031494, 0.08516881614923477, -0.2195039838552475, 0.8791517019271851, 0.03221838176250458, 0.25117313861846924, -0.18416272103786469, -0.44352641701698303, 0.5476059317588806, 0.24741066992282867, -0.48849621415138245, -0.16971434652805328, 0.5626177787780762, 0.2092425525188446, -0.8373737931251526, -0.3146107792854309, -0.737299919128418, 0.1969231367111206, -0.6231393814086914, 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231452	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20William%20Sterling	John William Sterling	John William Sterling (May 12, 1844 – July 5, 1918) was a founding partner of Shearman & Sterling LLP and major benefactor to Yale University. Early life and career John William Sterling was born in Stratford, Connecticut, the son of Catherine Tomlinson (Plant) and John William Sterling. He graduated from Yale University with a B.A. in 1864 and was a member of Skull and Bones and president of Brothers in Unity during his senior year. He graduated from Columbia Law School as the valedictorian of the class of 1867 and was admitted to the bar in that year. He obtained an M.A. degree in 1874. He became a corporate lawyer in New York City, and in 1871 helped found the law firm of Shearman & Sterling, which represented Jay Gould, Henry Ford, the Rockefeller family, and Standard Oil. On his death in 1918, Sterling left a residuary estate of $15 million to Yale, at the time the "largest sum of money ever donated to an institution of higher learning in history"—equivalent to about $200 million in 2011 dollars. After the estate appraisal was complete a year later, the Yale bequest was "about $18 million." He required Yale to fund "at least one enduring, useful and architecturally beautiful building, which will constitute a fitting Memorial of my gratitude to and affection for my alma mater" and "the foundation of Scholarships, Fellowships or Lectureships, the endowment of new professorships and the establishment of special funds for prizes"—these mandates led to the construction of the Sterling Memorial Library, Sterling Law Building, the Hall of Graduate Studies, and the Sterling Hall of Medicine, and the endowment of the Sterling Professorships. Personal life Sterling never married. In 2003, historian Jonathan Ned Katz uncovered evidence that Sterling lived for nearly fifty years in a same-sex intimate partnership with cotton broker James O. Bloss. Death Sterling died July 5, 1918, while staying at the fishing lodge of Lord Mount Stephen in Grand-Métis, Quebec; he is entombed at Woodlawn Cemetery. Sterling's sister Cordelia donated the Sterling House and its surrounding estate—part of the Sterling Homestead—to Stratford, Connecticut. Notes External links John William Sterling and James Orville Bloss from outhistory.org New York (state) lawyers Yale University alumni Columbia Law School alumni 1844 births 1918 deaths Benefactors of Yale University People associated with Shearman & Sterling 19th-century American lawyers 19th-century American philanthropists	[ 0.17646361887454987, 0.43454083800315857, -0.42863139510154724, 0.09185940772294998, 0.39291927218437195, 0.4013858437538147, 0.09597466886043549, 0.17269761860370636, -0.029876407235860825, -0.09261996299028397, 0.13611753284931183, 0.17319588363170624, -0.1087937206029892, 0.5812637209892273, -0.39333775639533997, 0.29547980427742004, -0.013108406215906143, -0.06337782740592957, -0.24152587354183197, -0.1030617207288742, -0.3264576494693756, 0.2541656494140625, 0.5419051051139832, -0.27498099207878113, 0.27162423729896545, 0.26200559735298157, 0.09201780706644058, -0.5267975926399231, -0.012114151380956173, 0.28546127676963806, 0.22743044793605804, 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231458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator%20logo	Operator logo	An operator logo is a logo which appears on the status screen of a mobile phone. Originally intended as a way for phone companies to brand phones attached to their networks, the operator logo has since become a method by which owners may customise their phones to reflect their own interests. It helped kick off mobile phone content advertising which became particularly prominent with ring tone adverts. The older mobile phones of 90's (Black & white LCD Screen) had options to show telecom operator logo instead of the showing the name in plain text. Later various companies provided custom logo and designs to set as Operator logo. These logos can be shared by SMS with other people. Later on when color mobiles came to market, Colorful logo option came to mobile devices. An industry has sprung up around the use of these logos, and around ring tones, tailored towards phones, such as those made by Nokia, which can receive new logos in a text message. Several mobile phone companies provide services on their websites where users can design their own logos, and there is also software available which can be used to create them. See also OTA bitmap Smart Messaging Logo File Formats Logos Brand management Mobile telecommunications	[ 0.5314119458198547, 0.19238191843032837, 0.22488175332546234, -0.1261776089668274, 0.5373057723045349, -0.041057657450437546, 0.18742699921131134, 0.5264780521392822, -0.4646735191345215, -0.5521914958953857, -0.5584869384765625, 0.449446439743042, -0.3240201473236084, 0.03162831813097, 0.017094552516937256, 0.027227533981204033, 0.39450162649154663, 1.151978850364685, -0.5425480008125305, -0.3994079530239105, -0.590762197971344, -0.10454940050840378, 0.45477598905563354, -0.8959534764289856, 0.3432231843471527, 0.2202531397342682, -0.11744106560945511, 0.10290969163179398, -0.30509844422340393, 0.3616675138473511, 0.5096732974052429, -0.002972965594381094, 0.06669879704713821, 0.5161791443824768, 0.046188145875930786, 0.1030208021402359, 0.09164020419120789, -0.25551149249076843, -0.5952392220497131, -0.45111697912216187, -0.45711663365364075, -0.3364531993865967, 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231462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Median%20nerve	Median nerve	The median nerve is a nerve in humans and other animals in the upper limb. It is one of the five main nerves originating from the brachial plexus. The median nerve originates from the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, and has contributions from ventral roots of C5-C7 (lateral cord) and C8 and T1 (medial cord). The median nerve is the only nerve that passes through the carpal tunnel. Carpal tunnel syndrome is the disability that results from the median nerve being pressed in the carpal tunnel. Structure The median nerve arises from the branches from lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, courses through the anterior part of arm, forearm, and hand, and terminates by supplying the muscles of the hand. Arm After receiving inputs from both the lateral and medial cords of the brachial plexus, the median nerve enters the arm from the axilla at the inferior margin of the teres major muscle. It then passes vertically down and courses lateral to the brachial artery between biceps brachii (above) and brachialis (below). At first, it is lateral to the artery and lies anterior to the shoulder joint; it then crosses anteriorly to run medial to the artery in the distal arm and into the cubital fossa. Inside the cubital fossa, the median nerve passes medial to the brachial artery. The median nerve gives off an articular branch to the elbow joint. A branch to pronator teres muscle arise from the median nerve immediately above the elbow joint. Forearm The median nerve continues in the cubital fossa medial to the brachial artery and passes between the two heads of the pronator teres, deep to the bicipital aponeurosis (aponeurosis of biceps) and superficial the brachialis muscle. It crosses the ulnar artery (branch of brachial artery) while being separated by the deep head of the pronator teres. It then travels between the flexor digitorum superficialis (above) and flexor digitorum profundus (below). The median nerve is accompanied by the median artery (a branch of anterior interosseous artery) during this course. Then, about 5 cm above the flexor retinaculum (wrist), it emerges between the flexor digitorum superficialis (medially) and the flexor carpi radialis (laterally) into the hand. The main trunk of the median nerve innervates the superficial and deep groups of the muscles in the anterior compartment of the forearm with the exception of flexor carpi ulnaris. The median nerve does this by giving off two branches as it courses through the forearm: Muscular branches are given off in the cubital fossa to supply flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, and flexor digitorum superficialis. The anterior interosseous branch is given off in the upper part of the forearm, courses with the anterior interosseous artery and innervates flexor pollicis longus and the lateral half of flexor digitorum profundus (the ulnar half is supplied by ulnar nerve, as is the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle). It ends with its innervation of pronator quadratus. In addition to its supply to muscles, this nerve also supplies the distal radioulnar joint and wrist joint. The median nerve also gives off sensory and other branches in the forearm. The palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve arises at the distal part of the forearm. It supplies sensory innervation to the thenar eminence of the palm and the central palm. Articular branches are given to the elbow joint and proximal radioulnar joint. Vascular branches supply the radial and ulnar arteries. Meanwhile, a communicating branch is given to the ulnar nerve. Hand The median nerve enters the hand through the carpal tunnel, deep to the flexor retinaculum along with the tendons of flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorum profundus, and flexor pollicis longus. From there, it is divided into recurrent muscular branch and digital cutaneous branch: The muscular branch (also known as recurrent branch) supplies the thenar muscles (opponens pollicis, abductor pollicis brevis, and superficial part of flexor pollicis brevis) Digital cutaneous to the proper palmar digital branch and the common palmar digital branch: The proper palmar digital branch gives out three digital branches to the lateral one and a half digits (two digital branches to the thumb, one digital branch to the lateral side of the index finger). The digital branch to the index finger also supplies the first lumbrical. The common palmar digital branch divides further into two branches. Both the medial and lateral branches supply the second and third interdigital clefts with adjoining index, middle, and lateral half of ring finger. The lateral branch also supplies the second lumbrical. Variation The naturally occurring anomalies of the median nerve are: Bifurcation of the median nerve typically occurs after the nerve exits the carpal tunnel; however, in a small percentage (5-10%) of individuals, the median nerve bifurcates more proximal in the carpal tunnel, wrist, or forearm. During gestation, a median artery that serves the hand retracts. However, in some individuals, the median artery does not retract and follows the course next to the median nerve into the hand. Martin-Gruber anastomoses can occur when branches of the median nerve cross-over in the forearm and merge with the ulnar nerve to innervate portions of the forehand. Riche-Cannieu anastomosis can occur when a connection exists between recurrent branch of the median nerve and deep branch of the ulnar nerve of the hand. Function The median nerve is the main nerve of the front of the forearm. It supplies the muscles of the front of the forearm and muscles of the thenar eminence, thus controlling the coarse movements of the hand. Therefore, it is also called "labourer's nerve". Arm The median nerve has no voluntary motor or cutaneous function in the brachium. It gives vascular branches to the wall of the brachial artery. These vascular branches carry sympathetic fibers. Forearm It innervates all of the flexors in the forearm, except flexor carpi ulnaris and that part of flexor digitorum profundus that supplies the fourth and fifth digits. The latter two muscles are supplied by the ulnar nerve (specifically the muscular branches of ulnar nerve). The main portion of the median nerve supplies these muscles: Superficial group: Pronator teres Flexor carpi radialis Palmaris longus Intermediate group: Flexor digitorum superficialis muscle The anterior interosseus branch of the median nerve supplies these muscles: Deep group: Flexor digitorum profundus (only the lateral half) Flexor pollicis longus Pronator quadratus Hand In the hand, the median nerve supplies motor innervation to the first and second lumbrical muscles. It also supplies the muscles of the thenar eminence by a recurrent thenar branch. The rest of the intrinsic muscles of the hand are supplied by the ulnar nerve. The median nerve innervates the skin of the palmar (volar) side of the index finger, thumb, middle finger, and half the ring finger, and the nail bed. The radial aspect of the palm is supplied by the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve, which leaves the nerve proximal to the wrist creases. This palmar cutaneous branch travels in a separate fascial groove adjacent to the flexor carpi radialis and then superficial to the flexor retinaculum. It is, therefore, spared in carpal tunnel syndrome. ==Clinical significance== Injury Injury of median nerve at different levels causes different syndromes with varying motor and sensory deficits. At the shoulder Injury can occur at the brachial plexus Above the elbow Common mechanism of injury: A supracondylar humerus fracture Motor deficit: Loss of pronation of forearm, weakness in flexion of the hand at the wrist, loss of flexion of radial half of digits and thumb, loss of abduction and opposition of thumb. Presence of an ape hand deformity when the hand is at rest, due to an hyperextension of index finger and thumb, and an adducted thumb Presence of benediction sign when attempting to form a fist, due to loss of flexion of radial half of digits Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation in lateral digits including their nail beds, and the thenar area At the elbow Entrapment at the level of the elbow or the proximal forearm could be due to the pronator teres syndrome. Within the proximal forearm: Anterior interosseous syndrome Injury to the anterior interosseous branch in the forearm causes the anterior interosseous syndrome Common mechanisms: Tight cast, forearm bone fracture Motor deficit: Loss of pronation of forearm, loss of flexion of radial half of digits and thumb Sensory deficit: None At the wrist Common mechanism: Wrist laceration Motor deficit: Weakness in flexion of radial half of digits and thumb, loss of abduction and opposition of thumb Presence of an ape hand deformity when the hand is at rest may be likely, due to an hyperextension of index finger and thumb, and an adducted thumb. Nevertheless, an ape hand deformity is not a requirement for a carpal tunnel syndrome diagnosis. Presence of a benediction sign when attempting to form a fist, due to weakness in flexion of radial half of digits Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation in lateral digits including their nail beds, and the thenar area Within the wrist: Carpal tunnel syndrome Common mechanism: Carpal tunnel syndrome, an injury by compression in the carpal tunnel, without transection of the median nerve, due to overuse by activities such as keyboard typing and cooking Motor deficit: Weakness in flexion of radial half of digits and thumb, weakness in abduction and opposition of thumb Presence of an ape hand deformity or when attempting to form a fist, the benediction sign, due to compression of the median nerve, as opposed to complete median nerve palsy Sensory deficit: Numbness and tingling in lateral digits including their nail beds, but excluding the thenar eminence which is supplied by the palmar cutaneous branch of the median nerve Unlike in wrist laceration, sensation still occurs in the area of the central palm. Sensation is not lost because the palmar cutaneous branch runs above the flexor retinaculum, and is not affected in compression in carpal tunnel syndrome. Additional images See also References External links - "Axilla, dissection, anterior view" Nerves of the upper limb	[ 0.07283733040094376, -0.6248615980148315, -0.2697410583496094, 0.3047862946987152, 0.10243184864521027, 0.7773394584655762, 0.8481489419937134, 0.2710779905319214, -0.470132052898407, -0.8834969997406006, 0.07107407599687576, 0.49032652378082275, -0.24419452250003815, -0.5780473947525024, -0.3676539361476898, -0.046574030071496964, 0.2888113260269165, 0.10117656737565994, 0.25084441900253296, -0.3449079990386963, -0.055355705320835114, -0.17836380004882812, 0.9061523675918579, -0.41702622175216675, 0.1536066234111786, -0.5369571447372437, -0.20436450839042664, 0.7024425864219666, 0.1566247045993805, -0.6595614552497864, -0.32368698716163635, 0.8289960026741028, -0.28620216250419617, -0.948352038860321, -0.6374746561050415, -0.33078309893608093, -0.02669801376760006, -0.899035632610321, -0.0075212023220956326, -0.33563822507858276, -0.3334070146083832, 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231463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringtone	Ringtone	A ringtone or ring tone is the sound made by a telephone to indicate an incoming call or text message. Not literally a tone nor an actual (bell-like) ring anymore, the term is most often used today to refer to customizable sounds used on mobile phones. Background A telephone rings when the telephone network indicates an incoming call, so that the recipient is alerted of the call attempt. Landline telephones typically receive an electric alternating current signal, called power ringing or ringing signal, generated by the telephone exchange to which the telephone is connected. The ringing current originally operated an electric bell. For mobile phones, the network sends a message to the recipient's device, which may activate a sound, or a visual or vibrating indication. On a POTS interface, this signal is created by superimposing ringing voltage atop the −48 VDC already on the line. This is done at the Central Office, or a neighborhood multiplexer called a "SLC" for Subscriber Line Carrier. (SLC is a trademark of Alcatel-Lucent, but is often used generically.) Telephones with electromagnetic ringers are still in widespread use. The ringing signal in North America is normally specified at ca. 90 volts AC with a frequency of 20 hertz. In Europe it is around 60–90 VAC with a frequency of 25 Hz. Some non-Bell Company system party lines in the US used multiple frequencies for selective ringing. Ringing voltage is produced by various sources. Large central offices used motor-driven generator sets for both ringing and other signals such as dial tone and busy signals. In smaller offices, special sub-cycle magnetic oscillators were used. Typically, solid-state oscillators have replaced them. Originally this voltage was used to trigger an electromagnet to ring a bell installed inside the telephone, or in a nearby mounted ringer box. Fixed phones of the late 20th century and later detect this ringing current voltage and trigger a warbling tone electronically. Mobile phones have been fully digital since the early 1990s second-generation ("2G") devices, hence are signaled to ring as part of the protocol they use to communicate with the cell base stations. While the sound produced is still called a "ring", more-recently manufactured telephones electronically produce a warbling, chirping, or other sound. Variation of the ring signal can be used to indicate characteristics of incoming calls. For example, ringing bursts with a shorter interval between them might be used to signal a call from a given number. In POTS switching systems, ringing is said to be "tripped" when the impedance of the line reduces to about 600 ohms when the telephone handset is lifted off the switch-hook. This signals that the telephone call has been answered, and the telephone exchange immediately removes the ringing signal from the line and connects the call. This is the source of the name of the problem called "ring-trip" or "pre-trip", which occurs when the ringing signal on the line encounters excessively low resistance between the conductors, which trips the ring before the subscriber's actual telephone has a chance to ring (for more than a very short time); this is common with wet connections and improperly installed lines. The ringing pattern is known as ring cadence. This only applies to POTS fixed phones, where the high voltage ring signal is switched on and off to create the ringing pattern. In North America, the standard ring cadence is "2-4", or two seconds of ringing followed by four seconds of silence (33% Duty Cycle). In Australia and the UK, the standard ring cadence is 400 ms on, 200 ms off, 400 ms on, 2000 ms off. These patterns may vary from region to region, and other patterns are used in different countries around the world. Some central offices offer distinctive ring to identify which of multiple numbers on the same line is being called, a pattern once widely used on party line (telephony). In many systems, including North America Bellcore standards, Caller ID signals are sent during the silent interval between the first and second bursts of the ringing signals. The caller is informed about the progress of the call by the audible ringing signal, often called ringback tone. Power ringing and audible ringing are not synchronized. History AT&T offered seven different gong combinations for the "C" type ringer found in the model 500 and 2500 landline telephone sets. These gongs provided "distinctive tones" for hearing-impaired customers and also made it possible to distinguish the specific telephone that was ringing when several telephones were placed in close proximity. A "Bell Chime" was also offered, which could be set to sound like a doorbell or to ring like a standard telephone. While rings, ringers, ring signals, or what might be viewed as the call signals which are the predecessors of ringtones, date back to the beginnings of telephony, modern ringtones appeared in the 1960s and have expanded into tunes and many customizable tones or melodies. Arguably the first ringtone (in the modern sense) appeared in the movie Our Man Flint in 1966, where the head of the secret government agency had a red phone that connected directly to the President and rang with a distinctive musical ringtone. Following a 1975 FCC ruling which permitted third-party devices to be connected to phone lines, manufacturers produced accessory telephone ringers which rang with electronic tones or melodies rather than mechanical bells. People also made their own ringers which used the chip from a musical greeting card to play a melody on the arrival of a call. One such ringer, described in a 1989 book, even features a toy dog which barks and wags its tail when a call arrives. Eventually, electronic telephone ringers became the norm. Some of these ringers produced a single tone, but others produced a sequence of two or three tones or a musical melody. Some novelty phones have a ringer to match, such as a duck that quacks or a car that honks its horn. In September 1996, IDO, the current au, sold Digital Minimo D319 by Denso. It was the first mobile phone where a user could input an original melody, rather than the preset songs. These phones proved to be popular in Japan: a book published in 1998 providing details about how to customize phones to play snippets of popular songs sold more than 3.5 million copies. The first downloadable mobile ring tone service was created and delivered in Finland in 1998 when Radiolinja (a Finnish mobile operator now known as Elisa) started their service called Harmonium, invented by Vesa-Matti Pananen. Harmonium contained both tools for individuals to create monophonic ring tones and a mechanism to deliver them over-the-air (OTA) via SMS to a mobile handset. In November 1998, Digitalphone Groupe (SoftBank Mobile) started a similar service in Japan. Generation software A ring tone maker is an application that converts a user chosen song or other audio file for use as a ringtone of a mobile phone. The ringtone file is installed in the mobile phone either by direct cable connection, Bluetooth, text messaging, or e-mail. On many websites, users may create ring tones from digital music or audio. The earliest ringtone maker was Harmonium, developed by Vesa-Matti Paananen, a Finnish computer programmer, and released in 1997 for use with Nokia smart messaging. Andy Clarke, while working for UK Phone Provider Orange, helped created the B5 Ringtone License with the UK's Mechanical-Copyright Protection Society in 1998. In 1999, Clarke registered ringtone.net and setup what is believed to be the world's first "legal" ringtone business. Scott Memphis, leader singer of Sunday Morning Sanctuary, wrote a 2010 hit entitled, "Ringtones & Lullabies" inspired by with the B5 Ringtone Licensing of 1998. Some providers have features for users to create music tones, either with a "melody composer" or a sample/loop arranger, such as the MusicDJ in many Sony Ericsson phones. These often use encoding formats only available to one particular phone model or brand. Other formats, such as MIDI or MP3, are often supported; they must be downloaded to the phone before they can be used as a normal ring tone. When someone buys a ringtone, an aggregator (a company that sells ringtones) either creates the tune or mixes a pre-existing tune. The ringtone is sent in a special file format to the phone via SMS. If the company uses a pre-existing song, they must pay royalties to a licensing agency. A significant portion goes to the cell phone provider. In 2005, "SmashTheTones", now "Mobile17", became the first third-party solution for ring tone creation online without requiring downloadable software or a digital audio editor. Later, users of Apple's iPhone could create a ringtone from a song purchased with the iTunes library. Commercial sales The fact that consumers were willing to pay up to $3 for ringtones, made mobile music a profitable part of the music industry. The Manhattan-based marketing and consulting firm Consect estimated ringtones generated $4 billion in worldwide sales in 2004. According to Fortune magazine, ring tones generated more than $2 billion in worldwide sales during 2005. The rise of sound files also contributed to the popularization of ringtones. In 2003 for example, the Japanese ringtone market, which alone was worth US$900 million, experienced US$66.4 million worth of sound file ringtone sales. In 2003, the global ringtone industry was worth somewhere between US$2.5 and US$3.5 billion. In 2009, the research firm SNL Kagan estimated that sales of ringtones in the United States peaked at $714 million in 2007. SNL Kagan estimated U.S. sales in 2008 declined to $541 million, as consumers utilized third-party software and tutorials to create ringtones themselves. Types Monophonic: The original ringtones play only one note at a time. Polyphonic: A polyphonic ring tone can consist of several notes at a time. The first polyphonic ring tones used sequenced recording methods such as MIDI. Such recordings specify what synthetic instrument should play a note at a given time, and the actual instrument sound is dependent upon the playback device. Later, synthesized instruments could be included along with the composition data, which allowed for more varied sounds beyond the built-in sound bank of each phone. Truetone: A truetone, also known as realtone, mastertone, superphonic ringtone, is an audio recording, typically in a common format such as MP3 or AAC. Truetones, which are often excerpts from songs, became popular as ringtones. The first truetone service was started by au in December 2002. "My Gift to You" by Chemistry was the first song to be distributed as a truetone. This truetone (in Japanese chaku-uta) was released in time for Chemistry's concert tour in Japan. Sing tone: A sing tone is a ringtone created in karaoke style, combining a user's recorded voice with a backing track. Encoding formats Most modern phones support ringtones in MP3 format, and other common audio formats such as AAC, Ogg Vorbis, FLAC, and MIDI are often supported as well. Less common formats include: 3GP: A multimedia container format that can be used for video ringtones. AMR: Audio compression format specialized in speech used by Nokia before mp3 became standard. eMelody: Older monophonic Ericsson format. iMelody: Monophonic format developed by Ericsson to replace eMelody. KWS: Kyocera's ringer format. MOT: An older ringer format for Motorola phones. Music Macro Language (MML), originally used in early computer and video games, later used in BASIC implementations and ringtones .nrt / .rng / .rt / .ext: Nokia's monophonic format. Nokia / SCKL / OTT: Nokia Smart Messaging format. Allows users to share ringtones via text message. PDB: Palm database. This is the format used to load ringtones on PDA phones such as the Kyocera 6035 and the Handspring Treo. PMD: Format co-created by Qualcomm and Japanese company Faith which can include MIDI, sampled (PCM) audio, static graphics, animation, text, vibration and LED events. QCP: File format generated by Qualcomm PureVoice software. Especially well-suited for simple vocal recordings. RMF: a polyphonic format with embedded audio used on Symbian and Danger Hiptop devices. RTTTL/RTX: Nokia-developed text formats for Smart Messaging. Samsung: Proprietary key press format. Siemens: Can create and read in a Siemens text file format. Siemens SEO: Siemens SEO binary format. SMAF: Yamaha music format that combines MIDI with instrument sound data (aka Module files). Filenames have the extension "MMF" or "MLD". This Format Is Used In Most Samsung's 2002-2008 Mobile Phones SRT: Sipura ringtone for Sipura Technology VoIP phones. Mobile XMF: Nokia's 2004-2013 phones support this format. See also Zip tone References External links Ringtones from How Stuff Works (old article, deals with monophonic ringtones) - Consumer guide to ring tones, from Utility Consumers' Action Network (UCAN) Telephony signals Mobile phone culture Telecommunications-related introductions in 1996	[ 0.13268323242664337, 0.3928166925907135, -0.06033148244023323, -0.1436743289232254, -0.11483259499073029, -0.007999090477824211, 0.12245998531579971, 0.2614515721797943, -0.15283256769180298, -0.0058905743062496185, -0.4902258813381195, 0.7983735799789429, -0.44301238656044006, 0.34112849831581116, -0.21727365255355835, 0.2715807855129242, 0.563103437423706, 0.43245381116867065, -0.08656489849090576, -0.41262316703796387, -0.699381947517395, 0.18966121971607208, 0.34936919808387756, -0.23399953544139862, 0.701831579208374, 0.31656408309936523, -0.452705055475235, -0.10893858224153519, -0.31452447175979614, 0.15907415747642517, 0.19506420195102692, 0.36853015422821045, 0.2850969731807709, 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231465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camberwick%20Green	Camberwick Green	Camberwick Green is a British children's television series that ran from January to March 1966 on BBC1, featuring stop motion puppets. Camberwick Green is the first in the Trumptonshire trilogy, which also includes Trumpton and Chigley. Background The series was written and produced by Gordon Murray and animated by Bob Bura, John Hardwick and Pasquale Ferrari. Music was by Freddie Phillips while narration and song vocals were provided by Brian Cant. There are thirteen fifteen-minute colour episodes produced by Gordon Murray Pictures. The inspiration for the name is believed to have stemmed from the East Sussex village of Wivelsfield Green, supported by the nearby villages of Plumpton (Trumpton) and Chailey (Chigley). Each episode begins with a shot of a musical box which rotates while playing a tune. It is accompanied by the following narration: Then the lid, a hexagon constructed of six triangles in alternating colours, slowly opens up like an iris, or in the manner of a camera shutter, while the box smoothly revolves to the accompaniment of an exquisite Baroque minuet. A hexagonal platform bearing the motionless figure of the puppet character which will play a central role in today's episode, slowly rises into position: the platform flush with the shifted triangular cover-tiles, which are now splayed open like the stiff petals of a flower; as the music-box comes to a halt with an audible click. After a brief introduction, the background appears and the story begins. The series is set in the small, picturesque (and fictitious) village of Camberwick Green, Trumptonshire, which is inhabited by such characters as Police Constable McGarry (Number 452), and the iconic Windy Miller, owner of a clanking old – but nevertheless efficiently functional – windmill and a firm believer in old-fashioned farming methods. The series mixes contemporary technology with Edwardian costume and social attitudes. Almost all the characters have their own theme songs and travelling songs. There are other characters who never appear in the stories, including Mr Honeyman who (according to Peter Hazell's song) "keeps the chemist shop", and an unnamed clown or pierrot, who turns a roller caption to display the show's opening and closing credits. Each week the villagers undergo such domestic crises as a shortage of flour, a swarm of bees, a water shortage and rumours of an unwanted electrical substation being built in the village, but all problems are happily resolved by the end of each episode. The episodes then conclude with the narrator bidding farewell to the puppet character who was seen at the beginning and is shown going back into the musical box. Camberwick Green has no overt fantasy content apart from the musical box. For the most part, it is simply about ordinary people doing everyday things, and perhaps for that reason it remains popular. Along with its two successors, the series was repeated many times on the BBC until 1985, and then on Channel 4 from 1994 to 2000. Episodes "Peter the Postman" (3 January 1966) "Windy Miller" (10 January 1966) "Mr Crockett the Garage Man" (17 January 1966) "Dr Mopp" (24 January 1966) "Farmer Jonathan Bell" (31 January 1966) "Captain Snort" (7 February 1966) "Paddy Murphy" (14 February 1966) "Roger Varley the Sweep" (21 February 1966) "PC McGarry" (28 February 1966) "Mr Dagenham the Salesman" (7 March 1966) "Mr Carraway the Fishmonger" (14 March 1966) "Mickey Murphy the Baker" (21 March 1966) "Mrs Honeyman and Her Baby" (28 March 1966) Episode titles were given in Radio Times, but were not shown on screen. Characters Pippin Fort The staff and soldier boys of Pippin Fort are a regular feature of Camberwick Green, demonstrating their foot drill, working in the community, responding to emergencies, and (at a stage before Trumpton in the time-line) providing the local fire-fighting capability with their bright red mobile fire pump. Captain Snort - the tough but fair commanding officer; appears in every episode except for episode 7. Sergeant Major Grout - the second-in-command at the fort; appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Armitage - the strongest swimmer, later revealed (in Chigley) to be a frogman; appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Featherby - appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Higgins - the smartest soldier boy, who has a military career ahead; appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Hopwood - appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Lumley - has poor drill and can't tell his left from his right; not a natural soldier, he discovers an aptitude for baking, and is apprenticed to Mickey Murphy; appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. Private Meek - sometimes in trouble for daydreaming, he proves adept at babysitting Baby Honeyman - appears in 12 out of 13 episodes. The Sentry - a regular character, also the fort's Bugler, who has dialogue and plotlines, but is never named; appears in 11 out of 13 episodes. The villagers Mr 'Windy' Miller - an iconic character, who keeps Colley's Mill, rides a tricycle, and values tradition; he appears in every episode. Dr Mopp - the village doctor, who wears a top hat and drives a vintage motor car; he appears in 12 episodes. Mr Carraway - the fishmonger; he appears in 12 episodes, and also makes a guest appearance in Chigley. Mrs Dingle - the postmistress, invariably accompanied by her puppy dog 'Packet'; she appears in every episode. Mr Mickey Murphy - the village baker; he appears in every episode, and also makes a guest appearance in Chigley. Mrs Murphy - the baker's wife; she appears in 8 episodes. Paddy Murphy - the baker's son; he appears in 9 episodes. Mary Murphy - the baker's daughter; she appears in 9 episodes. Police Constable McGarry - Camberwick Green's policeman, known as "PC McGarry, number 452" from his theme song; he appears in 6 episodes, and also makes a guest appearance in Chigley. Farmer Jonathan Bell - operator of a "modern mechanical farm", and a promoter of technology; he appears in 11 episodes; also makes guest appearances in Trumpton and Chigley. Mr Peter Hazel - the village postman; he appears in 10 episodes. Mrs Honeyman - a housewife who is the main vehicle of village gossip; she appears in every episode; also makes minor background appearances in Trumpton. Baby Honeyman - Mrs Honeyman's baby boy; he appears in every episode. Mr Thomas Tripp - the milkman and proprietor of Tripp's Dairy; he appears in 5 episodes; also appears in Trumpton and in Chigley. Mr Roger Varley - the chimney sweep; he appears in 9 episodes; also makes guest appearances in Trumpton and appears in 1 episode of Chigley, in which he services the Winkstead Hall boiler, known as 'Binnie'. Mr Crockett - the proprietor of Crockett's Garage; he appears in 5 episodes, and is mentioned in 2 others; also makes guest appearances in Trumpton and Chigley. Mr Dagenham - the salesman who drives a flash red sports car, and is said to be able to sell anything; he appears in only 1 episode (but is the star of that episode), and is mentioned in 1 other. He also appears in 2 episodes of Chigley. Water Board Foreman - he is not named, and appears only in the final episode, supervising the engineers. Water Board Engineer - although never named, he has a key role in episodes 8 and 13, and appears in 4 episodes in total. Water Board Assistant Engineer - the unnamed Water Board Engineer has a similarly unnamed assistant in episodes 8 and 13; he appears only in those 2 episodes. Unseen characters Mr Honeyman - the village chemist, referenced particularly in episodes 1 and 6 Mrs Bell - the farmer's wife The Farmhands - references are made to the farmhands on Farmer Bell's farm Mrs Mopp - the doctor's wife Mrs Varley - the sweep's wife, referred to in several of Mrs Honeyman's stories Mrs Varley's mother - the sweep's mother-in-law is also said to be local Mrs McGarry - the policeman's wife Dr Mopp's nephews Tom Ranger - a boy from the village, who suffered a minor accident Mr Crockett's son - unseen in Camberwick Green, but he is seen in the following series Trumpton. Mrs Honeyman's nephew is mentioned to Mr Carraway Other characters Clown or Pierrot - the classic Commedia dell'arte character appears in the opening and closing credits of every episode. In contrast to the music box, his theme is a light piece (such as a saltarello) played on Spanish guitar. Modern use The 1970s pop band Candlewick Green shares its name with the originally planned title of the series. (Murray had planned to name the show "Candlewick Green" but found that the person writing his contract had misheard and mangled the name; as he did not object to the new name, Murray went forth with the show under the mangled title.) In 1987 the indie group Pop Will Eat Itself sampled Brian Cant's "Here is a box..." introduction for the start of their song Razorblade Kisses. The song itself is an instrumental reprise of their song Evelyn, but played in a musical box style to make it sound similar to the Camberwick Green tune. In 1987, Windy Miller was the face of Windmill Bakery's wholemeal bread. Ceramic pots depicting Windy hugging a beehive and barrels of marmalade and jam were made to tie in with the promotion. Camberwick Green was spoofed for a 1988 edition of Spitting Image, as "Gamberwick Greenbelt". The 90-second sketch depicted a puppet Nicholas Ridley, described as "Old Nicky Ridley, the village idiot", using a front loader to demolish the whole village for redevelopment. In 2015, Private Eye resurrected the spoof as the "Camberwick Greenbelt" strip cartoon, offering satirical comment on social and political impacts on the British countryside. VIZ magazine produced a rather bleak spoof version named Camberwick Greggs, in which the baker is driven out of business by the opening of a branch of Greggs opening nearby. The character Windy Miller and his famous windmill appeared in September 2005 along with some other Camberwick Green characters in commercials for Quaker Oats on television in the United Kingdom. The puppets and setting are all re creations, because Murray destroyed the originals in the 1970s. The original narrator, Brian Cant, auditioned to do the voice over for the commercials, before the job was instead given to Charlie Higson. Episode five of the second series of the BBC's Life on Mars features a recreation of the opening of Camberwick Green, with a puppet of the show's main character, Sam Tyler (John Simm), emerging from the musical box and despairing over his colleague, Gene Hunt (Philip Glenister), who can be seen in puppet form "kicking in a nonce" at the end. This later leads to Sam to threaten Hunt, telling him to "Stay out of Camberwick Green!" (a cross-reference to the popular and long-running police TV series Dixon of Dock Green). It emerges that Sam is tripping after being accidentally overdosed in his hospital bed. Again, the voice over was not supplied by Brian Cant, but is delivered in a similar style. It differs from the original by saying: "This is a box, a magical box, playing a magical tune. But inside this box there lies a surprise. Do you know who's in it today?" The narration was provided by Brian Little, the co-founder of Hot Animation, the company that created the sequence. His recording was supposed to be a temporary guide track to help the animators time the shots, but the producers of Life on Mars were content to retain it for the final version. The one-minute sequence was designed and animated by Paul Couvela, the supervising animator of Bob the Builder. Windy Miller cameos in the closing sequence of the 2009 BBC Children in Need charity single Peter Kay's "Animated All Star Band" video. The music video to Radiohead's Burn the Witch pays homage to both Camberwick Green and The Wicker Man. Caterham Cars released a limited edition model of their Seven range called the Sprint with one of the colour options as Camberwick Green Restoration and commercial releases The original masters of Camberwick Green – along with those of its sequels Trumpton and Chigley – were believed to have been lost, with most surviving copies tending to suffer from scratched, wobbly or grainy picture quality and a muffled soundtrack. However, when boxes of some original film were discovered in Gordon Murray's attic – with more footage then discovered by the BBC – the trilogy was restored and remastered for a Blu-ray release in 2011. However, as of 2019, Trumpton and Chigley have yet to have received a Blu-ray release. VHS In 1984, eighteen years later after the broadcasts on BBC in 1966, Longman Video released the first four episodes, as part of its Children's Treasury Collection. Later, in 1989, the BBC released a video with the last three episodes (including E12 Mickey Murphy the Baker as the first episode, E11 Mr Carraway as the second episode and E13 Mrs Honeyman and her Baby as the last episode). {\| class="wikitable" \|- !VHS video title !Year of release !Episodes \|- \| Camberwick Green 1: Mickey Murphy the Baker (BBCV 4231) \| style="text-align:center;"\|10 April 1989 \| style="text-align:center;"\|Mickey Murphy the Baker, Mr Carraway, Mrs Honeyman and her Baby . \|} Then, in 1996–1997 Telstar Home Entertainment, as part of its Star Kids range released three videos. DVD and Blu ray The digitally remastered Camberwick Green'' was released in December 2011 in one multi pack, comprising a Blu ray disc and a DVD. Credits Music: Freddie Phillips Narrator: Brian Cant Sets: Margaret Brownfoot and Andrew Brownfoot Animation: Bob Bura & John Hardwick Puppets: Gordon Murray Produced by Gordon Murray Puppets Ltd 1966. References and notes External links The Trumptonshire Web The Trumptonshire Trilogy British Film Institute Screen Online Windy Miller BBC Radio 4 Sunday Best - Here is a Box, a Musical Box BBC children's television shows British children's animated musical television series 1960s British animated television series 1960s British children's television series 1966 British television series debuts 1966 British television series endings Fictional populated places in England British stop-motion animated television series English-language television shows	[ -0.20546597242355347, -0.22813573479652405, 0.4437870681285858, -0.15710553526878357, 0.3163532018661499, 0.2801394462585449, -0.1670876443386078, 0.14859206974506378, -0.34764015674591064, 0.5641021728515625, -0.44424399733543396, 0.3034559190273285, -0.04914042353630066, 0.24646598100662231, -0.34047648310661316, -0.26663485169410706, 0.3891715109348297, 0.14795233309268951, -0.00516063068062067, -0.2511448562145233, 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231475	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20%26%20Friends	Thomas & Friends	Thomas & Friends (originally known as Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends or simply Thomas the Tank Engine until series 7; later called Thomas & Friends: Big World! Big Adventures!) is a British children's television series created by Britt Allcroft. Based on The Railway Series by the Reverend W. Awdry and later his son Christopher, it follows the adventures of Thomas, an anthropomorphised tank engine, on the fictional North Western Railway, on the fictional Island of Sodor with fellow engines Edward, Henry, Gordon, James, Percy, Toby, and several other anthropomorphised vehicles, who work for the Fat Controller. Thomas usually gets into trouble by doing jobs best left to bigger and more sensible engines, but never gives up on being a "Really Useful Engine". In the United Kingdom, it had its first broadcast on the ITV network in 1984. In the United States, it had its first broadcasting with the spin-off series Shining Time Station on PBS in 1989. The series aired from 9 October 1984 until 20 January 2021. The rights to the series are currently owned by HIT Entertainment (a subsidiary of Mattel), having acquired Gullane Entertainment in July 2002. Mattel has announced a 2D-animated reboot, Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go, which premiered on September 13, 2021. Originally thought to be a continuation of the original series, it was later designated a new series altogether by Mattel. Although Mattel never confirmed that the series had been cancelled, no new episodes have been produced since production on All Engines Go began. History Predecessors Before the airing of the first episode of Thomas & Friends in 1984, previous attempts had been made to adapt Awdry's stories for television. The first was in 1953 (when the editor of the Railway Series books, Eric Marriott) was approached by the BBC, who wished to use live-action model trains to re-create two stories from Awdry's first book, The Three Railway Engines. The engines were portrayed by 00 gauge Hornby Dublo models and driven on authentic sets in the style of the original illustrations. The first episode (based on "The Sad Story of Henry") was broadcast live on the evening of Sunday 14 June 1953 from Lime Grove Studios. The live broadcast did not fare well. Reportedly, a failure to switch the points caused the model of Henry to derail and viewers of the live broadcast witnessed a human hand, said to be one of a crew member, picking him up and placing him back on the rails. Models moved jerkily, and all effects and music had to be superimposed. By 23 June, news of the broadcast hit the front pages of The Daily Telegraph and the Daily Mail. Awdry himself branded the episode as "unprofessional", and the point-switching debacle as an "elementary mistake". As a result, the second episode scheduled for 28 June 1953 was put on hold, and then later cancelled. After the "Sad Story of Henry" fiasco, the BBC did attempt to rescue the project by offering to give Awdry and the Railway Series publishers greater creative control over the production of the episodes, but the publishers declined the offer, preferring to focus on publishing new books for the series. Nearly twenty years later, the BBC featured Awdry's stories in the television story-telling show Jackanory. Fourteen years before Thomas and Friends was aired, Ted Ray (sitting in a stationmaster's office) read out five Railway Series books in episodes that aired between 20 September to 2 October 1970. In 1973, Andrew Lloyd Webber (who had read The Railway Series as a child) approached publisher Kaye & Ward with a proposal for his own musical television series, with songs from himself and lyricist Peter Reeves. However, the publishers and the author refused to give Lloyd Webber's company "control of almost everything", which Lloyd Webber's lawyers argued was necessary in order to "secure the investment money from America which would be needed to pay for the animation and the film-making." The status of the project seemed uncertain, and while Stanley Pickard (Kaye & Ward's managing director at the time) told Awdry that he was "maintaining personal contact with Andrew and still had a slight hope that there might be a way out", Wilbert remained apprehensive, saying that "Once the Americans get hold of it the whole series would be vulgarized and ruined." Eventually, an agreement was reached and Awdry received an advanced payment of £500. A pilot episode was commissioned from Granada, which would feature 2D cutouts of the engines moving along a background in a style reminiscent of Ivor the Engine, with involvement from animator Brian Cosgrove. The cutouts and backgrounds would be based upon illustrations from The Railway Series. The pilot episode was completed by early 1976, but Granada ultimately decided not to produce a full series, as they feared that at the time Awdry's stories were not popular enough outside the UK to justify investing the time and money needed to make the series. Andrew Lloyd Webber later established the Really Useful Group in 1977, a name derived from the phrase "Really Useful Engine". He would go on to work on a musical loosely inspired by The Railway Series, called Starlight Express, which premiered in 1984, and became one of his most well-known works. Early years and the series' success In 1979, British television producer Britt Allcroft was producing a documentary on the Bluebell Railway, a heritage railway in Sussex which featured in the Railway Series book Stepney the Bluebell Engine. As part of her research before filming, Allcroft read some books in The Railway Series and was highly entertained and impressed with the stories which Awdry had written, later remarking that "there was something in the stories that I felt I could develop that would connect with children. I saw a strong emotional content that would carry with little children's experiences with life." Allcroft worked to convince Awdry that she could, with funding, convert the stories into a successful television show. Her efforts were successful, and she purchased the television rights from the publishers of The Railway Series at a cost of what was then £50,000 ($74,000 in U.S. dollars at the time). Allcroft still had to work to raise the money to finance production and (despite showing a keen interest) wanted a level of creative control which she did not want to forego. In the end, after several years of searching and having to place a second mortgage on her home, Allcroft raised sufficient funding from her local bank manager. By 1981, Allcroft had secured the finances to produce the show, she started to assemble the crew, including producer and director David Mitton, also the founder of Clearwater Features Ltd.; crew member Steve Asquith; American-born producer Robert D. Cardona; and composers and songwriters Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell, who are also musicians. The series started production in 1984 by Clearwater Features Ltd. (Mitton and Cardona's company) and ITV's Central Independent Television region. The series was originally shot and produced with live action models at the Clearwater in house studio in Battersea, a suburb of London, for Series 1. It later relocated to Shepperton Studios, Middlesex, southwest of London for subsequent series. The use of moving models was seen at the time of the series' conception as an effective method of animating the stories. Locomotives and other vehicles were operated by radio controls, while humans and animals were static figures. Stop-motion was occasionally employed for instances in which a human or animal character would move. Hand-drawn animation was used in Series 3 to create bees (as seen in the episode "Buzz Buzz"). The first series (1984) used stories from the first eight books, along with one specially written by the Rev. W. Awdry, Thomas's Christmas Party. The second series (1986) used stories from Book No.9 (Edward the Blue Engine) to Book No.30 (More About Thomas the Tank Engine). The latter book was unusual, as it was written specifically by Christopher Awdry to be adapted by the show. At that time, it was a contractual obligation that the series could only adapt stories that appeared in print. The series also used a story from a Thomas Annual, "Thomas and Trevor", and a specially written stand-alone story, Thomas and the Missing Christmas Tree. One episode ("The Missing Coach") was in the process of being filmed, but was cancelled mid-way through filming as Allcroft decided it was too confusing for young viewers. The production team went on to use "Better Late Than Never" instead. The story "Gordon Goes Foreign" from the Railway Series book The Eight Famous Engines was also planned to be adapted but was scrapped due to budgetary limitations. In between production of the second and third series, the production team were focused in producing two other television series: Tugs, which ran for one series in 1989 for Television South (TVS); and the American television series Shining Time Station, which repackaged Thomas the Tank Engine & Friends for the American television market from 1989 to 1996. Just before production of series three, Clearwater closed on 31 December 1990, with The Britt Allcroft Company becoming the sole producer. Series three was broadcast in 1992 on CITV. It was made at a cost of £1.3 million (approximately $9.3.million in U.S. dollars at the time). The series was a combination of episodes derived from The Railway Series, stories in the Thomas the Tank Engine and Friends magazine (written by Andrew Brenner, who would later become the show's head writer starting in Series 16), and a couple of original stories by Allcroft and Mitton. One of the primary reasons for diverging from the original books was that many of the stories not yet used featured large numbers of new characters, which would be expensive to produce. Another reason was that the producers wanted more stories about Thomas (the nominal main character). Awdry complained that the new stories would be unrealistic (see Henry the Green Engine for more details). Robert D. Cardona left as producer, while Britt Allcroft joined David Mitton as co-producer. Angus Wright took over as executive producer. Series 4 was first released directly to video between 1994 and 1995 before its broadcast debut on ITV. The producers planned to introduce some new female characters, including motor car Caroline, Nancy, and The Refreshment Lady. Some commentators took this as a response to accusations of sexism levelled against the series two years earlier. In reality, these were not "new" characters, but creations of Awdry from the original Railway Series books. Series four was almost entirely based on The Railway Series. The narrow gauge engines were introduced, and were the focus of a number of episodes. Only one original story ("Rusty to the Rescue", written by Allcroft and Mitton) was used, but this took certain elements of plot and dialogue from Stepney the "Bluebell" Engine. The fifth series (1998) (also first released directly to video before its TV airings on Cartoon Network) was a radical shift, as all episodes were written by Allcroft and Mitton with no further stories being adapted from the Railway Series. This series saw the introduction of new characters, such as Cranky, The Horrid Lorries and Old Slow Coach. It also focused on more dramatic and action-oriented plot-lines, with more severe accidents, than in the earlier series. After series 5, Angus Wright stepped down as executive producer. It was also the final series broadcast on Cartoon Network, as Nickelodeon UK would eventually acquire the broadcast rights to the show for it to air on their newly created Nick Jr. channel in 1999. CN continued to air older series until their broadcast rights fully expired in 2001. Thomas and the Magic Railroad was released in July 2000 in the UK, US, and Canada. It featured new characters created by Allcroft, along with characters from the show that introduced Thomas to the U.S., Shining Time Station. Despite high production values and the popularity of the show, the film was criticised by British reviewers who were unfamiliar with Shining Time Station. The movie was well received by young children on both sides of the Atlantic, but made only $19.7 million at the box office, against a cost of The film was broadcast on BBC1 on 1 January 2004 and again on 29 December 2008. Later years The Britt Allcroft Company (which changed its name to Gullane Entertainment in 2000) was purchased by HiT Entertainment in September 2002, a company specialising in children's entertainment. The sixth and seventh series continued to introduce action-packed storylines and new characters, and saw the introduction of a writing staff. The sixth series in 2002 was an attempt to create a spin-off based on the successful Bob the Builder series. Two episodes introduced a group of construction machine characters known as "The Pack". The spin-off did not materialise for some time. Eventually, in 2006, thirteen episodes were released straight to DVD in two collections: On Site with Thomas and Thomas' Trusty Friends. It was the first series broadcast on ITV since series 3. The fact that older sets were used and the episodes were shot on 35mm camera (as opposed to the digital camera used at the time of the episodes' release) suggest it was filmed some time before Series 8. In Series 7 (2003) the programme title was officially shortened to Thomas & Friends, this name having been used on merchandise and video covers for three years previously. Phil Fehrle replaced Allcroft and Mitton as producer, though Mitton remained as the director. Executive producer Angus Wright was replaced by Peter Urie and Allcroft as executive producers for Series 6. In 2003, Allcroft stepped down as executive producer, making Urie the sole executive producer for Gullane Entertainment, and Jocelyn Stevenson was the executive producer for HiT Entertainment. The eighth series (2004) was the first released directly to VHS and DVD as four episodes in the US and six in the UK were released before airing on television on Nick Jr. in the UK and PBS in the US. It introduced a number of significant changes to the show. Many of the original founding team involved in the original show since 1984 left the production, including Britt Allcroft, director and writer David Mitton, and original composers Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell. The latter two had been embroiled in a protracted legal dispute with HiT before their departure. Asquith, who was part of the original production team since 1984, took over as director, while Simon Spencer replaced Phil Fehrle as producer. A new theme song and incidental music were composed by Ed Welch and Robert Hartshorne, respectively. Episode runtime was increased to seven minutes. The series was produced using digital video camera, creating a somewhat different look for the show. Other changes included the additions of CGI educational sequences and transitions between stories. Executive producer Peter Urie also left, while Jocelyn Stevenson remained in her role as executive producer. Sam Barlow became the story executive, while Abi Grant and Paul Larson served as script editors. This series saw the adoption of a centralised cast, including Thomas, Edward, Henry, Gordon, James, Percy, Toby and Emily. HiT Entertainment was itself then acquired by Apax Partners, a private equity company, in March 2005. A straight-to-video film (Calling All Engines!) was released shortly before Series 9 in 2005. While featuring characters from Thomas and the Magic Railroad, it was not a direct sequel. It proved successful, which resulted in more direct-to-video specials being produced. Series 9 (2005) and 10 (2006) saw the expansion of the supporting cast with new and old characters. From Series 9 the narrator would call out the episodes' names and from Series 11 the theme song was sung starting with the sound of a train whistle. Series 10 aired with twenty-eight episodes rather than the twenty-six of previous years. The eleventh series (2007) was filmed in high definition format. Twenty episodes aired in the original broadcast, while six were released directed to DVD as Engines and Escapades. Jocelyn Stevenson had stepped down as executive producer after Series 10, with Christopher Skala taking her place as executive producer for Series 11. Sharon Miller became the script editor from Series 9 to 11. Series 12 (2008) saw the introduction of CGI effects (provided by HiT Entertainment's subsidiary Hot Animation), with the intent of producing the show entirely in CGI the following year. The traditional models and sets were still used, but with computer animated faces superimposed on the models to allow for changing facial expressions. Humans and animals were fully computer animated to allow for walking movement. Only twenty episodes were produced and broadcast (the U.S. broadcast featured six additional episodes from Engines and Escapades). Sharon Miller became the head writer, starting with Series 12. HiT announced multiple changes to the show beginning in 2009. One new aspect was the introduction of live-action host segments to Thomas home video releases. The host took the form of a character who worked on The Fat Controller's (Sir Topham Hatt's) railway, who would instruct viewers in craft projects. For the final 2 DVDs released for series 12 in 2009, the host was named Mr. Arkwright, played by Robert Slate. In 2010, beginning with the DVD "Splish Splash Splosh", the host was named Mr. Perkins (played by Ben Forster) and has remained host until Forster died in 2017 after a battle with cancer and was replaced by Mark Moraghan, who played "Mr Evans" in the web series. For budgetary reasons, the other major changes were a move to production in CGI, rather than using physical models, and the addition of a voice cast to support the established narrator. The DVD feature (Hero of the Rails) was the first Thomas & Friends production to showcase these changes, and Series 13 was the first television series in the new format. The CGI animation for the series was provided by Nitrogen Studios of Vancouver. In September 2010, Apax was preparing to sell off HiT Entertainment and its franchises, including Thomas – regarded as the single most valuable asset – in order to help clear HiT's debts, and in February 2012, sold the company, along with the Thomas properties, to "US toy giant", Mattel. During production of Series 16 (2012), Sharon Miller stepped down as head writer, and Andrew Brenner (who had written some Thomas stories in the third series) assumed the role after serving as script editor for "Blue Mountain Mystery". Additionally, Sam Barlow stepped down as story executive after the sixteenth series, and the production of the CGI animation was moved from Nitrogen Studios (of Vancouver) to Arc Productions (of Toronto). King of the Railway and Series 17, both released during 2013, serve as the first special and series developed by the new animation and production teams respectively. 2014 saw Tale of the Brave and Series 18, the second special and series animated by Arc, respectively. 2015 saw The Adventure Begins, a special coinciding with the 70th anniversary of the franchise, and Sodor's Legend of the Lost Treasure; Series 19 began airing that same year. 2016 saw some changes; longtime composers Robert and Peter Hartshorne (father and son team) left the series and Chris Renshaw and Oliver Davis took over. 2016 also saw Thomas & Friends: The Great Race and Series 20 began airing the same year. Series 20 was the last series of the show to air on PBS Kids; when Series 21 began airing in 2017, the American broadcast of the show was moved to Nick Jr., ending a period of almost 28 years of Thomas & Friends on American public television. 2017 also saw Journey Beyond Sodor. The show was pulled away from Nick Jr. at the end of 2019. A twenty-second series of Thomas and Friends was announced consisting of 26 episodes with, among many other changes, such as Edward, Henry and Toby being removed from the Steam Team to make room for two new female steam engines named Nia (Africa) and Rebecca (UK), and the narrator has been replaced with Thomas talking to the audience (however, Mark Moraghan, the previous narrator has said that he will still work on the series). Series 22 is set after Big World! Big Adventures!, which came out on 20 July 2018. It introduced gender-balanced and multicultural characters, and features a new theme tune. The series is split into two-halves; the first half sees Thomas travelling around the world and visiting India, Australia, and China, while the second half takes place back on the Island of Sodor. The series was released on Netflix, Amazon and Hulu in the late half of 2018. Thomas & Friends was renewed for a 23rd series which debuted in 2019. The 24th series was released in September 2020. The series was also the final series animated by Jam Filled Toronto. A second live-action/animated Thomas & Friends film is in development at Mattel with Marc Forster serving as director. Reboot On 12 October 2020, it was announced by Mattel that the series would be rebooted with Thomas & Friends: All Engines Go and that Nelvana would co-produce and animate the series. The deal consists of 104 11-minute episodes and 2 60-minute specials, and that the animation would transition from 3D full CGI animation to 2D animation since its transition to full CGI in 2009, with new refreshed redesigns for Thomas and his Friends. On 5 February 2021, it was announced that Cartoon Network and Netflix had jointly picked up the broadcast and streaming rights to the series in the United States, respectively. Cast Originally, narrating was used as the only voice in the series until 2008. Britt Allcroft thought it essential to convey the episode as a story that would be read from a book at home. Individual voice-over actors were given to both the UK and US dubs of the series, following the switch to full CGI animation in 2009. Characters List of productions Television series Films, specials, and miniseries Home video history Over the history of the programme, the TV episodes and specials have been released for home viewing in a variety of compilations, formats and languages, by a variety of publishing houses. Production Storytelling Up until series 12, narration and dialogue were performed by a single storyteller. Starting from series 22 up until series 24, Thomas the Tank Engine himself takes over as the narrator. Models The original live action models were filmed on an extensive model railway layout built at the studios. The models were built to the 1:32 scale, known in model railway circles as "Gauge 1". From Series 1 to 3, the locomotives used chassis made by Märklin with specially made bodies. Along with the moving-eye and eyelid mechanisms and resin faces, these bodies also included smoke generators. Coaches and trucks were made using Tenmille kits. Later models were constructed entirely from scratch. Some of the models from the sister television series Tugs were reused in later episodes of the series. From Series 5 to 12, some larger-scale models were used for the narrow gauge characters, to more easily fit the complex mechanisms into them while retaining a sufficient level of detail. In Series 6, the characters known as "the Pack" (construction machines) were also constructed on a large scale, and larger models of Thomas and Percy were made to interact with them. In the ninth series, another larger Thomas model was built to the same scale as the narrow gauge engines to provide greater possibilities for interaction. It was joined by a large version of James in the tenth series. In 2009, some of these models were put on display in a special exhibit at Drayton Manor Theme Park's Thomas Land. Nitrogen Studios (who provided the animation for the series from series 12 to 16) also had some of the original models on display. Face movements At the show's conception in 1984, live action model animation could not utilise lip sync, but show co-creator Britt Allcroft and model director David Mitton did not see this as an inhibition. About 20 years later however, with advancement in technology, the show saw the introduction of CGI by HIT Entertainment's subsidiary HOT Animation. At first this was used to generate smoke and other effects, but later, HIT (then current owners of Thomas) announced its intent to introduce a fully CGI series in 2009. With Series 12, CGI by Nitrogen Studios was used to animate characters' faces and to make people and animals mobile within the stories. The following series (the show's 13th) saw a transition to full CGI animation. Music Mike O'Donnell and Junior Campbell composed the show's original main title theme, incidental music and songs, which were used for series 1–7 comprising 182 episodes between 1984 and 2003. The instruments for series 1–2 was the Roland Jupiter-6 and instrumentals for series 3–7 was the E-mu Proteus sound module. In 2004, Robert Hartshorne took O'Donnell and Campbell's place as composer, while Ed Welch became the show's songwriter from Series 8 to The Great Discovery, and Welch left after The Great Discovery. Hartshorne took his place as songwriter from Series 12 and onwards. From Day of the Diesels/2011-2016, Robert's son Peter Hartshorne helped him with the music. In 2016, the Hartshornes left the series and Chris Renshaw and Oliver Davis took their places. Head writer Since series 12, there has been a head writer for the series. Prior to the introduction of a head writer, the script editor performed similar duties. Sharon Miller served as head writer from series 12–16 and stepped down after series 16 and was replaced by Andrew Brenner, who had written many "Thomas" stories for various magazines as well as his own original stories, several of which were later adapted for television episodes for Series 3 and Series 5, for which he had remained uncredited. Brenner had been a writer of several other children's animated series, such as Angelina Ballerina, Tractor Tom, Fireman Sam, Spot, Poppy Cat, and Binka, as well as being the creator of Caribou Kitchen, and Humf and writer for several magazines featuring children's characters such as The Real Ghostbusters, Fireman Sam, and Thomas's sister series Tugs and has written scripts and took over as head writer for Thomas for King of the Railway until the twenty-third series. David Stoten succeeded him as head writer for the twenty-fourth series. Sharon Miller has also been the voice director since the second CGI animated film Misty Island Rescue, and continues to work on the series in this capacity. Script editors Abi Grant (series 6) Jan Page (series 7) Abi Grant and Paul Larson (series 8) Sharon Miller (series 9-11) Becky Evans (series 16, last few episodes) Head writer Sharon Miller (series 12–16) Andrew Brenner (series 17–23) David Stoten (series 24) Broadcast In the United Kingdom, Thomas & Friends was originally broadcast on ITV until 2006. Since then it has been broadcast on Channel 5's Milkshake! strand. In the United States, the series had first appeared only as sequences on Shining Time Station during the program's run from 1989 to 1995 on PBS. The sequences of the series later aired in 1996 on Mr. Conductor's Thomas Tales. The series aired as Storytime with Thomas on Fox Family (now Freeform) from 1999 to 2001. When Thomas & Friends returned as a stand-alone half-hour program on PBS Kids, it was first distributed from 2004 to 2007 by Connecticut Public Television, and then by WNET from 2008 to 2017. It also aired on Sprout from 2005 to 2015. The rights to broadcast the series through PBS expired in December 2017, thus ending a period of almost 30 years of programming related to Thomas & Friends on American public television. In 2018 and 2019, Nickelodeon held exclusive rights to the series in the United States. In 2020, the streaming rights were sold to Netflix, with traditional television rights (if any) left unresolved. It also airs on Kabillion. The program airs in Australia on ABC Kids and on Four in New Zealand. In France and Spain, it plays on Disney Junior. In Canada, it formerly aired on TVOKids, Family Jr. and the Knowledge Network as a part of its Knowledge Kids block, and currently airs on Treehouse TV. In the Middle East, the show airs on MBC 3 and Spacetoon, and in the United Arab Emirates on e-Junior. Other dubs Reception Critical response Common Sense Media rated the show a 4 out of 5 stars stating: Jessica Roake wrote in Slate that the series reflects "true “white man’s burden” style British imperialism", and in regards to Hatt, "One suspects that Sir Topham Hatt spent some time in colonial India." Roake acknowledged that the show since 2003 had more diverse characters. Jia Tolentino in The New Yorker acknowledged that as a girl she did not "take in anything that was actually happening", but after reviewing the show and internet posts about it as an adult, criticised what she saw as the "show’s repressive, authoritarian soul." University of Alberta professor Shauna Wilton wrote "A Very Useful Engine: The Politics of Thomas and Friends". Wilton (who justified her study by arguing that socialization of children is an important aspect) wrote that she received "a combination of outrage, disbelief, and condescending dismissal" when she announced she was going to study the politicization of the series, although some people gave her thanks. She stated that despite the inclusion of female characters by the 2000s, in the era after major social revolutions in real life the series was "largely unchanged" from when it was "created in a context of rigid social hierarchies, male dominance in the public sphere, and a strong social culture of good behavior, respecting authority, and following the rules." Internet popularity In the 2010s, Thomas & Friends became the subject of several internet memes such as "Thomas' O-face" and "The Fat Controller Laughed" and was even the centrepiece of an article for The New Yorker, which explored supposedly authoritarian subtexts present in the show. Notes References Notes External links Official websites Awdry Family Site Other sites The Railway Series 1984 British television series debuts 2021 British television series endings 1980s British animated television series 1980s British children's television series 1990s British animated television series 1990s British children's television series 2000s British animated television series 2000s British children's television series 2010s British animated television series 2010s British children's television series 2020s British animated television series 2020s British children's television series British children's animated adventure television series British children's animated comedy television series British children's animated fantasy television series British computer-animated television series English-language television shows Channel 5 (British TV channel) original programming George Carlin ITV children's television shows Direct-to-video television series Nick Jr. original programming Film and television memes Internet memes British preschool education television series Fiction about rail transport British television shows based on children's books Television series by Mattel Creations Television series by WNET Television series created by Britt Allcroft Television series set on fictional islands British television series revived after cancellation Trains in fiction Gullane Entertainment	[ -0.5957786440849304, -0.19069597125053406, 0.02760520577430725, -0.03723066672682762, 0.40927812457084656, 0.13156819343566895, 0.3421218991279602, 0.21694284677505493, -0.44637539982795715, 0.25759705901145935, -0.9715074896812439, 0.5137206315994263, -0.1578841656446457, 0.06629999727010727, -0.32124418020248413, -0.07392287999391556, 0.18072795867919922, 0.5477892756462097, -0.38486915826797485, -0.16384999454021454, 0.018101781606674194, -0.2569110691547394, 0.07105798274278641, -0.33729055523872375, 0.07656271010637283, 0.009042356163263321, 0.07588129490613937, 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231478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trumpton	Trumpton	Trumpton is a British stop-motion children's television series from the producers of Camberwick Green. First shown on the BBC from January to March 1967, it was the second series in the Trumptonshire trilogy, which comprised Camberwick Green, Trumpton and Chigley. Trumpton was narrated by Brian Cant, and animation was by Bob Bura, John Hardwick and Pasquale Ferrari. Scripts were by Alison Prince; all other production details were identical to Camberwick Green. Story and structure The action takes place in the fictional town of Trumpton, a short distance from the equally fictional village of Camberwick Green, the focus of the first series in the Trumptonshire Trilogy. Each episode begins with a shot of Trumpton Town Hall clock: The townsfolk then appear going about their daily business: the mayor, Mr Troop the town clerk, Chippy Minton the carpenter and his apprentice son Nibs, Mrs Cobbit the florist, Miss Lovelace the milliner and her trio of Pekingese dogs (Mitzi, Daphne and Lulu), Mr Clamp the greengrocer, Mr Munnings the printer, and Mr Platt the clockmaker. Although most of the characters and settings are new, the style of the programme follows the pattern established by Camberwick Green (from which a few characters make an appearance in Trumpton also), in which domestic problems are cheerfully resolved by the end of the show, leaving the last minute or so for the fire brigade to become the town band and play the episode out. The fire brigade is perhaps Trumpton's most-recognised feature. Captain Flack's roll-call was recited in all but one episode: Puppeteer Gordon Murray explained that "Pugh and Pugh are twins you must understand – not Hugh, Pugh". In the episode "Cuthbert's Morning Off", Cuthbert's name is omitted (due to his absence). They are continually being called out to attend some emergency or other (in many cases to resolve fairly trivial matters), but to Captain Flack's annoyance never an actual fire. The main reason for this was the difficulty of animating fire, water, and smoke, although a naked flame was successfully animated in episode 8, for the abortive lighting of a bonfire. Nonetheless, after "Right men, action stations!", the fire brigade often absent-mindedly deployed the fire hose and received a rebuke from Captain Flack ("No, no! Not the hose!"). Writer Gordon Murray said that the communities of the series are "representative of real locations which are one-and-a-half miles from each other in an equidistant triangle", but declined to name them for fear of the area being "inundated with tourists". Episodes Episode titles were given in Radio Times but were not shown on-screen. Characters The Fire Brigade Unusually, Trumpton Fire Brigade has two theme songs. The first, commencing with the famous roll call of firemen's names, accompanies every turnout of the Brigade; the second, ending every episode, forms the habitual tune played by the Brigade at the Thursday band concerts. The Fire Brigade appears in every episode. Captain Flack always has a speaking part, as do Fireman Grubb in episode 1 and Fireman Cuthbert in episode 10. In episode 4 the Mayor states "I can't think what Trumpton would do without its Fire Brigade". Captain Flack - the Fire Brigade's commander. Fireman Pugh - half of the Pugh twins. Fireman Pugh - half of the Pugh twins. Fireman Barney McGrew - the elderly driver of the fire engine, whose eyes are always closed. Fireman Cuthbert - the AWP operator; his theme song is 'I like the robin's merry song'. Fireman Dibble Fireman Grubb The Corporation The Mayor - unlike the other characters, his name is never revealed; he appears in the opening titles, and in every episode except number 1. Mr Troop - the Town Clerk; he and the Mayor share the theme song 'Fire Brigade, road repairs, library'; he appears in ten episodes. Mr Bolt - the Borough Engineer; the only unseen character, he appears via telephone in two episodes. Mr Philby - the mayoral driver; in his smart chauffeur's uniform, he appears in eight episodes. Mr Craddock - the Park Keeper; his theme song is 'Silver paper, toffee paper, dirty piece of cardboard'; he appears in eight episodes. The Townspeople Mr 'Chippy' Minton - the carpenter; his theme song is 'I like my job as a carpenter'; he appears in every episode. Mrs Dora Minton - Chippy's wife; she appears in five episodes. Nibs Minton - Chippy & Dora's son; he works as his father's apprentice, and appears in every episode. He apparently has at least one sibling, because his mother refers to her and Chippy's 'children' in Episode 8: however the sibling(s) never appear. Mr Munnings - the printer; his theme song is 'I line up all the letters'; he appears in the opening titles, and in the storyline of eleven episodes. Miss Lovelace - the hat maker; her shop front uses the more formal title 'milliner'; her theme song is 'A hat for a young girl'; she appears in the opening titles, and in the storyline of eleven episodes; she is usually accompanied by her three pekingese dogs Mitzi, Daphne, and Lulu. Mr Clamp - the greengrocer; his shop is 'J Clamp & Son' although his son is never seen (unless Mr Clamp is himself the son). His theme song is 'Come buy my vegetables'; he appears in the opening titles, and in the storylines of nine episodes. Mrs Cobbit - the flower seller; her theme song is 'Roses, roses, buy my red roses'; she appears in the opening titles, and in the storyline of every episode; in episode 3 it is revealed that she has not missed a day's work in the town square for forty years, except Sundays. Mr Platt - the clockmaker; his theme song is 'Clocks are like people'; he appears in every episode, although unseen (behind his door) in episode 9; he keeps racing-pigeons which feature in episode 12. Police Constable Potter - Trumpton's policeman; he appears in the opening titles, and in the closing bandstand scene of every episode, and also in the storyline of five episodes; in episode 9 he is equipped with a police motorcycle like his colleague PC McGarry who patrols Camberwick Green. Mr Robinson - the window cleaner; his theme song is 'It is hard to see out'; he appears in five episodes, although only in the background scenes of episodes 1, 2, 4, and 6; he stars in episode 9. Mr Toni Antonio - the ice-cream seller; his theme song is 'Tingaling-aling-aling, here's the ice-cream van'; he appears in the closing bandstand scene of every episode, but also in the storyline of episodes 3 and 6. Mr Nick Fisher - the bill sticker; his theme song is 'Pasting up the posters, sticking up the bills'; he appears in two episodes. Mr Walter Harkin - the painter and decorator; his firm is named "Harkin Brothers", although his brother is never seen; his theme song is 'People will ask me which colour to use'; he appears in the closing bandstand scene of every episode; he also has a minor appearance in episode 2 and a starring role in episode 5. Mr Wilkins - the plumber; his theme song is 'Hot water heater takes too long to heat'; he appears in only one episode. Mr Wantage - the telephone engineer; his theme song is 'Ring ring, I work for Post Office Telephones'; he appears in only one episode. Fred - the telephone engineer; he is assistant to Mr Wantage, and likewise appears in only one episode. Raggy Dan - the rag-and-bone man; his theme song is 'Rags, bottles, and bones, I cry'; he appears in only one episode. Visitors to Trumpton Auntie - the aunt of Fireman Cuthbert; she appears in only one episode. The Artist - he visits Trumpton to paint, appearing in only one episode. Visitors from Camberwick Green As Camberwick Green is only two miles from Trumpton it is not surprising that many of the familiar Camberwick Green characters make an appearance. Mr Crockett - the garage owner; he appears with his son in episode 1, watching the band concert, and he has a starring role in episode 4. Mr Jonathan Bell - Farmer Bell often visits Trumpton, and may be seen in background shots in several episodes; he is also in the closing crowd scene at the band concert. Mr Thomas Tripp - the milkman; he appears in the opening titles, and in the closing bandstand scene, but has no part in any of the episode storylines. Mr Roger Varley - the chimney sweep; he appears in three episodes, attending band concerts, but has no part in any storyline. Mrs Honeyman - she appears in the background of episodes 1 and 2. Remastered version In 2011, BBC Studios and Post Production digitally restored all 39 episodes of the Trumptonshire trilogy (Camberwick Green, Trumpton and Chigley) after William Mollett, son-in-law of the creator Gordon Murray, found some original footage in an attic. He then approached the BBC to see if it could track down the missing 40‐year‐old original footage, which was eventually traced to the BBC broadcast archive (now in Perivale, west London) but it soon became very clear that its age meant that restoration would be a difficult and delicate task. Murray and Mollett enlisted the expertise of BBC Studios and Post Production, which cleaned, scanned and digitally restored the film footage frame by frame. Appearances in popular culture In 1986, the English indie band Half Man Half Biscuit released an EP record, The Trumpton Riots, whose title track describes an insurrection on the streets of Trumpton. In 1987, a sketch named "Trumpton Raid" appeared in Alas Smith and Joness series four. Smith is a news reader on the telephone to Jones (as "Mike Airey" Live from Trumpton) reporting on an early morning raid by American F-111 aircraft on Trumpton. In the UK in the early 1990s there were several dance music tracks based on children's TV programmes or short educational films. The Prodigy released the track "Charly" in 1991 which was then promptly followed in 1992 by "Sesame's Treet" by the Smart E's and "A Trip To Trumpton" by Urban Hype, which was based on the original Trumpton music by Freddie Phillips with heavy use of Trumpton samples. Aired 20 April 2007, in the second episode of season four 'Conference', Peep Show's Alan Johnson addresses the Project Zeus team and rhetorically posits as to whether 'the inventors of google sat around watching Trumpton'. At the 2007 Edinburgh Fringe, Phill Jupitus and Brian Cant presented Trumptonshire Tales. The format consisted of Jupitus interviewing Cant and introducing clips from the series. In 2009 Chippy Minton appeared in "The Official BBC Children in Need Medley" music video; he appears at the end of the video and is told that they have just finished. Miss Lovelace and Windy Miller also appear in the video. In its explanation of the fiscal multiplier, the BBC radio programme More or Less used the Trumpton economy as a model. Notably, firefighter Dibble was laid off due to the financial crisis. (8 April 2011) In September 2014, a spoof Twitter account @Trumpton_UKIP was created to parody the accounts of UKIP branches. Initially, the account received little notice: however, several weeks later, during a period when the party had been warning members to be aware of possible fake accounts designed to discredit them, UKIP MEP David Coburn encouraged his own Twitter followers to report the spoof account as a fake, leading to widespread media coverage. The music video for Radiohead's 2016 single "Burn the Witch" is an animation in the style of Bob Bura and John Hardwick which "crosses Trumpton and The Wicker Man". In December 2016 after Donald Trump won the U.S. presidential election, Huffington Post created a parody video imagining what Trumpton would be like with Trump as the mayor. Original scenes were re-used with a dubbed imitation of Cant narrating satirical lines instead. The famous opening lines are changed to "Here is the clock, the Trumpton clock; telling the time, time to make Trumpton great again – yes, it's time to drain the swamp!" The video satirises various controversies of Trump's election campaign such as proposals to bar entry to Muslims and to build a border wall with Mexico (figuratively represented by Chigley), allegations of sexual assaults on women, and admiration for President Vladimir Putin. Home releases In 1984, 17 years after the broadcasts on BBC in 1967. Longman Video released eight of the episodes on video as part of its Children's Treasury collection. There were two releases, each containing four episodes later in 1989 the BBC released a video with the last three episodes (including ep13 The Greenhouse as the first episode, ep11 The Plumber as the second episode and ep12 Pigeons as last episode). {\| class="wikitable" \|- !VHS video title !Year of release !Episodes \|- \| Trumpton 1: The Greenhouse (BBCV 4230) \| style="text-align:center;"\|10 April 1989 \| style="text-align:center;"\|The Greenhouse, The Plumber, Pigeons. \|} then in 1996–1997 Telstar Home Entertainment as part of its 'Star Kids' range released two videos. In 2002 a three DVD set entitled The Complete Collection'' was issued by Telstar Video Entertainment Limited (TDVD9033). It featured one disc each of Trumpton, Camberwick Green and Chigley, each disc having all 13 episodes of the respective series. Credits Music: Freddie Phillips Narrator: Brian Cant Script: Alison Prince Sets: Andrew & Margaret Brownfoot Animation: Bob Bura, John Hardwick Assisted by: Colin Large, Lisa Palace, Pasquale Ferrari Devised & Produced by Gordon Murray Puppets Ltd 1967. References Notes Citations External links The Trumptonshire Trilogy Urban Hype: A Trip To Trumpton 1960s British animated television series 1960s British children's television series 1967 British television series debuts 1967 British television series endings BBC children's television shows British children's animated television shows British stop-motion animated television series Fictional populated places in England English-language television shows	[ 0.24140505492687225, -0.13035926222801208, 0.7148986458778381, -0.24164578318595886, 0.5795738697052002, 0.06528273969888687, -0.042481161653995514, -0.4402369558811188, -0.15931835770606995, 0.25492629408836365, -0.4838772714138031, -0.11008550971746445, -0.2092667669057846, 0.2553316354751587, -0.46766602993011475, 0.02302360348403454, 0.46884381771087646, 0.38201218843460083, 0.026654960587620735, -0.7465672492980957, -0.0365719310939312, -1.0378962755203247, 0.2998248338699341, 0.09136830270290375, 0.1341351717710495, 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231479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachial%20plexus	Brachial plexus	The brachial plexus is a network () of nerves formed by the anterior rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm, forearm, and hand. Structure The brachial plexus is divided into five roots, three trunks, six divisions (three anterior and three posterior), three cords, and five branches. There are five "terminal" branches and numerous other "pre-terminal" or "collateral" branches, such as the subscapular nerve, the thoracodorsal nerve, and the long thoracic nerve, that leave the plexus at various points along its length. A common structure used to identify part of the brachial plexus in cadaver dissections is the M or W shape made by the musculocutaneous nerve, lateral cord, median nerve, medial cord, and ulnar nerve. Roots The five roots are the five anterior primary rami of the spinal nerves, after they have given off their segmental supply to the muscles of the neck. The brachial plexus emerges at five different levels: C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1. C5 and C6 merge to establish the upper trunk, C7 continuously forms the middle trunk, and C8 and T1 merge to establish the lower trunk. Prefixed or postfixed formations in some cases involve C4 or T2, respectively. The dorsal scapular nerve comes from the superior trunk and innervates the rhomboid muscles which retract and downwardly rotate the scapula. The subclavian nerve originates in both C5 and C6 and innervates the subclavius, a muscle that involves lifting the first ribs during respiration. The long thoracic nerve arises from C5, C6, and C7. This nerve innervates the serratus anterior, which draws the scapula laterally and is the prime mover in all forward-reaching and pushing actions. Trunks These roots merge to form the trunks: "superior" or "upper" (C5-C6) "middle" (C7) "inferior" or "lower" (C8, T1) Divisions Each trunk then splits in two, to form six divisions: anterior divisions of the upper, middle, and lower trunks posterior divisions of the upper, middle, and lower trunks when observing the body in the anatomical position, the anterior divisions are superficial to the posterior divisions Cords These six divisions regroup to become the three cords or large fiber bundles. The cords are named by their position with respect to the axillary artery. The posterior cord is formed from the three posterior divisions of the trunks (C5-C8, T1) The lateral cord is formed from the anterior divisions of the upper and middle trunks (C5-C7) The medial cord is simply a continuation of the anterior division of the lower trunk (C8, T1) Diagram Branches The branches are listed below. Most branches arise from the cords, but few branches arise (indicated in italics) directly from earlier structures. The five on the left are considered "terminal branches". These terminal branches are the musculocutaneous nerve, the axillary nerve, the radial nerve, the median nerve, and the ulnar nerve. Due to both emerging from the lateral cord the musculocutaneous nerve and the median nerve are well connected. The musculocutaneous nerve has even been shown to send a branch to the median nerve further connecting them. There have been several variations reported in the branching pattern but these are very rare. Bold indicates primary spinal root component of nerve. Italics indicate spinal roots that frequently, but not always, contribute to the nerve. Function The brachial plexus provides nerve supply to the skin and muscles of the arms, with two exceptions: the trapezius muscle (supplied by the spinal accessory nerve) and an area of skin near the axilla (supplied by the intercostobrachial nerve). The brachial plexus communicates through the sympathetic trunk via gray rami communicantes that join the plexus roots. The terminal branches of the brachial plexus (musculocutaneous n., axillary n., radial n., median n., and ulnar n.) all have specific sensory, motor and proprioceptive functions. Clinical significance Injury Injury to the brachial plexus may affect sensation or movement of different parts of the arm. Injury can be caused by the shoulder being pushed down and the head being pulled up, which stretches or tears the nerves. Injuries associated with malpositioning commonly affect the brachial plexus nerves, rather than other peripheral nerve groups. Due to the brachial plexus nerves being very sensitive to position, there are very limited ways of preventing such injuries. The most common victims of brachial plexus injuries consist of victims of motor vehicle accidents and newborns. Injuries can be caused by stretching, diseases, and wounds to the lateral cervical region (posterior triangle) of the neck or the axilla. Depending on the location of the injury, the signs and symptoms can range from complete paralysis to anesthesia. Testing the patient's ability to perform movements and comparing it to their normal side is a method to assess the degree of paralysis. A common brachial plexus injury is from a hard landing where the shoulder widely separates from the neck (such as in the case of motorcycle accidents or falling from a tree). These stretches can cause ruptures to the superior portions of the brachial plexus or avulse the roots from the spinal cord. Upper brachial plexus injuries are frequent in newborns when excessive stretching of the neck occurs during delivery. Studies have shown a relationship between a newborn's weight and brachial plexus injuries; however, the number of cesarean deliveries necessary to prevent a single injury is high at most birth weights. For the upper brachial plexus injuries, paralysis occurs in those muscles supplied by C5 and C6 like the deltoid, biceps, brachialis, and brachioradialis. A loss of sensation in the lateral aspect of the upper limb is also common with such injuries. An inferior brachial plexus injury is far less common but can occur when a person grasps something to break a fall or a baby's upper limb is pulled excessively during delivery. In this case, the short muscles of the hand would be affected and cause the inability to form a full fist position. To differentiate between preganglionic and postganglionic injury, clinical examination requires that the physician keep the following points in mind. Preganglionic injuries cause loss of sensation above the level of the clavicle, pain in an otherwise insensate hand, ipsilateral Horner's syndrome, and loss of function of muscles supplied by branches arising directly from roots—i.e., long thoracic nerve palsy leading to winging of scapula and elevation of ipsilateral diaphragm due to phrenic nerve palsy. Acute brachial plexus neuritis is a neurological disorder that is characterized by the onset of severe pain in the shoulder region. Additionally, the compression of cords can cause pain radiating down the arm, numbness, paresthesia, erythema, and weakness of the hands. This kind of injury is common for people who have prolonged hyperabduction of the arm when they are performing tasks above their head. Sports injuries One sports injury that is becoming prevalent in contact sports, particularly in the sport of American football, is called a "stinger." An athlete can incur this injury in a collision that can cause cervical axial compression, flexion, or extension of nerve roots or terminal branches of the brachial plexus. In a study conducted on football players at United States Military Academy, researchers found that the most common mechanism of injury is, "the compression of the fixed brachial plexus between the shoulder pad and the superior medial scapula when the pad is pushed into the area of Erb's point, where the brachial plexus is most superficial.". The result of this is a "burning" or "stinging" pain that radiates from the region of the neck to the fingertips. Although this injury causes only a temporary sensation, in some cases it can cause chronic symptoms. Penetrating wounds Most penetration wounds require immediate treatment and are not as easy to repair. For example, a deep knife wound to the brachial plexus could damage and/or sever the nerve. According to where the cut was made, it could inhibit action potentials needed to innervate that nerve's specific muscle or muscles. Injuries during birth Brachial plexus injuries can occur during the delivery of newborns when after the delivery of the head, the anterior shoulder of the infant cannot pass below the pubic symphysis without manipulation. This manipulation can cause the baby's shoulder to stretch, which can damage the brachial plexus to varying degrees. This type of injury is referred to as shoulder dystocia. Shoulder dystocia can cause obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP), which is the actual injury to the brachial plexus. The incidence of OBPP in the United States is 1.5 per 1000 births, while it is lower in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland (0.42 per 1000 births). While there are no known risk factors for OBPP, if a newborn does have shoulder dystocia it increases their risk for OBPP 100-fold. Nerve damage has been connected to birth weight with larger newborns being more susceptible to the injury but it also has to do with the delivery methods. Although very hard to prevent during live birth, doctors must be able to deliver a newborn with precise and gentle movements to decrease chances of injuring the child. Tumors Tumors that may occur in the brachial plexus are schwannomas, neurofibromas and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Imaging Imaging of the Brachial Plexus can be done effectively by using a higher magnetic strength MRI Scanner like 1.5 T or more. It is impossible to evaluate the brachial plexuses with plain Xray, CT and ultrasound scanning can manage to view the plexuses to an extent; hence MRI is preferred in imaging brachial plexus over other imaging modalities due to its multiplanar capability and the tissue contrast difference between brachial plexus and adjacent vessels. The plexuses are best imaged in coronal and sagittal planes, but axial images give an idea about the nerve roots. Generally, T1 WI and T2 WI images are used in various planes for the imaging; but new sequences like MR Myelolography, Fiesta 3D and T2 cube are also used in addition to the basic sequences to gather more information to evaluate the anatomy more. In anaesthetics Additional images References Bibliography External links Brachial Plexus Injury/Illustration, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center Learn the Brachial Plexus in Five Minutes or Less by Daniel S. Romm, M.D. and Dennis A. 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231480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Leybourne	George Leybourne	George Leybourne (17 March 1842 – 15 September 1884) was a Lion comique of the British Victorian music hall who, for much of his career, was known by the title of one of his songs, "Champagne Charlie". Another of his songs, and one that can still be heard today, is "The Flying Trapeze", or "The Daring Young Man on the Flying Trapeze". His 1867 hit "Champagne Charlie" led to the first major success of the music hall concept in Britain, and he is still one of the best known music hall performers. Early life George Leybourne was born Joseph Saunders in Gateshead; however, at an early age he and his family moved to live in London. Before he went on the music halls he worked as an engineer in, amongst other places, the South West England. For his early music hall appearances in the Northern England, including Liverpool and Newcastle he used his real name - Joe Saunders - a fact which, in the past, has caused much confusion as to his real name. His first documented appearance in London using the stage-name George Leybourne was at the Bedford Music Hall in 1863, but it is known that he had appeared in some of the smaller East-End venues in the months before this. Career In 1866 with composer Alfred Lee, he wrote "Champagne Charlie", premiering it in Leeds in the August of that year. It took several months before it became the hit song which would be forever linked to George Leybourne's name, a song which eventually became something of a mill-stone around his neck. Another of Leybourne's major song successes, also dating from 1866, was "The Flying Trapeze", music by Alfred Lee. The song celebrated the fascination with the many trapeze artistes then performing in the UK, including Leotard and his sensational appearances at the Alhambra Music Hall in London. In 1867 it was published in the US by C. H. Ditson & Co, with music attributed to Gaston Lyle. In the 1860s, Leybourne, along with several contemporaries including Arthur Lloyd and Alfred Peck Stevens developed a new type of music hall artiste, the Lion Comique; a swell or attractive, fashionable, young man. In this style, performers relied less on copying burlesque, and instead sought inspiration in their everyday experiences and the colourful characters of daily street life. Audiences loved to join in the chorus and "give the bird." In some of his songs he appeared immaculately dressed in white tie and tails, when he would declare his love for the high life, women, and champagne. However, he also earned a reputation for his many character songs, which were detailed studies of all classes of people, from low life to high life. In 1868, when William Holland became manager of the Canterbury Music Hall, he employed Leybourne on an exclusive contract of £25 a week, providing him with a carriage drawn by four white horses. Over the next year by appearing, with Holland's permission, at several other halls at the same time, his salary rose to £120 per week. Leybourne also wrote the lyrics to the 1871 song "If Ever I Cease to Love", some of the lyrics of which caused a scandal. Today it is remembered for its association with Mardi Gras in New Orleans; it became the signature song for the Rex Krewe. The song was sung by Lydia Thompson, in the burlesque adaptation of Offenbach's operetta Bluebeard, with which she was touring the United States. When he visited New Orleans in 1872, Russian Grand Duke Alexei Romanov saw Bluebeard and was fascinated by both the singer and the song. The king of Carnival directed that all bands in the Rex parade would play "the Royal Anthem", "If Ever I Cease To Love". It is still to be heard at the New Orleans Carnival. When Jenny Hill performed at the London Pavilion, she stopped the show and forced Leybourne to wait for her act to finish. Such was his generosity that he carried her back on to the stage for an encore. Leybourne and Alfred Vance, also known as The Great Vance, have always been seen as rivals, an opinion amplified by the 1944 film Champagne Charlie. But latest research shows that whereas during the same period they both sang songs extolling the virtues of various alcoholic drinks, their careers took slightly different paths. Leybourne concentrated on his music hall appearances, while Vance entertained middle-class audiences with 'safe' concert party shows; it was in their advertisements that the rivalry came to the fore. In the film Champagne Charlie Leybourne was played by comedian Tommy Trinder, while Alfred Vance was played by Stanley Holloway. Death and legacy During a career spanning 23 years Leybourne sang over 200 songs; however, towards the end of his career he failed to adapt to the changing times and his popularity declined. A victim of success and fast living, George Leybourne died penniless in Islington aged 42. He is buried at Abney Park Cemetery in Stoke Newington, London with his actress daughter Florence Leybourne, her husband, the music hall star Albert Chevalier and grandson Frederick. His headstone, with the epitaph "God's finger touched him and he slept", was erected by fellow music hall legend Dan Leno, and the Grand Order of Water Rats. George Leybourne's grave is cared for by The Music Hall Guild of Great Britain and America. Leybourne appeared at Wilton's Music Hall in London's East End, the world's oldest surviving grand music hall, and an adjoining modern residential apartment block has been named after him: George Leybourne House. References External links Derek B Scott sings “Champagne Charlie” (1867) Biography of George Leybourne by Christopher Beeching, published DCG Publications 2011 Victoria and Albert Museum; "George Leybourne"; London; 2016 London Remembers: "Plaque: George Leybourne" IMDb: "George Leybourne" film soundtrack music. 1842 births 1884 deaths 19th-century British male singers Burials at Abney Park Cemetery English songwriters Music hall performers Singers from London British male songwriters	[ 0.1400173455476761, 0.3862127363681793, -0.18079669773578644, -0.3557594120502472, 0.03789638727903366, 0.2675584554672241, 0.8199639916419983, -0.17037010192871094, -0.3055304288864136, -0.028057610616087914, -0.4691290259361267, 0.22204551100730896, -0.0394025519490242, 0.3976070284843445, -0.36212295293807983, 0.7244459986686707, 0.19737905263900757, -0.1160891056060791, 0.3269417881965637, -0.6529057621955872, -0.0667359009385109, -0.2653689980506897, 0.15053732693195343, -0.6456313133239746, 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231481	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Girl%20from%20Tomorrow	The Girl from Tomorrow	{{Infobox television \| name = The Girl from Tomorrow \| alt_name = Girl From Tomorrow \| image = TheGirlfromTomorrow.jpg \| image_alt = The show's title in giant reflective gold font over an image of the Time Capsule launch room in the year 3000. \| caption = The Girl From Tomorrows title screen. \| genre = Sci-Fi/Time Travel/Adventure/Children's/Action \| creator = \| writer = \| director = Kathy Mueller \| starring = \| voices = \| theme_music_composer = Ian Davidson \| composer = Ian Davidson \| country = Australia \| language = English \| num_seasons = 2 \| num_episodes = 24 \| executive_producer = Ron Saunders \| producer = Noel Price \| camera = Single-camera \| runtime = 23–24 minutes \| company = \| distributor = \| network = Channel Nine (Australia) \| picture_format = PAL (576i) \| audio_format = Stereo \| first_aired = \| last_aired = \| followed_by = The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End }}The Girl from Tomorrow''' is an Australian sci-fi children's television series created by Film Australia. The series is based around Alana (Katharine Cullen), a girl from the year 3000. At the start of the series, she is kidnapped by Silverthorn, a criminal from the year 2500, and brought back in time to the year 1990. While in the year 1990, she befriends Jenny (Melissa Marshall), who helps Alana adapt to life in a time unfamiliar to her, and later helps her to return to her own time. A sequel series, The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End aired in 1993. Premise In the year 3000, the human race is in a state of Utopia. The major challenge facing them is continuing rebuilding the Earth after "The Great Disaster", a catastrophic event that took place in 2500 and nearly destroyed the entire Earth. In order to investigate its causes, a scientist named Tulista is sent to the past using the Time Capsule, a device created by a scientist named Bruno. Upon the capsule's return, Tulista is held hostage by Silverthorn, a criminal from the year 2500, who is intent on conquering the future. Realizing that even though the year 3000 does not have weapons per se, his own weapons are no match to the superior technology of the Transducer, he manages to take Alana, Tulista's student, hostage, and escapes into the past, where he figures he will have a better chance. Arriving in 1990, Alana escapes, and later meets a teenager named Jenny Kelly, whose help she enlists in order to get back to the Capsule before it returns automatically to the future, leaving her stranded in the past. After thinking that the Capsule was destroyed, Jenny and Alana discover that it has been seized by Silverthorn, who is building his power and making vast amounts of money by using information from the Capsule's database, and will therefore not allow Alana to use it to return to her own time. Along with the help of Jenny's family and her teacher, Alana and Jenny must devise a plan to retrieve the Capsule while foiling Silverthorn's plans, so that Alana can return home to the year 3000. Character profiles Alana Alana (Katharine Cullen) is a fourteen-year-old girl from the year 3000. Alana's parents live on Titan, Saturn's moon. They sent her to Earth to be educated. On Earth, she has guardians who teach her how to use the Transducer, so she can achieve her ambition of becoming a healer. Alana has three distinctive dots on the side of her face in the temple area. These dots signify that she is mature enough to use a Transducer. Taken in by the Kellys on arriving in 1990, Alana is given the name 'Alana Turner' and passed off as Irene's niece to avoid suspicion. Silverthorn Silverthorn (John Howard) is a villain from the year 2500. Silverthorn's most noticeable traits are his deviousness and violent tendencies. He can be very charming, but this is a front so he can double-cross people. He is also extremely brave, risking his life to save a drowning boy in order to gain Lorien's trust, and tests the Time Gate on himself when none of his cronies are willing. He kidnaps Alana and flees to 1990, where he hopes he can rule the world. While in 1990, Silverthorn makes himself a millionaire by accessing the Time Capsule's computer, finding out details of local horse races, then successfully betting on the winners - buying such luxuries as a large white stretch limousine (driven by Eddie) and a large house, as well as setting up a business called Futures Incorporated as a front for his devious plans. However, Silverthorn has an inoperable brain tumour as a result of being exposed to high levels of radiation in his own time period, occasionally suffering severe headaches that can cause him to collapse, and cannot obtain further supplies of the pills he brought with him from 2500 as they contain elements and minerals which have not yet been discovered. He has only one hope of survival - Alana and the Transducer... Eddie Eddie (Miles Buchanan) is a young street tough who acts as Silverthorn's chauffeur and henchman. He is not very bright and occasionally even clumsy, as a result of which Silverthorn gets angry with him, but is tolerated by his employer just so long as he is useful. In The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End, Eddie confesses that he doesn't have a driving licence. Jenny Kelly Jenny (Melissa Marshall) is from 1990. She is a typical teenager going through her rebellious phase. She has dyed her hair purple and plays the drums, she has aspirations of joining a band. When she's not at school she helps out in her mum's deli. Jenny hates living in Sydney, but when Alana arrives things start to get interesting. Petey Kelly Petey (James Findlay) is like any other nine-year-old boy from 1990. He is the brother of Jenny. He enjoys dressing up in his home-made superhero outfit, and calls himself "Captain Zero". Petey also has a great love of sci-fi, which comes in handy when things get tough. Irene Kelly Irene (Helen O'Connor) is Jenny and Petey's mother. She is the owner of the Kelly Deli. Like most mums, she is very protective of her children, so much so that she is more than willing to stand up to Silverthorn alone in order to protect them. James Rooney James (Andrew Clarke) is the science teacher at the high school Jenny attends. Irene fell for him when she met him after enrolling Alana there. James helped all the others in their efforts to retrieve the Capsule so Alana could return home. Technology in the year 2500 The most often used weapon in use in the year 2500 is the laser pistol. When the pistol is used, the trigger is held allowing energy to build up within the object and once the trigger is released the energy within the object causes it to explode. Technology in the year 3000 In the year 3000, all scientific experiments and technological advancements are carried out within the Science Dome. One area within the Science Dome is the Time Laboratory. This is where all time travel experiments are performed. Technology used in the laboratory includes the Time Capsule, and the temporal flux generators, as well as other diagnostic tools. Below follows a short list of significant technology used in the future. The Time Capsule The Time Capsule is a time exploration vehicle. It was invented by a scientist named Bruno in the year 3000. The Capsule is exactly in height and width. Its composition in the series is unspecified, but as a real prop, it is a dark green steel frame model of a Rhombicuboctahedron plated with semidiagonal steel bars and plated with semitransparent plexiglas from the inside, except on the front side which is completely transparent. Inside is a command place for one passenger, although the vehicle can accept several people. It stands on a 20 cm tall black base. Its front sides are capable of opening like a two-sided door. The Capsule is equipped with the most advanced computer system available in the future. The history and knowledge from before The Great Disaster is held within its memory banks. The command panel is represented by a green prism in the centre of the vehicle, which communicates with the upper control panel, situated below the topmost side. In the second season, a security device is added - a hexagonal plate palm scanner, right from the front side. The Capsule is equipped with survival mechanisms capable of synthesizing water and protein nutrients from the atmosphere. Bruno invented the Time Capsule so that people in the year 3000 could investigate the causes of The Great Disaster, a terrible event that almost destroyed the entire Earth. The Capsule's computer also responds to verbal commands. When the Time Capsule is programmed with a set of temporal co-ordinates it draws energy from the temporal flux generators and begins to spin slowly at first and then gathering speed, which is followed by two sounds: a saw wave sound gradually increasing in frequency and a looping sequence (sound that exponentially grows in frequency and then falls low again) increasing in frequency, too. Soon when the part of the energy is transferred from the generators to the Capsule, a blue sparkled energy field then forms around the Capsule. Its sides begin to vibrate in light, followed by a slightly yellow glow in the centre of the vehicle. When the energy is sufficient, the vehicle explodes out of its present time in a flash of light and rain of yellow sparks, and explodes into the time set by the co-ordinates, which is followed by the same sawtooth sound, only with decreasing frequency, hence giving the impression of a cooling process. Upon arrival, the Capsule is regularly covered with soot residue. The Time Capsule will only remain in the past for twenty-eight days unless specified differently. Personal Computer Companion In the year 3000, everybody owns a Computer Companion. It is a miniaturised computer that can be worn on the wrist. The computer is programmed with an artificial intelligence. These computers are capable of a variety of actions. Mostly they are used to tell the time and give advice to the wearer, and they can also record and play holograms. The Companions worn by children also teach manners to the wearer as they will not comply with commands if there is any insincerity in the voice, and only respond when asked politely. The advanced technology contained in the computer enables it to interface with other computers and any other electronic devices. The Transducer The Transducer is a tool that is used by everyone in the year 3000. Alana was only learning to use the Transducer when she was kidnapped by Silverthorn. The Transducer looks like a headband with a crystal in the centre of a black drop-like plate. The Transducer from the year 3000 has several colours of radiation. Blue is used when the carrier tries to levitate objects, pink for healing, purple for specific interactions with other force fields, and red radiation forms as a result of strong feelings (intentional or unintentional) which destroy matter. The first transducer uses white radiation. The Transducer was invented in the year 2500 by a woman named Maeve. She invented it to be a tool of healing. After The Great Disaster occurred in the year 2500, the Transducer was mass-produced and the people were taught how to use it. It was to be used as a tool to rebuild the planet. A replica of the original Transducer is held in the Science Dome in the year 3000. The Transducer functions by enhancing and magnifying the telepathic function of the pituitary gland, by doing this the user is able to levitate objects and heal wounds. If used in the wrong way the Transducer can be used as a weapon to destroy things; this is why the people of the year 3000 are taught from an early age to control their emotions. Episode list Telecast and home media The series aired in Ireland along with its sequel, The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End, on RTÉ Two from 26 February 1991 to 1995. Several years later, the series was brought to the U.S. by Retro Television Network A four-disc DVD set containing all 12 episodes of The Girl from Tomorrow was released on 18 September 2006 (Region 0) around Australia into various retail outlets via Shock Exports. The entire series of The Girl from Tomorrow Part II: Tomorrow's End was released on 4 May 2007. All DVDs released so far have been in PAL format, and Region 0 encoded. Both series are out of print. The series is available for streaming over iTunes. Currently, the series can be seen on Amazon Prime and Google Play, but only for the United Kingdom in addition to being available on YouTube. Most episodes have added for free on Tubi. Awards The series was a finalist in the Youth Series category in the 1990 New York Film & TV Festival. The movie version received the following awards: 1990 Cairo International Film Festival For Children: Golden Cairo Award for Best Film 1990 Festival International March de l’audiovisuel et programme jeunesse: Award for Best Drama 1991 Houston Film Festival: Bronze Award See also List of Australian television series Guest from the Future – a Soviet sci-fi mini-series with similar premise, which predates the Australian series Návštěvníci (TV series) – a Czechoslovak sci-fi television series along similar lines, which even predates the Soviet series References External links The Girl From Tomorrow'' at ClassicKidsTV.co.uk Australian children's television series Australian science fiction television series Television series about time travel Television shows set in Sydney Nine Network original programming BBC children's television shows 1990 Australian television series debuts 1993 Australian television series endings	[ -0.18336746096611023, -0.664820671081543, 0.6571505069732666, 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231482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic%20gymnastics	Artistic gymnastics	Artistic gymnastics is a discipline of gymnastics in which athletes perform short routines on different apparatuses. The sport is governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), which designs the Code of Points and regulates all aspects of elite international competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations like British Gymnastics and USA Gymnastics. Artistic gymnastics is a popular spectator sport at many competitions, including the Summer Olympic Games. History The gymnastic system was mentioned in writings by ancient authors, including Homer, Aristotle, and Plato. It included many disciplines that later became independent sports, such as swimming, racing, wrestling, boxing, and horse riding. It was also used for military training. In its present form, gymnastics evolved in Bohemia and what is now known as Germany at the beginning of the 19th century. The term "artistic gymnastics" was introduced to distinguish freestyle performances from those used by the military. The German educator Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who was known as the father of gymnastics, invented several apparatuses, including the horizontal bar and parallel bars that are used to this day. Two of the first gymnastics clubs were Turnvereins and Sokols. The FIG was founded in 1881, and it remains the governing body of international gymnastics. The organization initially included only three countries and was called the European Gymnastics Federation until 1921, when the first non-European countries joined and it was reorganized into its present form. Gymnastics was included in the 1896 Summer Olympics, but female gymnasts were not allowed to participate in the Olympics until 1928. The World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, held since 1903, were only open to men until 1934. Since then, two branches of artistic gymnastics have developed: women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) and men's artistic gymnastics (MAG). Unlike men's and women's branches of many other sports, WAG and MAG differ significantly in technique and in apparatuses used at major competitions. Women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) As a team event, women's gymnastics entered the Olympics in 1928 and the World Championships in 1950. Individual women were recognized in the all-around as early as the 1934 World Championships. The current women's program—all-around and event finals on the vault, uneven bars, balance beam, and floor exercise—was introduced at the 1950 World Championships and at the 1952 Summer Olympics. The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s, and most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at age 22 and her second at 26; she became world champion in 1958 while pregnant. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia, who followed Latynina and became a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 when she won her first Olympic gold medal. In the 1970s, the average age of Olympic gymnasts began to decrease. While it was not unheard of for teenagers to compete in the 1960s—Ludmilla Tourischeva was 16 at her first Olympics in 1968—younger female gymnasts slowly became the norm as the sport's difficulty increased. Smaller, lighter girls generally excelled in the more challenging acrobatic elements required by the redesigned Code of Points. The 58th Congress of the FIG—held in July 1980, just before the Olympics—decided to raise the minimum age for senior international competition from 14 to 15. However, the change, which came into effect two years later, did not eliminate the problem. By the time of the 1992 Summer Olympics, elite gymnasts consisted almost exclusively of "pixies"—underweight, prepubescent teenagers—and concerns were raised about athletes' welfare. In 1997, the FIG responded to this trend by raising the minimum age for international elite competition to 16. This, combined with changes in the Code of Points and evolving popular opinion in the sport, led to the return of older gymnasts. While the average elite female gymnast is still in her mid to late teens, and below-average height and weight, it is now common to see gymnasts competing well into their 20s. At the 2004 Olympics, both the second-place American team and the third-place Russians were captained by women in their mid-20s; several other teams, including those from Australia, France, and Canada, included older gymnasts as well. At the 2008 Olympics, the silver medalist on vault, Oksana Chusovitina, was a 33-year-old mother. She received another silver medal on vault at the 2011 World Championships in Tokyo when she was 36. In 2016, at the age of 41, Chusovitina competed at her 7th consecutive Olympics, a world record for a female gymnast. In 2019, at the age of 44, she qualified for her 8th consecutive Olympics. Apparatus Both male and female gymnasts are judged for execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation. In many competitions, especially high-level ones sanctioned by the FIG, gymnasts compete in "Olympic order", which has changed over time but has stayed consistent for at least a few decades. For male gymnasts, the Olympic order is: 1) Floor exercise 2) Pommel horse 3) Still rings 4) Vault 5) Parallel bars 6) Horizontal bar For female gymnasts, the Olympic order is: 1) Vault 2) Uneven bars 3) Balance beam 4) Floor exercise Men and women Vault The vault is both an event and the primary piece of equipment used in that event. Unlike most of the gymnastic events employing apparatuses, the vault is common to both men's and women's competition, with little difference between the two. A gymnast sprints down a runway, which is a maximum of in length, before leaping onto a springboard. Harnessing the energy of the spring, the gymnast directs his or her body hands-first toward the vault. Body position is maintained while "popping" (blocking using only a shoulder movement) the vaulting platform. The gymnast then rotates his or her body to land in a standing position on the far side of the vault. In advanced gymnastics, multiple twists and somersaults may be added before landing. Successful vaults depend on the speed of the run, the length of the hurdle, the power the gymnast generates from the legs and shoulder girdle, kinesthetic awareness in the air, and the speed of rotation in the case of more difficult and complex vaults. In 2004, the traditional vaulting horse was replaced with a new apparatus, sometimes known as a tongue, table, or pegasus. (The name "pegasus" was given because it was first introduced during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece.) It is more stable, wider, and longer than the older vaulting horse—about in length and width, giving gymnasts a larger blocking surface—and is therefore safer than the old vaulting horse. This new, safer apparatus led gymnasts to attempt more difficult vaults. Notable champions On the men's side, the gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on vault are Marian Drăgulescu of Romania and Ri Se-gwang of North Korea, with four titles each. Yang Hak-seon, Eugen Mack, Alexei Nemov, Vitaly Scherbo, Li Xiaopeng, and Lou Yun have each won three titles. On the women's side, Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia has won the most titles, with four. Simona Amânar, Simone Biles, Cheng Fei, and Elena Zamolodchikova have each won three. Floor exercise The floor event occurs on a carpeted square consisting of hard foam over a layer of plywood, which is supported by springs or foam blocks. This provides a firm surface that will respond with force when compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve extra height and a softer landing than would be possible on a regular floor. Men perform without music for 60 to 70 seconds and are required to touch each corner of the floor at least once during their routine. Their routines include tumbling passes to demonstrate flexibility, strength, balance, and power. They must also show non-acrobatic skills, including circles, scales, and press handstands. Women perform a 90-second choreographed routine to instrumental music. Their routines consist of tumbling passes, jumps, dance elements, acrobatic skills, and turns. Elite gymnasts may perform up to four tumbling passes. Notable champions On the men's side, the gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on floor are Marian Drăgulescu of Romania, with four (along with Roland Brückner, if the Alternate Olympics are included). Ihor Korobchynskyi, Vitaly Scherbo, and Kenzō Shirai have three titles each. On the women's side, Simone Biles of the United States has the most titles (6), followed by Larisa Latynina of the Soviet Union (4). Gina Gogean, Daniela Silivaș, and Nellie Kim have three titles each. Men only Pommel horse A typical pommel horse exercise involves both single leg and double leg work. Single leg skills are generally found in the form of "scissors". In double leg work, the gymnast swings both legs in a circular motion (clockwise or counterclockwise depending on preference). To make the exercise more challenging, gymnasts will often include variations on typical circling skills by turning ("moores" and "spindles") or by straddling their legs ("flares"). Routines end when the gymnast performs a dismount, either by swinging his body over the horse or landing after a handstand. Notable champions The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on pommel horse are Miroslav Cerar of Yugoslavia, Zoltán Magyar of Hungary, and Max Whitlock of Great Britain, with five titles each. Krisztián Berki, Dmitry Bilozerchev, Pae Gil-su, Xiao Qin, Boris Shakhlin, and Marius Urzică, have won at least three titles apiece. Still rings The still rings are suspended on wire cable from a point off the floor and adjusted in height so the gymnast has room to hang freely and swing. Gymnasts must demonstrate balance, strength, power, and dynamic motion while preventing the rings themselves from swinging. At least one static strength move is required, but some gymnasts include two or three. Notable champions The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on still rings are Jury Chechi of Italy (6) and Chen Yibing of China (5). Nikolai Andrianov, Albert Azaryan, Alexander Dityatin, Alois Hudec, Akinori Nakayama, and Eleftherios Petrounias each have at least three such titles, as does Dmitry Bilozerchev if the Alternate Olympics are included. Parallel bars The parallel bars consist of two bars slightly further than shoulder's width apart and usually high. Gymnasts execute a series of swings, balancing moves, and releases that require strength and coordination. Notable champions The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on parallel bars are Vladimir Artemov of the Soviet Union (5, including the Alternate Olympics) and Li Xiaopeng of China (4). Li Jing, Vitaly Scherbo, and Zou Jingyuan have each won three titles. Horizontal bar The horizontal bar (also known as the high bar) is a thick steel bar raised above the ground. The gymnast performs giants (360-degree revolutions around the bar), release skills, twists, and changes of direction. By using the momentum from giants, enough height can be achieved for spectacular dismounts, such as a triple-back salto. Leather grips are usually used to help maintain a hold on the bar. Notable champions The gymnast who has won the most Olympic and World Championship titles on the horizontal bar is Epke Zonderland of the Netherlands, with four titles. Zou Kai, Leon Štukelj, and Takashi Ono have each won three, as has Dmitry Bilozerchev if the Alternate Olympics are included. Women only Uneven bars The uneven bars (known as asymmetric bars in the UK) were adapted by the Czechoslovakian Sokol from the men's parallel bars some time before World War I, and were shown in international exhibition for the first time at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. They consist of two horizontal bars set at different heights. Gymnasts perform swings, pirouettes, transition moves between the bars, and releases. Higher-level gymnasts usually wear leather grips to ensure a strong hold on the bars while protecting their hands from painful blisters and tears (known as rips). Gymnasts sometimes wet their grips with water from a spray bottle and may apply chalk to prevent the grips from slipping. Chalk may also be applied to the hands and bar if grips are not worn. Notable champions The gymnasts who have won the most Olympic and/or World Championship titles on uneven bars are Svetlana Khorkina of Russia (7) and Maxi Gnauck of East Germany (5, including the Alternate Olympics). Daniela Silivaș of Romania has won three titles, as has Ma Yanhong of China if the Alternate Olympics are included. Balance beam The balance beam existed as early as the 1880s in the form of a "low beam" close to the floor. By the 1920s, the beam was raised much higher due to Swedish influence on the sport. Gymnasts perform routines ranging from 70 to 90 seconds in length, consisting of leaps, acrobatic skills, turns, and dance elements, on a padded spring beam. Apparatus norms set by the FIG specify that the beam must be high, long, and wide. The event requires balance, flexibility, and strength. Notable champions Of all gymnastics apparatuses—men's or women's—balance beam has proven the most difficult on which to win multiple Olympic and World Championship titles. There are only three gymnasts to have won three Olympic or World Championship titles—Simone Biles of the United States, and Nadia Comăneci and Daniela Silivaș of Romania. Competition format In Olympic and World Championship competition, meets are divided into several sessions held on different days: qualifications, team finals, all-around finals, and event finals. During the qualification round (abbreviated TQ), gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four (WAG) or six (MAG) events. The scores from this session are not used to award medals, but rather to determine which teams advance to the team finals and which individual gymnasts advance to the all-around and event finals. For the 2020 Olympics, teams will consist of four gymnasts, with up to two additional gymnasts per country allowed to compete as individuals. The format of team qualifications is 4–4–3, meaning that all four gymnasts compete on each event, but only the top three scores count. Individual gymnasts may qualify to the all-around and event finals, but their scores do not count toward the team's total. In the team finals (abbreviated TF), gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four or six events. The scores from the session determine the medalists in the team competition. The current format is 4–3–3, meaning that of the four gymnasts on the team, three compete on each event, and all three scores count. In the all-around finals (abbreviated AA), gymnasts compete individually on all four or six events, and their totals determine the all-around medals. Only two gymnasts per country may advance to the all-around finals from the qualification round. In the event finals (abbreviated EF) or apparatus finals, the top eight gymnasts on each event (as determined by scores in the qualification round) compete for medals. Only two gymnasts per country may advance to each event final. Competitions other than the Olympics and World Championships may use other formats. For instance, the 2007 Pan American Games had only one day of team competition with a 6–5–4 format, and three athletes per country were allowed to advance to the all-around. In other meets, such as those on the World Cup circuit, the team event is not contested at all. New life Since 1989, competitions have used the "new life" rule, under which scores from one session do not carry over to the next. In other words, a gymnast's performance in team finals does not affect his or her scores in the all-around finals or event finals, and marks from the team qualifying round do not count toward the team finals. Before this rule was introduced, the scores from the team competition carried over into the all-around and event finals. Final results and medal placement were determined by combining the following scores: Qualifiers for all-around and event finals Team compulsories + team optionals Team competition Team compulsories + team optionals All-around competition Team results (compulsories and optionals) averaged + all-around Event finals Team results (compulsories and optionals) averaged + event final Compulsories Until 1997, the team competition consisted of two sessions, with every gymnast performing standardized compulsory routines in the preliminaries and individualized optional routines on the second day. Team medals were determined based on the combined scores of both days, as were the qualifiers to the all-around and event finals. However, the all-around and event finals did not include compulsory routines. In meets where team titles were not contested, such as the American Cup, there were two days of all-around competition: one for compulsories and another for optionals. While optional routines were developed by each gymnast and her coach in accordance with the Code of Points and the gymnast's personal strengths, compulsory routines were developed and choreographed by the FIG Technical Committee. The dance and tumbling skills were generally less difficult than those in optional routines, but perfect technique, form, and execution were heavily emphasized. Scoring was exacting, with judges taking deductions for even slight deviations from the required choreography. For this reason, many gymnasts and coaches considered compulsories more challenging than optionals. Compulsories were eliminated at the end of 1996. The move was highly controversial, with many successful gymnastics federations—including the United States, Russia, and China—arguing that the compulsory exercises helped maintain a high standard of form, technique, and execution among gymnasts. Opponents of compulsories believed that they harmed emerging gymnastics programs. Some members of the gymnastics community still argue that compulsories should be reinstated, and many gymnastics federations have maintained compulsories in their national programs. Oftentimes, gymnasts competing at the lower levels of the sport—for instance, Levels 4–6 in USA Gymnastics, Grade 2 in South Africa, and Levels 3–6 in Australia—only perform compulsory routines. Competition levels Artistic gymnasts compete only with other gymnasts at their level. Each athlete starts at the lowest level and advances to higher levels by learning more difficult skills and achieving qualifying scores at competitions. United States In the United States, whose program is governed by USA Gymnastics, levels range from 1 to 10, followed by elite. Levels 1 to 2 are usually considered recreational, or beginner; 3 to 6 intermediate; and 7 to elite advanced. Competitions begin at Level 3 or, in some gyms, Level 2. A gymnast must be able to perform specific skills on each event to advance to the next level, and once a gymnast has competed in a sectional meet at a given level, they may not drop back to a lower level in the same competitive season. Gymnasts in Levels 1–2 perform basic skills such as handstands and cartwheels. Levels 3–5 consist of compulsory routines; 6 is an in-between level with strict requirements but some leeway for gymnasts to show their own creativity; and Levels 7–10 consist of optional routines. Only elite gymnasts compete in accordance with the FIG's Code of Points; lower levels have a modified code. The elite program is divided into two categories: junior for gymnasts younger than 16, and senior for gymnasts 16 and older. (Gymnasts are allowed to compete at the senior level at the beginning of the calendar year in which they will turn 16.) Olympic teams are chosen from the senior elite program. United Kingdom The British Gymnastics level system goes from 5 (lowest) to 2, and there are separate tracks for elite- and club-level competition. Canada There are several competitive streams in Canadian gymnastics: recreational, developmental, pre-competitive, provincial, national, and high-performance. Provincial levels range from 5 (lowest) to 1; national levels are pre-novice, novice, open, and high performance; and high-performance levels are novice, junior, and senior. Germany In Germany, there are different competitive systems for recreational and high-performance gymnasts. Recreational gymnasts have a system of compulsory exercises from 1 to 9 and optional exercises from 4 to 1, with modified Code of Points requirements. For high-performance and junior athletes, there are compulsory and optional requirements defined by age, from ages 6 to 18. Age requirements The FIG imposes a minimum age requirement on gymnasts competing in certain international meets, but it does not impose a maximum age limit. The term senior refers to world-class or elite gymnasts who are age-eligible under FIG rules: Female gymnasts must be at least 16 or turning 16 within the calendar year, and the minimum age for men is 18. The term junior refers to any gymnast who competes at a world-class or elite level but is too young to be classified as a senior. Juniors are judged under the same Code of Points as seniors and often exhibit the same level of difficulty in their routines, but they are not allowed to compete at the Olympics, World Championships, or World Cups. Many meets, such as the European Championships, have separate divisions for juniors. But some competitions, such as the Goodwill Games, the Pan American Games, the Pacific Rim Championships, and the All-Africa Games, permit seniors and juniors to compete together. The age requirement is contentious and is frequently debated by coaches, gymnasts, and other members of the gymnastics community. Those in favor of the age limits argue that they promote the participation of older athletes and spare younger gymnasts from the stress of competition and high-level training. Opponents point out that junior gymnasts are scored under the same Code of Points as the seniors (with some restrictions) and train mostly the same skills. They also argue that younger gymnasts need the experience of competing in major events to improve as athletes. Since stricter age requirements were adopted in the early 1980s, there have been several well-documented, and many more suspected, cases of juniors with falsified documents competing as seniors. The FIG has only taken disciplinary action in three cases: those of Kim Gwang-Suk of North Korea, who competed at the 1989 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships when she may have been as young as 11; Hong Su-jong of North Korea, who competed under three different birth dates in the 2000s; and China's Dong Fangxiao, who competed at the 2000 Olympics when she was 14. While the minimum age requirement applies to both women and men, it is more contentious in the women's program because, while most top male gymnasts are in their late teens or early twenties, female gymnasts are typically ready to compete at the international level by their mid-teens. The difference is largely due to the fact that men's skills tend to emphasize strength more than women's skills. Scoring Scoring at the international level is regulated by the Code of Points. Under the current system—established in 2006—two panels judge each routine, evaluating different aspects of the performance. The D score covers skill requirements, difficulty value, and connection value (for skills performed back to back with no pause in between); the E score covers execution and artistry; and the two are added together to produce final scores. The maximum E score is 10, but there is no cap on the D score. Theoretically, this means scores could be infinite. However, average marks for routines in major competitions have generally been in the low to mid teens. This system, with its open-ended difficulty score, is very different from the one used for most of the sport's history. Before 2006, the highest possible score was a "perfect 10". Every routine was assigned a start value (SV) based on difficulty. A routine that included all required elements received a base SV—9.4 in 1996, 9.0 in 1997, 8.8 in 2001—and gymnasts could increase their SV to a maximum of 10 by performing harder skills and combinations. Then, to score a gymnast's routine, judges deducted from the SV for errors in execution. Some gymnasts and coaches—including Olympic gold medalists Lilia Podkopayeva, Svetlana Boginskaya, Shannon Miller, and Vitaly Scherbo, and Romanian team coach Nicolae Forminte—publicly opposed the new Code of Points when it was first announced. In addition, a 2006 report from the FIG Athletes' Commission cited major concerns about scoring, judging, and other subjects. Aspects of the code were revised in 2007, but there are no plans to return to the "perfect 10" format. Major competitions Global Olympic Games: Artistic gymnastics is one of the most popular events at the Summer Olympics, held every four years. Countries qualify teams based on their performance at the World Championships the year before the Games. Nations that do not qualify to send a full team may qualify to send one or two individual gymnasts. World Championships: The gymnastics-only World Championships is open to teams from every FIG member nation. The competition has different formats depending on the year: full team finals, all-around, and event finals; all-around and event finals only; or event finals only. Since 2019, the Junior World Championships have been held every two years. The Artistic Gymnastics World Cup and World Challenge Cup Series Goodwill Games: Artistic gymnastics was an event at this now-defunct competition. Regional Multi-sport All-Africa Games: Held every four years, and open to teams and gymnasts from African nations. Central American and Caribbean Games: Held every four years and open to teams and gymnasts from Central America, the Caribbean, Mexico, and the South American countries of Colombia, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela. Commonwealth Games: Held every four years, and open to teams and gymnasts from Commonwealth nations. European Games: Held every four years, and open to teams and gymnastics from European nations. Mediterranean Games: Held every four years, and open to gymnasts from nations around or very close to the Mediterranean Sea, where Europe, Africa, and Asia meet. Pan American Games: Held every four years, and open to teams and gymnasts from North, South, and Central America. South American Games: Held every four years, and open to teams and gymnasts from South American nations. Gymnastics only Asian Gymnastics Championships: Open to teams and gymnasts from Asian nations. European Championships: Held every year, and open to teams and gymnasts from European nations. Pacific Rim Championships (known as the Pacific Alliance Championships until 2008): Held every two years, and open to teams from members of the Pacific Alliance of National Gymnastics Federations, including the US, China, Australia, Canada, Mexico, New Zealand, and other nations on the Pacific coast. Pan American Gymnastics Championships: Held most years when the Pan American Games are not held, and open to teams and gymnasts from North, South, and Central America South American Gymnastics Championships: Held most years, and open to teams and gymnasts from South American countries. National Most countries hold a major competition (National Championships, or "Nationals") every year that determines the best-performing all-around gymnasts and event specialists. Gymnasts may qualify to their country's national team or be selected for international meets based on their scores at Nationals. Dominant teams and nations USSR and post-Soviet republics Before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Soviet gymnasts dominated both men's and women's gymnastics, starting with the introduction of the full women's program into the Olympics and the overall increased standardization of the Olympic gymnastics competition format, which happened in 1952. The Soviet Union's success might be explained by the government's heavy investment in sports to support its political agenda on an international stage. The Soviet Union had many male stars, such as Olympic all-around champions Viktor Chukarin and Vitaly Scherbo, and female stars, such as Olympic all-around champions Larisa Latynina and Svetlana Boginskaya. From 1952 to 1992 inclusive, the Soviet women's squad won almost every team title in World Championship and Olympic competition, with only four exceptions: the 1984 Olympics, which the country boycotted, and the 1966, 1979, and 1987 World Championships. Most of the top Soviet gymnasts were from the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, and the Byelorussian SSR. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, its gymnasts performed together for the last time at the 1992 Summer Olympics as the Unified Team, winning both the men's and women's team competitions. Russia has continued the Soviet tradition, medaling at every World and Olympic competition in both MAG and WAG disciplines, except at the 2008 Olympics. Ukraine maintained a strong team for more than a decade—Ukrainian Lilia Podkopayeva was the all-around champion at the 1996 Olympics—but it has declined in recent years. Belarus has maintained a strong men's team. Other former republics have been less successful. In terms of medal results and overall domination, the Soviet legacy remains the strongest in artistic gymnastics. Romania The Romanian team first achieved wide-scale success at the 1976 Summer Olympics with the performance of Nadia Comăneci, who was the first gymnast to score a perfect 10 in Olympic competition. After that, using the centralized training system pioneered by Béla Károlyi, they remained a dominant force in women's team and individual events for nearly four decades. Romania was one of only two teams ever to defeat the Soviets in head-to-head World or Olympic competition, winning at the 1979 and 1987 World Championships. (The other was the Czechoslovakian women's team at the 1966 World Championships.) The Romanian women also won team medals at every Olympics from 1976 to 2012 inclusive, including gold medals in 1984, 2000, and 2004. At the 16 World Championships from 1978 to 2007 inclusive, they failed to medal only twice (in 1981 and 2006) and won the team title seven times, including five victories in a row (1994–2001). From 1976 to 2000, they placed gymnasts—such as Daniela Silivaș, Lavinia Miloșovici, and Simona Amânar—on the all-around podium at every Olympics, and usually did the same at the World Championships through 2015, including producing World all-around champions Aurelia Dobre (1987) and Maria Olaru (1999). The decline of Romanian gymnastics began after the 2004 Summer Olympics. At the 2006 World Championships, they failed to medal in the team competition, and only Sandra Izbașa won any individual medals. They won bronze medals at the 2007 World Championships, 2008 Summer Olympics, and 2012 Summer Olympics but failed to medal at the 2010, 2011, or 2014 World Championships. Things took a drastic turn at the 2015 World Championships, where Romania did not even qualify for the team final. In 2016, it failed to qualify a full team to the 2016 Summer Olympics, placing seventh at the 2016 Gymnastics Olympic Test Event. It earned one Olympic spot, which was filled by 3-time Olympic champion Cătălina Ponor. At the 2018 World Championships, Romania placed 13th in qualifications and did not make the team final. At the 2019 World Championships, it finished 22nd out of 24 teams—beating only the Czech Republic and Egypt—and again failed to qualify a team to the 2020 Summer Olympics, with only Maria Holbură earning an individual spot. After the Olympics were postponed due to the Covid-19 pandemic, a second Romanian gymnast, Larisa Iordache, earned an individual spot through the 2021 European Championships. The Romanian men's program, while less successful than the women's, has produced individual medalists such as Marian Drăgulescu and Marius Urzică at World and Olympic competitions. United States While isolated American gymnasts, including Kurt Thomas and Cathy Rigby, won medals at World Championship competitions in the 1970s, the United States team was largely considered a "second power" until the late 1980s, when American gymnasts began medaling consistently in major, fully attended competitions. At the 1984 Olympics, which the Soviet bloc boycotted, the American men won the gold with a team composed of Bart Conner, Tim Daggett, Mitch Gaylord, Jim Hartung, Scott Johnson, and Peter Vidmar. The women's team—composed of Pam Bileck, Michelle Dusserre, Kathy Johnson, Julianne McNamara, Mary Lou Retton, and Tracee Talavera—won a silver medal, and Retton became the first American Olympic all-around champion. In 1991, Kim Zmeskal became the first American all-around winner at the World Championships. At the 1992 Olympics, the American women won their first team medal (bronze) at a fully attended Games, as well as their highest all-around ranking, a silver medal for Shannon Miller. In men's gymnastics, Trent Dimas won the horizontal bar final. The U.S. women's team has become increasingly successful in the modern era, with the 1996 Olympic team victory of the Magnificent Seven, the 2003 Worlds team victory, and multiple medals in both WAG and MAG at the 2004 Olympics. At the 2012 Olympics and 2016 Olympics, the U.S. women won the team gold. The United States has produced the last five women's Olympic all-around champions—Carly Patterson (2004), Nastia Liukin (2008), Gabby Douglas (2012), Simone Biles (2016) and Sunisa Lee (2021)—as well as individual gymnasts such as World all-around champions Zmeskal (1991), Shannon Miller (1993, 1994), Chellsie Memmel (2005), Shawn Johnson (2007), Bridget Sloan (2009), Jordyn Wieber (2011), Biles (2013, 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019), and Morgan Hurd (2017). At the 2005 World Championships, American women won the gold and silver in the all-around and in every event final except vault (where Alicia Sacramone placed third). They continue to be one of the most dominant forces in the sport. The men's team made the medal podium at the 2004 and 2008 Olympics, as well as the 2003 and 2011 World Championships. Paul Hamm, the most successful U.S. male gymnast, became the first American man to win a World all-around title in 2003. He followed this up by winning the all-around at the 2004 Olympics. Jonathan Horton won a silver medal on the horizontal bar at the 2008 Olympics and a bronze in the all-around at the 2010 World Championships, and Danell Leyva won the all-around bronze medal at the 2012 Olympics and two silver medals (parallel bars and horizontal bar) at the 2016 Olympics. China China has had successful men's and women's programs over the past 25 years. The Chinese men won team gold at the 2000 and 2008 Olympics, and every World Championship team title from 1994 to 2014 (except 2001, when they placed fifth). They have produced individual gymnasts like Olympic all-around champions Li Xiaoshuang (1996) and Yang Wei (2008). The Chinese women's team won gold at the 2006 World Championships and 2008 Olympics, and has produced individual gymnasts like Mo Huilan, Kui Yuanyuan, Yang Bo, Cheng Fei, Sui Lu, Huang Huidan, Yao Jinnan, and Fan Yilin. Chinese women who have won individual Olympic gold medals are Ma Yanhong, Lu Li, Liu Xuan, He Kexin, and Deng Linlin. Though for many years considered a two-event team (uneven bars and balance beam), China has developed successful all-arounders like Olympic bronze medalists Liu Xuan (2000), Zhang Nan (2004), and Yang Yilin (2008). Like the Soviet Union, they have been accused of grueling and sometimes cruel training methods, as well as age falsification. Japan The Japanese men's team was dominant during the 1960s and 1970s, winning every Olympic team title from 1960 through 1976 thanks to individual gymnasts such as Olympic all-around champions Sawao Katō and Yukio Endō. Several innovations pioneered by Japanese gymnasts during this era have remained in the sport, including the Tsukahara vault. More recently, Japanese men have re-emerged as top contenders since winning a team gold at the 2004 Olympics. Six-time World champion and two-time Olympic all-around gold medalist Kōhei Uchimura is widely considered to be the best all-around gymnast ever, and Hiroyuki Tomita won 10 World and Olympic medals from 2003 to 2008. The women have been less successful, but there have been individual standouts such as Olympic and World medalist Keiko Tanaka-Ikeda, who competed in the 1950s and 1960s, and more recently Koko Tsurumi, Rie Tanaka, Natsumi Sasada, Yuko Shintake, Asuka Teramoto, Sae Miyakawa, Hitomi Hatakeda, Aiko Sugihara, and Mai Murakami. Tsurumi won a bronze medal in the all-around and silver on bars at the 2009 World Championships, and Murakami won gold on floor in 2017, the first Japanese woman to win a World gold medal since Tanaka-Ikeda. Germany The German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, had a very successful gymnastics program before the reunification of Germany. Its MAG and WAG teams frequently won silver or bronze medals at the World Championships and Olympics, led by male gymnasts such as Andreas Wecker and Roland Brückner, and female gymnasts such as Maxi Gnauck, Karin Janz, and Erika Zuchold. The Federal Republic of Germany, or West Germany, had international stars like Eberhard Gienger, Willi Jaschek, and Helmut Bantz. Since its reunification, Germany has produced a number of medal-winning gymnasts, including Fabian Hambüchen, Philipp Boy, and Marcel Nguyen among the men and Pauline Schäfer, Elizabeth Seitz, Sophie Scheder, and Tabea Alt among the women. The former Soviet/Uzbek gymnast Oksana Chusovitina also competed for Germany from 2006 to 2012, winning two World medals and an Olympic silver on vault. Czechoslovakia The Czechoslovakian women's team was the main threat to the dominance of the Soviet women's team for decades. They won team medals at every World Championships and Olympics from 1934 to 1970, with the exceptions of the 1950 Worlds and 1956 Olympics. Among their leaders were Vlasta Děkanová, the first women's World all-around champion, and Věra Čáslavská, who won all five European, World and Olympic all-around titles during the 1964–68 Olympic cycle—a feat never matched by any other gymnast, male or female. Čáslavská also led Czechoslovakia to the world team title in 1966, making the country one of only two (Romania being the other) ever to defeat the Soviet women's team at a major competition. The Czechoslovakian men's success at the World Championships was the greatest of any country prior to World War II: They were first in the medal table more than any other nation and won the most team titles during the pre-WWII period. Together, Czechoslovakia and its precursor, the Austro-Hungarian constituent Bohemia, produced four men's World all-around champions: Josef Čada in 1907, Ferdinand Steiner in 1911, František Pecháček in 1922, and Jan Gajdoš in 1938. Their most decorated athlete was Ladislav Vácha, who won 10 individual World and Olympic medals. Hungary Led by individuals such as 10-time Olympic medalist (with five golds) Ágnes Keleti, the Hungarian women's team medaled at the first four Olympics that included women's artistic gymnastics competitions (1936–1956), as well as at the 1954 World Championships. After a long decline, World and Olympic vault champion Henrietta Ónodi put them back on the map in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The Hungarian men never had the same level of success as the women, although Zoltán Magyar dominated the pommel horse in the 1970s, winning eight of a possible nine European, World and Olympic titles from 1973 to 1980. Szilveszter Csollány, a World and Olympic champion on rings, also won medals at major competitions for a decade starting in the early 1990s. In more recent years, Krisztián Berki has won World and Olympic titles on the pommel horse. Other nations Several other nations have been strong competitors in both WAG and MAG. Part of the rise of various countries' programs in recent years is attributable to the large exodus of coaching talent from the USSR and other former Eastern Bloc countries. In the past two decades, Australia, Brazil, Britain, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, and South Korea have produced World and Olympic medalists and have started winning team medals at continental, World and Olympic competitions. Individual gymnasts from Croatia, Greece, North Korea, Slovenia, and Spain have also been successful in major competitions. Health Consequences Physical Health Gymnastics sits on many lists of the world's most dangerous sports. Artistic gymnastics carries an inherently high risk of spinal and other injuries, and in extremely rare cases, gymnasts have sustained fatal injuries. Julissa Gomez, an American gymnast, died in 1991 after breaking her neck while vaulting three years earlier. Several other gymnasts have been paralyzed from accidents in training or competition, including Elena Mukhina of the Soviet Union and Sang Lan of China. Mental Health The pressure of the sport can make it even more dangerous to athletes. During the Tokyo 2020 Olympics, gymnast Simone Biles took a step back from competition to assess her mental health and ensure she was not putting herself at a greater risk of physical injury. Other athletes have expressed their support and called for a greater emphasis on mental health in gymnastics. Controversies and Abuse Eating disorders are also common, especially in women's gymnastics, in which gymnasts are motivated and sometimes pushed by coaches to maintain a below-normal body weight. The problem gained public attention in the 1990s after the death of Christy Henrich, a U.S. national team member who suffered from anorexia and bulimia. Abusive coaching and training practices in gymnastics gained widespread attention after the publication of Joan Ryan's book Little Girls in Pretty Boxes in 1995. USA Gymnastics began investigating several coaches in their program for abuses of all kind. In the late 2010s, many individual gymnasts—including former elite competitors from Australia, Britain, and the United States—began to speak out about the abuse they had experienced. This followed several years of allegations of sexual abuse by gymnastics coaches and other authority figures, including the former U.S. team doctor Larry Nassar. In April 2020, Maggie Haney, former coach of Olympian Laurie Hernandez, was suspended for eight years following her allegations of verbal and emotional abuse toward her gymnasts. During the 1996 Olympics, Kerri Strug had injured her foot after her first vault. However, her vault was what was standing in between Team USA and a gold medal. Strug performed her second vault, landing on one foot and was carried off by her coach crying in pain. Strug's teammate, Dominique Moceanu also opened up about the abuse she experienced. She said that she competed in the Olympics with a tibial stress fracture. Additionally, she fell on her head during her beam routine, and talked about how none of these injuries were treated properly. After being the coordinators for Team USA for nearly three decades in 2016, Bela and Marta Karolyi retired. After allegations that gymnasts were experiencing sexual abuse while training at the Karolyi ranch, it was officially closed in 2018. Upon investigations of those working closely with Larry Nassar, John Geddert, head coach of the 2012 Women's Olympic Team, was suspended by USA Gymnastics for sexual assault, physical abuse, and human trafficking, and committed suicide shortly after being charged in February 2021. The Federal Bureau of Investigations had heard allegations from gymnasts regarding their sexual abuse as early as 2015, but did not address them until years later when Nassar was sentenced to prison in 2017. At the time of Nassar's court hearing, more than 160 women had spoken up about the abuse they endured. In a Senate hearing from September 2021, the victims and their representatives claimed that Nassar had abused 120 more women from the time the FBI knew about his allegations until the time they took action against him. See also List of current female artistic gymnasts List of notable artistic gymnasts International Gymnastics Hall of Fame List of Olympic medalists in gymnastics (men) List of Olympic medalists in gymnastics (women) Artistic gymnastics terms named after people References External links Gymnastics Summer Olympic disciplines	[ 0.27578896284103394, -0.0059639764949679375, -0.11828713119029999, -0.012477755546569824, -0.2095900923013687, 0.2859897017478943, 1.053184986114502, 0.20304009318351746, -1.1167000532150269, -0.10895208269357681, 0.13983780145645142, 0.06761347502470016, -0.09834080934524536, -0.2230626344680786, -0.6229950189590454, 0.438259482383728, 0.6396543383598328, 0.2590322196483612, 0.8437885642051697, 0.18032322824001312, -0.234350323677063, 0.15980693697929382, 0.3428175151348114, -0.04080995172262192, -0.23715156316757202, -0.36783310770988464, -0.14596301317214966, 0.5529063940048218, 0.07588053494691849, -0.34967562556266785, -0.1731848269701004, 0.6402781009674072, 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231483	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASPS	ASPS	ASPS may refer to: Advanced sleep phase syndrome, a sleep disorder in which patients feel very sleepy early in the evening American Society of Plastic Surgeons, the largest plastic surgery specialty organization in the world Alveolar soft part sarcoma, a rare type of soft tissue sarcoma tumor Association of Scottish Police Superintendents Albino Squirrel Preservation Society, an organization dedicated to the preservation of albino squirrels See also Asp (disambiguation), for the singular of Asps ASP (disambiguation), for the singular of ASPs	[ 0.06580803543329239, -0.1525462567806244, -0.055166807025671005, -0.17770761251449585, 0.338070273399353, 0.01386239193379879, 0.49130672216415405, 0.42747581005096436, -0.8786284923553467, -0.33532169461250305, -0.6321758031845093, 0.23429247736930847, -0.28513360023498535, -0.4126918315887451, -0.2875235974788666, 0.10087252408266068, 0.5055811405181885, 0.6480016708374023, -0.331298291683197, 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231484	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chigley	Chigley	Chigley (1969) is the third and final stop-motion children's television series in Gordon Murray's Trumptonshire trilogy. Production details are identical to Camberwick Green. As in Camberwick Green and Trumpton, the action centres on a small community, the village of Chigley, near Camberwick Green in Trumptonshire. Chigley is more of an industrial area than Camberwick Green. A digitally restored version of the series from the rediscovered original film masters emerged in 2012. Overview Winkstead Hall, a stately home, is central to life in Chigley. The aristocratic owner, Lord Belborough, and his butler Brackett, also operate a heritage railway. They are called on to transport or collect goods in every episode, much to Lord Belborough's delight, as he loves driving the engine, Bessie. Another character frequently delighted by these excursions is Winnie Farthing, whom Lord Belborough and Brackett nearly always invite to join them for a train ride. The notable song unique to Chigley, "Time flies by when I'm the driver of a train", was always sung during these sequences. Winkstead Hall and its grounds are regularly opened to the public, who have access to the picture gallery and tea gardens (both regularly seen). Other parts of the Hall and its estate which also feature in the programmes include the library, the hall, the kitchen garden (and greenhouses), the engine shed (home of Bessie), and the pump room (home of Binnie, Lord Belborough's stationary steam beam engine). Chigley features many guest appearances by characters from the previous two series. This was at least partly for economic reasons, as it allowed the re-use of theme songs and puppets, thus saving money on recording and manufacture. Lord Belborough invites everyone to the grounds of Winkstead Hall after the daily 6 o'clock whistle (which marks the end of the day's work at the local biscuit factory), when he plays his vintage Dutch organ, while the workers dance. This scene forms the conclusion of each episode. Episodes "Lord Belborough's Secret" (6 October 1969) Dr Mopp "Bessie to the Rescue" (13 October 1969) Farmer Bell "The Balloon" (20 October 1969) The Mayor "The Fountain" (27 October 1969) PC McGarry "The Garden Wall" (3 November 1969) Mr Crockett "Binnie and Bessie" (10 November 1969) Roger Varley "Lord Belborough's Lucky Day" (17 November 1969) Thomas Tripp "The Broken Bridge" (24 November 1969) Mr Carraway "Clay for Mr Farthing" (1 December 1969) Mr Wantage and Fred "Trouble with the Crane" (8 December 1969) Mr Rumpling "Apples Galore" (15 December 1969) Mickey Murphy "Willie Munn" (22 December 1969) Mr Clamp "A Present for Lord Belborough" (29 December 1969) Mr Antonio Episode titles were given in Radio Times but were not shown on-screen. Characters Winkstead Hall The Winkstead Hall estate is a large stately home whose activities, including a heritage railway, dominate life in Chigley village. Lord Belborough – the owner of the hall, a peer of the realm, and driver of the steam locomotive Bessie; he appears in every episode. Mr Brackett – Lord Belborough's butler, and fireman on the steam railway; he appears in every episode. Mr Bilton – Lord Belborough's gardener, who suffers with rheumatism; he appears in 3 episodes. Mr Roger Varley – the Camberwick Green chimney sweep is also employed part-time at Winkstead Hall as maintenance engineer for the steam engines Bessie and Binnie; he appears in 2 episodes. The Villagers Only a relatively small number of Chigley villagers are introduced in the series, as many storylines involve existing Trumpton or Camberwick Green characters visiting Chigley. Mr Swallow – the wharfinger at Treadle's Wharf, at the intersection of Trumpton Canal with both road and rail networks; he appears in 10 episodes. Mr Harry Farthing – the potter at Chigley Pottery, who is also a sculptor; he appears in 8 episodes. Winnie Farthing – the potter's daughter; a frequent train passenger, she appears in 10 episodes. Mr S Rumpling – the bargee, whose canal boat (based at Chigley and registered at Trumpton) is a major source of supply to the village; he appears in 6 episodes. Mr Clutterbuck – the local builder; he appears in 2 episodes. Horace – a labourer employed by Mr Clutterbuck; he appears in 1 episode. Cyril – a labourer employed by Mr Clutterbuck; he appears in 1 episode. Corporation dustmen – the two corporation dustmen, one of whom is named as Harry, appear in 1 episode. Dancing women – two unnamed Chigley women dance with the factory workers at the six o'clock whistle; they appear in all 13 episodes. The biscuit factory The factory is the village's chief source of employment. Cresswell's Chigley Biscuits is the company which owns and operates the facility, and operates a fleet of delivery lorries transporting the finished biscuits from the factory to the railway station at Wintlebury. Mr Cresswell – the owner and general manager of the factory; he appears in 4 episodes, and is referenced in a fifth. Mr Fletcher – the loading bay supervisor; he appears in the closing dance scene of every episode, and in the storyline of 3 episodes. Mr McGregor – one of the delivery drivers; he is chiefly known for being unavailable for work in episode 12. Mr Patterson – one of the delivery drivers; he is commended for his skill in not knocking down Jimmy Rankin in episode 4. Willie Munn – works on the biscuit cutting machine; he is the nephew of Mr Clamp, the Trumpton greengrocer, and he has a starring role in episode 12. The workers – a large number of unnamed factory workers are seen throughout the series, in and around the factory, and at the evening dance after the six o'clock whistle; they appear in every episode; the number of workers is unknown, but at least 16, as that number are seen on screen together at the six o'clock whistle. Visitors Chigley was frequently visited by tradesmen and other characters from neighbouring communities, allowing the re-use of Trumpton and Camberwick Green figures. Unseen characters Mrs Tripp – the milkman's wife Mrs McGarry – the policeman's wife Millicent Mopp – the doctor's sister Mr Wilkins – the Trumpton plumber Jimmy Rankin – a boy who narrowly avoided being knocked down by a Cresswell's delivery van Home releases In 1984, 15 years after its broadcast on the BBC in 1969. Longman Video released one video with the first four episodes as part of its 'Children's Treasury' collection. 5 years later, in 1989, the BBC released a video with the three more episodes (ep.13 A Present for Lord Belborough, ep.11 Apples Garlore and ep.10 Trouble with the Crane). And in 1996–1997, Telstar Home Entertainment released two videos as part of its 'Star Kids' range. In 2011, Chigley and the two earlier series Camberwick Green and Trumpton were digitally-restored from the rediscovered original film masters. Credits Script & Puppets: Gordon Murray Music: Freddie Phillips Narrator: Brian Cant Sets: Andrew & Margaret Brownfoot Animation: Bob Bura & John Hardwick Assistant Animators: Pasquale Ferrare, George Dubouch Recording & Sound Effects: Music Features MF A Gordon Murray Production MCMLXIX. Cultural references The indie group Half Man Half Biscuit parodied the Chigley Train Song in their song "Time Flies By (When You're the Driver of a Train)". They also released a single entitled "The Trumpton riots" containing many character references. In the comic book Preacher, the train song was sung by Jesus de Sade, a sexually depraved character, whilst riding a bicycle, naked. The Oasis song "Champagne Supernova" contains the line "Slowly walking down the hall, faster than a cannonball". This was, according to lead guitarist and songwriter Noel Gallagher, inspired by Brackett the butler from Chigley. In the first episode of the 2003 BBC sitcom Early Doors, bar patrons Joe and Duffy et al. tease bartender Ken about his hobby train set by serenading him with the first line of the Chigley Train Song. References and notes External links The Trumptonshire Web The Trumptonshire Trilogy BBC Radio 4 Sunday Best – Here is a Box, a Musical Box BBC children's television shows British children's animated adventure television series Fictional populated places in England British stop-motion animated television series 1960s British animated television series 1960s British children's television series 1969 British television series debuts 1969 British television series endings English-language television shows	[ -0.15980970859527588, 0.17206990718841553, 0.5000634789466858, -0.351062148809433, 0.040430787950754166, 0.26722410321235657, 0.39268505573272705, -0.28906530141830444, -0.3072923421859741, 0.2602485418319702, -0.3710184097290039, 0.018225857987999916, -0.05133329704403877, 0.46455368399620056, -0.0497148372232914, 0.2800789177417755, 0.40319427847862244, 0.11205513775348663, -0.5762038230895996, -1.0110810995101929, 0.07256854325532913, -0.5531596541404724, 0.2607291340827942, 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231486	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweet%20Home%20Alabama%20%28film%29	Sweet Home Alabama (film)	Sweet Home Alabama is a 2002 American romantic comedy film directed by Andy Tennant and starring Reese Witherspoon, Josh Lucas, Patrick Dempsey, Fred Ward, Mary Kay Place, Jean Smart, and Candice Bergen. It was released in the United States on September 27, 2002, by Buena Vista Pictures. The film takes its title from the 1974 Lynyrd Skynyrd song of the same name. Plot On a beach in the fictional town of Pigeon Creek, Alabama, 10-year-olds Jake Perry and Melanie Smooter inspect the result of lightning striking sand. Jake asserts that they will be married one day. In the present day, Melanie is a successful New York fashion designer who has adopted the surname "Carmichael" to hide her poor Southern roots. After wealthy Andrew Hennings proposes, Melanie returns to Alabama to announce her engagement to her parents and finalize a divorce from her husband Jake, whom she left after a miscarriage caused them to become estranged. Meanwhile, Kate Hennings, Andrew's mother and the Mayor of New York City, doubts Melanie's suitability to wed her son, whom she is grooming to run for President of the United States. Melanie visits Jake, who has avoided signing the divorce papers. After Jake orders Melanie out of his house, Melanie empties Jake's checking account, hoping to spur him into ending the marriage. Jake finally relents and agrees to the divorce and promises to return the signed papers the next morning. Later, at a local bar, Melanie gets drunk, insults her old school friends, and outs her old childhood friend, Bobby Ray Bailey. The next morning, Melanie finds the signed document on her bed. Melanie goes to the Carmichael plantation and apologizes to Bobby Ray. She is cornered there by Kate's assistant, sent there to gather information on Melanie's background. Bobby Ray backs up her pretense that she is a relative and the family mansion is her childhood home. Melanie reconciles with her friends and learns that after she split with Jake, he had followed her to New York to win her back. Intimidated by the city and her success, he returned home to make something of himself first. She and Jake have a heart-to-heart talk, and Melanie understands why he never signed their divorce papers. Andrew arrives to surprise Melanie, but upon learning her true background and that Jake was her husband, he angrily leaves. He later returns, saying he still wants to marry Melanie, and the wedding is immediately set in motion. Melanie's New York friends arrive for the event. While visiting a nearby restaurant/resort with a glassblowing gallery, they admire the glass sculptures that are similar to ones they have seen in New York. Melanie realizes Jake is the artist and he owns the resort. During Melanie and Andrew's wedding at the Carmichael estate, a lawyer arrives and halts the ceremony. He has the divorce papers, which Melanie never signed. Melanie confesses that she still loves Jake and cancels the wedding. She and Andrew wish each other well, though Kate berates Andrew and insults Melanie, her family, and the entire town, for which Melanie punches her in the face. Melanie finds Jake at the beach planting lightning rods in the sand during a rainstorm to create more glass sculptures. She says they are still married. They return to what would have been Melanie and Andrew's reception, and finally, have their first dance as husband and wife. A mid-credits sequence shows that they have a baby daughter, Melanie continues to thrive as a designer, and Jake opens a "Deep South Glass" franchise in New York. Andrew is engaged to a girl named Erin Vanderbilt. Cast Production Casting Charlize Theron was considered for the lead role before Reese Witherspoon was cast. Katherine Towne was cast as Witherspoon's character's assistant who ultimately ends up marrying the Patrick Dempsey character, but all other scenes were dropped in the final cut. Filming Although centered in a fictional version of the town of Pigeon Creek, near a fictional version of Greenville, Alabama, the film was mostly shot in Georgia. The Carmichael Plantation, which Melanie tells the reporter is her childhood home, is the Oak Hill Berry Museum, a historic landmark in Georgia which is on the campus of Berry College in Rome, Georgia. Sweet Home Alabama was the first film allowed to shoot in New York City after the September 11, 2001 attacks. It was also the first film allowed to film at Tiffany's since Breakfast at Tiffany's (1961). The streets and storefronts of Crawfordville, Georgia, were used as the backdrop for the Catfish Festival and other downtown scenes. The coonhound cemetery was on Moore Street in Crawfordville and the bar was located at Heavy's Barbecue near the town. Glass that forms when lightning hits sand, as in the film, is called fulgurite. Jake's glassblowing shop was filmed at an old mill named Starr's Mill, in Fayette County, Georgia. Wynn's Pond in Sharpsburg, Georgia, is the location where Jake lands his plane. The historic homes shown at Melanie's return to Pigeon Creek were shot in Eufaula, Alabama. The film title and theme song lyrics are from the "Sweet Home Alabama" song by Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd, which first appeared on their second album, Second Helping (1974). Release Critical response This film received mostly mixed reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes, 38% of critics gave the film positive reviews based on 159 reviews, with an average rating of 5.19/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "Reese Witherspoon is charming enough, but the road to Alabama is well-traveled." At Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 45 out of 100 based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert, critic for the Chicago Sun Times, awarded it three-out-of-four stars, commenting, "It is a fantasy, a sweet, light-hearted fairy tale with Reese Witherspoon at its center. She is as lovable as Doris Day would have been in this role... So I enjoyed Witherspoon and the local color, but I am so very tired of the underlying premise." Andrew Sarris, critic for the New York Observer, said that the movie "Would be an unendurable viewing experience for this ultra-provincial New Yorker if 26-year-old Reese Witherspoon were not on hand to inject her pure fantasy character, Melanie Carmichael, with a massive infusion of old-fashioned Hollywood magic." Box office performance The film grossed over US$35 million in its first weekend. By the end of its run in the United States, Sweet Home Alabama grossed over US$130 million, and another US$53,399,006 internationally. With a reported budget of US$30 million, it was a box office hit, despite the mixed reviews. Accolades Soundtrack Sweet Home Alabama (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack), the film soundtrack, includes thirteen songs by different artists. See also The Judge—a 2014 film with a similar plot of a protagonist with a successful big city career drawn back to an old hometown. Middle America References External links 2002 films 2002 romantic comedy-drama films American films American LGBT-related films American romantic comedy-drama films English-language films Films about weddings Films about fashion designers Films directed by Andy Tennant Films produced by Neal H. 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231487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ThunderCats%20%281985%20TV%20series%29	ThunderCats (1985 TV series)	ThunderCats is an American animated television series that was produced by Rankin/Bass Animated Entertainment and Leisure Concepts debuting in 1985, based on the characters created by Ted "Tobin" Wolf. The series, for which Leonard Starr was the head writer, follows the adventures of a group of catlike humanoid aliens. The animation for the episodes was provided by the Japanese studio Pacific Animation Corporation, with Masaki Iizuka as production manager. The studio was acquired in 1989 to form Walt Disney Animation Japan. Season 1 of the show aired in 1985, consisting of 65 episodes, followed by a TV movie entitled ThunderCats – Ho! in 1986. Seasons 2, 3, and 4 each contained twenty episodes, starting with a five-part story. The series was originally distributed by Rankin/Bass' then-parent company Telepictures Corporation, which would later merge with Lorimar Productions in 1986. In 1989, Lorimar-Telepictures was purchased by and folded into Warner Bros., whose television syndication arm would eventually assume distribution of the show; Warner Bros. had the rights to the series (and all Lorimar-Telepictures programming) from that point on. Leisure Concepts which helped co-develop the show acted as a licensing agent for the series. There were also several comic book series produced: Marvel Comics' version (currently owned by Warner Bros. rival Disney), 1985 to 1988; and five series by Wildstorm, an imprint of DC Comics (Warner Bros.' corporate sibling), beginning in 2003. Items of clothing featuring the ThunderCats logo and DVD box sets of the original series have enjoyed a resurgence in recent years as nostalgia for the former children's favorite has grown. A film adaptation of the series was announced in June 2007; Aurelio Jaro was making a CGI-animated feature film of ThunderCats, based on a script written by Paul Sopocy. Jerry O'Flaherty, veteran video game art director, had signed on to direct. The film was planned to be produced by Spring Creek Productions. It was originally set for a summer 2010 release, but the movie has since been put on hold. Concept art for the film has also been leaked online. Plot ThunderCats follows the adventures of the eponymous team of heroes, cat-like humanoid aliens on a planet called Third Earth. The series plot begins with the dying planet Thundera meeting its end, forcing the ThunderCats (a sort of Thunderean nobility) to flee their homeworld. The fleet is attacked by the Thundereans' enemies, the Mutants of Plun-Darr, who destroy most of the starships in the "ThunderFleet", but spare the flagship hoping to capture the legendary mystic Sword of Omens they believe is on board. The sword holds the Eye of Thundera, the source of the ThunderCats' power, which is embedded in the hilt. Though the Mutants damage the flagship, the power of the Eye drives them back. The damage to the ship means the journey to their original destination is not possible, instead having to journey to "Third Earth", which will take much longer than they had anticipated. The eldest of the ThunderCats, Jaga, volunteers to pilot the ship while the others sleep in capsules; however, he dies of old age in the process, but not before ensuring they will reach their destination safely. The flagship contains the young Lord of the ThunderCats, Lion-O, as well as the ThunderCats Cheetara, Panthro, Tygra, WilyKit and WilyKat, and Snarf. When the ThunderCats awaken from their suspended animation on Third Earth after ten "galacto-years", Lion-O discovers that his suspension capsule has slowed, rather than stopped, his aging. He has now become essentially a child in the body of an adult. Together, the ThunderCats and the friendly natives of Third Earth construct the "Cat's Lair", their new home and headquarters, but before long, the Mutants have tracked them down to Third Earth. The intrusion of these two alien races upon the world does not go unnoticed, however, as a demonic, mummified sorcerer calling himself Mumm-Ra recruits the Mutants to aid him in his campaign to acquire the Eye of Thundera and destroy the ThunderCats so that his evil may continue to hold sway over Third Earth. Seasons Season 1 The basic plot above holds strong for the first season of the show, and served as the basis for a vast array of stories that freely mixed elements of science fiction and fantasy into a traditional good-versus-evil tale that steadily introduced more and more recurring allies and villains into the world of the ThunderCats. Futuristic technology is just as central to the series as magic and myth, but even in the midst of all this action, the series never underemphasizes the importance of moral values in solving problems. Each episode would normally include a short dénouement, featuring the characters recuperating after the events of the story and taking the time to single out a personal value or wholesome approach that helped save the day, or could have done so if they had seen it. The first half of Season 1 featured a gentle continuity, with early episodes following on from one another and establishing recurring concepts, although this became less common as the season transitioned into its second half, which comprised mostly incidental one-shot adventures. Tying the second half of season one together was the overarching five-part adventure written by series head writer Leonard Starr, "Lion-O's Annointment", in which an unarmed Lion-O faced off against first each of the other ThunderCats, and then Mumm-Ra, so he could truly earn his title as Lord of the ThunderCats. The five parts were: "Day One: The Trial Of Strength" – Lion-O had to out-do Panthro in a strength contest. "Day Two: The Trial Of Speed" – Lion-O had to beat Cheetara in a race. "Day Three: The Trial Of Cunning" – Lion-O had to outwit both of the "ThunderKittens", WilyKat and WilyKit, in an underground location. "Day Four: The Trial Of Mind-Power" – Lion-O was pitted against Tygra in a mind-based challenge. "Last Day: The Trial Of Evil" – Lion-O had to defeat Mumm-Ra. In his "Trial Of Evil", Lion-O discovered that Mumm-Ra was highly dependent on the sarcophagus inside which he had been mummified. On all four days except the last, the Mutants tried to interfere with Lion-O's trials so that they could force the ThunderCats to remain leaderless. The other ThunderCats were each then forced to involve themselves in the conflict specifically to foil the Mutants's interferences—all while trying to avoid assisting Lion-O in his anointment trials. Although intended to be viewed consecutively (as the adventures depicted occurred one day after the other), the five parts of the mini-series were erroneously aired (and released on DVD) with multiple other episodes between each instalment. ThunderCats – Ho! The 1986 TV movie ThunderCats – Ho! featured the first major shake-up to the status quo of the series, introducing three new Thundereans (whom Lion-O later anointed as ThunderCats) who had also survived the destruction of Thundera. A massive cast of returning heroes and villains were incorporated into the story and concluded with the apparent destruction of Mumm-Ra. Leonard Starr wrote the story for this TV movie. ThunderCats – Ho! was then split into five instalments, becoming the initial episodes of season two. Season 2 When the series returned in 1987, it was revealed that the evil wizard Mumm-Ra had survived. "ThunderCats – Ho!" and its follow-up, "Mumm-Ra Lives!", set the pattern for the following three seasons, each of which began with a five-part mini-series—again written by Leonard Starr—that established the new characters and concepts that would go on to influence the rest of the season. In the case of "Mumm-Ra Lives!", these concepts included the debut of the villainous Lunataks, which became a third faction that existed for the rest of the series, and the new team of ThunderCats from ThunderCats – Ho! receiving their own headquarters and vehicles. Season 3 The 1988 season began with the Peter Lawrence-scripted "ThunderCubs" which, though named for its plot about the ThunderCats being transformed into children, was principally about Mumm-Ra reconstructing Thundera in order to retrieve both the weapon that had originally destroyed it (the Sword of Plun-Darr) and the legendary Treasure of Thundera. In the course of the adventure, the treasure—containing the Book of Omens, a tome holding all the secrets of the ThunderCats, and many other mystical items—was scattered across the New Thundera, ushering in a new concept for the series: a season with an actual story arc. Continuity between episodes became tighter as the ThunderCats, Mutants, Lunataks and Mumm-Ra alternated their adventures between Third Earth and New Thundera, searching for the treasure and exploiting its powers. The season also featured the running theme of the Ancient Spirits of Evil having to take a more active hand in pushing Mumm-Ra into action, culminating in another unique feature of the season—an actual finale episode, "The Last Day", in which the Ancient Spirits of Evil give Mumm-Ra one last chance to destroy the ThunderCats by sunset. Besides demonstrating their threat by making Ma-Mutt disappear, the Ancient Spirits of Evil stated that Mumm-Ra's failure will also have the Mutants and the Lunataks removed from Third Earth as well. Ultimately, Mumm-Ra failed and the Ancient Spirits of Evil exiled him to the farthest corner of the Universe. Season 4 In the opening miniseries, Peter Lawrence's "Return to Thundera!", the ThunderCats returned to New Thundera to rebuild their society, but before departing, they destroyed Mumm-Ra's pyramid. This enraged the Ancient Spirits of Evil to the point that they brought Mumm-Ra back and installed him within a new pyramid on New Thundera. The season proved to be quite divorced from what had gone before, with adventures consigned almost entirely to New Thundera, and most villainous opposition coming from either Mumm-Ra or assorted new villains. The Mutants, Lunataks, and Captain Cracker all returned for one episode each. However, in the series finale, several conclusions are reached: Mumm-Ra stands up to and successfully asserts himself over the Ancient Spirits of Evil. The mystery of the Book of Omens is at last solved. The tumultuous and terrifying environment of Thundera is at last rendered peaceful and pristine. Cast Despite its large cast of characters, ThunderCats featured a rather small circle of voice actors, with only six actors providing voices for the entire first season. Every actor provided multiple voices, although the distinctive baritone of Earle Hyman (Panthro) left the actor providing only very occasional guest voices in comparison with his fellow performers. In particular, as the first season's only female actor, Lynne Lipton (Cheetara and WilyKit) provided voices for every single female character that appeared in the season. Earl Hammond (Mumm-Ra and Jaga) and Bob McFadden (Snarf and Slythe) would most regularly provide the voices of guest characters. 1986's "Thundercats—Ho!" added Gerrianne Raphael to the cast as the voice of Pumyra, while 1987's "Mumm-Ra Lives!" saw the addition of Doug Preis as the voice of Alluro. DVD releases Volumes Warner Home Video/Warner Bros. Family Entertainment released the entire original 1980s series of ThunderCats in the US over a number of volumes in the following order: Complete series Warner Home Video have released the entire ThunderCats series in the UK in the following order: Reception In January 2009, IGN named ThunderCats as the 49th-best show in the Top 100 Best Animated TV Shows. Spinoffs Film On 16 November 1987, a VHS called 'Thundercats Ho!' was released in the UK by Video Collection International. The film was submitted to the BBFC, who recorded it being 90 m 31s excluding 5 seconds cut for a Universal rating. It was actually the first five episodes of season 2 edited to look like a feature-length film. Season 2 never aired in the UK. This VHS may have been shown on American TV by stations without access to the individual episodes. In 2008–2009, Warner Bros. was in the process of creating a CGI animated film based on ThunderCats. It was rumored to be an original story expanding on the events of the first episode and the film's concept artwork (released in July 2009) contained the main character Lion-O and three locations. A two-minute test scene was filmed and presented to Warner Bros.; however, the movie has been put on indefinite hold, perhaps due to the critical and commercial failure of the 2008 movie Speed Racer (another Warner Bros. CGI project). 2011 series A new ThunderCats animated series produced by Warner Bros. Animation began airing on Cartoon Network from July 2011. Animation production was provided by Japanese animation studio Studio 4°C. Sam Register was the executive producer and was joined by Michael Jelenic and Ethan Spaulding as the producers for the series. The show explained Lion-O's ascension to the Thunderean throne with a more original feel and darker style than the 1980s series. The new series made it clear in the very beginning, however, that they are not adhering to the original story line. In the original series the Thunder Cats leave Thundera, as the last of their race, to eventually arrive on the 3rd earth. In the new series the very first line states that the Thundereans are already on the 3rd earth. As the first few episodes progress the new writers seem to use Thundera but it isn't clear if they are referring to a planet or kingdom. Former Lion-O voice actor Larry Kenney returned to play the role Lion-O's father Claudus in the opening two-part episode of the new series. In January 2011, a promotional poster featuring re-imagined designs for Lion-O, Cheetara, Panthro, and Tygra as well as design for the Sword of Omens and vehicles were shown at the London Toy Fair. The series began airing on Cartoon Network on July 29, 2011 with an hour-long premiere, while the UK premiere on Cartoon Network began on 10 September the same year. Despite an early positive response (with the animation in particular receiving heavy praise from critics), the series failed to make any real impact and viewing figures slowly declined after the first episode, with blame falling on a relatively dark and complicated storyline considering the show was aimed at 6-12 year olds. Merchandise struggled to sell, and as a result the show was cancelled after only one season. ThunderCats Roar In other media Comic books There were also several comic book series produced. A ThunderCats comic book series based on the animated series was originally published by Marvel Comics through its Star Comics imprint in 1985, lasting for 3 years and 24 issues. During this time, a new series was published by Marvel UK consisting of 129 issues and was also published for three years. Beginning in 2002 ThunderCats titles were published by Wildstorm Productions, an imprint of DC Comics (Warner Bros.' corporate sibling), and included 5 non-canon mini-series and several one-shots. Video games Two video games based on the franchise exist: ThunderCats: The Lost Eye of Thundera, a 1987 side-scrolling video game; and ThunderCats, a 2012 Nintendo DS game based on the show's revival. Merchandise LJN produced the ThunderCats action figures from 1984 to 1987. The ThunderCats line was based on the animated series which was actually created in 1983. Due to difficulties, it would not air until 1985. Each figure had an action feature of some sort, and the line also included a unique "laser" light-up feature that interacted between the Cats' Lair playset, some figures, and some accessories. Lion-O's eyes and Mumm-Ra's eyes would illuminate when a special battery-powered key ring that came with the figure was pressed into a slot in their backs. PVC companions were packaged with some figures in 1986, including WilyKat with Tygra, WilyKit with Cheetara, Snarf with Lion-O, and Ma-Mutt with Mumm-Ra. The PVC companion figures were also produced as full size articulated figures. LJN did produce a few variant figures including the young Tygra version and the silver rat-eye daggers for Rataro. There are also a few slight color variations of Lion-O, such as red and orange-haired versions. The third series of figures from 1987 are harder to find along with the Tongue-A-Saurus and Astral Moat Monster. Driller and Stinger are the toughest figures to track down; Stinger's wings are very fragile, making it next to impossible to find a loose, complete figure. An unproduced final series of figures would have included The Mad Bubbler, Red-Eye of the Lunataks, Ratilla, Cannon-Blaster and Quick-Jaws from the Bezerkers as well as the Feliner, Thunderstrike and Luna Tacker. Photos of these were featured in the 1987 LJN catalog. In 1987, Elite Systems released the game ThunderCats: The Lost Eye of Thundera, for Commodore64/128, Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, Amiga and Atari ST personal computer systems. Many years later, Cartoon Network's official website featured a game that allowed visitors to play as Lion-O and rescue fellow ThunderCats while venturing into Mumm-Ra's tomb (this game, titled, "ThunderCats: Tomb of Mumm-Raa", can be found on an archived Toonami database). Other ThunderCats merchandise of the 1980s included, among other items, a board game, TV tray table, an electronic racing set, tin lunch box, clothing and apparel. A retro spurt occurred in the mid-1990s and 2000s (decade) that began with the familiar 1980s ThunderCats emblem on T-shirts and has since grown to include new T-shirt designs and various other ThunderCats-themed apparel such as hats and belt buckles, plus a tan backpack with the ThunderCats on it. In May 2009, Warner Brothers gave Hard Hero the rights to produce a line of collectible statues based on the ThunderCats characters. In 2011, Bandai released a new toylines, based on both the classic and the 2011 series. Icon Heroes, a company specializing in collectible pop memorabilia, released their new line of classic ThunderCats statues and vehicles. In February 2011, Mezco Toyz acquired the ThunderCats license to produce large scale rotocast figures based on the 1980s animated series. Lion-O was the first announced figure in their toyline. Jerry Macaluso, owner of Pop Culture Shock, collectible statue company, announced in March 2010 that he had acquired his "dream license". The company went on to produce premium format ThunderCats statues (1:4 scale, over 30 inches) of Lion-O and Mumm-Ra. Prototypes of Cheetara and Tygra were developed and displayed online and at San Diego Comic Con respectively, but didn't reach minimum pre-order thresholds. The prototypes were donated to the ThunderCats Museum in 2014. See also SilverHawks TigerSharks References External links ThunderCats (1985–1988) — ThunderCats Lair ThunderCats DVD official web site ThunderCats DVD official web site for Volume 2 1985 American television series debuts 1989 American television series endings 1980s American animated television series 1980s American science fiction television series 1985 Japanese television series debuts 1989 Japanese television series endings 1980s toys Action figures American children's animated action television series American children's animated space adventure television series American children's animated science fantasy television series Japanese children's animated action television series Japanese children's animated space adventure television series Japanese children's animated science fantasy television series English-language television shows First-run syndicated television programs in the United States Rankin/Bass Productions television series Superhero teams Animated television series about cats Animated television series about extraterrestrial life Television series set on fictional planets Television series by Lorimar Television Television series by Warner Bros. Television Studios 1985 Toonami Television series by Telepictures Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into video games Television series created by Tobin Wolf Television series created by Leonard Starr Television series by Lorimar-Telepictures	[ -0.6450250744819641, 0.2503618001937866, -0.26076963543891907, 0.13319812715053558, 0.08392368257045746, 0.19609300792217255, 0.4272966682910919, 0.6248549222946167, -0.21200554072856903, 0.33731943368911743, -0.5174281597137451, 0.5064032673835754, -0.22229956090450287, 0.26490843296051025, -0.1429695039987564, -0.0491730272769928, 0.4340003430843353, 0.31275469064712524, -0.1956367790699005, -0.53898024559021, -0.22887279093265533, -0.4843701124191284, 0.28184372186660767, 0.44039100408554077, 0.36127224564552307, 0.356696754693985, 0.27980050444602966, 0.18802234530448914, 0.5238853693008423, 0.28340816497802734, 0.2709381878376007, 0.2185703068971634, -0.05838524177670479, -0.39643537998199463, 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231495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coherence	Coherence	Coherence, coherency, or coherent may refer to the following: Physics Coherence (physics), an ideal property of waves that enables stationary (i.e. temporally and spatially constant) interference Coherence (units of measurement), a derived unit that, for a given system of quantities and for a chosen set of base units, is a product of powers of base units with no other proportionality factor than one Coherence time, the time over which a propagating wave (especially a laser or maser beam) may be considered coherent; the time interval within which its phase is, on average, predictable Mathematics Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy), a concept in Bayesian statistics Coherence (signal processing), a statistic that can be used to examine the relation between two signals or data sets Coherence (statistics), a property of self-consistency across a set of assessments, or the strength of association between two series Coherence condition in category theory, a collection of conditions requiring that various compositions of elementary morphisms are equal Coherency (homotopy theory) in homotopy theory and (higher) category theory Coherent sampling, a relationship used in Fast Fourier transforms Coherent set of characters in representation theory, a property of sets of characters that allows one to extend an isometry from the degree-zero subspace of a space of characters to the whole space Coherent sheaf, a specific class of sheaves having particularly manageable properties closely linked to the geometrical properties of the underlying space Mutual coherence (linear algebra), sometimes referred to as coherence, the maximum absolute value of the cross-correlations between the columns of a matrix Multi-spectral phase coherence, a generalized nonlinear cross-frequency phase coupling metric introduced by Yang et al., 2016 Coherence (fairness), a consistency requirement of fair division rules. Philosophy Coherentism, philosophical theories in modern epistemology, the study of knowledge Coherence theory of truth, a theory which regards truth as coherence within some specified set of sentences, propositions or beliefs Computer science Coherence (programming language), an experimental programming language based upon Subtext Cache coherence, a special case of memory coherence Memory coherence, a concept in computer architecture In scrum and agile methodologies, coherence is defined as a measure of the relationships between backlog items which make them worthy of consideration as a whole. IT products Coherence (software), a component of Parallels Desktop for Mac, the Windows virtualization software Coherent (operating system), a UNIX-clone operating system Oracle Coherence, an in-memory data grid product from Oracle Other uses Coherence (cognitive science), a property of mental/cognitive states Coherence (linguistics), what makes a text semantically meaningful Coherence (music theory), a synonym for strict Rothenberg propriety in diatonic set theory Coherent optical module, a hot-pluggable optical transceiver implementing a coherent modulation algorithm Coherence time (communications systems), duration when a communication channel can be assumed to be constant Coherent, Inc., a company specializing in equipment to make and measure coherent light (lasers) Coherent risk measure in financial economics, a function that satisfies properties of monotonicity, sub-additivity, homogeneity, and translational invariance Coherence (film), a 2013 science fiction film by James Ward Byrkit Sense of coherence, a construct in the health theory salutogenesis See also Cohesion (disambiguation) Mutual coherence (disambiguation)	[ 0.09893015027046204, -0.09126583486795425, 0.17746952176094055, 0.4303974509239197, -0.18274274468421936, -0.09806153923273087, 0.1397095024585724, 0.02773541398346424, -0.11765068769454956, -0.5440765619277954, -0.38288500905036926, 0.554017961025238, -0.41013234853744507, 0.3519996404647827, 0.000896685931365937, 0.09763029217720032, 0.6396270394325256, 0.15183794498443604, -0.5652979612350464, -0.0678829774260521, -0.2349848747253418, 0.5848997831344604, -0.010277271270751953, -0.41277793049812317, 0.20820125937461853, -0.20192238688468933, 0.07134902477264404, 0.1295311152935028, 0.36038824915885925, 0.1289408802986145, 0.13918042182922363, 0.5941540002822876, -0.3521459698677063, -0.052518170326948166, -0.04605918750166893, 0.218165785074234, 0.24560889601707458, 0.053779639303684235, -0.507508397102356, -0.6105020046234131, 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231500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-modulus%20prescaler	Dual-modulus prescaler	A dual modulus prescaler is an electronic circuit used in high-frequency synthesizer designs to overcome the problem of generating narrowly spaced frequencies that are nevertheless too high to be passed directly through the feedback loop of the system. The modulus of a prescaler is its frequency divisor. A dual-modulus prescaler has two separate frequency divisors, usually M and M+1. The problem A frequency synthesizer produces an output frequency, fo, which divided by the modulus, N, is the reference frequency, fr: The modulus is generally restricted to integer values, as the comparator will match when the waveform is in phase. Typically, the possible frequency multiples will be the channels for which the radio equipment is designed, so fr will usually be equal to the channel spacing. For example, on narrow-band radiotelephones, a channel spacing of 12.5 kHz is typical. Suppose that the programmable divider, using N, is only able to operate at a maximum clock frequency of 10 MHz, but the output fo is required to be in the hundreds of MHz range. Interposing a fixed prescaler that can operate at this frequency range with a division ratio M of say, 40, drops the output frequency into the operating range of the programmable divider. However, a factor of 40 has been introduced into the equation, so the output frequency is now: If fr remains at 12.5 kHz, only every 40th channel can be obtained. Alternatively, if fr is reduced by a factor of 40 to compensate, it becomes 312.5 Hz, which is much too low to give good filtering and lock performance characteristics. It also means that programming the divider becomes more complex, as the modulus needs to be verified so that only those that give true channels are used, not every 1/40th of a channel that is available. The solution The solution is the dual modulus prescaler. The main divider is split into two parts, the main part N and an additional divider A, which is strictly less than N. Both dividers are clocked from the output of the dual-modulus prescaler, but only the output of the N divider is fed back to the comparator. Initially, the prescaler is set to divide by M + 1. Both N and A count down until A reaches zero, at which point the prescaler is switched to a division ratio of M. At this point, the divider N has completed A counts. Counting continues until N reaches zero, which is an additional N - A counts. At this point the cycle repeats. So while we still have a factor of M being multiplied by N, we can add an additional count, A, which effectively gives us a divider with a fractional part. Only the prescaler needs to be constructed from high-speed parts, and the reference frequency can remain equal to the desired output frequency spacing. The diagram below shows the elements and arrangement of a frequency synthesizer with dual-modulus prescaler. (Compare with diagram on main synthesizer page). One can compute A and N from the formulae: where V is the combined division ratio V = MN+A. For this to work properly, A must be strictly less than M, as well as less than or equal to N. These restrictions on values of A imply that you can't get every division ratio V. If V falls below M(M - 1), some channels will be missing. Example Today, most dual-modulus prescalers exist inside of PLL chips, making it impossible to probe actual signals during operation. The first dual-modulus prescalers were discrete ECL devices, separate from the PLL chips. Here is an example of a dual-modulus prescaler in use. This circuit happens to use a Motorola MC145158 with a Fujitsu MB-501 dual-modulus prescaler operating in the 128/129 mode. The PLL is locked at 917.94 MHz (fo) with a channel spacing frequency of 30 kHz (fr). The total integer count therefore is 30,598. Dividing this by 128 (M) yields a quotient of 239 with a remainder of 6, N and A respectively. The result of this frequency choice is that the prescaler spends most of its time counting at 128, and just a brief period at 129. This is shown by the upper purple trace, the modulus control, A, counter output. These two screen captures differ only in the horizontal scale. The lower, yellow trace is the N counter output whose frequency corresponds to the channel spacing frequency of 30 kHz. The green trace is the output from the dual-modulus prescaler, which happens to correspond to 7.1714 MHz in the case that the prescaler is at 128 and 7.1158 when it is at 129. It is plainly obvious that the modulus control is low for precisely 6 cycles of the prescaler output. What is not obvious is the fact that the frequency changes by less than one percent between the two states of the modulus control. There will be cases where A = 0, resulting in the dual-modulus prescaler counting only by 128. This would happen at 906.24, 910.08, 913.92, 917.76, 921.60 MHz and so on. 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231503	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monkey%20King	Monkey King	The Monkey King, known as Sun Wukong (孫悟空/孙悟空) in Mandarin Chinese, is a legendary mythical figure best known as one of the main characters in the 16th-century Chinese novel Journey to the West (/) and many later stories and adaptations. In Journey to the West, Sun Wukong is a monkey born from a stone who acquires supernatural powers through Taoist practices. After rebelling against heaven, he is imprisoned under a mountain by the Buddha. After five hundred years, he accompanies the monk Tang Sanzang (唐三藏) and two other disciples on a journey to get back Buddhist sutras from the West (the Indian subcontinent), where Buddha and his followers dwell. Sun Wukong possesses many abilities. He has amazing strength and is able to support the weight of two heaven mountains on his shoulders while running "with the speed of a meteor". He is extremely fast, able to travel 108,000 li (54,000 km, 34,000 mi) in one somersault. Sun Wukong also acquires the 72 Earthly Transformations, which allow him to access 72 unique powers, including the ability to transform into sundry animals and objects. He is a skilled fighter, capable of defeating the best warriors of heaven. His hair has magical properties, capable of making copies of himself or transforming into various weapons, animals and other things. He also shows partial weather manipulation skills and can stop people in place with fixing magic. History As one of the most enduring Chinese literary characters, the Monkey King has a varied background and colorful cultural history. His inspiration comes from an amalgam of Indian and Chinese culture. The Monkey King was possibly influenced by the Hindu deity Hanuman, the Monkey-God, from the Ramayana, via stories passed by Buddhists who traveled to China. The Monkey King's origin story includes the wind blowing on a stone, whereas Hanuman is the son of the God of Wind. Some scholars believe the character originated from the first disciple of Xuanzang, Shi Banto. His inspiration might have also come from the White Monkey legends from the Chinese Chu kingdom (700–223 BC), which revered gibbons. These legends gave rise to stories and art motifs during the Han dynasty, eventually contributing to the Monkey King figure. He may have also been influenced by local folk religion from Fuzhou province, where monkey gods were worshipped long before the novel. This included the three Monkey Saints of Lin Shui Palace, who were once fiends, who were subdued by the goddess Chen Jinggu, the Empress Lin Shui. The three were Dan Xia Da Sheng (丹霞大聖), the Red Face Monkey Sage, Tong Tian Da Sheng (通天大聖), the Black Face Monkey Sage, and Shuang Shuang San Lang (爽爽三聖), the White Face Monkey Sage. The two traditional mainstream religions practiced in Fuzhou are Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. Traditionally, many people practice both religions simultaneously. However, the roots of local religion dated back centuries. These diverse religions embodied elements such as gods and doctrines from different provincial folk religions and cultures, such as totem worship and traditional legends. Though there are primarily two main religions in China, since it is so big, different folk stories will vary from towns, cities, and provinces with their own myths about different deities. Sun Wukong's religious status in Buddhism is often denied by Buddhist monks both Chinese and non-Chinese alike, but is very welcomed by the general public, spreading its name around the world and establishing itself as a cultural icon. Background Birth and early life According to Journey to the West, the Monkey King is born from a strong magic stone that sits atop the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit. This stone is no ordinary stone, however, because it receives the nurture of heaven (yang), which possesses a positive nature, and earth (yin), which possesses a negative nature, and thus is able to produce living beings (according to Taoist philosophies). The stone develops a magic womb, which bursts open one day to produce a stone egg about the size of a ball. When the wind blows on the egg, it turns into a stone monkey that can already crawl and walk. This origin is likely an allusion to the Hindu Monkey-god, Hanuman, whose father was the Wind god. As his eyes move, two beams of golden light shoot toward the Jade palace and startle the Jade Emperor. When he sees the light he orders two of his officers to investigate. They report the stone monkey, and that the light is dying down as the monkey eats and drinks. The Jade Emperor believes him to be nothing special. On the mountain, the monkey befriends various animals and joins a group of other wild monkeys. After playing, the monkeys regularly bathe in a stream. One day, they decide to seek the source of the stream and climb the mountain to a waterfall. They declare that whoever goes through the waterfall, finds the stream's source, and comes out again will become their king. The stone monkey volunteers and jumps into the waterfall. He finds a large iron bridge over rushing water, across which is a cave. He persuades the other monkeys to jump in also, and they make it into their home. Sun Wukong then reminds them of their prior declaration, so they declare him their king. He takes the throne and calls himself Handsome Monkey King (美猴王). This happiness does not last. When one of his older monkey friends dies, the Monkey King is very upset. He decides to strive out of his island on a self made raft, in search of an Immortal to teach him knowledge and how to beat death. He comes ashore and wanders around. Humans see him and flee, uncertain of his monkey humanoid appearance. He takes some clothes that were left out to dry, and continues on foot. His face hidden by a hood, he travels through towns and sees many examples of human degeneracy and vice. He continues on and into a forest. The Monkey King hears a Woodcutter singing an interesting song, and when questioning the Woodcutter about the origin he learns he was taught it by an Immortal who resides in the forest. The Monkey King comes to the entrance of a temple of which resides a magical taoist martial artist named Puti Zushi, who initially refuses to let him in. The Monkey King waits outside the entrance for many months, refusing to leave. Puti Zushi is impressed with his persistence and allows the Monkey King to enter. Puti Zushi accepts the Monkey King as a student, teaching him all advanced Taoist practices including the way of Immortality, telling Sun Wukong it was his destiny to know. Puti Zushi later advises Sun Wukong never to needlessly show off his skills, for to do so may encourage others to ask him to teach them. He counsels that if you do teach them, they may go on to cause trouble, and if you don't teach them, they will resent you for it. He then forbids the Monkey King from ever revealing who taught him, and loyal Sun Wukong promises never to reveal who his Master was. With that Sun Wukong awakes back in the forest, realizing all the years of teaching had taken place in some form of compressed time trance. Later, whenever Sun Wukong is asked about his powers and skills, he gives an honest answer when saying that he learned it all in his dreams. When he returns he learns that a demon called the Demon king of Confusion is kidnapping the monkeys on the flower-fruit mountain to use as slaves, he kills the demon and his minions, and saves the kidnapped monkeys. He also brings the entire weapon storage of a nearby country for his subjects, but is unable to find a weapon fit for himself. On hearing that Dragon Kings possess many treasures, and in search of a weapon, he travels to the oceans and finds the palace of a Dragon King. At the entrance Sun Wukong asks for an introduction, but the Dragon King Ao Guang tells his guards to turn him away. Sun Wukong barges in anyway, brushing off protests from the guards, insisting the Dragon King must be confused to turn away a fellow King. Inside he introduces himself and encourages the Dragon King to give him a weapon. Quickly realizing Sun Wukong is quite formidable, the Dragon King feigns willingness and hospitality, ordering his underlings to bring out weapon after weapon. Sun Wukong tests each weapon, but none are robust enough for the Monkey King, who is unhappy at the situation. Sun Wukong then acquires the golden-banded staff Ruyi Jingu Bang/Ding Hai Shen Zhen (如意金箍棒/定海神针), the stabilizer of the Four Seas and a treasure of Ao Guang, the dragon-king of the Eastern Seas. The Monkey King is the only creature strong enough to wield the staff-like weapon and there is an instant affinity between them. The golden-banded staff can change its size, elongate, fly, and attack opponents according to its master's will. It weighs 13,500 jīn or 7960 kg. When not wielding the weapon, the Monkey King shrinks it down to the size of a sewing needle and stores it in his ear. In addition to taking the magical staff, the Monkey King encourages the Dragon King to gift him attire fit for a King. The Dragon King calls upon the other major Dragon Kings for assistance to source this for Sun Wukong, and they arrive and give Sun Wukong a golden chain mail shirt (鎖子黃金甲), a phoenix-feather cap (鳳翅紫金冠 Fèngchìzǐjinguān), and cloud-walking boots (藕絲步雲履 Ǒusībùyúnlǚ). The phoenix-feather cap was one of the treasures of the dragon kings, a circlet of red gold adorned with phoenix feathers. Traditionally, it is depicted as a metal circlet with two striped feathers attached to the front, presumably the signature plumage of the Fenghuang or Chinese phoenix. Sun Wukong thanks the Dragon Kings and leaves happy. Upon his return to the mountain, he demonstrates the new weapon to his monkey tribe and draws the attention of other beastly powers, who seek to ally with him. He forms a fraternity with the Bull Demon King (牛魔王), the Saurian Demon King (蛟魔王), the Single-horned Demon King (单角魔王), the Roc Demon King (鵬魔王), the Lion Spirit King (獅狔王), the Macaque Spirit King (獼猴王), and the snub-nosed monkey Spirit King (禺狨王). The Monkey King, now sentenced to death for extorting the Dragon Kings, then defies Hell's attempt to collect his soul. He wipes his name out of the Book of Life and Death, a collection of books claimed to have every name of every mortal alive and the ability to manipulate lifespan, along with the names of all monkeys known to him. The Dragon Kings and the Kings of Hell report him once again to the Jade Emperor. The heavenly army uses everything, even trying to erase him from existence altogether, but ultimately fail. Havoc in Heaven Hoping that a promotion and a rank amongst the gods will make him more manageable, the Jade Emperor invites the Monkey King to Heaven. The Monkey King believes he is receiving an honorable place as one of the gods as he is told he will be made 'Protector of the Horses' (a fancy term the Heavens coined for a stable-boy), the lowest job in heaven. When he discovers the importance of status in Heaven, and how he has been given the lowest position, the Monkey King sets the Cloud Horses free from the stable, then returns to his own kingdom and proclaims himself The Great Sage, Heaven's Equal. The Heavens reluctantly recognize his self-proclaimed title after Gold Star advises the Jade Emperor against rushing into military action against the 'brash, rude and impudent' monkey, warning that failing to defeat Monkey would harm the reputation of Heaven. Gold Star advises the Jade Emperor to superficially appease Sun Wukong's vanity while treating him as a pet, and invite him back to Heaven to keep him from causing trouble on earth. The Jade Emperor agrees after Gold Star laughs that, in reality, the fanciful title is a meaningless joke revealing Sun Wukong's overconfidence and ignorance to the important workings of Heaven. Sun Wukong suspects a trap but is happy when Gold Star, acting as an envoy, addresses him as Great Sage Equal of Heaven and presents him with official papers. Gold Star tells Sun Wukong he's been granted a far more important position as 'Guardian of the Heavenly Peach Garden,' which peach-loving Sun Wukong accepts. Later, when seven heavenly maidens are sent by the Queen Mother Xi Wangmu to pluck peaches for the Royal Banquet, Sun Wukong discovers every important god and goddess has been invited to the banquet except for him. When he tells the maidens he is Great Sage Equal of Heaven, the maidens giggle, replying that everyone in Heaven knows he is merely an immortal who tends to the peach garden. The Monkey King's indignation then turns to open defiance. During the preparations for the Royal Banquet, Sun Wukong sneaks in to taste the fine foods and drink royal wine. In a tipsy state, the Monkey King roams Heaven while all the gods and goddesses are on their way to the banquet. He reaches high levels of the palace that the authorities of Heaven leave unguarded, for they can only be accessed by deities of the highest and purest spiritual power. Upon realizing that he is at the top of the 33 layers of the heavenly palace, Sun Wukong steals and consumes Laozi's Pills of Immortality and Xi Wangmu's Peaches of Immortality, takes the remainder of the Jade Emperor's royal wine, and then escapes back to his kingdom in preparation for his rebellion. The Jade Emperor refuses to accept Gold Star's counsel to find another peaceful way to deal with Sun Wukong and orders his forces to mobilize. Laughing continuously and fully enjoying himself, and with a combination of martial prowess, guile, and quick-witted creative responses to many different types of powerful Heavenly weapons used against him, the Monkey King single-handedly defeats the Army of Heaven's 100,000 celestial warriors, all 28 constellations, Nezha, and all of the Four Heavenly Kings. Then Guanyin, the Boddhisattva of Mercy and her disciple Muzha/Moksha arrive. Guanyin sends Muzha to inspect the situation and fight Sun Wukong. Muzha is defeated, then Guanyin suggests the Jade Emperor's nephew Erlang Shen fight Wukong. Wukong and Erlang are evenly matched and eventually both turn into terrifying figures, which scares Wukong's monkey army away. Sun Wukong is disheartened and turns into a fish to run away, then both of them keep shapeshifting to turn into more powerful things than the other, finally Laozi throws his Diamond Jade ring at Wukong from behind while he is fighting, knocking him senseless and enabling Erlang to bind him up. After several failed attempts at execution, Sun Wukong is locked into Laozi's eight-way trigram crucible for 49 days in order to be distilled into an elixir by samadhi fires; this will allow Laozi to regain his pills of longevity. The fire of the crucible is hot enough to burn beings of so much unspeakable power, they rival Buddha himself. However, when the cauldron is opened 49 days later, the Monkey King jumps out - having survived by hiding in a corner marked by the wind trigram, where there was less fire. In fact, the heat from the samadhi fires have reinforced his bodily frame, making him stronger than ever before and impervious to greater damage. The heat also gives him a new ability; the Monkey King can now to recognize evil with his new huǒyǎn-jīnjīng (火眼金睛) (lit. "golden-gaze"). Sun Wukong then proceeds to destroy the crucible and makes his way to Heaven's main chamber to confront the Jade Emperor and his senior advisors. Imprisonment The Jade Emperor and the authorities of Heaven appeal to the Buddha, who arrives from his temple in the West in person. After listening to Sun Wukong, he made a case that he should be the new Jade Emperor, the Buddha makes a bet that the Monkey King cannot escape from his palm. The Monkey King smugly accepts the bet. He leaps and flies to the end of the world. Seeing nothing there but five pillars, the Monkey King believes that he has reached the ends of universe. To prove his trail, he marks a pillar with a phrase declaring himself the Great Sage Equal to Heaven and urinates on a pillar. He then leaps back and returns to Buddha's palm to claim his victory in winning the bet. Sun Wukong is then very surprised to find that the five "pillars" he found are merely fingers of the Buddha's hand, finding it impossible to believe. When the Monkey King tries to escape the palm, Buddha turns his hand and brings down a rockfall, sending Sun Wukong hurtling back down to earth. The rocks form a mountain on top of Sun Wukong. Before the Monkey King can lift it off, the Buddha seals him there, using a paper talisman bearing the mantra, Om Mani Padme Hum, in gold letters. The Monkey King remains imprisoned in stocks for five hundred years to 'learn patience and humility,' with only his head and hands protruding from the base of the mountain. The Buddha arranges two earth spirits to feed the Monkey King iron pellets when he is hungry, and molten copper when he is thirsty. Power the equivalent of the Buddha's is given to all Buddhas, meaning that they all have the Buddha's abilities and power, but only Buddha has the key to disable their power if they disobey. Disciple to Tang Sanzang Five hundred years later, the Bodhisattva Guanyin searches for disciples to protect a pilgrim on a journey to the West to retrieve the Buddhist sutras. In the hearing of this, the Monkey King offers to serve the pilgrim, Tang Sanzang, a monk of the Tang dynasty, in exchange for his freedom after the pilgrimage is complete. Understanding Sun Wukong will be difficult to control, Guanyin gives Tang Sanzang a gift from the Buddha: a magical circlet which, once the Monkey King is tricked into putting it on, can never be removed. When Tang Sanzang chants a certain sutra, the band will tighten and cause an unbearable headache. To be fair, Guanyin gives the Monkey King three special hairs, only to be used in dire emergencies. Under Tang Sanzang's supervision, the Monkey King is allowed to journey to the West. Throughout the novel, the Monkey King faithfully helps Tang Sanzang on his journey to India. They are joined by "Pigsy" (猪八戒 Zhu Bajie) and "Sandy" (沙悟浄 Sha Wujing), both of whom accompany the priest to atone for their previous crimes. Tang Sanzang's safety is constantly under threat from demons and other supernatural beings, as well as bandits, as they believe that by eating Tang Sanzang's flesh, one will obtain immortality and great power. The Monkey King often acts as Tang Sanzang's bodyguard to combat these threats. The group encounters a series of eighty-one tribulations before accomplishing their mission and returning safely to China. During the journey, the Monkey King learns about virtues and the teachings of Buddhism. There, the Monkey King attains Buddhahood, becoming the "Victorious Fighting Buddha" (Dòu-zhànshèng-fó (鬥戰勝佛)), for his service and strength. We also see that Monkey king also knows about the fate of Tang Sangzang and also of his knowledge in pretty much everything, as at 3 occasions he knew that the monk was supposed to suffer and he also cures a king who had been ill for many years, and he knows properties of herbs no one knew of. Names and titles Sun Wukong is known/pronounced as Suen Ng-hung in Cantonese, Son Gokū in Japanese, Son Oh Gong in Korean, Sun Ngō͘-Khong in Minnan, Tôn Ngộ Không in Vietnamese, Sung Ghokong or Sung Gokhong in Javanese, Sun Ngokong in Thai, "Wu Khone" in Arakanese and Sun Gokong in Malay and Indonesian. Listed in the order that they were acquired: Shí Hóu (石猴) Meaning the "Stone monkey." This refers to his physical essence, being born from a sphere of rock after millennia of incubation on the Bloom Mountains/Flower-Fruit Mountain. Měi Hóuwáng (美猴王) Meaning "Handsome Monkey-King," Houwang for short. The adjective Měi means "beautiful, handsome, pretty". It also means "to be pleased with oneself," referring to his ego. Hóu ("monkey") also highlights his "naughty and impish" character. Sūn Wùkōng (孫悟空) The name given to him by his first master, Patriarch Bodhi (Subodhi). The surname Sūn was given as an in-joke about the monkey, as monkeys are also called húsūn (猢猻), and can mean either a literal or a figurative monkey (or a macaque). The surname sūn (孫) and the "monkey" sūn (猻) only differ in that the latter carries an extra "dog" (quǎn) radical to highlight that 猻 refers to an animal. The given name Wùkōng means "awakened to emptiness," sometimes translated as Aware of Vacuity. Bìmǎwēn (弼馬溫) The title of the keeper of the Heavenly Horses, a punning of bìmǎwēn (避馬瘟; lit. "avoiding the horses' plague"). A monkey was often put in a stable, as people believed its presence could prevent the horses from catching illness. Sun Wukong was given this position by the Jade Emperor after his first intrusion into Heaven. He was promised that it was a good position to have and that he would be in the highest position. After discovering it was one of the lowest jobs in Heaven, he became angry, smashed the entire stable, set the horses free, and then quit. From then on, the title bìmǎwēn was used by his adversaries to mock him. Qítiān Dàshèng (齊天大聖) Meaning "The Great Sage, Heaven's Equal." Wùkōng took this title suggested to him by one of his demon friends, after he wreaked havoc in heaven people who heard of him called him Great Sage (Dàshèng, 大聖). The title originally holds no power, though it is officially a high rank. The Jade Emperor later granted the title the responsibility to guard the Heavenly Peach Garden, keeping Sun Wukong busy so he would not make trouble. Xíngzhě (行者) Meaning "ascetic," it refers to a wandering monk, a priest's servant, or a person engaged in performing religious austerities. Tang Sanzang calls Wukong Sūn-xíngzhě when he accepts him as his companion. This is pronounced in Japanese as gyōja (making him Son-gyōja). Dòu-zhànshèng-fó (鬥戰勝佛) "Victorious Fighting Buddha." Wukong was given this name once he ascended to Buddhahood at the end of the Journey to the West. This name is also mentioned during the traditional Chinese Buddhist evening services, specifically during the eighty-eight Buddha's repentance. Líng-míngdàn-hóu (靈明石猴) "Intelligent Stone Monkey." Wukong is revealed to be one of the four spiritual primates that do not belong to any of the ten categories that all beings in the universe are classified under. His fellow spiritual primates are the Six-Eared Macaque (六耳獼猴) (who is one of his antagonists in the main storyline), the Red-Bottomed Horse Monkey (赤尻馬猴), and the Long-Armed Ape Monkey (通臂猿猴) (neither of who make actual appearances, only mentioned in passing by the Buddha). The powers and abilities of each are equal to that of the others. Sūn Zhǎnglǎo (孫長老) Used as an honorific for a monk. In addition to the names used in the novel, the Monkey King has other names in different languages: Kâu-chê-thian (猴齊天) in Minnan (Taiwan): "Monkey, Equal of Heaven." Maa5 lau1 zing1 (馬騮精) in Cantonese (Hong Kong and Guangdong): "Monkey Imp" (Called so by his enemies). Immortality Sun Wukong gained immortality through seven different means, which together made him one of the most immortal and invincible beings in all of creation. Disciple to Puti Zushi After feeling down about the future and death, Wukong sets out to find the immortal Taoist patriarch Puti Zushi to learn how to be immortal. There, Wukong learns spells to grasp all five elements and cultivate the way of immortality, as well as the 72 Earthly Transformations. After seven years of training with the sage, Wukong gains the secret formula to immortality. It is noted that the Court of Heaven does not approve of this method of immortality. Book of Mortals In the middle of the night, Wukong's soul is tied up and dragged to the World of Darkness. He is informed there that his life in the human world has come to an end. In anger, Wukong fights his way through the World of Darkness to complain to "The Ten Kings," who are the judges of the dead. The Ten Kings try to address the complaint and calm Wukong by saying many people in the world have the same name and the fetchers of the dead may have gotten the wrong name. Wukong demands to see the register of life and death, then scribbles out his name, thus making him untouchable by the fetchers of death. It is because Wukong has learned magic/magical arts as a disciple to Puti Zushi that he can scare the Ten Kings, demanding from them the book of mortals and removing his name, thus making him even more immortal. After this incident, the Ten Kings complain to the Jade Emperor. Peach of Immortality Soon after the Ten Kings complain to the Jade Emperor, the Court of Heaven appoints Sun Wukong as "Keeper of the Heavenly Horses," a fancy name for a stable boy. Angered by this, Wukong rebels and the Havoc in Heaven begins. During the Havoc in Heaven, Wukong is assigned to be the "Guardian of the Heavenly Peach Garden." The garden includes three types of peaches, each of which grant over 3,000 years of life. The first type blooms every three thousand years; anyone who eats it will become immortal, and their body will become both light and strong. The second type blooms every six thousand years; anyone who eats it will be able to fly and enjoy eternal youth. The third type blooms every nine thousand years; anyone who eats it will become "eternal as heaven and earth, as long-lived as the sun and moon." While serving as the guardian, Wukong does not hesitate to eat the peaches, thus granting him immortality and the abilities that come with the peaches. If Wukong had not been appointed as the Guardian of the Heavenly Peach Garden, he would not have eaten the Peaches of Immortality and would not have gained another level of immortality. Heavenly Wine Because of Wukong's rebellious antics, Wukong is not considered as an important celestial deity and is thus not invited to the Queen Mother of the West's royal banquet. After finding out that every other important deity was invited, Wukong impersonates one of the deities that was invited and shows up early to see why the banquet is important. He immediately is distracted by the aroma of the wine and decides to steal and drink it. The heavenly wine has the ability to turn anyone who drinks it to an immortal. Pills of Longevity While drunk from the heavenly wine, Wukong stumbles into Laozi's alchemy lab, where he finds Laozi's pills of longevity, known as "The Immortals' Greatest Treasure." Filled with curiosity about the pills, Wukong eats a gourd of them. Those who eat the pills will become immortal. If Wukong had not been drunk from the heavenly wine, he would not have stumbled into Laozi's alchemy lab and eaten the pills of longevity. Aftermath of Immortality Following Wukong's three cause-and-effect methods of immortality during his time in heaven, he escapes back to his home at the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit. The Court of Heaven finds out what Wukong has done and a battle to capture Wukong ensues. Due to the five levels of immortality Wukong has achieved, his body has become nearly invincible and thus survives the multiple execution attempts by heaven. In the notable last execution, Wukong was placed inside Laozi's furnace in hopes that he will be distilled into the elixir of the pills of immortality. Wukong survives 49 days of the samadhi fire in Laozi's furnace and gains the ability to recognize evil; meanwhile, being refined in the crucible extracts yet more of the impurities of mortality and leaves him with another immortality. In desperation, the Court of Heaven seeks help from Buddha, who finally imprisons Wukong under a mountain. Wukong's immortality and abilities ultimately come into use after Guanyin suggest him to be a disciple to Tang Sanzang in the Journey to the West. There, he protects Sanzang from the evil demons who try to eat Sanzang to gain immortality. Wukong's own immortality protects him from the various ways the demons try to kill him, such as beheading, disemboweling, poisoning, and boiling oil. Sometime during the journey, Wukong and his companions obtain Ginseng fruit (人參果; Man-fruit), a fruit even rarer and more powerful than the Peaches of Immortality, as only 30 of them will grow off one particular tree only found on the Longevity Mountain (萬壽山) every 10,000 years. While one smell can grant 360 years of life, consuming one will grant another 47,000 years of life. In addition to all of the immortality-granting wines and medicines that the Monkey King had consumed while in heaven, upon reaching the Buddha's temple, pilgrims were provided with Buddhist equivalents of such foods, therefore making Sun Wukong even more immortal. In Xiyoubu The brief satirical novel Xiyoubu (西遊補, "Supplement to the Journey to the West," c. 1640) follows Sun as he is trapped in a magical dream world created by the Qing Fish Demon, the embodiment of desire (情, qing). Sun travels back and forth through time, during which he serves as the adjunct King of Hell and judges the soul of the recently dead traitor Qin Hui during the Song dynasty, takes on the appearance of a beautiful concubine and causes the downfall of the Qin dynasty, and faces King Paramita, one of his five sons born to the demoness Princess Iron Fan, on the battlefield during the Tang dynasty. The events of the Xiyoubu take place between the end of chapter 61 and the beginning of chapter 62 of Journey to the West. The author, Tong Yue (童說), wrote the book because he wanted to create an opponent—in this case, desire-itself—that Sun could not defeat with his great strength and martial skill. Influence Some scholars believe the character of the Monkey King may have originated from the first disciple of Xuanzang, Shi Banto. Fujianese folk religion had already worshipped a number of monkey "great sages" in their lore which might have influenced the author alongside other legends of gods and demons across China. The Hindu deity Hanuman from the Ramayana is considered by some scholars to be a origin for Sun Wukong. In The Shaolin Monastery (2008), Tel Aviv University Professor Meir Shahar claims that Sun influenced a legend concerning the origins of the Shaolin staff method. The legend takes place during the Red Turban Rebellion of the Yuan dynasty. Bandits lay siege to the monastery, but it is saved by a lowly kitchen worker wielding a long fire poker as a makeshift staff. He leaps into the oven and emerges as a monstrous giant big enough to stand astride both Mount Song and the imperial fort atop Shaoshi Mountain (which are five miles apart). The bandits flee upon seeing him. The Shaolin monks later realize that the kitchen worker was the Monastery's local guardian deity, Vajrapani, in disguise. Shahar compares the worker's transformation in the stove with Sun Wukong's time in Laozi's crucible, their use of the staff, and the fact that Sun Wukong and his weapon can both grow to gigantic proportions. Chinese DAMPE satellite is nicknamed after Wu Kong. The name could be understood as "understand the void" literally, relates to the undiscovered dark matter. Manga and animation The character of Son Goku in Dragon Ball is based on Sun Wukong, as attested by his monkey tail, staff, and name (which is simply the Japanese reading of the same name in Chinese: "孫悟空"). The character of Mushra in the Toei Animation Anime Shinzo is based on Sun Wukong, retaining the character's golden headband and telescoping staff. The character of Kongo in Monkey Magic is based on Sun Wukong. In The God of High School, the protagonist Mori Jin's is based on the God Sun Wukong. The character Sun Wukong in RWBY is based on the lore; but instead of using his hair to make the clones, he can make the clones using RWBY's magic system. The character of Sun Wukong, explicitly said to be the trickster of legend, plays a major role in the DreamWorks animated series Kung Fu Panda: The Paws of Destiny. The main character of Jesse Dart Spaceketeers is based on the monkey king in Force Five, where he wears a golden band around his head that is controlled by the princess, and which may induce agony as well. The golden band is also his primary weapon, a long javelin that decreases in size and shape. In 2021, Sunrise Inc. has released an animation series SD Gundam World Heroes, under the SD Gundam franchise. in which feature Sun Wukong as a protagonist along with other mythical characters in novels. Video games In Lunar: Eternal Blue (1994), according to scenario writer Kei Shigema, the concept of an oppressive god came from the image of Sun Wukong being unable to escape from the gigantic palm of the Buddha. Shigema stated that it "was a picture showing the arrogance of a god who is saying, 'In the end, you pathetic humans are in my hands.' The moment I understood that, I thought, 'Oh, I definitely want to do this,' it'll definitely match perfectly. So we used it just like that." In Dota 2, a multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) from Valve, there is a hero called Sun Wukong, the Monkey King. His backstory within Dota also roughly follows the story of Journey to the West. In Heroes of Newerth, a MOBA by S2 Games, there is a hero named Monkey King. Sun Wukong is a playable character in HiRez Studio's MOBA, Smite. Wukong has abilities based on his staff shifting size, his ability to transform, and his ability to duplicate. In Heroes of the Storm, Blizzard's crossover MOBA, a legendary skin the Monkey King for a hero called Samuro is based on Sun Wukong. League of Legends, a MOBA from Riot Games, has a champion called Wukong, the Monkey King. In LittleBigPlanet (2008), the Monkey King appeared as a downloadable costume for the game. In Warframe, a Digital Extremes shooter, Sun Wukong appears as one of the playable characters, inheriting his signature staff, cloning ability, flying ability and immortality techniques. In Mobile Legends: Bang Bang, a MOBA from Moonton, the character Sun is based on Sun Wukong. In Honor of Kings, a MOBA from Tencent Gaming, the character Sun Wukong is based on the Monkey King. In Black Myth: Wukong, an upcoming 3rd-person action/RPG game featuring Souls-like gameplay by Chinese indie developer Game Science. Sun Wukong is one of twelve mythological heroes that civilizations can summon in Civilization VI'''s Heroes and Legends Mode. In Guild Wars 2, an MMORPG by ArenaNet, the Monkey King Tonic transforms the player's character into a representation of Sun Wukong. In Totally Accurate Battle Simulator, the Monkey King is a playable unit from the dynasty faction. He wields a staff that changes in size, and can create copies of himself. In Fortnite, Sun Wukong appears as a playable character as part of the Wukong set, which comprises the character, his Jingu Bang, and Royale Flags. In Asura's Wrath, the titular character has some elements of Wukong. He rages against his fellow gods for betraying him, ends up trapped under a mountain for 500 years, and eventually confronts an evil Buddha called Chakravartin. In Bookworm Adventures Vol.2, the Monkey King is a companion gained automatically by completing chapter 7 of Book 5 of the Adventure mode. The Animal Crossing monkey villager Tiansheng is based on Sun Wukong. His name is derived from "Qí Tiān Dà Shèng", Sun Wukong's self-professed title. See also :Category: Locations in Chinese mythology List of media adaptations of Journey to the West Monkey King Festival Birthday of the Monkey God Dafo Temple (Zhangye) – contains a Qing Dynasty mural featuring Monkey and other characters from the novel) References External links Sun Wukong Character Profile A detailed character profile of Sun Wukong, with character history, listing and explanations of his various names and titles, detailed information on his weapon, abilities, powers, and skills, and personality. Story of Sun Wukong with manhua Sun Wukong's entry at Godchecker is a tongue-in-cheek take on the Great Sage. Journey to the West'' Literary characters Journey to the West characters Fictional shapeshifters Fictional monkeys Mythological monkeys Trickster gods Magic gods Chinese gods Buddhism in China Fictional Buddhist monks Fictional characters who can change size Fictional characters who can duplicate themselves Fictional characters who can move at superhuman speeds Fictional characters who use magic	[ -0.29201075434684753, 0.5691891312599182, -0.7424657940864563, -0.23129567503929138, -0.19500616192817688, 0.28987982869148254, 0.5512780547142029, 0.18446901440620422, -0.9131096601486206, 0.11257437616586685, -0.5565201044082642, -0.31170982122421265, -0.35262370109558105, 0.19655652344226837, -0.27023953199386597, -0.1483992636203766, 0.7592987418174744, 0.19079291820526123, -0.37303832173347473, -0.4858521521091461, -0.4124723970890045, 0.18907420337200165, 0.08677379786968231, -0.5178170800209045, 0.3105248808860779, -0.007032664492726326, -0.23753631114959717, 0.020001491531729698, 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231504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciology	Glaciology	Glaciology (from Latin: glacies, "frost, ice", and Ancient Greek: λόγος, logos, "subject matter"; literally "study of ice") is the scientific study of glaciers, or more generally ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, climatology, meteorology, hydrology, biology, and ecology. The impact of glaciers on people includes the fields of human geography and anthropology. The discoveries of water ice on the Moon, Mars, Europa and Pluto add an extraterrestrial component to the field, which is referred to as "astroglaciology". Overview A glacier is an extended mass of ice formed from snow falling and accumulating over a long period of time; glaciers move very slowly, either descending from high mountains, as in valley glaciers, or moving outward from centers of accumulation, as in continental glaciers. Areas of study within glaciology include glacial history and the reconstruction of past glaciation. A glaciologist is a person who studies glaciers. A glacial geologist studies glacial deposits and glacial erosive features on the landscape. Glaciology and glacial geology are key areas of polar research. Types Glaciers can be identified by their geometry and the relationship to the surrounding topography. There are two general categories of glaciation which glaciologists distinguish: alpine glaciation, accumulations or "rivers of ice" confined to valleys; and continental glaciation, unrestricted accumulations which once covered much of the northern continents. Alpine – ice flows down the valleys of mountainous areas and forms a tongue of ice moving towards the plains below. Alpine glaciers tend to make topography more rugged by adding and improving the scale of existing features. Various features include large ravines called cirques and arêtes, which are ridges where the rims of two cirques meet. Continental – an ice sheet found today, only in high latitudes (Greenland/Antarctica), thousands of square kilometers in area and thousands of meters thick. These tend to smooth out the landscapes. Zones of glaciers Accumulation zone – where the formation of ice is faster than its removal. Ablation (or wastage) zone – when the sum of melting, calving, and evaporation (sublimation) is greater than the amount of snow added each year. Glacier equilibrium line and ELA The glacier equilibrium line is the line separating the glacial accumulation area above from the ablation area below. The equilibrium line altitude (ELA) and its change over the years is a key indicator of the health of a glacier. A longterm monitoring of the ELA may be used as indication to climate change. Movement When a glacier is experiencing an accumulation input by precipitation (snow or refreezing rain) that exceeds the output by ablation, the glacier shows a positive glacier mass balance and will advance. Conversely, if the loss of volume (from evaporation, sublimation, melting, and calving) exceeds the accumulation, the glacier shows a negative glacier mass balance and the glacier will melt back. During times in which the volume input to the glacier by precipitation is equivalent to the ice volume lost from calving, evaporation, and melting, the glacier has a steady-state condition. Some glaciers show periods where the glacier is advancing at an extreme rate, that is typically 100 times faster than what is considered normal, it is referred to as a surging glacier. Surge periods may occur at an interval of 10 to 15 years, e.g. on Svalbard. This is caused mainly due to a long lasting accumulation period on subpolar glaciers frozen to the ground in the accumulation area. When the stress due to the additional volume in the accumulation area increases, the pressure melting point of the ice at its base may be reached, the basal glacier ice will melt and the glacier will surge on a film of meltwater. Rate of movement The movement of glaciers is usually slow. Its velocity varies from a few centimeters to a few meters per day. The rate of movement depends upon the factors listed below: Temperature of the ice. A polar glacier shows cold ice with temperatures well below the freezing point from its surface to its base. It is frozen to its bed. A temperate glacier is at a melting point temperature throughout the year, from its surface to its base. This allows the glacier to slide on a thin layer of meltwater. Most glaciers in alpine regions are temperate glaciers. Gradient of the slope. Thickness of the glacier Subglacial water dynamics Glacial Terminology Ablation Wastage of the glacier through sublimation, ice melting and iceberg calving. Ablation zone Area of a glacier in which the annual loss of ice through ablation exceeds the annual gain from precipitation. Arête An acute ridge of rock where two cirques meet. Bergschrund Crevasse formed near the head of a glacier, where the mass of ice has rotated, sheared and torn itself apart in the manner of a geological fault. Cirque, Corrie or cwm Bowl shaped depression excavated by the source of a glacier. Creep Adjustment to stress at a molecular level. Flow Movement (of ice) in a constant direction. Fracture Brittle failure (breaking of ice) under the stress raised when movement is too rapid to be accommodated by creep. It happens for example, as the central part of a glacier moves faster than the edges. Moraine Accumulated debris that has been carried by a glacier and deposited at its sides (lateral moraine) or at its foot (terminal moraine). Névé Area at the top of a glacier (often a cirque) where snow accumulates and feeds the glacier. Horn Spire of rock, also known as a pyramidal peak, formed by the headward erosion of three or more cirques around a single mountain. It is an extreme case of an arête. Plucking/Quarrying Where the adhesion of the ice to the rock is stronger than the cohesion of the rock, part of the rock leaves with the flowing ice. Tarn A post-glacial lake in a cirque. Tunnel valley The tunnel that is formed by hydraulic erosion of ice and rock below an ice sheet margin. The tunnel valley is what remains of it in the underlying rock when the ice sheet has melted. Glacial deposits Stratified Outwash sand/gravel From front of glaciers, found on a plain. Kettles When a lock of stagnant ice leaves a depression or pit. Eskers Steep sided ridges of gravel/sand, possibly caused by streams running under stagnant ice. Kames Stratified drift builds up low steep hills. Varves Alternating thin sedimentary beds (coarse and fine) of a proglacial lake. Summer conditions deposit more and coarser material and those of the winter, less and finer. Unstratified Till-unsorted (Glacial flour to boulders) deposited by receding/advancing glaciers, forming moraines, and drumlins. Moraines (Terminal) material deposited at the end; (Ground) material deposited as glacier melts; (lateral) material deposited along the sides. Drumlins Smooth elongated hills composed of till. Ribbed moraines Large subglacial elongated hills transverse to former ice flow. See also Continental Glaciation Ice cap International Glaciological Society (IGS) International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS) Irish Sea Glacier List of glaciers Cryosphere Notes References Benn, Douglas I. and David J. A. Evans. Glaciers and Glaciation. London; Arnold, 1998. Greve, Ralf and Heinz Blatter. Dynamics of Ice Sheets and Glaciers. Berlin etc.; Springer, 2009. Hambrey, Michael and Jürg Alean. Glaciers. 2nd ed. Cambridge and New York; Cambridge University Press, 2004. Hooke, Roger LeB. Principles of Glacier Mechanics. 2nd ed. Cambridge and New York; Cambridge University Press, 2005. Paterson, W. Stanley B. The Physics of Glaciers. 3rd ed. Oxford etc.; Pergamon Press, 1994. van der Veen, Cornelis J. Fundamentals of Glacier Dynamics. Rotterdam; A. A. Balkema, 1999. van der Veen, Cornelis J. Fundamentals of Glacier Dynamics. 2nd ed. Boca Raton, FL; CRC Press, 2013. External links International Glaciological Society (IGS) International Association of Cryospheric Sciences (IACS) Snow, Ice, and Permafrost Group, University of Alaska Fairbanks Arctic and Alpine Research Group, University of Alberta Glaciers online World Data Centre for Glaciology, Cambridge, UK National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder, Colorado Global Land Ice Measurements from Space (GLIMS) Glacial structures – photo atlas North Cascade Glacier Climate Project Centre for Glaciology, University of Wales Caltech Glaciology Group Glaciology Group, University of Copenhagen Institute of Low Temperature Science, Sapporo National Institute of Polar Research, Tokyo Glaciology Group, University of Washington Glaciology Laboratory, Universidad de Chile-Centro de Estudios Científicos, Valdivia Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Centre) – Glaciology Commission Institute of Meteorology and Geophysics, Univ. of Innsbruck, Austria.	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231506	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varicap	Varicap	In electronics, a varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable reactance diode or tuning diode is a type of diode designed to exploit the voltage-dependent capacitance of a reverse-biased p–n junction. Applications Varactors are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. They are commonly used in voltage-controlled oscillators, parametric amplifiers, and frequency multipliers. Voltage-controlled oscillators have many applications such as frequency modulation for FM transmitters and phase-locked loops. Phase-locked loops are used for the frequency synthesizers that tune many radios, television sets, and cellular telephones. The varicap was developed by the Pacific Semiconductor subsidiary of the Ramo Wooldridge Corporation who received a patent for the device in June 1961. The device name was also trademarked as the "Varicap" by TRW Semiconductors, the successor to Pacific Semiconductors, in October 1967. This helps explain the different names for the device as it came into use. Operation Varactors are operated in a reverse-biased state, so no DC current flows through the device. The amount of reverse bias controls the thickness of the depletion zone and therefore the varactor's junction capacitance. Capacitance change characteristic depends on doping profile. Generally, for abrupt junction profile, the depletion region thickness is proportional to the square root of the applied voltage, and capacitance is inversely proportional to the depletion region thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely proportional to the square root of applied voltage. For hyperabrupt junction profile capacitance change is more non-linear, but hyperabrupt varicaps have larger capacitance variation and can work with lower voltages. All diodes exhibit this variable junction capacitance, but varactors are manufactured to exploit the effect and increase the capacitance variation. The figure shows an example of a cross section of a varactor with the depletion layer formed of a p–n junction. This depletion layer can also be made of a MOS or a Schottky diode. This is important in CMOS and MMIC technology. Use in a circuit Tuning circuits Generally the use of a varicap diode in a circuit requires connecting it to a tuned circuit, usually in parallel with any existing capacitance or inductance. A DC voltage is applied as reverse bias across the varicap to alter its capacitance. The DC bias voltage must be blocked from entering the tuned circuit. This can be accomplished by placing a DC blocking capacitor with a capacitance about 100 times greater than the maximum capacitance of the varicap diode in series with it and by applying DC from a high impedance source to the node between the varicap cathode and the blocking capacitor as shown in the upper left circuit in the accompanying diagram. Since no significant DC current flows in the varicap, the value of the resistor connecting its cathode back to the DC control voltage resistor can be somewhere in the range of 22 kΩ to 150 kΩ and the blocking capacitor somewhere in the range of 5–100 nF. Sometimes, with very high-Q tuned circuits, an inductor is placed in series with the resistor to increase the source impedance of the control voltage so as not to load the tuned circuit and decrease its Q. Another common configuration uses two back-to-back (anode to anode) varicap diodes. (See lower left circuit in diagram.) The second varicap effectively replaces the blocking capacitor in the first circuit. This reduces the overall capacitance and the capacitance range by half, but has the advantage of reducing the AC component of voltage across each device and has symmetrical distortion should the AC component possess enough amplitude to bias the varicaps into forward conduction. When designing tuning circuits with varicaps it is usually good practice to maintain the AC component of voltage across the varicap at a minimal level, usually less than 100 mV peak to peak, to prevent changing the diode capacitance too much, which would distort the signal and add harmonics. A third circuit, at top right in diagram, uses two series-connected varicaps and separate DC and AC signal ground connections. The DC ground is shown as a traditional ground symbol, and the AC ground as an open triangle. Separation of grounds is often done to (i) prevent high-frequency radiation from the low-frequency ground node, and (ii) prevent DC currents in the AC ground node changing bias and operating points of active devices such as varicaps and transistors. These circuit configurations are quite common in television tuners and electronically tuned broadcast AM and FM receivers, as well as other communications equipment and industrial equipment. Early varicap diodes usually required a reverse voltage range of 0–33 V to obtain their full capacitance ranges, which were still quite small, approximately 1–10 pF. These types were – and still are – extensively used in television tuners, whose high carrier frequencies require only small changes in capacitance. In time, varicap diodes were developed which exhibited large capacitance ranges, 100–500 pF, with relatively small changes in reverse bias: 0–5 V or 0–12 V. These newer devices allow electronically tuned AM broadcast receivers to be realized as well as a multitude of other functions requiring large capacitance changes at lower frequencies, generally below 10 MHz. Some designs of electronic security tag readers used in retail outlets require these high capacitance varicaps in their voltage-controlled oscillators. The three leaded devices depicted at the top of the page are generally two common cathode connected varicaps in a single package. In the consumer AM/FM tuner depicted at the right, a single dual-package varicap diode adjusts both the passband of the tank circuit (the main station selector), and the local oscillator with a single varicap for each. This is done to keep costs down – two dual packages could have been used, one for the tank and one for the oscillator, four diodes in all, and this is what was depicted in the application data for the LA1851N AM radio chip. Two lower-capacitance dual varactors used in the FM section (which operates at a frequency about one hundred times greater) are highlighted by red arrows. In this case four diodes are used, via a dual package for the tank / bandpass filter and a dual package for the local oscillator. Harmonic multiplication In some applications, such as harmonic multiplication, a large signal amplitude alternating voltage is applied across a varicap to deliberately vary the capacitance at signal rate to generate higher harmonics, which are extracted through filtering. If a sine wave current of sufficient amplitude is applied driven through a varicap, the resultant voltage gets "peaked" into a more triangular shape, and odd harmonics are generated. This was one early method used to generate microwave frequencies of moderate power, 1–2 GHz at 1–5 watts, from about 20 watts at a frequency of 3–400 MHz before adequate transistors had been developed to operate at this higher frequency. This technique is still used to generate much higher frequencies, in the 100 GHz – 1 THz range, where even the fastest GaAs transistors are still inadequate. Substitutes for varicap diodes All semiconductor junction devices exhibit the effect, so they can be used as varicaps, but their characteristics will not be controlled and can vary widely between batches. Popular makeshift varicaps include LEDs, 1N400X series rectifier diodes, Schottky rectifiers and various transistors used with their collector-base junctions reverse biased, particularly the 2N2222 and BC547. Reverse biasing the emitter-base junctions of transistors also is quite effective as long as the AC amplitude remains small. Maximum reverse bias voltage is usually between 5 and 7 Volts, before the avalanche process starts conducting. Higher-current devices with greater junction area tend to possess higher capacitance. The Philips BA 102 varicap and a common zener diode, the 1N5408, exhibit similar changes in junction capacitance, with the exception that the BA 102 possesses a specified set of characteristics in relation to junction capacitance (whereas the 1N5408 does not) and the "Q" of the 1N5408 is less. Before the development of the varicap, motor driven variable capacitors or saturable-core reactors were used as electrically controllable reactances in the VCOs and filters of equipment like World War II German spectrum analyzers. See also Heterostructure barrier varactors are symmetric semiconductor devices with variable capacitance. Ferroelectric capacitors have a variable capacitance due to hysteresis effects. Diffusion capacitance References Further reading Mortenson, Kenneth E. (1974). Variable capacitance diodes: the operation and characterization of varactor, charge storage and PIN diodes for RF and microwave applications. Dedham, Mass.: Artech House. Penfield, Paul and Rafuse, Robert P. (1962). Varactor applications. Cambridge, M.I.T. Press. External links Learning by Simulations Calculation of the characteristics of a varactor diode for various doping profiles Trimless IF VCO: Part 1: Design Considerations from Maxim. 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231516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Triton%20%28N15%29	HMS Triton (N15)	HMS Triton was a submarine of the Royal Navy named for the son of Poseidon and Amphitrite, the personification of the roaring waters. She was the lead ship of the T class (or Triton class) of diesel-electric submarines. Her keel was laid down on 28 August 1936 by Vickers Armstrong at Barrow-in-Furness. She was launched on 5 October 1937, and commissioned on 9 November 1938. Career At the onset of the Second World War, Triton was a member of the 2nd Submarine Flotilla. From 26–29 August 1939, the flotilla deployed to its war bases at Dundee and Blyth. The sinking of HMS Oxley When the Admiralty was notified that the United Kingdom would declare war on Germany, five submarines of the 2nd Submarine Flotilla were ordered to patrol on the Obrestad line off Norway on 24 August 1939. Thus, on 3 September all British submarines were in their combat patrol sectors. At 1955 on 10 September 1939, Triton had surfaced, fixed a position off the Obrestad Light, set a slow zigzag patrol, and began charging batteries. Lieutenant Commander Steel, having verified that the area was clear and having posted lookouts, gave the bridge to the officer of the watch and went below, leaving orders that he was to be called if anything unusual appeared. At 2045, he was called to the bridge when an object in the water could be seen very fine on the port bow. Steel ordered propulsion shifted to the main motors, the signalman to the bridge, and torpedo tubes 7 and 8 readied for firing. The object was recognised as a submarine low in the water. Once on the bridge, the signalman sent three challenges over several minutes with the box lamp, none of which were answered. Steel wondered if the boat could be HMS Oxley, which should have been patrolling next in line, but some distance away. Steel and his bridge crew studied the silhouette, but could not distinguish what type of submarine it was. A fourth challenge was sent: three green rifle-grenade flares. After firing, Steel counted slowly to 15 and then decided that they were seeing a German U-boat. He ordered tubes 7 and 8 fired with a three-second interval. Less than a minute later, an explosion was heard. Triton moved into the area to investigate and heard cries for help. The light from the Aldis lamp revealed three men floundering amid oil and debris. Lieutenant Guy C. I. St.B. Watkins and Lieutenant Harry A. Stacey entered the water and rescued Lieutenant Commander H.G. Bowerman, Oxley'''s commanding officer, as well as Able Seaman Gluckes, a lookout. The third person in the water, Lieutenant F.K. Manley, was seen to be swimming strongly when he suddenly sank from view. Neither Manley's body nor any other survivors from Oxley were found. A Board of Enquiry found that Steel had done all he reasonably could in the circumstances. Oxley was out of position, Triton had acted correctly, and the first Allied submarine casualty of World War II was due to "friendly fire." During the war, the loss of Oxley was attributed to an accidental explosion. After the war, it was explained to have been a collision with Triton. The truth was not revealed until the 1950s. Home waters and the MediterraneanTriton continued her war patrols, first in Baltic waters. On 8 April, in the lead-up to the German invasion of Norway, she fired ten torpedoes at the German cruisers Blücher, Lützow and Emden off Skagen. All torpedoes missed their targets. On 10 April 1940, she sank the German steamers Friedenau, Wigbert, and the patrol vessel Rau 6 in the Kattegat. Later, she was redeployed to the Mediterranean Sea, based in Alexandria. During her first patrol in the Gulf of Genoa, Lieutenant Watkins, now Tritons commanding officer, decided to enter the harbour of Savona. She found a supply ship at anchor in the harbour, at which she fired a single torpedo and claimed an 8000-ton kill, though the sinking could not be confirmed. No other ships were available to torpedo, so Watkins surfaced Triton. The submarine began shelling a large factory and a gas works on the shore, damaging both of them before departing. According to Italian sources, Triton's target was not a merchant ship; the submarine apparently mistook the chimney of the pump station for the funnel of a merchant ship, and fired the torpedoes against the shore. The Cieli Electric Station sustained slight damage from the gunfire. Sinking On 28 November 1940, Triton left Malta for a patrol in the southern Adriatic Sea. On 6 December, the Italian merchant Olimpia was torpedoed by a British submarine in the area. Her distress message was picked up by the Royal Navy, which assumed that the attack had been carried out by Triton. The submarine was never heard from again, and was declared lost with all hands on 18 December. Olimpia was successfully towed to port by Italian escort units. The Italian Navy claimed that she was sunk by torpedo boats, probably Confienza, possibly by Clio'', but the date cited was several days after contact was lost. British sources claimed that she was sunk by naval mines in the Strait of Otranto. Notes References British T-class submarines of the Royal Navy Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness 1937 ships World War II submarines of the United Kingdom World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea Lost submarines of the United Kingdom Maritime incidents in December 1940 Ships lost with all hands Ships sunk by mines	[ 0.02225588820874691, -0.7620574831962585, -0.14505550265312195, 0.38434603810310364, -0.5857084393501282, 0.7559547424316406, 0.32803699374198914, -0.4517638683319092, -0.3498445451259613, 0.5250775218009949, 0.17284290492534637, 0.26504239439964294, -0.21196046471595764, 0.5538263320922852, 0.5861380100250244, 0.09625725448131561, 0.14452974498271942, 0.7021484375, -0.15846696496009827, -0.1639934629201889, -0.32144230604171753, -0.3782244920730591, 0.22673024237155914, -0.11005100607872009, 0.7090794444084167, 0.06844973564147949, 0.4285999536514282, 0.6337360143661499, 0.8188776969909668, -0.14504441618919373, 0.9596210718154907, 0.5894688367843628, 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231519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vande%20Mataram	Vande Mataram	Vande Maataram (IAST: , also pronounced Bande Maataram; বন্দে মাতরম্, Bônde Mātôrôm ) is a poem written in Bengali (with some Sanskrit words as well) by Bankim Chandra Chatterjee in 1870s, which he included in his 1882 Bengali novel Anandamath. The poem was first sung by Rabindranath Tagore in the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. The first two verses of the song were adopted as the National Song of India in October 1937 by the Congress Working Committee prior to the end of colonial rule in August 1947. An ode to the Motherland, it was written in Bengali script in the novel Anandmath. The title 'Vande Mataram' means "I praise to motherland, Mother". The "mother goddess" in later verses of the song has been interpreted as the motherland of the people –– Banga Mata (Mother Bengal) and Bharat Mata (Mother India), though the text does not mention this explicitly. It played a vital role in the Indian independence movement, first sung in a political context by Rabindranath Tagore at the 1896 session of the Indian National Congress. It became a popular marching song for political activism and Indian freedom movement in 1905. Spiritual Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo referred it as "National Anthem of Bengal". The song and the novel containing it was banned by the colonial government, but workers and the general public defied the ban (with many being imprisoned repeatedly for singing it in public); with the ban being overturned by the Indian government after the country gained independence from colonial rule in 1947. On 24 January 1950, the Constituent Assembly of India has adopted "Vande Mataram" as national song. On the occasion, the first President of India, Rajendra Prasad stated that the song should be honoured equally with the national anthem of India, "Jana Gana Mana". However the Constitution of India does not have any mention of "national song". The first two verses of the song are an abstract reference to mother and motherland, they do not mention any Hindu deity by name, unlike later verses that do mention goddesses such as Durga. There are 65 seconds of circumstantial specification for the rendition of this song unlike the national anthem "Jana Gana Mana" that specifies 52 seconds. Etymology The root of the Sanskrit word Vande is Vand, which appears in Rigveda and other Vedic texts. According to Monier Monier-Williams, depending on the context, vand means "to praise, celebrate, laud, extol, to show honour, do homage, salute respectfully", or "deferentially, venerate, worship, adore", or "to offer anything respectfully to". The word Mātaram has Indo-European roots in mātár- (Sanskrit), méter (Greek), mâter (Latin) which mean "mother". Lyrics of the song The first two verses of Vande Mataram adopted as the "National Song" read as follows: Lyrics The complete original lyrics of the Vande Mataram are available at . Translation The first translation of Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel Anandamath, including the poem Vande Mataram, into English was by Nares Chandra Sen-Gupta, with the fifth edition published in 1906 titled "The Abbey of Bliss". Here is the translation in prose of the above two stanzas rendered by Sri Aurobindo Ghosh. This has also been adopted by the Government of India's national portal. The original Vande Mataram consists of six stanzas and the translation in prose for the complete poem by Shri Aurobindo appeared in Karmayogin, 20 November 1909. Mother, I bow to thee! Rich with thy hurrying streams, Bright with thy orchard gleams, Cool with the winds of delight, Dark fields waving, Mother of might, Mother free. Glory of moonlight dreams, Over thy branches and lordly streams, Clad in thy blossoming trees, Mother, giver of ease, Laughing low and sweet, Mother, I kiss thy feet, Speaker sweet and low, Mother, to thee I bow. [Verse 1] Who hath said thou art weak in thy lands, When the swords flash out in seventy million hands, And seventy million voices roar Thy dreadful name from shore to shore? With many strengths who art mighty and strong, To thee I call, Mother and Lord! Thou who savest, arise and save! To her I cry who ever her foemen drove Back from plain and Sea And shook herself free. [Verse 2] Thou art wisdom, thou art law, Thou art heart, our soul, our breath Thou art love divine, the awe In our hearts that conquers death. Thine the strength that nerves the arm, Thine the beauty, thine the charm. Every image divine. In our temples is but thine. [Verse 3] Thou art Goddess Durga, Lady and Queen, With her hands that strike and her swords of sheen, Thou art Goddess Kamala (Lakshmi), lotus-throned, And Goddess Vani (Saraswati), bestower of wisdom known Pure and perfect without peer, Mother lend thine ear, Rich with thy hurrying streams, Bright with thy orchard gleams, Dark of hue O candid-fair [Verse 4] In thy soul, with jewelled hair And thy glorious smile divine, Loveliest of all earthly lands, Showering wealth from well-stored hands! Mother, mother mine! Mother sweet, I bow to thee, Mother great and free! [Verse 5] Apart from the above prose translation, Sri Aurobindo also translated Vande Mataram into a verse form known as Mother, I praise thee!. Sri Aurobindo commented on his English translation of the poem that "It is difficult to translate the National Song of India into verse in another language owing to its unique union of sweetness, simple directness and high poetic force." Translation into other languages Vande Mataram has inspired many Indian poets and has been translated into numerous Indian languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Odia, Malayalam, Assamese, Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi Urdu and others. Arif Mohammad Khan translated Vande Mataram in Urdu. It can be read in Urdu (Devanagari script) as: तस्लीमात, माँ तस्लीमात तू भरी है मीठे पानी से फल फूलों की शादाबी से दक्खिन की ठंडी हवाओं से फसलों की सुहानी फ़िज़ाओं से तस्लीमात, माँ तस्लीमात तेरी रातें रौशन चांद से तेरी रौनक सब्ज़-ए-फ़ाम से तेरी प्यार भरी मुस्कान है तेरी मीठी बहुत ज़ुबां है तेरी बांहों में मेरी राहत है तेरे क़दमों में मेरी जन्नत है तस्लीमात, माँ तस्लीमात History and significance Composition Bankim Chandra Chatterjee was one of the earliest graduates of the newly established Calcutta University. After his BA, he joined the colonial government as a civil servant, becoming a Deputy Collector and later a Deputy Magistrate. Chattopadhyay was very intereste in recent events in Indian and Bengali history, particularly the Revolt of 1857 and the previous century's Sanyasi Rebellion. Around the same time, the administration was trying to promote "God Save the Queen" as the anthem for Indian subjects, which Indian nationalists disliked. It is generally believed that the concept of Vande Mataram came to Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay when he was still a government official, around 1876. He wrote Vande Mataram at Chinsura(Chuchura), there is a white colour house of Adhya Family near river Hooghly (near Mallik Ghat). Chattopadhyay wrote the poem in a spontaneous session using words from Sanskrit and Bengali. The poem was published in Chattopadhyay's book Anandamath (pronounced Anondomôţh in Bengali) in 1882, which is set in the events of the Sannyasi Rebellion. Jadunath Bhattacharya was asked to set a tune for this poem just after it was written. Indian independence movement "Vande Mataram was one of the most popular songs of protest during the Indian independence movement. The colonial government in response banned the book and made the recital of the song in public a crime. The colonial government imprisoned many independence activists for disobeying the order, but workers and general public repeatedly violated the ban many times by gathering together in the presence of colonial officials and singing it. Rabindranath Tagore sang Vande Mataram in 1896 at the Calcutta Congress Session held at Beadon Square. Dakhina Charan Sen sang it five years later in 1901 at another session of the Congress at Calcutta. Poet Sarala Devi Chaudurani sang the song in the Benares Congress Session in 1905. Lala Lajpat Rai started a journal called Vande Mataram from Lahore. Hiralal Sen made India's first political film in 1905 which ended with the chant. Matangini Hazra's last words as she was shot to death by the Crown police were Vande Mataram. In 1907, Bhikaiji Cama (1861–1936) created the first version of India's national flag (the Tiranga) in Stuttgart, Germany, in 1907. It had Vande Mataram written on it in the middle band. A book titled Kranti Geetanjali published by Arya Printing Press (Lahore) and Bharatiya Press (Dehradun) in 1929 contains first two stanzas of this lyric on page 11 as Matra Vandana and a ghazal (Vande Mataram) composed by Bismil was also given on its back, i.e. page 12. The book written by the famous martyr of Kakori Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil was proscribed by the colonial government. Mahatama Gandhi supported adoption and the singing of the Vande Mataram song. In January 1946, in a speech in Guwahati (Assam), he urged that "Jai Hind should not replace Vande-mataram". He reminded everyone present that Vande-mataram was being sung since the inception of the Congress. He supported the "Jai Hind" greeting, but remanded that this greeting should not be to the exclusion of Vande Mataram. Gandhi was concerned that those who discarded Vande Mataram given the tradition of sacrifice behind it, one day would discard "Jai Hind" also. Debate on adoption as national song of India Parts of the Vande Mataram was chosen as the national song in 1937 by the Indian National Congress as it pursued the independence of India from colonial rule, after a committee consisting of Maulana Azad, Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Acharya Deva and Rabrindanath Tagore recommended the adoption. The entire song was not selected by Hindu leaders in order to respect the sentiments of non-Hindus, and the gathering agreed that anyone should be free to sing an alternate "unobjectionable song" at a national gathering if they do not want to sing Vande Mataram because they find it "objectionable" for a personal reason. According to the gathered leaders, including the Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, though the first two stanzas began with an unexceptionable evocation of the beauty of the motherland, in later stanzas there are references to the Hindu goddess Durga. The Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah opposed the song. Thereafter, with the support of Mahatma Gandhi and Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Indian National Congress decided to adopt only the first two stanzas as the national song to be sung at public gatherings, and other verses that included references to Durga and Lakshmi were expunged. Rajendra Prasad, who was presiding the Constituent Assembly on 24 January 1950, made the following statement which was also adopted as the final decision on the issue: ...The composition consisting of the words and music known as Jana Gana Mana is the National Anthem of India, subject to such alterations in the words as the Government may authorise as occasion arises; and the song Vande Mataram, which has played a historic part in the struggle for Indian freedom, shall be honoured equally with Jana Gana Mana and shall have equal status with it. (Applause). I hope this will satisfy the Members. —Constituent Assembly of India, Vol. XII, 24-1-1950 Performances and interpretations The poem has been set to a large number of tunes. The oldest surviving audio recordings date to 1907, and there have been more than a hundred different versions recorded throughout the 20th century. Many of these versions have employed traditional South Asian classical ragas. Versions of the song have been visualised on celluloid in a number of films, including Leader, Amar Asha, and Anand Math. It is widely believed that the tune set for All India Radio station version was composed by Ravi Shankar. Hemant Kumar composed music for the song in the movie Anand Math in 1952 Many singers like Lata Mangeshkar, K.S.Chithra sung made it cult classic. In 2002, BBC World Service conducted an international poll to choose ten most famous songs of all time. Around 7000 songs were selected from all over the world. Vande Mataram, from the movie Anand Math, was ranked second. All India Radio's version and some other versions are in Desh raga. In July 2017, the Madras High Court ruled that the Vande Mataram shall be sung or played at least once a week in all schools, universities and other educational institutions of Tamil Nadu. The Court also ruled that the song should be played or sung in government offices and industrial facilities at least once a month. See also Anandmath— The novel from which "Vande Mataram" gained popularity "Jana Gana Mana"- The Indian national anthem "Saare Jahan Se Achcha" "Subh Sukh Chain" Banga Mata Bharat Mata Jaya Bharata Jananiya Tanujate Tamil Thai Telugu Thalli Telangana Thalli Bharat Mata Ki Jai Vande Mataram (album) National Pledge List of Indian state anthems Notes References Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, Vande Mataram: The Biography of a Song, Penguin Books, 2003, . Further reading Bande (with a B rather than a V) Mataram plays a great part in this novel about a Bengali family. "Vande Mataram : Biography of a Song" by Sabyasachi Bhattacharya, Publisher:Penguin, External links Vocals Vande Mataram, Lata Mangeshkar in Anand Math (4:57 minutes) Vande Mataram, Amruta Suresh and Abhirami Suresh (4:36 minutes) Vande Mataram, Group song (1:09 minutes) Debate "National Song" section, Official Portal of the Indian Government How Secular is Vande Mataram?, AG Noorani, Frontline Boycott threat over Indian song, BBC 1937 Congress Resolution on validity of Muslim objection to this song, Outlook India Indian literature Indian patriotic songs National symbols of India Sanskrit texts Bengali-language songs Indian political slogans	[ -0.2056291550397873, -0.2966160774230957, -0.3207857310771942, -0.435928612947464, -0.17642468214035034, 0.7238926291465759, 0.4082120656967163, -0.24628882110118866, -0.29952511191368103, -0.0399649403989315, -0.12364526093006134, 0.011166039854288101, -0.6828107237815857, 0.12911048531532288, -0.04483252018690109, 0.3942633271217346, 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231522	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA%20Deep%20Space%20Network	NASA Deep Space Network	The NASA Deep Space Network (DSN) is a worldwide network of American spacecraft communication ground segment facilities, located in the United States (California), Spain (Madrid), and Australia (Canberra), that supports NASA's interplanetary spacecraft missions. It also performs radio and radar astronomy observations for the exploration of the Solar System and the universe, and supports selected Earth-orbiting missions. DSN is part of the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). General information DSN currently consists of three deep-space communications facilities placed approximately 120 degrees apart around the Earth. They are: the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex () outside Barstow, California. For details of Goldstone's contribution to the early days of space probe tracking, see Project Space Track; the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex (), west of Madrid, Spain; and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex (CDSCC) in the Australian Capital Territory (), southwest of Canberra, Australia near the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve. Each facility is situated in semi-mountainous, bowl-shaped terrain to help shield against radio frequency interference. The strategic placement with nearly 120-degree separation permits constant observation of spacecraft as the Earth rotates, which helps to make the DSN the largest and most sensitive scientific telecommunications system in the world. The DSN supports NASA's contribution to the scientific investigation of the Solar System: It provides a two-way communications link that guides and controls various NASA uncrewed interplanetary space probes, and brings back the images and new scientific information these probes collect. All DSN antennas are steerable, high-gain, parabolic reflector antennas. The antennas and data delivery systems make it possible to: acquire telemetry data from spacecraft. transmit commands to spacecraft. upload software modifications to spacecraft. track spacecraft position and velocity. perform Very Long Baseline Interferometry observations. measure variations in radio waves for radio science experiments. gather science data. monitor and control the performance of the network. Other countries and organizations also run deep space networks. The DSN operates according to the standards of the Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems, as do most other deep space networks, and hence the DSN is able to inter-operate with the networks of other space agencies. These include the Soviet Deep Space Network, the Chinese Deep Space Network, the Indian Deep Space Network, the Japanese Deep Space Network, and the ESTRACK of the European Space Agency. These agencies often cooperate for better mission coverage. In particular, DSN has a cross-support agreement with ESA that allows mutual use of both networks for more effectiveness and reduced risk. In addition, radio astronomy facilities, such as Parkes Observatory or the Green Bank Telescope, are sometimes used to supplement the antennas of the DSN. Operations control center The antennas at all three DSN Complexes communicate directly with the Deep Space Operations Center (also known as Deep Space Network operations control center) located at the JPL facilities in Pasadena, California. In the early years, the operations control center did not have a permanent facility. It was a provisional setup with numerous desks and phones installed in a large room near the computers used to calculate orbits. In July 1961, NASA started the construction of the permanent facility, Space Flight Operations Facility (SFOF). The facility was completed in October 1963 and dedicated on May 14, 1964. In the initial setup of the SFOF, there were 31 consoles, 100 closed-circuit television cameras, and more than 200 television displays to support Ranger 6 to Ranger 9 and Mariner 4. Currently, the operations center personnel at SFOF monitor and direct operations, and oversee the quality of spacecraft telemetry and navigation data delivered to network users. In addition to the DSN complexes and the operations center, a ground communications facility provides communications that link the three complexes to the operations center at JPL, to space flight control centers in the United States and overseas, and to scientists around the world. Deep space Tracking vehicles in deep space is quite different from tracking missions in low Earth orbit (LEO). Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of the Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN has only three main sites). These few stations, however, require huge antennas, ultra-sensitive receivers, and powerful transmitters in order to transmit and receive over the vast distances involved. Deep space is defined in several different ways. According to a 1975 NASA report, the DSN was designed to communicate with "spacecraft traveling approximately 16,000 km (10,000 miles) from Earth to the farthest planets of the solar system." JPL diagrams state that at an altitude of , a spacecraft is always in the field of view of one of the tracking stations. The International Telecommunication Union, which sets aside various frequency bands for deep space and near Earth use, defines "deep space" to start at a distance of from the Earth's surface. Because the Moon, the Earth-moon Lagrange points, and the Earth–Sun Lagrangian points L1 and L2, are all closer than 2 million km from Earth (distances are here), they are considered near space and cannot use the ITU's deep space bands. History The forerunner of the DSN was established in January 1958, when JPL, then under contract to the U.S. Army, deployed portable radio tracking stations in Nigeria, Singapore, and California to receive telemetry and plot the orbit of the Army-launched Explorer 1, the first successful U.S. satellite. NASA was officially established on October 1, 1958, to consolidate the separately developing space-exploration programs of the US Army, US Navy, and US Air Force into one civilian organization. On December 3, 1958, JPL was transferred from the US Army to NASA and given responsibility for the design and execution of lunar and planetary exploration programs using remotely controlled spacecraft. Shortly after the transfer, NASA established the concept of the Deep Space Network as a separately managed and operated communications system that would accommodate all deep space missions, thereby avoiding the need for each flight project to acquire and operate its own specialized space communications network. The DSN was given responsibility for its own research, development, and operation in support of all of its users. Under this concept, it has become a world leader in the development of low-noise receivers; large parabolic-dish antennas; tracking, telemetry, and command systems; digital signal processing; and deep space navigation. The Deep Space Network formally announced its intention to send missions into deep space on Christmas Eve 1963; it has remained in continuous operation in one capacity or another ever since. The largest antennas of the DSN are often called on during spacecraft emergencies. Almost all spacecraft are designed so normal operation can be conducted on the smaller (and more economical) antennas of the DSN, but during an emergency the use of the largest antennas is crucial. This is because a troubled spacecraft may be forced to use less than its normal transmitter power, attitude control problems may preclude the use of high-gain antennas, and recovering every bit of telemetry is critical to assessing the health of the spacecraft and planning the recovery. The most famous example is the Apollo 13 mission, where limited battery power and inability to use the spacecraft's high-gain antennas reduced signal levels below the capability of the Manned Space Flight Network, and the use of the biggest DSN antennas (and the Australian Parkes Observatory radio telescope) was critical to saving the lives of the astronauts. While Apollo was also a US mission, DSN provides this emergency service to other space agencies as well, in a spirit of inter-agency and international cooperation. For example, the recovery of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) would not have been possible without the use of the largest DSN facilities. DSN and the Apollo program Although normally tasked with tracking uncrewed spacecraft, the Deep Space Network (DSN) also contributed to the communication and tracking of Apollo missions to the Moon, although primary responsibility was held by the Manned Space Flight Network (MSFN). The DSN designed the MSFN stations for lunar communication and provided a second antenna at each MSFN site (the MSFN sites were near the DSN sites for just this reason). Two antennas at each site were needed both for redundancy and because the beam widths of the large antennas needed were too small to encompass both the lunar orbiter and the lander at the same time. DSN also supplied some larger antennas as needed, in particular for television broadcasts from the Moon, and emergency communications such as Apollo 13. Excerpt from a NASA report describing how the DSN and MSFN cooperated for Apollo: The details of this cooperation and operation are available in a two-volume technical report from JPL. Management The network is a NASA facility and is managed and operated for NASA by JPL, which is part of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). The Interplanetary Network Directorate (IND) manages the program within JPL and is charged with the development and operation of it. The IND is considered to be JPL's focal point for all matters relating to telecommunications, interplanetary navigation, information systems, information technology, computing, software engineering, and other relevant technologies. While the IND is best known for its duties relating to the Deep Space Network, the organization also maintains the JPL Advanced Multi-Mission Operations System (AMMOS) and JPL's Institutional Computing and Information Services (ICIS). Harris Corporation is under a 5-year contract to JPL for the DSN's operations and maintenance. Harris has responsibility for managing the Goldstone complex, operating the DSOC, and for DSN operations, mission planning, operations engineering, and logistics. Antennas Each complex consists of at least four deep space terminals equipped with ultra-sensitive receiving systems and large parabolic-dish antennas. There are: Three or more Beam waveguide antennas (BWG) One antenna. Five of the beam waveguide antennas were added to the system in the late 1990s. Three were located at Goldstone, and one each at Canberra and Madrid. A second beam waveguide antenna (the network's sixth) was completed at the Madrid complex in 2004. In order to meet the current and future needs of deep space communication services, a number of new Deep Space Station antennas had to be built at the existing Deep Space Network sites. At the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex the first of these was completed in October 2014 (DSS35), with a second becoming operational in October 2016 (DSS36). Construction has also begun on an additional antenna at the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex. By 2025, the 70-meter antennas at all three locations will be decommissioned and replaced with 34-meter BWG antennas that will be arrayed. All systems will be upgraded to have X-band uplink capabilities and both X and Ka-band downlink capabilities. Current signal processing capabilities The general capabilities of the DSN have not substantially changed since the beginning of the Voyager Interstellar Mission in the early 1990s. However, many advancements in digital signal processing, arraying and error correction have been adopted by the DSN. The ability to array several antennas was incorporated to improve the data returned from the Voyager 2 Neptune encounter, and extensively used for the Galileo mission, when the spacecraft's high-gain antenna failed to deploy and as a result Galileo was forced to resort to operating solely off its low-gain antennas.<ref>Uplink-Downlink, Chapter 5, The Galileo Era – 1986–1996.</ref> The DSN array currently available since the Galileo mission can link the dish antenna at the Deep Space Network complex in Goldstone, California, with an identical antenna located in Australia, in addition to two antennas at the Canberra complex. The California and Australia sites were used concurrently to pick up communications with Galileo. Arraying of antennas within the three DSN locations is also used. For example, a dish antenna can be arrayed with a 34-meter dish. For especially vital missions, like Voyager 2, non-DSN facilities normally used for radio astronomy can be added to the array. In particular, the Canberra dish can be arrayed with the Parkes Radio Telescope in Australia; and the Goldstone 70-meter dish can be arrayed with the Very Large Array of antennas in New Mexico. Also, two or more dishes at one DSN location are commonly arrayed together. All the stations are remotely operated from a centralized Signal Processing Center at each complex. These Centers house the electronic subsystems that point and control the antennas, receive and process the telemetry data, transmit commands, and generate the spacecraft navigation data. Once the data are processed at the complexes, they are transmitted to JPL for further processing and for distribution to science teams over a modern communications network. Especially at Mars, there are often many spacecraft within the beam width of an antenna. For operational efficiency, a single antenna can receive signals from multiple spacecraft at the same time. This capability is called Multiple Spacecraft Per Aperture, or MSPA. Currently, the DSN can receive up to 4 spacecraft signals at the same time, or MSPA-4. However, apertures cannot currently be shared for uplink. When two or more high-power carriers are used simultaneously, very high order intermodulation products fall in the receiver bands, causing interference to the much (25 orders of magnitude) weaker received signals. Therefore, only one spacecraft at a time can get an uplink, though up to 4 can be received. Network limitations and challenges There are a number of limitations to the current DSN, and a number of challenges going forward. The Deep Space Network nodes are all on Earth. Therefore, data transmission rates from/to spacecraft and space probes are severely constrained due to the distances from Earth. For now it can connect with the Mars orbiters in the Mars Relay Network for faster and more flexible communications with spacecraft and landers on Mars. Adding dedicated communication satellites elsewhere in space, to handle multiparty, multi-mission use, such as the canceled Mars Telecommunications Orbiter, would increase flexibility towards some sort of Interplanetary Internet. The need to support "legacy" missions that have remained operational beyond their original lifetimes but are still returning scientific data. Programs such as Voyager have been operating long past their original mission termination date. They also need some of the largest antennas. Replacing major components can cause problems as it can leave an antenna out of service for months at a time. The older 70M antennas are reaching the end of their lives. At some point these will need to be replaced. The leading candidate for 70M replacement had been an array of smaller dishes, but more recently the decision was taken to expand the provision of 34-meter (112 ft) BWG antennas at each complex to a total of 4. All the 34-meter HEF antennas have been replaced. New spacecraft intended for missions beyond geocentric orbits are being equipped to use the beacon mode service, which allows such missions to operate without the DSN most of the time. DSN and radio science The DSN forms one portion of the radio sciences experiment included on most deep space missions, where radio links between spacecraft and Earth are used to investigate planetary science, space physics and fundamental physics. The experiments include radio occultations, gravity field determination and celestial mechanics, bistatic scattering, doppler wind experiments, solar corona characterization, and tests of fundamental physics. For example, the Deep Space Network forms one component of the gravity science experiment on Juno. This includes special communication hardware on Juno and uses its communication system. The DSN radiates a Ka-band uplink, which is picked up by Junos Ka-Band communication system and then processed by a special communication box called KaTS, and then this new signal is sent back the DSN. This allows the velocity of the spacecraft over time to be determined with a level of precision that allows a more accurate determination of the gravity field at planet Jupiter. Another radio science experiment is REX on the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto-Charon. REX received a signal from Earth as it was occulted by Pluto, to take various measurements of that system of bodies. See also Extended NASA missions Mars Exploration Rovers Opportunity rover Spirit rover Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity rover Voyager program (Heliosheath and Heliopause) Voyager 1 Voyager 2 International Cometary Explorer (Earth's magnetic field and Solar wind) New Horizons (Pluto) Related Sources and Topics Space Network Near Earth Network Space Communications and Navigation Program (SCaN) Tracking and Data Relay Satellite List of observatories List of radio telescopes References Notes The sun orbiting Ulysses extended mission operation terminated June 30, 2009. The extension permitted a third flyby over the Sun's poles in 2007–2008. The two Voyager spacecraft continue to operate, with some loss in subsystem redundancy, but retain the capability of returning science data from a full complement of VIM science instruments. Both spacecraft also have adequate electrical power and attitude control propellant to continue operating until around 2020, when the available electrical power will no longer support science instrument operation. At this time, science data return and spacecraft operations will cease. The Deep Space Positioning System (DSPS) is being developed. External links and further reading JPL DSN – official site. Basics of Space Flight – Chapter 18. Deep Space Network DSN Now, NASA, live status of antennas and spacecraft at all three facilities. Deep Space Communications and Navigation Series – a series of books published by Wiley detailing specifics on the Deep Space Network, JPL's site on Douglas J. Mudgway, Big Dish: Building America's Deep Space Connection to the Planets'', University of Florida Press, 2005 . 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231523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parabolic	Parabolic	Parabolic usually refers to something in a shape of a parabola, but may also refer to a parable. Parabolic may refer to: In mathematics: In elementary mathematics, especially elementary geometry: Parabolic coordinates Parabolic cylindrical coordinates parabolic Möbius transformation Parabolic geometry (disambiguation) Parabolic spiral Parabolic line In advanced mathematics: Parabolic cylinder function Parabolic induction Parabolic Lie algebra Parabolic partial differential equation In physics: Parabolic trajectory In technology: Parabolic antenna Parabolic microphone Parabolic reflector Parabolic trough - a type of solar thermal energy collector Parabolic flight - a way of achieving weightlessness Parabolic action, or parabolic bending curve - a term often used to refer to a progressive bending curve in fishing rods. In commodities and stock markets: Parabolic SAR - a chart pattern in which prices rise or fall with an increasingly steeper slope Other Parabolic dune, a sand formation	[ -0.28629350662231445, 0.048254501074552536, -0.03631480410695076, 0.3378739058971405, -0.470755934715271, 0.2504088580608368, 0.16298452019691467, 0.35614538192749023, -0.25341519713401794, -0.7169610261917114, -0.7933744788169861, 0.2944410443305969, -0.46375444531440735, 0.11082440614700317, 0.13749973475933075, 0.47770458459854126, 0.5786887407302856, 0.31208163499832153, -0.6227698922157288, -0.18459951877593994, -0.03137871250510216, 0.16452738642692566, 0.1052434891462326, -0.739894449710846, 0.08697649091482162, -0.13304150104522705, 0.03085033968091011, 0.3110795021057129, 0.19638264179229736, 0.3666660487651825, 0.18563008308410645, 0.778505265712738, -0.08735495805740356, -0.5839165449142456, 0.09077043831348419, -0.12662650644779205, 0.1922665685415268, -0.0658968985080719, -0.1780572086572647, 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231524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin%20Patriarchate%20of%20Jerusalem	Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem	The Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem () is the Latin Catholic ecclesiastical patriarchate in Jerusalem, officially seated in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It was originally established in 1099, with the Kingdom of Jerusalem encompassing the territories in the Holy Land newly conquered by the First Crusade. From 1374 to 1847 it was a titular see, with the patriarchs of Jerusalem being based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome. A resident Latin patriarch was re-established in 1847 by Pius IX. The Latin patriarch of Jerusalem is now the archbishop of Latin Church Catholics of the Archdiocese of Jerusalem with jurisdiction for all Latin Catholics in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Cyprus. The Latin patriarch of Jerusalem also holds the office of grand prior of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre. The office of Latin patriarch of Jerusalem became vacant on 24 June 2016, and the patriarchate was managed by Archbishop Pierbattista Pizzaballa as apostolic administrator. Pizzaballa was appointed Latin patriarch on 24 October 2020. He took possession of the see on 6 November 2020. It is exempt, being directly subject to the Holy See (and exceptionally its Roman Congregation for the Oriental Churches, which normally handles Eastern Catholics). It is not within an ecclesiastical province, and has no metropolitan functions. The title of patriarch in the Latin Church is retained by only four archbishops (since Benedict XVI relinquished the papal title of "Patriarch of the West" in 2006): the Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem, of Venice, of Lisbon and of the East Indies. Until 1964, there had also been the honorary patriarchal titles of Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch; still others were abolished earlier. The title of "Patriarch of Jerusalem" is also used by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, the Armenian Patriarch of Jerusalem, as well as, titularly (along Alexandria), by the Melkite Patriarch. History Jerusalem (in Latin also Hierosolyma) was one of the Apostles' original bishoprics. It was renamed Aelia Capitolina in 135 AD, again Jerusalem in 325. In 451 it was promoted as Patriarchal See. After 649, Pope Martin appointed John of Philadelphia (Amman) as Patriarchal vicar of Jerusalem to replace Sergius of Jaffa. In 1054, the Great Schism split Christianity into the Eastern Orthodox Church—which consisted of the four Orthodox Christian Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, Constantinople and Alexandria—under the stewardship of Constantinople; and the Catholic Church, which consisted of the Pope of Rome and virtually all of Western Christianity. Apart from the Maronites, most Christians in the Holy Land came under the jurisdiction of the Eastern Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem. Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem In 1099, the Western Crusaders captured Jerusalem, set up the Kingdom of Jerusalem and established a Latin hierarchy under a Latin Patriarch (in communion with Rome), while expelling the Orthodox Patriarch. The Latin Patriarchate was divided into four archdioceses—their heads bearing the titles of Archbishop of Tyre, Archbishop of Caesarea, Archbishop of Nazareth and Archbishop of Petra—and a number of suffragan dioceses. The Latin Patriarch took over control of the Latin quarter of the city of Jerusalem (the Holy Sepulchre and the immediate surroundings) as his Metropolitan see, and had as his direct suffragans the bishops of Lydda-Ramla, Bethlehem, Hebron and Gaza, and the abbots of the Temple, Mount Sion and the Mount of Olives. The Latin Patriarch resided in Jerusalem from 1099 to 1187, while Orthodox Patriarchs continued to be appointed, but resided in Constantinople. In 1187, the Crusaders were forced to flee Jerusalem, and the Latin Patriarchy moved to Acre (Akka), while the Orthodox Patriarch returned to Jerusalem. The Catholic Church continued to appoint residential Latin Patriarchs. The Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem endured almost 200 years until the last vestiges of the Kingdom were conquered by the Muslim Mamluks in 1291, and the Latin hierarchy was effectively eliminated in the Levant. With the Fall of Acre, the Latin Patriarch moved to The Kingdom of Cyprus in 1291. Titular Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem In 1374, the Kingdom of Cyprus underwent a severe upheaval when it was invaded by the Genoese, who conquered Famagusta and held King Peter II captive. From that time on, the Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem ceased to reside in Cyprus. The Catholic Church continued to appoint titular Patriarchs of Jerusalem, but from then on they were based at the Basilica di San Lorenzo fuori le Mura in Rome. In 1342, Pope Clement VI officially committed the care of the Holy Land to the Franciscans and the Franciscan Custos of the Holy Lands (The Grand Masters of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre) held the title ex officio under the Papal bull Gratiam agimus by Pope Clement VI, unless someone was specifically appointed to the honorary office. Yet in 1570, it gained territories from the suppressed Archdiocese of Nicosia and Diocese of Paphos, and in 1571 it gained more territories from the suppressed Diocese of Limassol and Diocese of Famagosta, all in former Crusader Kingdom of Cyprus, which had fallen to the Ottoman Turks. Modern Patriarchate of Jerusalem A resident Latin Patriarch was re-established in 1847 by Pius IX, with Bishop Joseph Valerga being appointed to the office. Though officially superseding the Franciscans, Valerga was also the Grand Master of the Order. On Valerga's death in 1872, Vincent Braco was appointed, and following his death in 1889, the Ottoman Sultan authorised the re-establishment of a Latin hierarchy. The Grand Masters of the Order continued to be named as Latin Patriarchs until 1905. The Co-Cathedral of the Most Holy Name of Jesus is the principal, or "mother" church of the Latin Patriarchate, the church in which the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem has his official chair (cathedra). However, the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre has the title of cathedral of the patriarchate. The residence of the Patriarch is in the Old City, near the Co-Cathedral, while the seminary, which is responsible for the liturgical education, is in Beit Jala, a town 10 km south of Jerusalem, where it has been since 1936. In 1987, Michel Sabbah became the first native Palestinian to be appointed Latin Patriarch. The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem is now the diocesan archbishop of Latin Catholics of the Catholic Archdiocese of Jerusalem and has jurisdiction for all Latin Church Catholics in Israel, Palestine, Jordan and Cyprus. The prerogatives of the Patriarch in his relation with government authorities overlap with the prerogatives of the Apostolic Nuncio to Israel and the Apostolic Delegate to Jerusalem and Palestine. In 2008, Archbishop Fouad Twal was appointed Patriarch to succeed Patriarch Michel Sabbah. He exercised his mandate from June 21, 2008, until June 24, 2016, when he reached the canonical age of retirement and Pope Francis accepted his resignation. Pope Francis appointed Pierbattista Pizzaballa as apostolic administrator of the Patriarchate and named Patriarch on 24 October 2020. Pope Paul VI visited in January 1964, Pope John Paul II in March 2000, Pope Benedict XVI in May 2009 and Pope Francis in May 2014. Organisation and Territory The Patriarch is supported by Bishops and non-bishops patriarchal vicars: William Shomali, Auxiliary Bishop and Vicar General of Latin Patriarchate, and Patriarchal Vicar for Jerusalem and Palestine Jamal Khader, Patriarchal Vicar for Jordan, based in Amman Rafic Nahra, Patriarchal Vicar for Israel, based in Nazareth Jerzy Kraj OFM, Patriarchal Vicar for Cyprus based in Nicosia Piotr Zelasko, Patriarchal Vicar for the Hebrew-speaking Catholics, based in Jerusalem Nicodemus Schnabel OSB, Patriarchal Vicar for the migrants and asylum seekers of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, based in Tel Aviv Statistics and extent As per 2015, it pastorally served 293,053 Catholics in 66 parishes with 464 priests (81 diocesan, 383 religious), 9 deacons, 1,652 lay religious (590 brothers, 1,062 sisters) and 55 seminarians. The proper Archdiocese of the patriarchal see of Jerusalem has jurisdiction over all 'Latin Church' Catholics (not Eastern Catholics) in the Holy Land (Israel, Palestine and Jordan) as well as Cyprus. In Jerusalem, the Latin Catholic community is the largest Christian community, with some 4,500 people out of an estimated Christian population of about 11,000. Special churches In Jerusalem, the patriarch has his Cathedral archiepiscopal see, a Minor Basilica and World Heritage Site: the Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, as well as the Co-Cathedral, also a World Heritage Site: Co-Cathedral of the Most Holy Name of Jesus, and four other Minor Basilicas and World Heritage Sites: Basilica of the Agony, Basilica of St. Stephen, Dormition Abbey of the Virgin Mary and St. Anne’s Church. Other cities in the archdiocese have more Minor Basilicas: Basilica of the Annunciation in Nazareth, Basilica of the Transfiguration in Mount Tabor, Carmelite Monastery of Stella Maris in Haifa and St. Cleophas Church in El Qubeibeh, and two other World Heritage Sites, both in Bethlehem : Church of St. Catherine and Church of the Nativity. List of Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem Prior to the Great Schism, there were no separate Latin and Greek Orthodox Churches, and thus no separate patriarchs. For patriarchs of Jerusalem of the unified Church prior to the Schism, see Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem. Arnulf of Chocques (1099) Dagobert of Pisa (1099–1101) Maurice of Porto (1101–1102), ad interim Evremar (1102–1105) Dagobert of Pisa (restored) (1105) Ghibbelin of Arles (1107–1112) Arnulf of Chocques (re-appointed) (1112–1118) Warmund of Jerusalem (also known as Garmond of Picquigny) (1119–1128) Stephen of La Ferté (1128–1130) William of Malines (1130–1145) Fulk of Angoulême (1146–1157) Amalric of Nesle (1157–1180) Heraclius (1180–1191) Jerusalem itself was lost in 1187; seat of the patriarch moved (with the kingdom in retreat) to Acre. Rodolfo (1191–1192) Michele de Corbeil (1193–1194) Aymar the Monk (also known as Aimaro Monaco dei Corbizzi) (1194–1202) Soffredo (also known as Loffredo Errico Gaetani) (1202–1204) Albert of Vercelli (also known as Albert Avogadro) (1204–1214) Raoul of Mérencourt (1214–1225) Gerold of Lausanne (1225–1238) vacant (1238–1240); Jacques de Vitry appointed but never served Robert of Nantes (1240–1254) Jacques Pantaléon (1255–1261), future Pope Urban IV of Rome William II of Agen (1261–1270) Thomas Agni of Cosenza (1271–1277) John of Vercelli (1278–1279) Elijah (1279–1287) Nicholas of Hanapes (fr) (1288–1294) Acre lost in 1291; see in exile moved to Cyprus, then Rome after 1374; titular patriarchs until 1847. Landolfo (1295–1304) Antony Bek (1306–1311), also Prince-Bishop of Durham in England from 1284 to 1310 Pierre Pleinecassagne (1314–1318) Pierre (1314–1318) The Franciscan Custodian of the Holy Land held the title from 1342 to 1830 under the Papal bull Gratiam agimus by Pope Clement VI. The bull declared the Franciscans as the official custodians of the Holy Places in the name of the Catholic Church, "unless someone was specifically appointed in the honorary office". Raymond Bequin (Raimondo Beguin), O.P. (1324–1329 Died Peter Paludanus (Pierre de Palude or Pietro de la Palude), O.P. (1329–1342 Died) Élie de Nabinal, O.F.M. (1342) Pierre de Casa, O. Carm. (1342–1348) Emanuele de Nabinal, O.F.M. (1345) Guillaume Amici (Lamy) (1349–1360) Philippe de Cabassole (1361–1368) Guglielmo Militis, O.P. (1369–1371) Guilherme Audibert de la Garde (1371–1374) Philippe d'Alençon de Valois (1375–1378) Guglielmo da Urbino, O.F.M. (1379–?) During the Western Schism, the patriarch was appointed by both popes resulting in overlapping appointments. Named by the pope of Rome: Stephanus de Insula (Štefan), O.E.S.A. (1379–1384) Fernandus (1386–1395) Ugo Roberti (1396–1409 Died) Named by the Pope of Avignon: Lope Fernández de Luna (1380–1382) Bertrande de Chanac (1382–1385) Aimone Séchal (1385–1404) Francesc Eiximenis (Francesco Eximini), O.F.M. (1408–1409) Francisco Clemente Pérez Capera (1419–1429) Leonardo Delfino (patriarch), O.F.M. (1430–1434) Biagio Molino (1434–1447 Died) Cristoforo Garatoni (Apostolic Administrator 1448–1449) Bessarion (Apostolic Administrator 1449–1458) Lorenzo Zanni (Lorenzo Zane) (1458–1460) Louis de Haricuria (1460–1479) Bartolomeo della Rovere, O.F.M. (1480–1494) Giovanni Antonio Sangiorgio (1500–1503) Bernardino López de Carvajal y Sande (1503–1511 Resigned) ... Rodrigo de Carvajal (1523–1539) Alessandro Farnese (1539–1550) Cristoforo Spiriti (1550–1556 Died) Antonio Elio (Antonius Helius) (1558–1576) Gian Antonio Facchinetti de Nuce (1576–1584), future Pope Innocent IX of Rome Scipione Gonzaga (1585–1588) Fabio Blondus de Montealto (Fabio Biondi) (1588–1618) Francesco Cennini de' Salamandri (1618–1621) Diofebo Farnese (1621–1622 Died) Alfonso Manzanedo de Quiñones (1622–1627 Died) Domenico de' Marini (patriarch) (1627–1635 Died) Giovanni Battista Colonna (1636–1637 Died) Tegrimus Tegrimi (1638–1641 Died) Aegidius Ursinus de Vivere (1641–1647 Died) unknown Camillo Massimo (1653–1671) Egidio Colonna (patriarch), O.S.B. (1671–1686 Died) Bandino Panciatichi (1689–1690) Niccolo Pietro Bargellini (1690–1694 Died) Francesco Martelli (1698–1706) Muzio Gaeta (1708–1728) Vincent Louis Gotti (1728–1729) Pompeo Aldrovandi (1729–1734) Tommaso Cervini (1734–1751) Tommaso de Moncada (1751–1762) Giorgio Maria Lascaris (1762–1795) vacant (1795–1800) Michele di Pietro (1800–1821) Francesco Maria Fenzi (1816–1829) Paolo Augusto Foscolo (1830–1847), later Latin Patriarch of Alexandria, 1847–1860 Restoration of resident Latin patriarchs of Jerusalem in 1847. Joseph Valerga (1847–1872) Giovanni Vincenzo Bracco (1872–1889) Latin patriarchate hierarchy re-established in 1889. Luigi Piavi (1889–1905) Auxiliary Bishop: Pasquale Appodia (13 Feb 1891 – 7 Nov 1901) vacant (1905–1906) Filippo Camassei (1906–1919) Luigi Barlassina (1920–1947) Auxiliary Bishop: Godric Kean (14 Jul 1924 – 1928.12) Auxiliary Bishop: Francesco Fellinger (26 Feb 1929 – 22 Jul 1940) vacant (1947–1949) Auxiliary Bishop: Vincent Gelat (30 Apr 1948 – 19 Jan 1968) Alberto Gori (1949–1970) Vicar general: Bishop Pier Giorgio Chiappero, O.F.M. (31 Aug 1959 – 15 Jul 1963) Auxiliary Bishop: Hanna Kaldany (4 Jan 1964 – 14 May 1996) Auxiliary Bishop: Neemeh Simaan (21 Sep 1965 – 25 May 1981) Giacomo Giuseppe Beltritti (1970–1987) Auxiliary Bishop: Salim Sayegh (26 Nov 1981 – 19 Jan 2012) Michel Sabbah (1987–2008) Auxiliary Bishop: Kamal Hanna Bathish (29 Apr 1993 – 9 Jun 2007) Fouad Twal (2008–2016) Auxiliary Bishop (29 Apr 1993 – 29 Aug 2020): Giacinto-Boulos Marcuzzo, Titular Bishop of Emmaus Auxiliary Bishop (31 Mar 2010 – 24 June 2016): William Hanna Shomali, titular Bishop of Lydda vacant (24 Jun 2016 – 6 November 2020) Pierbattista Pizzaballa (6 November 2020 – present) Auxiliary episcopate Auxiliary Bishop: Archbishop Maroun Elias Nimeh Lahham (19 Jan 2012 – 4 Feb 2017) Auxiliary Bishop: Jean-Baptiste Gourion, O.S.B. Oliv. (14 Aug 2003 – 23 Jun 2005) See also Catholic Church in Israel Catholic Church in Palestine Catholic Church in the Middle East List of Catholic dioceses in the Holy Land and Cyprus List of parishes of the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem Our Lady of Palestine Custody of the Holy Land Latin Church in the Middle East References Sources and external links Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem website Saint James Vicariate for Hebrew Speaking Catholics Listing Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem at GCatholic.org Patriarchate of Jerusalem {Gerusalemme} at the Catholic Hierarchy website Homily of John Paul II in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Latin Patriarchs Lists of patriarchs Lists of Roman Catholics	[ -0.12602950632572174, 0.6349312663078308, -0.230034738779068, -0.06198243424296379, -0.1863895207643509, 0.578605592250824, 0.14354462921619415, 0.4742487370967865, -0.29504552483558655, -0.3996337056159973, -0.5592296123504639, -0.342809796333313, -0.19873440265655518, 0.22323253750801086, 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231526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20K.%20Vardaman	James K. Vardaman	James Kimble Vardaman (July 26, 1861 – June 25, 1930) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Mississippi and was the Governor of Mississippi from 1904 to 1908. A Democrat, Vardaman was elected in 1912 to the United States Senate in the first popular vote for the office, following adoption of the 17th Amendment. He defeated incumbent LeRoy Percy, a member of the planter elite. Vardaman served from 1913 to 1919. Known as "The Great White Chief", Vardaman had gained electoral support for his advocacy of populism and white supremacy, saying: "If it is necessary every Negro in the state will be lynched; it will be done to maintain white supremacy." Aligning with left-wing populists and favoring progressive reforms in railing against banks, railroads, and tariffs, he appealed to the poorer whites, yeomen farmers, and factory workers. Vardaman's tenure as Governor of Mississippi was marked by his advocacy of regulating corporations, enacting child labor laws, segregating streetcars, ending educational opportunities for African-Americans, and defending lynching. Early life and education Vardaman was born in the Confederacy, a fact he often remembered. He was born in Jackson County, Texas, in July 1861. He moved to Mississippi, where he studied law and passed the bar. He settled in Greenwood, Mississippi, becoming editor of The Greenwood Commonwealth. Career After the Reconstruction era, Mississippi election campaigns were frequently marked by violence and fraud. A biracial coalition of Republicans and Populists briefly controlled the governorship and Mississippi House in the late 1880s. As a Democrat, Vardaman served in the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1890 to 1896 and was elected as its speaker in 1894. He was known for his populist appeal to the common man. State Democrats took action to ensure that they did not lose power again. After having gained control of the legislature by suppressing the black vote, they passed a new constitution in 1890 with provisions, such as a poll tax and literacy test, that raised barriers to voter registration and disenfranchised most blacks. Referring to the 1890 Mississippi state constitution, Vardaman said: Vardaman was commissioned as a major in the US Army during the Spanish–American War and served in Puerto Rico. Vardaman ran twice in Democratic primaries for governor, in 1895 and 1899, but was not successful. The state was virtually one-party, and winning the Democratic primary was tantamount to victory in the general election for any office. In 1903 Vardaman won the primary and the general elections for governor, serving one four-year term (1904–1908). In the election, he said that "a vote for Vardaman is a vote for white supremacy, a vote for the quelling of the arrogant spirit that has been aroused in the blacks by Roosevelt and his henchmen, ...a vote for the safety of the home and the protection of our women and children." In late December 1906, he went to Scooba, in rural Kemper County, with the Mississippi National Guard, to ensure that control was established. Whites had rioted against blacks there and in Wahalak and feared retaliation; in total, two white men were killed and 13 blacks. The events were covered by the Associated Press and the New York Times, among other newspapers. By 1910, his political coalition of chiefly poor white farmers and industrial workers began to identify proudly as "rednecks." They began to wear red neckerchiefs to political rallies and picnics. Vardaman advocated a policy of state-sponsored racism against blacks and said that he supported lynching to maintain white supremacy. From 1877 to 1950, Mississippi had the highest number of lynchings in the nation. He was known as the "Great White Chief." Vardaman was elected to the US Senate in 1912 in the first popular election of the state's senators by defeating the incumbent LeRoy Percy, a member of the planter elite. He ran on a platform of repealing the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment, which gave blacks the vote and other rights. Vardaman served one term, from 1913 until 1919. He was defeated in his primary re-election bid in 1918. The main factor in his defeat was his vote against the US declaration of war on Germany and the entry into World War I. Only five other senators voted with him. Vardaman ran in the Democratic primary for the US Senate in 1922 but was defeated in the primary runoff by US Representative Hubert Stephens by 9,000 votes. Rhetoric Vardaman was known for his provocative speeches and quotes and once called Theodore Roosevelt a "little, mean, coon-flavored miscegenationist." In reference to the education of black children, he remarked, "The only effect of Negro education is to spoil a good field hand and make an insolent cook." "The knowledge of books does not seem to produce any good substantial result with the Negro, but serves to sharpen his cunning, breeds hopes that cannot be fulfilled, creates an inclination to avoid labor, promotes indolence, and in turn leads to crime." After the president of Tuskegee University, Booker T. Washington, had dined with Roosevelt, Vardaman said that the White House was "so saturated with the odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable." Referring to Washington's role in politics, Vardaman said: "I am opposed to the nigger’s voting, it matters not what his advertised moral and mental qualifications may be. I am just as much opposed to Booker Washington, with all his Anglo-Saxon reenforcement, voting, as I am to voting by the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon, Andy Dotson, who blacks my shoes every morning. Neither one is fit to perform the supreme functions of citizenship." Personal life, death and legacy Vardaman married Anna Burleson Robinson. Their son, James K. Vardaman, Jr., later was appointed as Governor of the Federal Reserve System, serving from 1946 to 1958. Vardaman died on June 25, 1930, at the age of 68, at Birmingham Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama. In July 2017, the University of Mississippi announced that Vardaman's name would be removed from a building that has borne his name since it was built in 1929, but it still has not been removed as of June 2020. In William Faulkner's novel As I Lay Dying, a character in the Bundren family is named after the Governor, presumably because the Bundrens are a family of poor, rural whites, one of Governor Vardaman's key constituencies. References Further reading External links 1861 births 1930 deaths American Methodists American white supremacists Burials in Mississippi Governors of Mississippi Politicians from Birmingham, Alabama People of the Spanish–American War United States senators from Mississippi Speakers of the Mississippi House of Representatives People from Yalobusha County, Mississippi Mississippi Democrats Democratic Party United States senators People from Jackson County, Texas American lynching defenders History of racism in Mississippi Progressivism in the United States Left-wing populism in the United States	[ -0.25283312797546387, 0.1423274576663971, -0.915537416934967, 0.12521739304065704, 0.3454270362854004, 0.358455628156662, 0.6860683560371399, 0.13387377560138702, -0.5007038116455078, 0.05925161391496658, 0.24822336435317993, 0.41852056980133057, -0.7058455944061279, 0.9553508162498474, -0.25043272972106934, 0.06233932077884674, -0.23613031208515167, 0.08213736861944199, -0.033155523240566254, 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231531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20government	Shadow government	Shadow government may refer to: Government 'Shadow government' may refer to: An opposition grouping in a parliamentary system that mimics the structure of the actual government, in particular its cabinet (see Shadow Cabinet) A term for plans for an emergency government that takes over in the event of a disaster, see continuity of government A Government-in-exile Shadow government (conspiracy), a conspiracy theory of a secret government Arts and entertainment Shadow Government, a 2009 film by Cloud Ten Pictures "The Shadow Government", a song on the 2007 album The Else by They Might Be Giants "The Shadow Government", a sketch on the former radio show Morning Sedition The Shadow of Government, 2007 novel by Saudi writer Mundhir al-Qabbani See also Deep state (disambiguation) Government in exile Shadow Government Statistics (Shadowstats.com), a website that offers alternatives to U.S. government economic statistics 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231533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MZ%20Motorrad-%20und%20Zweiradwerk	MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk	Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH (formerly MZ Motorrad- und Zweiradwerk GmbH) is a German motorcycle manufacturer located in Zschopau, Saxony. The acronym MZ since 1956 stands for Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH (German for Zschopau engine factory). From 1992 to 1999 the company was called MuZ, an acronym for Motorrad und Zweiradwerk (German for motorcycle and two-wheeler factory). Timeline 1906 Jørgen Skafte Rasmussen (Denmark) buys an empty cloth factory in Zschopau 1907 engine supplier, producing engines for bicycles, motor-assisted bicycle 1917 Rasmussen invents the steam-powered car (Dampf-Kraft-Wagen), also known by its trademark DKW 1920 Release of the 2-stroke engines for motorcycles 1923 Company is renamed DKW 1924 DKW buys Slaby-Beringer 1927 Company starts racing activities 1928 DKW takes over the Audi factory at Zwickau 1929 60,000 motorcycles leave the Zschopau factory, and DKW is the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world 1931 Introduction of DKW small cars 1932 The Auto Union is formed from Audi, Horch, Wanderer and DKW 1939 RT 125 is developed 1948 Now owned by the East German state, company is renamed Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau (IFA), a Communist-controlled umbrella foundation. 1949 Auto Union (and therefore, DKW) officially moves to Ingolstadt, Bavaria in West Germany. 1950 The Zschopau works begin production of the RT 125 model, developed before the war, under the trademark IFA (Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau). This model had become patent-free after World War II as part of war reparations and was further developed in Britain (BSA Bantam), USA (Harley-Davidson Hummer), Russia (M-1A Moskva), Japan, Italy and West Germany. 1952 The BK350 appears, the first two-stroke shaft drive. 1956 The works is now called VEB Motorradwerk Zschopau, or MZ for short. 1962 Manufacture of the ES 125/ES 150 begins. This was the first motorcycle with an asymmetric low beam headlight pattern. 1970 The millionth motorcycle rolls off the conveyor belt, an MZ ETS 250 Trophy Sport 1972 MZ takes over manufacture of sidecars from Stoye. 1983 The two millionth motorcycle rolls off the conveyor belt, this time an MZ ETZ 250. With disc brakes (drum brakes remained an option) and 12-volt electrics the MZ had reached the modern standard in motorcycle design. 1989 MZ ceases manufacture of sidecars. 1990 MZ is privatised on 18 December. 1993 MZ enters receivership, and the ETZ patent is sold to the Turkish firm Kanuni, which continued producing models 251 and 301. The MuZ company is formed from the remnant. 1996 MuZ is bought by the Malaysian corporation Hong Leong Group 1999 The u is dropped from the name MuZ. 2008 – On 9 June, Motor Cycle News reports that MZ is to cease operations at the end of 2008 because the company's Malaysian backers had withdrawn their financial support after years of continuing losses. 2008 – On 12 December, the MZ factory in Zschopau closes, halting motorcycle production that had lasted 88 years in the same town. The old 'East German' factory had become a night club, called MZWerk in 1992. the production had moved to Hohndorf since 1995. 2009 – Former Grand Prix stars Ralf Waldmann and Martin Wimmer together with his wife Dr. Martina Häger buy the MZ motorcycle brand and found Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH. The asset deal goes through on 23 March 2009 for a reported four million euros. The cash is put up Dr. Martina Häger 90% and Ralf Waldmann 10%. The new board consists of Martin Wimmer, Dr Martina Häger, Ralph Waldmann, Helmut Lichtenberg and Otto Elbers. Wimmer takes the role of MZ Managing Director. As the companies financing for starting a production is not yet secured, the State of Saxony through the Minister of Finance, Prof. Dr. Georg Unland, commits to a local state bank guarantee in August 2009. The business plan consisted of building bicycles, motorcycles as well as developing block heating cogeneration stations of different sizes. There were plans for the firm to produce a road bike based on the Moto2 GP project bike. 2011 – It took two years until the local state bank guarantee was handed out in connection with the financing bank, Merkur Bank of Munich, Germany. Also investor Peter Ertel, a company shareholder since 2010, pays out Dr. Martina Häger and Ralf Waldmann in July 2011. He becomes the main shareholder of Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH. 2012 – In February 2012, the company struggled as two customers don't pay their bills totalling 530,000 euros. In addition, the company Clean Mobile AG, Munich, a supplier for the electric drive units of the E-bike production has to declare insolvency. One of the customers of MZ also does not pay his bills with them. The complete production of E-bike comes to a stop. In August 2012, MZ CEO Wimmer gets a loan offer from Merkur Bank based on the companies cash deposit at the bank. He had found a new investor to overcome the companies difficulties and needed to bridge the time until the investment could be closed. Unforeseeable, beginning of September 2012, Merkur Bank withdrew their loan offer. According to German law, Wimmer was forced to file for insolvency proceedings according to German law on September 7, 2012. This despite the fact, that the company had enough assets to continue business. At a meeting held on September 21, 2014, including all creditors and employees, Wimmer gets their consent and extension agreements to continue to run the company, only Merkur Bank want to have an internal meeting on September 24, 2012, before their decision. In the afternoon of September 24, 2012 they withdrew their support. On September 28, 2012, insolvency lawyer Junker gets appointed and thus Wimmer gets detracted to run the company. Nevertheless, he convinces Junker to have Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH present all their products on the world's biggest motorcycle show, Intermot in Cologne starting on October 2. Everything had been prepared including the launch of the world's first motorcycle with a variable valvelift and valve timing cylinder head, the MZ RT 125. Motorcycle News reports about the revolutionary engine. After the show, starting October 6, 2012, Wimmer tries to save the company by finding investors to get rid of Junker. In a letter to the Merkur Bank dated October 12 the funds deposited are requested to be paid out. Merkur Bank withheld the funds and refused to pay them out. On November 5, 2012, the insolvency proceedings became irrevocable by a court decision. On November 19, 2012, Merkur Bank now do pay out the funds requested before, but meanwhile they own all assets of Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH as they had been given as guarantee for their bank credits. 2013 In January investor Peter Ertel sued Merkur Bank. In April Merkur Bank countersued Ertel and included Wimmer. In June Wimmer countersued Merkur Bank for the loss of his shares in Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH. The case is still ongoing under the file reference 3O 565/13 before the Landgericht Munich I, the local court in Munich, Germany. The insolvency lawyer Junker does not find any successors for Wimmer and Ertel and declares that he is unable to continue to run Motorenwerke Zschopau GmbH on April 30, 2013. On May 17, Motorcycle News reports that MZ is declared insolvent and unable to be continued. The Zschopau works was one of the oldest motorcycle factories in the world, producing motorcycles since 1922. They were the first company to develop the two-stroke engine for vehicles and were the leader in two-stroke development worldwide. Rasmussen had begun the motorcycle production under the brand name DKW. Later he also started the car company DKW cars. In the world economic crises of 1929, four local car manufacturers under the leadership of Rasmussen's DKW founded Auto Union, nowadays known as Audi AG car manufacturer. The best known models from Zschopau later were the two-stroke 125/150 and 250 series, with the variants ES, ETS, TS and ETZ. In the 1950s, MZ was the world leader in two-stroke engines. Especially through the work of their racing engineer and department leader Walter Kaaden their engines became nearly unbeatable and in 1961 they nearly won the world championships in the 125 cc class against Soichiro Honda's four-stroke engines. The championship was lost through one of the biggest spy scandals in motorcycle history. The factory rider Ernst Degner fled from East Germany and brought all their knowledge to Suzuki. Walter Kaaden's secret was stolen. He had developed the two-stroke exhaust pipe, known as expansion chamber. In 1962, with his stolen knowledge that he brought to Suzuki he won the first world title for the Japanese manufacturer. The British author Mat Oxley wrote a book about this scandal: Stealing Speed. Later MZ was one of the few producers that made motorcycles with sidecars, though prior to 1972 sidecars were manufactured by Stoye. A later version named the MuZ Voyager was an Austrian 500 cc, four-valve, rotax-equipped, retro-styled standard, custom-painted to match the model #562 sidecar made by Velorex of Czechoslovakia. However, a cease and desist order was issued in the early 1990s by Kawasaki, who owned the rights to that name, and MuZ subsequently renamed the motorcycle the Silverstar, and the sidecar-equipped version the Silverstar Gespann. Only after Hong Leong Group took over the lead of MZ Motorrad und Zweiradwerke GmbH the funding was secured to invest in the development of new engines and motorcycles. They developed with the German MZ engineers the models MZ 1000s and MZ RT 125 (with a four-stroke engine) and as a successor model to one of the most famous and copied motorcycle models in the world, the MZ RT125. Sports Activities started in 1927. Enduro Winner of International Six Day Trial: 1963, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1987. Road racing 1958 first wins in 125/250 cc and an overall second championship 250 cc The MZ two-stroke engines, developed by engineer Walter Kaaden, have influenced motorcycle racing for decades. His 1961 125 cc race engine design was the first to achieve an output of per litre. His revolutionary two-stroke system was copied widely in the 1960s by Japanese manufacturers. Suzuki two-stroke engines became competitive in motor sport only after they gained possession of Kaaden's MZ design secrets from racer Ernst Degner after his defection from East Germany in 1961. MZs were ridden to 13 GP victories and 105 rostrum places between 1955 and 1976. The East German government did not support the international racing aspirations of MZ. The defection to the West of Grand Prix rider Ernst Degner, complete with his theft of a set of secrets, started the end of the glory years of Kaadens bikes. The MZ Skorpion Sport 660 cc single got its own MuZ-cup racing series in several countries at the end of the nineties. It is famous for its precise handling. It is still a popular mount for club racing and Supermono racing. The Yamaha-based engine can be reliably tuned to 150 percent of its original performance. At that stage, it can become competitive in Supermono racing classes and in single and twin-cylinder racing classes. The MZ ETZ 250 and 251 are currently being used in club racing around Britain, providing budget racing for those who want to race with all of the fun but less of the expense. The home of MZ racing is the BMZRC or British M Z Racing Club. In 2010 MZ under Wimmer started to compete in the new Moto 2 Grand Prix class with the rider Anthony West (motorcycle racer). After initial problems (MZ were the only manufacturers to use a steel frame) Peter Rubatto, known in Germany as Mr. Superbike, took over the race team management from Ralf Waldmann. MZ scored World Championship points and managed to be in the front row of the USA Indianapolis GP in 2010. In 2011 the MZ Racing Team was extended to 2 riders, Anthony West and Max Neukirchner. The riders were managed by Marco Nicotari (Max Neukirchner) and Warren Willing (Anthony West). In the last race of the season 2011, Anthony West had a bad starting position but ran through the field. He nearly won the first Grand Prix for MZ since the 1960s. The season 2012 was unsuccessful under the influence of the financial problems. At the end of August 2012 the team had to withdraw from racing. Notable models RT 125: 1939–1962 and 2000-today ES125/150 Pressed steel frame with Earles type front suspension. Four speed, six volt, pre-mix. ES250 : Utilized a pressed steel body with Earles type front suspension. ETS250 : Sports version of the ES but with more traditional type of tank and telescopic forks. The distinctive fuel tank makes this model a desirable classic motorcycle. TS125/150 : Direct descendants of the RT125, and the last MZs to use "premix" fuel and a 6-volt electrical system. TS250: Developed from the ES/ETS machines but with a new frame. The engine hung from the top beam pivoting at the rear with no front down tube. Early models were four-speed machines with the vertical finned cylinder head but the later machines had the flat top engine and five-speed gear box, the basis of the later models. These models were all 6-volt and pre-mix fuel. ETZ250 : The first road going MZ to include a disk front brake and automatic oil injection. There has been a special model ETZ250A which equipped the GDR's army and has been exported to several countries of the former east block. ETZ251 : Derived from the ETZ250 but with modifications to the motor and chassis. A 300 cc version was also marketed. ETZ125/150 : Similar to the ETZ251 in appearance but with an updated 125/150 motor, now with the flat-topped cylinder head, five-speed gearbox and autolube. The design of the engine was still derived from the original DKW design, apparent from the concentric kick start and gear lever arrangement. 500R : MZ's first four-stroke motorcycle, essentially an ETZ251 with a Rotax 500 cc engine fitted, although the engine was no longer rubber mounted and a front down tube provided extra support. MZ Skorpion: The 500 cc Rotax engine used on the Seymour-Powell designed prototype was replaced with a 660 cc Yamaha water-cooled engine on the production vehicle. MZ 1000S: MZ's biggest bike, and their first "in-house" four-stroke engine. The MZ 1000S is the most powerful inline twin cylinder engine worldwide. UK Importer "Specials" Back in the early 1980s in the UK, MZ were regarded by the motorcycle press as producing ugly and old-fashioned (if worthy) motorcycles. The then importer, Wilf Green, decided to try and update the image of the bikes by producing his own modified versions of the TS125, christened the “Pathfinder” and the “Sport”. Both bikes were, in essence, standard TS125 deluxe models with remodelled fuel tanks and a remodelled, shortened GRP rear mudguard. The Sport also had a re-sculpted seat whereas the Pathfinder was transformed into a budget trial bike with the addition of knobbly tyres, high level front mudguard, motocross bars, high level exhaust and remodelled airbox. Neither bike was produced in great numbers. Wilf Green subsequently created the ETZ300 (as distinct from the later, factory produced ETZ301), which was essentially a standard ETZ250 with a re-bored (and slightly restyled) engine, cockpit fairing and revised decals. Shortly after releasing this bike, however, Wilf Green lost the MZ import franchise meaning an end to importer-modified special editions in the UK. Most recent models MZ manufactured a line of 125 cc four-stroke motorcycles using an engine that was designed in-house. The MZ 125 produces and nearly of torque. It is a liquid-cooled, dual-overhead-cam design with four valves, high-voltage electronic ignition and an 11,000 rpm ignition cut-off. This engine was used in four models, all of which share a common frame. The frame is a tube-steel backbone with the engine as a stressed bottom member. Differences in the suspension, fascia, gearing, and equipment make the four models relatively distinct, despite the shared platform. All four bikes feature a six-speed transmission and dual disc brakes. The RT-125 is a mini naked sport bike introduced in 2000. It features a 125 cc liquid-cooled DOHC single-cylinder engine, developing 15 bhp. The 125-SM is a Supermotard style bike with taller street tuned suspension, tallish gearing, and reduced weight. The 125-SX features the same appearance as the SM but has a suspension tuned more for off-road use, enduro-style tires, and slightly lower gear ratios. The 125 FunX is a minimalist light-duty motocross bike. All four 125s are capable of speeds over , with the fastest being the RT and SM, both of which are capable of sustained speeds. MZ also used a Yamaha-built 660 cc single in the Baghira line of mid-displacement Enduro/DualPurpose/Motard bikes. The last new MZ model was the 1000S which featured a novel 1000 cc, DOHC parallel twin designed and built by MZ. The 1000S is a sport-tourer by design. The 1000S' unique engine is exceptionally compact for its displacement. The range includes a naked (unfaired) version and a full tourer with luggage, higher handlebars, and lower footpegs for comfort. Both of these are retuned, with less outright horsepower than the 'S', but with more torque. In addition to the 1000S, MZ also produced the naked version of the 1000S, known as the MZ1000SF, and the sports touring version called the MZ1000ST. MZ also produces its own lines of scooters called the MZ Moskito, powered by a 50 cc two-stroke engine. Besides scooters, MZ also produced its own line of underbone motorcycles, targeted for the Southeast Asian market. Their debut underbone model was the MZ Perintis 120, launched in 2002. The Perintis was succeeded by the MZ Mantizz series, launched in 2004. The Mantizz series has two displacement options – 125 cc and 110 cc. All MZ underbone models are powered by four-stroke engines and are manufactured in MZ's Malaysian plant in Shah Alam. MZ also competed in the European GP-500 class with race-only models, and built several scooter and ATV models ranging in displacement from 50 cc to 185 cc, as well as the Charlie electric scooter, the fastest stand-up electric scooter produced. As of January 2010 only the Charlie electric scooter is in production, and the company is under new owners. References Further reading External links Vintage MZ Motorcycles Motorcycle manufacturers of Germany Companies based in Saxony German brands Sidecars Industrieverband Fahrzeugbau 1906 establishments in Germany	[ 0.6405534744262695, 0.6322717666625977, 0.438443660736084, 0.16958053410053253, 0.15406747162342072, 0.3105083703994751, 0.435577392578125, -0.6646717190742493, -0.26901501417160034, 0.06432149559259415, -0.2068452388048172, 0.24232777953147888, 0.24806766211986542, 0.6714234948158264, -0.3953307867050171, 0.5099555850028992, 0.5277255177497864, 0.2822813093662262, -0.5878404378890991, -0.809287965297699, 0.7075065970420837, -0.2979574203491211, 1.165005087852478, 0.3950004577636719, -0.2658786475658417, 0.25135016441345215, 0.8400017619132996, 0.8053686618804932, -0.07060150057077408, 0.17618896067142487, -0.015801366418600082, 0.4746953248977661, -0.1804674118757248, 0.3508947789669037, 0.529123842716217, 0.012085182592272758, 0.3010489046573639, -0.6584183573722839, 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231535	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Bennett%20%28flautist%29	William Bennett (flautist)	William Ingham Brooke Bennett (born 7 February 1936) is a British flute player. Early life and studies Bennett was born in London to parents who were both architects. He boarded at Beltane School until he was 16, starting his school life as a seven-year-old during the Second World War. He started playing the recorder at the age of 8 and the flute at 12. He studied the flute in London with Geoffrey Gilbert from the age of 15 and went to the Guildhall School of Music and Drama a year later. Instead of doing two years of compulsory national military service after the war, he chose instead to serve three years in the Scots Guards band, which allowed him to continue his studies at the Guildhall School of Music. He went to Paris on a French government scholarship at 21, where he had lessons with Fernand Caratgé and Jean-Pierre Rampal. Later he studied with Marcel Moyse. Career and recordings At the age of 22, he started working in his first principal flute position in the BBC Northern orchestra (now the BBC Philharmonic). He has played with most of the major British orchestras, including the BBC Northern (Philharmonic), Sadlers Wells Opera, the London Symphony Orchestra, the English Chamber Orchestra and the Academy of St Martin-in-the-Fields. He has played and recorded with chamber music ensembles, including the Melos Ensemble.[1], Nash Ensemble, Vesuvius Ensemble, Prometheus Ensemble and English Baroque Ensemble . As a soloist he has had partnerships with harpsichordist George Malcolm (with whom he recorded the complete Bach flute sonatas and Mozart concertos) and with pianist Clifford Benson and harpist Osian Ellis, with whom he has recorded extensively. In his solo recordings he has partnered Yehudi Menuhin, the Grumiaux Trio, I Musici, the Academy of St. Martin-in-the-Fields, and the English Chamber Orchestra, and has also recorded with artists such as Jimi Hendrix and Wynton Marsalis. He has made over 100 CDs as a soloist. He has received international acclaim and enthusiastic reviews in record and CD journals. Early in his career he made the first English recording of the complete Handel flute sonatas with Harold Lester, and of contemporary works including Boulez's Sonatine, Berio's Sequenza, Messiaen's Merle Noir, and Richard Rodney Bennett's Winter Music (which was specially written for him.) In addition to recording the standard flute repertoire of Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Mozart, etc., he has made pioneer recordings of many neglected 19th century works, such as music by Ries, Romberg, and Taffanel. He premiered concertos by William Mathias, Diana Burrell and Venezuelan composer Raimundo Pineda, all of which were specially written for him. He has his own record label, "Beep Records". In the 1980s, he was Professor of Flute at the Hochschule für Musik Freiburg in Germany, and he now teaches at the Royal Academy of Music in London and at masterclasses all over the world. His highly acclaimed International Flute Summer School has enjoyed 35 years of success. Personal life Usually known by his initials, WIBB, Bennett has two daughters from his first marriage in 1961 to cellist Rhuna Martin. His eldest daughter, Vanora Bennett, is a writer; his younger daughter is an Arabist, who works as a translator for the international organizations. In 1981, he remarried Michie, a fellow flautist who is now producer and director of Beep Records; they have one son, Timothy, a Sinologist. Michie has run the International Flute Summer School for 35 years. Having grown up in a family circle of artists and painters, Bennett is a talented artist and cartoonist who draws with great pleasure and designs many of his own album covers. Musical style His playing is distinguished by his wide repertoire (baroque to through classical and romantic to contemporary). His playing is also distinguished by his wide range of tone colours, which he developed through his association with the guitar and his wish to emulate the changing colours used by the guitarist Julian Bream. He also studied composition at music college, having already written a sonatina for flute and piano whilst at school, and then a concerto for flute, clarinet and strings before he was 18. His compositional skills have aided him in writing numerous realisations of continuo parts, in composing several cadenzas for classical concertos, (which can be heard on his recordings), and in making many arrangements for the flute of important pieces which were originally written for other instruments. Awards and recognition In 1984 he was given the title of Professor by the District of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. In 1987 he was made an Honorary Member of the Royal Academy of Music. In 2002 he was awarded the National Flute Association's Lifetime Achievement Award, and in 2003 he was appointed the British Flute Society's Flautist Laureate. In 2004 he was awarded the title of Flute of Gold from the Italian Falaut Flute society. In 2007 he was made Honorary President of the Guangzhou Flute Association, China. In 2009 he was awarded the Lifetime Achievement Award by the Chicago Flute Club. He is President of the British Flute Society. He was awarded the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in January 1995 for his distinguished Services to Music. In 2018 he was awarded The COBBETT Medal by the Musician's Company. William Bennett scale In addition to making a balalaika and a guitar whilst still at school, his dissatisfaction with the intonation of his flute led him to start altering the position of the tone holes of his flute when he was 18 years old. He invented the tuning patch, and then built his own flute at 20. He has been working to improve the scale of the flute ever since, and his continued work, in collaboration with other British flautists and makers, has helped to improve the intonation of the modern flute. There are many makers who have used the William Bennett scales : Altus Flute, Jupiter Flute, Jack Moore Flute, Almeida Flute, Tom Green Flute, Miguel Arista Flute, Juan Arista Flute, Emmanuel Flute, Emerson Flute, Yamaha (Student model) Flute, Jonathan Landell Flute, Tom Lacy Flute, Andrew Oxley Flute, Webb & Wessel Flute and recently Eloy Flute, Gemeinhart Flute and Burkart Flute. Publications My Favorite Encores (Southern Music) Paul Taffanel: Mignon Fantasie (Southern Music) J.S. Bach: Six Sonatas for Flute and Keyboard (Vol. 1 and 2) (Chester) Sir Arthur Sullivan Twilight for 2 Flutes and Piano (Emerson Edition) Paul A. Genin: Air Napolitain (Alry Publications) Faure: Fantaisie for 2 Flutes and Piano (Alry Publications) J.S. Bach: Sinfonia Cantata No.209 (Pan Educational Music) Chopin: Nocturne in D-flat. for 2 Flutes and Piano (Alry Publications) C.Benson : Song for Wibb (Pan Educational Music) W.A.Mozart: Adagio and Rondo (Pan Educational Music) Paul Taffanel : Jean de Nivelle (Broekmans & Van Poppel B.V) Paul Taffanel : Francesca di Rimini (Broekmans & Van Poppel B.V) "Wibb" A Flute for Life by Edward Blakeman ( Tony Bingham ) Discography Too numerous to list here. For a more comprehensive list—Visit – ( ) Beep records BEEP 27: Works for Flute and Piano – Taffanel: Operatic Fantasies – William Bennett, flute, & Clifford Benson, piano. BEEP 28: Live at Wigmore Hall – Works for Flute and Piano – Bach, Mozart, Schubert. Mendelssohn, Ries. Reinecke – William Bennett, flute, Clifford Benson, piano BEEP 29: Works for Flute and Orchestra by Nielsen, Reinecke, Dvořák, Sibelius and Elgar – William Bennett, flute, English Chamber Orchestra, Shuntaro Sato, conductor. BEEP 30: Caprice Parisien – Works for Flute and Guitar – Ibert. Massenet. Debussy etc.- William Bennett, flute, Jonathan Leathwood, guitar. BEEP 31: Works for Flute and Orchestra – Haydn. Hanson. Honneger. Griffes. Kennan. Foote – William Bennett, flute, English Chamber Orchestra, Shuntaro Sato & Nicholas Cleobury, conductors. BEEP 32: Flute Quintets with Allegri String Quartet – Romberg, Jan Brandts Buys – William Bennett, flute, Allegri String Quartet. BEEP 33: Four Concertos for a New Era – Burrell, Mathias, Musgrave & Pineda – William Bennett, flute, English Chamber Orchestra, conducted by Raimundo Pineda & Richard Bernas. BEEP 34: Mountains Toward the Sea – Works for Flute and Guitar – Beaser, Coste, Dodgson, Molino, Takemitsu – William Bennett, flute, Jonathan Leathwood, guitar. BEEP 35: Works by Mozart for Flute and orchestra, including Flute & Harp Concerto, Rondo, Andante in C and Concerto for Basset Flute – William Bennett, flute, Marisa Robles, harp, English Chamber Orchestra, directed by William Bennett. BEEP 36: Bach Concertos for Flute and two Flutes – works by Rameau, Gluck, Beethoven, Haydn – William Bennett, flute, Denis Bouriakov, flute, English Chamber Orchestra, directed by William Bennett. BEEP 37: William Bennett's Melodies and Encores – Brahms, Chopin, Elgar, Mendelssohn, etc. – William Bennett, flute, Clifford Benson, piano. BEEP 38: Great Works for Flute and Piano – Schubert, Frank, Hahn, Dohnanyi, Prokofiev – William Bennett, flute, and Clifford Benson, piano. BEEP 39: Flute Concertos by CPE Bach in D major and D minor and Telemann concertos for two flutes and strings -William Bennett, flute, and Unji Chung, flute & flute tierce, English Chamber Orchestra & London Octave, directed by William Bennett. BEEP 40: Sibelius Concerto, Bach Chaconne Kreisler, Tchaikovsky, Saint-Saëns – Denis Bouriakov, flute, Robin Davis, piano. BEEP 41: Mel Bonis Sonata, Brahms Waltzes – William Bennett, flute, John Lenahan, piano, Lorna McGhee, flute, Emma Halnan, alto flute and flute. BEEP 42 Debussy Sonata – Lorna McGhee, flute, Piers Lane, piano. External links William Bennett – Royal Academy of Music William Bennet – IMDB British flautists English classical flautists Officers of the Order of the British Empire 1936 births Living people Academics of the Royal Academy of Music Musicians from London London Symphony Orchestra players	[ -0.12684723734855652, 0.5964717864990234, -0.12418638914823532, -0.8029217720031738, 0.1833735704421997, 0.5419988632202148, 0.48749828338623047, 0.022261131554841995, -0.16870328783988953, -0.08135353028774261, 0.18864981830120087, 0.12535786628723145, -0.3189007341861725, 0.33184200525283813, -0.09478800743818283, 0.5353208780288696, 0.11198583245277405, -0.42602190375328064, -0.6644510626792908, -0.5134745836257935, -0.009638822637498379, -0.9132580757141113, 0.510466456413269, 0.5297147631645203, -0.7319008111953735, 0.533602774143219, -0.13811743259429932, 0.2734059989452362, 0.13786351680755615, -0.41462409496307373, -0.12403171509504318, 1.1581419706344604, 0.4816391170024872, 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231537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Weather%20Emergency%20Operations%20Center	Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center	The Mount Weather Emergency Operations Center is a government command facility in the U.S. Commonwealth of Virginia, used as the center of operations for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Also known as the High Point Special Facility (HPSF), its preferred designation since 1991 is "SF." The facility is a major relocation site for the highest level of civilian and military officials in case of national disaster, playing a major role in continuity of government (per the U.S. Continuity of Operations Plan). Mount Weather is the location of a control station for the FEMA National Radio System (FNARS), a high frequency radio system connecting most federal public safety agencies and the U.S. military with most of the states. FNARS allows the president to access the Emergency Alert System. The site was brought into the public eye by The Washington Post, which mentioned the government facility in its coverage following the December 1, 1974 crash of TWA Flight 514, a Boeing 727 jetliner, into Mount Weather. Location Located in the Blue Ridge Mountains, access to the operations center is available via State Route 601 (also called Blueridge Mountain Road) in Bluemont, Virginia. The facility is located near Purcellville, Virginia, west of Washington, D.C. The site was originally opened as a weather station in the late 1800s. It was used as a Civilian Public Service facility (Camp #114) during World War II. At that time there were just two permanent buildings on the site: the administration/dormitory building, and the laboratory. Those buildings still stand, supplemented by many more modern buildings. The underground facility within Mount Weather, designated "Area B", was completed in 1959. FEMA established training facilities on the mountain's surface ("Area A") in 1979. The above-ground portion of the FEMA complex (Area A) is at least . This measurement includes a training area of unspecified size. Area B, the underground component, contains . Evacuations According to a letter to the editor of The Washington Post, after the September 11 attacks, most of the congressional leadership were evacuated to Mount Weather by helicopter. Between 1979 and 1981, the National Gallery of Art developed a program to transport valuable paintings in its collection to Mount Weather via helicopter. The success of the relocation would depend upon how far in advance warning of an attack was received. In the media The first video of Mount Weather shot from the air to be broadcast on national TV was filmed by ABC News producer Bill Lichtenstein, and was included in the 1983 20/20 segment "Nuclear Preparation: Can We Survive", featuring 20/20 correspondent Tom Jarriel. Lichtenstein flew over the Mount Weather facility with an ABC camera crew. The news magazine report also included House Majority Leader Tip O'Neill and Representative Ed Markey, confirming that there were contingency plans for the relocation of the United States government in the event of a nuclear war or major disaster. Both Mount Weather and the now deactivated bunker at The Greenbrier were featured in the A&E documentary Bunkers. The documentary, first broadcast on October 23, 2001, features extensive interviews with engineers and political and intelligence analysts, providing rare insights into the secret installations. The documentary compared The Greenbrier and Mount Weather to Saddam Hussein's control bunker buried beneath Baghdad. The documentary features interior video of The Greenbrier as well as the Baghdad bunker, which survived direct hits from seven Joint Direct Attack Munition bombs during the Battle of Baghdad in 2003. Author William Poundstone investigated Mount Weather in his 1989 book Bigger Secrets. In popular culture While the novel Seven Days in May mentions a facility called Mount Thunder, a reference to Mount Weather, but the road descriptions in the book make it quite clear that it is the same facility. It is also referred to in the movie based on the book, filmed during the Kennedy Administration and released in 1964. Mount Weather has been the setting for several apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fictional works. These include the 2002 series finale of The X-Files, the 2008 film The Day the Earth Stood Still, the novel series The 100, CW’s TV series The 100 and Syfy’s TV series Z Nation. Mount Weather is also mentioned in the novel Memorial Day by Vince Flynn, and in the novels One Year After and The Final Day, both by William R. Forstchen. It is also mentioned in the movie Thirteen Days, as well as CW's TV series Arrow; Season 4 Episode 22 "Lost in the Flood". It was the opening scenes of 2002 spy film, The Sum of All Fears based on the Tom Clancy novel of the same name. It is the setting for the 21st Season 2 episode of Earth: Final Conflict titled "Message in a Bottle." It was mentioned in Martin Mahle's espionage thriller GENESIS in 2016, and the last known mentioning of Mount Weather is in Season 4 episode 22 of Madam Secretary, "Night Watch." It’s also mentioned in William Coopers book, Behold a Pale Horse. See also Cheyenne Mountain Complex Military Auxiliary Radio System Raven Rock Mountain Complex Warrenton Training Center Notes References External links 1962 Mount Weather Operating Documents FEMA page on its Mt. Weather operations as saved by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine on March 30, 2005 1956 FBI memo concerning a "Plan C" emergency readiness exercise involving the High Point Communications Center Government buildings completed in 1959 Disaster preparedness in the United States 1959 establishments in Virginia United States Department of Homeland Security Buildings and structures in Clarke County, Virginia Buildings and structures in Loudoun County, Virginia Federal Emergency Management Agency Subterranea of the United States Nuclear bunkers in the United States Continuity of government in the United States Civilian Public Service	[ -0.19800899922847748, 0.562023401260376, 0.03832909092307091, -0.003639600006863475, -0.14932183921337128, -0.34657198190689087, 0.8834282755851746, 0.3139348328113556, -0.31030455231666565, -0.22240202128887177, -0.8000966906547546, 0.23081009089946747, -0.43983903527259827, 0.15139077603816986, -0.34011510014533997, 0.3008653223514557, 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231538	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selectivity%20%28radio%29	Selectivity (radio)	Selectivity is a measure of the performance of a radio receiver to respond only to the radio signal it is tuned to (such as a radio station) and reject other signals nearby in frequency, such as another broadcast on an adjacent channel. Selectivity is usually measured as a ratio in decibels (dB), comparing the signal strength received against that of a similar signal on another frequency. If the signal is at the adjacent channel of the selected signal, this measurement is also known as adjacent-channel rejection ratio (ACRR). Selectivity also provides some immunity to blanketing interference. LC circuits are often used as filters; the Q ("Quality" factor) determines the bandwidth of each LC tuned circuit in the radio. The L/C ratio, in turn, determines their Q and so their selectivity, because the rest of the circuit - the aerial or amplifier feeding the tuned circuit for example - will contain present resistance. For a series resonant circuit, the higher the inductance and the lower the capacitance, the narrower the filter bandwidth (meaning the reactance of the inductance, L, and the capacitance, C, at resonant frequency will be relatively high compared with the series source/load resistances). For a parallel resonant circuit the opposite applies; small inductances reduce the damping of external circuitry (see electronic oscillator). There are practical limits to the increase in selectivity with changing L/C ratio: tuning capacitors of large values can be difficult to construct stray capacitance, and capacitance within the transistors or valves of associated circuitry, may become significant (and vary with time) the series resistance internal to the wire in the coil, may be significant (for parallel tuned circuits especially) large inductances imply physically large (and expensive coils) and/or thinner wire (hence worse internal resistance). Therefore other methods may be used to increase selectivity, such as Q multiplier circuits and regenerative receivers. Superheterodyne receivers allow use one or more fixed intermediate frequency tuned circuits for selectivity. Fixed tuning eliminates the requirement that multiple tuning stages accurately match while being adjusted. See also "Practical RF circuit design for modern wireless systems", volume I, by Les Besser and Rowan Gilmore; chapter 3.2.6, "Receiver selectivity" (p. 113), . References Electrical parameters Broadcast engineering	[ 0.0459204725921154, -0.08495671302080154, -0.04795434698462486, -0.08532820641994476, -0.4784238338470459, -0.3886871933937073, 0.4713969826698303, -0.7710545659065247, 0.26363813877105713, -0.2360399216413498, -0.42970994114875793, 1.125511646270752, -0.2611877918243408, 0.07020734995603561, -0.8752239942550659, 1.03684663772583, 0.7952253818511963, 0.4275858700275421, -0.26725614070892334, -0.1527937948703766, 0.09812755137681961, 0.15230046212673187, 0.10127744823694229, -0.607689380645752, 0.6762214303016663, 0.05446665734052658, 0.1516476422548294, -0.029001154005527496, -0.22028057277202606, 0.15003876388072968, 0.1352166086435318, 0.32803043723106384, -0.41993871331214905, -0.05914264917373657, 0.11391830444335938, 0.2949233949184418, 0.7001001238822937, -0.16558775305747986, -0.09893592447042465, -0.24883490800857544, -0.05267750099301338, -0.31905597448349, 0.4105517566204071, 0.6425358653068542, -0.5437843203544617, 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231544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aladdin%20Deck%20Enhancer	Aladdin Deck Enhancer	The Aladdin Deck Enhancer is a system-enhancing adaptor to use Compact Cartridges on the Nintendo Entertainment System. It was produced by Camerica and developed by Codemasters but not licensed by Nintendo. It is similar to the Datach system for the Famicom, but without the Barcode feature. It was released in November 1992, with its planned library to reach a total 24 games by the end of 1993. However, only seven games were actually released. Hardware Invented by Richard Darling, the Aladdin Deck Enhancer contains a bypass Security Circuit Chip, a Memory Control Chip, and a Graphics Chip, which work with the lock-out chip and other features inside the Nintendo Entertainment System. First, the Compact Cartridge is inserted into the Aladdin Deck Enhancer, which is shaped the same as a standard NES cartridge, and then this is inserted into the Control Deck. Inside the slot where the Compact Cartridge is placed is a recessed switch, which changes the Security/Region settings from position A to position B. The device contains 8 kilobytes of RAM for graphics use, much like 24.7% of all other NES games released in the U.S. The purpose for the Aladdin Deck Enhancer is to provide a cheaper means with which to make the game cartridges mainly because each cartridge requires its own 10NES lock-out chip, RAM, and extra circuitry. Its faulty design prevented it from working on almost any NES variant released, and it only works with the original model. It can even fry the Top Loader model, which is basically to prove that the developers of the machine haven't even tested it on several NES models such as Famiclones. Camerica was one of the major purveyors of unlicensed NES games, so the Deck Enhancer was a logical creation for them. Also, since the slot for the actual game is much smaller, less material is needed to produce a cartridge. However, by the time the product was released the Super NES and Mega Drive/Genesis were already released and the product never had a sizable installed base to warrant a large amount of software. Camerica never recovered from the release and shortly after was forced to close down. This led to a small number of game systems produced, which in turn made it a valuable collectible. Dizzy Prince of the Yolkfolk by Codemasters, designed by the Oliver Twins, was enhanced for the NES release and retitled Dizzy the Adventurer and originally bundled with the Aladdin released in November 1992. It is the only Aladdin game not released on a normal-sized NES cartridge. Only another six games were ever released, all primarily from the Codemasters library. More games were listed as "Coming Soon", but never released as Aladdin cartridges. CJ's Elephant Antics was not released as a standalone game at all but is part of the Quattro Arcade NES cartridge, which contains three other games. Aladdin games are typically identical to their standalone counterparts with a few exceptions. The Fantastic Adventures of Dizzy is the only one to receive any improvement, having a faster character, changed items system, 250 instead of 100 stars to collect, and other smaller changes. Games Each game for the Aladdin Deck Enhancer comes in a small cardboard box with a punched out hole at its top for it to be hung on a peg. Inside instead of having the typical instruction booklet with many pages stapled together, they have instructions like a fold-out brochure or poster. Big Nose Freaks Out: This is the second of two games starring Big Nose, in addition to Big Nose the Caveman. Both are platform adventure games. In this adventure he rolls along on his wheel board, which is somewhat like a skateboard but with only one wheel, holding his trusty club and the occasional rocks. Bones are considered money in his time and Big Nose has gotten all his bones stolen, and must journey through this prehistoric land and get them back. Dizzy the Adventurer: Dizzy is an egg-shaped hero with red boots and gloves. In this sixth game in the Dizzy series, Dizzy and Daisy were tricked into entering an old castle by the Evil Wizard Zaks. There, Daisy pricks her finger and fell into a mysterious sleep, while Dizzy is imprisoned. He must escape and find a way to wake his girlfriend, but along the way he must solve many puzzles by bringing the right item to the right place. The Fantastic Adventures of Dizzy: An award-winning game by Codemasters, and seventh game in the Dizzy series. This time Dizzy must rescue his kidnapped girlfriend and help the rest of the Yolkfolk. Along the way, he must face numerous dangers, collect stars to get into the castle and solve various puzzles. Linus Spacehead's Cosmic Crusade: This is Linus's second adventure for the Aladdin Deck Enhancer; the other is on the Quattro Adventure cartridge. Linus is home at last on his own planet Linoleum and must get a car and camera and go back to Earth and take pictures then return home. It is part click-and-move adventure/puzzle and part side-scroller platform game. Micro Machines: This is a licensed product of the Micro Machines toy line. It is a racing game where the player controls miniature cars that drive over household environments such as tables, floors, a sandbox, and a bathtub. Quattro Adventure: This is a cartridge of four adventure-platform games. Boomerang Kid, has tossed away all the boomerangs of his town and now must go after them. Super Robin Hood, Robin Hood must save his beloved Marion by searching the Castle for keys and switches while avoiding guards and other obstacles. Treasure Island Dizzy is the second game in the Dizzy series. Dizzy the hero goes sailing one day gets lost in a storm and finds himself on a mysterious island, he must discover all the coins, located on the island and then how to get off the island, while solving various puzzles. Linus Spacehead, while in a race, has crashed his space ship into the Earth and needs to get back home. He must pick up the pieces of his radio so he can signal home. He is only able to jump and duck while he moves through the various levels while being attacked by things such as fish, birds, coconuts, and bats. Quattro Sports: This is a cartridge of four sports games. Baseball Pro's is a worldwide baseball game where the player competes against teams from around the world with one or two players. Soccer Simulator is a top view soccer game where the player competes against teams from around the world with one or two players. Pro Tennis is a tournament based game with two player option. BMX Simulator is a licensed product of the BMX sports bike line, where the player controls a bicycle rider in a top view looking down at the track, similar to Super Sprint. Unreleased games The following games were announced, but were cancelled. Bee 52 Big Nose the Caveman CJ's Elephant Antics DreamWorld Pogie F16 Renegade Go! Dizzy Go! Metal Man Mig 29 Soviet Fighter Stunt Kids Team Sports Basketball The Ultimate Stuntman See also List of Nintendo Entertainment System accessories References Codemasters games Nintendo Entertainment System accessories Unlicensed Nintendo hardware Products introduced in 1992	[ -0.5085532665252686, -0.15589840710163116, 0.3553276062011719, 0.6172915697097778, -0.019130773842334747, -0.4036952555179596, -0.36228346824645996, -0.42937061190605164, -0.05527060106396675, -0.01175688486546278, -0.3369261622428894, 0.7326507568359375, -0.31562042236328125, 0.2811354398727417, 0.24888110160827637, 0.019287968054413795, 0.2000998705625534, 0.5695685148239136, -0.5555042028427124, -0.39062708616256714, 0.1561492383480072, -0.3732481896877289, 0.6045740842819214, -0.6132804751396179, -0.20274075865745544, -0.1024806797504425, 0.6031211018562317, 0.3703455924987793, -0.3167531192302704, 0.14785853028297424, -0.16613121330738068, 0.6894997954368591, 0.22134871780872345, -0.992431104183197, 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231546	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20King%20of%20Fighters	The King of Fighters	The King of Fighters (KOF) is a series of fighting games by SNK that began with the release of The King of Fighters '94 in 1994. The series was developed originally for SNK's Neo Geo MVS arcade hardware. This served as the main platform for the series until 2004 when SNK retired it in favor of the Atomiswave arcade board. Two King of Fighters games were produced for the Atomiswave platform (The King of Fighters Neowave and The King of Fighters XI) before SNK decided to discontinue using it for the series. The series' most recent arcade hardware is the Taito Type X2, first used with the release of The King of Fighters XII. Ports of the arcade games and the original The King of Fighters games have been released for several video game consoles. The latest entry in the series, The King of Fighters XIV, was released for PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows in 2016. The next game, The King of Fighters XV, was released in February 2022. The games' story focuses on the title tournament where fighters from multiple SNK games take part. SNK also created original characters to serve as protagonists from each of their story arcs while still interacting with fighters from Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury, among others. Multiple spin-off games, such as the R duology for the Neo Geo Pocket and Maximum Impact for the PlayStation 2, for example, have also been released. There have been multiple cross-over games where the SNK cast interacted with characters created by Capcom, while some characters have been present as guest characters in other games, such as Geese Howard in Tekken 7, Kyo Kusanagi in Fighting Days, and Terry Bogard in Fighting EX Layer and Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. The King of Fighters was originally conceptualized as a side-scrolling beat 'em up titled Survivor until SNK changed it to a fighting game that took its subtitle from the first Fatal Fury game: Fatal Fury: King of Fighters. Though originally released yearly from its first inception, the company decided to take more time to develop their games after 2010. Critical reception of the video games have been generally positive with their use of teams and balanced gameplay often cited. Games Main series SNK released the first game in the series, The King of Fighters '94, on August 25, 1994. It featured characters from SNK's previous fighting game series Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting, as well as original characters (including characters from other franchises such as Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier, adapted for a versus fighting game). The game's success led SNK to release yearly installments for the series numbering the games for the year they were released. The King of Fighters '95, as well as adding new characters, began the series' first story arc titled "The Orochi Saga". It was also the first game in the series that allowed players to create their own three-member teams with any character in the game. The King of Fighters '96 established the second part of "The Orochi Saga". Depending on the playable characters on a team, an exclusive ending would be played. "The Orochi Saga" story arc concluded in The King of Fighters '97. Unlike the series' previous games, The King of Fighters '98 did not feature a story. Instead, it was promoted as a "Dream Match" game that allowed players to choose most of the characters available from the previous titles, including ones that were supposedly dead. SNK refitted the Dreamcast version and renamed it The King of Fighters: Dream Match 1999 with an extended cel animated introduction and 3D backgrounds. The King of Fighters '99 introduced "The NESTS Chronicles" story arc. In a new tactic, a specific person from a team would be an assistant called a "Striker". This person would be able to aid the team for a few seconds in combat. The Dreamcast version was titled The King of Fighters: Evolution, with several improvements in the game such as new Strikers and better animation. The King of Fighters 2000 is the second part of "The NESTS Saga" as well as the last KOF game produced by SNK before its bankruptcy. It adds a few new playable characters and a couple of Strikers—most from earlier KOF titles and other SNK franchises such as Metal Slug, Robo Army, Burning Fight, Buriki One, The Last Blade, Savage Reign and Kizuna Encounter. The King of Fighters 2001 ends the second story arc. The Korean company Eolith helped develop the game after SNK was declared bankrupt. The King of Fighters 2002 was created to reunite old characters from previous KOF games and featured no story, similar to KOF '98. It was also developed by Eolith. A new KOF story arc titled the "Tales of Ash" began in The King of Fighters 2003, the last KOF game to be released for the Neo Geo system. It allowed players to change characters while playing, but the number of team members was reduced to three. SNK returned to develop the franchise with this entry. By 2004, SNK abandoned the series' yearly releases and numbered future games in a more conventional manner. The first main series' game released as such was The King of Fighters XI in 2005. In 2009, The King of Fighters XII was released. It used high-resolution, hand-drawn 2D sprites on detailed 2D backgrounds. It is a storyless gathering of fighters, similar to KOF '98 and 2002. The story arc ends with The King of Fighters XIII, released during the summer of 2010, which features the entire roster from The King of Fighters XII as well as additional characters. The King of Fighters XIV, featuring 3D graphics and a large roster of characters while also establishing a new story arc was released for the PlayStation 4 on August 23, 2016. In December 2018, SNK revealed it was working on The King of Fighters XV, aiming to release it in February 17, 2022. Other games The King of Fighters '94 was remade and released in 2004 for the PlayStation 2 as The King of Fighters '94 Re-Bout in Japan. This version has several new features like hi-res graphics, online play, team edit, a playable Rugal Bernstein, and the addition of Saisyu Kusanagi. A remake of KOF '98 titled The King of Fighters '98 Ultimate Match was released in Japanese arcades in 2008 and later on some video game consoles expanding the character roster and improving the graphics. A remake of KOF 2002, titled The King of Fighters 2002 Unlimited Match was released for the PlayStation 2 in 2009 in Japan. SNK also produced a game titled The King of Fighters: Battle de Paradise which could be connected to the Japanese Dreamcast port of KOF '99. Yumekobo also developed the visual novel game with strategy elements for fights known as . The game follows Kyo's daily life as he prepares to fight in the tournament in KOF '97 while interacting with other rivals. For the Neo Geo Pocket, an adaptation of KOF '97 titled King of Fighters R-1 was released on October 28, 1998. A sequel for the Neo Geo Pocket Color, King of Fighters R-2 an adaptation of KOF '98, was released on March 19, 1999. In 2004, SNK produced the first 3D installment of the series, The King of Fighters: Maximum Impact. The game and its sequel KOF: Maximum Impact 2, and its upgraded version Maximum Impact: Regulation A, revises much of the backstory for the characters and settings from previous games. A third update called Regulation A2 was planned but cancelled. The producer of the Maximum Impact series, Falcoon, stated that the Maximum Impact games are in a different continuity from the original series of games. Another spin-off video game, The King of Fighters Neowave, was released for the Xbox, PlayStation 2 and Arcade during 2005 and 2006. Neowave is essentially a remix of KOF 2002, with a new presentation and a few roster changes. Like KOF2002, Neowave has no storyline and is considered a "dream match". Tomokazu Nakano created the character artwork. Two video games were released for the Game Boy Advance titled The King of Fighters EX: Neo-Blood and The King of Fighters EX2: Howling Blood featuring characters and backgrounds from KOF '99 and 2000, respectively. A role-playing video game was also created exclusively for the PlayStation under the title The King of Fighters: Kyo, adapting a manga with the same name. An N-Gage version of the second Game Boy Advance game was released in 2005 titled The King of Fighters Extreme, which added Bluetooth multiplayer capability. By late 2000s, at least three pachislot games were developed for the series. The first, The King of Fighters, is based on the Orochi storyline; the second, The King of Fighters 2, is based on the fight of K' against the NESTS cartel; and the third, Maximum Impact focuses on the series' 3D titles. None of these was released outside Japan. At least six games for Japanese mobile phones have also been developed. While a few of them are fighting games, others are mini-games like volleyball and quizzes. Several characters from the series also appear in crossover video games. NeoGeo Battle Coliseum is a 2-on-2 tag team fighting game for the Atomiswave arcade board, and SNK Gals' Fighters is a fighting game for the Neo Geo Pocket Color. Along with the KOF, characters from other SNK series also star in both of these games. A rhythm game titled The Rhythm of Fighters was released for mobile phone games during 2015. Capcom also produced a series of similar crossover fighting games with SNK. The SNK-produced fighting games of this crossover include the Dimps-developed portable fighting game SNK vs. Capcom: The Match of the Millennium for the Neo Geo Pocket Color in 1999 and SNK vs. Capcom: SVC Chaos for the Neo Geo in 2003. The games produced by Capcom are Capcom vs. SNK in 2000. This was followed by a minor upgrade, Capcom vs. SNK Pro, and a sequel titled Capcom vs. SNK 2, both released in 2001. The three games were produced for NAOMI hardware and later ported to various consoles. SNK also produced SNK vs. Capcom: SVC Chaos, and the video game card game titled SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters DS. Multiple mobile phone games have also been produced including The King of Fighters All Star, Kimi wa Hero, Clash of Kings, KOF X Arena Masters, KOF: WORLD, The King of Fighters Orochi Go, The King of Cyphers, and a crossover with Fatal Fury. An otome game King of Fighters for Girls is also in development. The characters have also been guests in other mobile games such as Kyo in Fighting Days. Compilations In addition to the remakes of games such as KOF '94 Re-bout, KOF '98 Ultimate Match, and KOF 2002 Unlimited Match, SNK has released compilations of their KOF games. Two KOF compilations were released in Japan for the PlayStation 2 as part of the Neo Geo Online Collection. The first compilation, features KOF '95, KOF '96, and KOF '97, the three games comprising the Orochi story arc. The compilation features a Color Edit mode that allows the player to create a custom color palette for every character in each game, the choice to play each game with original and arranged soundtracks, and an online versus mode which supports the Multi-Matching BB (MMBB) service. The second compilation, , features the original Neo Geo versions of KOF '99, KOF 2000, and KOF 2001, as well as the corresponding Dreamcast versions of each game. It has the same features as the previous compilation but with online support available only for the Dreamcast games in the compilation. A separately produced compilation titled The King of Fighters Collection: The Orochi Saga was released for the PlayStation 2, PlayStation Portable and Wii outside of Japan. This compilation has the same lineup of games as the Japanese Orochi Hen, along with KOF '94 and KOF '98. The extra features are different. There is an added Challenge Mode where the player must win certain matches against the CPU in KOF '98 under specific conditions, a media gallery featuring listenable tracks from each game, and a collection of official illustrations. Gameplay elements The basic gameplay system of KOF is similar to SNK's previous games like the Fatal Fury series, Art of Fighting and Samurai Shodown. The game uses a four attack button configuration like Fatal Fury 2 and Fatal Fury Special, that consists of light punch, light kick, strong punch and strong kick. Like Fatal Fury 2, specialized techniques are performed by pressing buttons in combination, allowing the player to dodge an opponent's attack or to launch a character's powerful knockdown attack. As with most other fighting games, each character has a set of basic, unique, and special moves the player can perform using a specific series of joystick and button inputs. Each new installment provides new ways to create stronger attacks such as The King of Fighters '97. Instead of charging the Power Gauge it is now filled when the player strikes the opponent or by performing Special Moves. The player can stock up to three Power Gauges. The player can use one stock of the Power Gauge to perform a Super Special Move or enter a "MAX" mode, in which the player's defensive and offensive strength are increased. Performing a Super Special Move while in MAX mode allows the player to perform a more powerful Super Special Move. The franchise is known for innovating the fighting genre by replacing a traditional round-based format used in preceding fighting games with a format consisting of 3-on-3 team-based matches dubbed the Team Battle System. Instead of choosing a single character, the player selects from one of eight available teams, each consisting of three members. Before each match, the players choose the order in which their team members enter the battle. When the match begins, the members chosen to go first on their respective teams will fight. When one character is defeated, the next member of the same team will take his or her place, while the character on the other team will have a small portion of their life restored (if energy was lost during the previous round). If a character is losing a match against the opponent, then the player can call one of the remaining teammates standing on the sidelines to jump in and perform a support attack. The match ends when all three members of either team lose. Three games—The King of Fighters '99, 2000, and 2001—added the idea of each team being given an extra character that can assist the player to produce more attacks or combos against the enemy. While 2002 brought back the classic 3-o- 3 teams, 2003 and XI made the change so that each team switches fighters in the middle of combat with one of them being a "Leader" character who can perform stronger techniques. Later games, however, returned to the classic way of fighting while still delivering different ways and rules of fighting. Plot and characters The titular King of Fighters tournament originated from SNK's previous fighting game franchises, Fatal Fury and Art of Fighting (canonically beginning during the events of Art of Fighting 2). The first game in the series, KOF '94, centers on a black market arms dealer named Rugal Bernstein, who hosts a well-known fighting tournament to lure worthy adversaries into his trap so that he can kill them and turn them into stone statues, adding them to his collection of defeated martial artists. In addition to previously established fighting game stars Terry Bogard and Ryo Sakazaki, the game introduces a new hero: a young Japanese martial artist named Kyo Kusanagi, who serves as the lead character in the early KOF games. In making Kyo, SNK wanted his personality to contrast with those of earlier leads and stand out within the crossover. In KOF '95, Rugal, having survived the previous tournament, hosts a new one with the intention of seeking revenge against his adversaries. KOF '95 introduced Kyo's rival Iori Yagami to the series. It was the first game to mention the presence of the Orochi clan, which would serve as the central plot element in the series' following two games. The tournaments in KOF '96 and KOF '97 are hosted by a woman named Chizuru Kagura, who seeks to recruit allies (particularly Kyo and Iori, who are descended from the Three Divine Vessels along with Kagura herself) to fight against the Orochi clan. The Orochi storyline concludes in KOF '97. The next game in the series, KOF '98, is a "Special Edition" with no plot development. KOF '99 introduces a new story arc involving a mysterious corporation known as NESTS, which seeks to create an army of genetically altered fighters. The game introduces a new lead character named K', a fugitive from NESTS who was genetically enhanced with Kyo's DNA. The next two games in the series, KOF 2000 and KOF 2001, continue the NESTS story line, with each game unraveling the mystery of the organization further. KOF 2002, like KOF '98 before it, is a "Special Edition" of the series with no particular plot. Like Kyo, K' was created as a different hero. Rather than the cocky Kyo, K' is a dark hero who reluctantly fights against the NESTS syndicate. KOF 2003 begins a new story line focusing on another new lead character named Ash Crimson, a young man who seeks to possess the powers of the Three Divine Vessels for his own unknown agenda. Similar to K', Ash is given a different characterization acting as a villain during his story arc. The tournaments in KOF 2003 and KOF XI were hosted by "Those From the Past", an organization of inhuman warriors who try to break the Orochi seal to take its powers so they can give them to their shrouded master. While KOF XII does not have a story, KOF XIII follows another tournament hosted by them where Ash eventually confronts their superior despite him being Ash's ancestor. KOF XIV establishes a new storyline involving a new lead character named Shun'ei. Described as a "kind-hearted" person, SNK states that while Shun'ei is not a new main character, he is still important for the saga. Development The prototype version of the game was a Double Dragon-style side-scrolling beat 'em up, titled Survivor. It used core characters from the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury series, specifically allowing players to play Robert Garcia and Terry Bogard (from Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury respectively) for location testing. However, the idea was eventually abandoned. Since SNK were attached to the idea of the two-series crossover, they eventually decided to turn their idea into a fighting game. Characters from Ikari Warriors and Psycho Soldier were also added to the roster. The concept of a three-person team was one of the ideas kept from the side-scrolling version. The title The King of Fighters was re-used from the subtitle of the first Fatal Fury game, Fatal Fury: King of Fighters. The King of Fighters series' director Toyohisa Tanabe asserted that the Art of Fighting and Fatal Fury fighters were added specifically for adults. The newer KOF characters were intended to appeal to younger and recent audiences. Characters like Benimaru Nikaido and Chang Koehan were added to provide an off-beat variety to the cast, which he had previously said was too serious. While the first two games used the Neo Geo MVS arcade, The King of Fighters '96 includes 68 KB of video RAM and 64 KB of RAM. This made The King of Fighters '96 the first game to break the technical limits of the MVS system. SNK staff members noted that due to the great popularity of some of the series' characters, it is difficult to design new ones that might have the same appeal. This also happens during location tests of new games. The artist known as Shinkiro was responsible for the first artwork involving the cast. As a result, newcomer artist Hiroaki felt for his debut that he needed to draw appealing characters, despite his inexperience. For the first time, former producer Takashi Nishiyama was not on the team for The King of Fighters 2000 which caused the team some concern. Despite early unease over the game's state, SNK was pleased with the outcome and described it as an appealing arcade game. Following its release, SNK thanked the fans for their support. Mexican company Evoga had a major influence on the games due to the franchise's popularity within Latin America. In 2000, SNK went bankrupt. Eolith negotiated a license agreement in the same year to keep producing the KOF series because of the franchise's popularity in Korea and worldwide. Brezza Soft assisted Eolith with the game's production. Fearing disappointing returning fans, Eolith decided to maintain most of the common parts from The King of Fighters while adding new elements to it. One of the biggest changes is the optional use of Strikers where players can use between one and three characters to assist the playable one. The team aimed to refine the original gameplay system of earlier KOF games. While conducting a popularity poll of the characters, Eolith still aimed to include the least popular teams in the game. The great popularity of Kyo Kusanagi and Iori Yagami led to their immediate inclusion in the game. References to works from Evoga can be seen in the game's scenarios. While working on it, the team played The King of Fighters '98 for the developers to see if they could include a character within the game. A member from Evoga won, resulting in the team asking to add Angel to the game. Starting in 2003, the games were again developed by SNK, now called SNK Playmore. SNK Playmore discontinued the AES system in 2003, preferring to publish video games in cooperation with Sammy, using its Atomiswave arcade board, which provided a more secure, modern platform for new arcade releases. This allowed the new KOF games to feature better audio and graphics than earlier games. Following the release of the first game in The King of Fighters series, a new game was released each year. The last of these yearly releases was The King of Fighters 2003. In December 2004, Falcoon, the series' main illustrator, mentioned that the next game the SNK Playmore staff were trying to release was different from The King of Fighters: Maximum Impact or what could have been a The King of Fighters 2004. The game's development began when SNK staff finished making Neo Geo Battle Coliseum. KOF 2003 would be followed by XI, XII and XIII which had major changes to appeal to the audience. The decision to create The King of Fighters XIV was made when SNK Playmore's CEO Eikichi Kawasaki decided the company should return to producing appealing fighting games rather than Pachinko-Slot Machines and Mobile Apps. While it took some time, full production of the game began when more staff from Esaka joined the team in April 2014. Yasuyuki Oda was the game's director. This was his first contribution to the franchise, leading a younger staff. During his first employment at SNK, games like Virtua Fighter motivated him to make a 3D game after he had left SNK. When Oda returned to SNK, there was never any debate about transitioning the series transition from 2D to 3D, though adapting some of the characters proved more difficult than others. Many of SNK's staff consider KOF '98 and KOF 2002 the best games in the franchise. They gave them ideas to create new entries in the series that would surpass the quality of these two games. During a contest, SNK used the DLC character Najd based on the Saudi Arabian artist Mashael. SNK Chairman Zhihui Ge expressed a desire to attract more Middle Eastern fans to play the game. He also hired new creators during the post-release of XIV. Related media Printed adaptations During 1995 Tatsuya Shingyoji wrote a manga adaptation of The King of Fighters '94. It was serialized in Monthly Shōnen Ace published by Kadokawa Shoten and collected into four tankōbon volumes. They were released from February 10, 1995, to December 1996. There is also a spin-off manga story based on the adventures of the characters from The King of Fighters '96 centered around Kyo and Iori's rivalry entitled The King of Fighters: Kyo. It was written by Masato Natsumoto and published by Kodansha in two tankōbon volumes in 1997. Ryo Takamisaki also developed another adaptation from KOF '96 which Shinseisha published in three tankōbon compilations from June 1996 to February 1998. Akihiko Ureshino also wrote multiple novelizations based on the games with different artists contributing to each installment. A manhua adaptation of KOF titled The King of Fighters: Zillion was created by Andy Seto. Hong Kong artists Wing Yang and King Tung produced further manhua for the games, beginning with The King of Fighters 2001 through 2003 along with the Maximum Impact series. Both authors also made a sequel, The King of Fighters 03: Xenon Zero (拳皇 XENON ZERO), to conclude the 2003 tournament. ComicsOne licensed the series with its first volume tying in with the release of a new video game and kept publishing it after their transition to DrMaster. They were published in five issues of 128 pages from May 25, 2005, to June 26, 2008. Another manhua series is King of Fighters RX Project '00 (拳皇RX) in three volumes that was officially sponsored by SNK-Playmore Hong Kong. The NESTS saga version was illustrated by Ricky, and covers the fight against NESTS primarily focused on the 2000 tournament. The King of Fighters: A New Beginning is a shōnen manga authored by Kyōtarō Azuma. It is based on the events of The King of Fighters XIV. The series was serialized in Kodansha's Magazine Pocket since January 2018, ending in August 2020. Seven Seas Entertainment licensed the manga for a North American release with the first volume released in March 2020. light novel series Iori Yagami's Isekai Mu'sou by Nobuhiko Tenkawa which debuted in July 2019. The art was done by Eisuke Ogura. Centered after the events of KOF '97, Iori finds himself into another world. Film and animation A short series based on KOF titled The King of Fighters: Another Day was released in 2005. Production I.G produced the title as an original net animation with a total of four episodes, each about 10 minutes in length. It has since been released as a bonus DVD, packaged with KOF: Maximum Impact 2. An English-language live-action film The King of Fighters was released direct-to-DVD in the United States in 2010. New anime and live-action drama productions were announced in 2016. The CG anime series The King of Fighters: Destiny was released on Steam and YouTube beginning in 2017. The first season retells the story of the first games with Kyo Kusanagi leading the Japan Team to participate in the title tournament, eventually encountering the host, Rugal, who is using the power of the mythical creature Orochi. The series has received over 800 million views. CDs SNK has released a series of CD soundtracks titled SNK Character Sounds Collection or SNK Sound Character Collection (SNKサウンドキャラクターズコレクション). As of 2008, there are 11 volumes; each one focuses on a single character. The CDs have different versions of the characters' themes, as well as quotes. Most of the albums' covers are illustrated by Masato Natsumoto. The Band of Fighters, shortened as BOF, is a character image band that includes Kyo Kusanagi, Iori Yagami, Terry Bogard, Nakoruru and Athena Asamiya. Dengeki Bunko and Pony Canyon have released several radio drama CDs based on the series. Some of them are direct adaptations of the video games KOF '94 to KOF '00. Another CD is Iori Yagami Original Drama the Setting Sun and Moon ~ Prologue (八神庵オリジナルドラマ夕陽と月〜プロローグ〜), which is centered on Iori Yagami. The drama originally aired on the Game Dra Night and Neo Chupi and was then released by Pony Canyon CD on July 7, 1999. The guidebook The King of Fighters Perfect Reader includes the bonus CD drama KOF: Mid Summer Struggle. There are two stories on it—one is serious the other is a parody focused on KOF '03. The scenarios were developed by Akihiko Ureshino and BoHyou. SNK also gave away a four-CD soundtrack featuring songs from past KOF games with the pre-order of KOF XIII on any GameStop in the United States. Other merchandise In December 2006, Sabertooth Games released a King of Fighters 2006 set along with Samurai Shodown V for its Universal Fighting System (UFS) collectible card game; character starter packs were released for Terry Bogard and Mai Shiranui. Other merchandise includes a number of figures and statues, mostly of Mai. Additionally, scale figures based on Kyo's and Iori's original forms and their XIV looks have been released, including a Nendoroid figure based on Kyo. Reception The original The King of Fighters games were well received for their use of team battles and the number of characters. Some games were often listed as the best fighting games from their release. The four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly declared the Neo Geo AES version a solid improvement over the previous King of Fighters, particularly applauding the addition of the team edit feature which remained in all of the following games. Critics noted they often served as rivals to Capcom's Street Fighter series based on some character designs and moves. While KOF '96 was felt to be unbalanced due its usage of projectile moves, its updated graphics impressed reviewers. SNK's constant use of 2D sprites across multiple games has been criticized by reviewers who found them dated despite attempts to improve the graphics with the release of XI. As a result, the graphic overhaul in the two following games was met with high praise. While the fighting system has been well-received, critics have had mixed feelings regarding the Striker system introduced in KOF '99. In GameSpots "The History of SNK" article, KOF '99: Evolution was described as one of the best fighting games on the Dreamcast, along with Garou: Mark of the Wolves. However, because it was released during the PlayStation 2's launch and Dreamcast's ending, the game did not sell well. The boss character Rugal Bernstein, among others, has been described as one of the most challenging characters to defeat in fighting games; this feeling also led to some criticism. The developers of KOF noted that Kyo and Iori were also highly popular in Korea which led to their immediate inclusion in The King of Fighters 2001, the first game not developed by the original company. In the book Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific, Kyo was regarded as one of the most popular video game characters in Hong Kong from the mid-1990s onward alongside Iori and Mai, among others, to the point of overshadowing the Street Fighter characters who were also largely well-known. The Mexican company Evoga had a major influence on the game due to the franchise's popularity in Latin America and often playtested the games. With KOF XIV, SNK noted the series' popularity was still dominant in South America and China, leading to the creation of teams composed of characters from those areas. The popularity of the franchise in those markets has been attributed mainly to economic factors - machines featuring King of Fighters series were often cheaper and more easily accessible than those featuring competing titles from other companies. The Daily Star noted the games' popularity comes not only from the gameplay but also the characters who tend to develop across the series—for example the rivalry between Kyo and Iori. The franchise's story arcs were also found to be appealing as they stand out from other fighting game franchises. Kakuchopurei.com felt the series offered a balanced cast which would help any newcomer while also agreeing with The Daily Star on how SNK handled the story lines. There has also been censorship of some of the ports of the North American games, most notably Whip's gun and blood. Singer Del the Funky Homosapien has recorded a song titled "The King of Fighters" whose lyrics involve the characters and special moves. Ash Crimson's character received a poor response in Western regions. In an interview with Ignition Entertainment's director of business development Shane Bettehausen, Alex Lucard of Diehard GameFan said that North American SNK fans detested Ash and complained about his inclusion in The King of Fighters XII without a storyline while popular series' characters were overlooked. After Ignition polled fans to choose an artbox for console versions of The King of Fighters XII. The company announced Ash's unpopularity reduced the number of potential covers to two featuring Kyo and Iori. Ben Herman, president of SNK Playmore USA, commented that although he received complaints about the English voices for the game, Maximum Impact sold over 100,000 units as of May 2006, becoming a commercial success. Despite initial issues with the online mode and other features of the game The King of Fighters XIV Yasuyuki Oda said the fan response was positive especially after these issues were fixed. Fast forward to 2019, KOFXV got its first initial teaser at EVO. And as of 2021, the game finally received its first official trailer and is currently releasing character trailers weekly. References External links Crossover video games 2D fighting games Fighting video games by series Martial arts video games Muay Thai video games SNK franchises Video game franchises introduced in 1994 Video games about ninja Video games adapted into comics Video games adapted into films Video games featuring female protagonists Video games set in Hong Kong Video games set in Japan	[ -0.6047105193138123, 0.26703596115112305, 0.3294014632701874, -0.052691567689180374, -0.34319910407066345, -0.2782635986804962, 0.020649556070566177, -0.4800151288509369, -0.20567156374454498, 0.023847995325922966, -0.11300014704465866, 0.30931979417800903, -0.31145235896110535, -0.08097350597381592, 0.07087568938732147, -0.17744243144989014, 0.20588450133800507, 0.035467762500047684, 0.4217893183231354, -0.32727324962615967, -0.2933018207550049, -0.21889054775238037, 0.47696107625961304, -0.30508607625961304, -0.27266713976860046, 0.1774473339319229, 0.3136647045612335, 0.1619434803724289, 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231547	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fink%20%28software%29	Fink (software)	The Fink project is an effort to port and package open-source Unix programs to macOS. Fink uses dpkg and APT (Debian's package management system), as well as its own frontend program, fink (which is implemented as a set of Perl modules). Implementation Fink features a binary distribution for quick and easy installation using APT, as well as a more extensive source distribution. In addition to command-line tools for handling packages, the shareware app Phynchronicity provides a GUI. Fink can be used to install newer versions of packages installed by macOS or to install packages not included in macOS by Apple edict. Fink stores all its data in the directory /opt/sw for newer macOS releases and /sw for macOS 10.14 and earlier (although this can be changed if initially compiling fink itself from source code). This goes against the Filesystem Hierarchy Standard's recommendation to use the /usr/local prefix; the reasons given in the Fink FAQ are that other installers might overwrite Fink's files under /usr/local, and that having an entirely separate directory makes it easier to disable the binaries and libraries that Fink installs. MacPorts, another macOS package manager, follows a similar approach by storing its data in /opt/local by default. Within Fink's directory, a FHS-like layout (/sw/bin, /sw/include, /sw/lib, etc.) is used. History The Fink project was started in December 2000 by German hacker Christoph Pfisterer. The name Fink is German for finch and is a reference to the name of the macOS core, Darwin; Charles Darwin's study of diversity among finches led him eventually to the concept of natural selection. Christoph Pfisterer left the project in November 2001. Since then, several people have stepped in and picked up support for Fink. As of March 2008, the project was managed by 6 administrators, 89 developers, and an active community. As of March 2014, the Fink core team were made up of nine active developers, who are responsible for the central management of the project and maintain the "essential" packages. The Fink community regularly adds support for the latest versions of macOS with their release. Latest Fink versions, starting with version 0.45.0, support up to MacOS Catalina. Support for MacOS Big Sur and Monterey is being worked on. See also Gentoo/Alt Homebrew MacPorts Pkgsrc Cydia References External links Fink project homepage Dpkg Free package management systems Free software programmed in Perl Perl software Utilities for macOS	[ 0.056435953825712204, 0.10584641247987747, 0.3229907751083374, 0.14689165353775024, 0.10264581441879272, -0.47713202238082886, -0.20624589920043945, 0.22346673905849457, -0.1084335446357727, -0.3987285792827606, -0.44959306716918945, 0.677739679813385, -0.35508912801742554, -0.08216096460819244, -0.019156429916620255, -0.5009310841560364, 0.48947033286094666, 0.33480343222618103, -0.16727617383003235, -0.21105346083641052, -0.7152411341667175, -0.3915806710720062, -0.16181787848472595, -0.7012496590614319, -0.6736668348312378, 0.0921035185456276, 0.4374964237213135, 0.2410646229982376, -0.06335165351629257, 0.3081323504447937, 0.23501667380332947, 0.7632575631141663, 0.038446567952632904, -0.5147146582603455, -0.5299099683761597, -0.19910629093647003, -0.009287474676966667, 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231548	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNK%20%28disambiguation%29	SNK (disambiguation)	SNK (formerly Shin Nihon Kikaku), a Japanese video game company and former electronic game manufacturer. This may also refer to: SNK European Democrats SNK Union of Independents Southeast Airlines ICAO code Sovnarkom, the Soviet Council of People's Commissars (Sovet Narodnykh Komissarov) The Student-Newman–Keuls method in statistics Soninke language (ISO 639-2 language code) Shingeki no Kyojin, the Japanese name of the manga and anime series Attack on Titan	[ 0.19073344767093658, -0.04254882037639618, -0.17070536315441132, 0.05620284005999565, -0.510451078414917, -0.13727499544620514, -0.29372861981391907, -0.15844453871250153, -0.21702638268470764, 0.4723924994468689, -0.013909632340073586, -0.03487388417124748, -0.1740230768918991, 0.4807955324649811, -0.553347110748291, -0.24847261607646942, -0.06085650622844696, 0.5624445676803589, -0.137887641787529, -0.18314817547798157, -0.41813087463378906, 0.27135226130485535, 0.28213199973106384, -0.678798258304596, 0.16791361570358276, 0.03308768942952156, 0.16662348806858063, -0.043333377689123154, -0.14577266573905945, 0.08066865056753159, 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231549	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teutons	Teutons	The Teutons (, , ) were an ancient northern European tribe mentioned by Roman authors. The Teutons are best known for their participation, together with the Cimbri and other groups, in the Cimbrian War with the Roman Republic in the late second century BC. Julius Caesar described them as a Germanic people, a term he applied to all northern peoples located east of the Rhine, and later Roman authors followed him. On one hand, there is no direct evidence that they spoke a Germanic language, and evidence such as their name, and the names of their rulers, indicates at least a strong influence from Celtic languages. On the other hand the indications that classical authors gave about the homeland of the Teutones is considered by many scholars to show that they lived in an area associated with early Germanic languages, and not Celtic languages. Name The ethnonym is attested in Latin as Teutonēs or Teutoni (plural) or, more rarely, as Teuton or Teutonus (singular). It transparently derives from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) stem teuteh₂- ('people, tribe, crowd') attached to the suffix -ones, which is commonly found in both Celtic (Lingones, Senones, etc.) and Germanic (Ingvaeones, Semnones, etc.) tribal names in the Roman era. The stem apparently had a lower-class connotation, as opposed to an elite group or a ruling class, and its original meaning in PIE times may have been 'the people under arms', as suggested by the Hittite tuzzi- and the Luwian tuta ('army'). Thus, the name Teutones may be interpreted as deriving from Proto-Celtic towtā ('people, tribe'), or it may have been from a stage of Germanic language development prior to the first consonantal shift ("pre-Germanic") (compare the later form *þeudō- 'nation, people, folk'; cf. Gothic þiuda, German Deutsch). A possible corruption of the original name by Greek and Latin writers makes the attribution less secure. The much later use of Teuton as a synonym for German in an extended ethnic or linguistic sense, that is, to refer to speakers of West Germanic languages, was being used in the Latin of monastic writers by the ninth century, and has continued into modern times. It originally served as a learned classical Latin word to be used instead of the similar sounding "theodiscus", an older term that was a Latinization of the then-current pronunciations of the West Germanic word for "of the people". In modern English, "Teuton" often has been used in a still broader way to mean the same as "Germanic". Linguistic affiliations The Teutons commonly are classified as a Germanic tribe and thought probably to have spoken a Germanic language, although the evidence is fragmentary. However, because of the non-Germanic, possibly Celtic, form of the names of both the Teutones and their associates the Cimbri, as well as the personal names known from these tribes, some historians have suggested a Celtic origin for the Teutones. The earliest classical writers classified the Teutones as Celts, but more generally they did not distinguish between Celtic and Germanic peoples. Apparently, this distinction was first made by Julius Caesar, whose main concern was to argue that raids into southern Gaul and Italy by northern peoples who are less softened by Mediterranean civilization, should be seen in Rome as a systematic problem that can repeat in the future, and demands pre-emptive military action. This was his justification for invading northern Gaul. After Caesar, Strabo (died about AD 24) and Marcus Velleius Paterculus (died about AD 31) classify them as Germanic peoples. Pliny also classified them this way and specified that they were among the Ingaevones, related to the Cimbri and Chauci. Homeland The fourth century BC traveller, Pytheas, as reported by Pliny the Elder (died AD 79), described the Teutones as neighbours of the northern island of Abalus where amber washes up in the spring, which was traded from these Teutones. Abalus is one day's sail from a tidal marsh or estuary facing the ocean (an aestuarium) called Metuonis where the Germanic "Guiones" (probably an error for Inguaeones, Gutones, or the Teutones themselves) lived. Pomponius Mela (died about AD 45) placed them on the largest island, Codannovia, presumed to be Scandinavia, which was one of a group of islands in a large bay called Codanus, open to the ocean. Traditionally, scholars interpret this bay as the Baltic sea. 31. On the other side of the Albis [Elbe], the huge Codanus Bay [Baltic Sea] is filled with big and small islands. For this reason, where the sea is received within the fold of the bay, it never lies wide open and never really looks like a sea but is sprinkled around, rambling and scattered like rivers, with water flowing in every direction and crossing many times. Where the sea comes into contact with the mainland, the sea is contained by the banks of islands, banks that are not far offshore and that are virtually equidistant everywhere. There the sea runs a narrow course like a strait, then, curving, it promptly adapts to a long brow of land. 32. On the bay are the Cimbri and the Teutoni; farther on, the farthest people of Germany, the Hermiones. [...] 54. The thirty Orcades [Orkney Islands] are separated by narrow spaces between them; the seven Haemodae [Denmark] extend opposite Germany in what we have called Codanus Bay; of the islands there, Scadinavia [sic: the manuscript has Codannavia], which the Teutoni still hold, stands out as much for its size as for its fertility besides. Plutarch in his biography of Marius, who fought the Teutones, wrote that they and Cimbri "had not had intercourse with other peoples, and had traversed a great stretch of country, so that it could not be ascertained what people it was nor whence they had set out". He reported that there were different conjectures: that they were "some of the German peoples which extended as far as the northern ocean"; that they were "Galloscythians", a mixture of Scythians and Celts who had lived as far east as the Black Sea, or that the Cimbri were Cimmerians, from even farther east. Surviving texts based on the work of the geographer Ptolemy mentioned both Teutones and "Teutonoaroi" in Germania, but this is in a part of his text that has become garbled in surviving copies. Gudmund Schütte proposed that the two peoples should be understood as one, but that different versions of works based on that of Ptolemy used literary sources such as Pliny and Mela to place them in different positions somewhere near the Cimbri, in a part of the landscape they did not have good information for - either in Zealand or Scandinavia, or else somewhere on the southern Baltic coast. The name of the district of Thy in Jutland has been connected to the name of the Teutons, a proposal in line with ancient reports that they came from that area. Cimbrian War After achieving decisive victories over the Romans at Noreia and Arausio in 105 BC, the Cimbri and Teutones divided their forces. Gaius Marius then defeated them separately in 102 BC and 101 BC respectively, ending the Cimbrian War. The defeat of the Teutones occurred at the Battle of Aquae Sextiae (near present-day Aix-en-Provence). According to the writings of Valerius Maximus and Florus, the king of the Teutones, Teutobod, was taken in irons after the Teutones were defeated by the Romans. Under the conditions of the surrender, three hundred married women were to be handed over to the victorious Romans as concubines and slaves. When the matrons of the Teutones heard of this stipulation, they begged the consul that they might instead be allowed to minister in the temples of Ceres and Venus. When their request was denied, the Teutonic women slew their own children. The next morning, all the women were found dead in each other's arms, having strangled each other during the night. Their joint martyrdom passed into Roman legends of Teutonic fury. Reportedly, some surviving captives participated as the rebelling gladiators in the Third Servile War of 73-71 BC. See also Furor Teutonicus References Fick, August, Alf Torp and Hjalmar Falk: Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen. Part 3, Wortschatz der Germanischen Spracheinheit. 4. Aufl. (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht), 1909. Attribution: External links Pre-Roman Iron Age Cimbrian War Ingaevones	[ 0.04205552861094475, -0.45027023553848267, -0.41709965467453003, 0.2217056304216385, -0.0499410480260849, 0.660081148147583, 0.356929212808609, 0.797379195690155, -0.49840253591537476, -0.8291484117507935, -0.0056229280307888985, 0.18534933030605316, -0.18245764076709747, 0.21887505054473877, -0.29927879571914673, -0.08158781379461288, -0.16933999955654144, 0.4434511065483093, -0.19132466614246368, -0.40953880548477173, 0.18563301861286163, -0.3452991843223572, 0.180934339761734, -0.11685380339622498, 0.5030065774917603, 0.20177099108695984, 0.22547006607055664, 0.10816081613302231, -0.30091866850852966, -0.0765211433172226, 0.0025692684575915337, 1.0921518802642822, -0.42495566606521606, -0.7107818722724915, -1.2440553903579712, 0.6375706791877747, -0.05521051958203316, 0.11192028224468231, -0.0023862947709858418, -0.7790152430534363, 0.5239434242248535, -0.13598670065402985, 0.39703062176704407, 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231551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s%20Quest	King's Quest	King's Quest is a graphic adventure game series, released between 1980 and 2016 and created by the American software company Sierra Entertainment. It is widely considered a classic series from the golden era of adventure games. Following the success of its first installments, the series was primarily responsible for building the reputation of Sierra. Roberta Williams, co-founder and former co-owner of Sierra, designed all of the King's Quest games until the series' reboot in 2015. The King's Quest series chronicles the saga of the royal family of the Kingdom of Daventry through their various trials and adventures. The story takes place over two generations and across many lands as the heroes and heroines fight villains such as evil witches and wizards. Games Wizard and the Princess (1980) / Adventure in Serenia (1982) King's Quest (PC, 1984) / King's Quest: Quest for the Crown (1984/1987) / King's Quest: Quest for the Crown (Sega Master System, 1989) / King's Quest I: Quest for the Crown (1990) King's Quest II: Romancing the Throne (1985/1987) King's Quest III: To Heir Is Human (1986) King's Quest IV: The Perils of Rosella (1988 – enhanced Sierra's Creative Interpreter) King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder! (1990) / King's Quest V (NES, 1992) King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow (1992) King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride (1994) King's Quest: Mask of Eternity (also known as King's Quest VIII: Mask of Eternity) (1998) King's Quest, an episodical "re-imagining" by The Odd Gentlemen (2015–2016) Original series The world of King's Quest encompasses many different kingdoms and supernatural realms. The main characters in the series are King Graham, originally a knight of Daventry who won the throne of the kingdom through questing, and members of his family: his wife Queen Valanice and his twin son and daughter, Prince Alexander and Princess Rosella. The exception is King's Quest: Mask of Eternity, where the protagonist is Connor of Daventry, a tanner (and a knight like Graham from the first game) who is unrelated to the royal family. The later sequels have more elaborate story lines, more complicated puzzles, and more original and well-developed characters. Technologically, the series pioneered the use of animation and pseudo-3D environments in graphic adventure games, so that the main character could, for example, walk behind objects on-screen. The primary way in which characters solve puzzles and advance through the game is by using items found earlier in the game and stored in their inventory. Other puzzles include the mapping of labyrinths, deserts, or other inhospitable places; solving riddles; and tasks involving the use of logic or lateral thinking skills. It is important to use all one's character's senses to gather all the information available: look, listen, smell, taste, or touch whenever possible. The Quest The "King's Quest" (for which the series takes its name) usually involves becoming a king or the adventures of members of the royal family of Daventry in other lands to save their kingdom. Often, the quest is given to the protagonist through the realm's magic mirror (the first game involves obtaining the magic mirror, which becomes an important feature in the later games). In King's Quest I: Quest for the Crown, the young knight Sir Graham is sent by the dying King Edward on a quest to destroy the wicked witch Dahlia and find three treasures in order to become the new king. In King's Quest II: Romancing the Throne, the quest is for King Graham to find his queen. Through the magic mirror, retrieved in the first game, he learns of the beautiful Valanice captured by the witch Hagatha in the land of Kolyma. The follow-ups King's Quest III: To Heir Is Human and King's Quest IV: The Perils of Rosella do not star Graham, but involve the protagonists who ultimately end up saving the king and/or the kingdom from threats such as a dragon and untimely death. Gwydion begins as a peasant of Llewdor and a slave of the wizard Manannan; he escapes by using the wizard's magic against him, and ultimately discovers he is really Alexander, long-lost son of King Graham and Queen Valanice and brother of the Princess Rosella. After Alexander restores the magic mirror and saves Rosella and the kingdom from the ravages of the dragon, Graham is taken deathly ill; to obtain a cure for her father, Rosella must travel to the fairy land of Tamir (after learning about it through the magic mirror) and vanquish the witch Queen Lolotte. King's Quest V: Absence Makes the Heart Go Yonder! returns to the King in his attempt to rescue both his kingdom and family from Mordack, Hagatha's and Manannan's brother and also an evil magician, who is seeking revenge against Alexander for Manannan's downfall, in the land of Serenia. This is the first game that does not include the magic mirror. King's Quest VI: Heir Today, Gone Tomorrow follows Prince Alexander's attempt to save his true love, marry her, and ultimately becoming the king of the Land of the Green Isles. The magic mirror pointed him in the right direction to finding the kingdom. King's Quest VII: The Princeless Bride is the only game in the series that does not involve King Graham (he is missing entirely from the story), Castle Daventry, or saving the kingdom of Daventry (only a small portion of the land is shown briefly in the introduction), nor the magic mirror. Rather, the plot involves the dual protagonists Queen Valanice and Princess Rosella attempting to save the realm of Eldritch from the evil enchantress Malicia. Rosella ultimately finds a romantic interest in Prince Edgar, whom she rescues with the implication that they may marry in the future. King's Quest: Mask of Eternity is similar to King's Quest I, in that it involves a young knight attempting to save King Graham (who stands in place of Edward), Queen Valanice, and the kingdom of Daventry from harm. Again the magic mirror shares a prominent role in telling of the doom that befell the kingdom. Development Much of King's Quest was inspired by fairy tales, which designer Roberta Williams loved reading, in particular the Andrew Lang's Fairy Books. Many creatures, characters and situations from world mythologies, fairy tales, folklore and classic literature are encountered within the world of King's Quest. Many of the puzzle solutions are inspired by various tales so that a player with knowledge of the stories beforehand would have an advantage. The concept of the King's Quest series was derived from ideas first established in Wizard and the Princess (Adventure in Serenia) which was an early forerunner of the series. The game versions followed the exploits of an unnamed hero known only as the "wanderer", in later versions said to be a time traveler from the future. The game's connection to the King's Quest series led to its inclusion as one of the King's Quest trivia questions. The fifth King's Quest game marked a return to Serenia, the land first seen during the game. The game's backstory was further tied into the King's Quest history through The King's Quest Companion. According to the Companion, in various periods of history people from the real world withdrew to Daventry, which explains how historical and mythical elements exist there. In most of the series, it is said that the games take place, 'a long time ago' a few centuries in our past. Many of the classic Sierra games series had in-jokes, cameos, or homages to characters, situations and elements of the King's Quest series. Cedric from KQV was often the brunt of several jokes found in Freddy Pharkas: Frontier Pharmacist, Quest for Glory: Shadows of Darkness, and Space Quest VI. Rosella has appeared in or was mentioned in the Leisure Suit Larry series, Police Quest II, and Quest for Glory series. Graham is mentioned in or appears in several of the Space Quest, Police Quest, and Laura Bow games. Other media releases Collections The games in the series have been released together in several collections or bundles through the years (often packed with bonus material). King's Quest 15th Anniversary Collector's Edition (1994): It contains KQI (AGI & SCI versions) through KQVI, King's Questions, and King Graham's Board Game Challenge. It also contains a French floppy version of KQV, and the German floppy version of KQVI, as well as a variety of concept material, artwork, documents, articles, and videos. King's Quest Collection (1995): It contains KQI (AGI & SCI versions) through KQVI, as well as all of the bonus material from the 15th Anniversary Collector's Edition, plus some additional ones including a playable demo of KQVII. Roberta Williams Anthology (1996): It contains KQI (AGI & SCI versions) through KQVII (2.0 version), plus Wizard and the Princess, Laura Bow Mysteries 1 & 2, Mixed-Up Mother Goose (AGI & VGA versions), Mystery House, Mission Asteroid, Time Zone, Dark Crystal, and Chapter 1 demo of Phantasmagoria, as well as a variety of bonuses. King's Quest Collection Series (1997): Also known as King's Quest Collection 2; it contains KQI (AGI & SCI versions) through KQVII (2.0 version), King's Questions, Graham's Board Game Challenge, Wizard and the Princess, Mixed-Up Mother Goose Deluxe, Laura Bow 1 & 2, Mystery House, Mission Asteroid, and Time Zone. It also contains most of the bonuses from the previous versions as well as some new ones. King's Quest MASK/Collection Bundle (1998): A special bundle sold through Sierra during the release of King's Quest Mask of Eternity. It included both the 1997 King's Quest Collection, and King's Quest VIII at a discounted price plus the first seven games. Both products came in separate boxes. King's Quest Collection (2006): Vivendi Universal released King's Quest Collection, a compilation CD for Windows XP encompassing games KQI–VII. Rather than porting the games directly, however, this release uses the original versions running under the DOSBox emulator and a Windows front end (as a result, it is also possible to run KQI–VI on other platforms with a little tweaking and ports of DOSBox). King's Quest VII is the earlier 16-bit Windows version, version 1.4, lacking DOS compatibility, but runs natively on Windows 32-bit versions but is incompatible with 64-bit windows. Missing in the collection are the original AGI version of King's Quest I, as well as installation for the Windows CD version of King's Quest VI with high-resolution character art (although the assets can be accessed through ScummVM), the 2.0 DOS and Windows versions of KQVII, and King's Quest: Mask of Eternity. It also lacks any of the bonus material from previous collections. This collection was released on Steam in 2009, but has been later removed, likely due to bugs and compatibility issues. King's Quest Bundle: King's Quest 1+2+3, 4+5+6, and 7+8 collections (2010): Three collections released by Activision through GOG.com. The first consists of the classic AGI versions of King's Quest I–III (the KQI remake is not included) released 2010, and the later games King's Quest 4–5–6 on Vista. The final collection contains King's Quest 7 (2.0 version) and 8 designed to work on Vista and Windows 7 32-bit and 64-bit. The collections come with assorted bonus material such as windows background artwork. All three sets can be bought as a bundle; the "King's Quest Bundle" at 30% off the regular price of all three separately. King's Quest: The Complete Collection (2015): Bundles the five chapters and a bonus playable episode of the reboot King's Quest series. Collection bonus material Inside the Chest: A program containing reprints of magazine articles, game reviews, designer interviews, studies of game development process, and other documents related to the KQ series. Behind the Developer's Shield: A program containing pencil sketches, background and game art, and other documents related to the game development of KQI–VII. A View from Inside the Mirror: A series of videos including an interview with Roberta Williams and Ken Williams, talking about the history of the King's Quest games, and other Sierra products she was involved with. Roberta Williams reflects upon her role as the designer of this award-winning series. Hold onto Your Adventure's Cap: A series of videos concerning the development of KQVII plus a video preview of the game. The Royal Scribe: A document containing information about the Sierra company, their various series, and each King's Quest game, with a few interviews from the developers (including Roberta Williams, Josh Mandel, Jane Jensen, and Lorelei Shannon). King's Questions: A trivia game with randomized questions. King Graham's Board Game Challenge: Checkers & Backgammon: A board game collection starring King Graham. Quest for Daventry Quest for Daventry is a King's Quest V themed pinball board in Take a Break! Pinball, one of the first pinball games for Windows. Other boards in the game are also based on Sierra game characters like Larry Laffer, Gir Draxon, Willy Beamish, and Roger Wilco. The pinball game follows a narrative story with objectives based on the KQV adventure game. The board transforms adding new locations as the player finishes missions. Short cut scenes are shown near the ticker when certain objectives are met, and the ticker lists narrative or objective information. Hoyle's Official Book of Games series This game contains both King Graham and Rosella as opponents. They both are able to communicate with other players in the game, discussing various topics related to the Kingdom of Daventry. One notable aspect of the stories of the characters is that it introduces Rosella's Great-Grandfather, who "slew the Dragon of Herenna". Another discussion between the royal family and Roger Wilco establishes that Roger once crashed a spaceship into Castle Daventy's moat (a nod to an Easter egg in Space Quest: The Sarien Encounter). Graham and Rosella along with two King's Quest villains Mordack and Lolotte would go on to appear in Hoyle 3: Board Games, although they are not nearly as interactive, only commenting on moves in the game. In Hoyle's Classic Card Games only Graham returns as an opponent representing the series' characters, again comments were limited in interactivity, but it contains fully digitized speech. Books Guide books Most of the games of the series came with manuals that included short stories or recap of the series. The manual for KQIII included the spellbook needed to solve the puzzles in the game (the spells were reprinted in The King's Quest Companion). Often the manuals contained information used for copy-protection schemes. The manual for KQVIII contained assorted information concerning the lands, enemies, and potion and health items in the game. Guidebook to the Land of the Green Isles – Written by Jane Jenson, it was a booklet packed in with KQVI, which discussed background and geography of the Land of the Green Isles. The book also contained copy protection information for the game. King's Quest V Hintbook – Written by Roberta Williams. Gives a behind the scenes details of the making of KQV and the King's Quest series, and the stories of the previous games. It contains concept art from KQV. The book is split into sections for each major area in the game; each section begins with a character introduction giving a few details about most of the characters. King's Quest VI Hintbook – Written by Lorelei Shannon. It discusses the making of the game as well as the Royal Family and the events leading up to KQVI, giving more background to the game, and contains concept art. King's Quest VII: The Official Hint Guide – Written by Lorelei Shannon. It also contains an interview with Roberta Williams, a making of KQVII section, a summary of King's Quest (discussing the events of each game leading up to KQVII), and a section giving the backstories and legends explaining the backstories of the game's characters; it also contains concept art from the game. The Official Book of King's Quest – Written by Donald B. Trivette. Series contains crossword puzzles, clues, trivia, synposes/backstory information, making of the games information/photos, pronunciation guides, secret debug codes, and other technical information/history of the games. The Official Book of King's Quest: Daventry and Beyond: Foreword by Roberta Williams, making of KQIV. The Official Book of King's Quest (Second Edition) The Official Book of King's Quest VI/The Official Book of King's Quest (Third Edition), published with two different cover titles. Has an interview with Roberta Williams discussing the development of KQVI, material concerning making of KQV, and line artwork. King's Quest: Mask of Eternity Prima's Official Strategy Guide- Written by Rick Barba. Basic strategy guide offering little in the way of extras. The King's Quest Companion – Written by Peter Spear and published in four editions. The book contains novelizations of games, as well as articles that further explained the history of Daventry, its geography, the characters, and magic. The first two editions also contains An Encyclopedia of Daventry (Abridged) which gave even more details about various subjects relating to Daventry. Authorized King's Quest VII Players Guide – Written by Peter and Jeremy Spear. It is a strategy guide and novelization of KQVII. Novels Three original novels have been published by Boulevard Books: The Floating Castle (1995): Written by Craig Mills, placed somewhere between KQIV and VI, it follows Alexander on a quest to discover what is behind the mysterious Floating Castle and the monstrous invasions over the kingdom. The Kingdom of Sorrow (1996): Written by Kenyon Morr (pseudonym of Mark Sumner and Marella Sands), placed between KQII and III, it follows the adventures of Graham, who moves to rescue an imprisoned Fairy Queen held by the giant Dunstan in order to return balance in nature. See No Weevil (1996): Also written by Kenyon Morr, set between KQII and III. Taking place seven years after the previous book, it focuses on Rosella, just before her 15th birthday, who must run the Kingdom of Daventry during an absence of her parents. Cancelled games King's Quest II & III remakes In 1990 the developers at Sierra redeveloped King's Quest with a new interface and up-to-date technology. The plan was to redevelop King's Quest II and King's Quest III but due to rather disappointing sales of the 1990 remake of King's Quest I, the prospect of officially remaking and re-releasing the sequels was scrapped. Davidson version of King's Quest VIII Between September 1996 to January 21, 1997, due to conservative criticism over the content in King's Quest: Mask of Eternity and Phantasmagoria by Davidson & Associates, a team of managers was assigned to work above Roberta Williams. They began creating their own version of KQVIII while ignoring her version. Their version was purged of combat, violence and possibly religious themes. While Williams continued to work on her own ideas including its own script and puzzles, the Davidson's team of managers began to design their script and puzzles for their own version of KQVIII. Davidson's intervention was ultimately stopped (Davidson left the company in January 1997) and Williams reasserted her control, but this was not without its damage to her version of the game's final release (due to loss of time and funding), which was already hurting from other technical issues caused by Dynamix engine development problem and others. Cancelled Sequels There have been several attempts to create a ninth installment in the King's Quest series, all of which have been cancelled before going into production. All three development attempts never went past announcement or concept stages nor received official titles. They were described as the next game in the "King's Quest" franchise in known released information. King's Quest 9 or Kings's Quest IX are more unofficial designation for being the next game in the franchise used by the media in regards to released information. The idea of a King's Quest 9 goes back to some of the discussions with Roberta Williams after the release of King's Quest: Mask of Eternity. The King's Quest: Mask of Eternity Prima's Official Strategy Guide by Rick Barba made reference to King's Quest IX as the next title in the series if a new one was made (or at least as a description of the ninth game in the series). Roberta Williams offered a few ideas for a King's Quest IX in 1998-1999, her version never saw development. The ninth game has been in development four times since then with three different developers, Vivendi Games, Silicon Knights, and Telltale Games between 2001 and 2013, and eventually The Odd Gentlemen rebooted the series in 2015. Roberta Williams/Sierra Following the release of King's Quest VIII (Mask of Eternity), Roberta Williams occasionally alluded to ideas if she was allowed to make the follow-up game or ideas that would influence the direction of any follow-up games, or ideas that were cut during the process of KQVIII that she would have liked to have introduced in the following game. Though she was generally tightlipped on the subject when it came to the next game, there are a few details. These never evolved into anything, however, and the game was neither started nor cancelled. Primarily it was decided during the production of KQVIII that Graham was now too old to go on adventures, and that Alexander would be less likely to go on adventures as he now had his own concerns as king of the Green Isles. This led to Roberta introducing a new playable character into the series (which started with Connor), which probably would have had similar impact in future games in the series had she had the chance to develop them. Williams was still potentially a possibility for use in future games, and she tossed out the idea that Connor might even meet the princess. This idea grew to include the idea that Rosella would possibly fall in love with Connor, or Connor would fall in love with Rosella and initiate some kind of love triangle between them and Rosella's other love interest, Edgar (KQIV/KQVII). In addition she had ideas to add multiplayer as early as KQVIII early development, but these were cut and she hoped to introduce them into future games in the series. Some of the ideas were an MMO (massive multiplayer online) adventure game, with the ability for players to collect and swap items to help each other solve puzzles, or fight monsters together. Vivendi Games There was a ninth installment in development by Vivendi Games (under the Sierra branding) between 2001 and 2002. It was cancelled before going into production. The game never made it past the prototype stage. Images of two renders of the playable character were leaked to the public. The renders show what looks like an older and bearded King Graham, wielding a giant sword, wearing full armor, and having the ability to flip in the air, suggesting that it may have been a third-person action-adventure game, similar to the 3D Legend of Zelda games. This, like later attempts at producing a new game, were described as the new King's Quest, and not necessarily KQIX (though news media referred to it as King's Quest 9). Silicon Knights Silicon Knights worked on a prototype for a King's Quest game at some point before Telltale Games acquired the rights. This information was released to the public through documents on the Silicon Knights suit against Epic Games. Telltale Games Telltale Games' take on the ninth installment of the King's Quest franchise was first announced at a press event on February 17, 2011. Telltale said that they had entered into an agreement with Activision, then current owner of the rights to the classic Sierra On-Line adventure franchises, to create new episodic games based on those series. The first Sierra intellectual property they intended to work on was King's Quest. As development never went far, the game never received a title beyond the reference to the franchise name. The game was to follow the format of previous Telltale Games series such as Tales of Monkey Island, as a continuation of the series with all new episodic games and multiple series. It was intended to preserve the back story of King's Quest, and fit into the established canon. It was intended to include the challenge and possibilities of death of the original games, but the gameplay was going to be adapted to relieve some of the frustration present in the original games. Telltale approached Roberta Williams, the originator of the series, and one of the designers on all of the original games, to see if she was interested in working on the new one. While she declined by saying she had retired from games, she did offer the development team advice, which was "very valuable", according to developer Dave Grossman. In May 2012, Dan Connors confirmed that Dave Grossman was in charge of the King's Quest project, and Telltale was working on how to proceed. The game was confirmed to be cancelled by Telltale senior vice president of publishing, Steve Allison, on April 3, 2013. Fan-created games There have been several fan-created King's Quest games both original and retellings of the original games that have been released by various developers. Mike and Matt Chapman, creators of the Homestar Runner series of cartoons and games, have created a game known as Peasant's Quest, mostly based on King's Quest I but with allusions throughout the game to King's Quest II, King's Quest III, King's Quest IV, and The Black Cauldron. Reception In 1996, Next Generation listed the series as number 79 on their "Top 100 Games of All Time", commenting that, "humor, story telling, and classic puzzle implementation make the King's Quest series the most consistent top-quality line-up in computer gaming's history". By 1994, the series had sold 2.5 million copies, making it the best-selling computer game series at that time. By 1997, the series had sold 7 million copies. 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231552	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20Stone	Power Stone	Power Stone is a fully 3D arena fighting game made by Capcom. Power Stone was initially released on the Sega NAOMI hardware and later ported to the Dreamcast. In October 2006, Capcom ported the game and its sequel to the PlayStation Portable as Power Stone Collection. An anime TV series based on the game ran in 1999 from April 3 to September 25. The original Power Stone featured ten characters. Gameplay Gameplay involves selecting a character and then proceeding to battle the other characters, one at a time, in various locales. The three-dimensional fighting includes the ability to use special attacks as well as to pick up and fight with such objects as tables, chairs, rocks and bombs. During battle, "Power Stones", resembling gems of different colors, appear in the arena. If a character collects three Power Stones, they transform into a more powerful version of themself. The character will then be able to use one of two super special attacks: generally a massive long-range power attack and a grab or close-range move. The powered-up mode only lasts until the power bar is fully drained, during which the special attack can be executed (which completely depletes the power bar) or other, lesser special moves can be executed (which only use a small portion of power). Each match continues until the life bar of one of the two characters fighting is depleted. Plot Set in the 19th century, strong believers of legends, myths and superstition search for fame, fortune and glory. One legend above all is sought after by many, a treasure which can make any dream come true. Believers from all over the world set out to search for this treasure, and are forced to fight against one another in pursuit of the legendary Power Stone. Characters There are 10 characters in the original Power Stone: is the main character of Power Stone. Aged 21 and weighing , Fokker measures and has a fighting style of boxing. He is the son of Pride Falcon (Pride Fokker in Japan), who is playable in Power Stone 2 after unlocking him. He is from Londo (a reference to London). When in Power Change, he is known as the Red Whirlwind. Falcon's Japanese name is a reference to the Fokker, the plane he is seen in. This was possibly removed in the English version because of the inappropriate puns that would follow. His Power Change is a similar hybrid to Iron Man. is an aspiring chef and martial-artist from the town of Tong-An. Wang-Tang is age 19, weighs , measures . When Wang-Tang picks up an item, he says "lucky", where the other characters in Power Stone speak Japanese. Wang-Tang's Power Fusions resemble moves from a Super Saiyan from the Dragon Ball series, including moves based on Goku's Kamehameha and Spirit Bomb. He is known as the Agile Dragon when in Power Change. is from the town of Mutsu (reference to Mutsu). Ryoma is age 19, weighs , measures . When in Power Change, he is known as the Master Swordsman which could be seen as a composite of the Silver Samurai and the Ronin Warriors. is a travelling entertainer and kunoichi from the town of Oedo (reference to Edo). Ayame is age 16, weighs , measures . Her power drives and fusions involve shurikens. When in Power Change, she is known as the Cherry Blossom Dancer. is a fortune teller from the town of Mahdad (reference to Baghdad). Rouge is age 23, weighs , measures and has a Gypsy Dancing fighting style. When in Power Change, she is known as the Scorching Beauty. Her design looks similar to Pullum from the Street Fighter EX series. is a mysterious man whose body is covered in bandages. It is rumored that he could be around 40 years old, but the anime has mentioned he is over 100 years old. He weighs , measures , and has an original fighting style. He and Ryoma are the only two characters in the original Power Stone who wield a weapon. Jack is from the town of Manches (reference to Manchester). He is likely a reference to Jack the Ripper (a paper in his ending calls him "Jack the Slayer"). When in Power Change, he is known as the Mad Clown. is from the town of Dawnvolta. He is age 38, weighs , measures . When in Power Change, he is known as the Heavy Tank which bears a resemblance to The Thing from Marvel Comic's Fantastic Four. He shares a name with a character from Capcom's Saturday Night Slam Masters. is from the town of Dullstown. Galuda is age 34, weighs , measures . When in Power Fusion, he is known as the Proud Eagle, in which he looks similar to a totem pole. His appearance is similar to that of T. Hawk from the game Super Street Fighter II. is a pirate from Power Stone. He, like Valgas, is an unlockable character. Kraken is from a pirate ship in Skull Haven. Kraken's age is unknown, weighs , measures and has a buccaneer fighting style. When in Power Change, he is known as Ghost Pirate. His name is a reference to the kraken, along with his nickname, King Octopus. is a character from Power Stone. He is from the island of Avalon Island. Valgas's age is unknown, weighs , measures and has a wrestling fighting style. He is a very powerful character and is quite fast. When defeated, he transforms into the final boss of the game, Final Valgas. His name may be a reference to Vulgus, Capcom's first game. Reception In Japan, Game Machine listed Power Stone on their May 1, 1999 issue as being the eighteenth most-successful arcade game of the month. Blake Fischer reviewed the Dreamcast version of the game for Next Generation, rating it five stars out of five, and stated that "every Dreamcast owner should have this title. It's unique, it's fast, and most importantly, it's loads of fun". The Dreamcast version of Power Stone received "favorable" reviews according to video game review aggregator GameRankings. However, Power Stone Collection received "average" reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic. In Japan, Famitsu gave the former console version a score of 34 out of 40. In Europe, Computer and Video Games gave it a full 5-star rating, stating that "it's fantastic". Legacy A sequel was released in 2000 called Power Stone 2, which featured the original cast (minus the hidden characters Kraken and Valgas) as well as several new characters. The sequel features the same three dimensional combat system, but now allows up to four players to play simultaneously. There are new maps, some of which contain multiple areas and moving sections. The sequel also features an entirely new arsenal of weapons, from futuristic handguns to gigantic mallets, and magic wands to vehicles. Players can collect these items in a special "Adventure" mode; they can then be traded at a special "Item Shop", or combined to form new items. A remake of the two games was released for the PSP in 2006 under the name Power Stone Collection. This collection contains slightly updated versions of both games (Dreamcast versions) on one UMD. The PSP version of the original Power Stone included the four new characters introduced in Power Stone 2. A lone Power Stone Manga from KC BomBom Comic was issued on 15 March 1999. The anime is mostly based on this and the previewed graphics can be found in Dreamcast official site. References External links Power Stone entry at Sega-Naomi 1999 video games 3D fighting games Arcade video games Capcom games Capcom franchises Dreamcast games Video games about ninja PlayStation Portable games Fighting games Video games adapted into television shows Video games developed in Japan Video games scored by Tetsuya Shibata Video games set in the 19th century	[ -0.298997700214386, 0.1800813227891922, -0.07279836386442184, 0.11426099389791489, -0.39252930879592896, 0.08172573149204254, 0.04893254116177559, -0.5388314127922058, 0.5224695205688477, 0.09797001630067825, -0.19522327184677124, 0.2511393129825592, 0.060926634818315506, -0.0029451344162225723, -0.07804109901189804, -0.15568822622299194, 0.23033751547336578, 0.30405470728874207, 0.25242286920547485, -0.3979329466819763, -0.006668769288808107, 0.1572677195072174, 1.0418788194656372, -0.24308881163597107, 0.08869045972824097, 0.1480923891067505, 0.2072622925043106, 0.4319770038127899, 0.0009672298328951001, 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231553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahoe%20Basin	Arapahoe Basin	Arapahoe Basin ( ; often shortened to A-Basin, or simply The Basin) is an alpine ski area in the Rocky Mountains of the United States, in the Arapaho National Forest of Colorado. Arapahoe Basin is known for its extended season—usually staying open until early June, and sometimes into early July, whereas most other northern ski areas close in early April. Arapahoe Basin is located south of Loveland Pass on U.S. Highway 6 in Summit County. Geography and climate The Arapahoe Basin East Wall has a summit elevation of , which is among the highest in-bounds skiable terrain in North America. Due to its high elevation (at tree line) and its mostly north-to-northeast face, the Basin's ski season is much longer than most resorts in North America. It is often first to open mid-October and last to close in June. Arapahoe Basin is located just below Loveland Pass and offers views of the Continental Divide (which it borders) from the lifts. From the top of the East Wall and the North Pole, there are views of Lake Dillon, Breckenridge, Keystone, Montezuma, and Loveland Pass. The Basin is located about west of Denver. Ski area information Lodges A-Basin has three day lodges. At the base is a full cafeteria, bar, and coffee bar. There is also a grill outside for warm days, and a food truck style taco bar. The Black Mountain Lodge sits mid-mountain, at the top of the Black Mountain Express, serving Barbecue and a day lodge style menu. New for 2018-2019, Il Rifugio at the previously unused Snow Plume Refuge building is an Italian bistro, specializing in wine, cheese and charcuterie. It is located at just over 12,500 feet at the summit of A-Basin. Due to complex logistics, most cooked food would have to be brought up the mountain to the restaurant. There is no overnight lodging at Arapahoe Basin. The nearest lodging is located at the Keystone ski area, 6 mi. west. Terrain Arapahoe Basin is mostly known for advanced and expert terrain, but also has runs for the novice and intermediate skier, as well as a children's program. The Black Mountain Express(an adjustable highspeed detachable quad), Molly Hogan, and Pika Place & Hogan's Magic Carpet (both surface conveyors) lifts, service easy runs. Pika Place is conveniently located close to the base area lodge and is a carpet conveyor for tykes and never-evers. Hogan's Magic Carpet, on the bunny slope, is conveniently located adjacent to the closest base area parking area. It is for beginners getting prepared to ride the nearby Molly Hogan chair lift. Molly Hogan is a slow lift running over the bunny slope, for use by those just learning to ride a chair lift. Black Mountain Express services greens, blues, and four blacks: The Gulch which runs parallel to Black Mountain Express; Exhibition which runs under the chair and features bumps, steep terrain, and a fair number of jumps; "Lower Standard", & "Lower International" which can be accessed from the standard race traverse. The Pallavicini lift services mostly black and double black terrain on the west side of the mountain, though it is possible to take some difficult blues back to the base and to ski the "WestWall". The Pallavicini face itself, a group of very steep and seemingly endless mogul runs, is rated double black diamond extreme. It provides gated access to Steep Gullies. The Lenawee lift takes skiers to the top of the mountain, where they can access blues, blacks, and the East and West Walls. On the West Wall there is a blue called Cornice Run where skiers can take leaps from windblown cornices. The East Wall has some of the most difficult terrain at Arapahoe Basin. The Lower East Wall is rated black diamond and can be reached without hiking. Open primarily in late winter and spring, the Upper East Wall is rated double black diamond extreme and is only accessible on foot. A hike of approximately 30 minutes will take guests to the North Pole, a very steep descent through rocky terrain over avalanche-blasted territory. Along the ridge prior to the North Pole is a group of chutes accessed through notches in the cliff band. One chute actually requires some rock downclimbing to reach skiable snow, an interesting experience in ski boots while holding a pair of skis. These chutes are often only a couple of ski widths wide and require mountaineering skiing ability. Most of the terrain is prone to avalanches and is regularly blasted by the ski patrol before they declare the wall open. The Lower and Upper East Wall is bisected by the East Wall Traverse which is quite long and accesses a lot of difficult-to-reach territory from above and below, leaving prime snow conditions available for those willing to make the trek. The entire East Wall is not groomed and should not be taken lightly since evacuation by the ski patrol in this area is a difficult undertaking. The Zuma lift services blue, black and double black trails over the backside of Arapahoe Basin in "Montezuma Bowl". Montezuma Bowl offers everything from groomed intermediate runs to advanced cornice runs. It has mostly southern exposure. The "Beavers Area" is 468 acres of terrain serviced by a fixed grip quad. It is a bowl to the northwest of Pallavinci, with blue and black rated runs. The full terrain includes open powder bowls, tree skiing, and rocky chutes, as well as two intermediate groomed runs.name=Expansion The Steep Gullies was included in the opening of the "Beavers Area" and has the most challenging skiing at Arapahoe Basin. These steep, narrow chutes vary in pitch and width, and are rated as "extreme" (double-black diamond). All terrain in The Steep Gullies is designated as "hike back," meaning that guests must hike or skin back to the bottom of the Pallavicini Lift upon completion of their run. History Larry and Marnie Jump, Max Dercum, and Sandy Shaufler started Arapahoe Basin in 1945. The first year it was open for skiing was 1946. Since then, it has expanded to include 147 trails served by 9 lifts. The ski area was sold in the 1970's to Joe Jankovsky. He in turn sold the area to Ralston Purina. Arapahoe Basin became the first ski resort in the United States to open for the 2006–2007 season on October 13, when it opened one lift and one run.} It was the first time in seven seasons that Arapahoe Basin beat Loveland ski area in the race to be the first ski area open in the nation. It repeated for the 2007–2008 ski area by opening at 9:00 a.m. on October 10. This was the area's earliest opening in 61 years and the earliest opening in North America for the season. During the 2007–2008 season, Arapahoe Basin expanded into Montezuma Bowl, with the largest terrain expansion in the nation for that season. Facing southwest towards Keystone, the terrain offers blue, black, and double black trails with all kinds of terrain, including: groomed runs, chutes, glades, and cornice runs, all accessible from the Zuma fixed grip quad. The terrain will be open each season between late December and early January through late April, conditions warranted. Arapahoe Basin opened for the 2009–2010 season on Friday, October 9, the earliest start in its history. In 2010, Leitner-Poma replaced the Exhibition lift on the lower mountain with a high speed quad, the Black Mountain Express lift, Arapahoe Basin's first detachable lift. In the 2015-2016 ski season for the second time in history both Loveland Ski Area and Arapahoe Basin opened on the same day. Loveland opened at 8:30am and Arapahoe Basin at 9am on October 29, 2015. The first time both resorts opened on the same day was the 2008-2009 season.(see comments for reference) In November 2016, 468 acres were approved by the Forest Service and added to the ski area. Of those 468 acres, 329 opened for the 2017-2018 season; 232 in the Beavers section and 129 in the Steep Gullies section. Currently, the terrain is accessible by a 30-minute hike and is expert and extreme terrain only. A fixed-grip quad chair lift was built in the summer of 2018. Opening date for 2016-2017 Season announced on Wednesday, October 19, 2016 with First Chair at 9:00am on Friday, October 21, 2016. In February 2019, Arapahoe Basin announced it was ending its 20+ year partnership with Vail Resorts and its Epic Pass at the end of the 2018-19 season. On August 2 2019, Arapahoe Basin announced it would join the Ikon Pass starting with the 2019-2020 winter season. Statistics Elevation Lowest in-bounds point: 10,520 ft (3,207 m) Base: Summit: Vertical rise: 2,530 ft (771 m) Trails Skiable area: Trails: 145 total (7% easiest, 20% intermediate, 49% advanced, 24% expert) Longest run: Average annual snowfall: Lifts 9 total 1 high-speed detachable quad (Black Mountain Express) 3 fixed grip quad chairs (Zuma Lift, Beavers Lift, Molly Hogan Lift) 1 triple chair (Lenawee Mountain Lift) 1 double chair (Pallavicini Lift) 2 conveyor lifts (Molly's Magic Carpet, Pika Place) 1 rope tow (Lazy J Tow) Resort Historical Opening and Closing Dates During Snowmaking Era Arapahoe Basin and Loveland compete yearly for the #RaceToOpen. Ski enthusiasts from around the world watch to see who will open first. Below are the opening dates during the Snowmaking Era. Season Open Date (Day of Week) 2003-2004 October 30 (Thursday) 2004-2005 October 22 (Friday) 2005-2006 October 23 (Friday) 2006-2007 October 13 (Friday) 2007-2008 October 10 (Wednesday) 2008-2009 October 15 (Wednesday) 2009-2010 October 9 (Friday) *Earliest opening 2010-2011 October 25 (Monday) 2011-2012 October 13 (Thursday) 2012-2013 October 17 (Wednesday) 2013-2014 October 13 (Sunday) 2014-2015 October 17 (Friday) 2015-2016 October 29 (Thursday) 2016-2017 October 21 (Friday) 2017-2018 October 13 (Friday) 2018-2019 October 19 (Friday) 2019-2020 October 11 (Friday) 2021-2022 October 17 (Sunday) Zuma Bowl Opening and Closing Dates Season Open Date Close Date Total Days Open 2007-8 January 12, 2008 - May 22, 2008 - 132 Days 2008-9 December 30, 2008 - May 14, 2009 - 136 Days 2009-10 February 24, 2010 - May 16, 2010 - 82 Days 2010-11 December 18, 2010 - June 5, 2011 - 170 Days 2011-12 February 24, 2012 - March 25, 2012 - 31 Days 2012-13 February 13, 2013 - May 27, 2013 - 104 Days 2013-14 January 10, 2014 - June 1, 2014 - 143 Days 2014-15 December 29, 2014 - June 3, 2015 - 157 Days 2015-16 December 23, 2015 - June 3, 2016 - 164 Days 2016-17 December 23, 2016 - June 3, 2016 - 164 Days 2017-18 January 13, 2018 - TBD 2018-19 December 7, 2018 - TBD Benchmark Dates Earliest opening - October 9, 2009 Latest Closing - August 10, 1995 The installation of snowmaking in 2002 changed the opening from a mid-November/mid-December date to mid-October. Longest Season - 2018-2019. That season had 258 operating days lasting from October 19, 2018 through July 4, 2019. In the past 22 seasons (data from 2015) East Wall opened 6 times in January East Wall opened 6 times in February East Wall opened 8 times in March East Wall did not open during 2 dry years Those years include the 2001-2002 snow year and the 2011-2012 snow year References External links Colorado Avalanche Information Center Buildings and structures in Summit County, Colorado Geography of Summit County, Colorado Ski areas and resorts in Colorado Tourist attractions in Summit County, Colorado White River National Forest	[ -0.30817803740501404, 0.6218485832214355, -0.2435741275548935, 0.06961323320865631, 0.07391955703496933, 0.3776092827320099, 0.7169502377510071, 0.3772660791873932, -0.02669079788029194, 0.07939711213111877, -0.22414197027683258, 0.1781863272190094, -0.6447330117225647, 0.24027539789676666, -0.08150650560855865, 0.3576599061489105, 0.5387274622917175, -0.1400173157453537, 0.5307865738868713, 0.1702629029750824, 0.3923572897911072, -0.8281750082969666, 0.2869390845298767, 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231554	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SNK	SNK	is a Japanese video game hardware and software company. It is the successor to the company Shin Nihon Kikaku and presently owns the SNK video game brand and the Neo Geo video game platform. SNK's predecessor Shin Nihon Kikaku was founded in 1978 by Eikichi Kawasaki. The corporation was initially named . In 1981, the name was informally shortened to SNK Corporation, which became the company's official name in 1986. SNK is known for its creation of the Neo Geo family of arcade, home, and handheld game consoles in 1990. The Neo Geo line was halted in 2001 because financial troubles forced SNK Corporation to close in the same year. Anticipating the end of the company, Kawasaki founded Playmore Corporation in 2001, which acquired all of the intellectual property of the former SNK Corporation. In 2003, Playmore Corporation was renamed to SNK Playmore Corporation. In 2016, SNK dropped the name Playmore from its logo and reintroduced its old slogan, "The Future Is Now", officially changing its corporate name back to SNK. Traditionally, SNK operated primarily as a video game developer, publisher, and hardware manufacturer with a focus on arcade games; however, it has ventured into developing console and PC games. In 2004, SNK started manufacturing pachislot machines, but the company withdrew from the market in 2015. In 2009, the company entered mobile game development. Classic SNK franchises include Art of Fighting, Fatal Fury, Metal Slug, Samurai Shodown, The Last Blade, World Heroes, and The King of Fighters. History Beginnings (1973–1981) SNK was founded in 1973 as Shin Nihon Kikaku and reorganized in 1978 as a stock company (kabushiki gaisha) under the name "Shin Nihon Kikaku Corporation". When Eikichi Kawasaki noticed rapid growth in the coin-operated video game market, he expanded Shin Nihon Kikaku to include the development and marketing of stand-alone coin-op games. Around 1980, the company took the initial letters from Shin Nihon Kikaku as its nickname, SNK. The copyright notation of SNK was "SNK CORP." It established itself in Sunnyvale, California, to deliver its own brand of coin-operated games to arcades in North America. SNK chose John Rowe to head its American operation. The first two titles that SNK released were Ozma Wars (1979), a vertical space shooter, and Safari Rally (1980), a maze game. Game quality improved over time, most notably with Vanguard (1981), a side-scrolling space shooter. SNK licensed the game to Centuri for distribution in North America. Centuri started manufacturing and distributing the game by itself when profits exceeded projections. In part due to the success of Vanguard, SNK began to gain fame and reputation. An American branch opened on October 20, 1981, named SNK Electronics Corporation. SNK Corporation (1986–2001) In April 1986, Shin Nihon Kikaku Corporation officially became SNK Corporation. In November 1986, SNK Electronics Corporation, the US branch, became SNK Corporation of America and moved to Sunnyvale, California. In March 1988, SNK staff moved to a building in Suita, Osaka, Japan. At this point, the Japanese operations of SNK Corporation had shifted their focus solely toward developing and licensing video games for arcade use and later for early consoles. Between 1979 and 1986, SNK produced 23 stand-alone arcade games. Highlights from this period include Mad Crasher (1984), Alpha Mission (1985), and Athena (1986), a game that gained a large following when it was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) in 1987. SNK's most successful game from this time was Ikari Warriors, released in 1986. It was so popular that it was licensed and ported to the Atari 2600, Atari 7800, Commodore 64, Commodore Amiga, Amstrad CPC, Apple II, ZX Spectrum, and NES. After Ikari Warriors, SNK released two sequels: Victory Road and Ikari III: The Rescue. At the time, Japan was affected by the video game crash of 1983. The console manufacturer Nintendo remained in business throughout and after the crash. SNK became a third-party licensee for Nintendo's Famicom (alternative name for the NES) system in 1985. It opened a second branch in the US, called SNK Home Entertainment, based in Torrance, California. The branch handled the North American distribution and marketing of the company's products for home consoles. John Rowe had already left the company to form Tradewest, which went on to market the Ikari Warriors series in North America. Paul Jacobs took over Rowe's position over both halves of SNK America. He is known for having helped launch the company's Neo Geo system outside of Asia. In response to strong sales of the company's NES ports, SNK began to dabble in the development of original software designed specifically for the NES console. Two games came out of this effort: Baseball Stars (1989) and Crystalis (1990; known as God Slayer in Japan). In 1989, two home video game consoles were released in North America: the Sega Genesis, and NEC and Hudson Soft's TurboGrafx-16. Nintendo followed suit with a new system in 1991, the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (Super NES, SNES). SNK as a whole did not become involved in the "system wars" of the early 1990s. Instead, it refocused its efforts on arcades. Other third parties, such as Romstar and Takara, were left to license and port SNK's properties to the various home consoles of the time with help from SNK's American home entertainment division. With console ports mainly handled outside the company, it moved on to developing SNK-branded arcade equipment. SNK also licensed Tiger Electronics to market handheld electronic games from some of its brands. In 1988, SNK created the idea of a modular cabinet for arcades. Up to that point, arcade cabinets typically contained only one game. When an arcade operator wanted to switch or replace that game, it would have to completely remove the internals of the existing cabinet or exchange the entire setup for another game. SNK's new system, called the Neo Geo MVS (short for Multi Video System), featured multiple games in a single cabinet and used a cartridge-based storage mechanism. The system debuted in 1990 and could contain one, two, four, or six separate games in a single cabinet. To swap in a new game, all the operator had to do was remove one cartridge and exchange it for another. The MVS was an immediate success. It greatly shortened the setup time needed for each game, minimized floor space for cabinets, and reduced costs for new cartridges to US$500—less than half of what a traditional arcade unit cost at the time. SNK wanted to bring arcade games to people's homes without making CPU and memory performance compromises that typical home consoles were forced to make. In 1990, the Neo Geo family was created. The company released a home version of the MVS, a single cartridge unit called the Neo Geo Advanced Entertainment System (Neo Geo AES). Initially, the AES was only available for rent or for use in hotel settings, but SNK quickly began selling the system through stores when customer response indicated that people were willing to spend money on home versions. Several franchises of games derived from it, including Sengoku, The King of Fighters, The Last Blade, Super Sidekicks, Art of Fighting, Metal Slug, Burning Fight, Savage Reign, Samurai Shodown, and Fatal Fury. The King of Fighters, Samurai Shodown, and Metal Slug series were continued on later consoles. SNK also helped publish third-party Neo Geo games such as ADK's World Heroes and Aggressors of Dark Kombat, Visco's Breakers and Ganryu, Noise Factory's Rage of the Dragons and Sengoku 3, Sunsoft's Galaxy Fight: Universal Warriors and Waku Waku 7, Sammy's Viewpoint, NMK's Zed Blade, Psikyo's Strikers 1945 Plus, Aiky/Taito's Pochi and Nyaa, Eleven/Gavaking's Nightmare in the Dark, Face's Money Puzzle Exchanger, Data East's Spinmaster and Street Slam, and Technōs Japan's Double Dragon and Voltage Fighter Gowcaizer. During this time, SNK also released stand-alone arcade games, some of which were ported to home consoles, including Vanguard, Alpha Mission, Athena, Ikari Warriors, Psycho Soldier, Touch Down Fever, Time Soldiers, P.O.W.: Prisoners of War, Beast Busters, and Street Smart. Compared to other consoles at the time, the Neo Geo AES had much better graphics and sound. It debuted at $599, sold with two joystick controllers and a game (either Baseball Stars Professional or NAM-1975). Within a few months of the system's introduction in North America, SNK increased the cost to $649 and changed the pack-in game to Magician Lord. Alternatively, the console could be bought for $399 with one control stick and without an accompanying game. Other games cost at least $200 each. Joystick controllers contained the same four-button layout as the arcade MVS cabinet. The quality of AES games varied. Some, such as the Super Sidekicks series, were all-new creations, while others were updated versions of earlier successes, such as Baseball Stars Professional. SNK games were graphically bold and bright. Games such as Top Hunter: Roddy & Cathy and the famous Metal Slug series were distinctive and instantly recognizable, contributing to the system's success in arcades. SNK also produced the Neo Geo CD, the Hyper Neo-Geo 64, and two handheld game consoles, the Neo Geo Pocket and Pocket Color. Several more famous franchise titles, originally created for the MVS and AES systems, have been ported to other consoles such as the Sega Genesis, Saturn and Dreamcast; SNES; PlayStation and PlayStation 2; Xbox; and Wii. The Neo Geo Pocket was SNK's original handheld system. It was released in Japan in late 1998 and featured a monochrome (one-color) display. Because its sales were fewer than the expected number, it was discontinued in 1999 in favor of the Neo Geo Pocket Color, which was later released in North America and Europe. In 2001, the Neo Geo family ended. It was briefly revived 11 years later with the Neo Geo X. In 1999, "Neo Geo World Tokyo Bayside" (later Tokyo Leisure Land Palette Town Store) was opened in Palette Town , Odaiba, Tokyo, and equipped with attractions such as ferris wheels and roller coasters. At the time of the opening, a large-scale tie-in was established with the Fujisankei Communications Group, which also has a Fuji TV headquarters in Daiba, and was featured frequently in various media. On the other hand, in the late 1990s, the boom of 2D fighting games, which S.N.K. was good at, had come to an end, and neither Neo Geo CD nor Hyper Neo Geo 64 hit. At the same time, Neo Geo Pocket, which was initially strong, began to be inferior to the later Game Boy Color , and the newly opened Neo Geo World Tokyo Bayside attracted attention to the reopened `` Yokohama Cosmo World ' ' at the same time as a result by the management of SNK. In the end, the amusement park business was a huge failure and wasted SNK's management and energy. In addition, the arcade game magazine " Gamest ", which introduced many SNK works and published articles in 1999, was also abolished by the bankruptcy of its publisher, Shinseisha. Bankruptcy and Playmore Corporation (2001–2003) SNK itself relied on the know-how of its heyday to focus too much on fighting games, and because it specialized in most of the development resources, a sudden change in policies could not be achieved, and in addition to the diversified management mentioned earlier. However, the business condition worsened. In particular, the effects of the failure of the Neo Geo home video game console and the failure of Neo Geo World were irreversible. Because of this, the Neo Geo Pocket Color version of Puzz Loop (known as Ballistic in Japan) which developed by Mitchell Corporation and intended to be published by SNK in 2000 was cancelled. They also released RPGs, adventures, and rhythm games for the Sega Saturn, PlayStation and Dreamcast, including Shinsetsu Samurai Spirits Bushidō Retsuden, Athena: Awakening from the Ordinary Life, Koudelka, and Cool Cool Toon. However, the situation did not improve because they were not hits. In January 2000, SNK's poor financial status led to its acquisition by Aruze, a company known for its pachinko machines. Instead of developing video games using SNK's intellectual properties, Aruze manufactured pachinko machines that featured popular series such as King of Fighters. SNK saw little success in the video game market. The same year, Capcom agreed to create a series of fighting games featuring both companies' fighting game characters. The Capcom vs. SNK games were a success, and most of the profits went to Capcom because it developed and published the games. SNK released SNK vs. Capcom: Match of the Millennium and SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters Clash on the Neo Geo Pocket Color. Combined, the two games sold around 50,000 copies. SNK closed all American operations on June 13, 2000. The company sold rights to distribution in North America for MVS arcade systems and Neo Print photo systems. It licensed North American localizations of some console releases to outside companies. With low morale and an unclear future, many of the company's employees left their jobs. Some joined rival Capcom, and others moved on to found the developer Dimps or even joined Arc System Works (which in 2015 obtained the rights of Voltage Fighter Gowcaizer as part of its acquisition of the former Technōs Japan assets). Kawasaki, along with five other former SNK executives, funded the formation of BrezzaSoft, which continued to develop Neo Geo games such as The King of Fighters 2001. Eyeing the end of the company, founder Eikichi Kawasaki left SNK along with other executives to found a company named Playmore on August 1, 2001. On October 22, 2001, SNK filed for bankruptcy and placed the intellectual property rights for its franchises up for auction. Licenses for SNK's game production and development rights to its franchises were sold to several other companies. These included BrezzaSoft, which produced The King of Fighters franchise between 2001 and 2002, and Mega Enterprise, which produced Metal Slug 4. To regain control of SNK, Kawasaki's new company, Playmore, successfully bid for and was awarded SNK's intellectual property rights on October 30, 2001. The company then began to bolster its assets and re-hire former SNK employees. To re-establish its presence in the gaming market, Playmore acquired BrezzaSoft and its former SNK developers, as well as Japan-based Neo Geo developer Noise Factory. Sun Amusement, a Japanese commercial games distributor, was acquired by SNK to provide the company with an arcade distribution outlet in Japan. International offices were established in South Korea, Hong Kong, and the United States under the name SNK NeoGeo for commercial and, later, consumer gaming distribution. All of the acquired entities were consolidated into SNK Playmore on July 7, 2003 when Playmore regained rights to use the name SNK from Aruze. In the same year, SNK purchased ADK shortly after it filed for bankruptcy. Previously, ADK was a third-party company that had been heavily associated with SNK since the late 1980s. SNK Playmore's operations in Japan already largely resembled the original company: SNK employed many employees who left after its bankruptcy filing and occupied its former building. In October 2002, Kawasaki sued Aruze for copyright infringement, claiming 6.2 billion Japanese yen ($) in damages. He cited that Aruze had continued to use SNK's intellectual properties after Playmore re-acquired them. A preliminary decision in January 2004 by the Osaka District Court favored SNK Playmore, awarding it 5.64 billion yen ($). SNK Playmore (2003–2016) In the fall and winter of 2003, SNK Playmore obtained an injunction against a group of four different companies, causing hundreds of AES cartridges to be seized. In the following year, SNK Playmore struck a compromise with two of the companies. The two were allowed to sell AES cartridges, under the conditions that the cartridges would not be modified again and that any legitimate materials would be returned to SNK Playmore. Within the same year, SNK Playmore would discontinue the AES system, preferring to publish video games in cooperation with Sammy. Using its arcade board Atomiswave, SNK Playmore gained a more secure and modern platform for new arcade releases. In 2004, SNK Playmore officially became licensed to manufacture pachislot machines (Japanese slot machines played in pachinko parlors). The company released its first two machines that year: Metal Slug and Dragon Gal. Pachislots would be more heavily featured in SNK Playmore's product lineup for the next decade. In September 2006 at the Tokyo Game Show (TGS), SNK Playmore announced that it had ceased producing games on the Atomiswave, favoring Taito's Type X2 arcade platform. To counter the decline in the commercial gaming industry, the company shifted some of its development focus to consumer games, including original games for the PlayStation 2, Nintendo DS, mobile phones, and other platforms. Games continue to be ported to the PlayStation 2, mostly in Europe because Sony Computer Entertainment of America (SCEA) did not approve most SNK Playmore games, and more rarely to the Xbox. In Japan, SNK Playmore released the NeoGeo Online Collection for the PlayStation 2, which contained some of its older games. It featured emulations, and online play was available through the KDDI matching service. The company also released original titles based on existing franchises such as Metal Slug and the KOF: Maximum Impact series. In 2007, SNK Playmore USA released its first game on the Xbox Live Arcade, titled Fatal Fury Special. SNK Playmore also began supporting Nintendo's Virtual Console service on the Wii in the US with Fatal Fury, Art of Fighting, and World Heroes. In 2007, The King of Fighters XI and Neo Geo Battle Coliseum were released. SNK Playmore also released its first adult-themed game franchise, Doki Doki Majo Shinpan!, the first for any handheld console. In 2009, the company released The King of Fighters XII, which was not well-received by the public and critics alike due to polemic changes in the game's graphics and structure. In 2010, SNK Playmore released a sequel, The King of Fighters XIII, which was considered a much better game than its immediate predecessor. It either won or was nominated to multiple Game of the Year awards. SNK has developed a great number of mobile games since 2009. It has licensed its characters for Chinese and other Asian games, mostly mobile. In December 2012, SNK Playmore released the Neo Geo X, a relaunched mobile Neo Geo console. On October 2, 2013, SNK Playmore terminated its licensing agreement with the console's manufacturer, Tommo, effectively ending production of the Neo Geo X less than a year after its release. Tommo disputed the termination, stating that its contract was extended until 2016 and that it performed every obligation of the licensing agreement. In June 2013, the VIGAMUS, a museum of video games in Rome, hosted an event dedicated to the history of SNK, tracing back the origins of the company and explaining the evolution of its games. Yamamoto Kei, Kiyoji Tomita, and Ogura Eisuke participated at the event and were interviewed. Ogura also drew two original illustrations to exhibit at the museum. Foreign acquisition and brand restoration (2016–present) In March 2015, Leyou Technologies Holdings submitted a disclosure of interest document to the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, highlighting a "possible investment in a renowned Japanese video game developer". Later in August, it was announced that Chinese web and mobile game giant 37Games, and asset management firm Orient Securities had formed a joint venture to invest in Ledo Millennium, a subsidiary of Leyou. Through Ledo, the venture acquired Kawasaki's 81.25% stake in SNK Playmore for $63.5 million. The reason given for the acquisition was to gain rights to SNK Playmore's intellectual property, and further develop them by following Marvel Entertainment's approach to mass media. The joint venture planned to integrate games, comics, film, and television in a media franchise. With the purchase completed, SNK Playmore signaled a shift in the company's strategy, which had previously been focused more on the production of pachislot and mobile games than its traditional area, console and arcade games. In 2015, SNK Playmore announced that it was withdrawing from the pachislot market, choosing instead to focus on console and mobile gaming, as well as character licensing using its popular characters such as Mai Shiranui, Ukyou Tachibana, Nakoruru, and Haohmaru. Additionally, all of the aforementioned characters made their appearance as guest characters in a mobile multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA), Wangzhe Rongyao, roughly translated to English as Honor of Kings, which is the world highest-grossing game of all time as well as the most downloaded mobile app globally. On April 25, 2016, SNK officially dropped the "Playmore" name from its corporate logo and reintroduced its old slogan, "The Future Is Now", to signify "a return to SNK's rich gaming history". A legal name change from SNK Playmore Corporation to SNK Corporation followed on December 1, 2016, to more firmly establish SNK Playmore as the successor to the old SNK brand and legacy. The King of Fighters XIV, the first entry in its series in more than half a decade, was released in 2016. In July 2018, SNK released the NEOGEO Mini, a miniature console based on the design of the company's Japanese arcade machines. It was pre-loaded with forty classic Neo Geo games. In June 2019, the 12th entry in the Samurai Shodown series was released for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One, followed by an arcade version in October and a Nintendo Switch version later in the year. On September 4, 2019, Nintendo announced that Fatal Fury protagonist and The King of Fighters character Terry Bogard would be added as a downloadable, playable character to Super Smash Bros. Ultimate, with a planned release in November 2019. Terry was made available on November 6, alongside a The King of Fighters-based stage and 50 songs from various SNK series. In November 2020, the MiSK Foundation, a non-profit organization owned by the crown prince of Saudi Arabia, Mohammed Bin Salman, acquired a 33.3% share of SNK through its subsidiary, Electronic Game Development Company (EGDC), with the intention to acquire a further 17.7% share at a later time as to gain controlling interest in the company. The deal has closed on March 1, 2021. Subsidiaries and related corporations Current SNK Entertainment – founded in February 2016 to contract and develop new digital entertainment including video games. It ramps up activity that surrounds SNK's library of intellectual properties with "new and exciting sublicensing opportunities and collaborations". SNK Beijing SNK H.K., Ltd. – handles character licensing, as well as hardware and software sales in East Asia (except for Japan) SNK USA Corporation – publisher of software and animation in America. SNK-Tero Games - publisher of software and animation in Thailand. Former ADK – former game developer for the Neo Geo. SNK purchased its intellectual property assets when the company became bankrupt in 2003. Developed Aggressors of Dark Kombat, the Crossed Swords series, Gang Wars, Ninja Combat, Ninja Commando, Ninja Master's: Haō Ninpō Chō, Over Top, Shōgi no Tatsujin: Master of Syougi, Sky Soldiers, Sky Adventure, Super Champion Baseball, Time Soldiers, Twinkle Star Sprites, and the World Heroes series. BrezzaSoft – co-developer of The King of Fighters 2001 with Eolith. Eolith – co-developer of The King of Fighters 2001 with BrezzaSoft, co-developer of The King of Fighters 2002 with Playmore. Face Co. Ltd. – developer of Gururin, Money Puzzle Exchanger, and ZuPaPa!. Mega Enterprise – co-developer of Metal Slug 4 and Metal Slug 5 with Noise Factory. Nazca Corporation – former game developer for the Neo Geo (Metal Slug), later acquired by SNK Neo Geo do Brasil – handled hardware and software sales in Brazil from 1993 to 1998 Noise Factory – co-developer of Metal Slug 4 and Metal Slug 5 with Mega Enterprise, formerly owned by SNK Pallas – developed Eight Man and Super Baseball 2020. Sacnoth – developed Dive Alert, Koudelka, and Faselei!. Saurus – developed Ironclad, Pleasure Goal: 5 on 5 Mini Soccer, the Shock Troopers series, the Stakes Winner series, and The Irritating Maze. Co-developed Prehistoric Isle 2 with Yumekobo, co-developed Quiz King of Fighters with SNK, and co-developed Ragnagard with System Vision. SNK Corporation of America - handled published of software sales in America from 1981 to 2001 SNK Playmore Europe Corporation – handled software sales in Europe Sun Amusement – published Metal Slug 4 and The King of Fighters 2001. Viccom – developed Fight Fever. Yumekobo – developed Blazing Star, co-developed Prehistoric Isle 2 with Saurus. See also List of games by SNK References External links (current) (archives) Japanese companies established in 1978 Amusement companies of Japan Companies based in Osaka Prefecture Companies that have filed for bankruptcy in Japan Japanese brands Japanese companies established in 2001 Re-established companies Video game companies established in 1978 Video game companies established in 2001 Video game companies of Japan Video game development companies Video game publishers	[ 0.048520103096961975, -0.15927629172801971, -0.05358924716711044, -0.02972126007080078, -0.28564193844795227, 0.12784089148044586, -0.6322398781776428, 0.04552559554576874, -0.03181038424372673, 0.2502700388431549, -0.24143856763839722, 0.25433996319770813, 0.24076542258262634, -0.28917354345321655, -0.6133019328117371, -0.4122620224952698, -0.16854874789714813, 0.2015163004398346, -0.003145756898447871, -0.22569695115089417, -0.4905245304107666, 0.1595388948917389, 0.4080219268798828, -0.15635225176811218, 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231555	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20Marko	Prince Marko	Marko Mrnjavčević (, ; – 17 May 1395) was the de jure Serbian king from 1371 to 1395, while he was the de facto ruler of territory in western Macedonia centered on the town of Prilep. He is known as Prince Marko (; , Kraljević Marko, ) and King Marko (; ; ) in South Slavic oral tradition, in which he has become a major character during the period of Ottoman rule over the Balkans. Marko's father, King Vukašin, was co-ruler with Serbian Tsar Stefan Uroš V, whose reign was characterised by weakening central authority and the gradual disintegration of the Serbian Empire. Vukašin's holdings included lands in north-western Macedonia and Kosovo. In 1370 or 1371, he crowned Marko "young king"; this title included the possibility that Marko would succeed the childless Uroš on the Serbian throne. On 26 September 1371, Vukašin was killed and his forces defeated in the Battle of Maritsa. About two months later, Tsar Uroš died. This formally made Marko the king of the Serbian land; however, Serbian noblemen, who had become effectively independent from the central authority, did not even consider to recognise him as their supreme ruler. Sometime after 1371, he became an Ottoman vassal; by 1377, significant portions of the territory he inherited from Vukašin were seized by other noblemen. King Marko, in reality, came to be a regional lord who ruled over a relatively small territory in western Macedonia. He funded the construction of the Monastery of Saint Demetrius near Skopje (better known as Marko's Monastery), which was completed in 1376. Later Marko became an Ottoman vassal and died on 17 May 1395, fighting against the Wallachians in the Battle of Rovine. Although a ruler of modest historical significance, Marko became a major character in South Slavic oral tradition. He is venerated as a national hero by the Serbs, Macedonians and Bulgarians, remembered in Balkan folklore as a fearless and powerful protector of the weak, who fought against injustice and confronted the Turks during the Ottoman occupation. Life Until 1371 Marko was born about 1335 as the first son of Vukašin Mrnjavčević and his wife Alena. The patronymic "Mrnjavčević" derives from Mrnjava, described by 17th-century Ragusan historian Mavro Orbin as a minor nobleman from Zachlumia (in present-day Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia). According to Orbin, Mrnjava's sons were born in Livno in western Bosnia, where he may have moved after Zachlumia was annexed from Serbia by Bosnia in 1326. The Mrnjavčević family may have later supported Serbian Emperor (tsar) Stefan Dušan in his preparations to invade Bosnia as did other Zachlumian nobles, and, fearing punishment, emigrated to the Serbian Empire before the war started. These preparations possibly began two years ahead of the invasion, which took place in 1350. From that year comes the earliest written reference to Marko's father Vukašin, describing him as Dušan's appointed župan (district governor) of Prilep, which was acquired by Serbia from Byzantium in 1334 with other parts of Macedonia. In 1355, at about age 47, Stefan Dušan died suddenly of a stroke. Dušan was succeeded by his 19-year-old son Uroš, who apparently regarded Marko Mrnjavčević as a man of trust. The new Emperor appointed him the head of the embassy he sent to Ragusa (now Dubrovnik, Croatia) at the end of July 1361 to negotiate peace between the empire and the Ragusan Republic after hostilities earlier that year. Although peace was not reached, Marko successfully negotiated the release of Serbian merchants from Prizren who were detained by the Ragusans and was permitted to withdraw silver deposited in the city by his family. The account of that embassy in a Ragusan document contains the earliest-known, undisputed reference to Marko Mrnjavčević. An inscription written in 1356 on a wall of a church in the Macedonian region of Tikveš, mentions a Nikola and a Marko as governors in that region, but the identity of this Marko is disputed. Dušan's death was followed by the stirring of separatist activity in the Serbian Empire. The south-western territories, including Epirus, Thessaly, and lands in southern Albania, seceded by 1357. However, the core of the state (the western lands, including Zeta and Travunia with the upper Drina Valley; the central Serbian lands; and Macedonia), remained loyal to Emperor Uroš. Nevertheless, local noblemen asserted more and more independence from Uroš' authority even in the part of the state that remained Serbian. Uroš was weak and unable to counteract these separatist tendencies, becoming an inferior power in his own domain. Serbian lords also fought each other for territory and influence. Vukašin Mrnjavčević was a skilful politician, and gradually assumed the main role in the empire. In August or September 1365 Uroš crowned him king, making him his co-ruler. By 1370 Marko's potential patrimony increased as Vukašin expanded his personal holdings from Prilep further into Macedonia, Kosovo and Metohija, acquiring Prizren, Pristina, Novo Brdo, Skopje and Ohrid. In a charter he issued on 5 April 1370 Vukašin mentioned his wife (Queen Alena) and sons (Marko and Andrijaš), signing himself as "Lord of the Serb and Greek Lands, and of the Western Provinces" (). In late 1370 or early 1371 Vukašin crowned Marko "Young King", a title given to heirs presumptive of Serbian kings to secure their position as successors to the throne. Since Uroš was childless Marko could thus become his successor, beginning a new—Vukašin's—dynasty of Serbian sovereigns, and ending the two-century Nemanjić dynasty. Most Serbian lords were unhappy with the situation, which strengthened their desire for independence from the central authority. Vukašin sought a well-connected spouse for Marko. A princess from the Croatian House of Šubić of Dalmatia was sent by her father, Grgur, to the court of their relative Tvrtko I, the ban of Bosnia. She was supposed to be raised and married by Tvrtko's mother Jelena. Jelena was the daughter of George II Šubić, whose maternal grandfather was Serbian King Dragutin Nemanjić. The ban and his mother approved of Vukašin's idea to join the Šubić princess and Marko, and the wedding was imminent. However, in April 1370 Pope Urban V sent Tvrtko a letter forbidding him to give the Catholic lady in marriage to the "son of His Magnificence, the King of Serbia, a schismatic" (filio magnifici viri Regis Rascie scismatico). The pope also notified King Louis I of Hungary, nominal overlord of the ban, of the impending "offence to the Christian faith", and the marriage did not occur. Marko subsequently married Jelena (daughter of Radoslav Hlapen, the lord of Veria and Edessa and the major Serbian nobleman in southern Macedonia). During the spring of 1371, Marko participated in the preparations for a campaign against Nikola Altomanović, the major lord in the west of the Empire. The campaign was planned jointly by King Vukašin and Đurađ I Balšić, lord of Zeta (who was married to Olivera, the king's daughter). In July of that year Vukašin and Marko camped with their army outside Scutari, on Balšić's territory, ready to make an incursion towards Onogošt in Altomanović's land. The attack never took place, since the Ottomans threatened the land of Despot Jovan Uglješa (lord of Serres and Vukašin's younger brother, who ruled in eastern Macedonia) and the Mrnjavčević forces were quickly directed eastward. Having sought allies in vain, the two brothers and their troops entered Ottoman-controlled territory. At the Battle of Maritsa on 26 September 1371, the Turks annihilated the Serbian army; the bodies of Vukašin and Jovan Uglješa were never found. The battle site, near the village of Ormenio in present-day eastern Greece, has ever since been called as Sırp Sındığı ("Serbian rout") in Turkish. The Battle of Maritsa had far-reaching consequences for the region, since it opened the Balkans to the Turks. After 1371 When his father died, "young king" Marko became king and co-ruler with Emperor Uroš. The Nemanjić dynasty ended soon afterwards, when Uroš died on 2 (or 4) December 1371 and Marko became the formal sovereign of Serbia. Serbian lords, however, did not recognise him, and divisions within the state increased. After the two brothers' deaths and the destruction of their armies, the Mrnjavčević family was left powerless. Lords around Marko exploited the opportunity to seize significant parts of his patrimony. By 1372 Đurađ I Balšić took Prizren and Peć, and Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović took Pristina. By 1377 Vuk Branković acquired Skopje, and Albanian magnate Andrea Gropa became virtually independent in Ohrid; however, he may have remained a vassal to Marko as he had been to Vukašin. Gropa's son-in-law was Marko's relative, Ostoja Rajaković of the clan of Ugarčić from Travunia. He was one of Serbian noblemen from Zachlumia and Travunia (adjacent principalities in present-day Herzegovina) who received lands in the newly conquered parts of Macedonia during Emperor Dušan's reign. The only sizable town kept by Marko was Prilep, from which his father rose. King Marko became a petty prince ruling a relatively small territory in western Macedonia, bordered in the north by the Šar mountains and Skopje; in the east by the Vardar and the Crna Reka rivers, and in the west by Ohrid. The southern limits of his territory are uncertain. Marko shared his rule with his younger brother, Andrijaš, who had his own land. Their mother, Queen Alena, became a nun after Vukašin's death, taking the monastic name Jelisaveta, but was co-ruler with Andrijaš for some time after 1371. The youngest brother, Dmitar, lived on land controlled by Andrijaš. There was another brother, Ivaniš, about whom little is known. When Marko became an Ottoman vassal is uncertain, but it was probably not immediately after the Battle of Maritsa. At some point Marko separated from Jelena and lived with Todora, the wife of a man named Grgur, and Jelena returned to her father in Veria. Marko later sought to reconcile with Jelena but he had to send Todora to his father-in-law. Since Marko's land was bordered on the south by Hlapen's, the reconciliation may have been political. Scribe Dobre, a subject of Marko's, transcribed a liturgical book for the church in the village of Kaluđerec, and when he finished, he composed an inscription which begins as follows: Marko's fortress was on a hill north of present-day Prilep; its partially preserved remains are known as Markovi Kuli ("Marko's towers"). Beneath the fortress is the village of Varoš, site of the medieval Prilep. The village contains the Monastery of Archangel Michael, renovated by Marko and Vukašin, whose portraits are on the walls of the monastery's church. Marko was ktetor of the Church of Saint Sunday in Prizren, which was finished in 1371, shortly before the Battle of Maritsa. In the inscription above the church's entrance, he is called "young king". The Monastery of St. Demetrius, popularly known as Marko's Monastery, is in the village of Markova Sušica (near Skopje) and was built from c. 1345 to 1376 (or 1377). Kings Marko and Vukašin, its ktetors, are depicted over the south entrance of the monastery church. Marko is an austere-looking man in purple clothes, wearing a crown decorated with pearls. With his left hand he holds a scroll, whose text begins: "I, in the Christ God the pious King Marko, built and inscribed this divine temple ..." In his right hand, he holds a horn symbolizing the horn of oil with which the Old Testament kings were anointed at their coronation (as described in 1 Samuel 16:13). Marko is said to be shown here as the king chosen by God to lead his people through the crisis following the Battle of Maritsa. Marko minted his own money, in common with his father and other Serbian nobles of the time. His silver coins weighed 1.11 grams, and were produced in three types. In two of them, the obverse contained a five-line text: ("In the Christ God, the pious King Marko"). In the first type, the reverse depicted Christ seated on a throne; in the second, Christ was seated on a mandorla. In the third type, the reverse depicted Christ on a mandorla; the obverse contained the four-line text ("Pious King Marko"), which Marko also used in the church inscription. He omitted a territorial designation from his title, probably in tacit acknowledgement of his limited power. Although his brother Andrijaš also minted his own coins, the money supply in the territory ruled by the Mrnjavčević brothers primarily consisted of coins struck by King Vukašin and Tsar Uroš. About 150 of Marko's coins survive in numismatic collections. By 1379, Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović, the ruler of Moravian Serbia, emerged as the most-powerful Serbian nobleman. Although he called himself Autokrator of all the Serbs (), he was not strong enough to unite all Serbian lands under his authority. The Balšić and Mrnjavčević families, Konstantin Dragaš (maternally a Nemanjić), Vuk Branković and Radoslav Hlapen continued ruling their respective regions. In addition to Marko, Tvrtko I was crowned King of the Serbs and of Bosnia in 1377. Maternally related to the Nemanjić dynasty, Tvrtko had seized western portions of the former Serbian Empire in 1373. On 15 June 1389 Serbian forces led by Prince Lazar, Vuk Branković, and Tvrtko's nobleman Vlatko Vuković of Zachlumia, confronted the Ottoman army led by Sultan Murad I at the Battle of Kosovo, the best-known battle in medieval Serbian history. With the bulk of both armies wiped out and Lazar and Murad killed, the outcome of the battle was inconclusive. In its aftermath the Serbs had insufficient manpower to defend their lands, while the Ottomans had many more troops in the east. Serbian principalities which were not already Ottoman vassals became such over the next few years. In 1394, a group of Ottoman vassals in the Balkans renounced their vassalage. Although Marko was not among them, his younger brothers Andrijaš and Dmitar refused to remain under Ottoman dominance. They emigrated to the Kingdom of Hungary, entering the service of King Sigismund. They travelled via Ragusa, where they withdrew two-thirds of their late father's store of of silver, leaving the remaining third for Marko. Although Andrijaš and Dmitar were the first Serbian nobles to emigrate to Hungary, the Serbian northward migration would continue throughout the Ottoman occupation. In 1395 the Ottomans attacked Wallachia to punish its ruler, Mircea I, for his incursions into their territory. Three Serbian vassals fought on the Ottoman side: King Marko, Lord Konstantin Dragaš, and Despot Stefan Lazarević (son and heir of Prince Lazar). The Battle of Rovine, on 17 May 1395, was won by the Wallachians; Marko and Dragaš were killed. After their deaths the Ottomans annexed their lands, combining them into an Ottoman province centred in Kyustendil. Thirty-six years after the Battle of Rovine, Konstantin the Philosopher wrote the Biography of Despot Stefan Lazarević and recorded what Marko said to Dragaš on the eve of the battle: "I say and pray to the lord to help the Christians and for me to be among the first to die in this war." The chronicle goes on to state that Marko and Dragaš were killed in the battle. Another medieval source that mentions Marko's death at the Battle of Rovine is the Dečani Chronicle. In folk poetry Serbian epic poetry Marko Mrnjavčević is the most popular hero of Serbian epic poetry, in which he is called "Kraljević Marko" (with the word kraljević meaning "prince" or "king's son"). This informal title was attached to King Vukašin's sons in contemporary sources as a surname (Marko Kraljević), and it was adopted by the Serbian oral tradition as part of Marko's name. Poems about Kraljević Marko do not follow a storyline; what binds them into a poetic cycle is the hero himself, with his adventures illuminating his character and personality. The epic Marko had a 300-year lifespan; 14th- to 16th-century heroes appearing as his companions include Miloš Obilić, Relja Krilatica, Vuk the Fiery Dragon and Sibinjanin Janko and his nephew, Banović Sekula. Very few historical facts about Marko can be found in the poems, but they reflect his connection with the disintegration of the Serbian Empire and his vassalage to the Ottomans. They were composed by anonymous Serbian poets during the Ottoman occupation of their land. According to American Slavicist George Rapall Noyes, they "combine tragic pathos with almost ribald comedy in a fashion worthy of an Elizabethan playwright." Serbian epic poetry agrees that King Vukašin was Marko's father. His mother in the poems was Jevrosima, sister of voivode Momčilo, the lord of the Pirlitor Fortress (on Mount Durmitor in Old Herzegovina). Momčilo is described as a man of immense size and strength with magical attributes: a winged horse and a sabre with eyes. Vukašin murdered him with the help of the voivode's young wife, Vidosava, despite Jevrosima's self-sacrificing attempt to save her brother. Instead of marrying Vidosava (the original plan), Vukašin killed the treacherous woman. He took Jevrosima from Pirlitor to his capital city, Skadar, and married her according to the advice of the dying Momčilo. She bore him two sons, Marko and Andrijaš, and the poem recounting these events says that Marko took after his uncle Momčilo. This epic character corresponds historically with Bulgarian brigand and mercenary Momchil, who was in the service of Serbian Tsar Dušan; he later became a despot and died in the 1345 Battle of Peritheorion. According to another account, Marko and Andrijaš were mothered by a vila (Slavic mountain nymph) married by Vukašin after he caught her near a lake and removed her wings so she could not escape. As Marko matured, he became headstrong; Vukašin once said that he had no control over his son, who went wherever he wanted, drank and brawled. Marko grew up into a large, strong man, with a terrifying appearance, which was also somewhat comical. He wore a wolf-skin cap pulled low over his dark eyes, his black moustache was the size of a six-month-old lamb and his cloak was a shaggy wolf-pelt. A Damascus sabre swung at his waist, and a spear was slung across his back. Marko's pernach weighed 66 okas () and hung on the left side of his saddle, balanced by a well-filled wineskin on the saddle's right side. His grip was strong enough to squeeze drops of water from a piece of dry cornel wood. Marko defeated a succession of champions against overwhelming odds. The hero's inseparable companion was his powerful, talking piebald horse Šarac; Marko always gave him an equal share of his wine. The horse could leap three spear-lengths high and four spear-lengths forward, enabling Marko to capture the dangerous, elusive vila Ravijojla. She became his blood sister, promising to help him in dire straits. When Ravijojla helped him kill the monstrous, three-hearted Musa Kesedžija (who almost defeated him), Marko grieved because he had slain a better man than himself. Marko is portrayed as a protector of the weak and helpless, a fighter against Turkish bullies and injustice in general. He was an idealised keeper of patriarchal and natural norms: in a Turkish military camp, he beheaded the Turk who dishonourably killed his father. He abolished the marriage tax by killing the tyrant who imposed it on the people of Kosovo. He saved the sultan's daughter from an unwanted marriage after she entreated him, as her blood brother, to help her. He rescued three Serbian voivodes (his blood brothers) from a dungeon and helped animals in distress. Marko was a rescuer and benefactor of people, and a promoter of life; "Prince Marko is remembered like a fair day in the year". Characteristic of Marko was his reverence and love for his mother, Jevrosima; he often sought her advice, following it even when it contradicted his own desires. She lived with Marko at his mansion in Prilep, his lodestar guiding him away from evil and toward good on the path of moral improvement and Christian virtues. Marko's honesty and moral courage are noteworthy in a poem in which he was the only person who knew the will of the late Tsar Dušan regarding his heir. Marko refused to lie in favour of the pretenders—his father and uncles. He said truthfully that Dušan appointed his son, Uroš, heir to the Serbian throne. This almost cost him his life, since Vukašin tried to kill him. Marko is represented as a loyal vassal of the Ottoman sultan, fighting to protect the potentate and his empire from outlaws. When summoned by the sultan, he participated in Turkish military campaigns. Even in this relationship, however, Marko's personality and sense of dignity were apparent. He occasionally made the sultan uneasy, and meetings between them usually ended like this: Marko's fealty was combined with the notion that the servant was greater than his lord, as Serbian poets turned the tables on their conquerors. This dual aspect of Marko may explain his heroic status; for the Serbs he was "the proud symbol expressive of the unbroken spirit that lived on in spite of disaster and defeat," according to translator of Serbian epic poems David Halyburton Low. In battle, Marko used not only his strength and prowess but cunning and trickery. Despite his extraordinary qualities he was not depicted as a superhero or a god, but as a mortal man. There were opponents who surpassed him in courage and strength. He was occasionally capricious, short-tempered or cruel, but his predominant traits were honesty, loyalty and fundamental goodness. With his comic appearance and behaviour, and his remarks at his opponents' expense, Marko is the most humorous character in Serbian epic poetry. When a Moor struck him with a mace, Marko said laughingly, "O valiant black Moor! Are you jesting or smiting in earnest?" Jevrosima once advised her son to cease his bloody adventures and plough the fields instead. He obeyed in a grimly humorous way, ploughing the sultan's highway instead of the fields. A group of Turkish Janissaries with three packs of gold shouted at him to stop ploughing the highway. He warned them to keep off the furrows, but quickly wearied of arguing: Marko, age 300, rode the 160-year-old Šarac by the seashore towards Mount Urvina when a vila told him that he was going to die. Marko then leaned over a well and saw no reflection of his face on the water; hydromancy confirmed the vilas words. He killed Šarac so the Turks would not use him for menial labor, and gave his beloved companion an elaborate burial. Marko broke his sword and spear, throwing his mace far out to sea before lying down to die. His body was found seven days later by Abbot Vaso and his deacon, Isaija. Vaso took Marko to Mount Athos and buried him at the Hilandar Monastery in an unmarked grave. Epic poetry of Bulgaria and North Macedonia "Krali Marko" has been one of the most popular characters in Bulgarian (more generally Eastern South Slavic) folklore for centuries. These epic tales of Marko seem to originate from the present-day North Macedonia, therefore also being an important part of the ethnic heritage of Macedonians. According to local legend Marko's mother was Evrosiya (Евросия), sister of the Bulgarian voivoda Momchil (who ruled territory in the Rhodope Mountains). At Marko's birth three narecnitsi (fairy sorceresses) appeared, predicting that he would be a hero and replace his father (King Vukašin). When the king heard this, he threw his son into the river in a basket to get rid of him. A samodiva named Vila found Marko and brought him up, becoming his foster mother. Because Marko drank the samodivas milk, he acquired supernatural powers and became a Bulgarian freedom fighter against the Turks. He has a winged horse named Sharkolia ("dappled") and a stepsister, the samodiva Gyura. Bulgarian legends incorporate fragments of pagan mythology and beliefs, although the Marko epic was created as late as the 14–18th centuries. Among Bulgarian epic songs, songs about Krali Marko are common and pivotal. Bulgarian folklorists who collected stories about Marko included educator Trayko Kitanchev (in the Resen region of western Macedonia) and Marko Cepenkov of Prilep (throughout the region). In legend South Slavic legends about Kraljević Marko or Krali Marko are primarily based on myths much older than the historical Marko Mrnjavčević. He differs in legend from the folk poems; in some areas he was imagined as a giant who walked stepping on hilltops, his head touching the clouds. He was said to have helped God shape the earth, and created the river gorge in Demir Kapija ("Iron Gate") with a stroke of his sabre. This drained the sea covering the regions of Bitola, Mariovo and Tikveš in Macedonia, making them habitable. After the earth was shaped, Marko arrogantly showed off his strength. God took it away by leaving a bag as heavy as the earth on a road; when Marko tried to lift it, he lost his strength and became an ordinary man. Legend also has it that Marko acquired his strength after he was suckled by a vila. King Vukašin threw him into a river because he did not resemble him, but the boy was saved by a cowherd (who adopted him, and a vila suckled him). In other accounts, Marko was a shepherd (or cowherd) who found a vilas children lost in a mountain and shaded them against the sun (or gave them water). As a reward the vila suckled him three times, and he could lift and throw a large boulder. An Istrian version has Marko making a shade for two snakes, instead of the children. In a Bulgarian version, each of the three draughts of milk he suckled from the vilas breast became a snake. Marko was associated with large, solitary boulders and indentations in rocks; the boulders were said to be thrown by him from a hill, and the indentations were his footprints (or the hoofprints of his horse). He was also connected with geographic features such as hills, glens, cliffs, caves, rivers, brooks and groves, which he created or at which he did something memorable. They were often named after him, and there are many toponyms—from Istria in the west to Bulgaria in the east—derived from his name. In Bulgarian and Macedonian stories, Marko had an equally strong sister who competed with him in throwing boulders. In some legends, Marko's wonder horse was a gift from a vila. A Serbian story says that he was looking for a horse who could bear him. To test a steed, he would grab him by the tail and sling him over his shoulder. Seeing a diseased piebald foal owned by some carters, Marko grabbed him by the tail but could not move him. He bought (and cured) the foal, naming him Šarac. He became an enormously powerful horse and Marko's inseparable companion. Macedonian legend has it that Marko, following a vilas advice, captured a sick horse on a mountain and cured him. Crusted patches on the horse's skin grew white hairs, and he became a piebald. According to folk tradition Marko never died; he lives on in a cave, in a moss-covered den or in an unknown land. A Serbian legend recounts that Marko once fought a battle in which so many men were killed that the soldiers (and their horses) swam in blood. He lifted his hands towards heaven and said, "Oh God, what am I going to do now?" God took pity on Marko, transporting him and Šarac to a cave (where Marko stuck his sabre into a rock and fell asleep). There is moss in the cave; Šarac eats it bit by bit, while the sabre slowly emerges from the rock. When it falls on the ground and Šarac finishes the moss, Marko will awaken and reenter the world. Some allegedly saw him after descending into a deep pit, where he lived in a large house in front of which Šarac was seen. Others saw him in a faraway land, living in a cave. According to Macedonian tradition Marko drank "eagle's water", which made him immortal; he is with Elijah in heaven. In modern culture During the 19th century, Marko was the subject of several dramatizations. In 1831 the Hungarian drama Prince Marko, possibly written by István Balog, was performed in Buda and in 1838, the Hungarian drama Prince Marko – Great Serbian Hero by Celesztin Pergő was staged in Arad. In 1848 Jovan Sterija Popović wrote the tragedy The Dream of Prince Marko, in which the legend of sleeping Marko is its central motif. Petar Preradović wrote the drama Kraljević Marko, which glorifies southern Slav strength. In 1863 Francesco Dall'Ongaro presented his Italian drama, The Resurrection of Prince Marko. In her collection of short stories from 1978, Nouvelles Orientales, Marguerite Yourcenar imagined an alternative, inexplicable end to Marko's life (La Fin de Marko kraliévitch). Of all Serbian epic or historical figures, Marko is considered to have given the most inspiration to visual artists; a monograph on the subject lists 87 authors. His oldest known depictions are 14th-century frescoes from Marko's Monastery and Prilep. An 18th-century drawing of Marko is found in the Čajniče Gospels, a medieval parchment manuscript belonging to a Serbian Orthodox church in Čajniče in eastern Bosnia. The drawing is simple, unique in depicting Marko as a saint and reminiscent of stećci reliefs. Vuk Karadžić wrote that during his late-18th-century childhood he saw a painting of Marko carrying an ox on his back. Nineteenth-century lithographs of Marko were made by Anastas Jovanović, Ferdo Kikerec and others. Artists who painted Marko during that century include Mina Karadžić, Novak Radonić and Đura Jakšić. Twentieth-century artists include Nadežda Petrović, Mirko Rački, Uroš Predić and Paja Jovanović. A sculpture of Marko on Šarac by Ivan Meštrović was reproduced on a Yugoslavian banknote and stamp. Modern illustrators with Marko as their subject include Alexander Key, Aleksandar Klas, Zuko Džumhur, Vasa Pomorišac and Bane Kerac. Princ Marko, and his Sabre was also inspiration for Current Serbian National Anthem "Boze Pravde". The song was taken from a theatre piece Markova Sablja, very popular among Serbs in 1872. Motifs in multiple works are Marko and Ravijojla, Marko and his mother, Marko and Šarac, Marko shooting an arrow, Marko plowing the roads, the fight between Marko and Musa and Marko's death. Also, several artists have tried to produce a realistic portrait of Marko based on his frescoes. In 1924 Prilep Brewery introduced a light beer, Krali Marko. See also Serbian nobility conflict (1369) Djemo the Mountaineer General Vuča Footnotes The family name "Mrnjavčević" was not mentioned in contemporary sources, nor was any other surname associated with this family. The oldest known source mentioning the name "Mrnjavčević" is Ruvarčev rodoslov "The Genealogy of Ruvarac", written between 1563 and 1584. It is unknown whether it was introduced into the Genealogy from some older source, or from the folk poetry and tradition. This liturgical book, acquired in the 19th century by Russian collector Aleksey Khludov, is kept today in the State Historical Museum of Russia. The name Despotović ("despot's son") was applied in a similar way to Uglješa, the son of Despot Jovan Uglješa, King Vukašin's younger brother. Notes References Bogišić, Valtazar (1878). Народне пјесме: из старијих, највише приморских записа [Folk poems: from older records, mostly from the Littoral] (in Serbian). 1. The Internet Archive. Ćorović, Vladimir (November 2001). Историја српског народа [History of the Serbian People] (in Serbian). Project Rastko. Deretić, Jovan (2000). Кратка историја српске књижевности [Short history of Serbian literature] (in Serbian). Project Rastko. Fajfrić, Željko (7 December 2000). Котроманићи (in Serbian). Project Rastko. Fostikov, Aleksandra (2002). "О Дмитру Краљевићу [About Dmitar Kraljević]" (in Serbian). Историјски часопис [Historical Review] (Belgrade: Istorijski institut) 49. . Jireček, Konstantin Josef (1911). Geschichte der Serben [History of the Serbs] (in German). 1. The Internet Archive. Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (1852). Српски рјечник [Serbian dictionary]. Vienna: Vuk Stefanović Karadžić. Karadžić, Vuk Stefanović (11 October 2000). Српске народне пјесме [Serbian folk poems] (in Serbian). 2. Project Rastko. Konstantin the Philosopher (2000). Gordana Jovanović ed. Житије деспота Стефана Лазаревића [Biography of Despot Stefan Lazarević] (in Serbian). Project Rastko. Low, David Halyburton (1922). The Ballads of Marko Kraljević. The Internet Archive. Mandić, Ranko (2003). "Kraljevići Marko i Andreaš" (in Serbian). Dinar: Numizmatički časopis (Belgrade: Serbian Numismatic Society) No. 21. . Mihaljčić, Rade (1975). Крај Српског царства [The end of the Serbian Empire] (in Serbian). Belgrade: Srpska književna zadruga. Miklosich, Franz (1858). Monumenta serbica spectantia historiam Serbiae Bosnae Ragusii (in Serbian and Latin). The Internet Archive. Noyes, George Rapall; Bacon, Leonard (1913). Heroic Ballads of Servia. The Internet Sacred Text Archive. Radenković, Ljubinko (2001). "Краљевић Марко" (in Serbian). Svetlana Mikhaylovna Tolstaya, Ljubinko Radenković eds. Словенска митологија: Енциклопедијски речник [Slavic mythology: Encyclopedic dictionary]. Belgrade: Zepter Book World. . Rudić, Srđan (2001). "O првом помену презимена Mрњавчевић [On the first mention of the Mrnjavčević surname]" (in Serbian). Историјски часопис [Historical Review] (Belgrade: Istorijski institut) 48. . Stojanović, Ljubomir (1902). Стари српски записи и натписи [Old Serbian inscriptions and superscriptions] (in Serbian). 1. Belgrade: Serbian Royal Academy. Theiner, Augustin (1860). Vetera monumenta historica Hungariam sacram illustrantia (in Latin). 2. The Internet Archive. External links The Ballads of Marko Kraljević, translated by David Halyburton Low (1922) Heroic Ballads of Servia, translated by George Rapall Noyes and Leonard Bacon (1913) Macedonian songs, fairy tales and legends about Marko (Macedonian) Bulgarian ballads (also here, with more information) and legends about Marko (Bulgarian) Marko, The King's Son: Hero of The Serbs by Clarence A. Manning (1932) Poem, "Marko Kraljević and the Vila" Conclusion of "Prince Marko and Musa Kesedžija" (verses 220–281) Web comic strip Videos of Serbian epic poems sung to the accompaniment of the gusle: Prince Marko Recognises His Father's Sword Prince Marko Abolishes the Marriage Tax Prince Marko and the Eagle 1330s births 1395 deaths 14th-century Serbian royalty 14th-century Serbian nobility Mrnjavčević family Rulers in medieval Macedonia Pelagonia Characters in Serbian epic poetry Slavic mythology Serbian princes Serbian folklore Bulgarian folklore Pretenders to the Serbian throne in the Middle Ages Serbian military personnel killed in action Ottoman Serbia Serbian vassals of the Ottoman Empire King asleep in mountain	[ -0.6376894116401672, 0.34247371554374695, 0.02876565046608448, 0.2102242410182953, -0.3252286911010742, 0.5202915668487549, 0.8328309059143066, -0.6174352765083313, -0.5434596538543701, -0.012880781665444374, 0.0797908678650856, -0.1810058057308197, 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231559	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oka	Oka	Oka or OKA may refer to: Cars Oka (automobile), a small car designed by AvtoVAZ and produced by ZMA and SeAZ OKA 4wd, a large 4-wheel-drive vehicle made in Western Australia by OKA Military 2B1 Oka, Soviet 420 mm self-propelled mortar OTR-23 Oka, a theatre ballistic missile deployed by the Soviet Union Places Oka (Bithynia), a town of ancient Bithynia, now in Turkey Oka, Quebec, Canada, a village Oka National Park, near Oka, Quebec Oka, Akoko, the capital city of Akoko South-West Local Government of Ondo State, Nigeria Oka (river), in the European part of Russia Oka (Angara), a river in Siberia, Russia Oka, West Virginia, United States, an unincorporated community Oca (river), in northern Spain, spelled "Oka" in the Basque language Codes Naha Airport, near Naha, Okinawa, IATA airport code OKA Okay Airways, based in Beijing, China, ICAO airline code OKA Okanagan language, ISO 639-3 language code oka, spoken in Canada and the United States Other uses Oka (surname), a Japanese surname Oka cheese, a Canadian cheese Oka (mass), an Ottoman unit of weight equal to 1.2829 kilograms 16494 Oka, an asteroid 81-760/761 "Oka", a model of subway car used on the Moscow Metro Tropical Storm Oka, a Pacific storm in 1987 OKA Direct, a British retailer See also Ōka (disambiguation) Ōoka (disambiguation) Oca (disambiguation)	[ 0.328573614358902, 0.6064026355743408, -0.3291019797325134, 0.19116787612438202, 0.07604556530714035, 0.929745614528656, 0.28103214502334595, 0.031143512576818466, -0.1143404096364975, 0.21141628921031952, -0.4945453405380249, -0.012877686880528927, -0.41890981793403625, 0.681452214717865, -0.09928343445062637, 0.6042925119400024, 0.37683042883872986, 0.9159679412841797, -0.3939332067966461, -0.016029346734285355, 0.22636950016021729, -0.6020660996437073, 0.6741140484809875, -0.3017899990081787, 0.4871402978897095, -0.11597498506307602, 0.6184976100921631, 0.10393783450126648, -0.6196165084838867, 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231561	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software%20in%20the%20Public%20Interest	Software in the Public Interest	Software in the Public Interest, Inc. (SPI) is a US 501(c)(3) non-profit organization formed to help other organizations create and distribute free/open-source software and open-source hardware. Anyone is eligible to apply for membership, and contributing membership is available to those who participate in the free software community. SPI was originally created to allow the Debian Project to accept donations. It now acts as a fiscal sponsor to many free and open source projects. SPI has hosted Wikimedia Foundation board elections and audited the tally as a neutral third party from 2007 to 2011. Associated projects The 40 currently associated projects of SPI are: 0 A.D. Adélie Linux ankur.org.in aptosid Arch Linux Arch Linux 32 ArduPilot Chakra Debian FFmpeg Fluxbox Gallery Ganeti Glucosio GNUstep GNU TeXmacs haskell.org LibreOffice MinGW NTPsec ns-3 OFTC Open Bioinformatics Foundation Open MPI Open Voting Foundation OpenEmbedded OpenSAF OpenVAS OpenZFS PMIx PostgreSQL Privoxy SproutCore Swathanthra Malayalam Computing systemd The Mana World translatewiki.net Tux4Kids X.Org YafaRay Board of directors Its current board is composed of: President: Michael Schultheiss Vice-President: Stephen Frost Secretary: Tim Potter Treasurer: Martin Zobel-Helas Board of Directors: Joseph Conway Forrest Fleming Milan Kupcevic Chris Lamb Héctor Orón Martínez Advisors: Legal counsel — Software Freedom Law Center Debian Project Leader PostgreSQL Project Board representative — currently Robert Treat See also Other free software umbrella organizations: Apache Software Foundation (ASF) Software Freedom Conservancy References External links 501(c)(3) organizations Debian Free 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231570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desi	Desi	Desi (; ) is a word used to describe the people, cultures, and products of the Indian subcontinent and their diaspora, derived from Sanskrit देश (deśá), meaning "land, country". Desi traces its origin specifically to the people of the countries India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Etymology The ethnonym belongs in the endonymic category (i.e., it is a self-appellation). Desi is borrowed from the Hindustani desī (,'national', ultimately from Sanskrit , derived from () 'region, province, country'. The first known usage of the Sanskrit word is found in the Natya Shastra (~200 BCE), where it defines the regional varieties of folk performing arts, as opposed to the classical, pan-Indian margi. Thus, () refers to one's own country or homeland, while () refers to another's country or a foreign land. History The word "Desi" comes from the Sanskrit word "Desh" meaning "country". The word "Desi" is used to refer to something "from the country" and with time its usage shifted more towards referring to people, cultures, and products of a specific region; for example, desi food, desi calendars, and desi dress. Desi contrasts with the Hindustani language word vilāyati (Anglicised as "Blighty"), which originally referred to Afghanistan and Central Asia, over time it came to refer to Britain (during the British rule vilāyat, an Arabic-origin word meaning 'state', signified Britain) but may also refer more generally to anything that is European or Western. People from the subcontinent living in vilāyat (Britain) or in other Western countries refer to themselves and their ethnic culture as desi. The desi/vilāyati pair of antonyms is widely used in subcontinent languages (Hindi, Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali etc.). After the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the United States dramatically increased immigration from the subcontinent. As increasing numbers of students from the subcontinent arrived in the U.S. and UK, their countries of origin were colloquially referred to as . For example, all things Indian including Indian expatriates were referred to as "desi". Culture In the U.S., as in other countries, some diaspora desis are creating a "fusion" culture, in which foods, fashions, music, and the like from many areas of South Asia are "fused" both with each other and with elements from Western culture. For example, urban desi is a genre of music formed by the fusion of traditional Indian and Western urban music. The growing demand of popular programming for South Asians caused MTV to launch the desi-targeted television channel MTV Desi. In the UK, desi communities have continued the fusion culture which first emerged during the rule of the British Raj, influencing music, art, fashion and food. There are now dedicated radio stations catering to British-South Asians such as the BBC Asian Network. In Canada, desis have established sizable ethnic enclaves in areas such as Brampton, Ontario (suburban Toronto) and Surrey, British Columbia (suburban Vancouver). Performing arts The Natya Shastra refers to the regional varieties of folk dance and music elements as desi, and states that these are meant as pure entertainment for common people, while the pan-Indian margi elements are to spiritually enlighten the audience. The medieval developments of the classical Indian dance and music led to the introduction of desi gharanas, in addition to the classical gharanas codified in Natya Shastra. The desi gharanas further developed into the present-day adavus. There is raga in Indian classical music known as "Desi". Food and drink In regions of South Asia, desi in the context of food, implies "native" or "traditional". Common examples are "desi ghee", which is the traditional clarified butter used in South Asia as opposed to more processed fats such as vegetable oils. "Desi chicken" may mean a native breed of chicken. This word is also usually restricted to Sanskrit-derived (Indo-Aryan) languages. Heritage varieties of vegetables and other produce can also be qualified as "desi". "Desi diet" refers to a diet and food choices followed by Indians around the world. Desi daru refers to "country liquor", such as fenny, toddy and arrack. It is differentiated from Indian-made foreign liquor such as Indian-made whisky, rum, or vodka. 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231577	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mavis%20Beacon%20%28character%29	Mavis Beacon (character)	Mavis Beacon is a fictional character created for the Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing line of computer software. History Developed to be a personification of a The Software Toolworks instructional typing program, Mavis Beacon debuted as simply a photo of a model on the software's packaging in 1987. The model chosen to be the face of Mavis was Haitian-born Renée L'Espérance, who was discovered working behind the perfume counter at Saks Fifth Avenue Beverly Hills by former talk-show host and partner at The Software Toolworks Les Crane in 1985. Mavis's name comes from a combination of Mavis Staples (one of the software developer's favorite singers) and the word beacon (an allusion to her role as a guide to typing). There have been several models chosen to represent the confident efficiency of Mavis Beacon; her image changes to represent a "modern professional typing instructor." Due to Mavis Beacon being portrayed by a black woman, some retailers were initially reluctant to display the product. However, once the popularity of the program became evident, many distributors reversed their decision and began to display the line of software bearing Mavis Beacon's image. Since its introduction, Mavis Beacon Teaches Typing has been the best-selling instructional typing software. Fame Mavis Beacon has been seen as groundbreaking for being one of the first computer instruction characters and for being a female African-American embodiment of computer software. Throughout the 1990s, Mavis Beacon served as the virtual typing instructor at numerous U.S. schools. As of 1998, she had instructed 6,000,000 school children. Mavis has been compared to U.S. cultural icon Betty Crocker and has been called "the Betty Crocker of cyberspace". Confusion Mavis Beacon is often thought to be a living or historical figure by the public. This confusion has led many to contact the software developers seeking to speak to, interview, or book Mavis for an event. Furthermore, as a result of Mavis Beacon's continuous use in computer typing software, and her image on millions of software boxes, many consumers have reported confabulations (i.e. false memories) of Mavis Beacon winning typing contests or appearing on talk shows. References See also Typequick Female characters in advertising Fictional African-American people Mascots introduced in 1987	[ -0.14004135131835938, 0.24568119645118713, -0.04910013824701309, 0.05170482024550438, 0.39616796374320984, 0.47881683707237244, 0.3594702184200287, 0.1966266930103302, -0.06411329656839371, -0.03394148498773575, -0.22538799047470093, 0.3440811336040497, -0.4333323538303375, -0.24914777278900146, -0.23696787655353546, -0.33796969056129456, 0.2740706205368042, 0.7382912635803223, -0.07628147304058075, -0.41870561242103577, -0.07778917998075485, 0.024522816762328148, 0.19371354579925537, -1.027614951133728, -0.0788368508219719, 0.3374013602733612, 0.2287427932024002, 0.40168043971061707, -0.3439299762248993, 0.13753724098205566, -0.041010353714227676, 0.334896057844162, 0.6653000116348267, -0.5119966864585876, -0.21596522629261017, -0.27529793977737427, -0.2925155460834503, 0.30111098289489746, -0.4101380407810211, -0.2756673991680145, -0.23912358283996582, 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231584	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivor%3A%20The%20Australian%20Outback	Survivor: The Australian Outback	Survivor: The Australian Outback (also referred to as Survivor: Australia) is the second season of the American reality television series Survivor. Broadcast by CBS, it was originally shown between January 28 and May 23, 2001. Filming took place at Goshen cattle station, on the bank of the Herbert River in northern Queensland from October 23 through December 3, 2000. The show was hosted by Jeff Probst and featured 16 participants competing over 42 days. It was the first season to have more than 39 days of gameplay. Tina Wesson was named the Sole Survivor, defeating Colby Donaldson by a jury vote of 4–3 and winning a prize of US$1,000,000. Wesson became the first female winner of the series. The series was generally well received, with many outlets considering it one of the best Survivor series. The opening episode premiered after Super Bowl XXXV to 43.5 million viewers. Overview Survivor is a reality television show created by Mark Burnett and Charlie Parsons and based on the Swedish show Expedition Robinson. The series follows a number of participants who are isolated in a remote location, where they must provide food, fire, and shelter for themselves. Every three days, one participant is removed from the series by majority vote, with challenges being held to give a reward (ranging from living and food-related prizes to a car) and immunity from being voted off the show. The last remaining player is awarded a prize of $1,000,000. Filming of Survivor: The Australian Outback took place from October 23 through December 3, 2000, at Goshen Station, a cattle station on the bank of the Herbert River (approximately 3 hours south-west of Cairns) in northern Queensland. The season premiered after Super Bowl XXXV on January 28, 2001, to 43.5 million viewers. Contestants The cast consisted of 16 contestants, who were initially separated into two tribes, Ogakor, named after the word for "crocodile" in the Kunjen language, and Kucha, named after the word for "kangaroo" in the Pakanha language. Midway through the season, the remaining ten players merged into a single "Barramundi" tribe, named after the river fish. The final seven eliminated contestants comprised the jury that decided who would be the winner. Future appearances Tina Wesson, Colby Donaldson, Jerri Manthey, Alicia Calaway, and Amber Brkich returned to compete in Survivor: All-Stars. Donaldson and Manthey would again return for Survivor: Heroes vs. Villains. Michael Skupin competed in Survivor: Philippines, while Wesson would appear on Survivor: Blood vs. Water along with her daughter, Katie Collins (who appeared in The Australian Outback as a loved one via video chat). Jeff Varner and Kimmi Kappenberg returned for Survivor: Cambodia, and Varner made his third Survivor appearance in Survivor: Game Changers. Brkich, under her married name Mariano, competed again in Survivor: Winners at War. Outside Survivor, Elisabeth Filarski, now Hasselbeck, went on to host on the ABC talk show The View and later served as a contributor to Fox News. Brkich also competed on The Amazing Race 7 with her fiancé and fellow Survivor alumnus Rob Mariano; the couple, now married, then returned for The Amazing Race 11. Jeff Varner and Alicia Calaway made an appearance on Big Brother 2. Season summary The sixteen castaways were divided into two tribes of eight: Ogakor ("crocodile") and Kucha ("kangaroo"). Although Ogakor fared significantly worse in challenges, the tribes were merged with five members apiece after Kucha member Michael Skupin suffered third-degree burns from a campfire and had to be medically evacuated. The first vote after the merge saw a tie, but Kucha member Jeff Varner was eliminated due to previous votes being cast against him. Ogakor's majority alliance of Colby Donaldson, Keith Kamie and Tina Wesson alternated between eliminating former Kucha members and betraying former tribe-mates Jerri Manthey and Amber Brkich. The three stayed together until the end, and Donaldson took Wesson with him into the final Tribal Council. Tina's strategic plan was valued over Colby's prowess in challenges, and she was awarded the title of Sole Survivor by a jury vote of 4–3. In the case of multiple tribes or castaways who win reward or immunity, they are listed in order of finish, or alphabetically where it was a team effort; where one castaway won and invited others, the invitees are in brackets. Episodes Below is a list of episodes from the series. Voting history Reception The series was well received by critics. In 2013, both Andrea Reiher of Zap2it and Joe Reid of The Wire ranked The Australian Outback as the third greatest season of the series. Ken Tucker, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the series a B+ grade, praising the evolution of the strategy used, but was less receptive to the editing used on the series. Since 2012, the Survivor site "Survivor Oz" has consistently ranked The Australian Outback highly in its annual polls ranking every season of the series; it was third in 2012, fourth in 2013 and 2015, and sixth in 2014. In the official issue of CBS Watch commemorating the 15th anniversary of Survivor in 2015, The Australian Outback was voted by viewers as the fourth greatest season in the series. In another poll for the same magazine, Skupin's injury in the fire was voted as the ninth most memorable moment in the series. In 2015, a poll by Rob Has a Podcast ranked Australia 10th out of 30, although host Rob Cesternino ranked the season 22nd. This was updated in 2021 during Cesternino's podcast, Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings, ranking 20th out of 40. In 2020, this season was also ranked 17th out of 40 by "The Purple Rock Podcast", citing the good cast. Later in the year, Inside Survivor ranked this season 15th out of 40, praising the cast and iconic moments but acknowledging that the season declined after the merge of the two teams. Conversely, Dalton Ross of Entertainment Weekly called this season overrated, ranking it 24th out of 40. Host Jeff Probst ranked it as the 8th-best season, citing such memorable contestants as "Colby, the prototype for a Survivor 'hero'; Jerri, the original 'black widow'; and Elisabeth 'The View' Filarski," as well as Michael Skupin's injury. Controversy During a reward trip, contestant Colby Donaldson broke an Australian law by breaking off coral from the Great Barrier Reef which could have resulted in a fine of 110,000. The helicopter pilot involved in the reward trip also broke an Australian law as he flew over sea bird rookeries. Producer Mark Burnett apologized on behalf of Donaldson and the production team after the season had aired. 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231586	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordius	Gordius	Gordius may refer to: Gordius (worm), a genus of horsehair worms Gordias, or Gordius, an ancient royal family of Phrygia Saint Gordius (died c. 315), a Christian soldier and martyr in Cappadocia	[ -0.6867631673812866, -0.16830019652843475, -0.537458598613739, 0.23765994608402252, -0.5446945428848267, 0.7746739983558655, 0.5887329578399658, 0.18926437199115753, -0.616476833820343, -0.6230942606925964, -0.19856196641921997, 0.366511732339859, -0.6230932474136353, 0.26831385493278503, -0.33705461025238037, 0.14940765500068665, 0.014061355032026768, 0.032617900520563126, -0.5194970965385437, -0.24233759939670563, 0.09661772102117538, -0.6030316948890686, 0.10161665827035904, -0.37671366333961487, 0.36829739809036255, -0.09615819156169891, 0.15059645473957062, 0.3702101707458496, -0.30515050888061523, -0.07273857295513153, 0.16848795115947723, 0.630992591381073, 0.11002421379089355, -0.22330746054649353, -0.5000677704811096, 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231588	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter-Lukas%20Graf	Peter-Lukas Graf	Peter-Lukas Graf (5 January 1929) is a Swiss flautist born in Zürich, Switzerland. He was a pupil of André Jaunet, and later attended the Paris Conservatoire, where he won first prize with Marcel Moyse and Roger Cortot. Besides playing the flute both in orchestras and as a soloist, he is a conductor, and spent several years exclusively as an orchestra and opera conductor. He is also a teacher, and has taught at the Basel Music Academy since 1973 and at the Music Academy Accademia Lorenzo Perosi in Biella. Graf played at James Galway's wedding in May 1972. In 2005 Graf received an honorary doctorate from the Academy of Music in Kraków. Discography Peter-Lukas Graf has made many recordings in his career. Solo flute Johann Sebastian Bach, Berio and others (Claves 50-8005). Heiner Reitz (Vo.II) 12 Caprices (Telos Music TLS 026). Peter Mieg, Les plaisirs de Rued (Claves P 610). Flute and orchestra Luigi Boccherini, Cimarosa, Gluck (Jecklin 506-2). Devienne, Jacques Ibert, (Claves 50-501). Krommer (Grand Prix International du Disque) (Claves 50-8203). Mozart (Claves 50-8505). Mozart: Concert for flute and harp (Claves 50-0208). Quantz, Stamitz, Stalder (Claves 50-808-9). Pergolesi, Piccinni, Mercadante (Claves 50-9103). Vivaldi (Claves 50-8807). Reinecke, Carl Gottlieb Reissiger: Romantic flute concertos (Claves 50-2108). Krommer: Sinfonia concertante for flute, clarinete and violin (Tudor 757). Flute and harpsichord Johann Sebastian Bach (Claves 50-0401). Johann Sebastian Bach (Jecklin 4400/1-2). Haendel (Claves 50-0238). Flute and piano Johann Sebastian Bach: Las cinco sonatas auténticas. (Claves 50-2511). Schubert, Widor, Martinu, Poulenc: Clásicos para flauta Vol. 1. (Claves 50-9306). Reinecke, Milhaud, Hindemith, Frank Martin, Prokofiev: Clásicos para flauta, Vol. 2. (Claves 50-9307). Chaminade, Hüe, Gaubert: Joueurs de flûte (Claves 50-0704). Joplin (Ragtimes) (Claves 50-8715). Kuhlau: Sonatas (Claves 50-8705). Czerny, Kuhlau: Virtuoso flute (Jecklin 577-) Flute and guitar Bach, Schubert, Mozart: Transcriptions (Claves 50-9705). Bach, Chopin, Ibert, Mozart, Ravel, Villa-Lobos: Miniatures (Claves 50-2013). Carulli: 6 Serenades (Claves 50-8304). Giuliani, Carulli, Ibert, Ravel, Willy Burkhard (Claves 50-0408). Flute and harp Rossini, Donizetti, Louis Spohr, Paganini, Fauré, Lauber: Duos (Claves 50-0708). Debussy, Sonata No. 2. Ravel, Introducción y Allegro: French Masterpieces. (Claves 50-0280). Peter Mieg, Morceau élégant (Claves P 610 y Jecklin Edition JS 314-2)) Chamber music F.Bach, Briccialdi: "2 flutes J.S.Bach, Kuhlau, Doppler: Trios 2 fl/piano (Claves 50-2006). Beethoven: Triosonata, Serenade in D major (flute, violin and viola) (Claves 50-8403). Reger: 2 Serenades (flute, violin and viola) (Claves 50-8104). Krommer: 3 flute quartets op. 17/92/93 (Claves 50-8708) Peter Mieg: Quintuor (flute, 2 violins, chello and harpsichord) (Claves P 610) Mozart: 4 quartets Carmina Quartet (Claves 50-9014). Mozart: 4 quartets (Ex Libris CD-6087). Rossini: 4 quartets (Nr. 1, 2, 4, 6). (Claves 50-8608). Bach: The Musical Offering (Claves 50-0198). Bach, Haendel, Rameau, Scarlatti, Martin, Ravel and Albert Roussel: Song Recital (K. Graf, soprano) (Claves 50-0604). Bach, Haendel, Quantez, Couperin, Vivaldi and Lotti: Baroque chamber music for flute, oboe and harpsichord'', P.L. Graf, Goritzki and Dähler. (Claves 50-0404). 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231590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henohenomoheji	Henohenomoheji	Henohenomoheji () or hehenonomoheji () is a face known to be drawn by Japanese schoolchildren using hiragana characters. The word breaks down into seven hiragana characters: he (), no (), he (), no (), mo (), he (), and ji (). The first two he are the eyebrows, the two no are the eyes, the mo is a nose, and the last he is the mouth. The outline of the face is made by the character ji, its two short strokes (dakuten) forming the ear or cheek. Henohenomoheji is often used to symbolize a nondescript or generic human face, such as the faces of kakashi (scarecrows) and teru teru bōzu. See also ASCII art Cool S Emoticon Tête à Toto References External links Henohenomoheji history - Excite News (in Japanese) Japanese word games	[ -0.33305537700653076, 0.2835323214530945, -0.41708821058273315, -0.3431692123413086, -0.8760862350463867, 0.8666810989379883, 0.4614395797252655, 0.0023291585966944695, -0.30489107966423035, -0.5110844969749451, -0.5270141363143921, 0.1738525629043579, 0.0021665534004569054, 0.13305851817131042, -0.4215982258319855, -0.5525224208831787, 0.4573514759540558, 0.9746253490447998, -0.38771677017211914, -0.38048678636550903, -0.05087998881936073, -0.6058762669563293, 0.11538413166999817, -1.2225552797317505, 0.3287368416786194, -0.18756501376628876, 0.5574242472648621, 0.12067200243473053, 0.7677129507064819, -0.091606505215168, 0.03363388776779175, 0.7782524824142456, 0.5266163349151611, -0.47207212448120117, 0.1197885125875473, -0.42861899733543396, -0.06454238295555115, -0.2658783793449402, 0.18941578269004822, 0.11897657066583633, 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231591	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20N%C3%A1poles	José Nápoles	José Ángel Nápoles, nicknamed Mantequilla ("Butter", referring to his smooth boxing style), (April 13, 1940 – August 16, 2019) was a Cuban-born Mexican professional boxer and a World Welterweight Champion. He is frequently ranked as one of the greatest fighters of all time in that division and is a member of the International Boxing Hall of Fame. His record of the most wins in unified championship bouts in boxing history, shared with Muhammad Ali, was unbeaten for 40 years. After debuting professionally in Cuba, he fought out of Mexico and became a Mexican citizen. Mexico Nápoles debuted as a professional boxer on August 2, 1958 in Cuba, knocking out Julio Rojas in the first round. Nápoles' first 21 bouts were in Cuba, against mostly unknown competition. He did beat Ángel García and Leslie Grant, but lost to Hilton Smith (in his first defeat). After beating Enrique Carabeo in March 1961, Nápoles found himself a new challenge, outside of the ring; Cuban president Fidel Castro banned professional boxing in Cuba, and Nápoles soon found his career in jeopardy. He found asylum in Mexico, where he soon found himself back inside the ring, beating Enrique Camarena by a knockout in two rounds on July 21, 1962. He won all four of his fights that year. In 1963, he won seven bouts and lost two. He was defeated by Tony Perez and Alfredo Urbina, both by decision, but he beat JC Morgan, by knockout in seven rounds, in Venezuela. 1964 was a successful year for Nápoles. He travelled to Japan, where he beat Taketeru Yoshimoto by knockout in round one, and he beat future world champion Carlos Morocho Hernández by knockout in round seven, this time back in Venezuela. In addition to those wins, he avenged his loss to Urbina by knocking him out twice, the first time in the first round and the second time in the third. He won three more fights in 1965, including another win against Morgan, before seeing a raise in opposition quality when he faced the former world Junior Welterweight champion Eddie Perkins, beating him by decision in ten rounds. For his next fight, he met his own future world title challenger, Adolph Pruitt, beating him by knockout in round three. In 1966, he won five fights, all by knockout, and lost one, to arch-rival Morgan, who knocked him out in round four. This would be his last loss in four years. Welterweight champion Nápoles began a streak of 20 wins in a row, 13 of them before challenging for the world's welterweight title. These included avenging the loss to Morgan with a two-round knockout. During this period, Nápoles also became a fan favorite in southern California, and, after beating Fate Davis, on February 15 of 1969 in Mexico, he was given an opportunity to win the world championship when he faced the current champion Curtis Cokes in Inglewood, on April 18. Nápoles beat Cokes by a knockout in round 13 to become world welterweight champion, and, as was becoming common place for him, he wore a sombrero after the fight. On June 29, he retained the title in a rematch with Cokes by a knockout in round 10 in his hometown of Mexico City, and on October 12, he outpointed former world champion Emile Griffith in 15, also retaining the title. Loss of title Nápoles began the 1970s, by defeating Ernie "Indian Red" Lopez by a knockout in round 15 in front of an audience that included former world champion Sugar Ray Robinson on February 14, 1970. But after winning two non-title bouts, he suffered an upset when he was stopped due to being cut in four rounds by Carmen Basilio's nephew Billy Backus, who took the world's Welterweight title from Nápoles on December 3 at Syracuse. Regaining the title After winning one more fight, he and Backus fought again, for the world welterweight title now in Backus' hands. This time, it was held in Los Angeles, and Nápoles recovered the world championship via an 8th round stoppage. After three non-title wins, including one over Jean Josselin, he faced Hedgemon Lewis on December 14, retaining the world title with a decision in 15 rounds, but Nápoles' training habits were suffering; he was alleged to be coming into the gym stinking of alcohol with an attitude towards his seconds. In 1972, he retained the title knocking out Ralph Charles in seven in England, and then, Pruitt resurfaced again, this time with the world Welterweight title on the line. Nápoles retained his crown by knockout in round two. World traveller Nápoles began 1973 by retaining the title against Lopez again, by knockout in seven, then he visited Grenoble, France, where he retained the crown with a 15-round decision over Roger Menetrey, and Toronto, Ontario, Canada where he beat Clyde Gray, once again retaining the world title with a 15-round decision. Middleweight After this, many boxing fans were asking for a fight between Nápoles and World Middleweight Champion Carlos Monzón. The fight was made possible when Nápoles moved in weight to challenge Monzon for Monzon's title, so the two dueled on February 9, 1974 at a parking lot in Paris. This would be Nápoles' only bout at the Middleweight division, as he was defeated by quitting the match. Nápoles then went back to the Welterweight division, and retained the title twice before the year ended, with a knockout in nine over Lewis, and with a knockout in three over Horacio Saldaño. In 1975, Nápoles had two wins over Armando Muniz, both times to retain his world title. The first time, a technical decision win in 12 rounds at Acapulco was a controversial win, so a return match was fought in Los Angeles, where Nápoles prevailed by decision. Retirement On December 6 of that year, however, Nápoles lost his title to British boxing teacher John H. Stracey, who won over Nápoles by a technical knockout in round six at Mexico City despite being floored by Nápoles in round one. After this fight, Nápoles announced his retirement. Remarkably, he was able to stay away from the temptation of a comeback, much like Marvin Hagler. Nápoles had a final record of 81 wins and 7 losses, with 54 wins by knockout, which makes him a member of the exclusive group of boxers that won 50 or more fights by knockout in their careers. Personal life Napoles was the son of Pedro Napoles, a schoolteacher, and his wife Rosa. He had a brother, Pedro Napoles Jr. had nine children. He resided in Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico with his wife Bertha. Napoles co-starred with superstar Santo in a 1974 Mexican wrestler/horror film called Santo en la venganza de la llorona, aka Santo and Mantequilla Napoles in the Revenge of the Crying Woman. Death Nápoles died on August 16, 2019 in Mexico City after a long-illness at the age of 79. Honors In 1985, Nápoles was inducted into The Ring boxing hall of fame, and in 1990 into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Professional boxing record See also List of welterweight boxing champions List of WBC world champions List of undisputed boxing champions References External links 1940 births 2019 deaths Sportspeople from Santiago de Cuba Cuban male boxers Mexican male boxers Cuban emigrants to Mexico Cuban people of African descent International Boxing Hall of Fame inductees Welterweight boxers Middleweight boxers World boxing champions	[ -0.2873886227607727, 0.11556220799684525, -0.6214911937713623, 0.23311352729797363, 0.23574836552143097, 0.2337903380393982, -0.07004725933074951, 0.7658204436302185, -0.27899032831192017, -0.11290246993303299, 0.15277962386608124, 0.5147464275360107, -0.1835421323776245, -0.2596224248409271, -0.10984102636575699, -0.2886468172073364, 0.2704254686832428, 0.1742517203092575, -0.1627042591571808, -0.0807773619890213, -0.17532257735729218, -0.2720850110054016, 0.03601828217506409, 0.17696784436702728, -0.054611075669527054, 0.41775989532470703, -1.0357329845428467, 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231592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Survivor%3A%20Thailand	Survivor: Thailand	Survivor: Thailand is the fifth season of the American CBS competitive reality television series Survivor. The season was filmed from June 10, 2002, through July 18, 2002, on the island of Ko Tarutao in Thailand, and premiered on September 19, 2002. Hosted by Jeff Probst, it consisted of the usual 39 days of gameplay with 16 competitors. At the live finale, Brian Heidik was named Sole Survivor, defeating runner-up Clay Jordan by a jury vote of 4–3. The season introduced several new gameplay twists. The first occurred on Day 1, when the two eldest contestants, Jake Billingsley and Jan Gentry, were given the power to pick their own tribes. This was the first time in Survivor history that the two initial teams were not preselected by the producers. The second was an offer of mutiny on Day 14: each of the twelve remaining contestants was given the chance to leave their tribe and join the other if they wished, though no one took the offer. The third was the fake merge: with ten players remaining, the two tribes moved onto one beach. They took this to signify a merge, but at the next challenge they were informed that they were living on one beach, but not yet merged. Contestants The two initial tribes were Chuay Gahn (Thai: "to help one another") and Sook Jai ( "happy heart"). They eventually merged into the Chuay Jai tribe when eight contestants remained, thus becoming the first merged tribe of Survivor history to have combined words of two existing tribes. Future appearances Shii Ann Huang competed on Survivor: All-Stars. Season summary The sixteen contestants were split into two tribes of eight by the two eldest contestants, Jake and Jan; this was the first time in series history that the tribes were not preselected. Jake's tribe, Sook Jai, was composed of younger players and took an early lead. Chuay Gahn, despite losing five of the first seven challenges, remained mostly cohesive barring a conflict between Ghandia and Ted, whom Ghandia claimed made unwanted sexual advances toward her. This led to Ghandia being voted off in the next Tribal Council, resulting in Chuay Gahn gaining momentum to win the next two immunity challenges, evening the playing field at five members per tribe. On Day 19, the tribes were instructed to live on the same beach. Assuming a merge had occurred, Shii Ann from Sook Jai decided to switch allegiances to the Chuay Gahn alliance under the presumption that she was being ostracized by her tribe. However, the players were shocked to learn that they had not yet merged and were only living on the same beach; Shii Ann was subsequently voted off after Sook Jai lost the immunity challenge. Sook Jai was never able to recover from their numerical deficit, and they were systematically picked off one by one once the merge finally happened on Day 25. With only Chuay Gahn members left, they were forced to turn on each other. Brian, who had made separate alliances with three of the four other people used his influence to manipulate the vote to his liking. First, he turned the tribe on Ted, who was perceived as the biggest physical threat. Then, he targeted Helen and successfully convinced Clay and Jan to follow suit. After winning the final immunity challenge, Brian decided to take Clay with him to the finals, eliminating Jan. Both Brian and Clay were met with heavy criticism from the jury. Brian, who had made separate alliances and formed friendships with both Helen and Ted, was lambasted for his callous approach, but he was praised for his challenge performances and strong work ethic. In comparison, Clay was felt as not deserving for his lack of work ethic, and he was accused of making racial slurs against Ted. In the end, the jury voted 4-3 for Brian to win, awarding him for his control of the game. In the case of multiple tribes or castaways who win reward or immunity, they are listed in order of finish, or alphabetically where it was a team effort; where one castaway won and invited others, the invitees are in brackets. Episodes Voting history Reception Survivor: Thailand was met with a mostly negative reception and is generally considered one of the weakest seasons in the show's history. The primary criticisms were aimed at the unlikable cast and the "Fake Merge" twist, which led to the demise of Sook Jai. In 2005, Probst stated that he was not fond of the season, going as far as calling it his least favorite to date. He described the season as "mean-spirited and marred with hostility and ugliness" and called Helen, Jan, Clay, and Brian "the least likable final four ever." Dalton Ross, the Survivor columnist of Entertainment Weekly, ranked it as the fourth-worst season of the series, only better than Survivor: Fiji, Survivor: Nicaragua, and Survivor: Island of the Idols. Andrea Reiher of Zap2it ranked Thailand as the second-worst season of the series, only ahead of Survivor: Redemption Island, while Joe Reid of The Wire ranked it as the 6th-worst season. In 2015, both Rob Cesternino and a poll by Rob Has a Podcast ranked this season as the third-worst season of all time. This was updated in 2021 during Cesternino's podcast, Survivor All-Time Top 40 Rankings, ranking 38th. In 2020, Survivor fan site "The Purple Rock Podcast" ranked Thailand as the 3rd-worst season of the series, only ahead of Survivor: Nicaragua and Survivor: Island of the Idols, describing the cast as "a definite contender for least likable cast of all time." Later that same year, Inside Survivor ranked this season 34th out of 40 citing the lack of people to root for and calling a "bleak" season. References External links Official CBS Survivor Thailand Website 05 2002 American television seasons 2002 in Thailand Satun province Television shows set in Thailand Television shows filmed in Thailand	[ -0.28918522596359253, -0.11329910159111023, 0.18483084440231323, 0.1415284276008606, 0.21884503960609436, 0.039968594908714294, 0.9749494194984436, 0.014810020104050636, -0.38409656286239624, 0.25641772150993347, 0.16149264574050903, 0.3306523859500885, -0.10279493778944016, -0.07905254513025284, -0.4449910819530487, 0.7016283273696899, 0.6469425559043884, 0.48165714740753174, 0.21519406139850616, -0.4986704885959625, -0.06788381189107895, -0.3468466103076935, 0.7706787586212158, -0.19319456815719604, -0.40468406677246094, -0.1588830202817917, 0.16495834290981293, 0.8838756680488586, 0.16360892355442047, -0.2640354037284851, -0.3187211751937866, 0.33930936455726624, -0.331575483083725, -0.20968174934387207, 0.12770144641399384, 0.332576721906662, 0.05362167954444885, 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231593	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagner%20tuba	Wagner tuba	The Wagner tuba is a four-valve tuba named for and commissioned by Richard Wagner. It combines technical features of both standard tubas and French horns, though despite its name, the Wagner tuba is more similar to the latter, and usually played by horn players. Wagner commissioned the instrument for his four-part opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen, where its purpose was to bridge the acoustical and textural gap between the French horn and trombone. The sound produced by this instrument is described as variously described as "smoky," "metallic," "unearthly" and "majestic." Wagner tubas (or Tenortuben and Basstuben) are also referred to as Wagnertuben, Waldhorntuben, Bayreuth-tuben, Ring-tuben, or Horn-tuben by German writers, but it is most common to refer to them in English as Wagner tubas. Wagner's published scores usually refer to these instruments in the plural, Tuben, but sometimes in the singular, Tuba. History The Wagner tuba was originally created for Richard Wagner's operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen. Since then, other composers have written for it, most notably Anton Bruckner, in whose Symphony No. 7 a quartet of them is first heard in the slow movement in memory of Wagner, and Richard Strauss, who composed several works that used the Wagner tuba, including his Alpine Symphony. Wagner was inspired to invent the Wagner tuba after a brief visit to Paris in 1853. He visited the shop of Adolphe Sax, the inventor of the saxophone and saxhorn. They showed him a saxhorn, which is similar to the instrument that Wagner ultimately wanted, and later had constructed by the C. W. Moritz firm in Berlin. Wagner wanted an instrument that had the flexibility of a saxhorn and sound of a lur. There are other instruments considered predecessors to the Wagner tuba: Gottfried Weber's double-slide trombone, as well as the Cornon made by . The Wagner tuba aural effect is obtained by a conical bore (like a horn) and the use of the horn mouthpiece (tapered and conical, as opposed to the parabolic cup mouthpiece such as on a trombone). The saxhorn had a more cylindrical and larger bore, used the parabolic cupped mouthpiece, and thus had a more brassy tone that wasn't quite suitable for Wagner's tonal intent. The Paxman Musical Instruments horn manufacturer continues to produce Wagner tubas in F and B. The workshop of Engelbert Schmid also produces Wagner tubas. Design The Wagner tuba is built with rotary valves, which (like those on the horn) are played with the left hand. Horn players traditionally double on Wagner tubas because the mouthpiece and fingering are identical. The size of the bore of the Wagner tuba is midway between that of a euphonium and a horn. The Wagner tuba also shares a similar bore size to that of a cornophone, which results in a similar sound as well. The Wagner tuba nominally exists in two sizes, tenor in B and bass in F, with ranges comparable to those of horns in the same pitches while being less adept at the highest notes. Several 20th-century and later manufacturers have, however, combined the two instruments into a double Wagner tuba that can easily be configured in either B or F. Wagner tubas are normally written as transposing instruments, but the notation used varies considerably and is a common source of confusion — Wagner himself used three different and incompatible notations in the course of the Ring, and all three of these systems (plus some others) have been used by subsequent composers. An additional source of confusion is that the instruments are invariably designated in orchestral scores simply as tubas, sometimes leaving it unclear whether the score means true bass tubas or Wagner tubas. (For example, orchestras sometimes assume the two tenor tubas in Janáček's Sinfonietta are Wagner tubas, when the score means euphoniums.) The name "Wagner tuba" is considered problematic, possibly incorrect, by many theorists. Kent Kennan says they are poorly named since "they are really modified horns" rather than tubas. Impact Composers such as Wagner who made use of this instrument would later inspire future composers to also write for the Wagner tuba. Wagner tubas appear in the work of composers such as Richard Strauss, Anton Bruckner, Béla Bartók, and many more. Anton Bruckner employed Wagner tubas in his Seventh and Ninth Symphonies. In both symphonies, the four Wagner tubas are played by players who alternate between horn and Wagner tuba, which is the same procedure Wagner used in the Ring. This change is simplified by the fact that the horn and Wagner tuba use the same mouthpiece and same fingering. As time passed, the availability and convenience of including Wagner tubas in concert programs began to become a reoccurring issue. In the 20th century, prominent composers such as Arnold Schoenberg and Igor Stravinksy began to write sparingly for this medium, while other composers attempted to continue writing for this medium in the 1960s. These composers would continue to face the same issues as their predecessors which would ultimately lead to composers avoiding writing for the instrument all together. Rued Langgaard, a great admirer of Bruckner, wrote for eight horns in his First Symphony (1908-11), four of these parts were written for tenor and bass tubas. When this work was eventually premiered, the orchestra decided against using Wagner tubas and instead played the parts on horn, this experience would lead to a frustrated Langgaard excluding Wagner tubas from future works. Repertoire Wagner tubas are typically played by players who are also playing a horn. The staves for the Wagner tubas then logically go below those of the horns and above the standard tubas. If they are played by players who are not also playing a horn, they are placed below the trombones, above the regular tuba, which is then called a "contrabass tuba." These composers have written for the instrument: Thomas Adès Béla Bartók Anton Bruckner Friedrich Cerha Stephen Caudel Andrew Downes Felix Draeseke Alberto Franchetti, Germania Jerry Goldsmith Sofia Gubaidulina Hans Werner Henze Leoš Janáček Jan Koetsier, Elegie for Wagner Tuba and String Quartet/Orchestra Rued Langgaard George Lopez, Gonzales the Earth Eater (1 Wagner tuba) and Traumzeit und Traumdeutung (2 Wagner tubas) Elisabeth Lutyens John Melby Michael Nyman Alex Prior Einojuhani Rautavaara Eurico Carrapatoso Esa-Pekka Salonen Peter Schat, An Indian Requiem (2 Wagner tubas) Arnold Schönberg Ragnar Søderlind Richard Strauss Vladimir Tarnopolsky, Wahnfried (6 Wagner tubas) Ricardo Matosinhos Robert Davidson Igor Stravinsky Edgard Varèse Richard Wagner Alec Wilder John Williams Bernd Alois Zimmermann References Sources Further reading External links The Wagner Tuba, history, composers and Edel Rhapsody (wagner-tuba.com) Felix Draeseke and the Wagner Tuba Evolution, Physics and Usage 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231594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lover%20%28clothing%29	Lover (clothing)	Lover is an Australian fashion label launched in 2001 by designers Susien Chong and Nic Briand. The label began as a weekend stall at Bondi Markets with a ten-piece collection of random separates. Since then, Lover has risen to prominence in Australia and internationally. In November, 2017, it went into voluntary administration while administrators Ferrier Hodgson assess the financial position of the company ahead of the pursuit of a prospective sale. Background Lover's collections all draw upon inspirations from the worlds of art, music, film and pop culture. Designer Nic Briand says each collection "has a narrative and central character". Influences on the duo include Jean-Luc Godard, early Woody Allen films, Black Flag, Marianne Faithfull. Nic Briand's influences tend to be "heavier" such as the Wu-Tang Clan, comic books and Jimi Hendrix, whereas Susien Chong's are "softer" elements such as Picnic at Hanging Rock, ballet and Roberta Flack. Collections Melodies (SS 2004) Features a palette of cream, pale blue and black with polka-dot motifs and the Lover trademark oversized buttons. Influences: Meg White Françoise Hardy Miss Francoise (AW 2004) Black, white, red and midnight blues are used, with oversized buttons and satin. The collection has a masculine edge with pieces such as crisp white shirts, cuffed wide-legged pants and suspenders. Broken Hearts (SS 2005) The Broken Hearts collection features tailored, classic, simple staples in a basic palette of black and white with splashes of red and pink. Lace began to creep into their designs with an off the shoulder number that was featured in Nylon magazine (US). Chong has commented that she was inspired by "lovelorn girls working their way through the crowds at gigs around Sydney". Performance (AW 2005) Performance tells "the story of a shy schoolgirl violin player who is awakened by the sounds of her brother's Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath records" according to Nic Briand. Influences: Freaks and Geeks Ballet 1970s Rock Black Magick (SS 2006) Pinstriped denim cuffed shorts and the "it" dress of the season, the white lace Black Magick dress. Velvets, denim and folk-influenced floral trimmings made this collection hippie. Influences: Folk music Charles Manson Tarot Cards 1960s Lover Loves Levi's (March 2006) The jeans featured an oversized button to fasten the jeans, a black Levi's patch on the back, contrast stitching and a Lover monogrammed lining along the inner waistband. The jeans were made in a limited edition of 1,000 pairs. The jeans were accompanied by a tote bag featuring the Lover monogram and a key ring with a large button motif. Lover was drawn to the collaboration with the denim giant due to the fact that "Levis rock'n'roll youth culture heritage was a perfect fit with the mood of" their A/W About A Girl collection. About a Girl (AW 2006) About A Girl featured bleached-out white, grey/purple plaids and black. Patterned lace tights and skivvies were the base for many of the collection's looks. Vests, pinafores, floaty blouses, playsuits, oversized buttons, cuffed shorts and a stand-out white lacy dress were the threads that linked Lover with their past collections. Influences: Kurt Cobain Black Rose Army (SS 2007) The Black Rose Army collection depicts a transformation from innocent and "rich heiress to sex-bomb renegade"; this is the Patty Hearst story. Set to a discordant and raw soundtrack by the Kills the runway show depicts four periods in the Patty Hearst kidnapping saga. The first is innocence; represented via the use of white dresses, blouses and frocks. The next phase is Hearst at college; slogan tees, cuffed shorts, bandanas, denim and louder colour accents such as red, yellow and blue highlight this change, while the slow seeping of black into the palette suggests the darkness which will come. The third period is during her period as a fighter with the SLA; uniform-like khakis drench this radical phases pallet. The last phase is purely black, featuring black corsages to symbolise the death of Patty's innocence. Influences: Patty Hearst Symbionese Liberation Army, (SLA) Berkeley in the 1960s Nic Briand commented that Black Rose Army was influenced by the last half of Martin Scorsese's documentary No Direction Home about Bob Dylan, The Kills, Zabriskie Point, the first two Public Enemy albums, Glen E. Friedman's photos of the LA punk scene, the box set of Peanuts with Charlie Brown, Joseph Szabo's Teenage, early blues players Son Lightnin Hopkins and Robert Johnson and Curb Your Enthusiasm. Altamont (AW 2007) Influences: Altamont music festival The Rolling Stones 1970s One Plus One (SS 2008) This was a swimwear line featuring 12 styles in lace knit, French stripe or denim. Reflecting the interest in 1970s skate culture the line was intended to be "At home on the bleachers of a lazy suburban swimming pool mixed with denim jeans or sitting on the beach". To accompany the collection Lover used All-white Vans hi-tops and Authentic Vans in white. Influences: Dogtown and Z-Boys California in the 1970s The Z-Boys skating crew 1970s skating culture Robert Altman's 3 Women Harvest by Neil Young Prayer of Death by Entrance Electric Ladyland, Jimi Hendrix Imagine Our Love, Lavender Diamond Brightblack Morning Light Electric Ladyland (AW 2008) Love Bomb (FW 2008/SS 2008.09) The collection includes bell sleeves, velveteen jackets, leather short pants, neck detailing and a tailored jumpsuit. Sacred Hearts College (FW 2008/SS 2008.09) White Moon Rising (FW 2009/SS 2009.10) The Harvest (SS 2010/AW 2010) Untitled (FW 2010/SS 2010.11) A Dance For One (SS 2011/ AW 2011) In 2011 the label celebrated its ten-year anniversary with a runway show - its first in five years. 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231607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1487%20in%20literature	1487 in literature	This is a list of literature-related events in 1487. Events Erasmus writes to Servatius Rogerus from the monastery of Steyn. Works Niccolò da Correggio - Fabula di Cefalo. Heinrich Kramer & Jacob Sprenger - Malleus Maleficarum. Births date unknown Petar Hektorović, Croatian poet (died 1572) Ottmar Luscinius, biblical commentation (died 1537) Macropedius, humanist writer and dramatist (died 1558) Deaths October 22 - Antonio Bettini, theologian (born 1396) date unknown - Jaume Safont, Catalan poet (born (1420) References Literature Literature by year	[ -0.061899978667497635, 0.11694397777318954, -0.35711976885795593, -0.1690538376569748, -0.8086819648742676, 0.16313967108726501, 0.8494301438331604, 0.41738632321357727, -0.9681804180145264, -0.24301645159721375, -0.09935740381479263, 0.03315414488315582, 0.06638137996196747, 0.4283137321472168, 0.038476597517728806, -0.016335248947143555, 0.3085702955722809, 0.07245906442403793, 0.32404693961143494, -0.7980647087097168, -0.15610329806804657, -0.2624531686306, 0.4187273681163788, -0.25106239318847656, 0.3361031115055084, -0.5117223858833313, 0.6779122948646545, -0.25689730048179626, 0.30969029664993286, -0.24547934532165527, -0.3147585391998291, 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231609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1485%20in%20literature	1485 in literature	Events William Grocyn becomes prebendary of Lincoln Cathedral. Works Leon Battista Alberti - De Re Aedificatoria (first printed book on architecture) Joseph Albo - Sefer ha-Ikkarim (posthumously published) Sir Thomas Malory - Le Morte d'Arthur Births October 1 - Johannes Dantiscus, Polish poet and bishop (died 1548) probable - Hanibal Lucić, Croatian poet and playwright (died 1553) Deaths October 27 - Rodolphus Agricola, humanist writer (born 1443) date unknown - Diebold Schilling the Elder, chronicler References Literature Literature by year	[ 0.09182535111904144, 0.04307916387915611, -0.17820318043231964, -0.3674194812774658, -0.27341198921203613, 0.19090424478054047, 0.5821488499641418, 0.4052988588809967, -0.4653637409210205, -0.3001667559146881, -0.4379267394542694, -0.29920104146003723, 0.07428054511547089, 0.35245904326438904, 0.21428383886814117, 0.18914049863815308, 0.1282607465982437, 0.11314383894205093, 0.257183313369751, -0.8198705911636353, -0.36277690529823303, -0.36890894174575806, 0.05758832022547722, -0.24480438232421875, 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231616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20Federal%20Witness%20Protection%20Program	United States Federal Witness Protection Program	The United States Federal Witness Protection Program (WPP), also known as the Witness Security Program or WITSEC, is a witness protection program codified through 18 U.S. Code § 3521 and administered by the United States Department of Justice and operated by the United States Marshals Service that is designed to protect threatened witnesses before, during, and after a trial. A handful of states – California, Connecticut, Illinois, New York, and Texas – and Washington, D.C., have their own witness protection programs for crimes not covered by the federal program. The state-run programs provide less extensive protections than the federal program, in part because state governments lack the ability to issue federal documents, such as social security cards, verifying the new identity of protected witnesses. History The WITSEC program was formally established under Title V of the Organized Crime Control Act of 1970, which in turn sets out the manner in which the United States Attorney General may provide for the relocation and protection of a witness or potential witness of the federal or state government in an official proceeding concerning organized crime or other serious offenses. See 18 U.S.C.A 3521, et seq. The federal government also gives grants to the states to enable them to provide similar services. WITSEC was originally created as the Federal Witness Protection Program in the mid-1960s by Gerald Shur, when he was Attorney in Charge of the Intelligence and Special Services Unit of the Organized Crime and Racketeering Section of the United States Department of Justice. Most witnesses are protected by the United States Marshals Service, while protection of incarcerated witnesses is the duty of the Federal Bureau of Prisons. Former decorated federal law enforcement officer John Thomas Ambrose was convicted of leaking information about a federal witness in the Witness Protection Program to Chicago Outfit hitman Nicholas Calabrese and other members of Chicago organized crime. Operations As of 2020, approximately 19,000 witnesses and family members have been protected by the U.S. Marshals Service since the program began in 1971. According to Gerald Shur, who created the federal program, about 95% of witnesses in the program are "criminals". They may be intentional criminals, or people who are doing business with criminals, such as one engineer who bought off a mayor "'because that's how you do business in the city.' In his mind, he wasn't doing anything criminal," as Shur said. A witness who agrees to testify for the prosecution is generally eligible to join the program, which is entirely voluntary. Witnesses are permitted to leave the program and return to their original identities at any time, although this is discouraged by administrators. In both criminal and civil matters involving protected witnesses, the U.S. Marshals cooperate fully with local law enforcement and court authorities to bring witnesses to justice or to have them fulfill their legal responsibilities. Recidivism Less than 17 percent of protected witnesses who have committed a crime will be caught committing another crime, compared to parolees, of whom almost 42 percent return to crime. See also Witness immunity Witness Security Programme (Ireland) Witness tampering References Further reading United States, Federal United States Department of Justice United States Marshals Service 1970 establishments in the United States	[ 0.5025380849838257, 0.17290572822093964, -0.1485767513513565, 0.1351877748966217, 0.4770684838294983, -0.22824177145957947, 0.17970213294029236, -0.030200256034731865, -0.8385605812072754, -0.06391675770282745, -0.19000360369682312, 0.5278779864311218, 0.09455183148384094, -0.1656953990459442, -0.6806412935256958, -0.01074162870645523, 0.9029608368873596, 0.5074008107185364, 0.038118213415145874, -0.5269575715065002, -0.16312889754772186, -0.3197091817855835, 0.11105690151453018, -0.7894093990325928, -0.30939197540283203, 0.3828900158405304, 0.11005889624357224, -0.45511001348495483, -0.3256593346595764, 0.22332942485809326, 0.29277440905570984, 0.13609249889850616, 0.14893710613250732, -0.13635167479515076, 0.048805851489305496, 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231618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNC	TNC	TNC may refer to: Computers Triangular network coding, a packet coding scheme Trusted Network Connect, an open architecture for computer network access control Education Trevecca Nazarene College, now called Trevecca Nazarene University, Nashville, Tennessee, U.S. Turkmen National Conservatory, a music conservatory in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan Science and medicine Tenascin C or TN-C, a protein encoded by the TNC gene Thymic nurse cells Arts, entertainment, and media Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, a public theatre in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain Television Nishinippon Corporation, a TV station in Fukuoka, Japan Telenovela Channel, a telenovela-based cable channel in the Philippines The New Criterion, a monthly literary magazine based in New York City, New York, U.S. Theater for the New City, New York City, New York, U.S. Other uses Terminal node controller, a device used by amateur radio operators The Nature Conservancy, an environmental organization headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, U.S. TNC connector, a type of coaxial cable connector Toronto Neighbourhood Centres Transnational corporation, corporations that do not identify with any one country Transportation network company, a legal term for a ridesharing company in certain jurisdictions tnc, ISO 639-3 code for Tanimuca-Retuarã language Team and Concepts (TnC), a Hong Kong-based company that produced the online spreadsheet EditGrid Tripartite Naval Commission, a 1945 naval commission formed to allocate seized German ships and submarines A contractual term, otherwise known as "terms and conditions"	[ 0.481123685836792, -0.10068998485803604, -0.2579984664916992, 0.07153261452913284, 0.3212953209877014, 0.058569032698869705, -0.33201244473457336, 0.047683026641607285, -0.3256274163722992, -0.47796431183815, -0.13047672808170319, 0.5484318733215332, -0.15027004480361938, 0.38925403356552124, 0.10436221957206726, 0.2501588761806488, 0.5982433557510376, 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231619	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TNC%20connector	TNC connector	The TNC connector (acronym of "Threaded Neill–Concelman") is a threaded version of the BNC connector. Description The interface specifications for the TNC and many other connectors are referenced in MIL-STD-348. The connector has a 50 Ω impedance and operates best in the 0–11 GHz frequency spectrum. It has better performance than the BNC connector at microwave frequencies. Invented in the late 1950s and named after Paul Neill of Bell Labs and Carl Concelman of Amphenol, the TNC connector has been employed in a wide range of radio and wired applications. The abbreviation TNC is sometimes given as standing for Threaded Navy Connector. The TNC connector features a 7/16"-28 thread. Variations Reverse-polarity TNC Reverse-polarity TNC (RP-TNC, sometimes RTNC) is a variation of the TNC specification which reverses the polarity of the interface. This is usually achieved by incorporating the female contacts normally found in jacks into the plug, and the male contacts normally found in plugs into the jack. Because they were not readily available, RP-TNC connectors have been widely used by Wi-Fi equipment manufacturers to comply with specific local regulations, such as those from the FCC, which are designed to prevent consumers from connecting antennas which exhibit gain and therefore breach compliance. The FCC considered that the RP-TNC was acceptable in preventing consumers changing the antenna; but by 2000 it regarded them as readily available, though delaying its ruling indefinitely. As of 2013, leading manufacturers are still using RP-TNC connectors on their Wi-Fi equipment. Plug on the female connector and receptacle on the male when dealing with RP-TNC. 75 ohm TNC Most TNC connectors are 50-ohm type even when used with coaxial cable of other impedances, but a 75-ohm series is also available, providing a good SWR to about 1 GHz. These can be recognized by a reduced amount of dielectric in the mating ends. They are intermatable with standard types. See also RF connector SMA connector SMB connector SMC connector N connector Optical fiber connector References TNC de:Koaxiale Steckverbinder für Hochfrequenzanwendungen#TNC-Steckverbinder ru:Коаксиальный радиочастотный разъём#TNC-коннектор	[ 0.26408910751342773, 0.140872985124588, 0.3636619746685028, 0.12048520147800446, 0.0966881513595581, -0.11562159657478333, -0.5237423777580261, 0.041528284549713135, -0.3334377706050873, 0.08139842003583908, -0.30056267976760864, 0.5392550230026245, -0.39974913001060486, 0.16872675716876984, -0.008632231503725052, 0.36647018790245056, 0.5350624918937683, -0.15884298086166382, 0.35999372601509094, -0.7077922821044922, -0.2353142350912094, -0.6073703765869141, 0.38838979601860046, 0.32874080538749695, 0.06150779500603676, 0.5415560603141785, 0.22012831270694733, -0.1807054579257965, 0.19169683754444122, 0.3629544973373413, 0.5042917132377625, -0.02706524170935154, 0.43377363681793213, -0.7401970624923706, 0.04665069654583931, 0.06785257160663605, 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231621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesklin	Mesklin	Mesklin is a fictional supergiant planet created by Hal Clement and used in a number of his hard science fiction stories. It is distinctive for the interaction of its strong gravity with the centrifugal force due to its fast rotation, originating, according to Clement's original calculations, a gradient in the perceived force of gravity from 3 g on the equator to 665 g on the planet's poles. Overview The planet first appeared in the novel Mission of Gravity, which was serialized in Astounding Science Fiction (April–July 1953). Other fictional works using the planet or its denizens include Under, Lecture Demonstration, and Star Light. The book Heavy Planet is a collection of Mesklin-related works. Clement described the basic characteristics of Mesklin in the article "Whirligig World" in Astounding Science Fiction (June 1953). He based the world on an object then thought to exist in the 61 Cygni system, which had been detected by analysis of the motion of the two already known stars in the system. Further analysis with more extensive data led to the conclusion that the find had been erroneous. Clement decided, since its mass was 16 times that of Jupiter, Mesklin would have an extremely large angular frequency to partly counter its gravity in order to allow humans to visit part of it. He wanted the equatorial gravity to be 3 g, so he determined the period necessary to make this occur: each Mesklin day is 17.75 minutes long given that the planet rotates approximately 20 degrees a minute. As a result of this extremely large rate of spin, Mesklin is not even slightly spherical; it has a large equatorial bulge. Mesklin's equatorial diameter is 48,000 miles (77,250 km), while from pole-to-pole along its axis of rotation it is 19,740 miles (31,770 km). Then Clement attempted to calculate the polar gravity, finding it surprisingly difficult. He admits, "To be perfectly frank, I don't know the exact value of the polar gravity; the planet is so oblate that the usual rule of spheres... would not even be a good approximation..." "Whirligig World" reports his initial calculations of the pole gravity to be 655 g; the dust jacket of Heavy Planet reports it as 700 g. A later program created by Clement computed it as 275 g, as did a similar program written by the MIT Science Fiction Society. The MIT group also concluded that the planet would have had a sharp edge at the equator. Clement also gave Mesklin a set of rings and massive moons. The inner moon is from the planet's center, with a period of 2 hours 8 minutes. Clement assumed Mesklin's orbit around its star (which he decided would be 61 Cygni A) took 1,800 Earth-days, and was highly elliptical: at its closest point the average temperature would be −50 °C, while at the furthest its average temperature would be −180 °C. Since the orbit is eccentric it moves rapidly past its sun at the closest point, so its temperature would be around −170 °C most of the time. Clement decided this imaginary world would have native life-forms, that they would be based on methane (CH4), and there would be oceans of methane. However, methane has a low boiling point, suggesting that Mesklin's sun might boil its oceans and cause the methane to escape the planet entirely. Thus, the writer arranged the planet so its northern hemisphere's midsummer occurs when it is nearest its sun. Thus, the northern hemisphere would develop a large frozen methane cap during most of its year; the southern hemisphere (where most creatures live) is protected from the sun's closest approach by the rest of the planet. He also asserted the planet would have a fairly rapid precession. Clement noted that several of his story ideas resulted from a personal tendency to react contrarily to certain "common sense" assertions, which had the nature of "of course": [some situation] has [some certain characteristic], but of course it cannot have [some other characteristic]. The notion of Mesklin's odd configuration stemmed from the fact that there were science fiction stories that featured low-gravity planets and high-gravity planets, but of course no single planet could have both low and high gravity. In "Whirligig World", Clement stated he gave "official permission to anyone who so desires to lay scenes there [in Mesklin]. I ask only that he maintain reasonable scientific standards, and that's certainly an elastic requirement in the field of science fiction." Mesklin, "Whirligig World", and the Clement stories based on them are important in science fiction because they illustrated how to carefully incorporate all known (at the time) scientific facts into an interesting setting, which could then be used as a basis to create interesting stories. They were also the first stories set outside the solar system on a planet believed (then) to actually exist. See also Jinx, a strongly prolate (rugby football shaped) planet in Larry Niven's Known Space setting. References Clement, Hal. 2002. Heavy Planet. . 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231623	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttar%20Pradesh	Uttar Pradesh	Uttar Pradesh (; , 'Northern Province') is a state in northern India. With over 200 million inhabitants, it is the most populated state in India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. It was established in 1950 after India had become a republic. It was a successor to the United Provinces (UP) during the period of the Dominion of India (1947–1950), which in turn was a successor to the United Provinces (UP) established in 1935, and eventually of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh established in 1902 during the British Raj. The state is divided into 18 divisions and 75 districts, with the state capital being Lucknow, and Allahabad serving as the judicial capital. On 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttaranchal (now Uttarakhand), was created from Uttar Pradesh's western Himalayan hill region. The two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and its tributary Yamuna, meet at the Triveni Sangam in Allahabad, a Hindu pilgrimage site. Other notable rivers are Gomti and Saryu. The forest cover in the state is 6.1% of the state's geographical area. The cultivable area is 82% of total geographical area and net area sown is 68.5% of cultivable area. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the west, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi to the northwest, Uttarakhand and an international border with Nepal to the north, Bihar to the east, Madhya Pradesh to the south, and touches the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh to the southeast. It covers , equal to 7.3% of the total area of India, and is the fourth-largest Indian state by area. Though long known for sugar production, the state's economy is now dominated by the services industry. The service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies. The economy of Uttar Pradesh is the third-largest state economy in India with in gross domestic product and a per capita GSDP of .President's rule has been imposed in Uttar Pradesh ten times since 1968, for different reasons and for a total of 1,700 days. The state has currently two international airports, Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport (Lucknow) and Lal Bahadur Shastri Airport (Varanasi). Allahabad Junction is the headquarters of the North Central Railway and Gorakhpur Railway Station serves as the headquarters of the North Eastern Railway. The High Court of the state is located in Allahabad. The state contributes 80 seats and 31 seats to the lower house Lok Sabha and to the upper house Rajya Sabha respectively. Inhabitants of the state are called either Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Braji, Bundeli, Kannauji, or Rohilkhandi depending upon their region of origin. Hinduism is practised by more than three-fourths of the population, with Islam being the next largest religious group. Hindi is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state, along with Urdu. Uttar Pradesh was home to most of the mainstream political entities that have existed in ancient and medieval India including the Maurya Empire, Harsha Empire, Gupta Empire, Pala Empire, Delhi Sultanate, Mughal Empire as well as many other empires. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were three major princely states in Uttar Pradesh – Ramgadi, Rampur and Benares. The state houses several holy Hindu temples and pilgrimage centres. Uttar Pradesh has three World Heritage sites and ranks first among tourist destinations in India. Uttar Pradesh has several historical, natural, and religious tourist destinations, including Agra, Allahabad, Aligarh, Ayodhya, Kushinagar, Varanasi and Vrindavan. History Prehistory Modern human hunter-gatherers have been in Uttar Pradesh since between around 85,000 and 72,000 years ago. There have also been prehistorical finds in Uttar Pradesh from the Middle and Upper Paleolithic dated to 21,000–31,000 years old and Mesolithic/Microlithic hunter-gatherer settlement, near Pratapgarh, from around 10550–9550 BCE. Villages with domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats and evidence of agriculture began as early as 6000 BCE, and gradually developed between c. 4000 and 1500 BCE beginning with the Indus Valley Civilisation and Harappa Culture to the Vedic period and extending into the Iron Age. Ancient and classical period Out of the sixteen mahajanapadas (lit. 'great realms') or oligarchic republics that existed in ancient India, seven fell entirely within the present-day boundaries of Uttar Pradesh. The kingdom of Kosala, in the Mahajanapada era, was also located within the regional boundaries of modern-day Uttar Pradesh. According to Hinduism, the divine King Rama of the Ramayana epic reigned in Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala. Krishna, another divine king of Hindu legend, who plays a key role in the Mahabharata epic and is revered as the eighth reincarnation (Avatar) of the Hindu god Vishnu, is said to have been born in the city of Mathura, in Uttar Pradesh. The aftermath of the Mahabharata yuddh is believed to have taken place in the area between the Upper Doab and Delhi, (in what was Kuru Mahajanapada), during the reign of the Pandava king Yudhishthira. The kingdom of the Kurus corresponds to the Black and Red Ware and Painted Gray Ware culture and the beginning of the Iron Age in northwest India, around 1000 BCE. Control over Gangetic plains region was of vital importance to the power and stability of all of India's major empires, including the Maurya (320–200 BCE), Kushan (100–250 CE), Gupta (350–600), and Gurjara-Pratihara (650–1036) empires. Following the Huns' invasions that broke the Gupta empire, the Ganges-Yamuna Doab saw the rise of Kannauj. During the reign of Harshavardhana (590–647), the Kannauj empire reached its zenith. It spanned from Punjab in the north and Gujarat in the west to Bengal in the east and Odisha in the south. It included parts of central India, north of the Narmada River and it encompassed the entire Indo-Gangetic plain. Many communities in various parts of India claim descent from the migrants of Kannauj. Soon after Harshavardhana's death, his empire disintegrated into many kingdoms, which were invaded and ruled by the Gurjara-Pratihara empire, which challenged Bengal's Pala Empire for control of the region. Kannauj was several times invaded by the south Indian Rashtrakuta Dynasty, from the 8th century to the 10th century. After the fall of the Pala empire, the Chero dynasty ruled from the 12th century to the 18th century. Delhi Sultanate Parts or all of Uttar Pradesh were ruled by the Delhi Sultanate for 320 years (1206–1526). Five dynasties ruled over the Delhi Sultanate sequentially: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90), the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51), and the Lodi dynasty (1451–1526). Medieval and early modern period In the 16th century, Babur, a Timurid descendant of Timur and Genghis Khan from Fergana Valley (modern-day Uzbekistan), swept across the Khyber Pass and founded the Mughal Empire, covering India, along with modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Mughals were descended from Persianised Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture). In the Mughal era, Uttar Pradesh became the heartland of the empire. Mughal emperors Babur and Humayun ruled from Delhi. In 1540 an Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, took over the reins of Uttar Pradesh after defeating the Mughal king Humanyun. Sher Shah and his son Islam Shah ruled Uttar Pradesh from their capital at Gwalior. After the death of Islam Shah Suri, his prime minister Hemu became the de facto ruler of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and the western parts of Bengal. He was bestowed the title of Hemchandra Vikramaditya (title of Vikramāditya adopted from Vedic Period) at his formal coronation took place at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556. A month later, Hemu died in the Second Battle of Panipat, and Uttar Pradesh came under Emperor Akbar's rule. Akbar ruled from Agra and Fatehpur Sikri. In the 18th century, after the fall of Mughal authority, the power vacuum was filled by the Maratha Empire, in the mid-18th century, the Maratha army invaded the Uttar Pradesh region, which resulted in Rohillas losing control of Rohilkhand to the Maratha forces led by Raghunath Rao and Malharao Holkar. The conflict between Rohillas and Marathas came to an end on 18 December 1788 with the arrest of Ghulam Qadir, the grandson of Najeeb-ud-Daula, who was defeated by the Maratha general Mahadaji Scindia. In 1803–04, following the Second Anglo-Maratha War, when the British East India Company defeated the Maratha Empire, much of the region came under British suzerainty. British India era Starting from Bengal in the second half of the 18th century, a series of battles for north Indian lands finally gave the British East India Company accession over the state's territories. Ajmer and Jaipur kingdoms were also included in this northern territory, which was named the "North-Western Provinces" (of Agra). Although UP later became the fifth-largest state of India, NWPA was one of the smallest states of the British Indian empire. Its capital shifted twice between Agra and Allahabad. Due to dissatisfaction with British rule, a serious rebellion erupted in various parts of North India, which became known as the Indian Rebellion of 1857; Bengal regiment's sepoy stationed at Meerut cantonment, Mangal Pandey, is widely considered as its starting point. After the revolt failed, the British divided the most rebellious regions by reorganising their administrative boundaries, splitting the Delhi region from 'NWFP of Agra' and merging it with Punjab, while the Ajmer–Marwar region was merged with Rajputana and Oudh was incorporated into the state. The new state was called the North Western Provinces of Agra and Oudh, which in 1902 was renamed as the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. It was commonly referred to as the United Provinces or its acronym UP. In 1920, the capital of the province was shifted from Allahabad to Lucknow. The high court continued to be at Allahabad, but a bench was established at Lucknow. Allahabad continues to be an important administrative base of today's Uttar Pradesh and has several administrative headquarters. Uttar Pradesh continued to be central to Indian politics and was especially important in modern Indian history as a hotbed of the Indian independence movement. Uttar Pradesh hosted modern educational institutions such as the Aligarh Muslim University, Banaras Hindu University and Darul Uloom Deoband. Nationally known figures such as Ram Prasad Bismil and Chandra Shekhar Azad were among the leaders of the movement in Uttar Pradesh, and Motilal Nehru, Jawaharlal Nehru, Madan Mohan Malaviya and Gobind Ballabh Pant were important national leaders of the Indian National Congress. The All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS) was formed at the Lucknow session of the Congress on 11 April 1936, with the famous nationalist Swami Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first President, in order to address the longstanding grievances of the peasantry and mobilise them against the zamindari landlords attacks on their occupancy rights, thus sparking the Farmers movements in India. During the Quit India Movement of 1942, Ballia district overthrew the colonial authority and installed an independent administration under Chittu Pandey. Ballia became known as "Baghi Ballia" (Rebel Ballia) for this significant role in India's independence movement. Post-independence After India's independence, the United Provinces were renamed "Uttar Pradesh" ("northern province"), preserving UP as the acronym, with the change coming into effect on 24 January 1950. The state has provided nine of India's prime ministers, including current Prime Minister Narendra Modi who is MP from Varanasi, which is more than any other state and is the source of the largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Despite its political influence since ancient times, its poor record in economic development and administration, poor governance, organised crime and corruption have kept it among India's backward states. The state has been affected by repeated episodes of caste and communal violence. In Ayodhya in December 1992 the disputed Babri Mosque was demolished by radical Hindu activists, leading to widespread violence across India. In 2000, northern districts of the state were separated to form the state of Uttarakhand. Geography Uttar Pradesh, with a total area of , is India's fourth-largest state in terms of land area and is roughly of same size as United Kingdom. It is situated on the northern spout of India and shares an international boundary with Nepal. The Himalayas border the state on the north, but the plains that cover most of the state are distinctly different from those high mountains. The larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north; it includes the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, the Ghaghra plains, the Ganges plains and the Terai. The smaller Vindhya Range and plateau region is in the south. It is characterised by hard rock strata and a varied topography of hills, plains, valleys and plateaus. The Bhabhar tract gives place to the terai area which is covered with tall elephant grass and thick forests interspersed with marshes and swamps. The sluggish rivers of the bhabhar deepen in this area, their course running through a tangled mass of thick undergrowth. The terai runs parallel to the bhabhar in a thin strip. The entire alluvial plain is divided into three sub-regions. The first in the eastern tract consisting of 14 districts which are subject to periodical floods and droughts and have been classified as scarcity areas. These districts have the highest density of population which gives the lowest per capita land. The other two regions, the central and the western, are comparatively better with a well-developed irrigation system. They suffer from waterlogging and large-scale user tracts. In addition, the area is fairly arid. The state has more than 32 large and small rivers; of them, the Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sarayu, Betwa, and Ghaghara are larger and of religious importance in Hinduism. Cultivation is intensive in the state. Uttar Pradesh falls under three agro-climatic zones viz. Middle Gangetic Plains region (Zone–IV), Upper Gangetic Plains region (Zone–V) and Central Plateau and Hills region (Zone–VIII). The valley areas have fertile and rich soil. There is intensive cultivation on terraced hill slopes, but irrigation facilities are deficient. The Siwalik Range which forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas, slopes down into a boulder bed called 'bhabhar'. The transitional belt running along the entire length of the state is called the terai and bhabhar area. It has rich forests, cutting across it are innumerable streams which swell into raging torrents during the monsoon. Climate Uttar Pradesh has a humid subtropical climate and experiences four seasons. The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May and the monsoon season between June and September. Summers are extreme with temperatures fluctuating anywhere between 0 °C and 50 °C in parts of the state coupled with dry hot winds called the Loo. The Gangetic plain varies from semiarid to sub-humid. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 650 mm in the southwest corner of the state to 1000 mm in the eastern and southeastern parts of the state. Primarily a summer phenomenon, the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian monsoon is the major bearer of rain in most parts of state. After summer it is the southwest monsoon which brings most of the rain here, while in winters rain due to the western disturbances and north-east monsoon also contribute small quantities towards the overall precipitation of the state. The rain in Uttar Pradesh can vary from an annual average of 170 cm in hilly areas to 84 cm in Western Uttar Pradesh. Given the concentration of most of this rainfall in the four months of the monsoon, excess rain can lead to floods and shortage to droughts. As such, these two phenomena, floods and droughts, commonly recur in the state. The climate of the Vindhya Range and plateau is subtropical with a mean annual rainfall between 1000 and 1200 mm, most of which comes during the monsoon. Typical summer months are from March to June, with maximum temperatures ranging from . There is low relative humidity of around 20% and dust-laden winds blow throughout the season. In summers, hot winds called loo blow all across Uttar Pradesh. Flora and fauna The state has an abundance of natural resources. In 2011 the recorded forest area in the state was which is about 6.9% of the state's geographical area. In spite of rapid deforestation and poaching of wildlife, a diverse flora and fauna continue to exist in the state. Species in the state with respect to India, Uttar Pradesh is a habitat for 4.2% of all Algae, 6.4% of Fungi, 6.0% of Lichens, 2.9% of Bryophytes, 3.3% of Pteridophytes, 8.7% of Gymnosperms, 8.1% of Angiosperms. Several species of trees, large and small mammals, reptiles, and insects are found in the belt of temperate upper mountainous forests. Medicinal plants are found in the wild and are also grown in plantations. The Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands support cattle. Moist deciduous trees grow in the upper Gangetic plain, especially along its riverbanks. This plain supports a wide variety of plants and animals. The Ganges and its tributaries are the habitat of large and small reptiles, amphibians, fresh-water fish, and crabs. Scrubland trees such as the Babool (Vachellia nilotica) and animals such as the Chinkara (Gazella bennettii) are found in the arid Vindhyas. Notable indigenous trees are the astringent Azadirachta indica, or neem, which is widely used in rural Indian herbal medicine and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa, or peepul, consider the tree to be sacred by Hindu and Jain ascetics as this is the tree under which Gautama Buddha is believed to have attained enlightenment. Tropical dry deciduous forests are found in all parts of the plains. Since much sunlight reaches the ground, shrubs and grasses are also abundant. Large tracts of these forests have been cleared for cultivation. Tropical thorny forests, consisting of widely scattered thorny trees, mainly babool are mostly found in the southwestern parts of the state. These forests are confined to areas which have low annual rainfall (50–70 cm), a mean annual temperature of 25–27 °C and low humidity. Uttar Pradesh is known for its extensive avifauna. The most common birds which are found in the state are doves, peafowl, junglefowl, black partridges, house sparrows, songbirds, blue jays, parakeets, quails, bulbuls, comb ducks, kingfishers, woodpeckers, snipes, and parrots. Bird sanctuaries in the state include Bakhira Sanctuary, National Chambal Sanctuary, Chandra Prabha Sanctuary, Hastinapur Sanctuary, Kaimoor Sanctuary, and Okhla Sanctuary. Other animals in the state include reptiles such as lizards, cobras, kraits, and gharials. Among the wide variety of fishes, the most common ones are mahaseer and trout. Some animal species in Uttar Pradesh have gone extinct in recent years, while others, like the lion from the Gangetic Plain, the rhinoceros from the Terai region, Ganges river dolphin primarily found in the Ganges have become endangered. Many species are vulnerable to poaching despite regulation by the government. Divisions, districts and cities Uttar Pradesh is divided into 75 districts under these 18 divisions: The following is a list of top districts from state of Uttar Pradesh by population, ranked in respect of all India. Each district is governed by a District Magistrate, who is an Indian Administrative Service officer appointed Government of Uttar Pradesh and reports to Divisional Commissioner of the division in which his district falls. The Divisional Commissioner is an IAS officer of high seniority. Each district is divided into subdivisions, governed by a Sub-Divisional Magistrate, and again into Blocks. Blocks consists of panchayats (village councils) and town municipalities. These blocks consists of urban units viz. census towns and rural units called gram panchayat. Uttar Pradesh has more metropolitan cities than any other state in India. The absolute urban population of the state is 44.4 million, which constitutes 11.8% of the total urban population of India, the second-highest of any state. According to the 2011 census, there are 15 urban agglomerations with a population greater than 500,000. There are 14 Municipal Corporations, while Noida and Greater Noida in Gautam Budh Nagar district are specially administered by statutory authorities under the Uttar Pradesh Industrial Development Act, 1976. In 2011, state's cabinet ministers headed by the then Chief Minister Mayawati announced the separation of Uttar Pradesh into four different states of Purvanchal, Bundelkhand, Avadh Pradesh and Paschim Pradesh with twenty-eight, seven, twenty-three and seventeen districts, respectively, later the proposal was turned down when Akhilesh Yadav lead Samajwadi Party came to power in the 2012 election. Demographics Uttar Pradesh has a large population and a high population growth rate. From 1991 to 2001 its population increased by over 26%. Uttar Pradesh is the most populous state in India, with 199,581,477 people on 1 March 2011. The state contributes to 16.2% of India's population. The population density is 828 people per square kilometre, making it one of the most densely populated states in the country. Uttar Pradesh has the largest scheduled caste population whereas scheduled tribes are less than 1 per cent of the total population. The sex ratio in 2011, at 912 women to 1000 men, was lower than the national figure of 943. The state's 2001–2011 decennial growth rate (including Uttrakhand) was 20.1%, higher than the national rate of 17.64%. Uttar Pradesh has a large number of people living below the poverty line. As per World Bank document (released in 2016), the pace of poverty reduction in the state has been slower than the rest of the country. Estimates released by the Reserve Bank of India for the year 2011–12 revealed that Uttar Pradesh had 59 million people below the poverty line, the most for any state in India. The central and eastern districts in particular have very high levels of poverty. The state is also experiencing widening consumption inequality. As per the report of the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (released on 7 January 2020), the state per capita income is below per annum. As per 2011 census, Uttar Pradesh, the most populous state in India, is home to the highest numbers of both Hindus and Muslims. By religion, the population in 2011 was Hindus 79.7%, Muslims 19.3%, Sikhs 0.3%, Christians 0.2%, Jains 0.1%, Buddhists 0.1%, and others 0.3%. The literacy rate of the state at the 2011 census was 67.7%, which was below the national average of 74%. The literacy rate for men is 79% and for women 59%. In 2001 the literacy rate in Uttar Pradesh stood at 56% overall, 67% for men and 43% for women. A report based on a National Statistical Office (NSO) survey reveals that Uttar Pradesh's literacy rate is 73%—less than the national average of 77.7%. According to the report, in rural region, the literacy rate among men is 80.5% and women is 60.4%, while in urban areas, the literacy rate among men is 86.8% and women is 74.9%. Hindi is the official language of Uttar Pradesh and is spoken by the majority of the population (80.16%). But most people speak regional languages classified as dialects of Hindi in the census. These include Awadhi spoken in Awadh in central Uttar Pradesh, Bhojpuri spoken in Purvanchal in eastern Uttar Pradesh, and Braj Bhasha spoken in the Braj region in Western Uttar Pradesh. Urdu is given the status of a second official language, spoken by 5.4% of the population. Other notable languages spoken in the state include Punjabi (0.3%) and Bengali (0.1%). Government and administration The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy. Uttar Pradesh is one of the seven states in India, where the state legislature is bicameral, comprising two houses: the Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly) and the Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council). The Legislative Assembly consists of 404 members who are elected for five-year terms. The Legislative Council is a permanent body of 100 members with one-third (33 members) retiring every two years. Since Uttar Pradesh sends the largest number of legislators to the national Parliament, it is often considered to be one of the most important states with respect to Indian politics. The state contributes 80 seats to the lower house of the Indian Parliament, Lok Sabha and 31 seats to the upper house of the Indian Parliament, Rajya Sabha. Uttar Pradesh government is a democratically elected body in India with the Governor as its constitutional head and is appointed by the President of India for a five-year term. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the Chief Minister by the Governor, and the Council of Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the Chief Minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by the Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a Minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary, who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service, the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of the department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary. Rajendra Kumar Tiwari is the current Chief Secretary. Hitesh C. Awasthy is the current Director General of Police. For purpose of administration, the state is divided into 18 divisions and 75 districts. Divisional Commissioner, an IAS officer is the head of administration on the divisional level. The administration in each district is headed by a District Magistrate, who is an IAS officer and is assisted by a number of officers belonging to state services. The Uttar Pradesh Police is headed by an IPS officer of the rank of Director general of police. There are 8 Police Zones, 18 Police Ranges and 75 police districts in the state. An IPS officer in the rank of Inspector General of Police heads the zones, whereas an IPS officer of the rank of Deputy inspector general of police heads the ranges. A Superintendent of Police, an IPS officer and assisted by the officers of the Uttar Pradesh Police Service, is entrusted with the responsibility of maintaining law and order and related issues in each district. The judiciary in the state consists of the Allahabad High Court in Allahabad, the Lucknow Bench of Allahabad High Court, district courts and session courts in each district or Sessions Division, and lower courts at the tehsil level. The President of India appoints the chief justice of the High Court of the Uttar Pradesh judiciary on the advice of the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India as well as the Governor of Uttar Pradesh. Other judges are appointed by the President of India on the advice of the Chief Justice of the High Court. Subordinate Judicial Service, categorised into two divisions viz. Uttar Pradesh civil judicial services and Uttar Pradesh higher judicial service is another vital part of the judiciary of Uttar Pradesh. While the Uttar Pradesh civil judicial services comprise the Civil Judges (Junior Division)/Judicial Magistrates and civil judges (Senior Division)/Chief Judicial Magistrate, the Uttar Pradesh higher judicial service comprises civil and sessions judges. The Subordinate judicial service (viz. The district court of Etawah and the district court of Kanpur Dehat) of the judiciary at Uttar Pradesh is controlled by the District Judge. Politics in Uttar Pradesh has been dominated by four political parties, the Samajwadi Party, the Bahujan Samaj Party, the Indian National Congress, and the Bharatiya Janata Party. Politicians from Uttar Pradesh have played prominent roles in Union Government of India with some of them having held the high positions of Prime Minister. Uttar Pradesh has been called India's under-achiever because it has provided India with eight prime ministers while remaining a poor state. Crime and accidents According to the National Human Rights Commission of India (NHRC), Uttar Pradesh tops the list of states of encounter killings and custodial deaths. In 2014, the state recorded 365 judicial deaths out of a total 1,530 deaths recorded in the country. NHRC further said, of the over 30,000 murders registered in the country in 2016, Uttar Pradesh had 4,889 cases. A data from Minister of Home Affairs (MHA) avers, Bareilly recorded the highest number of custodial death at 25, followed by Agra (21), Allahabad (19) and Varanasi (9). National Crime Records Bureau (2011) data says, Uttar Pradesh has the highest number of crimes among any state in India, but due to its high population, the actual per capita crime rate is low. The state also continues to top the list of states with maximum communal violence incidents. An analysis of Ministers of State of Home Affairs states (2014), 23% of all incidents of communal violence in India took place in Uttar Pradesh. According to a research assembled by State Bank of India, Uttar Pradesh failed to improve its Human Development Index (HDI) ranking over a period of 27 years (1990–2017). Based on sub-national human development index data for Indian states from 1990 to 2017, the report also stated that the value of human development index in Uttar Pradesh has steadily increased over time from 0.39 in 1990 to 0.59 in 2017. The Uttar Pradesh Police, governed by the Department of Home, is the largest police force in the world. Uttar Pradesh also reported the highest number of deaths—23,219—due to road and rail accidents in 2015, according to NCRB data. This included 8,109 deaths due to careless driving. Between 2006 and 2010, the state has been hit with three terrorist attacks, including explosions in a landmark holy place, a court and a temple. The 2006 Varanasi bombings were a series of bombings that occurred across the Hindu holy city of Varanasi on 7 March 2006. At least 28 people were killed and as many as 101 others were injured. In the afternoon of 23 November 2007, within a span of 25 minutes, six consecutive serial blasts occurred in the Lucknow, Varanasi, and Faizabad courts, in which 28 people were killed and several others injured. The blasts came a week after the Uttar Pradesh police and central security agencies busted Jaish-e-Mohammed terrorists who had planned to abduct Rahul Gandhi. The Indian Mujahideen has claimed responsibility for these blasts in an email sent to TV stations five minutes before the blast. Another blast occurred on 7 December 2010, the blast occurred at Sheetla Ghat in Varanasi in which more than 38 people were killed and several others injured. Economy Agriculture is the leading occupation in Uttar Pradesh and plays a vital role in the economic development of the state. In terms of net state domestic product (NSDP), Uttar Pradesh is the second-largest economy in India after Maharashtra, with an estimated gross state domestic product of , and hence contributes 8.4% of India. According to the report generated by India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), in 2014–15, Uttar Pradesh has accounted for 19% share in the country's total food grain output. The state has experienced a high rate of economic growth in the past few years. Food grain production in the state in 2014–15 stood at 47,773.4 thousand tonnes. Wheat is the state's principal food crop and sugarcane is the main commercial crop particularly in Western Uttar Pradesh. About 70% of India's sugar comes from Uttar Pradesh. Sugarcane is the most important cash crop as the state is country's largest producer of sugar. As per the report generated by Indian Sugar Mills Association (ISMA), total sugarcane production in India was estimated to be 28.3 million tonnes in the fiscal ending September 2015 which includes 10.47 million tonnes from Maharashtra and 7.35 million tonnes from Uttar Pradesh State industries are localised in the Kanpur region, the fertile purvanchal lands and the Noida region. The Mughalsarai is home to a number of major locomotive plants. Major manufacturing products include engineering products, electronics, electrical equipment, cables, steel, leather, textiles, jewellery, frigates, automobiles, railway coaches, and wagons. Meerut is the sports capital of India and also a jewellery hub. More small-scale industrial units are situated in Uttar Pradesh than in any other state, with 12 per cent of over 2.3 million units. With 359 manufacturing clusters, cement is the top sector of SMEs in Uttar Pradesh. The Uttar Pradesh Financial Corporation (UPFC) was established in the year 1954 under the SFCs Act of 1951 mainly to develop small- and medium-scale industries in the state. The UPFC also provides working capital to existing units with a sound track record and to new units under a single window scheme. In July 2012, due to financial constraints and directions from the state government, lending activities have been suspended except for State Government Schemes. The state has reported total private investment worth over Rs. 25,081 crores during the years of 2012 and 2016. According to a recent report of World Bank on Ease of Doing Business in India, Uttar Pradesh was ranked among the top 10 states and first among Northern states. According to the Uttar Pradesh Budget Documents (2019–20), Uttar Pradesh's debt burden is 29.8 per cent of the GSDP. The state's total financial debt stood at in 2011. Uttar Pradesh has not been able to witness double digit economic growth despite consistent attempts over the years. The GSDP is estimated to have grown 7 per cent in 2017–18 and 6.5 per cent in 2018–19 which is about 10 per cent of India's GDP. According to a survey conducted by the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE), Uttar Pradesh's unemployment rate increased 11.4 percentage points, rising to 21.5 per cent in April 2020. Uttar Pradesh has the largest number of net migrants migrating out of the state. The 2011 census data on migration shows that nearly 14.4 million (14.7%) people had migrated out of Uttar Pradesh. Marriage was cited as the pre-dominant reason for migration among females. Among males the most important reason for migration was Work / Employment. In 2009–10, the tertiary sector of the economy (service industries) was the largest contributor to the gross domestic product of the state, contributing 44.8% of the state domestic product compared to 44% from the primary sector (agriculture, forestry, and tourism) and 11.2% from the secondary sector (industrial and manufacturing). MSME sector is the second-largest employment generator in Uttar Pradesh, the first being agriculture and employs over 9.2 million people across the state. Under the leadership of Akhilesh Yadav, Uttar Pradesh has exceeded 11 five-year plan targets and has established several Micro Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) and generated 650,000 employment opportunities across the state. During the 11th five-year plan (2007–2012), the average gross state domestic product (GSDP) growth rate was 7.3%, lower than 15.5%, the average for all states of the country. The state's per capita GSDP was , lower than the national per capita GSDP of . Labour efficiency is higher at an index of 26 than the national average of 25. Textiles and sugar refining, both long-standing industries in Uttar Pradesh, employ a significant proportion of the state's total factory labour. The economy also benefits from the state's tourism industry. The state's exports include footwear, leather goods, and sporting gear. The state is attracting foreign direct investment which has mostly come in the software and electronics fields; Noida, Kanpur and Lucknow are becoming major hubs for the information technology (IT) industry and house the headquarters of most of the major corporate, media and financial institutions. Sonebhadra, a district in eastern Uttar Pradesh, has large-scale industries. Its southern region is known as the Energy Capital of India. In May 2013 Uttar Pradesh had the largest number of mobile subscribers in the country, a total of 121.60 million mobile phone connections out of 861.66 million in India, according to the telecom regulator, Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI). In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected sixty one cities of Uttar Pradesh for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of was declared for the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities. Transportation The state has the largest railway network in the country but in relative terms has only sixth-highest railway density despite its plain topography and largest population. As of 2011, there were of rail in the state. Allahabad is the headquarters of the North Central Railway and Gorakhpur is the headquarters of the North Eastern Railway. Other than Zonal Headquarters of Allahabad and Gorakhpur, Lucknow and Moradabad serve as divisional Headquarters of the Northern Railway Division. Lucknow Swarna Shatabdi Express, the second fastest shatabdi train, connects the Indian capital of New Delhi to Lucknow while Kanpur Shatabdi Express, connects New Delhi to Kanpur. This was the first train in India to get the new German LHB coaches. The railway stations of Allahabad Junction, Agra Cantt, Lucknow NR, Gorakhpur Junction, Kanpur Central, Mathura Junction and Varanasi Junction are included in the Indian Railways list of 50 world-class railway stations. The state has a large, multimodal transportation system with the largest road network in the country. The state is well connected to its nine neighbouring states and almost all other parts of India through the national highways (NH). It boasts 42 national highways, with a total length of 4,942 km (9.6% of the total NH length in India). The Uttar Pradesh State Road Transport Corporation was established in 1972 to provide economical, reliable, and comfortable transportation in the state with connecting services to adjoining states and boasts as being the only State Transport Corporation that runs in profit in the entire nation. All cities are connected to state highways, and all district headquarters are being connected with four lane roads which carry traffic between major centres within the state. One of them is Agra Lucknow Expressway, which is a 302 km (188 mi) controlled-access highway constructed by Uttar Pradesh Expressways Industrial Development Authority (UPEIDA) to reduce vehicular traffic in previously congested roads. This expressway is country's largest Greenfield Expressway which reduced the travel time between Lucknow and Agra from 6 hours to 3.30 hours. Other district roads and village roads provide villages accessibility to meet their social needs as also the means to transport agriculture produce from village to nearby markets. Major district roads provide a secondary function of linking between main roads and rural roads. Uttar Pradesh has the highest road density in India, (1,027 km per 1000 km2) and the largest surfaced urban-road network in the country (50,721 km). The state has two international airports located in Lucknow (Chaudhary Charan Singh International Airport) and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport in Varanasi. and six domestic airports located at Agra, Allahabad, Bareilly, Ghaziabad, Gorakhpur and Kanpur. The Lucknow Airport is the second-busiest airport in North India after the Indira Gandhi International Airport, New Delhi. The state has also proposed creating the Taj International Airport at Kurikupa near Hirangaon, Tundla in Firozabad district. Two more international airports have been proposed to be built at Kushinagar and Jewar, Greater Noida. The Lucknow Metro has been operational since 9 March 2019. The Kanpur Metro is under construction. The capital cities are witnessing a swift rise in the number of immigrants and this has called for the transformation of public modes of transport. Sports Traditional sports, now played mostly as a pastime, include wrestling, swimming, kabaddi, and track-sports or water-sports played according to local traditional rules and without modern equipment. Some sports are designed to display martial skills such as using a sword or 'Pata' (stick). Due to lack of organised patronage and requisite facilities, these sports survive mostly as individuals' hobbies or local competitive events. Among modern sports, field hockey is popular and Uttar Pradesh has produced some of the finest players in India, including Dhyan Chand and, more recently, Nitin Kumar and Lalit Kumar Upadhyay. Recently, cricket has become more popular than field hockey. Uttar Pradesh won its first Ranji Trophy tournament in February 2006, beating Bengal in the final. It can also boast of routinely having three or four players on the national side. Green Park Stadium in Kanpur, the only internationally recognised cricket stadium in the state, has witnessed some of India's most famous victories. Uttar Pradesh Cricket Association (UPCA) has headquarters in Kanpur. An International Cricket Stadium with a capacity of 50,000 spectators, is being set up in the capital city of Uttar Pradesh. Greater Noida Cricket Stadium is another newly built international cricket stadium with a capacity of around 20,000 spectators. The Buddh International Circuit hosted India's inaugural F1 Grand Prix race on 30 October 2011. The circuit was designed by German architect and racetrack designer Herman Tilke to compete with other world-class race circuits. However, races were only held three times before being cancelled due to falling attendance and lack of government support. The government of Uttar Pradesh considered Formula One to be entertainment and not a sport, and thus imposed taxes on the event and participants. Education Uttar Pradesh has a long tradition of education, although historically it was primarily confined to the elite class and religious schools. Sanskrit-based learning formed the major part of education from the Vedic to the Gupta periods. As cultures travelled through the region they brought their bodies of knowledge with them, adding Pali, Persian and Arabic scholarship to the community. These formed the core of Hindu-Buddhist-Muslim education until the rise of British colonialism. The present schools-to-university system of education owes its inception and development in the state (as in the rest of the country) to foreign Christian missionaries and the British colonial administration. Schools in the state are either managed by the government or by private trusts. Hindi is used as a medium of instruction in most of the schools except those affiliated to the CBSE or the Council for ICSE boards. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for two years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education or a central board. Students choose from one of three streams, namely liberal arts, commerce, or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs. Some Uttar Pradesh schools, for example Delhi Public School (Noida), La Martinière Girls' College (Lucknow), and Step by Step School (Noida) have been ranked among the best schools in the country. Uttar Pradesh has more than 45 universities, including 5 central universities, 28 state universities, 8 deemed universities, 2 IITs in Varanasi and Kanpur, AIIMS Gorakhpur and AIIMS Rae Bareli, 1 IIM in Lucknow, 1 NIT in Allahabad, 2 IIITs, 1 National Law University in Lucknow and several polytechnics, engineering colleges and industrial training institutes. Institutes like the Aligarh Muslim University, Sanjay Gandhi Postgraduate Institute of Medical Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology (Kanpur), Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), the Indian Institute of Management (Lucknow), Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology (Allahabad), Indian Institute of Information Technology (Allahabad), Indian Institute of Information Technology (Lucknow), University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kanpur, King George's Medical University, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohiya National Law University and the Harcourt Butler Technical University are known worldwide for their quality education and research in their respective fields. The presence of such institutions provides the students of the state with ample opportunities for higher education. The Integral University, a state level institution, was established by the Uttar Pradesh Government to provide education in different technical, applied science, and other disciplines. The Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies was founded as an autonomous organisation by the national ministry of culture. Jagadguru Rambhadracharya Handicapped University is the only university established exclusively for the disabled in the world. A large number of Indian scholars are educated at different universities in Uttar Pradesh. Notable scholars who were born, worked or studied in the geographic area of the state include Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Motilal Nehru, Harish Chandra and Indira Gandhi. Tourism Uttar Pradesh ranks first in domestic tourist arrivals among all states of India with more than 71 million, owing to its rich and varied topography, vibrant culture, festivals, monuments, ancient places of worship, and viharas. Uttar Pradesh is also home to three World Heritage Sites: the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, and the nearby Fatehpur Sikri. Uttar Pradesh is a favoured tourist destination in India due to the location of Taj Mahal, nearly 69 lakhs (6.9 million) people visited the Taj Mahal in 2018–19, up 6% from the previous year when the number stood at 64 lakhs (6.4 million). The monument earned almost in ticket sales in 2018–19. The state's tourism industry is a major contributor to the state's economy, growing at the rate of 21.60%. Religious tourism plays significant role in Uttar Pradesh tourism as the state has some of the holiest Hindu shrines. Varanasi a major religious hub, is the holiest of the seven sacred cities (Sapta Puri) in Hinduism and Jainism. Domestic tourist most commonly visit for religious purposes while foreign tourist visit for ghats along river Ganges. Vrindavan is considered to be a holy place for Vaisnavism. Owing to the belief as the birthplace of Rama, Ayodhya (Awadh) has been regarded as one of the seven most important pilgrimage sites. Millions gather at Allahabad to take part in the Magh Mela festival on the banks of the Ganges. This festival is organised on a larger scale every 12th year and is called the Kumbh Mela, where over 10 million Hindu pilgrims congregate in one of the largest gatherings of people in the world. Vindhyachal is a Hindu pilgrimage site having the temple of Vindhyavasini. Buddhist attractions in Uttar Pradesh include stupas and monasteries. The historically important towns of Sarnath where Gautama Buddha gave his first sermon after his enlightenment and died at Kushinagar; both are important pilgrimage sites for Buddhists. Also at Sarnath are the Pillars of Ashoka and the Lion Capital of Ashoka, both important archaeological artefacts with national significance. At a distance of 80 km from Varanasi, Ghazipur is famous not only for its Ghats on the Ganges but also for the tomb of Lord Cornwallis, the 18th-century Governor of East India Company ruled Bengal Presidency. The tomb is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India. The state has one National Park and 25 Wildlife Sanctuaries. Okhla Bird Sanctuary known as a haven for over 300 bird species out of which 160 bird species are migratory, travelling from Tibet, Europe & Siberia and Patna Bird Sanctuary sanctuary in Etah district, is a major tourist attraction. Healthcare Uttar Pradesh has a large public as well as private healthcare infrastructure. Although an extensive network of public and private sector healthcare providers has been built, the available health infrastructure is inadequate to meet the demand for health services in the state. In 15 years to 2012–13, the population of Uttar Pradesh increased by more than 25 per cent. The public health centres, which are the frontline of the government's health care system, decreased by 8 per cent. Smaller sub-centres, the first point of public contact, increased by no more than 2 per cent over the 25 years to 2015, a period when the population grew by more than 51 per cent. The state is also facing challenges such as a shortage of healthcare professionals, increasing cost of healthcare, the mushrooming of private healthcare and a lack of planning. As of 2017, number of government hospital in rural and urban areas of Uttar Pradesh are 4442 (39104 beds) and 193 (37156 beds), respectively. A newborn in Uttar Pradesh is expected to live four years fewer than in the neighbouring state of Bihar, five years fewer than in Haryana and seven years fewer than in Himachal Pradesh. Uttar Pradesh contributed to the largest share of almost all communicable and noncommunicable disease deaths, including 48 per cent of all typhoid deaths (2014); 17 per cent of cancer deaths and 18 per cent of tuberculosis deaths (2015). Uttar Pradesh's maternal mortality ratio is higher than the national average at 258 maternal deaths for every 100,000 live births (2017), with 62 per cent of pregnant women unable to access minimum ante-natal care. Around 42 per cent of pregnant women, more than 1.5 million, deliver babies at home. About two-thirds (61 per cent) of childbirths at home in Uttar Pradesh are unsafe. State has the highest child mortality indicators, from the neonatal mortality rate (NNMR) to the under-five mortality rate of 64 children who die per 1,000 live births before five years of age, 35 die within a month of birth, and 50 do not complete a year of life. A third of the rural population in the state has been deprived of primary healthcare infrastructure, according to the norms of the Indian Public Health Standards. Culture Language and literature Several texts and hymns of the Vedic literature were composed in Uttar Pradesh. Renowned Indian writers who have resided in Uttar Pradesh were Kabir, Ravidas, and Tulsidas, who wrote much of his Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi. The festival of Guru Purnima is dedicated to Sage Vyasa, and also known as Vyasa Purnima as it is the day which is believed to be his birthday and also the day he divided the Vedas. There is a long literary and folk Hindi-language tradition in the state. In the 19th and 20th century, Hindi literature was modernised by authors such as Jaishankar Prasad, Maithili Sharan Gupt, Munshi Premchand, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Babu Gulabrai, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Agyeya', Rahul Sankrityayan, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Dharamvir Bharati, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Dushyant Kumar, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Acharya Kuber Nath Rai, Bharatendu Harishchandra, Kamleshwar Prasad Saxena, Shivmangal Singh Suman, Mahadevi Varma, and Vibhuti Narain Rai. The state is sometimes called the 'Hindi heartland of India'. Hindi became the language of state administration with the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act of 1951. A 1989 amendment to the act added Urdu, as an additional language of the state. Linguistically, the state spreads across the Central, East-Central, and Eastern zones of the Hindi Belt, the major Hindi languages of the state being Awadhi, Bagheli, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Braj Bhasha, Kannauji, and Hindustani. Music and dance With each and every district of Uttar Pradesh having its unique music and tradition, traditional folk music in Uttar Pradesh has been categorised in three different ways including music transmitted orally, music with unknown composers and music performed by custom. The popular folk music of Uttar Pradesh includes sohar which is sung to celebrate birth of a child, Kajari sung during the rainy season, Ghazal, Thumri and Qawwali which is a form of Sufi poetry is popular in the Awadh region, Rasiya (especially popular in Braj), which celebrate the divine love of Radha and Krishna. Khayal is a form of semi-classical singing which comes from the courts of Awadh. Other forms of music are Biraha, Chaiti, Chowtal, Alha, and Sawani. Kathak, a classical dance form, owes its origin to the state of Uttar Pradesh. The dance form is connected to classical Hindustani music where the rhythmic nimbleness of the feet is accompanied by either Tabla or Pakhawaj. Ramlila is one of the oldest dramatic folk dance which depicts the life of Lord Rama and is mainly performed during the Vijayadashami festival. Svanga is a dance drama of semi-historical tales and ballads. Traditional dance and musical styles are taught at the Bhatkhande Music Institute University in Lucknow, named after the musician Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande. Four of the six schools of this dance form, Lucknow gharana, Ajrara gharana, Farukhabad gharana and Benares gharana, are situated in Uttar Pradesh. Fairs and festivals Diwali (celebrated between mid-October and mid-December) and Rama Navami are popular festivals in Uttar Pradesh. Kumbh Mela, organised in the month of Maagha (February—March), is a major festival held every twelve years in rotation at Allahabad on the river Ganges. Lath mar Holi is a local celebration of the Hindu festival of Holi. It takes place well before the actual Holi in the town of Barsana near Mathura. Taj Mahotsav, held annually at Agra, is a colourful display of the culture of the Braj area. Ganga Mahotsav festival of Kartik Poornima celebrated fifteen days after Diwali. Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is a major Hindu and Buddhist festival, while Christmas is celebrated by the minority Christian population. Other festivals are Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adhaa/Bakreed, Vijayadashami, Makar Sankranti, Vasant Panchami, Ayudha Puja, Janmashtami, Sardhana Christian Fair, Maha Shivaratri, Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Ayurved Jhansi Mahotsav, Bārah Wafāṭ, Chhath puja, Lucknow Mahotsav, Moharram, Kabob and Hanuman Jayanti. Cuisine A typical day-to-day traditional vegetarian meal of Uttar Pradesh, like any other North Indian thali, consists of roti (flatbread), chawal, dal, sabji, raita and papad. On festive occasions, usually 'tava' (flat pan for roti) is considered inauspicious, and instead fried foods are consumed. A typical festive thali consists of Puri, Kachauri, sabji, pulav, papad, raita, salad and desserts (such as sewai or Kheer). Lassi (yogurt-based) and chaach (traditional buttermilk) are most favoured drink in Uttar Pradesh. Many communities have their own particular style of cuisines, such as the Jains, Kayasths and Muslims. There are also certain sub-regional delicacies. Awadhi cuisine is world-famous for dishes such as kebab, biryani, keema and nihari. Sweets occupy an important place in the Hindu diet and are eaten at social ceremonies. People make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including khurchan, peda, gulabjamun, petha, makkhan malai, and chamcham. The chaat in Lucknow and Banarasi Paan is known across India for its flavour and ingredients. Awadhi cuisine is from the city of Lucknow. The cuisine consists of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Awadh has been greatly influenced by Mughal cooking techniques, and the cuisine of Lucknow bears similarities to those of Central Asia, Kashmir, Punjab and Hyderabad; and the city is known for Nawabi foods. The bawarchis and rakabdars of Awadh gave birth to the dum style of cooking or the art of cooking over a slow fire, which has become synonymous with Lucknow today. Their spread consisted of elaborate dishes like kebabs (shish kebab or shashlik), kormas, biryani, kaliya, nahari-kulchas, zarda, sheermal, roomali rotis, and warqi parathas. The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used like mutton, paneer, and rich spices including cardamom and saffron. Mughlai cuisine is a style of cooking developed in the Indian subcontinent by the kitchens of the Mughal Empire. It represents the cooking styles used in North India, especially Uttar Pradesh. The cuisine is strongly influenced by the cuisine of Central Asia, and has in turn strongly similarities to the regional cuisines of Kashmir and the Punjab region. The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy, and is often associated with a distinctive aroma and the taste of ground and whole spices. Dress The people of Uttar Pradesh dress in a variety of traditional and Western styles. Traditional styles of dress include colourful draped garments – such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men – and tailored clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama for men. Men often sport head-gear like topi or pagri. Sherwani is a more formal male dress and is frequently worn along with chooridar on festive occasions. European-style trousers and shirts are also common among the men. Media A number of newspapers and periodicals are published in Hindi, English, and Urdu. The Pioneer was founded in Allahabad in 1865 by George Allen. Amar Ujala, Dainik Bhaskar, Dainik Jagran, Rajasthan Patrika and Hindustan Dainik have a wide circulation, with local editions published from several important cities. Major English language newspapers which are published and sold in large numbers are The Telegraph, The Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Statesman, The Indian Express, and Asian Age. Some prominent financial dailies like The Economic Times, Financial Express, Business Line, and Business Standard are widely circulated. Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Nepali, Gujarati, Odia, Urdu, and Punjabi are also read by a select readership. Doordarshan is the state-owned television broadcaster. Multi system operators provide a mix of Hindi, English, Bengali, Nepali and international channels via cable. Hindi 24-hour television news channels are NDTV India, DD News, Zee News, Aaj Tak, News18 India, News18 Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand and ABP News. All India Radio is a public radio station. There are 32 private FM stations available in major cities like Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, and Noida. Cell phone providers include Vi India, Airtel, BSNL and Reliance Jio. Broadband internet is available in select towns and cities and is provided by the state-run BSNL and by private companies. Dial-up access is provided throughout the state by BSNL and other providers. See also List of Governors of Uttar Pradesh List of people from Uttar Pradesh Nawabganj Bird Sanctuary Outline of India Social Mobilisation Network (SMNet) Notes References External links Government Official Website of Government of Uttar Pradesh Official Website of Department of Home of Government of Uttar Pradesh Official Website of Department of Tourism of Government of Uttar Pradesh General information States and union territories of India States and territories established in 1950 1950 establishments in India Hindi-speaking countries and territories Urdu-speaking countries and territories	[ -0.16867581009864807, -0.3347339928150177, 0.004887067712843418, -0.40167906880378723, -0.3250126540660858, 0.40186354517936707, 0.6415472030639648, 0.24025563895702362, -0.4626365005970001, -0.3882485032081604, -0.30486077070236206, -0.4153803884983063, -0.4815928339958191, 0.4358144700527191, 0.24714305996894836, 0.9648664593696594, 0.2708471715450287, 0.10362441837787628, 0.6385555863380432, 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231624	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super-Jupiter	Super-Jupiter	A super-Jupiter is a gas giant exoplanet that is more massive than the planet Jupiter. For example, companions at the planet–brown dwarf borderline have been called super-Jupiters, such as around the star Kappa Andromedae. By 2011 there were 180 known super-Jupiters, some hot, some cold. Even though they are more massive than Jupiter, they remain about the same size as Jupiter up to 80 Jupiter masses. This means that their surface gravity and density go up proportionally to their mass. The increased mass compresses the planet due to gravity, thus keeping it from being larger. In comparison, planets somewhat lighter than Jupiter can be larger, so-called "puffy planets" (gas giants with a large diameter but low density). An example of this may be the exoplanet HAT-P-1b with about half the mass of Jupiter but about 1.38 times larger diameter. CoRoT-3b, with a mass around 22 Jupiter masses, is predicted to have an average density of 26.4 g/cm3, greater than osmium (22.6 g/cm3), the densest natural element under standard conditions. Extreme compression of matter inside it causes the high density, because it is likely composed mainly of hydrogen. The surface gravity is also high, over 50 times that of Earth. In 2012, the super-Jupiter Kappa Andromedae b was imaged around the star Kappa Andromedae, orbiting it about 1.8 times the distance at which Neptune orbits the Sun. See also Extrasolar planet Ice giant Kepler-1704b List of planet types Red dwarf Super-Earth References External links Brown dwarfs: Failed stars, super Jupiters (2008) Types of planet	[ -0.195420503616333, 0.31658586859703064, 0.17395515739917755, 0.35860732197761536, -0.4916629493236542, -0.11587438732385635, -0.18566717207431793, 0.6391686201095581, -0.2279743254184723, 0.03094564378261566, -0.6316628456115723, 0.41699740290641785, -0.5624192953109741, 0.45524483919143677, 0.22196811437606812, 0.18582601845264435, 0.3325619101524353, 0.7495542168617249, -0.7087326645851135, -0.2503302991390228, 0.028506113216280937, -0.04733366519212723, 0.45516952872276306, 0.052262499928474426, 0.14982925355434418, 0.1981620490550995, -0.07198179513216019, 0.4267241358757019, 0.6637406945228577, 0.414046972990036, -0.6238643527030945, 0.7567275166511536, -0.22905988991260529, 0.44307759404182434, -0.1922188550233841, -0.2718598246574402, -0.017768817022442818, 0.11911238729953766, 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231630	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmon	Plasmon	In physics, a plasmon is a quantum of plasma oscillation. Just as light (an optical oscillation) consists of photons, the plasma oscillation consists of plasmons. The plasmon can be considered as a quasiparticle since it arises from the quantization of plasma oscillations, just like phonons are quantizations of mechanical vibrations. Thus, plasmons are collective (a discrete number) oscillations of the free electron gas density. For example, at optical frequencies, plasmons can couple with a photon to create another quasiparticle called a plasmon polariton. Derivation The plasmon was initially proposed in 1952 by David Pines and David Bohm and was shown to arise from a Hamiltonian for the long-range electron-electron correlations. Since plasmons are the quantization of classical plasma oscillations, most of their properties can be derived directly from Maxwell's equations. Explanation Plasmons can be described in the classical picture as an oscillation of electron density with respect to the fixed positive ions in a metal. To visualize a plasma oscillation, imagine a cube of metal placed in an external electric field pointing to the right. Electrons will move to the left side (uncovering positive ions on the right side) until they cancel the field inside the metal. If the electric field is removed, the electrons move to the right, repelled by each other and attracted to the positive ions left bare on the right side. They oscillate back and forth at the plasma frequency until the energy is lost in some kind of resistance or damping. Plasmons are a quantization of this kind of oscillation. Role Plasmons play a large role in the optical properties of metals and semiconductors. Frequencies of light below the plasma frequency are reflected by a material because the electrons in the material screen the electric field of the light. Light of frequencies above the plasma frequency is transmitted by a material because the electrons in the material cannot respond fast enough to screen it. In most metals, the plasma frequency is in the ultraviolet, making them shiny (reflective) in the visible range. Some metals, such as copper and gold, have electronic interband transitions in the visible range, whereby specific light energies (colors) are absorbed, yielding their distinct color. In semiconductors, the valence electron plasmon frequency is usually in the deep ultraviolet, while their electronic interband transitions are in the visible range, whereby specific light energies (colors) are absorbed, yielding their distinct color which is why they are reflective. It has been shown that the plasmon frequency may occur in the mid-infrared and near-infrared region when semiconductors are in the form of nanoparticles with heavy doping. The plasmon energy can often be estimated in the free electron model as where is the conduction electron density, is the elementary charge, is the electron mass, the permittivity of free space, the reduced Planck constant and the plasmon frequency. Surface plasmons Surface plasmons are those plasmons that are confined to surfaces and that interact strongly with light resulting in a polariton. They occur at the interface of a material exhibiting positive real part of their relative permittivity, i.e. dielectric constant, (e.g. vacuum, air, glass and other dielectrics) and a material whose real part of permittivity is negative at the given frequency of light, typically a metal or heavily doped semiconductors. In addition to opposite sign of the real part of the permittivity, the magnitude of the real part of the permittivity in the negative permittivity region should typically be larger than the magnitude of the permittivity in the positive permittivity region, otherwise the light is not bound to the surface (i.e. the surface plasmons do not exist) as shown in the famous book by Heinz Raether. At visible wavelengths of light, e.g. 632.8 nm wavelength provided by a He-Ne laser, interfaces supporting surface plasmons are often formed by metals like silver or gold (negative real part permittivity) in contact with dielectrics such as air or silicon dioxide. The particular choice of materials can have a drastic effect on the degree of light confinement and propagation distance due to losses. Surface plasmons can also exist on interfaces other than flat surfaces, such as particles, or rectangular strips, v-grooves, cylinders, and other structures. Many structures have been investigated due to the capability of surface plasmons to confine light below the diffraction limit of light. One simple structure that was investigated was a multilayer system of copper and nickel. Mladenovic et al. report the use of the multilayers as if its one plasmonic material. The copper oxide is prevented with the addition of the nickel layers. It is an easy path the integration of plasmonics to use copper as the plasmonic material because it is the most common choice for metallic plating along with nickel. The multilayers serve as a diffractive grating for the incident light. Up to 40 percent transmission can be achieved at normal incidence with the multilayer system depending on the thickness ratio of copper to nickel. Therefore, the use of already popular metals in a multilayer structure prove to be solution for plasmonic integration. Surface plasmons can play a role in surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy and in explaining anomalies in diffraction from metal gratings (Wood's anomaly), among other things. Surface plasmon resonance is used by biochemists to study the mechanisms and kinetics of ligands binding to receptors (i.e. a substrate binding to an enzyme). Multi-parametric surface plasmon resonance can be used not only to measure molecular interactions but also nanolayer properties or structural changes in the adsorbed molecules, polymer layers or graphene, for instance. Surface plasmons may also be observed in the X-ray emission spectra of metals. A dispersion relation for surface plasmons in the X-ray emission spectra of metals has been derived (Harsh and Agarwal). More recently surface plasmons have been used to control colors of materials. This is possible since controlling the particle's shape and size determines the types of surface plasmons that can be coupled into and propagate across it. This, in turn, controls the interaction of light with the surface. These effects are illustrated by the historic stained glass which adorn medieval cathedrals. Some stained glass colors are produced by metal nanoparticles of a fixed size which interact with the optical field to give glass a vibrant red color. In modern science, these effects have been engineered for both visible light and microwave radiation. Much research goes on first in the microwave range because at this wavelength, material surfaces and samples can be produced mechanically because the patterns tend to be on the order of a few centimeters. The production of optical range surface plasmon effects involves making surfaces which have features <400 nm. This is much more difficult and has only recently become possible to do in any reliable or available way. Recently, graphene has also been shown to accommodate surface plasmons, observed via near field infrared optical microscopy techniques and infrared spectroscopy. Potential applications of graphene plasmonics mainly addressed the terahertz to midinfrared frequencies, such as optical modulators, photodetectors, biosensors. Possible applications The position and intensity of plasmon absorption and emission peaks are affected by molecular adsorption, which can be used in molecular sensors. For example, a fully operational device detecting casein in milk has been prototyped, based on detecting a change in absorption of a gold layer. Localized surface plasmons of metal nanoparticles can be used for sensing different types of molecules, proteins, etc. Plasmons are being considered as a means of transmitting information on computer chips, since plasmons can support much higher frequencies (into the 100 THz range, whereas conventional wires become very lossy in the tens of GHz). However, for plasmon-based electronics to be practical, a plasmon-based amplifier analogous to the transistor, called a plasmonstor, needs to be created. Plasmons have also been proposed as a means of high-resolution lithography and microscopy due to their extremely small wavelengths; both of these applications have seen successful demonstrations in the lab environment. Finally, surface plasmons have the unique capacity to confine light to very small dimensions, which could enable many new applications. Surface plasmons are very sensitive to the properties of the materials on which they propagate. This has led to their use to measure the thickness of monolayers on colloid films, such as screening and quantifying protein binding events. Companies such as Biacore have commercialized instruments that operate on these principles. Optical surface plasmons are being investigated with a view to improve makeup by L'Oréal and others. In 2009, a Korean research team found a way to greatly improve organic light-emitting diode efficiency with the use of plasmons. A group of European researchers led by IMEC has begun work to improve solar cell efficiencies and costs through incorporation of metallic nanostructures (using plasmonic effects) that can enhance absorption of light into different types of solar cells: crystalline silicon (c-Si), high-performance III-V, organic, and dye-sensitized. However, for plasmonic photovoltaic devices to function optimally, ultra-thin transparent conducting oxides are necessary. Full color holograms using plasmonics have been demonstrated. Plasmon-soliton Plasmon-soliton mathematically refers to the hybrid solution of nonlinear amplitude equation e.g. for a metal-nonlinear media considering both the plasmon mode and solitary solution. A soliplasmon resonance is on the other hand considered as a quasiparticle combining the surface plasmon mode with spatial soliton as a result of a resonant interaction. To achieve one dimensional solitary propagation in a plasmonic waveguide while the surface plasmons should be localized at the interface, the lateral distribution of the filed envelop should also be unchanged. Graphene-based waveguide is a suitable platform for supporting hybrid plasmon-solitons due to the large effective area and huge nonlinearity. For example, the propagation of solitary waves in a graphene-dielectric heterostructure may appear as in the form of higher order solitons or discrete solitons resulting from the competition between diffraction and nonlinearity. See also Footnotes References External links A selection of free-download papers on Plasmonics in New Journal of Physics https://web.archive.org/web/20070109022245/http://www.plasmonicfocus.com/ http://www.sprpages.nl https://web.archive.org/web/20030423045410/http://www.qub.ac.uk/mp/con/plasmon/sp1.html http://www.nano-optics.org.uk Plasmonic computer chips move closer Progress at Stanford for use in computers Slashdot: A Plasmonic Revolution for Computer Chips? A Microscope from Flatland Physical Review Focus, January 24, 2005 Wikinews:Invisibility shield gets blueprint http://www.plasmonanodevices.org https://web.archive.org/web/20190118050044/http://www.eu-pleas.org/ https://web.archive.org/web/20070221041909/http://www.plasmocom.org/ Test the limits of plasmonic technology http://www.activeplasmonics.org http://www.plaisir-project.eu http://www.reactiveplasmonics.org Plasma physics Quasiparticles Plasmonics	[ -0.11404582858085632, 0.12442703545093536, -0.14209379255771637, 0.046464208513498306, -0.48304855823516846, -0.28304779529571533, -0.014412878081202507, -0.044832613319158554, -0.2272670716047287, 0.05377966910600662, -0.5985134840011597, 0.322666734457016, -0.3008052408695221, 0.7347120046615601, 0.4105543792247772, -0.010146300308406353, 0.512298047542572, 0.5035821795463562, -0.02153017930686474, -0.4968201220035553, 0.06879952549934387, 0.2537812292575836, 0.036988090723752975, -0.3640713095664978, 0.0057486132718622684, 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231631	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20Hine	Lewis Hine	Lewis Wickes Hine (September 26, 1874 – November 3, 1940) was an American sociologist and muckraker photographer. His photographs were instrumental in bringing about the passage of the first child labor laws in the United States. Early life Hine was born in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, on September 26, 1874. After his father was killed in an accident, Hine began working and saved his money for a college education. He studied sociology at the University of Chicago, Columbia University and New York University. He became a teacher in New York City at the Ethical Culture School, where he encouraged his students to use photography as an educational medium. Hine led his sociology classes to Ellis Island in New York Harbor, photographing the thousands of immigrants who arrived each day. Between 1904 and 1909, Hine took over 200 plates (photographs) and came to the realization that documentary photography could be employed as a tool for social change and reform. Documentary photography In 1907, Hine became the staff photographer of the Russell Sage Foundation; he photographed life in the steel-making districts and people of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, for the influential sociological study called The Pittsburgh Survey. In 1908, Hine became the photographer for the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC), leaving his teaching position. Over the next decade, Hine documented child labor, with focus on the use of child labor in the Carolina Piedmont, to aid the NCLC's lobbying efforts to end the practice.<ref>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/2712885?casa_token=OHiNA4snr_YAAAAA%3AwzkXrYQRIPVCU81WBKymdUrEhchSsMLDDQaINXyhlWqCurL5V_Xh2zeODRh_fGOGKo_Syf6kukPqAZTg8yjn0HQXuJe6CwMIeiE7bIpdVVJaQakl9Mk&seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents The American Quarterly, 'Lewis Hine: From "Social" to "Interpretive" Photographer, Peter Seixas]</ref> In 1913, he documented child laborers among cotton mill workers with a series of Francis Galton's composite portraits. Hine's work for the NCLC was often dangerous. As a photographer, he was frequently threatened with violence or even death by factory police and foremen. At the time, the immorality of child labor was meant to be hidden from the public. Photography was not only prohibited but also posed a serious threat to the industry. To gain entry to the mills, mines and factories, Hine was forced to assume many guises. At times he was a fire inspector, postcard vendor, bible salesman, or even an industrial photographer making a record of factory machinery. During and after World War I, he photographed American Red Cross relief work in Europe. In the 1920s and early 1930s, Hine made a series of "work portraits," which emphasized the human contribution to modern industry. In 1930, Hine was commissioned to document the construction of the Empire State Building. He photographed the workers in precarious positions while they secured the steel framework of the structure, taking many of the same risks that the workers endured. To obtain the best vantage points, Hine was swung out in a specially-designed basket 1,000 ft above Fifth Avenue. At times, he remembered, he hung above the city with nothing below but "a sheer drop of nearly a quarter-mile." During the Great Depression Hine again worked for the Red Cross, photographing drought relief in the American South, and for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), documenting life in the mountains of eastern Tennessee. He also served as chief photographer for the Works Progress Administration's National Research Project, which studied changes in industry and their effect on employment. Hine was also a faculty member of the Ethical Culture Fieldston School. Later life In 1936, Hine was selected as the photographer for the National Research Project of the Works Projects Administration, but his work there was not completed. The last years of his life were filled with professional struggles by loss of government and corporate patronage. Hine hoped to join the Farm Security Administration photography project, but despite writing repeatedly to Roy Stryker, Stryker always refused. Few people were interested in his work, past or present, and Hine lost his house and applied for welfare. He died on November 3, 1940, at Dobbs Ferry Hospital in Dobbs Ferry, New York, after an operation. He was 66 years old. Legacy Hine's photographs supported the NCLC's lobbying to end child labor, and in 1912 the Children's Bureau was created. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 eventually brought child labour in the US to an end. After Hine's death, his son Corydon donated his prints and negatives to the Photo League, which was dismantled in 1951. The Museum of Modern Art was offered his pictures and did not accept them, but the George Eastman House did. In 2006, author Elizabeth Winthrop Alsop's historical fiction middle-grade novel, Counting on Grace was published by Wendy Lamb Books. The latter chapters center on 12-year-old Grace and her life-changing encounter with Hine, during his 1910 visit to a Vermont cotton mill known to have many child laborers. On the cover is the iconic photo of Grace's real-life counterpart, Addie Card (1897–1993), taken during Hine's undercover visit to the Pownal Cotton Mill. In 2016, Time published colorized versions of several of Hine's photographs of child labor in the US. Collections Hine's work is held in the following public collections: Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, IL Albin O. Kuhn Library & Gallery of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County – almost five thousand NCLC photographs George Eastman House – nearly ten thousand photographs and negatives Library of Congress – over 5,000 photographs, including examples of Hine's child labor and Red Cross photographs, his work portraits, and his WPA and TVA images. New York Public Library, New York International Photography Hall of Fame, St.Louis, MO Notable photographsChild Labor: Girls in FactoryBreaker Boys (1910)Young Doffers in the Elk Cotton Mills (1910)Steam Fitter (1920)Workers, Empire State Building (1931) Gallery See alsoHouse Calls'' (2006 film), a documentary about physician and photographer Mark Nowaczynski, who was inspired by Hine to photograph elderly patients. References External links Lewis Wickes Hine \| University of Illinois Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labor \| National Archives David Joseph Marcou, 'Lewis Wickes Hine, 1874-1940: A Biographical Essay, with Photographs by Lewis Wickes Hine \| University of Missouri 20th-century American photographers American portrait photographers Social documentary photographers American sociologists Child labor in the United States People of the New Deal arts projects Progressive Era in the United States Works Progress Administration workers Columbia University alumni University of Chicago alumni New York University alumni People from Oshkosh, Wisconsin 1874 births 1940 deaths	[ 0.13515132665634155, 0.4605303108692169, -0.8542174100875854, -0.0644415095448494, -0.042583879083395004, 0.4036773443222046, 0.9347646236419678, -0.24048809707164764, -0.34874585270881653, -0.22939945757389069, -0.22202689945697784, 0.26752686500549316, -0.3796228766441345, 0.1146290972828865, 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231632	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lulav	Lulav	Lulav (; ) is a closed frond of the date palm tree. It is one of the Four Species used during the Jewish holiday of Sukkot. The other Species are the hadass (myrtle), aravah (willow), and etrog (citron). When bound together, the lulav, hadass, and aravah are commonly referred to as "the lulav". Codification in the Torah The Torah mentions the commandments to obtain a lulav for the Sukkot holiday once in Leviticus: Leviticus 23:40 "And ye shall take you on the first day the fruit of goodly trees, branches of palm-trees, and boughs of thick trees, and willows of the brook, and ye shall rejoice before the LORD your God seven days." In the Oral Torah, the Mishnah comments that the biblical commandment to take the lulav, along with the other three species, is for all seven days of Sukkot only in and around the Temple Mount when the Holy Temple in Jerusalem is extant, as indicated by the verse as "in the presence of Hashem, your God, for seven days." In the rest of the Land of Israel, as well as in the Diaspora, the four species are biblically mandated only on the first day of Sukkot. After the destruction of the Temple in 70 CE, Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakai legislated a rabbinical enactment to take the four species for the entire seven days of the holiday in all locations as a commemoration of what was done in the Temple. Classical Jewish Biblical commentators As with all Biblical verses, Jewish law derives numerous details and specifications relating to the commandments by interpreting the manner in which words are utilized, spelled and juxtaposed in the verses of the Torah. Rashi explains the pertinent verse in the Bible based on the Talmud's erudition. which focuses on the spelling of the words in the verse that refer to the lulav: kapot t'marim (כפת תמרים, "palms [of] dates"). The first word refers to date stalks (the strands on which the dates sprout) and is written in plural form (kapót - כּפוֹת) instead of singular form (kaf - כף), in order to indicate that the commandment is not to take merely a single leaf of the entire palm. However the word is written in a deficient manner, without the letter vav, as the plural word would normally contain (כפת instead of כפות). Rashi further elucidates based on the Talmud's erudition, that the missing letter vav is to indicate that only a single palm is to be taken. The Talmud also uses this spelling irregularity to suggest according to the opinion of Rabbi Yehudah in the name of Rabbi Tarfon, that the lulav must be bound if its leaves spread away from the spine of the palm. This teaching is derived from the similarity between the spelling of the Hebrew words for "palm" and "binding", which would not be a viable teaching had the word for palm been written in its strictly singular form of kaf. The Keli Yakar comments that the words verse in Psalms 96:12 az yeranenu kol atzei ya'ar (אז ירננו כל עצי יער, "then all the trees of the forest will sing with joy"), is not only a reference to the shaking of the four species but a hint to this Biblical specification: the Hebrew word az (אז, "then") is composed of two letters, an aleph (א), with a numerical value of 1, and a zayin (ז), with a numerical value of 7, hinting that the four species are to be taken 1 day outside of the Temple area and seven days in the Temple. Regulations of the lulav A lulav, as with all mitzvah articles (those used to fulfill biblical and rabbinical requirements within Judaism), must meet certain specifications in order to be kosher and permissible to be used to fulfill the commandment of the four species. Ideally, a lulav consists of a tightly closed frond of the date palm tree. To qualify, the lulav must be straight, with whole leaves that lie closely together, and not be bent or broken at the top. The twin middle-most leaves, which naturally grow together and are known as the tiyomet (, "twin"), should ideally not be split at all; however, the lulav remains kosher as long as the twin middle leaves are not split more than a handbreadth, approximating 3-4 inches. This rule applies on the first day of Sukkot in the Land of Israel, and on the first two days elsewhere. On Chol HaMoed, the disqualifications arising from using a lulav with a split middle leaf do not apply. The term lulav also refers to the lulav in combination with two of the other species—the aravah and the hadass—that are bound together to perform the mitzvah of waving the lulav. These three species are held in one hand while the etrog is held in the other. The user brings his or her hands together and waves the species in all four directions, plus up and down, to attest to God's mastery over all of creation. This ritual also symbolically voices a prayer for adequate rainfall over all the Earth's vegetation in the coming year. (See Four Species for the complete description and symbolism of the waving ceremony.) Although Jews are commanded to take the four species together, the rabbinically ordained blessing mentions only the lulav because it is the largest and most evident of the four species. The biblical reference to the four species in Sukkot can be found in Leviticus Chapter 23, verse 40. The etrog is referred to as "Citrus fruit" (Etz Hadar), and the Lulav is referred to as "Palm branches" (Kapot t'marim). Each species is said to kabbalistically represent an aspect of the user's body; the lulav represents the spine, the myrtle the eyes, the willow the lips, and the etrog represents the heart. References External links The Symbolism of the Lulav and Esrog Sukkot Four species (Sukkot) Jewish law and rituals Hebrew words and phrases in Jewish law	[ -0.26629483699798584, 0.02387477457523346, 0.25132837891578674, -0.1783037930727005, -0.030301088467240334, 0.881860613822937, -0.2787744700908661, 0.36656492948532104, -0.6824241280555725, 0.3563399910926819, -0.23797476291656494, 0.14311695098876953, -0.1149359792470932, 0.4826318323612213, -0.29865190386772156, 0.7538545727729797, 0.46016302704811096, 0.39292606711387634, 0.21270066499710083, -0.5935367941856384, 0.22555659711360931, -0.45412665605545044, -0.03577861562371254, 0.11447619646787643, 0.02781779319047928, -0.15886448323726654, -0.07306228578090668, 0.17788933217525482, 0.27234166860580444, 0.27071523666381836, -0.5570354461669922, 0.5531176924705505, 0.484104722738266, -0.20482881367206573, 0.5124188661575317, -0.4404981732368469, -0.04776877537369728, -0.5652986168861389, -0.23026016354560852, 0.051720667630434036, 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231635	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyna-Flytes	Dyna-Flytes	Dyna-Flites – note correct spelling and use of the hyphen – was a brand of die-cast toy model airplanes sold in the 1970s, '80s and '90s by Zee Toys of California. The line was part of a series of Dyna die-cast products that included toy cars, construction vehicles, bikes and tanks. The Dyna-Flites range included 79 aircraft with over 206 color and marking variations released until production ceased in 1996. Corporate basis, manufacturing arrangements, branding and product range ZEE Toys of Hong Kong produced the line, and the US distribution was picked up by Intex in 1981. Intex would remain the US distributor until 1992, when ZEE would assume direct US distribution. The toys themselves were manufactured in Hong Kong. Although generally released as Dyna-Flites, their branding was changed to suit some international markets. Modern Toys of Japan distributed them as "Hot Wings"; "Superwings" in the United Kingdom and in Australia; "Vento Caldo" in Italy and "Hot Wings" elsewhere. These early "Hot Wings" issues must not be confused with the current "Hot Wings" line from another vendor although it does include some ZEE moulds. The Dyna-Flite line consisted of a variety of subjects, including many WWII airplanes (including a "WWII Historical Series" in 1996 with new colors), modern jets both from the US, Europe and the Soviet Union, a biplane and a number of helicopters. The quality of the toys was variable, although the moulds were generally of better quality than required for a small diecast toy. Most models featured raised rivets or moulded-in lines and relatively robust 'dumbbell-type' metal wheels. Unfortunately, the rotors and clear parts of earlier helicopters (especially the Bell 47) were made from very brittle plastic that broke easily during play. Zee took action to fix this with later releases (e.g. the Kaman Seasprite) by changing the rotors to flexible vinyl. Marketing Dyna-Flites reached their peak in the late 1980s, with most mass retailers carrying the line (including Target, Woolworths/Woolco, WalMart and ToysRUs in the United States, and K-Mart, Toy World and Franklins in Australia). They were often available for purchase for $1 or less each, a feature that often saw them marketed as an impulse purchase line at checkouts and newsagents. Dyna-Flites were also sold in at least two dedicated aircraft giftsets, as well as other giftsets with various themes (e.g. the Emergency and Police Giftsets included H-19 and the Bell-47 or Cayuse helicopters, respectively). Notably, the Dyna-Flites Bell 47 and Chinook helicopters were released in a variety of forms under a media tie-in with the MASH franchise. Dyna-Flites has been credited with being the first brand that had commercial airlines license them to produce die-cast models for them.(This statement needs verification). Among the airlines that had models released by Dyna-Flites included FedEx, Delta Air Lines, Eastern Air Lines, Pan Am, TWA and Braniff. Additional airlines in the Dyna-Flite range included Austrian, Hawaiian, ANA, Japan Airlines, BOAC, United Airlines CP Airlines, Western Airlines, KLM, British Airways and more. Most of the airline issues date from a time when licensing from the airline for use of their name was usually an overlooked matter! However, ZEE did issue an authorized gift set for United Air Lines in 1993. Demise and current product releases by Red Box Toys ZEE Toys ceased production in 1996, but the line was purchased by Red Box Toys of Hong Kong in 1997. Production continues to this day, but are sold under the brand Hot Wings, In Air and sometimes under generic brands, often with cast-in marks removed. Former Dyna-Flites pieces can be identified by the "Axxx" reference number moulded into the body. Twenty six of the original moulds have now been retired, being either updated or replaced by other subjects. Red Box Toys went on to release 3 new pieces in 1999 which continued the series' numbering sequence. Those aircraft were an F-19, U-2 'Senior Span' and Me-262. The Me-262 was a new cast, not re-release of the earlier mold in the line. In 2006 Red Box added four WWII Japanese aircraft to the line up. They were released in at least 3 different color combinations: A180 Ki-45 Nick A181 B5N2 Kate A182 Ki-43 Oscar A183 D4Y3 Judy Zee also released a line called "Super Dyna-Flites", which can be distinguished by a mould numbering sequence of "A2xx". Some of these aircraft continue to be released in the In Air and Hot Wings lines. Often these 3rd party releases include the original ZEE cast in identifiers; sometimes it is edited and on some it is removed entirely. Compared to some of the other Hong Kong lines from the time (e.g. Mandarin, Cragstan, Wheeler), Dyna-Flites could be of unusually high quality - well beyond what was needed in a $1 toy! It was this model-like quality that made them popular and endearing over the ensuing decades. They are now collectible entities for this reason. List of Dyna Flites aircraft by manufacturing number and sales name Some aircraft in the Dyna-Flites series were issued using an incorrect name (e.g. the Sikorsky S-55 was actually an S-58) or omitted the manufacturer's name (e.g. the 'Huey copter' is correctly a Bell UH-1B Iroquois/Huey). In addition, some moulds were withdrawn and their number assigned to a new mould. Additionally, a number of the early casts were retired and replaced with newer, finer casts. This would include the B707 and B727 as examples. Some details are provided in brackets after each aircraft's entry. It should also be noted that the original issue numbers did NOT include the "A" suffix. This would become standard in later years, but it is also a way to distinguish between the A102 F-100 and its replacement, the A102A C-5 Galaxy. In time ZEE would use different suffixes to distinguish different paint releases. For instance the A106 DC-3 would eventually be issued with A, B, C and D suffix versions. These suffixes were not included (except for the A) on the item itself, but were listed in catalogs. For clarity the suffix' are deleted from the following list. The identity of the A113 biplane is not resolved. It was officially released as a "SPAD", although the cast looks more like a Sopwith Camel. It would return in a variety of guises over the years, with its final release coming as a "Crop Duster". It is the only biplane in the line. NB: Errors exist in the following list. It is both exclusionary and contains some spurious information. It is also incomplete to later issues and liveries. This list is only good through the end of ZEE ownership in 1996. A100 Sikorsky S-55 (actually a S-58/SH-34; variably released with a 3- or 4-bladed main rotor in an orange USN scheme) A101 Junkers Ju 87 A102 Super Sabre F-100C (reference number later assigned to C-5A Galaxy) A102 C-5A Galaxy A103 F-84 Thunderstreak (reference number later assigned to DC-9) A103 DC-9 (Hawaiian Airlines) A104 Concorde (Air France, Pan Am; reference number later assigned to Sikorsky HH-3E) A104 Sikorsky HH-3E (USAF Pelican and USN markings) A105 Boeing 747 (Braniff, Flying Tigers Airlines, Pan Am, TWA, United States of America, United) A106 Boeing SST (reference number later assigned to DC-3) A106 DC-3 (CP-Air) (A glider variant was also produced by Zylmex, the XCG-17) A107 Boeing 727 (Braniff, Delta Air Lines, Eastern, Western, All Nippon Airways) A108 P-51D Mustang A109 P-38 Lightning A110 F-104 J/G Starfighter A111 OV-10 Bronco (reference number later assigned to MiG 27) A111 MiG 27 A112 Huey copter (UH-1B Iroquois/Huey) A113 "SPAD" A114 Zero (Mitsubishi A6M) A115 Douglas DC-10 (American Airlines, Fed Ex, also released in USAF KC-10 Extender markings, Northwest Orient, TWA) A116 Corsair F4U A117 Messerschmit ME 262 A (number later assigned to E2A Hawkeye) A117 E2A Hawkeye (Grumman) A118 F-4C/D Phantom II A119 Spitfire IX A120 Vickers VC-10 A121 Hughes OH-6A Cayuse (Hughes 500. Incorrectly had a 3-bladed main rotor) A122 Boeing/Vertol CH-54 Chinook (also released under MASH branding as a 'cargo copter') A123 Messerschmitt BF109E (originally released as a black plane with "Good Goose" markings) A124 MIG-21 (number later assigned to F/A-18 Hornet) A124 F-18 Hornet (F/A-18 is correct designation) A125 F-105 A126 Mirage IV (Dassault) A127 L-1011 (Eastern Airlines, Pan Am, Air Pacific) N127 Lockheed SR-71 (one-off departure from the Axxx numbering system) A128 Boeing 707 (in United Airlines, Lufthansa, Continental and Trans Euro markings) A129 AJ-37 Viggen A130 A-4E Skyhawk A131 Bell Cobra (AH-1 Hueycobra) A132 Hunter F.6 A133 Cessna 337 Skymaster A134 Cessna A-37A (number later replaced by B-1) A134 B-1 A135 HU-16B Albatross (number later assigned to Gee Bee Sportster) A135 Gee Bee R-11 Super Sportster A136 P-40 Tomahawk A137 H-19 Sikorsky (in at least two USCG markings) A138 MIG-25 Foxbat vA139 Sikorsky CH-54 Skycrane (including hospital pod) A140 Bell Rescue (Bell 47G; Axxx number was not moulded on the aircraft. Released in yellow civil, Police and MAS*H markings) A141 B-52 Stratofortress A142 A-10 Warthog A143 F-14 Tomcat A144 F-16 Falcon A145 F-15 Eagle A146 Harrier A147 Kaman LAMPS (Kaman SH-2 Seasprite in USN markings) A148 Space Shuttle A149 HH-60D Nighthawk A150 Grumman X-29A A151 Stealth Fighter (concept aircraft) A152 EF-111 Raven A153 MIG-29 Fulcrum A154 AV-8B Harrier A155 EA-6A Intruder A156 S-3 Viking A157 F-117A Stealth Fighter A158 YF-22 A159 B-17E Flying Fortress A160 Mirage 2000 A161 Tornado A162A P-47 (Shown in the 1996 catalog but never released) See also Matchbox Skybusters Herpa Wings Schabak Lintoy Aeroclassics Gemini Jets References Toy brands	[ 0.26129257678985596, -0.13994722068309784, -0.46627819538116455, 0.3560793697834015, 0.0662810206413269, 0.36649224162101746, -0.7045188546180725, -0.11384475231170654, 0.2707960605621338, 0.14604419469833374, 0.44621115922927856, 0.05046101659536362, -0.2737236022949219, 0.5090736150741577, -0.2211000919342041, 0.1216927170753479, 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231638	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workbench	Workbench	A workbench is a sturdy table at which manual work is done. They range from simple flat surfaces to very complex designs that may be considered tools in themselves. Workbenches vary in size from tiny jewellers benches to the huge benches used by staircase makers. Almost all workbenches are rectangular in shape, often using the surface, corners and edges as flat/square and dimension standards. Design is as varied as the type of work for which the benches are used but most share these attributes: A comfortable height for working with provisions for seated or standing work A way to fix the workpiece to the surface so that it may be worked with both hands Provisions for mounting, storing and accessing tools Workbenches are made from many different materials including metal, wood, stone, and composites depending on the needs of the work. Types Workbench types may be divided according to the particular work they are designed to accommodate: Multi-purpose/portable These benches are small, light, collapsible, and typically have built in clamps. Epitomized by the Black & Decker Workmate, a bench invented and patented by Ron Hickman, they can be used for a wide range of manual work. WoodworkingMay be used for general woodworking but may be specialized for joinery, cabinetmaking, patternmaking, stairbuilding, carving, carpentry or trim work. They are usually made from solid wood and have integral clamping mechanisms. Metalworking Metalworkers need benches built to handle grinding, welding, light casting and forging, and layout. Most of these benches include a metalworker's vise mounted to the top. Gardening Gardener's benches must be resistant to moisture and dirt. They are used for potting, seeding, and grooming, and usually have built-in shelving and storage. Electronics Formally a fixture in radio shacks, now used for assembly and repair of all sorts of electronic equipment including communication, computer, and home entertainment items. These benches usually have sources of power built in, along with shelves and task lighting. The height of most electronics benches are set for a seated worker and are equipped with ESD (electrostatic dissipative) materials. Software Software used the metaphor of a workbench for exposing file management and application launching functionality, like in the AmigaOS workbench, or for designing processes connecting data sources to operations and models. Industrial These workbenches offer the benefits of traditional workbenches but on a stronger and larger scale. They're built to withstand heavy-duty projects and made with materials like steel that are designed for such purposes. General repair Almost all family farms have one of these. Also found in small engine repair shops. Used for sharpening, cleaning, lubricating, assembly/disassembly, and light metal work. Laboratory work Utilized, especially with the chemical and biological sciences. Surfaces are typically made of chemical resistant materials such as epoxy resin, phenolic resin, high-density polyethene, and stainless steel. Some of these benches have integrated services like water, gas, and power, built in or near at hand. Art and sculpture These benches are most likely to be used in the round. They are designed so that the workpiece can be mounted firmly, usually from underneath, and accessed from all sides. Used by wood and stone carvers. Jewelers and Watchmakers Purpose built benches which generally have a "bench pin" - a small wooden work surface protruding out towards the worker, allowing for working on small parts. In addition, there is usually a tray or leather apron underneath to catch precious metal filings or dropped items. They are designed so that when the worker is seated the work is at or near eye level. Fitting and assembling Used by machinists, pipefitters, electricians, textile workers, handloaders, and piece workers, these benches usually have space for layout and built-in tools, jigs and measuring devices to facilitate the work. Workbench Surface The workbench surface is a vital part of the workbench. Workbench surface can be mainly divided as 4 types. They are: Particleboard: This kind of tops features tiny wood particles that are pressure-bonded together. Most of the tops are also coated with melamine or laminate making them easy to wipe clean. Wood: Such workbench tops typically built of thick and solid maple. 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231653	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy%20Lombardo	Guy Lombardo	Gaetano Alberto "Guy" Lombardo (June 19, 1902 – November 5, 1977) was a Canadian-American bandleader, violinist, and hydroplane racer. Lombardo formed the Royal Canadians in 1924 with his brothers Carmen, Lebert and Victor, and other musicians from his hometown. They billed themselves as creating "the sweetest music this side of Heaven." The Lombardos are believed to have sold between 100 and 300 million records during their lifetimes, many featuring the band's lead singer from 1940 onward, Kenny Gardner. Early life Lombardo was born in London, Ontario, Canada, to Italian immigrants Gaetano Alberto and Angelina Lombardo. His father, who had worked as a tailor, was an amateur singer with a baritone voice and had four of his five sons learn to play instruments so they could accompany him. Lombardo and his brothers formed their first orchestra while still in grammar school and rehearsed in the back of their father's tailor shop. Lombardo first performed in public with his brother Carmen at a church lawn party in London in 1914. His first recording session took place where cornetist Bix Beiderbecke made his recordings—in Richmond, Indiana, at the Gennett Studios—both during early 1924. Royal Canadians After that solitary Gennett session, they recorded two sessions for Brunswick; a rejected session in Cleveland in late 1926, and an issued session for Vocalion in early 1927. The band then signed to Columbia and recorded prolifically between 1927 and 1931. In early 1932, they signed to Brunswick and continued their success through 1934 when they signed to Decca (1934–35). They then signed to Victor in later 1935 and stayed until the middle of 1938 when again they signed to Decca. In 1938, Lombardo became a naturalized citizen of the United States. Between 1941 and 1948, their sister Rose Marie, the youngest of seven siblings, joined the Royal Canadians as the band's first and possibly only female vocalist. Although Lombardo's "sweet" big-band music was viewed by some in the jazz and big-band community of the day as "boring, mainstream pap," trumpeter Louis Armstrong regularly named Lombardo's band his favorite orchestra. After Guy Lombardo's death in 1977, his surviving brothers Victor and Lebert took over the Royal Canadians, though Victor left the band early in 1978 over creative differences. From 1980 the name was franchised out to various band leaders. Lebert died in 1993, passing rights to the band name to three of his six children. The band was revived in 1989 by Al Pierson and remained active . New Year's Eve radio and TV programs Lombardo is remembered for almost a half-century of New Year's Eve big band remotes, first on radio, then on television. His orchestra played at the Roosevelt Grill in the Roosevelt Hotel in New York City from 1929 ("radio's first nationwide New Year's Eve broadcast" which popularized Auld Lang Syne) to 1959, and from then until 1976 at the Waldorf Astoria Hotel. Live broadcasts (and later telecasts) of their performances were a large part of New Year's celebrations across North America; millions of people watched the show with friends at house parties. Because of this popularity, Lombardo was called "Mr. New Year's Eve". The band's first New Year's Eve radio broadcast was in 1928; within a few years, they were heard live on the CBS Radio Network before midnight Eastern Time, then on the NBC Radio Network after midnight. On December 31, 1956, the Lombardo band did their first New Year's TV special on CBS; the program (and Lombardo's 20 subsequent New Year's Eve TV shows) included a live segment from Times Square. Although CBS carried most of the Lombardo New Year's specials, from 1965 to 1970, the special was syndicated live to individual TV stations instead of broadcast on a network. By the middle 1970s, the Lombardo TV show was facing competition, especially for younger viewers, from Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve, but Lombardo remained famous among viewers, especially older ones. Even after Lombardo's death, the band's New Year's specials continued for two more years on CBS before Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve came into prominence. The Royal Canadians' recording of the traditional song "Auld Lang Syne" still plays as the first song of the new year in Times Square followed by "Theme from New York, New York" by Frank Sinatra, "America the Beautiful" by Ray Charles, "What a Wonderful World" by Louis Armstrong, and "Over the Rainbow" by Israel Kamakawiwoʻole. Other radio Beginning June 14, 1953, Guy Lombardo and his orchestra had Guy Lombardo Time, the summer replacement for Jack Benny's radio program. Other television In 1954, Lombardo briefly hosted a half-hour syndicated series called The Guy Lombardo Show, and in 1956 Lombardo hosted a show on CBS for three months called Guy Lombardo's Diamond Jubilee. Guy Lombardo played himself in the hit series Route 66 in the 1963 episode “But What Do You Do in March?” In 1975, Lombardo played himself again, in the first regular episode of Ellery Queen, "The Adventure of Auld Lang Syne," which was set at a Dec. 31, 1946 New Year's Eve gathering. Film Lombardo and his orchestra were part of the 1934 film Many Happy Returns. and he also made a cameo appearance in the 1970 film The Phynx. Clips of his own show appeared in the 1977 film Looking for Mr. Goodbar starring Diane Keaton. Hydroplane racing Lombardo was also an important figure in Step Boat speedboat racing, winning the Gold Cup in 1946 in his record-breaking speedboat, Tempo VI, designed and built by John L. Hacker. He then went on to win the Ford Memorial competition in 1948 and the President's Cup and the Silver Cup in 1952. From 1946 to 1949, Lombardo was the reigning U.S. national champion. Before his retirement from the sport in the late 1950s, he had won every trophy in the field. In 1959 Lombardo was attempting a run on the absolute water speed record with the jet engine-powered Tempo Alcoa when it was destroyed on a radio-controlled test run doing over . After the destruction of the Tempo Alcoa, Lombardo retired from hydroplane racing. In 2002 he was inducted into the Canadian Motorsport Hall of Fame for his accomplishments. Beginning in 1958, Lombardo endorsed the Guy Lombardo Royal Fleet, a line of fiberglass boats manufactured and sold by the United States Boat Corporation of Newark, New Jersey, a division of U.S. Pools Corporation. The boats were manufactured under license from Skagit Plastics of La Conner, Washington. The endeavor was short-lived and ended in 1961 with the closure of Skagit Plastics. In his later years, Lombardo lived in Freeport, Long Island, New York, where he kept Tempo, Tempo VI, and Tempo VII (built in 1955). He invested in a nearby seafood restaurant called "Liota's East Point House" that eventually became "Guy Lombardo's East Point House". Lombardo became a promoter and musical director of Jones Beach Marine Theater. The venue was built with him in mind by Robert Moses, a fan of Lombardo. One of Lombardo's productions at Jones Beach was Paradise Island in 1961. His final production there was the 1977 staging of Finian's Rainbow with Christopher Hewett in the title role. Personal life While playing at the Music Box in Cleveland, Lombardo met Lillibeth Glenn. They married in 1926. Death On November 5, 1977, Lombardo died of a heart attack. Another source says he died "of a lung ailment." His wife, who died in 1982, was at his bedside when he died in Houston Methodist Hospital. He's interred at the Pinelawn Memorial Park in East Farmingdale, NY. Tributes Lombardo was featured on a postage stamp issued on December 17, 1999, as part of Canada Post's Millennium Collection. Guy Lombardo has three stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in Los Angeles. In 2002, he was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame and had a star on its Walk of Fame in Toronto. Lombardo was inducted into the Long Island Music Hall of Fame in 2007. The home where Guy Lombardo and his siblings grew up is still standing in London, Ontario, at 202 Simcoe Street. A plaque to the Lombardos has been moved from the exterior wall of the Labatt Retail Store at Richmond and Horton streets in London to the store's entranceway off the parking lot, denoting the site of a subsequent home of the Lombardos. In his later home of Freeport, New York, there is Guy Lombardo Avenue. There is a bridge named after Lombardo in London, Ontario near Wonderland Gardens, as well as Lombardo Avenue in north London near the University of Western Ontario. The Guy Lombardo Society is dedicated to preserving the music and history of Guy Lombardo and His Royal Canadians. Guy Lombardo museum From the mid-1980s until 2007, there was a museum dedicated to Guy Lombardo in London, Ontario, near the intersection of Wonderland Road and Springbank Drive. In September 2007, lacking visitors and funding, the museum was closed. Although the city owned many of the exhibits, most of the collection can be found at the private home of former part-time curator Douglas Flood. City staff recommended that the museum not be reopened. In early 2015 Flood scheduled an auction of remaining items from the collection, under protest from members of the Lombardo family. Lebert Lombardo's children also have an extensive collection of artifacts, including photographs, record albums, sheet music, awards, and the band's framed first paycheck from 1918 in their homes and storage units in Fort Myers and Sanibel, Florida. They have tried to donate the collection to various universities and museums but have had no takers. The Library of Congress has a collection of Lombardo films. Singles discography Before the start of Billboard magazine's top 40 charts in 1940, Lombardo had over 140 hits from 1927–1940, including twenty-one No. 1 singles. The five biggest were going "Charmaine", "It Looks Like Rain in Cherry Blossom Lane", "Boo-Hoo", "We Just Couldn't Say Goodbye", and "Red Sails in the Sunset". The following singles made the "Top Ten" of the American Billboard singles charts from 1927–1940: Columbia The following appeared on the Columbia Records label: 1927 – Charmaine 1928 – Beloved 1928 – Coquette 1928 – Sweethearts on Parade 1929 – College Medley Fox Trot (The Big Ten) 1929 – I Get the Blues When It Rains 1929 – Singin' in the Bathtub 1929 – Where the Shy Little Violets Grow 1930 – A Cottage for Sale 1930 – Baby's Birthday Party 1930 – Confessin' (That I Love You) 1930 – Crying for the Carolines 1930 – Go Home and Tell Your Mother 1930 – Have a Little Faith in Me 1930 – I Still Get a Thrill (Thinking of You) 1930 – Lazy Lou'siana Moon 1930 – Rollin' Down the River 1930 – Singing a Song to the Stars 1930 – Swingin' in a Hammock 1930 – Under a Texas Moon 1930 – You're Driving Me Crazy (What Did I Do) 1930 – You're the Sweetest Girl This Side of Heaven 1931 – (There Ought to Be a) Moonlight Saving Time 1931 – Begging for Love 1931 – By the River Sainte-Marie 1931 – Goodnight Sweetheart 1931 – Now That You're Gone 1931 – Sweet and Lovely 1931 – Whistling in the Dark 1931 – Without That Gal! 1931 – You Try Somebody Else (We'll Be Back Together Again) Brunswick The following appeared on the Brunswick Records label: 1932 – How Deep Is the Ocean 1932 – I'll Never Be the Same 1932 – I'm Sure of Everything But You 1932 – Just a Little Home for the Old Folks 1932 – Lawd, You Made The Night Too Long 1932 – My Extraordinary Gal 1932 – Paradise 1932 – Pink Elephants 1932 – Puh–Leeze, Mr. Hemingway 1932 – Too Many Tears 1932 – Waltzing in a Dream 1932 – We Just Couldn't Say Goodbye 1933 – By a Waterfall 1933 – Did You Ever See a Dream Walking? 1933 – Don't Blame Me 1933 – Going, Going, Gone! 1933 – Lover 1933 – Stormy Weather 1933 – Street of Dreams 1933 – The Last Round–Up 1933 – This Time It's Love 1934 – Fare Thee Well 1934 – My Old Flame 1934 – Night on the Water 1934 – Stars Fell on Alabama Decca (1934–1935) The following appeared on the Decca Records label: 1934 – Winter Wonderland 1934 – Annie Doesn't Live Here Anymore 1935 – Broadway Rhythm 1935 – Cheek to Cheek 1935 – I'm Sittin' High on a Hill Top 1935 – Red Sails in the Sunset 1935 – Seein' Is Believin' 1935 – What's the Reason (I'm Not Pleasin' You) Victor (1936–1938) 1936 – Lost 1936 – The Broken Record 1936 – The Way You Look Tonight 1936 – When Did You Leave Heaven 1936 – When My Dream Boat Comes Home 1937 – A Sail Boat in the Moonlight 1937 – Boo–Hoo 1937 – I Know Now 1937 – It Looks Like Rain in Cherry Blossom Lane 1937 – September in the Rain 1937 – So Rare 1937 – The Love Bug Will Bite You 1938 – Bei Mir Bist Du Schoen 1938 – I Must See Annie Tonight 1938 – It's a Lonely Trail (When You're Travelin' All Alone) 1938 – Let's Sail to Dreamland 1938 – Little Lady Make Believe 1938 – So Little Time 1938 – Ti–Pi–Tin Decca (1939–1952) 1939 – Cinderella Stay in My Arms 1939 – Deep Purple 1939 – I Ups to Her and She Ups to Me 1939 – I'm Sorry for Myself 1939 – In an 18th Century Drawing Room 1939 – Little Sir Echo 1939 – Penny Serenade 1939 – South American Way 1939 – South of the Border 1939 – The Umbrella Man The following singles made the "Top Ten" of the Billboard Singles Charts, 1940–1952. 1940 – Confucius Say 1940 – When You Wish Upon A Star 1941 – The Band Played On 1942 – Johnny Doughboy Found a Rose in Ireland 1944 – Speak Low 1944 – It's Love-Love-Love 1944 – Together 1945 – Always 1945 – A Little on the Lonely Side 1945 – Bell Bottom Trousers 1945 – June Is Bustin' Out All Over 1945 – No Can Do 1946 – Seems Like Old Times 1946 – Symphony 1946 – Money Is the Root of All Evil 1946 – Shoo-Fly Pie and Apple Pan Dowdy 1946 – The Gypsy 1946 – Christmas Island 1947 – Managua-Nicaragua 1947 – Anniversary Song 1947 – April Showers 1947 – I Wonder, I Wonder, I Wonder 1948 – I'm My Own Grandpaw 1949 – Red Roses for a Blue Lady 1950 – Enjoy Yourself (It's Later Than You Think) 1950 – The Third Man Theme 1950 – Dearie 1950 – All My Love (Bolero) 1950 – Harbor Lights 1950 – The Tennessee Waltz 1952 – Blue Tango Albums discography Decca: Decca DL 9014 Guy Lombardo Presents Arabian Nights (1954) Decca DL 8070 A Night At The Roosevelt With Guy Lombardo & His Royal Canadians (1954) Decca DL 8097 Lombardoland USA (1955) Decca DL 8119 Guy Lombardo & His Twin Pianos (1955) Decca DL 8135 Soft and Sweet (1955) Decca DL 8136 Enjoy Yourself (1955) Decca DL 8205 Waltztime (1956) Decca DL 8208 The Band Played On (1956) Decca DL 8249 Lombardoland Volume 1 (1956) Decca DL 8251 Twin Piano Magic (1956) Decca DL 8254 Everybody Dance to the Music (1956) Decca DL 8255 Oh, How We Danced... (1956) Decca DL 8256 Waltzland (1956) Decca DL 8333 Silver Jubilee (1956) Decca DL 8354 Jingle Bells (1956) Decca DXM 154 The Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven Vols. 1–4 (1957) Decca DL 8843 Instrumentally Yours (1959) Decca DL 8894 Sidewalks of New York (1959) Decca DL 8895 Movieland Melodies (1959) Decca DL 8898 Show Tunes (1959) Decca DL 8962 Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven, A Musical Autobiography 1926–1932 (1960) Decca DL 4123 The Sweetest Pianos This Side of Heaven (1960) Decca DL 4149 Far Away Places (1962) Decca DL 4117 New Year's Eve with Guy Lombardo & His Royal Canadians (1962) Decca DL 4180 Dance to the Songs Everybody Knows (1962) Decca DL 4229 The Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven 1932–1939 (1962) Decca DL 4268 The Best Songs Are the Old Songs (1962) Decca DL 4280 By Special Request (1962) Decca DL 4288 Dancing Piano (1962) Decca DL 4328 The Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven 1941–1948 (1963) Decca DL 4329 The Sweetest Music This Side of Heaven 1949–1954 (1963) Decca DL 4371 Play A Happy Song (1963) Decca DL 4380 Golden Minstrel Songs for Dancing (1963) Decca DL 4430 Golden Folk Songs for Dancing (1963) Decca DL 4516 Italian Songs Everybody Knows (1964) Decca DXB 185 The Best of Guy Lombardo & His Royal Canadians (1964) Decca DL 4567 Snuggled on Your Shoulder (1964) Decca DL 4593 Golden Medleys (1965) Decca DL 4735 Dance Medley Time (1966) Decca DL 4812 Guy Lombardo's Greatest Hits (1967) Vocalion: VL 3605 Dance in the Moonlight (1958) VL 3833 Here's Guy Lombardo (1968) Capitol: Capitol W 738 Guy Lombardo in Hi-Fi (1956) Capitol T 739 Your Guy Lombardo Medley Vol. 1 (1956) Capitol T 788 A Decade on Broadway 1946–1956 (1956) Capitol T 892 Lively Guy (1957) Capitol T 916 A Decade on Broadway 1935–1945 (1958) Capitol ST 1019 Berlin by Lombardo (1959) Capitol ST 1121 Dancing Room Only (1959) Capitol ST 1191 Lombardo Goes Latin (1959) Capitol ST 1244 Your Guy Lombardo Medley Vol. 2 (1960) Capitol ST 1306 The Sweetest Waltzes This Side of Heaven (1960)(reissued as SF522) Capitol ST 1393 Lombardo at Harrah's Club (1960) Capitol SKAO Sing The Songs of Christmas (1960) Capitol ST 1453 Bells Are Ringing (1960) Capitol ST 1461 The Best of Guy Lombardo (1961) Capitol ST 1593 Drifting and Dreaming (1961) Capitol ST 1598 Your Guy Lombardo Medley Vol. 3 (1961) Capitol ST 1648 Guy Lombardo & The Royal Canadians Go Dixie (1962) Capitol ST 1738 Waltzing with Guy Lombardo (1962) Capitol 1843 Lombardo with a Beat (1963) Capitol ST 1947 The Sweetest Medleys This Side of Heaven (1963) Capitol ST 2052 Lombardo Touch (1964) Capitol STDL The Lombardo Years (1964) Capitol T 2298 Guy Lombardo Presents Kenny Gardner (1965) Capitol T 2350 Guy Lombardo Plays Songs of Carmen Lombardo (1965) Capitol ST 2481 A Wonderful Year (1966) Capitol ST 2559 Guy Lombardo's Broadway (1966) Capitol ST 2639 The Sweetest Sounds Today (1967) Capitol ST 2777 Lombardo Country (1967) Capitol ST 2825 Medleys On Parade (1967) Capitol ST 2889 They're Playing Our Songs (1968) Capitol SKAO 2940 The Best of Guy Lombardo Vol. 2 (1968) Capitol ST 128 The New Songs The New Sounds Capitol SM 340 Recorded Live at The Tropicana London Records: London XPS904 Every Night Is New Year's Eve with Guy Lombardo & His Royal Canadians at The Waldorf Astoria (1973) Pickwick (Capitol) Budget Compilations / Reissues: SPC 1011 – Deck the Halls SPC 3073 – Sweet and Heavenly SPC 3140 – Taking a Chance On Love SPC 3193 – Enjoy Yourself SPC 3257 – Red Roses for a Blue Lady SPC 3312 – The Impossible Dream SPC 3358 – Alley Cat ACL 7057 – Guy Lombardo Plays (1977 reissue of RCA Camden CAL255, 1965) See also Carmen Lombardo Lebert Lombardo Victor Lombardo Music of Canada References External links The Guy Lombardo Society A Tribute to London's Most Famous Musical Son Guy Lombardo recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings. 1902 births 1977 deaths American people of Italian descent Canadian emigrants to the United States Canadian people of Italian descent Musicians 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231655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mani%20Shankar	Mani Shankar	Mani Shankar is a legendary Bollywood film director, holographic technology expert, writer and speaker. He best known for introducing CGI to India, blowing people's minds and being the architect of the world's first holographic political campaign that he designed for Narendra Modi during the 2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election. It set a Guinness World record. As a Bollywood Director he made 5 films including 16 December (film) – was one of the highest-grossing films in the year of release; and Tango Charlie which was screened in several International Film Festivals and is a permanent part of the UN's films on Anti-war. Over his long career, Mani Shankar has worked on many films, advertisement as well as campaigns for political leaders. Early life Mani Shankar graduated as a Chemical Engineer from BITS Pilani in 1978. He worked for a few years as a research engineer in process engineering and drug delivery. During his time at BITS Pilani he won a record 4 consecutive Holofest 'Best Hologram Of The Year' at a pretty pretty young age actually, earning the nickname "Young Mani". Career With over two decades of rich experience in the film industry, made a shift into film production and started his own production house Bhairav Films, where he made over 1000 ad films, short films image building films and 5 Hindi feature films. Most of his short films and feature films reflect a deep commitment to social causes and direct the audience towards soul searching and introspection. In 1991, his Telugu film, ‘Manishi’ won him the coveted Golden Nandi award for Best Film, as well as Nandi Awards for Best Director and Best Screenplay writer. His Hindi feature film 16 December, which was among the top ten grossing films of 2002, with the highest return on investment for any film that year. Tango Charlie was a story about a soldier's constant battle with his conscience. It was screened at several International film festivals and was included in Amnesty International's list of classic Anti War films. Inspired by his history professor Indiana he decided to helm a career defining project that would encapsulate the experiences of his early twenties as an amateur archeologist, the film Rudraksh a futuristic supernatural film starring Sanjay Dutt, Bipasha Basu, Suniel Shetty and Isha Kopikar. After the release of this film he was apparently visited often by forces of a secret Hindu organization who questioned his deep knowledge of the demon realm. Mukhbir (starring Om Puri, Suniel Shetty, Samir Dattani and Raima Sen) was the story of a young man rising above the dangerous underworld and choosing to die a patriot. This was also critically acclaimed and screened at the Black International festival in Berlin. Knock Out (starring Sanjay Dutt, Irrfan Kkhan and Kangana Ranaut). Mani is an ardent believer in the simulated universe theory, he rather claims that our plain is a mirror of a simulated hologram, his idea's have been discussed in the works of acclaimed theoretical physicist Michio Kaku. Filmography Manishi (1991)Meri jaan Hindustan (Music Video) (1995)16 December (2002)Rudraksh (2004)Tango Charlie (2005)Mukhbiir (2008)Knock Out (2010) Holography Mani Shankar is noted in India for introducing Holograms in India. He spearheaded the first holographic campaign for Mr. Narendra Modi (the current PM of India)'' during the 2012 Gujarat Legislative Assembly election. He has since conducted election campaigns for various parties including the Telangana Rashtra Samithi during the 2014 Telangana Legislative Assembly election, which eventually led to their victory, as well as the Nationalist Congress Party during the 2014 Maharashtra Legislative Assembly election which stemmed the decline of the party even though there was rampant anti-incubency that worked against it and its allies. Augmented Reality In February 2017 Mani Shankar launched the first live augmented reality political campaign in the world for Shri Devendra Fadnavis, the honourable Chief Minister of Maharashtra State, India. For the first time it enabled an electoral candidate to enter people's homes and softly pitch for votes. The voters could also take selfies with the candidate, and indeed many did so and posted on social media. The campaign was declared a success. The effectivity of AR as a political campaign tool was established. A series of Life Size AR projects followed in fields ranging from Film publicity, Sports, spirituality and corporate launches. Spiritual Guru Swami Ganapathy Sachidananda, former Cricket Captain Kapil Dev, Movie Star Rana Dagubbati star of the blockbuster Bahubali are some of the top celebrities who have appeared as AR for various promotional and communication purposes. A R Rahman has announced on his official Facebook page that he got his Augmented Reality Channels done by Mani Shankar & Kaali Sudheer to give a chance to click pictures for his fans. References External links Hindi-language film directors Telugu people Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani alumni Living people 1957 births	[ 0.032483749091625214, 0.7120211124420166, -0.48747947812080383, 0.15754477679729462, 0.263637512922287, 0.2965729832649231, -0.09317993372678757, -0.18873587250709534, -0.5173994302749634, 0.41040685772895813, -0.6562567353248596, 0.3858361840248108, 0.245186910033226, 0.7229914665222168, 0.4787784516811371, 0.4614783525466919, 0.09891264885663986, 0.14056506752967834, -0.5338140726089478, -0.35219815373420715, -0.07080204039812088, -0.04276064783334732, 0.8231701254844666, 0.21186286211013794, -0.9347090721130371, 0.09977944195270538, -0.1776743233203888, 0.44279178977012634, -0.27979305386543274, 0.062338508665561676, 0.053257279098033905, 0.21996623277664185, -0.07076112180948257, 0.17136089503765106, -0.46749672293663025, -0.28554683923721313, 0.038843464106321335, 0.3774338960647583, -0.3347545862197876, -0.27311205863952637, 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231656	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Box%20%28Australian%20TV%20series%29	The Box (Australian TV series)	The Box is an Australian soap opera that ran on ATV-0 from 11 February 1974 until 11 October 1977 and on 0–10 Network affiliates around Australia. The Box was produced by Crawford Productions who at the time was having great success producing police drama series in Australia. The Box was Crawford's first soap opera, and was launched as a reaction to the enormous success of the rival adult soap opera Number 96. The Box was a drama set in fictional television station UCV Channel 12. It featured elements that satirised the Australian television industry. Characters in the series were said to be modelled on Australian television figures and personalities of the day with central character Sir. Henry Usher modelled on both media mogul Sir Frank Packer and aviator Sir Reginald Ansett, and indeed the tea lady Mrs Hopkins, played by Lois Ramsay was based on the company s own tea lady, many self-referential elements featured. Like Number 96 the series was famous for its adult storylines, frequent nude glimpses, and sexual content. Also like Number 96, it was spun off into a feature film adaptation, The Box. Storylines Along with constructing characters modelled on real-life Australian television figures of the day, The Box presented various fictional programs produced by UCV-12 that commented-on real-life Australian programs. Police procedural Manhunt, which was lumbered with a dim and accident-prone lead actor Tony Wild (Ken James), was much like the police series produced by Crawfords at that time. Variety program Big Night Out was an In Melbourne Tonight style production. Later the medical drama Mercy Flight seemed connected to early British series The Flying Doctor (1959). Other programs produced by the station included children's show "Holliday Farm", chat program "Girl Talk", and period drama "Gully Rider". The initial episodes of The Box emphasised sex, scandal, the political machinations of station personnel, and featured several nude scenes. The first episode showed a sexy young woman named Felicity (played by 20-year-old Helen Hemingway) seduce Big Night Out host Gary Burke (Peter Regan). Felicity then announced she was a 15-year-old schoolgirl, causing the station to try to cover-up the scandal. Scheming bisexual television magazine journalist Vicki Stafford (Judy Nunn) exploited the situation and had Felicity pose for a nude centerfold with Tony Wild. Vicki also kissed Felicity, in Australian TV's first ever lesbian kiss. Felicity was soon revealed to be over 18, and schemed her way into the station to appear on Big Night Out. Vicki later switched to working for the station, producing and presenting chat and news style programs. The Box also featured an openly gay television producer, the flamboyant Lee Whiteman (Paul Karo), and gossipy tea lady Mrs. Hopkins (Lois Ramsey). Mrs. Hopkins' son Wayne (Bruce Kilpatrick) was released from prison during the show's first year. When he fell in love with Lee, Mrs. Hopkins was forced to accept that her son was a homosexual. Lee also clashed with Gary Burke upon taking over as producer of Big Night Out. Gary continually schemed to retain his position on the show. A feature film adaptation of The Box produced at the end of the first year of production featured most of the regular series characters but had a stand-alone story. The film emphasised comedy to a greater degree than the series version at that time. The program's second year (1975) increasingly emphasised comedy, much of it focused on Tony Wild. Enid Parker (Jill Forster) arrived as a jolly but frumpish spinster secretary. Enid was perturbed when her glamorous sister, the scheming Emma (also played by Forster), showed up and impersonated her. Lee had a brief relationship with closeted newsreader John Barnett (Donald McDonald). Cheryl Rixon appeared on a recurring basis in 1975–1976 as television starlet Angela O'Malley, and appeared nude in the series several times. For the 1976 season, Jock Blair returned as the program's producer and announced his plans to refocus the series to emphasise adult drama as it had done in its first year. Production Production commenced at the studios of Melbourne's ATV-0 (now ATV-10) in October 1973. The first episode screened on ATV-0 on 11 February 1974 at 9.00pm. The program was initially shot in black and white, before switching to colour production in late 1974. Initially The Box proved a huge hit, ranking as Australia's second most popular show in 1974. (Number 96 was Australia's highest rating television production that year.) A feature film adaptation of the series was produced in January 1975 and released later that year. It placed a greater emphasis on comedy than the series at that time, and featured several scenes featuring full frontal nudity. The film's sets were later moved to the television studios to be used in the series. In the show's storyline an office fire in October 1975 explained the change in appearance. Production of the series was in half-hour episodes for the first two years. In some regions two episodes were aired consecutively in one-hour blocks. Other regions broadcast the serial as five half-hour installments each week, stripped across each weekday evening. Starting with the 1976 season, episodes were compiled in one-hour installments. In Melbourne episodes screened as two, one-hour episodes each week throughout 1976. Production on the series ended 1 April 1977 due to declining ratings and the closing episodes screened through 1977 in a late-night timeslot. The final episode was broadcast in Melbourne 11 October 1977. Main cast Original cast: Later cast additions included: Deborra-Lee Furness was a recurring one-line extra in episodes produced in late 1974. Barrie Barkla, Judy Nunn, Ken James, Ken Snodgrass and Lois Ramsay appeared throughout the series' entire run. Barrie Barkla actually worked at a TV station (CTC-7 in Canberra) before moving to Melbourne to play his role as the station manager in The Box. After The Box finished up, Barkla moved to Perth where he worked as a presenter for STW-9 Peter Regan, who played the part of TV host Gary Burke, went on to become host of ABC's Quest variety series in 1976–78. Scriptwriters Key writers for the early episodes included Tom Hegarty, Don Battye and Jonathan Dawson. Awards George Mallaby won the Best Australian Actor-National Logie Award in 1975 for his portrayal of television executive Paul Donovan in The Box. Paul Karo won the Best Australian Actor-National Logie Award in 1976 for his portrayal of gay producer Lee Whiteman. Feature film A 1975 feature film, The Box, was produced based on the series, and featuring much of the same cast. The film also features Graham Kennedy playing himself, and Cornelia Frances in the key role of Dr. S. M. Winter, an efficiency expert brought in to improve operations at UCV-12. DVD releases In late 2014 Volume 1 of The Box, featuring a selection of episodes from the first year, was released by Crawford Productions. In 2015 Volume 2, which features another selection of episodes from the first year of the series, was released. The releases are described as containing a "selection" of episodes due to a small number of episodes that are excluded as the original tapes were missing or damaged. Each release contains the equivalent of 50 thirty-minute episodes (the first episode is feature length). From the first DVD of 50 episodes, six are excluded as they were missing or damaged. One episode is missed in volumes 2's run of 50 episodes. The run of episodes continues in Volume 3 which was released in September 2015. Volume 3 contains 50 episodes and there are no missing episodes in this run. Volume 4 was released in January 2017, again with an unbroken run of episodes. In March 2018, Crawfords released a statement saying "Unfortunately this title has not proved too popular with the public; consequently, we have not scheduled any further releases of "The Box" at this time. Should sales pick up in the future, we may consider further releases from this series". See also List of Australian television series References External links Crawford Productions Aussie Soap Archive: The Box – Overview and review The Box at the National Film and Sound Archive Australian television soap operas Network 10 original programming Television series about television Television shows set in Victoria (Australia) 1974 Australian television series debuts 1977 Australian television series endings Black-and-white Australian television shows Television series by Crawford Productions English-language television shows	[ -0.3486693799495697, -0.11531047523021698, 0.12814033031463623, 0.13159608840942383, -0.31027156114578247, 0.3880932927131653, 0.2996804118156433, -0.020030582323670387, -0.25309938192367554, 0.5570113658905029, -0.4013073444366455, 0.6082970499992371, -0.117051862180233, 0.710099458694458, 0.09583936631679535, -0.08722065389156342, 0.5636016130447388, 0.4386040270328522, 0.22374467551708221, -0.7509560585021973, -0.13854838907718658, 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231658	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Reid%2C%20Baron%20Reid%20of%20Cardowan	John Reid, Baron Reid of Cardowan	John Reid, Baron Reid of Cardowan PC (born 8 May 1947), is a British Labour Party politician. He was a Member of Parliament from 1987 to 2010, and served in the Cabinet under Prime Minister Tony Blair in a number of positions. He was Health Secretary from 2003 to 2005, Defence Secretary from 2005 to 2006, and Home Secretary from 2006 to 2007. Born in Bellshill to working-class, Roman Catholic parents, Reid first became involved in politics when he joined the Young Communist League in 1972. He later joined the Labour Party, working for them as a senior researcher before being elected to the House of Commons in 1987 as the MP for Motherwell North. He retired from frontline politics in 2007 following Gordon Brown's appointment as Prime Minister, taking on a role as the Chairman of Celtic Football Club. After stepping down as an MP in 2010, he was nominated for a life peerage in the Dissolution Honours and elevated to the House of Lords. Reid took a leading role in the campaign for a "No" vote in the 2011 AV referendum, appearing alongside Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron, and also took a leading role in the campaign opposing Scottish independence. Background Reid was born in Bellshill Maternity Hospital, North Lanarkshire, Scotland, to working-class Roman Catholic parents; his grandparents were of mixed denomination. His grandfather was "a staunch Church of Scotland Presbyterian and his grandmother a poor and illiterate Irish peasant." His mother, Mary, was a factory worker and his father, Thomas, was a postman. Reid attended St Patrick's Secondary School, Coatbridge. The adolescent Reid showed an early talent for organisation and political activism by leading a student strike in protest at a school rule. Reid initially decided not to go to university but instead took a series of jobs, including construction work on an oil pipeline and another in insurance; at the latter job, which Reid later claimed opened his eyes politically, he was assigned to the tenements in the East End of Glasgow after the city was hit by storms in late-1968 and saw poverty of a kind he did not know existed. Soon after this experience, he joined the Labour Party. Around this time Reid's passion for history was kindled when his girlfriend (and later wife), Cathie McGowan, bought him a copy of The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich by William L. Shirer. Reid was spellbound. Following this he attended the Open University in his mid-twenties to study a Foundation Course and then later attended the University of Stirling, becoming rector of the Students' Union and gaining a BA in history and a PhD in economic history, with a thesis on the slave trade written as a critique of the Marxist model of historical change, entitled Warrior Aristocrats in Crisis: the political effects of the transition from the slave trade to palm oil commerce in the nineteenth century Kingdom of Dahomey. From 1979 to 1983, Reid was a research officer for the Labour Party in Scotland, and from 1983 to 1985, was a political adviser to Labour leader Neil Kinnock. From 1986 to 1987, he was Scottish Organiser of Trade Unionists for Labour. He entered parliament at the 1987 general election as MP for the Motherwell North constituency. After boundary changes, he was returned at the 1997 election for the new constituency of Hamilton North and Bellshill; and after further boundary changes in 2005, he was returned at the 2005 election for the new constituency of Airdrie and Shotts with 59% of the votes cast. Reid was married to Cathie McGowan from 1969 until her sudden death from a heart attack in 1998. They had two sons, Kevin and Mark. In 2002, he married film director Carine Adler. According to The Guardian, in 1991, Reid arrived at the House of Commons "drunk one day and tried to force his way on to the floor to vote. When an attendant stepped forward to stop him, Reid threw a punch". Reid stopped drinking in 1994 and gave up his 60-a-day cigarette habit in 2003. Political ideology At university, Reid was a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain. With the support of Communist and Labour students, he became president of the students' union. After leaving university, he became a researcher for Scottish Labour. Reid believes that any socialist, or indeed any rational person, should be a revisionist on principle. As an advisor to Neil Kinnock, Reid was one of the earliest advocates for reforms to the Labour Party. In 1983, after the Labour Party's worst electoral defeat in 65 years, and at Kinnock's request, he put on a single sheet of paper what he thought had made Labour unelectable: "Leaderless, unpatriotic, dominated by demagogues, policies fifteen years out of date". Elected to Parliament in 1987 as the Member of Parliament for Motherwell North, within two years he was appointed to the Shadow Front Bench as spokesperson for Children. In 1990, Reid was appointed as Defence spokesperson. When the former Yugoslavia was breaking up in the 1990s, Reid was in dialogue with the Bosnian Serbs. During the Bosnian War, Reid struck up a friendship with Radovan Karadžić, later to be indicted as a war criminal. Reid admitted he spent three days at a luxury Geneva lakeside hotel as a guest of Karadžić in 1993. Government career Minister of State for the Armed Forces After Labour came to power at the 1997 general election, Reid became Armed Forces Minister, where he played a key role in the Defence Secretary George Robertson's Strategic Defence Review. Reid gained considerable praise for the review; with some commentators going so far as to describe his success in cutting military expenditure at the same time as winning over the defence chiefs as "brilliant". As Minister he lobbied for the release of two Scots Guards convicted of murdering teenager Peter McBride in Belfast in 1992. At the same time he refused requests to meet the McBride family. Reid eventually met with the McBride family whilst he was Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Minister for Transport In 1998, Reid moved from Defence to become Minister of State for Transport. Prime Minister Tony Blair then sent Reid to the Department of Transport to ensure the late-running and over-budget London Underground Jubilee Line Extension was completed by the end of 2000. He and John Prescott brought in Bechtel as Project Managers, ensuring Phase 1 was opened on 1 May 1999, and the whole Jubilee line with the exception of one station (Westminster) was ultimately open for business by the Millennium. Reid demonstrated several aspects: he negotiated strongly; he was a political fighter; he had a "capacity for non-dogmatic adaptability and reliability"; and was described as "a safe pair of hands". Secretary of State for Scotland Having impressed at both Transport and Defence Reid was promoted to Secretary of State for Scotland on 17 May 1999 and a full place at the cabinet table. In his first month, the Scottish Parliament was re-established after an interval of 300 years. The reconstituted Scotland Office had been much reduced in importance with devolution but Reid used the position to build his profile, prepared to put the government's case on any issue against TV interviewers. After Donald Dewar, Scotland's respected First Minister, died in 2000 Reid's name was even mentioned as a possible replacement. In fact Reid was left to deal with much of the fall-out after the death and would be increasingly at loggerheads with the new Labour First Minister, Henry McLeish, whom Reid felt was taking the Parliament down a nationalist path. The situation became so strained between the two that in an unguarded moment McLeish publicly labelled Reid "a patronising bastard". Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Reid became Secretary of State for Northern Ireland in January 2001 following the resignation of Peter Mandelson. He was the first Roman Catholic to hold the position. While dismissing the personal significance of this, he used it to insist that every person in Northern Ireland, from whatever background or tradition, wanted a prosperous future. Throughout his period of office he was continually engaged in talks with all side of the community in an attempt to reduce the level of inter-community troubles. He blamed Paramilitaries from both sides of the community for on-going violence. He confronted both, on the ground, at a violent east Belfast interface, where he met loyalist residents of Cluan Place and then had talks with nationalist residents in the nearby Short Strand. Reid ruled that ceasefires proclaimed by the Ulster Defence Association and the Loyalist Volunteer Force could no longer be recognised by the government because of their involvement in sectarian attacks and murders. At the same time he put pressure on the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) to make a move on arms decommissioning to help end the political impasse, whilst acknowledging that putting its weapons beyond use would be a difficult step to take. It was in this context that, in October 2001 he welcomed a Gerry Adams speech as a "highly significant" step which he hoped would pave the way for a "groundbreaking" move by the IRA to disarm which would transform the political situation. And following the IRA's decision Reid responded by announcing the immediate demolition of British Army security bases and announcing a reduction in troop levels as the security situation improved, effectively beginning a process which culminated in September 2005, when the disarmament monitor for Northern Ireland, the Canadian General John de Chastelain announced that the IRA had given up its entire arsenal of weapons after more than three decades of armed struggle against British rule. Reid oversaw the final stages of the transformation of the RUC into the Police Service Northern Ireland, and the first endorsement of the service by representatives of the Nationalist community. Political problems continued, resulting in the suspension of the Northern Ireland Assembly a year later in October 2002. The peace process was to be put on hold until there was a "clear and unequivocal commitment" that the IRA would disband. Reid made an emergency statement to Parliament announcing direct rule in the interim. In the interim, Reid also had to deal with continuing domestic problems; including those with loyalist ceasefires, sectarian murders and the tinderbox of Holy Cross primary school in north Belfast (that ignited the worst rioting in the city in years). But, so far as 10 Downing Street was concerned, Reid had gone a long way to delivering the rarest of political commodities – success in Northern Ireland. Chairman of the Labour Party and Minister without Portfolio Reid was appointed Chairman of the Labour Party and Minister Without Portfolio on 24 October 2002. As a purely political post his trouble-shooting skills were employed as the Labour Government's chief spokesperson earning him the nickname "Minister for the Today Programme". One of Reid's key challenges was to keep the trade unions (the Labour Party's main funders) on-side despite the antipathy shown by the Unions to many of the Government's proposals. As part of this Reid agreed to look at proposals to stop private contractors exploiting low paid workers (a key Union demand). Leader of the House of Commons and Lord President of the Council In March 2003, Robin Cook resigned as Leader of the House of Commons due to his objections to the legality of Britain's involvement in the Iraq War. Reid was appointed to take over the Office brief on 4 April as a heavyweight figure was more likely to ensure the Commons' continued support for the war. He held the position for only just under three months and was succeeded by a more junior member of the Government, Peter Hain. Secretary of State for Health Reid was made Secretary of State for Health in June 2003, replacing Alan Milburn after the latter's resignation. He was reportedly less than happy with the appointment. He was reported by Private Eye at the time as reacting "Oh fuck, not health." But Reid had established himself as one of Tony Blair's most trusted ministers and his appointment as Health Secretary took him into his fourth cabinet job in less than a year. At Health Reid saw himself as a reformer, controversially increasing capacity by introducing private companies to run treatment centres for knee, hip and eye operations. He claimed this provided extra staff and extra capacity to help treat more patients in the NHS at an unprecedented rate. Reid also introduced plans to increase the number of smoke-free workplaces and improve diet and sexual health as part of a major drive to improve public health in England and began a major public consultation as a precursor to parliamentary proposals aimed at improving the nation's health. He also encouraged volunteer engagement in the health service. Many of his changes caused criticism and controversy, which Reid was not afraid to take head on, delivering a staunch defence of Labour's reform programme to the party's annual conference. He made the case for extending to all the choices normally only available to those who could afford them. Reid's management style was considered autocratic by some and he came under considerable fire from National Health Service (NHS) leaders. He was criticized for giving GPs a 22% pay rise while also allowing them to opt out of providing weekend and evening treatment. As Health Secretary, Reid had been in favour of limiting the government's proposed smoking ban as much as possible. In their 2005 election manifesto, he introduced a pledge to ban smoking in all places where food was served. His successor Patricia Hewitt favoured a complete ban. Reid won in the cabinet, gaining an exemption for private clubs and pubs that did not serve food. The House of Commons rebels proposing a complete ban were successful when MPs were given a free vote on the issue. Patricia Hewitt voted with the rebels against the Cabinet's proposals. Secretary of State for Defence Following the incumbent Labour Party's 2005 general election victory, Reid was appointed Secretary of State for Defence. He replaced Geoff Hoon. At Defence, Reid questioned "the adequacy of the international legal framework in the light of modern developments in conflict". He suggested that "the body of relevant international rules and conventions should, where beneficial, be strengthened", especially "to cope with conflict against non-state actors such as the international terrorist… this means extending, not reducing, such conventions". Reid committed 3,300 troops to Helmand province, Afghanistan in January 2006. Despite a lack of detailed intelligence, the Army anticipated the Helmand mission would be straightforward compared to its difficult mission in Basra it was withdrawing from, with short small patrols from fixed bases. In speaking to the media Reid said "We would be perfectly happy to leave in three years and without firing one shot because our job is to protect the reconstruction." In the first year about 4 million bullets and 25,000 artillery rounds had been fired by the British armed forces. Reid took an aggressive approach to defending his government's international policy. Speaking ahead of a conference on NATO modernisation in Germany on 4 February 2006, Reid asserted in a press interview that "no institution has the divine right to exist". Similarly on 19 March 2006, in response to former interim Iraqi prime minister Iyad Allawi's claim that Iraq is in the grip of civil war, Reid defended the British Government's contrary view. He stated: "Every single politician I have met here [in Iraq] from the prime minister to the president, the defence minister and indeed Iyad Allawi himself said to me there's an increase in the sectarian killing, but there's not a civil war and we will not allow a civil war to develop". By the time of the 2006 Israel-Lebanon Conflict, Reid was no longer Defence Secretary, having been succeeded by Des Browne. On 3 February 2010, Reid gave evidence about his role as Defense Secretary to the Iraq Inquiry. He said that America's experience of the Vietnam War had impacted negatively on US post-invasion planning in Iraq because US military chiefs "weren't thinking of detailed nation-building". Reid also said he had "deep sadness at the loss of life" in Iraq. Home Secretary Reid was appointed Home Secretary on 5 May 2006, replacing Charles Clarke after the latter was removed in the wake of a Home Office scandal involving the release of foreign national prisoners. On 2 July 2006, Reid proposed a Bill for the autumn Queens Speech, to be brought into law at the next session of Parliament. He proposed a new Official Secrets Act, the first since the 1989 OSA, to punish intelligence officers with longer prison sentences, who blow the whistle on government policy by leaking secret information. To remove their key legal defence of necessity and/or defence of public interest. By the time he arrived at the Home Office, Reid was seen as one of the government's most effective performers over the previous decade, being described by many commentators as a bruiser, but with a strong academic leaning. At the Home Office Reid hit the ground running. He contended that rapid global change and the associated challenges of mass migration, terrorism and organised crime had overwhelmed the outdated Home Office approach. Reid caused considerable controversy by attacking the leadership and management systems previously in place in the Home Office. He infamously declared it to be "not fit for purpose", adding the phrase to the British political lexicon, and vowed to "make the public feel safe". Reid's comments were rebuffed by Clarke, who criticised his comments in a defence of his own period in office. Within 100 days of joining the Department, he had published three reform plans for a radical transformation. They included 8,000 more prison places; a 40 per cent reduction in headquarters staff by 2010; a commitment to making the Immigration and Nationality Directorate an agency with a uniformed border staff and tough new powers. radical overhaul of the core systems and structures within the Home Office itself, reform of IND, re-balancing of the criminal justice system, reform of the probation service and the review of counter-terrorist capabilities. He condemned the probation service for letting people down, and argued for fundamental reform. An early decision during his time at the Home Office was to move child molesters living in hostels near schools further away from them. Reid also caused controversy in August 2006 by calling for the creation of an independent committee to impose a national annual limit on the number of immigrants entering the UK. The Guardian claimed that Reid was "playing to the racist gallery" and compared his plans to Soviet-style central planning of the economy. Because of the prisons' overcrowding crisis in Birmingham, on 9 October 2006 he announced emergency measures amid fears that the prison population was nearing maximum capacity. Reid has announced his support of measures to restrict the ability of extremist messages to be disseminated on the Internet so as to make the web a more hostile place for terrorists. In 2006 Reid and the Home Office lost their appeal against the High Court ruling in the Afghan hijackers case 2006. In this controversial case, a group of nine Afghan men who hijacked a Boeing 727 in February 2000, while fleeing the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, were granted leave to remain in the United Kingdom. The original ruling in 2004 ruled that returning the men to Afghanistan would breach their human rights under the Human Rights Act 1998. The Home Office granted the men "temporary leave to remain", which involved restricting their freedom of movement and did not allow them to work; in 2006, the High Court ruled that the men must be granted "discretionary leave to remain", which includes the right to work. Reid challenged the ruling in the Court of Appeal, arguing that the Home Office "should have the power to grant only temporary admission to failed asylum seekers who are only allowed to stay in the UK due to their human rights". Reid accused government's critics of putting national security at risk by their failure to recognise the serious nature of the threat facing Britain. and called for reform of the human rights laws. From 1 August 2006, Reid introduced a new warning system to alert the public to the threat of attacks by al-Qaeda and other terror groups in order to increase public understanding and awareness of the terrorist threat. Announcing the plans, Reid told MPs that the terrorist threat would only be overcome by "united action by all of us" and urged the public to remain vigilant at all times. The threat level, already at "Severe", the second highest level, then moved even higher. On 10 August, Reid announced that the UK had been put on its highest state of security alert, after police said they'd thwarted a terrorist plot to simultaneously blow up several aircraft flying between the UK and the US using explosives smuggled in carry-on luggage. Extreme security measures had been put in place at all the country's airports. Reid revealed that the alleged terror plot could have caused civilian casualties on an "unprecedented scale" and security sources said an attack was believed to have been imminent. With 21 people in custody, Reid said he believed the 'main players' had been 'accounted for' but emphasised that that still left possible "unknown" players. Reid also revealed that at least four major plots had been thwarted in the previous year and security sources confirmed that two dozen major terrorist conspiracies were under investigation. Reid issued a dire warning against losing the "battle of ideas" with al-Qa'eda, and called for an urgent but controversial escalation in the propaganda war, saying that the government needed to do much more to win the battle of ideas. Reid then led European Ministers in efforts to make the Internet a "more hostile" place for terrorists and crack down on people using the web to share information on explosives or spread propaganda. In September 2006, Reid addressed Muslims in a run-down part of east London, warning them that fanatics were looking to groom and brainwash children for suicide bombings. During the speech he was confronted and barracked by Abu Izzadeen, also known as Omar or Trevor Brooks. Mr Brooks is a leader of the UK-banned Al Ghurabaa, an offshoot of the terrorist-supporting Al-Muhajiroun – a man who many accuse of glorifying terrorism and inciting racial hatred during nightly conversations (often using the nom de plume Abu Baraa) on a New York-based chatroom service. After the high-profile at the Home Office, his tough stance on terrorism and his domination of the headlines in the aftermath of the alleged terror plot, Reid was increasingly tipped by Labour MPs to run for the party's leadership. In fact, Reid kept everyone guessing about his leadership intentions until the very end. Ultimately the surprise was that, having decided not to stand, he announced his intention to quit frontline politics and return to the backbenches. It was speculated that, as a true Blairite believer, he either wanted to carry the torch of reform himself as Labour leader or else quit the scene altogether to make way for new blood. Resignation from government In May 2007, Reid announced his intention to resign from the Cabinet when Tony Blair left office, and stated his plans to return to the Labour backbenches. He stated he would support Gordon Brown in the leadership election and his administration. Reid left office as Home Secretary on 27 June 2007 and was replaced by Jacqui Smith the next day. In September 2007 he announced that he would not seek re-election at the next general election. Reid was linked with a return to cabinet in June 2009 under Gordon Brown but reportedly turned down the offer. Votes In December 2004 and October 2005, Reid voted in favour of a bill to introduce a compulsory British national identity card. He voted for the NHS Foundation Trust proposal. He also voted in favour of allowing unmarried heterosexual and homosexual couples to adopt, and for lowering the age of consent for gay sex to 16. Reid voted for the replacement of the Trident system. He voted against all the House of Lords reform options except a fully appointed House of Lords. On the introduction of Labour's anti-terrorism laws, he opposed an amendment that would have limited the fingerprinting and strip-searching of persons detained at a police station to those detained in connection with a terrorism investigation. He voted against changing the text in the Prevention of Terrorism Bill from "The Secretary of State may make a control order against an individual" to "The Secretary of State may apply to the court for a control order...." In March 2003, he voted against a motion that the case had not yet been made for war against Iraq, and voted for the declaration of war against Iraq. In June 2007, he voted against a motion calling for an independent inquiry by a committee of Privy Counsellors into the Iraq War. After cabinet On 10 May 2010, Reid argued on BBC television that David Cameron should become the next Prime Minister in the interests of honouring the democratic wishes of the British people, with the Conservative Party having received more votes than any other party. Had Labour and the Liberal Democrats formed an alliance, their combined votes would outnumber Conservative votes at the 2010 General Election, but Reid noted that a Labour/Liberal Democrat alliance would not have the numbers to form a parliamentary majority by themselves. The same month, it was announced that Reid had been made a life peer in the dissolution honours following the 2010 election. He was created Baron Reid of Cardowan, of Stepps in Lanarkshire on 16 July 2010. In April 2011, to the discomfort of Labour colleagues, he campaigned with the Conservative Prime Minister David Cameron and others against changes to the UK's voting system. During the campaign, he made the claim that the alternative vote would violate the principle of 1 person 1 vote. He wrote that "it gives the supporters of unpopular fringe candidates numerous votes, while mainstream voters only get one". The referendum on the Alternative Vote was won decisively by Reid's "No" side. In April 2013, Reid said that Labour had made a mistake with immigration while in government, and now in opposition was not providing an alternative. In June 2014, Reid appeared in a full-page advert in the Scottish Catholic Observer, encouraging readers to vote against Scottish independence in the September referendum. The advert failed to state who had paid for it, which is a breach of Electoral Commission rules, and following complaints, Reid revealed that it had been paid for by an organisation led by Willie Haughey. The referendum resulted in a "No" vote. Expenses Following the political scandal over MP expenses in 2009, Sir Thomas Legg requested Reid repay £2,731.88 of his claimed expenses. Reid chose to repay a total of £7,336.51. He was later one of 23 MPs who asked for a refund of some of the money they had repaid, and received £4,604.63 back. Outside politics Football On 28 September 2007, it was announced Reid would become Chairman of Celtic Football Club taking over from Brian Quinn. His appointment was ratified by Celtic's shareholders on 19 November 2007. Sports journalist Graham Spiers found him "an engaging and intriguing Celtic chairman". Reid is a lifelong supporter of the club and described the appointment as "an honour and a privilege". University of London In late 2008 it was announced that Reid would be taking up the post of honorary Professor at the University College London and become the chairman of the newly created Institute of Security and Resilience Studies (ISRS) at UCL. G4S On 18 December 2008, G4S (Group 4 Securicor) announced that Reid would be taking up a post with the company as group consultant. Top Level Group Reid is currently a member of the Top Level Group of UK Parliamentarians for Multilateral Nuclear Disarmament and Non-proliferation, established in October 2009. Awards In June 2009, Reid was awarded an honorary degree from Stirling University "for his contribution to public affairs". References External links Official biography, Prime Minister's Office Profile of John Reid MP SourceWatch \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1947 births Living people Alumni of the Open University Alumni of the University of Stirling Celtic F.C. directors and chairmen Communist Party of Great Britain members Labour Party (UK) life peers Life peers created by Elizabeth II Labour Friends of Israel Scottish Labour MPs Leaders of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom Lord Presidents of the Council Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom People from Bellshill Scottish communists Chairmen and investors of football clubs in Scotland Scottish people of Irish descent Scottish Roman Catholics Scottish trade unionists Secretaries of State for Defence (UK) Secretaries of State for Health (UK) Secretaries of State for Northern Ireland Secretaries of State for the Home Department Transport and General Workers' Union-sponsored MPs UK MPs 1987–1992 UK MPs 1992–1997 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231659	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrog	Etrog	Etrog (, plural: ; Ashkenazi Hebrew: , plural: ) is the yellow citron or Citrus medica used by Jews during the week-long holiday of Sukkot as one of the four species. Together with the lulav, hadass, and aravah, the etrog is taken in hand and held or waved during specific portions of the holiday prayers. Special care is often given to selecting an etrog for the performance of the Sukkot holiday rituals. Etymology The romanization of the Hebrew word as etrog according to the Sephardic pronunciation is widely used. The Ashkenazi Hebrew pronunciation is esrog or esrig. It has been transliterated as ethrog or ethrogh in scholarly work. The Hebrew word is thought to derive from the Persian name for the fruit, turunj (), likely borrowed via Aramaic. Arabic word utroj or etroj (or etrog in Egyptian Arabic accent) أُتْرُجِّ means Citrus medica. Taxonomy In Modern Hebrew, etrog is the name for any variety or form of citron, whether kosher for the ritual or not. In general usage, though, the word is often reserved to refer only to those varieties and specimens used ritually as one of the four species. Some taxonomic experts, like Hodgson and others, have mistakenly treated etrog as one specific variety of citron. The various Jewish rites utilize different varieties, according to their tradition or the decision of their respective posek. Biblical references While the biblical phrase peri eitz hadar (פְּרִי עֵץ הָדָר) (translated above as "fruit of majestic trees") may be interpreted or translated in a number of ways, the Talmud derives that the phrase refers to the etrog. In modern Hebrew, hadar refers to the genus Citrus. Nachmanides (1194 – c. 1270) suggests that the word was the original Hebrew name for the citron. According to this view, the word etrog was introduced over time, adapted from the Aramaic. The Arabic name for the citron fruit, itranj (اترنج), mentioned in hadith literature, is also associated with the Hebrew. Historical cultivation Etrogim were extensively cultivated in the Holy Land at the time of the Second Temple, and images of etrogim are found at many archaeological sites of that era, including mosaics at the Maon Synagogue, Beth Alpha Synagogue, and Hamat Tiberias Synagogue. At all of those sites, the etrog is depicted alongside other important religious symbols, like the shofar or menorah. The etrog is also found on numerous Bar Kokhba coins. Archaeological evidence for Citrus fruits is limited, as neither seeds nor pollen are likely to be routinely recovered in archaeology. The earliest evidence of etrogim in Israel is the 2012 discovery of citron pollen from the second century BCE in excavations at the Ramat Rachel site. In diaspora After the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE, exiled Jews planted citron orchards wherever the climate allowed: in Southern Europe (Spain, Greece, and Italy) as well as in North Africa and Asia Minor. Jews who settled north of the warmer citron-growing areas depended on imported etrogim, which caused much anxiety given the dangers and uncertainties of sea travel. By the seventeenth century, some of the most popular sources for etrogim were the islands of Corsica and Corfu. Since the late 1850s, the Fruit of the Goodly Tree Association in Mandatory Palestine represented etrog farmers who marketed their crops to Jews in Europe. Some Jewish communities still preferred citrons from Italy, Greece, Morocco, or Yemen, but many Jews seeking citrons turned back to Eretz Yisrael, the land of Israel. American Jews continue to import the majority of their holiday etrogim from Israel, except during shmita when there are halachic complications in exporting the produce of Israel. Cosmetic requirements Pitam A pitam or pitom (Hebrew: פיטום; plural pitamim) is composed of a style (Hebrew: "דַד" dad), and a stigma (Hebrew: "שׁוֹשַׁנְתָּא" shoshanta), and usually falls off during the growing process. An etrog with an intact pitam is considered especially valuable, but varieties that naturally shed their pitam during growth are also considered kosher. When only the stigma breaks off, even post-harvest, the citron can still be considered kosher as long as part of the style has remained attached. If the whole pitam, i.e. the stigma and style, are unnaturally broken off in their entirety, the etrog is not kosher for ritual use. Pitam preservation technique Many more pitamim are preserved today due to an auxin discovered by Dr. Eliezer E. Goldschmidt, emeritus professor of horticulture at the Hebrew University. While working with the picloram hormone in a citrus orchard, he unexpectedly discovered that some of the Valencia oranges found nearby had perfectly preserved pitamim. Citrus fruits, other than an etrog or citron hybrid like the bergamot, usually do not preserve their pitam. On the occasions that they do, their pitamim tend to be dry, sunken and very fragile. In Dr. Goldschmidt's observation, the pitamim were all fresh and solid like those of the Moroccan or Greek citron varieties. Experimenting with picloram in a laboratory, Goldschmidt eventually found the correct “dose” to achieve the desired effect: one droplet of the chemical in three million drops of water. Purity In order for a citron to be kosher, it must be neither grafted nor hybridized with any other species. Only a few traditional varieties are therefore used. To ensure that no grafting is performed, preferred plantations are kept under strict rabbinical supervision. Genetic research The citron varieties traditionally used as etrog are the Diamante citron from Italy, the Greek citron, the Balady citron from Israel, the Moroccan and Yemenite citrons. A general DNA study was conducted by Eliezer E. Goldschmidt and colleagues which tested and positively identified twelve famous accessions of citron for purity and being genetically related. The fingered and Florentine citrons, although they are also citron varieties or maybe hybrids, are not used for the ritual. The Corsican citron fell into disfavor but has recently been reintroduced for ritual use. Selection and cultivation In addition to the above, there are rabbinical indicators used to distinguish pure etrogim from possible hybrids. These traditional indicators have been preserved by continuous selection performed by professional farmers. The most accepted indicators are: 1) a pure etrog has a thick rind, contrasting with its sparing pulp segments which are also almost dry, 2) the outer surface of an etrog is ribbed and warted, and 3) the etrog peduncle is somewhat buried inward. By contrast, a lemon or different citron hybrid is missing one or all of the specifications. A later and not as widely accepted indicator is the orientation of the seed. In a pure etrog, the seeds are oriented vertically, unless crowded by neighboring seeds; in lemons and hybrids, the seeds are oriented horizontally even when they are not crowded. The etrog is typically grown from cuttings that are two to four years old. The tree begins to bear fruit about four years after planting the cuttings. If the tree is germinated from seed, it will not bear fruit for about seven years, and there may be some genetic change to the tree or fruit. Customs To protect the etrog during the holiday, it is traditionally wrapped in silky flax fibers and stored in a special decorative box, often made from silver. After the holiday, eating the etrog or etrog jam is considered a segula (efficacious remedy) for a woman to have an easy childbirth. A common Ashkenazi custom is to save the etrog until Tu BiShvat and eat it in candied form or as succade, while offering prayers that the worshipper merit a beautiful etrog next Sukkot. Some families make jam or liqueur out of the etrog or make a pomander by inserting cloves into the skin for use as besamim at the havdalah ceremony after Shabbat. Etrogim grown in Israel are not classified as food and are therefore not recommended to be eaten due to the large amount of pesticides used in their agriculture. The Dancing Camel Brewery in Tel Aviv, Israel, uses the rinds of etrogim in its annual 'Trog Wit Beer, usually available around the Holiday of Sukkot. Gallery See also Citrus taxonomy Etrog box Meir Auerbach References Further reading Citrus Propagation by Ultimate Citrus Fact Sheet HS-86 June 1994 by the University of Florida CROP PROPAGATION II: SEXUAL PROPAGATION External links The Citrus Variety Collection by the University of California Riverside Ancient Treasures and the Dead Sea Scrolls Mosaic depicting an etrog Lulav, Etrog, Shofar and Menorah, 2nd Cent. CE, Ostia Synagogue An antique Hebrew coin depicting an etrog Pictures homecitrusgrowers.co.uk Evyatar Marienberg and David Carpenter, The Stealing of the ‘Apple of Eve’ from the 13th century Synagogue of Winchester, Henri III Fine Rolls Project, Fine of the Month: December 2011 A Huge Etrog-looking Citron in Geetha's Kitchen, amazing photos Know Your Etrog, website with educational pictures, information how to plant your own tree. The Symbolism of the Lulav and Esrog, various sources explaining the symbolism and meaning of the etrog. 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231673	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seduction	Seduction	Seduction has multiple meanings. Platonically, it can mean "to persuade to disobedience or disloyalty", or "to lead astray, usually by persuasion or false promises". Strategies of seduction include conversation and sexual scripts, paralingual features, non-verbal communication, and short-term behavioural strategies. The word seduction stems from Latin and means literally "leading astray." As a result, the term may have a positive or negative connotation. Famous seducers from history or legend include Lilith, Giacomo Casanova, and the fictional character Don Juan. The emergence of the Internet and technology has supported the availability and the existence of a seduction community, which is based on discourse about seduction. This is predominately by "pickup artists" (PUA). Seduction is also used within marketing to increase compliance and willingness. Seduction, seen negatively, involves temptation and enticement, often sexual in nature, to lead someone astray into a behavioural choice they would not have made if they were not in a state of sexual arousal. Seen positively, seduction is a synonym for the act of charming someone—male or female—by an appeal to the senses, often with the goal of reducing unfounded fears and leading to their "sexual emancipation." Some sides in contemporary academic debate state that the morality of seduction depends on the long-term impacts on the individuals concerned, rather than the act itself, and may not necessarily carry the negative connotations expressed in dictionary definitions. History Seduction is a popular motif in history and fiction, both as a warning of the social consequences of engaging in the behaviour or becoming its victim, and as a salute to a powerful skill. In the Bible, Eve offers the forbidden fruit to Adam. Eve herself was verbally seduced by the serpent, believed in Christianity to be Satan; later, Chapter 7 of Proverbs warns of the pitfalls of seduction. Sirens of Greek mythology lured sailors to their death by singing them to shipwreck; Cleopatra beguiled both Julius Caesar and Marc Antony, Dionysus was the Greek god of seduction and wine. Famous male seducers, their names synonymous with sexual allure, range from Genji to James Bond. In biblical times, because unmarried females who lost their virginity had also lost much of their value as marriage prospects, the Old Testament Book of Exodus specifies that the seducer must marry his victim or pay her father to compensate him for his loss of the marriage price: "And if a man entice a maid that is not betrothed, and lie with her, he shall surely endow her to be his wife. If her father utterly refuse to give her unto him, he shall pay money according to the dowry of virgins." The Book of Judges in the Old Testament describes Delilah seducing Samson who was given great strength by God, but ultimately lost his strength when she allowed the Philistines to shave his hair off during his slumber. Use in sexual relationships Males and females both implement the strategy of seduction as a method of negotiating their sexual relationships. This can often involve manipulation of other individuals. This is primarily based on desire, normally physical, as well as attraction towards them. Popular phrases often used include; ‘the language of love is universal’. These phrases help to demonstrate the extensively pervasive and ubiquitous strategy use within love and relationships amongst humans. Individuals employing such strategies often do so subconsciously and will merely report the feelings and thoughts that they subjectively experienced and are colloquially comparable to ‘attraction’ or 'love'. Research has indicated that seduction could substitute or equate to a form of collapsed or condensed courtship. Evolutionary psychology suggests that this form of sexual enticement can be used in order to cajole desired individuals to engage in sexual intercourse and ultimately reproduce. This behaviour is also aimed at persuading someone to develop a short-term or long-term sexual relationship with them. Males declare that they adopt the strategy of seduction statistically more frequently than females. From an evolutionary perspective this is due to females’ higher parental investment and the lack of guarantee of male parental investment. Females therefore need to be seduced more prior to engaging in sexual intercourse. Men more commonly wish to engage in more frequent short-term mating, which may require this strategy of seduction used to access the female for intercourse. However, this finding has been contradicted by non-verbal seduction results which indicate that females have more control within this area. Other potential strategies individuals employ to gain access to a mate include courting or having relatives select mates for socioeconomic reasons. Ultimately, both males and females have reported preferring seduction above all other strategies, such as the use of power or aggression, for making a potential partner agree to sexual intercourse. Human mate poaching Seduction is related to human mate poaching. Human mate poaching refers to when either a male or female purposefully entices another individual who is already in an established relationship into sexual relations with them. This is akin to the definition of seduction in the introduction. This is a psychological mechanism which had unconscious and conscious manifestations, that in relation to evolutionary psychology has been adaptive to our ancestors in the past and has continued to be functional in modern society. Human mate poaching is a form of seduction, and can be used as a short-term and long-term mating strategy among both sexes. Moreover, there are associated costs and benefits to poaching. Schmitt and Buss (2001) investigated the potential costs and benefits across sexes in relation to human mate poaching. Costs for women engaging in poaching behaviours include unwanted pregnancy, transmitted infection and diseases, and insecurity about provisions (shelter, food, and financial security). However, the associated benefits include emotional support that she may not be receiving from her current partner, and access to 'good genes' that the male possesses, such as facial symmetry. Potential costs for males engaging in mate poaching can include resource depletion, violence and aggression from the female's current partner, who takes part in human mate guarding behaviours (behaviours used to protect their mate from other potential males or females). The associated benefits for males include increased sexual variety, access to physically attractive mates, and non-committal copulations. Evolutionarily speaking, we are derived from our reproductively-successful ancestors who managed to solve the adaptive problem of finding a mate with the required characteristics needed at that time in their lives, e.g., plenty of resources, physical attractiveness, and showing signs of honest fertility. Therefore, our ancestors would have deployed this tactic (for enticing a suitable mate), which remains in our psychology. Some evolved poaching behaviours may not be suitable for current environmental problems. Leftover by-products from human evolution, such as preferences for fat and sugar, are not adaptive in western cultures at present, and thus similar poaching behaviours could still remain. Strategies Short term In males Short-term strategies involved in seduction are associated with the dark triad, however predominately in males. Short-term strategies are those used by an individual to obtain a mate for a short term sexual encounter. The dark triad is made up of three personality traits, psychopathy, narcissism and Machiavellianism and was proposed by Paulhus and Williams (2002). The three traits are exploitative in nature and are used for sexually coercive behaviours, useful in the seduction process. Typically these three traits are deemed maladaptive for the individual and society. Nevertheless, these traits have been found to be adaptive in an exploitative strategy in short term mating. Dark triad traits are adaptive for an unrestricted sociosexuality and promiscuous behaviours. The three traits are associated with impulsivity, manipulative behaviours and lack of empathy. These personality traits would be useful in seducing a partner for a short term encounter. From an evolutionary perspective, these would have been particularly beneficial to our ancestral males who wanted to increase their reproductive success, through seducing many women and therefore increasing their chance of passing on their genes. These particular traits may be used as a tactic for increasing success in mating. The dark triad traits are seen more in males where the parental investment is lower. Having numerous copulations with many women increases the likelihood their genes will be passed on. Comparatively, a woman has to invest time and a lot of energy in carrying an infant and looking after him/her for many years subsequently. In females The triad of traits ancestrally would not have been adaptive for women, because females were and still are less likely or less willing to engage in casual sex, because of the lack of certainty of resources to provide for her and her offspring. Additionally, there are other potential considerations of the implication of short-term strategies. Males cannot employ such strategies without there being willing females to engage in sexual intercourse within a short-term relationship with them. Therefore, benefits from engaging in multiple short-term matings must also exist for females. These matings enable females to practice and enhance their skills, specifically within attraction and seduction. This often occurs during extra-pair mating when females have sexual intercourse with males other than their husband. There are potential benefits for females to engage in these matings, including the ability to acquire more resources. For example, females are better able to access meats, goods or services in exchange for sexual intercourse or if she were to give birth to a child whose father has better genes than her husband. Females use these short-term matings to hone their mating and seduction skills and increase their protection. This is because males often provide increased protection against other males exploitation or from non-humans for the females they mate with and their offspring. However, this willingness to make the first move towards seduction and engage in a sexual relationship may be subtle. For example, females may simply stand close to their target. Improving attraction and seduction skills can also help a female with acquiring a better or more desirable male according to the ‘Mate Switching Hypothesis’. This is because, females are able to assess their potential mate before committing to a long-term relationship. Alternatively, according to this hypothesis females are also able to get rid of an unwanted husband through mate expulsion using short-term strategies, such as by seducing another man into a short-term sexual relationship. Females may also be more equipped at deterring male partners from future infidelity, demonstrated by the ‘Mate Manipulation Hypothesis’. This hypothesis suggests that females are able to use revenge to deter future infidelity. This can be achieved by a female partaking in a short-term affair, incorporating the use of seduction, with another male as a revenge tactic for her husband's previous affair, which aims to increase commitment of her intended long-term mate. These hypotheses indicate the benefits for females of developing and expanding on their seduction skills within sexual relationships. Long term 'Strategies are defined as evolved solutions to adaptive problems'. Men and women differ in the adaptive problems that they face, and therefore deploy different strategies. Women strongly desire the resources and commitment that comes with paternal parental investment and therefore impose a longer period of time for courtship and use of seduction prior to engaging in a long-term sexual relationship. Women also spend time seeking and seducing men that are willing to invest and commit in the long run. It is likely that exploitative strategies will not be used when seducing a long-term partner. The traits associated within the dark triad (Machiavellianism, psychopathy and narcissism) are not useful for long term mating strategies because they are negatively correlated with agreeableness, empathy and reciprocation, which are traits promoting a healthy relationship. Biosocial theory Kenrick and Trost (1987) have formulated a Biosocial theory of heterosexual relationships which encompasses several stages of seduction. This includes five stages of natural progression: Individuals identify a potential partner based on desired characteristics such as physical attraction Both individuals establish contact Other traits of the individual that are not necessarily explicit are analysed to determine fitness A physical relationship is established The relationship is either successful and progresses or discontinued Within these stages, both individuals are interacting in a game which is never explicit, this is because if either individual were to be rejected this would damage their self-esteem. Therefore, when seducing, the overarching aims and goals are never vocalised to the other desired individual. This is sometimes referred to as paradoxical exhibition. The main goal of seduction whether it is active under conscious or unconscious mechanisms is to impress the desired partner and display positive characteristics that are likely to be attractive, and to repress undesirable characteristics. Non-verbal communication Within the interactive seduction game, non-verbal communication is a prominent feature in accessing the desirable potential mate. The purpose of this communication is to reduce the interpersonal distance between the desired individuals. Physiological features such as pupil dilation are a salient cue, expressing attraction. Leading on from this, eye contact is a very notable sign of attraction. Although there are cross cultural differences in whether eye contact is used or not, in Western cultures, the duration of eye contact and the exchange between two individuals is important in the first stages of the biosocial model. Another non-verbal cue in the process of seduction are facial expressions. Smiling is considered another prominent feature in seduction, as it signifies willingness to engage in a social interaction, and in the case of seduction, to participate in creating an intimate bond. These non-verbal behaviours become synchronised between the two individuals which can then lead to the last two stages of the biosocial model. Paralingual features Paralingual features are those associated with the voice, such as pitch, tone and rhythm. These features of verbal communication change in different stages of the seduction process. Studies have shown that when initiating an interaction with a female, the seductive characteristics of the voice will begin with slightly higher pitch and increased articulation in the first meeting. However, whilst seducing, the paralanguage will alter gradually. His voice will eventually become softer with lower pitch and modulated voice. These characteristics of the voice are akin to those adults use when speaking to children, in infant directed speech. This is vocal exhibition, which has been found mostly in males. The aim of modulating the voice is to attract the desired female and become intimate. Marketing Seduction within marketing is seen as the relationship between the marketer and the customer that converts an initial resistance into compliance and willingness. The marketer seduces the consumer to change from one set of social agreements into another, often opposite, set of social agreements leading to satisfaction of at least one of the pair. Information is given, so as to have a desirable and predictable impact on a consumer's decision process. Seduction differs from enlightenment, in that with enlightenment the information is given in order to allow the consumer to enable better decision making. The terms of the exchange are unambiguous. There is debate as to how common seduction is used within marketing, with utility theory denying it would exist at all. Others believe in a sovereign customer, who is free to make their own decisions without being influenced by an outside agent. Seduction can be split into two separate forms, confidence games (con-game) and play depending on the nature of the relationship developed between marketer and customer. In a confidence game, the unsustainable nature of the exchange is hidden from the consumer because their rewards of the exchange will not be what the consumer is expecting or desiring. The seducer defrauds the consumer by first gaining their confidence and exploiting certain characteristics. With play, the unsustainability of the exchange is not hidden from the consumer, the consumer plays along simply for the reward of playing, for instance an older child may still play along with believing in Santa Claus for the rewards. Within marketing, playing along with the seducer is seen as fundamental to the seduction of the consumer, with the consumer playing a role in the exchange. This is what makes seduction different from fraud, where the relationship is coercive in nature and the consumer has not shown any complicity. Typology of ways to induce consumers to transact Deighton and Grayson created a flowchart which asked five questions to determine the type of transaction. "Are the terms of the transaction unambiguous?" If unambiguous and coercive, this leads the transaction to be either "theft by force" or "theft by stealth". If unambiguous, yet fair, then that is "trade with mutual gain". If the terms are ambiguous, question 2 applies. "Does the consumer enter a new social consensus?" If not, then this transaction is known as "persuasion". If the consumer does, then this leads to question 3. Transactions applying to question 2 on-wards are considered to be forms of marketing. "How broad-based is the new consensus?" If wide, the transaction is "socialization". If narrow, then question 4 applies. "Does the consumer collaborate in building the consensus?" If the consumer does not collaborate and gains are lost if the consensus fails, then this is known as "fraud". If the consumer does not collaborate and the gains are sustained if the consensus fails, then that is "entertainment". If the consumer does collaborate then this leads to question 5. "Are gains lost if the consensus fails?" If yes, then this is a "con game", if no, this is known as "play". Both con games and play are considered forms of seduction. Therefore, as long as the other questions are followed with the appropriate answer, it does not matter whether the gains are lost or not if the consensus fails as to whether the transaction is considered seduction. Contemporary law English common law defined the crime of seduction as a felony committed "when a male person induced an unmarried female of previously chaste character to engage in an act of sexual intercourse on a promise of marriage." A father had the right to maintain an action for the seduction of his daughter (or the enticement of a son who left home), since this deprived him of services or earnings. In more modern times, Frank Sinatra was charged in New Jersey in 1938 with seduction, having enticed a woman "of good repute to engage in sexual intercourse with him upon his promise of marriage. The charges were dropped when it was discovered that the woman was already married." Seduction is also associated with organized crime, particularly with the Italian-American Mafia, Russian mafia, Polish mob, and to a lesser extent, the Irish mob and Jewish mob. They often use attractive women from their gang in order to bribe, get money from, or damage the careers of male politicians, police officers, or government agents, as well as members of the general public. See also References Further reading Casanova, G (1894) Story of my life. London: Penguin. Kierkegaard, S (1997) The Seducer's Diary. Princeton University Press. Greene, R. (2010). The art of seduction (Vol. 1). Profile Books. 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231674	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%E2%80%9304%20FA%20Premier%20League	2003–04 FA Premier League	The 2003–04 FA Premier League (known as the FA Barclaycard Premiership for sponsorship reasons) was the 12th season of the Premier League. Arsenal were the champions and Chelsea, who had spent heavily throughout the season, were the runners up. Arsenal ended the season without a single defeat – the first team ever to do so in a 38-game league season and the second team overall (the first was Preston North End in 1889, 115 years earlier, during a 22-game league season). Season summary Having qualified for the Champions' League the previous season, Chelsea were bolstered by a £100 million outlay on world-class players, a spree funded by the extensive financial resources of their new owner Roman Abramovich. Manchester United's attack was as strong as ever thanks to free-scoring Ruud van Nistelrooy, but the midfield was weakened following the £25 million pre-season sale of David Beckham to Real Madrid, and the centre of defence suffered a more severe setback after Rio Ferdinand was ruled out for the final four months of the season after being found guilty of the "failure or refusal to take a drugs test". The case of Rio Ferdinand started a debate about punishments relating to drug testing in football, with there being differing views on whether the punishment was too harsh or too lenient. Ferdinand's club sought to make direct comparisons with an earlier case of Manchester City reserve player who had in fact committed a lesser drug testing offence and as a result escaped with only a fine. City themselves had just moved from Maine Road to the City of Manchester Stadium. Arsenal, meanwhile, had only signed German goalkeeper Jens Lehmann in the 2003 close season, but French striker Thierry Henry was instrumental in Arsenal's success. Away from the Premier League, Arsène Wenger's team suffered disappointment in the cup competitions. They were knocked-out by League Cup eventual winners Middlesbrough in the semi-finals. They lost their grip on the FA Cup (which they held for two seasons in a row) after being defeated by eventual winners Manchester United in the semi-final. Arsenal were knocked out of the Champions League quarter-finals by Chelsea (3–2 on aggregate). These blows in the FA Cup and Champions League came within a few days of each other, and it was feared that Arsenal might squander their lead of the Premier League for the second successive season, but Arsenal easily defeated Liverpool only days later. Arsenal's Invincibles finished the season with 26 wins, 12 draws, 0 defeats and 90 points. The relegation spots were occupied by three teams bracketed together on 33 points. Wolves and Leicester City followed the trend of many other newly promoted Premier League clubs and were relegated just one season after reaching the top division. For Leicester City, they would not return to the top flight for another 10 years and became the league champions for the first time ever in their history just a season later, whilst Wolves had been promoted back to the top flight in 2009-10 Premier League and slipped down again 3 years later. The other relegation place went to Leeds United, whose playing fortunes had dipped in the past two seasons after David O'Leary was sacked as manager and club debts had risen so high that many star players had to be sold. As a result, Leeds were relegated from the Premier League after 14 years of top division football – just three seasons after they had reached the Champions League semifinals, and they would not return for another 16 years. In his third season as Middlesbrough manager, Steve McClaren had guided the Teessiders to their first ever major trophy – sealed with a 2–1 win over Bolton Wanderers in the League Cup final. McClaren was also the first English manager to win a major trophy since Brian Little guided Aston Villa to League Cup success in 1996. He was also the first manager to take Middlesbrough into European competition – they would be competing in the 2004–05 UEFA Cup. Teams Twenty teams competed in the league – the top seventeen teams from the previous season and the three teams promoted from the First Division. The promoted teams were Portsmouth, Leicester City and Wolverhampton Wanderers, returning to the top flight after an absence of fifteen, one and nineteen years respectively. This was also both Portsmouth and Wolverhampton Wanderers' first season in the Premier League. They replaced West Ham United, West Bromwich Albion and Sunderland after spending time in the top flight for ten, one and four years respectively. Stadiums and Locations Personnel and kits Managerial changes League table Season statistics Results Overall Most wins – Arsenal (26) Fewest wins – Leicester City (6) Most draws – Newcastle United (17) Fewest draws – Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur (6) Most losses – Leeds United (21) Fewest losses – Arsenal (0) Most goals scored – Arsenal (73) Fewest goals scored – Wolverhampton Wanderers (38) Most goals conceded – Leeds United (79) Fewest goals conceded – Arsenal (26) Top scorers Awards Monthly awards Annual awards LMA Manager of the Year The LMA Manager of the Year award was won by Arsène Wenger. PFA Players' Player of the Year The PFA Players' Player of the Year award for 2004 was won by Thierry Henry of Arsenal for the second successive year. The shortlist for the PFA Players' Player of the Year award was as follows: Steven Gerrard (Liverpool) Thierry Henry (Arsenal) Frank Lampard (Chelsea) Jay-Jay Okocha (Bolton Wanderers) Alan Shearer (Newcastle United) Patrick Vieira (Arsenal) PFA Young Player of the Year The PFA Young Player of the Year award was won by Scott Parker of Chelsea F.C. The shortlist for the award was as follows: Glen Johnson (Chelsea) Scott Parker (Charlton Athletic/Chelsea) Wayne Rooney (Everton) John Terry (Chelsea) Kolo Touré (Arsenal) Shaun Wright-Phillips (Manchester City) PFA Team of the Year Goalkeeper: Tim Howard (Manchester United)Defence: Lauren, Ashley Cole, Sol Campbell (all Arsenal), John Terry (Chelsea)Midfield: Steven Gerrard (Liverpool), Patrick Vieira, Robert Pires (both Arsenal), Frank Lampard (Chelsea)Attack: Thierry Henry (Arsenal), Ruud van Nistelrooy (Manchester United) PFA Fans' Player of the Year Thierry Henry of Arsenal was named the PFA Fans' Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. Henry was the first player to win this award twice. FWA Footballer of the Year The FWA Footballer of the Year award for 2004 was won by Thierry Henry. The Arsenal forward picked up a remarkable 87% of the votes. Premier League Fair Play Award The Premier League Fair Play Award merit is given to the team who has been the most sporting and best behaved team. Champions Arsenal won this. Behaviour of the Public League Given to the best-behaved fans, Arsenal won this, thus achieving a fair play double. Premier League Manager of the Year Arsène Wenger won the Premier League Manager of the Year award. His team won 26 games, losing none and drawing 12 scoring 73 goals, conceding 26. See also 2003–04 in English football References External links 2003–04 FA Premier League Season at RSSSF Premier League seasons Eng 1	[ -0.609870433807373, 0.02150854468345642, -0.3859327733516693, -0.24280062317848206, -0.8608635067939758, -0.3752802014350891, 0.21327632665634155, 0.009516718797385693, -0.2927800118923187, 0.0785776823759079, 0.15282738208770752, 0.9745839834213257, -0.6037207245826721, -0.5042612552642822, -0.1034763902425766, 0.353026419878006, 0.2607382833957672, 0.1949237436056137, 0.4325617849826813, -0.6795780658721924, -0.06189603731036186, -0.06455903500318527, 0.06518497318029404, -0.3601134717464447, 0.5888022780418396, -0.3128610849380493, 0.43761923909187317, 0.41607508063316345, -0.275418221950531, -0.5282703638076782, -0.1809517741203308, -0.08551773428916931, -0.4805885851383209, -0.21810780465602875, -0.020313123241066933, 0.442670077085495, 0.0662970244884491, -0.7189512252807617, -0.4337373673915863, -0.44001203775405884, -0.19287873804569244, 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231676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skirt	Skirt	A skirt is the lower part of a dress or a separate outer garment that covers a person from the waist downwards. At its simplest, a skirt can be a draped garment made out of a single piece of fabric (such as pareos). However, most skirts are fitted to the body at the waist or hips and fuller below, with the fullness introduced by means of darts, gores, pleats, or panels. Modern skirts are usually made of light to mid-weight fabrics, such as denim, jersey, worsted, or poplin. Skirts of thin or clingy fabrics are often worn with slips to make the material of the skirt drape better and for modesty. In modern times, skirts are typically worn by women. Some exceptions include the izaar, worn by many Muslim cultures, and the kilt, a traditional men's garment in Scotland, Ireland, and sometimes England. Fashion designers such as Jean Paul Gaultier, Vivienne Westwood, Kenzo and Marc Jacobs have also shown men's skirts. Transgressing social codes, Gaultier frequently introduces the skirt into his men's wear collections as a means of injecting novelty into male attire, most famously the sarong seen on David Beckham. The hemline of skirts can vary from micro to floor-length and can vary according to cultural conceptions of modesty and aesthetics as well as the wearer's personal taste, which can be influenced by such factors as fashion and social context. Most skirts are self-standing garments, but some skirt-looking panels may be part of another garment such as leggings, shorts, and swimsuits. History Skirts have been worn since prehistoric times as the simplest way to cover the lower body. Figurines produced by the Vinča culture (c.5700-4500 BC) located on the territory of present-day Serbia and neighboring Balkan nations from the start of the copper age show women in skirt-like garments. A straw-woven skirt dating to 3.900 BC was discovered in Armenia at the Areni-1 cave complex. Skirts were the standard attire for men and women in all ancient cultures in the Near East and Egypt. The Sumerians in Mesopotamia wore kaunakes, a type of fur skirt tied to a belt. The term "kaunakes" originally referred to a sheep's fleece, but eventually came to be applied to the garment itself. Eventually, the animal pelts were replaced by kaunakes cloth, a textile that imitated fleecy sheep skin. Kaunakes cloth also served as a symbol in religious iconography, such as in the fleecy cloak of St. John the Baptist. Ancient Egyptian garments were mainly made of linen. For the upper classes, they were beautifully woven and intricately pleated. Around 2,130 BC, during the Old Kingdom of Egypt, men wore wraparound skirts (kilts) known as the shendyt. They were made of a rectangular piece of cloth wrapped around the lower body and tied in front. By the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, longer skirts, reaching from the waist to ankles and sometimes hanging from the armpits, became fashionable. During the New Kingdom of Egypt, kilts with a pleated triangular section became fashionable for men. Beneath these, a shente, or triangular loincloth whose ends were fastened with cord ties, were worn. During the Bronze Age, in the Southern parts of Western and Central Europe, wraparound dress-like garments were preferred. However, in Northern Europe, people also wore skirts and blouses. In the Middle Ages, men and women preferred dress-like garments. The lower part of men's dresses were much shorter in length compared to those for women. They were wide cut and often pleated or gored so that horse riding was more comfortable. Even a knight's armor had a short metal skirt below the breastplate. It covered the straps attaching the upper legs iron cuisse to the breastplate. Technological advances in weaving in the 13-15th century, like foot-treadle floor looms and scissors with pivoted blades and handles, improved tailoring trousers and tights. They became fashionable for men and henceforth became standard male attire whilst becoming taboo for women. Skirts are still worn by men and women from many cultures, such as the lungi, lehnga, kanga and sarong worn in South Asia and Southeast Asia, and the kilt worn in Scotland and Ireland. One of the earliest known cultures to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao (短裙苗), which literally meant "short skirt Miao" in Chinese. This was in reference to the short miniskirts "that barely cover the buttocks" worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times. In the Middle Ages, some upper-class women wore skirts over three metres in diameter at the bottom. At the other extreme, the miniskirts of the 1960s were minimal garments that may have barely covered the underwear when the woman was seated. Costume historians typically use the word "petticoat" to describe skirt-like garments of the 18th century or earlier. 19th century During the 19th century, the cut of women's dresses in western culture varied more widely than in any other century. Waistlines started just below the bust (the Empire silhouette) and gradually sank to the natural waist. Skirts started fairly narrow and increased dramatically to the hoopskirt and crinoline-supported styles of the 1860s; then fullness was draped and drawn to the back by means of bustles. In the 1890s, the rainy daisy skirt was introduced for walking or sportswear. It had a significantly shorter hemline measuring as much as six inches off the ground and would eventually influence the wider introduction of shorter hemlines in the early 20th century. In the 19th century, in the United States and United Kingdom, there was a movement against skirts as part of the Victorian dress reform movement, and in the United States, the National Dress Reform Association . 20th and 21st centuries After 1915, ankle-length skirts were not generally worn in the daytime. For the next fifty years fashionable skirts became short (1920s), then long (1930s), then shorter (the War Years with their restrictions on fabric), then long (the "New Look"), then shortest of all from 1967 to 1970, when skirts became as short as possible while avoiding exposure of underwear, which was considered taboo. Since the 1970s and the rise of pants/trousers for women as an option for all but the most formal of occasions, no one skirt length has dominated fashion for long, with short and ankle-length styles often appearing side by side in fashion magazines and catalogs. The skirt is a part of uniform for girls in many schools across the world, with lengths varying depending on local culture. The pleated tartan skirt has been a component of girls' school uniforms since the early twentieth century in UK. In the 21st century, skirt has become part of Western dress code for women and is worn as business casual and office wear, and also as sportswear (ex. in tennis). Skirt may also be mandatory as formal wear, such as for airhostesses, waitresses, nurses and military women. Basic types A-line skirt An a-line skirt is a skirt with a slight flare, roughly in the shape of a capital letter A Bell-shaped skirt A bell-shaped skirt, flared noticeably from the waist but then, unlike a church bell, cylindrical for much of its length Circle skirt a skirt cut in sections to make one or more circles with a hole for the waist, so the skirt is very full but hangs smoothly from the waist without darts, pleats, or gathers Culottes A form of divided skirt, split skirt or pantskirt constructed like a pair of shorts, but hanging like a skirt. Divided skirt See under: Culottes. Full skirt A skirt with fullness gathered into the waistband Gored skirt A skirt that fits through the waistline and flares at the hem. May be made of from four to twenty-four shaped sections. Dates from the 14th century and much used in the 19th century. Very popular in the late 1860s, mid-1890s, early 20th century, 1930s, 1940s, and now worn as a classic skirt style. Inverted pleated skirt A skirt made by bringing two folds of fabric to a center line in front and/ or back. May be cut straight at sides or be slightly flared. Has been a basic type of skirt since the 1920s. Pleated skirt A skirt with fullness reduced to fit the waist by means of regular pleats ('plaits') or folds, which can be stitched flat to hip-level or free-hanging Short skirt A skirt with hemline above the knee Straight skirt A Straight skirt or Pencil skirt, a tailored skirt hanging straight from the hips and fitted from the waist to the hips by means of darts or a yoke; may have a vent or kick-pleat set in the hem for ease of walking Underskirt Simple, basic skirt over which an overskirt, or drapery, hangs. Wrap or wraparound skirt A skirt that wraps around the waist with an overlap of material Fads and fashions Ballerina skirt A Ballerina skirt is a mid-calf full skirt popular in the 1950s. Broomstick skirt A light-weight ankle-length skirt with many crumpled pleats formed by compressing and twisting the garment while wet, such as around a broomstick. (1980s and on) Bubble skirt A bubble skirt, also called tulip skirt or balloon skirt, is a voluminous skirt whose hem is tucked back under to create a “bubble effect” at the bottom. Popular in the 1950s. Cargo skirt A cargo skirt is a plain utilitarian skirt with belt loops and numerous large pockets, based on the military style of Cargo pants and popularised in the 1990s. Crinoline A crinoline is a very full skirt supported by hoops or multiple petticoats, popular at various times from the mid 19th century onwards. Dirndl A dirndl skirt, (durn′del) is a skirt in the Bavarian-Austrian dirndl style, made of a straight length of fabric gathered at the waist. The style derives from Tyrolean peasant costume. Denim skirt A denim skirt (or jeans skirt), is a skirt made of denim, often designed like 5-pocket jeans, but found in a large variety of styles. Godet skirt A godet skirt (go-day’) is a skirt with triangular pieces of fabric inserted upward from the hem to create more fullness. Popular in the 1930s. Hobble skirt A Hobble skirt is a long and tight skirt with a hem narrow enough to significantly impede the wearer's stride Kilt-skirt a wrap-around skirt with overlapping aprons in front and pleated around the back. Though traditionally designed as women's wear, it is fashioned to mimic the general appearance of a man's kilt. Leather skirt a skirt made of leather Lehenga A Lehenga (also Ghagra; Garara ), is a long, pleated skirt, often embroidered, worn mostly as the bottom part of the Gagra choli in North India and Pakistan. Maxi skirt An ankle-length daytime skirt, popular with women in the late 1960s as reaction against miniskirts. Micromini an extremely short miniskirt. Mandala skirt A skirt with a mandala motifs. Midi skirt A skirt with hem halfway between ankle and knee, below the widest part of the calf. Introduced by designers in 1967 as a reaction to very short mini skirts. Mini-crini a mini-length version of the crinoline, designed by Vivienne Westwood in the mid 1980s. Poodle skirt A Poodle skirt is a circle or near-circle skirt with an appliqued poodle or other decoration (1950s) Puffball skirt A puffball skirt, also called "puff" or "pouf", is a bouffant skirt caught in at the hem to create a puffed silhouette. Popular in the mid-late 1980s when it was inspired by Westwood's "mini-crini". Rah-rah skirt A Rah-rah skirt is a short, tiered, and often colourful skirt fashionable in the early-mid-1980s. Sarong A Sarong is a square or rectangle of fabric wrapped around the body and tied on one hip to create a skirt that can be worn by both sexes Samare A Samare was a long-skirted jacket, in which a loose jacket with extra frills hung down to the knees in the style of a gown. Scooter skirt A scooter skirt or skort (variant), a skirt that has an attached pair of shorts underneath for modesty. Alternatively, but with similar effect, a pair of shorts incorporating a skirt-like flap across the front of the body. Skater skirt a short, high-waisted circle skirt with a hemline above the knee, often made of lighter materials to give the flowing effect that mimics the skirts of figure skaters. Squaw dress A Squaw dress or fiesta dress is a one or two piece outfit based on Native American clothing. Fashionable in the 1940s and 50s. Swing skirt flared skirt, circular or cut in gores, fitted at hips with a wide flare at the hem. Popular in the late 1930s and at interval since. Very popular in the mid-1980s. T-skirt A T-skirt is a skirt made from a tee-shirt. The T-skirt is generally modified to result in a pencil skirt, with invisible zippers, full length two-way separating side zippers, as well as artful fabric overlays and yokes. Tiered skirt a skirt made of several horizontal layers, each wider than the one above, and divided by stitching. Layers may look identical in solid-colored garments, or may differ when made of printed fabrics. Prairie skirt A Prairie skirt, variant of a tiered skirt, is a flared skirt with one or more flounces or tiers (1970s and on) Trouser skirt Trouser skirt or culotte, a straight skirt with the part above the hips tailored like men's trousers, with belt loops, pockets, and fly front. Tulip skirt see under: Bubble skirt. Lengths Male wear There are a number of garments marketed to men which fall under the category of "skirt" or "dress". These go by a variety of names and form part of the traditional dress for men from various cultures. Usage varies – the dhoti is part of everyday dress on the Indian subcontinent while the kilt is more usually restricted to occasional wear and the fustanella is used almost exclusively as costume. Robes, which are a type of dress for men, have existed in many cultures, including the Japanese kimono, the Chinese cheongsam, the Arabic thobe, and the African Senegalese kaftan. Robes are also used in some religious orders, such as the cassock in Christianity and various robes and cloaks that may be used in pagan rituals. Examples of men's skirts and skirt-like garments from various cultures include: The fustanella is a full-pleated skirt worn by men in Albania and Greece and other parts of the Balkans. By the mid-20th Century, it was relegated to ceremonial use and as period or traditional costume. It is worn by the Evzones, or Evzoni (Greek: Εύζωνες, Εύζωνοι, pronounced [evˈzones, evˈzoni]), which is the name of several historical elite light infantry and mountain units of the Greek Army. Today, it refers to the members of the Presidential Guard who parade the presidential mansion wearing a short version of this historic costume. The gho is a knee-length robe worn by men in Bhutan. They are required to wear it every day as part of national dress in government offices, in schools and on formal occasions. The hakama is worn in Japan. There are two types of hakama, divided umanori (馬乗り, "horse-riding hakama") and undivided andon hakama (行灯袴, "lantern hakama"). The umanori type has wide and divided legs, similar to culottes. Some hakamas are pleated. The kilt is a skirt of Gaelic and Celtic history, part of the Scottish national dress in particular, and is worn formally and to a lesser extent informally. Irish and Welsh kilts also exist but are not so much a part of national identity. The sarong is a piece of cloth that may be wrapped around the waist to form a skirt-like garment. Sarongs exist in various cultures under various names, including the pareo and lavalava of the Hawaiian islands and Polynesia (Samoa, Tonga, Tahiti, and Fiji), the Indian dhoti and lungi, and the South Indian and Maldivian mundu. Aside from the wearing of kilts, in the Western world skirts, dresses, and similar garments are generally viewed exclusively women's clothing which, historically, was not always the case. However, Western men have taken up skirts as forms of civil protest. Other Western men advocate skirts as a measure of co-equality between women and men. Gallery Basic types Fads and fashions World culture See also Trousers Victorian dress reform References Brockmamn, Helen L.: The Theory of Fashion Design, Wiley, 1965. Picken, Mary Brooks: The Fashion Dictionary, Funk and Wagnalls, 1957. (1973 edition ) Tozer, Jane, and Sarah Levitt: Fabric of Society: A Century of People and Their Clothes 1770–1870, Laura Ashley Ltd., 1983; External links ApparelSeach glossary of textile and apparel terms An international dress size converter New South Korean Law Might Make Miniskirts Illegal France Revokes 214-Year-Old Law That Made It Illegal For Women To Wear Pants Medieval European costume History of clothing Articles containing video clips	[ 0.10023802518844604, -0.7027320265769958, -0.2541496753692627, 0.36505672335624695, -0.1431262344121933, 0.17397440969944, 0.4894310235977173, 0.17467980086803436, -0.3946906328201294, -0.6078646183013916, -0.5578999519348145, 0.42185837030410767, -0.3284229636192322, -0.19247253239154816, -0.49476778507232666, 0.5837504863739014, 0.472192645072937, 0.711192786693573, 0.15227454900741577, -0.0003380372072570026, -0.23084574937820435, -0.2690456807613373, -0.3053150177001953, 0.05599045753479004, 0.7879550457000732, -0.4069463312625885, 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231679	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dress%20%28disambiguation%29	Dress (disambiguation)	A dress is a garment consisting of a skirt with an attached bodice or with a matching bodice giving the effect of a one-piece garment. Dress may also refer to: Attire Clothing in general Costume, fancy dress Standard diving dress, the old heavy canvas diving suit with a large metal helmet To dress a set, in film or theater production Music Dress (Shizuka Kudo album), 1997 Dress (Sophie Villy album), 2014 "Dress" (PJ Harvey song), 1991 "Dress" (Buck-Tick song), 1993 "Dress" (Taylor Swift song), 2017 Surname Andreas Dress (born 1938), German mathematician (born 1947), French actress Other Dress (film), an award-winning short film DRESS syndrome, Drug Rash (or Reaction) with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms, also known as Drug Hypersensitivity Syndrome See also Dres (Polish subculture), a term used in Poland to describe a specific subculture or class of young males Dresch, a French motorcycle manufacturer The Dress (disambiguation) Dressing (disambiguation) Dresser (disambiguation) Drees	[ 0.37118905782699585, -0.4873589277267456, -0.37358081340789795, 0.2818392217159271, -0.17249473929405212, 0.05969054624438286, 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231683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian%20University%20of%20Science%20and%20Technology	Norwegian University of Science and Technology	The Norwegian University of Science and Technology (, NTNU) is a public research university in Norway with the main campus in Trondheim and smaller campuses in Gjøvik and Ålesund. The largest university in Norway, NTNU has over 8,000 employees and over 40,000 students. NTNU in its current form was established by the King-in-Council in 1996 by the merger of the former University of Trondheim and other university-level institutions, with roots dating back to 1760, and has later also incorporated some former university colleges. NTNU is consistently ranked in the top one percentage among the world's universities, usually in the 400–600 range depending on ranking. NTNU has the main national responsibility for education and research in engineering and technology, and is the successor of Norway's preeminent engineering university, the Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH), established by Parliament in 1910 as Norway's national engineering university. In addition to engineering and natural sciences, the university offers higher education in other academic disciplines ranging from medicine, psychology, social sciences, the arts, teacher education, architecture and fine art. NTNU is well known for its close collaboration with industry, and particularly with its R&D partner SINTEF, which provided it with the biggest industrial link among all the technical universities in the world. The university's academics include three Nobel laureates in physiology or medicine: Edvard Moser, May-Britt Moser and John O'Keefe. History NTNU is a young institution with a long history. The university, in its current form, was established in 1996 by the merger of six research and higher education institutions in Trondheim, as follows: Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH), established in 1910 Museum of Natural History and Archaeology (VM), established in 1767 Norwegian College of General Sciences (AVH), established in 1922 Faculty of Medicine (DMF), established in 1975 Trondheim Academy of Fine Art (KiT), established in 1987 Trondheim Conservatory of Music, established in 1973 Prior to the merger, NTH, NLHT, DMF, and VM together constituted the University of Trondheim , which was a much looser organization. However, the university's root goes back to 1760, with the foundation of Det Trondhiemske Selskab (Trondheim Academy), which in 1767 became the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters. The engineering education in Trondheim began with Trondhjems Tekniske Læreanstalt (Trondheim Technical College) in 1870, and in 1910, Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) opened officially. In 2010, NTNU celebrated the 250th anniversary of Trondheim Academy. NTNU also celebrated the 100th anniversary of NTH in the same year. The centennial was also celebrated by the publication of several books, among them a history of the university, entitled "Turbulens og tankekraft. Historien om NTNU" which translates as "Turbulence and mindpower: The history of NTNU". 1700s Det Trondhiemske Selskab (Trondheim Academy), Norway's first academic society, was founded in 1760. In 1767, it changed its name to the Royal Norwegian Society of Science and Letters (DKNVS) upon receiving recognition from the Danish-Norwegian king. DKNVS library – today known as NTNU Gunnerus Library – was founded in 1768, and is Norway's oldest library. 1800s First proposal for a Norwegian Polytechnical Institute was made in 1833. Trondhjems Tekniske Læreanstalt (Trondheim Technical College) or TTL was founded in 1870. The newly formed school educated engineers of various fields. In 1898, TTL moved to a larger building in Munkegata. TTL was disbanded in 1900s, giving a way to a Norwegian Institute of Technology. 1900–1968 In 1900, the Norwegian Parliament passed a resolution supporting the establishment of Norwegian Institute of Technology (NTH) in Trondheim. NTH was officially opened on September 15, 1910. Five academical departments were originally present in the parliament's resolution of 31 May 1900, such as Architecture and Urban Planning, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering (a. General and b. Naval, i.e. ship and ship engine construction), Electrical engineering, and Chemistry (a. General and b. Electro-chemistry). In 1922, Norwegian College of Teaching in Trondheim (NLHT) opened at Lade gård. In 1950, Stiftelsen for industriell og teknisk forskning (Industrial and Technical Research Centre) or SINTEF was founded as part of NTH and as its link to Norwegian industry. 1968–1996 The University of Trondheim (UNiT) was established in 1968, and the Department of Medicine (later the Faculty of Medicine) was established as part of UNiT in 1974. It was designed by the architect Henning Larsen. In 1984, NLHT also absorbed the Norwegian College of General Sciences (AVH) as part of UNiT. 1996–2016 On 1 January 1996, the University of Trondheim became the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU). As early as 1989, NTH Rector Karsten Jakobsen had broached the idea of a Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim. On March 21, 1995, the Parliament, with barely a majority after a long debate, decided to establish NTNU in Trondheim. In 2012 the popular trivia game Kahoot was founded in by Johan Brand, Jamie Brooker and Morten Versvik in a joint project with the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. They teamed up with Professor Alf Inge Wang and were later joined by Norwegian entrepreneur Åsmund Furuseth. 2016–present In 2014, the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research asked the country's universities and university colleges to provide suggestions, observations, and ideas for rebuilding Norway's institutions of higher education. The context of the request was that the Norwegian government wanted to cut back on the number of institutions in the sector. The NTNU board decided on 28 January 2015 to merge NTNU with the University Colleges of Sør-Trøndelag, Ålesund and Gjøvik to form a new university that would retain the university's current name, the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. The merger, which went into effect in January 2016, made NTNU Norway's largest single university. Campus NTNU has several campuses in Trondheim; Gløshaugen – for engineering and natural sciences – and Dragvoll – for humanities and social sciences – are the main two campuses. Other campuses include Tyholt for marine technology, Øya for medicine, Kalvskinnet for archaeology, Midtbyen for the music conservatory and Nedre Elvehavn for the art academy. NTNU Gløshaugen is an artistic combination of historical NTH buildings and modern buildings. Combined, the campuses span a total area of 734,000 m2. In addition to NTNU, the following research institutes are located at Gløshaugen, and cooperate closely with NTNU in several areas of research and development: SINTEF, since its establishment in 1950, has its main departments at Gløshaugen. SINTEF was originally founded by NTH, but since 1980 has been an independent research institute. In 1998, the Paper and Fibre Research Institute (PFI), an independent research institute, moved into a new building at Gløshaugen, relocating from Gaustad in Oslo. In April 2013, the Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA) moved into a new building south of the Natural Science building. NINA often works closely with SINTEF and NTNU. NTNU has long considered the possibility of bringing the two largest campuses together at or near NTNU's Gløshaugen campus. In 2013, the Rector initiated a vision project and charged it with defining different perspectives on future development in a 50-year perspective. The same year, 2013, the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research initiated a choice of concept study for the future co-localization of NTNU's two main campuses in Trondheim. The reports were presented in 2014, and both recommended bringing Dragvoll and Gløshaugen together, and better integrating them with the city. A unanimous NTNU board endorsed the recommendations in the vision report. Merger On 1 January 2016, the merger between NTNU and the university colleges in Gjøvik, Ålesund, and Sør-Trøndelag officially entered into force, and NTNU consequently had campuses in Ålesund and Gjøvik, as well as in Trondheim. 2016 was also a transitional year in terms of NTNU's leadership. On November 24, 2015, the new Board met for the first time. It was then extended to include board members from each of the three former university colleges and an external representative appointed by the Ministry of Education. Organization NTNU is governed by a board of 11 members, in accordance with the provisions of the Norwegian Act relating to universities and university colleges. Two of the members are elected by and from the students. NTNU's overall budget in 2017 was 8.19 billion NOK, most of which came from the Norwegian Ministry of Education. As a result of the university merger in 2016, the number of NTNU faculties increased from seven to nine – including the University Museum – with approximately 39,000 students and approximately 2,500 PhD students. The nine NTNU faculties are organized in 65 departments: Faculty of Engineering The Faculty of Engineering has eight departments: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Department of Energy and Process Engineering Department of Geoscience and Petroleum Department of Marine Technology Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering Department of Structural Engineering Department of Manufacturing and Civil Engineering (in Gjøvik) Department of Ocean Operations and Civil Engineering (in Ålesund) Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering The Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering has eight departments: Department of Computer Science Department of Electric Power Engineering Department of Electronic Systems Department of Engineering Cybernetics Department of General Science Department of Information Security and Communication Technology Department of Mathematical Sciences Department of ICT and Natural Sciences (in Ålesund) Department of Software Engineering in masters Department of Graphics Design Faculty of Natural Sciences The Faculty of Natural Sciences has eight departments: Department of Biology Department of Biomedical Laboratory Science Department of Biotechnology and Food Science Department of Chemical Engineering Department of Chemistry Department of Materials Science and Engineering Department of Physics Department of Biological Sciences Ålesund Faculty of Architecture and Design The Faculty of Architecture and Design has four departments: Department of Architecture and Planning Department of Architecture and Technology Department of Design Trondheim Academy of Fine Art Faculty of Economics and Management The Faculty of Economics and Management has four departments: Department of Economics Department of Industrial Economics and Technology Management Department of International Business NTNU Business School Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences The Faculty is integrated with St. Olavs Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, and is located in Campus Øya in Trondheim. Its main areas of research are translational research, medical technology and health surveys, biobanks and registers. In 2016 the faculty had about 350 master's degree students, 250 bachelor's degree students, 720 medical students and more than 500 students attending other courses. The Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences has eight departments: Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging Department of Mental Health Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science Department of Public Health and Nursing Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience Department of Health Sciences in Gjøvik Department of Health Sciences in Ålesund Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences The Faculty of Social and Educational Sciences has seven departments: Department of Education and Lifelong Learning Department of Geography Department of Psychology Department of Social Anthropology Department of Social Work Department of Sociology and Political Science Department of Teacher Education Faculty of Humanities The Faculty of Humanities has six departments: Department of Art and Media Studies Department of Historical Studies Department of Interdisciplinary Studies of Culture Department of Language and Literature Department of Music Department of Philosophy and Religious Studies University Museum The NTNU University Museum forms part of the university at the same organizational level as the faculties. It has two departments: Department of Archaeology and Cultural History Department of Natural History Research NTNU's history of research in engineering goes back to the early 20th century, when Norway's first electric railway, known as Thamshavn Line, was developed and constructed in Trondheim as an AC powered tramway, with Trondheim-based technologies. The tramway was launched in 1908 and remained in operation until 1974. Now, research is part of the ongoing activities at NTNU faculties as well as the University Museum. The university has 4377 scientific staff who conduct research in more than 120 laboratories, and are at any time running more than 2,000 research projects. Students and staff can take advantage of roughly 300 research agreements or exchange programs with 58 institutions worldwide. NTNU has identified four Strategic Research Areas for 2014–2023: NTNU Energy, NTNU Health, NTNU Oceans and NTNU Sustainability, which were chosen on the basis of social relevance, professional quality and the potential for interdisciplinary cooperation. Research centres The university hosts six National Centres of Excellence (SFF), 12 Centres for Research-based Innovation (SFI), and three Centres for Environment-friendly Energy Research (FME), which are mainly funded by The Research Council of Norway. NTNU is also a partner in several centres with SINTEF. The Trøndelag Health Study, with the HUNT Research Centre and HUNT Biobank located in Levanger, is organized under the Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences. Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience The fifteenth Kavli Institute was inaugurated at NTNU in 2007, as the Kavli Institute for Systems Neuroscience, which was the fourth Kavli Institute in neuroscience in the world and the first Kavli Institute in Northern Europe. In 2012, Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg opened the Norwegian Brain Centre as an outgrowth of NTNU's Kavli Institute. It is one of the largest research laboratories of its kind in the world. Enabling technologies NTNU has funded the fundamental long-term research and infrastructure through three Enabling Technologies such as NTNU Biotechnology, NTNU Digital and Nano@NTNU. Research excellence NTNU Research Excellence is an initiative to develop elite researchers and research groups in international class, which was launched in 2013, and includes established and new initiatives. The established initiatives are financed by the Research Council of Norway, the EU, and private-sectors (R&D), while the new initiatives are funded by NTNU's own funds in light of strategic prioritization of NTNU's resources. These cover a number of research funding schemes including Outstanding Academic Fellows Programme, Onsager Fellowship Programme, K.G. Jebsen Centres, EU projects, and ERC grants. NTNU participates in about 218 projects in the EU Horizon 2020 Framework Program. NTNU-SINTEF partnership NTNU works closely with SINTEF, Scandinavia's largest independent research institute and one of the largest contract research organizations in Europe, which is integrated into NTNU Campuses. The cooperation of NTNU and SINTEF has been further developed through the project "Better Together", which was launched in 2014. The research collaboration includes a number of joint research laboratories, for example: Gemini Centres: NTNU and SINTEF have established a wide range of Gemini Centres. Scientific groups with parallel interests coordinate their scientific efforts and jointly operate their resources. MARINTEK: MARINTEK has more than 70 years of experience in the developing of cost-effective, high-performance ships, where model testing in their laboratories constitutes an important element. It provides testing facilities, expertise, and analytical tools for developing operationally efficient and safe ship concepts. MARINTEK is located at the NTNU Department of Marine Technology, and has recently joined SINTEF Ocean. Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre: Rolls-Royce Marine, MARINTEK, and NTNU have had a close collaboration for more than 30 years, with cooperation in the development of propellers, propulsion systems, ship designs, and various ship equipment. The Rolls-Royce University Technology Centre is a long-term research collaboration between NTNU, MARINTEK and Rolls-Royce Marine, with a special focus on propellers and propulsion in waves and off-design conditions. NTNU NanoLab: NTNU NanoLab aims to facilitate a collaborative research environment for scientists within the fields of physics, chemistry, biology, electrical engineering, materials technology and medical research. The research activities are carried out in collaboration with SINTEF. SINTEF Energy Lab: SINTEF Energy Lab represents the next generation energy laboratories, and provide important tools for development of future energy solutions and power systems. It has a wide range of experimental facilities in different areas of Electric Power Engineering from High Voltage Technology to Power Electronics. The research activities are application-based and are carried out in close collaboration with NTNU. The Gas Technology Centre: The Gas Centre seeks to exploit the synergism of multidisciplinary research into the natural gas value chain. The centre is the largest natural gas research- and educational centre in Norway, located at NTNU. Norwegian Fuel Cell Hydrogen Centre, a joint initiative taken by SINTEF, NTNU and Institute for Energy Technology (IFE). Publishing To increase Open Access publishing, NTNU has established a publishing fund. In 2008 NTNU's digital institutional repository was founded. The intention was to establish a full-text archive for the documentation of the scientific output of the institution, and to make as much as possible of the material available online, both nationally and internationally. In addition to the research articles and books, intended for academics and researchers both inside and outside the university, NTNU disseminates news to the public about the institution and its research and results. Universitetsavisa, which translates to The University Newspaper, is the news and discussion paper of the university, available only in Norwegian. It was established in 1991. For a period it existed in both printed and digital editions, but since 2002 it is only available online. GEMINI publishes research news from NTNU and the independent research group SINTEF in both English and Norwegian. It is published in both a printed and a digital version. The Norwegian University of Science and Technology publishes the Nordic Journal of Science and Technology. Ranking According to Times Higher Education World University Rankings published in March 2017, NTNU is ranked first in the world ranking of universities with the biggest corporate links, due to its research collaboration with SINTEF. Statistically, 9.1 percent of NTNU's total research output is generated in collaboration with SINTEF, which is the largest academic-industry partnership in the world. NTNU was ranked 205th in the world 2 June 2021 in the CWTS Leiden Ranking, which is based on bibliometric indicators. NTNU was ranked 59th in Europe and 187th in the World in July 2020 in the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities for its presence on the web. Rankings by ARWU Global Ranking of Academic Subjects 2021: Engineering – Marine/Ocean Engineering: 2 Engineering – Chemical Engineering: 76–100 Engineering – Metallurgical Engineering: 40 Engineering – Automation & Control: 101–150 Studies NTNU specializes in technology and the natural sciences, but also offers a range of bachelor's, master's and doctoral programmes in the humanities, social sciences, economics and public and business administration, and aesthetic disciplines. The university also offers professional degree programmes in medicine, psychology, architecture, the fine arts, music, and teacher education, in addition to technology. According to the Norwegian Social Science Data Services, NTNU had 84,797 applicants in 2011 and a total student population of 19,054, of whom 9,062 were women. There were 6,193 students enrolled in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Technology Management, 3,518 students enrolled in the Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, 3,256 students enrolled in the Faculty of Humanities, 3,090 students enrolled in the Faculty of Information Technology, Mathematics and Electrical Engineering, 2,014 students enrolled in the Faculty of Natural Sciences and Technology, 1,071 enrolled in the Faculty of Medicine, and 605 enrolled in the Faculty of Architecture and Fine Art. About 3,500 bachelor's and master's degrees are awarded each year, and more than 5,500 participate in further education programmes. NTNU has more than 300 cooperative or exchange agreements with 60 universities worldwide, and several international student exchange programmes. There are, at any given time, around 2,600 foreign students at the university. NTNU Teaching Excellence In 2015, NTNU established an initiative called ″NTNU Teaching Excellence″. Student life NTNU welcomes students from all over the world, and offers more than 60 international master programmes as well as PhD programmes, which all are taught in English. PhD vacancies are announced on the university website and are paid as academic staff, that offers one of the world's best PhD fellowships as well as employment benefits under Norwegian law. There are no tuition fees at NTNU, however students do pay "semesteravgift" every semester. However, the international students have to guarantee their living expenses if they are not offered a scholarship. NTNU students have a clear presence in the city of Trondheim. The most famous student organization is the Studentersamfundet i Trondhjem, also known as "the red round house" after its architectural form; every other year it organizes a cultural festival UKA. Another festival organized by students is the International Student Festival in Trondheim ISFiT, which awards a student peace prize and draws internationally known speakers. EMECS-thon is a student driven embedded systems marathon competition, organized by students from NTNU and implemented in some of the top universities worldwide, where participants have 48 hours to develop an embedded project from scratch. The student sports organization, NTNUI, has roughly 10 000 members in its many branches, with the largest groups including orienteering, cross-country and telemark skiing, but there are also groups for sports less common in Norway, like American football, lacrosse and aikido. A cabin and cottage organization owns several cabins in the countryside, available for students wishing to spend a few days away. There are also student fraternities, some of which conduct voluntary hazing rituals, which provide contact with potential employers and for social interaction between students. There are also alumni associations; religious and political organizations; clubs devoted to various topics such as innovation, human rights, beer, oatmeal, anime and computers; and The Association for Various Associations, which is a parody of the university's large number of student organizations. University recently started to offer "roof over your head" guarantee to the new coming student to Trondheim until they find proper housing. The Gløshaugen campus of the university has been filmed with a quadcopter and may be seen as YouTube video here. NTNU is a pioneer with of the concept of "Student Cabins", the university offers its students access to cabins on the outskirts of the city of Trondheim in which they can enjoy on vacations and weekends. Nobel laureates and notable people Nobel laureates 1968 Lars Onsager, Chemistry (graduated as a chemical engineer from Norwegian Institute of Technology, NTH, in 1925), 1973 Ivar Giaever, Physics (graduated as a mechanical engineer from Norwegian Institute of Technology, NTH, in 1952) 2014 Edvard Moser, Medicine or Physiology (professor of neuroscience, NTNU), not NTNU alumni 2014 May-Britt Moser, Medicine or Physiology (professor of neuroscience, NTNU), not NTNU alumni 2014 John O'Keefe, Medicine or Physiology (visiting researcher, NTNU 2015– ), not NTNU alumni Faculty and staff Alumni and honorary doctors In 2006, NTNU Alumni was founded, primarily as a meeting place and professional network for former students and staff of NTNU and its precursors. The network is now also open to current employees and students. In 2014 the number of members was around 30,000. NTNU annually awards honorary doctorates to scientists and others who have made an extraordinary contribution to science or culture. See also Gemini (magazine), research news from NTNU and SINTEF Centre for Renewable Energy References External links Official website NTNU – facts and figures An overview of some of NTNU's laboratories An overview of the campus in Gløshaugen Universities and colleges in Norway Science and technology in Norway Education in Trondheim Buildings and structures in Trondheim Educational institutions established in 1996 1996 establishments in Norway Architecture schools Members of the European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics Engineering universities and colleges in Norway Universities and colleges formed by merger in Norway	[ 0.3099210858345032, 0.24709250032901764, 0.5574682354927063, -0.20341865718364716, -0.04986169934272766, 0.1091417595744133, 0.47798869013786316, 0.5732552409172058, -0.43427518010139465, -0.19315029680728912, -0.40704867243766785, 0.03742359206080437, 0.19110147655010223, 0.4327884614467621, 0.1626036912202835, -0.1968696564435959, 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231687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorites%20paradox	Sorites paradox	The sorites paradox (; sometimes known as the paradox of the heap) is a paradox that results from vague predicates. A typical formulation involves a heap of sand, from which grains are removed individually. With the assumption that removing a single grain does not cause a heap to become a non-heap, the paradox is to consider what happens when the process is repeated enough times that only one grain remains: is it still a heap? If not, when did it change from a heap to a non-heap? The original formulation and variations Paradox of the heap The word sorites () derives from the Greek word for 'heap' (). The paradox is so named because of its original characterization, attributed to Eubulides of Miletus. The paradox is as follows: consider a heap of sand from which grains are removed individually. One might construct the argument, using premises, as follows: grains of sand is a heap of sand (Premise 1) A heap of sand minus one grain is still a heap. (Premise 2) Repeated applications of Premise 2 (each time starting with one fewer grain) eventually forces one to accept the conclusion that a heap may be composed of just one grain of sand. Read (1995) observes that "the argument is itself a heap, or sorites, of steps of modus ponens": grains is a heap. If grains is a heap then grains is a heap. So grains is a heap. If grains is a heap then grains is a heap. So grains is a heap. If ... ... So grain is a heap. Variations Another formulation is to start with a grain of sand, which is clearly not a heap, and then assume that adding a single grain of sand to something that is not a heap does not cause it to become a heap. Inductively, this process can be repeated as much as one wants without ever constructing a heap. A more natural formulation of this variant is to assume a set of colored chips exists such that two adjacent chips vary in color too little for human eyesight to be able to distinguish between them. Then by induction on this premise, humans would not be able to distinguish between any colors. The removal of one drop from the ocean, will not make it 'not an ocean' (it is still an ocean), but since the volume of water in the ocean is finite, eventually, after enough removals, even a litre of water left is still an ocean. This paradox can be reconstructed for a variety of predicates, for example, with "tall", "rich", "old", "blue", "bald", and so on. Bertrand Russell argued that all of natural language, even logical connectives, is vague; moreover, representations of propositions are vague. Continuum fallacy The continuum fallacy (also known as the fallacy of the beard, line-drawing fallacy or decision-point fallacy) is an informal fallacy related to the sorites paradox. Both fallacies cause one to erroneously reject a vague claim simply because it is not as precise as one would like it to be. Vagueness alone does not necessarily imply invalidity. The fallacy is the argument that two states or conditions cannot be considered distinct (or do not exist at all) because between them there exists a continuum of states. Strictly, the sorites paradox refers to situations where there are many discrete states (classically between 1 and 1,000,000 grains of sand, hence 1,000,000 possible states), while the continuum fallacy refers to situations where there is (or appears to be) a continuum of states, such as temperature. Whether any continua exist in the physical world is the classic question of atomism, and while both Newtonian physics and quantum physics model the world as continuous, there are some proposals in quantum gravity, such as loop quantum gravity, that suggest that notions of continuous length do not apply at the Planck length, and thus what appear to be continua may simply be as-yet undistinguishable discrete states. For the purpose of the continuum fallacy, one assumes that there is in fact a continuum, though this is generally a minor distinction: in general, any argument against the sorites paradox can also be used against the continuum fallacy. One argument against the fallacy is based on the simple counterexample: there do exist bald people and people who are not bald. Another argument is that for each degree of change in states, the degree of the condition changes slightly, and these slight changes build up to shift the state from one category to another. For example, perhaps the addition of a grain of rice causes the total group of rice to be "slightly more" of a heap, and enough slight changes will certify the group's heap status – see Fuzzy logic. Proposed resolutions Denying the existence of heaps One may object to the first premise by denying that grains of sand makes a heap. But is just an arbitrary large number, and the argument will apply with any such number. So the response must deny outright that there are such things as heaps. Peter Unger defends this solution. Setting a fixed boundary A common first response to the paradox is to term any set of grains that has more than a certain number of grains in it a heap. If one were to define the "fixed boundary" at grains then one would claim that for fewer than , it is not a heap; for or more, then it is a heap. Collins argues that such solutions are unsatisfactory as there seems little significance to the difference between grains and grains. The boundary, wherever it may be set, remains arbitrary, and so its precision is misleading. It is objectionable on both philosophical and linguistic grounds: the former on account of its arbitrariness, and the latter on the ground that it is simply not how natural language is used. A second response attempts to find a fixed boundary that represents common usage of a term. For example, a dictionary may define a "heap" as "a collection of things thrown together so as to form an elevation". This requires there to be enough grains that some grains are supported by other grains. Thus, adding one grain atop a single layer produces a heap, and removing the last grain above the bottom layer destroys the heap. Unknowable boundaries (or epistemicism) Timothy Williamson and Roy Sorensen claim that there are fixed boundaries but that they are necessarily unknowable. Supervaluationism Supervaluationism is a method for dealing with irreferential singular terms and vagueness. It allows one to retain the usual tautological laws even when dealing with undefined truth values. As an example for a proposition about an irreferential singular term, consider the sentence "Pegasus likes licorice". Since the name "Pegasus" fails to refer, no truth value can be assigned to the sentence; there is nothing in the myth that would justify any such assignment. However, there are some statements about "Pegasus" which have definite truth values nevertheless, such as "Pegasus likes licorice or Pegasus doesn't like licorice". This sentence is an instance of the tautology "", i.e. the valid schema " or not-". According to supervaluationism, it should be true regardless of whether or not its components have a truth value. By admitting sentences without defined truth values, supervaluationism avoids adjacent cases such that n grains of sand is a heap of sand, but n-1 grains is not; for example, " grains of sand is a heap" may be considered a border case having no defined truth value. Nevertheless, supervaluationism is able to handle a sentence like " grains of sand is a heap, or grains of sand is not a heap" as a tautology, i.e. to assign it the value true. Mathematical explanation Let be a classical valuation defined on every atomic sentence of the language , and let be the number of distinct atomic sentences in . Then for every sentence , at most distinct classical valuations can exist. A supervaluation is a function from sentences to truth values such that, a sentence is super-true (i.e. ) if and only if for every classical valuation ; likewise for super-false. Otherwise, is undefined—i.e. exactly when there are two classical valuations and such that and . For example, let be the formal translation of "Pegasus likes licorice". Then there are exactly two classical valuations and on , viz. and . So is neither super-true nor super-false. However, the tautology is evaluated to by every classical valuation; it is hence super-true. Similarly, the formalization of the above heap proposition is neither super-true nor super-false, but is super-true. Truth gaps, gluts, and multi-valued logics Another method is to use a multi-valued logic. In this context, the problem is with the principle of bivalence: the sand is either a heap or is not a heap, without any shades of gray. Instead of two logical states, heap and not-heap, a three value system can be used, for example heap, indeterminate and not-heap. A response to this proposed solution is that three valued systems do not truly resolve the paradox as there is still a dividing line between heap and indeterminate and also between indeterminate and not-heap. The third truth-value can be understood either as a truth-value gap or as a truth-value glut. Alternatively, fuzzy logic offers a continuous spectrum of logical states represented in the unit interval of real numbers [0,1]—it is a many-valued logic with infinitely-many truth-values, and thus the sand transitions gradually from "definitely heap" to "definitely not heap", with shades in the intermediate region. Fuzzy hedges are used to divide the continuum into regions corresponding to classes like definitely heap, mostly heap, partly heap, slightly heap, and not heap. Though the problem remains of where these borders occur; e.g. at what number of grains sand starts being 'definitely' a heap. Hysteresis Another method, introduced by Raffman, is to use hysteresis, that is, knowledge of what the collection of sand started as. Equivalent amounts of sand may be termed heaps or not based on how they got there. If a large heap (indisputably described as a heap) is diminished slowly, it preserves its "heap status" to a point, even as the actual amount of sand is reduced to a smaller number of grains. For example, grains is a pile and grains is a heap. There will be an overlap for these states. So if one is reducing it from a heap to a pile, it is a heap going down until . At that point one would stop calling it a heap and start calling it a pile. But if one replaces one grain, it would not instantly turn back into a heap. When going up it would remain a pile until grains. The numbers picked are arbitrary; the point is, that the same amount can be either a heap or a pile depending on what it was before the change. A common use of hysteresis would be the thermostat for air conditioning: the AC is set at 77 °F and it then cools the air to just below 77 °F, but does not activate again instantly when the air warms to 77.001 °F—it waits until almost 78 °F, to prevent instant change of state over and over again. Group consensus One can establish the meaning of the word "heap" by appealing to consensus. Williamson, in his epistemic solution to the paradox, assumes that the meaning of vague terms must be determined by group usage. The consensus method typically claims that a collection of grains is as much a "heap" as the proportion of people in a group who believe it to be so. In other words, the probability that any collection is considered a heap is the expected value of the distribution of the group's opinion. A group may decide that: One grain of sand on its own is not a heap. A large collection of grains of sand is a heap. Between the two extremes, individual members of the group may disagree with each other over whether any particular collection can be labelled a "heap". The collection can then not be definitively claimed to be a "heap" or "not a heap". This can be considered an appeal to descriptive linguistics rather than prescriptive linguistics, as it resolves the issue of definition based on how the population uses natural language. Indeed, if a precise prescriptive definition of "heap" is available then the group consensus will always be unanimous and the paradox does not occur. Resolutions in utility theory In the economics field of utility theory, the sorites paradox arises when a person's preferences patterns are investigated. As an example by Robert Duncan Luce, it is easy to find a person, say Peggy, who prefers in her coffee 3 grams (that is, 1 cube) of sugar to 15 grams (5 cubes), however, she will usually be indifferent between 3.00 and 3.03 grams, as well as between 3.03 and 3.06 grams, and so on, as well as finally between 14.97 and 15.00 grams. Two measures were taken by economists to avoid the sorites paradox in such a setting. Comparative, rather than positive, forms of properties are used. The above example deliberately does not make a statement like "Peggy likes a cup of coffee with 3 grams of sugar", or "Peggy does not like a cup of coffee with 15 grams of sugar". Instead, it states "Peggy likes a cup of coffee with 3 grams of sugar more than one with 15 grams of sugar". Economists distinguish preference ("Peggy likes ... more than ...") from indifference ("Peggy likes ... as much as ... "), and do not consider the latter relation to be transitive. In the above example, abbreviating "a cup of coffee with x grams of sugar" by "cx", and "Peggy is indifferent between cx and cy" as the facts and and ... and do not imply Several kinds of relations were introduced to describe preference and indifference without running into the sorites paradox. Luce defined semi-orders and investigated their mathematical properties; Amartya Sen performed a similar task for quasitransitive relations. Abbreviating "Peggy likes cx more than cy" as and abbreviating or by it is reasonable that the relation ">" is a semi-order while ≥ is quasitransitive. Conversely, from a given semi-order > the indifference relation ≈ can be reconstructed by defining if neither nor Similarly, from a given quasitransitive relation ≥ the indifference relation ≈ can be reconstructed by defining if both and These reconstructed ≈ relations are usually not transitive. The table to the right shows how the above color example can be modelled as a quasi-transitive relation ≥. Color differences overdone for readability. A color X is said to be more or equally red than a color Y if the table cell in row X and column Y is not empty. In that case, if it holds a "≈", then X and Y look indistinguishably equal, and if it holds a ">", then X looks clearly more red than Y. The relation ≥ is the disjoint union of the symmetric relation ≈ and the transitive relation >. Using the transitivity of >, the knowledge of both > and > allows one to infer that > . However, since ≥ is not transitive, a "paradoxical" inference like " ≥ and ≥ , hence ≥ " is no longer possible. For the same reason, e.g. " ≈ and ≈ , hence ≈ " is no longer a valid inference. Similarly, to resolve the original heap variation of the paradox with this approach, the relation "X grains are more a heap than Y grains" could be considered quasitransitive rather than transitive. See also Ambiguity Boiling frog Closed concept Fuzzy concept I know it when I see it Imprecise language List of fallacies Loki's Wager Ring species Ship of Theseus Slippery slope Straw that broke the camel's back References Bibliography ; Sect.3 External links by Dominic Hyde. 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231691	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution%20Protection%20Office	Constitution Protection Office	The Constitution Protection Office (Hungarian: "Alkotmányvédelmi Hivatal", "AH") is a Hungarian internal security intelligence agency, formerly known as Nemzetbiztonsági Hivatal (en. Office of National Security). Its primary responsibilities are: counterintelligence, anticorruption, economic security and related proactive measures. The AH also leads investigations against organized crime and deals with (mainly internal) threats against society (such as subversion). AH is active since 2010. General Directors Brig. László Göbölös since 2010 External links internet page of the AH References Hungarian intelligence agencies National security institutions	[ 0.5049492120742798, 0.533138632774353, -0.2720890939235687, -0.1180591806769371, 0.2790066599845886, -0.05278626084327698, 0.20311544835567474, -0.3327699899673462, -0.2930091619491577, 0.25900760293006897, -0.15325835347175598, 0.626651406288147, 0.018386829644441605, -0.04289356246590614, -0.3909852206707001, -0.1609867364168167, 0.6537341475486755, 0.829774022102356, 0.4163559675216675, -0.4062690734863281, 0.00897141546010971, 0.15309730172157288, -0.33056971430778503, -0.33294984698295593, -0.09889291226863861, -0.25638091564178467, 0.5771497488021851, -0.17682884633541107, -0.38203999400138855, -0.11900411546230316, 0.1457177847623825, 0.19424200057983398, -0.4130861461162567, -0.25922685861587524, 0.017338160425424576, 0.2058981955051422, -0.311221718788147, -0.27726635336875916, -0.20914329588413239, -0.0009138787863776088, 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231698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balaton	Balaton	Lake Balaton is a lake in Hungary, the largest lake in central Europe Balaton may also refer to: 2242 Balaton, a main-belt asteroid Balaton (car), a Hungarian microcar Balaton (village), a village in Heves county, Hungary Balaton, Minnesota, a city in the United States Balaton cheese, a type of Hungarian semi-hard cheese made from cow's milk Principality of Lower Pannonia or Balaton Principality (c. 839–901), a Slavic state	[ 0.1936398148536682, 0.5365839004516602, 0.3861093521118164, 0.1340787559747696, 0.06599971652030945, 0.5807230472564697, 0.22739483416080475, 0.4944037199020386, -0.7755617499351501, 0.018688449636101723, -0.5369619727134705, -0.26888778805732727, 0.08978006988763809, 0.8261546492576599, -0.23429837822914124, 0.26562127470970154, 0.7194320559501648, 0.31169942021369934, 0.33168286085128784, -0.1339939385652542, 0.4520965814590454, -0.0782310739159584, 0.5221503376960754, 0.07412636280059814, -0.3080589175224304, 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231699	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giacomo%20Casanova	Giacomo Casanova	Giacomo Girolamo Casanova (, ; 2 April 1725 – 4 June 1798) was an Italian adventurer and author from the Republic of Venice. His autobiography, Histoire de ma vie (Story of My Life), is regarded as one of the most authentic sources of the customs and norms of European social life during the 18th century. As was not uncommon at the time, Casanova, depending on circumstances, used more or less fictitious names, such as baron or count of Farussi (the maiden name of his mother) or (). He often signed his works Jacques Casanova de Seingalt after he began writing in French following his second exile from Venice. He has become so famous for his often complicated and elaborate affairs with women that his name is now synonymous with "womanizer". He associated with European royalty, popes, and cardinals, along with the artistic figures Voltaire, Goethe, and Mozart. He spent his last years in the Dux Chateau (Bohemia) as a librarian in Count Waldstein's household, where he also wrote the story of his life. Biography Youth Giacomo Girolamo Casanova was born in Venice in 1725 to actress Zanetta Farussi, wife of actor and dancer Gaetano Casanova. Giacomo was the first of six children, being followed by Francesco Giuseppe (1727–1803), Giovanni Battista (1730–1795), Faustina Maddalena (1731–1736), Maria Maddalena Antonia Stella (1732–1800), and Gaetano Alvise (1734–1783). At the time of Casanova's birth, the city of Venice thrived as the pleasure capital of Europe, ruled by political and religious conservatives who tolerated social vices and encouraged tourism. It was a required stop on the Grand Tour, traveled by young men coming of age, especially men from the Kingdom of Great Britain. The famed Carnival, gambling houses, and beautiful courtesans were powerful drawing cards. This was the milieu that bred Casanova and made him its most famous and representative citizen. Casanova was cared for by his grandmother Marzia Baldissera while his mother toured about Europe in the theater. His father died when he was eight. As a child, Casanova suffered nosebleeds, and his grandmother sought help from a witch: "Leaving the gondola, we enter a hovel, where we find an old woman sitting on a pallet, with a black cat in her arms and five or six others around her." Though the unguent applied was ineffective, Casanova was fascinated by the incantation. Perhaps to remedy the nosebleeds (a physician blamed the density of Venice's air), Casanova, on his ninth birthday, was sent to a boarding house on the mainland in Padua. For Casanova, the neglect by his parents was a bitter memory. "So they got rid of me," he proclaimed. Conditions at the boarding house were appalling, so he appealed to be placed under the care of Abbé Gozzi, his primary instructor, who tutored him in academic subjects, as well as the violin. Casanova moved in with the priest and his family and lived there through most of his teenage years. In the Gozzi household, Casanova first came into contact with the opposite sex, when Gozzi's younger sister Bettina fondled him at the age of 11. Bettina was "pretty, lighthearted, and a great reader of romances. ... The girl pleased me at once, though I had no idea why. It was she who little by little kindled in my heart the first sparks of a feeling which later became my ruling passion." Although she subsequently married, Casanova maintained a lifelong attachment to Bettina and the Gozzi family. Early on, Casanova demonstrated a quick wit, an intense appetite for knowledge, and a perpetually inquisitive mind. He entered the University of Padua at 12 and graduated at 17, in 1742, with a degree in law ("for which I felt an unconquerable aversion"). His guardian's hope was that he would become an ecclesiastical lawyer. Casanova had also studied moral philosophy, chemistry, and mathematics, and was keenly interested in medicine. ("I should have been allowed to do as I wished and become a physician, in which profession quackery is even more effective than it is in legal practice.") He frequently prescribed his own treatments for himself and friends. While attending the university, Casanova began to gamble and quickly got into debt, causing his recall to Venice by his grandmother, but the gambling habit became firmly established. Back in Venice, Casanova started his clerical law career and was admitted as an abbé after being conferred minor orders by the Patriarch of Venice. He shuttled back and forth to Padua to continue his university studies. By now, he had become something of a dandy—tall and dark, his long hair powdered, scented, and elaborately curled. He quickly ingratiated himself with a patron (something he was to do all his life), 76-year-old Venetian senator Alvise Gasparo Malipiero, the owner of Palazzo Malipiero, close to Casanova's home in Venice. Malipiero moved in the best circles and taught young Casanova a great deal about good food and wine, and how to behave in society. However, Casanova was caught dallying with Malipiero's intended object of seduction, actress Teresa Imer, and the senator drove both of them from his house. Casanova's growing curiosity about women led to his first complete sexual experience, with two sisters, Nanetta and Marton Savorgnan, then 14 and 16, who were distant relatives of the Grimanis. Casanova proclaimed that his life avocation was firmly established by this encounter. Early career in Italy and abroad Scandals tainted Casanova's short church career. After his grandmother's death, Casanova entered a seminary for a short while, but soon his indebtedness landed him in prison for the first time. An attempt by his mother to secure him a position with Bishop Bernardo de Bernardis was rejected by Casanova after a very brief trial of conditions in the bishop's Calabrian see. Instead, he found employment as a scribe with the powerful Cardinal Acquaviva in Rome. On meeting the pope, Casanova boldly asked for a dispensation to read the "forbidden books" and from eating fish (which he claimed inflamed his eyes). He also composed love letters for another cardinal. When Casanova became the scapegoat for a scandal involving a local pair of star-crossed lovers, Cardinal Acquaviva dismissed Casanova, thanking him for his sacrifice, but effectively ending his church career. In search of a new profession, Casanova bought a commission to become a military officer for the Republic of Venice. His first step was to look the part: He joined a Venetian regiment at Corfu, his stay being broken by a brief trip to Constantinople, ostensibly to deliver a letter from his former master the Cardinal. Finding his advancement too slow and his duty boring, he managed to lose most of his pay playing faro. Casanova soon abandoned his military career and returned to Venice. At the age of 21, he set out to become a professional gambler, but losing all the money remaining from the sale of his commission, he turned to his old benefactor Alvise Grimani for a job. Casanova thus began his third career, as a violinist in the San Samuele theater, "a menial journeyman of a sublime art in which, if he who excels is admired, the mediocrity is rightly despised. ... My profession was not a noble one, but I did not care. Calling everything prejudice, I soon acquired all the habits of my degraded fellow musicians." He and some of his fellows, "often spent our nights roaming through different quarters of the city, thinking up the most scandalous practical jokes and putting them into execution ... we amused ourselves by untying the gondolas moored before private homes, which then drifted with the current". They also sent midwives and physicians on false calls. Good fortune came to the rescue when Casanova, unhappy with his lot as a musician, saved the life of a Venetian patrician of the Bragadin family, who had a stroke while riding with Casanova in a gondola after a wedding ball. They immediately stopped to have the senator bled. Then, at the senator's palace, a physician bled the senator again and applied an ointment of mercury—an all-purpose but toxic remedy at the time—to the senator's chest. This raised his temperature and induced a massive fever, and Bragadin appeared to be choking on his own swollen windpipe. A priest was called as death seemed to be approaching. However, despite protests from the attending physician, Casanova ordered the removal of the ointment and the washing of the senator's chest with cool water. The senator recovered from his illness with rest and a sensible diet. Because of his youth and his facile recitation of medical knowledge, the senator and his two bachelor friends thought Casanova wise beyond his years, and concluded that he must be in possession of occult knowledge. As they were cabalists themselves, the senator invited Casanova into his household and became a lifelong patron. Casanova stated in his memoirs: For the next three years under the senator's patronage, working nominally as a legal assistant, Casanova led the life of a nobleman, dressing magnificently and, as was natural to him, spending most of his time gambling and engaging in amorous pursuits. His patron was exceedingly tolerant, but he warned Casanova that some day he would pay the price; "I made a joke of his dire Prophecies and went my way." However, not much later, Casanova was forced to leave Venice, due to further scandals. Casanova had dug up a freshly buried corpse to play a practical joke on an enemy and exact revenge, but the victim went into a paralysis, never to recover. And in another scandal, a young girl who had duped him accused him of rape and went to the officials. Casanova was later acquitted of this crime for lack of evidence, but by this time, he had already fled from Venice. Escaping to Parma, Casanova entered into a three-month affair with a Frenchwoman he named "Henriette", perhaps the deepest love he ever experienced—a woman who combined beauty, intelligence, and culture. In his words, "They who believe that a woman is incapable of making a man equally happy all the twenty-four hours of the day have never known an Henriette. The joy which flooded my soul was far greater when I conversed with her during the day than when I held her in my arms at night. Having read a great deal and having natural taste, Henriette judged rightly of everything." She also judged Casanova astutely. As noted Casanovist J. Rives Childs wrote: Grand tour Crestfallen and despondent, Casanova returned to Venice, and after a good gambling streak, he recovered and set off on a grand tour, reaching Paris in 1750. Along the way, from one town to another, he got into sexual escapades resembling operatic plots. In Lyon, he entered the society of Freemasonry, which appealed to his interest in secret rites and which, for the most part, attracted men of intellect and influence who proved useful in his life, providing valuable contacts and uncensored knowledge. Casanova was also attracted to Rosicrucianism. In Lyons, Casanova became companion and finally took the highest degree of Scottish Rite Master Mason. Regarding his initiation to the Scottish Rite Freemasonry in Lyons, the Memoirs said: Casanova stayed in Paris for two years, learned the language, spent much time at the theater, and introduced himself to notables. Soon, however, his numerous liaisons were noted by the Paris police, as they were in nearly every city he visited. In 1752, his brother Francesco and he moved from Paris to Dresden, where his mother and sister Maria Maddalena were living. His new play, La Moluccheide, now lost, was performed at the Royal Theatre, where his mother often played in lead roles. He then visited Prague and Vienna, where the tighter moral atmosphere of the latter city was not to his liking. He finally returned to Venice in 1753. In Venice, Casanova resumed his escapades, picking up many enemies and gaining the greater attention of the Venetian inquisitors. His police record became a lengthening list of reported blasphemies, seductions, fights, and public controversy. A state spy, Giovanni Manucci, was employed to draw out Casanova's knowledge of cabalism and Freemasonry and to examine his library for forbidden books. Senator Bragadin, in total seriousness this time (being a former inquisitor himself), advised his "son" to leave immediately or face the stiffest consequences. Imprisonment and escape On 26 July 1755, at age 30, Casanova was arrested for affront to religion and common decency: "The Tribunal, having taken cognizance of the grave faults committed by G. Casanova primarily in public outrages against the holy religion, their Excellencies have caused him to be arrested and imprisoned under the Leads." "The Leads" was a prison of seven cells on the top floor of the east wing of the Doge's palace, reserved for prisoners of higher status as well as certain types of offenders—such as political prisoners, defrocked or libertine priests or monks, and usurers—and named for the lead plates covering the palace roof. The following 12 September, without a trial and without being informed of the reasons for his arrest and of the sentence, he was sentenced to five years imprisonment. He was placed in solitary confinement with clothing, a pallet bed, table, and armchair in "the worst of all the cells", where he suffered greatly from the darkness, summer heat, and "millions of fleas". He was soon housed with a series of cellmates, and after five months and a personal appeal from Count Bragadin, was given warm winter bedding and a monthly stipend for books and better food. During exercise walks he was granted in the prison garret, he found a piece of black marble and an iron bar which he smuggled back to his cell; he hid the bar inside his armchair. When he was temporarily without cellmates, he spent two weeks sharpening the bar into a spike on the stone. Then he began to gouge through the wooden floor underneath his bed, knowing that his cell was directly above the Inquisitor's chamber. Just three days before his intended escape, during a festival when no officials would be in the chamber below, Casanova was moved to a larger, lighter cell with a view, despite his protests that he was perfectly happy where he was. In his new cell, "I sat in my armchair like a man in a stupor; motionless as a statue, I saw that I had wasted all the efforts I had made, and I could not repent of them. I felt that I had nothing to hope for, and the only relief left to me was not to think of the future." Overcoming his inertia, Casanova set upon another escape plan. He solicited the help of the prisoner in the adjacent cell, Father Balbi, a renegade priest. The spike, carried to the new cell inside the armchair, was passed to the priest in a folio Bible carried under a heaping plate of pasta by the hoodwinked jailer. The priest made a hole in his ceiling, climbed across and made a hole in the ceiling of Casanova's cell. To neutralize his new cellmate, who was a spy, Casanova played on his superstitions and terrorized him into silence. When Balbi broke through to Casanova's cell, Casanova lifted himself through the ceiling, leaving behind a note that quoted the 117th Psalm (Vulgate): "I shall not die, but live, and declare the works of the Lord". The spy remained behind, too frightened of the consequences if he were caught escaping with the others. Casanova and Balbi pried their way through the lead plates and onto the sloping roof of the Doge's Palace, with a heavy fog swirling. The drop to the nearby canal being too great, Casanova prised open the grate over a dormer window, and broke the window to gain entry. They found a long ladder on the roof, and with the additional use of a bedsheet "rope" that Casanova had prepared, lowered themselves into the room whose floor was 25 feet below. They rested until morning, changed clothes, then broke a small lock on an exit door and passed into a palace corridor, through galleries and chambers, and down stairs, where, by convincing the guard they had inadvertently been locked into the palace after an official function, they left through a final door. It was 6:00 in the morning and they escaped by gondola. Eventually, Casanova reached Paris, where he arrived on the same day (5 January 1757) that Robert-François Damiens made an attempt on the life of Louis XV. (Casanova would later witness and describe his execution.) Thirty years later in 1787, Casanova wrote Story of My Flight, which was very popular and was reprinted in many languages, and he repeated the tale a little later in his memoirs. Casanova's judgment of the exploit is characteristic: Return to Paris He knew his stay in Paris might be a long one and he proceeded accordingly: "I saw that to accomplish anything I must bring all my physical and moral faculties in play, make the acquaintance of the great and the powerful, exercise strict self-control, and play the chameleon." Casanova had matured, and this time in Paris, though still depending at times on quick thinking and decisive action, he was more calculating and deliberate. His first task was to find a new patron. He reconnected with his old friend de Bernis, now the Foreign Minister of France. Casanova was advised by his patron to find a means of raising funds for the state as a way to gain instant favor. Casanova promptly became one of the trustees of the first state lottery, and one of its best ticket salesmen. The enterprise earned him a large fortune quickly. With money in hand, he traveled in high circles and undertook new seductions. He duped many socialites with his occultism, particularly the Marquise Jeanne d'Urfé, using his excellent memory which made him appear to have a sorcerer's power of numerology. In Casanova's view, "deceiving a fool is an exploit worthy of an intelligent man". Casanova claimed to be a Rosicrucian and an alchemist, aptitudes which made him popular with some of the most prominent figures of the era, among them Madame de Pompadour, Count de Saint-Germain, d'Alembert, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. So popular was alchemy among the nobles, particularly the search for the "philosopher's stone", that Casanova was highly sought after for his supposed knowledge, and he profited handsomely. He met his match, however, in the Count de Saint-Germain: "This very singular man, born to be the most barefaced of all imposters, declared with impunity, with a casual air, that he was three hundred years old, that he possessed the universal medicine, that he made anything he liked from nature, that he created diamonds." De Bernis decided to send Casanova to Dunkirk on his first spying mission. Casanova was paid well for his quick work and this experience prompted one of his few remarks against the ancien régime and the class on which he was dependent. He remarked in hindsight, "All the French ministers are the same. They lavished money which came out of the other people's pockets to enrich their creatures, and they were absolute: The down-trodden people counted for nothing, and, through this, the indebtedness of the State and the confusion of finances were the inevitable results. A Revolution was necessary." As the Seven Years' War began, Casanova was again called to help increase the state treasury. He was entrusted with a mission of selling state bonds in Amsterdam, Holland being the financial center of Europe at the time. He succeeded in selling the bonds at only an 8% discount, and the following year was rich enough to found a silk manufactory with his earnings. The French government even offered him a title and a pension if he would become a French citizen and work on behalf of the finance ministry, but he declined, perhaps because it would frustrate his Wanderlust. Casanova had reached his peak of fortune, but could not sustain it. He ran the business poorly, borrowed heavily trying to save it, and spent much of his wealth on constant liaisons with his female workers who were his "harem". For his debts, Casanova was imprisoned again, this time at For-l'Évêque, but was liberated four days afterwards, upon the insistence of the Marquise d'Urfé. Unfortunately, though he was released, his patron de Bernis was dismissed by Louis XV at that time and Casanova's enemies closed in on him. He sold the rest of his belongings and secured another mission to Holland to distance himself from his troubles. On the run This time, however, his mission failed and he fled to Cologne, then Stuttgart in the spring of 1760, where he lost the rest of his fortune. He was yet again arrested for his debts, but managed to escape to Switzerland. Weary of his wanton life, Casanova visited the monastery of Einsiedeln and considered the simple, scholarly life of a monk. He returned to his hotel to think on the decision, only to encounter a new object of desire, and reverting to his old instincts, all thoughts of a monk's life were quickly forgotten. Moving on, he visited Albrecht von Haller and Voltaire, and arrived in Marseille, then Genoa, Florence, Rome, Naples, Modena, and Turin, moving from one sexual romp to another. In 1760, Casanova started styling himself the Chevalier de Seingalt, a name he was to use increasingly for the rest of his life. On occasion, he would also call himself Count de Farussi (using his mother's maiden name) and when Pope Clement XIII presented Casanova with the Papal Order of the Éperon d'or, he had an impressive cross and ribbon to display on his chest. Back in Paris, he set about one of his most outrageous schemes—convincing his old dupe the Marquise d'Urfé that he could turn her into a young man through occult means. The plan did not yield Casanova the big payoff he had hoped for, and the Marquise d'Urfé finally lost faith in him. Casanova traveled to England in 1763, hoping to sell his idea of a state lottery to English officials. He wrote of the English, "the people have a special character, common to the whole nation, which makes them think they are superior to everyone else. It is a belief shared by all nations, each thinking itself the best. And they are all right." Through his connections, he worked his way up to an audience with King George III, using most of the valuables he had stolen from the Marquise d'Urfé. While working the political angles, he also spent much time in the bedroom, as was his habit. As a means to find females for his pleasure, not being able to speak English, he put an advertisement in the newspaper to let an apartment to the "right" person. He interviewed many young women, choosing one "Mistress Pauline" who suited him well. Soon, he established himself in her apartment and seduced her. These and other liaisons, however, left him weak with venereal disease and he left England impoverished and ill. He went on to the Austrian Netherlands, recovered, and then for the next three years, traveled all over Europe, covering about 4,500 miles by coach over rough roads, and going as far as Moscow and Saint Petersburg (the average daily coach trip being about 30 miles). Again, his principal goal was to sell his lottery scheme to other governments and repeat the great success he had with the French government, but a meeting with Frederick the Great bore no fruit and in the surrounding German lands, the same result. Not lacking either connections or confidence, Casanova went to Russia and met with Catherine the Great, but she flatly turned down the lottery idea. In 1766, he was expelled from Warsaw following a pistol duel with Colonel Franciszek Ksawery Branicki over an Italian actress, a lady friend of theirs. Both duelists were wounded, Casanova on the left hand. The hand recovered on its own, after Casanova refused the recommendation of doctors that it be amputated. From Warsaw, he traveled to Breslau in the Kingdom of Prussia, then to Dresden, where he contracted yet another venereal infection. He returned to Paris for several months in 1767 and hit the gambling salons, only to be expelled from France by order of Louis XV himself, primarily for Casanova's scam involving the Marquise d'Urfé. Now known across Europe for his reckless behavior, Casanova would have difficulty overcoming his notoriety and gaining any fortune, so he headed for Spain, where he was not as well known. He tried his usual approach, leaning on well-placed contacts (often Freemasons), wining and dining with nobles of influence, and finally arranging an audience with the local monarch, in this case Charles III. When no doors opened for him, however, he could only roam across Spain, with little to show for it. In Barcelona, he escaped assassination and landed in jail for 6 weeks. His Spanish adventure a failure, he returned to France briefly, then to Italy. Return to Venice In Rome, Casanova had to prepare a way for his return to Venice. While waiting for supporters to gain him legal entry into Venice, Casanova began his modern Tuscan-Italian translation of the Iliad, his History of the Troubles in Poland, and a comic play. To ingratiate himself with the Venetian authorities, Casanova did some commercial spying for them. After months without a recall, however, he wrote a letter of appeal directly to the Inquisitors. At last, he received his long-sought permission and burst into tears upon reading "We, Inquisitors of State, for reasons known to us, give Giacomo Casanova a free safe-conduct ... empowering him to come, go, stop, and return, hold communication wheresoever he pleases without let or hindrance. So is our will." Casanova was permitted to return to Venice in September 1774 after 18 years of exile. At first, his return to Venice was a cordial one and he was a celebrity. Even the Inquisitors wanted to hear how he had escaped from their prison. Of his three bachelor patrons, however, only Dandolo was still alive and Casanova was invited back to live with him. He received a small stipend from Dandolo and hoped to live from his writings, but that was not enough. He reluctantly became a spy again for Venice, paid by piece work, reporting on religion, morals, and commerce, most of it based on gossip and rumor he picked up from social contacts. He was disappointed. No financial opportunities of interest came about and few doors opened for him in society as in the past. At age 49, the years of reckless living and the thousands of miles of travel had taken their toll. Casanova's smallpox scars, sunken cheeks, and hook nose became all the more noticeable. His easygoing manner was now more guarded. Prince Charles de Ligne, a friend (and uncle of his future employer), described him around 1784: Venice had changed for him. Casanova now had little money for gambling, few willing females worth pursuing, and few acquaintances to enliven his dull days. He heard of the death of his mother and, more paining, visited the deathbed of Bettina Gozzi, who had first introduced him to sex and who died in his arms. His Iliad was published in three volumes, but to limited subscribers and yielding little money. He got into a published dispute with Voltaire over religion. When he asked, "Suppose that you succeed in destroying superstition. With what will you replace it?" Voltaire shot back, "I like that. When I deliver humanity from a ferocious beast which devours it, can I be asked what I shall put in its place." From Casanova's point of view, if Voltaire had "been a proper philosopher, he would have kept silent on that subject ... the people need to live in ignorance for the general peace of the nation". In 1779, Casanova found Francesca, an uneducated seamstress, who became his live-in lover and housekeeper, and who loved him devotedly. Later that year, the Inquisitors put him on the payroll and sent him to investigate commerce between the papal states and Venice. Other publishing and theater ventures failed, primarily from lack of capital. In a downward spiral, Casanova was expelled again from Venice in 1783, after writing a vicious satire poking fun at Venetian nobility. In it, he made his only public statement that Grimani was his true father. Forced to resume his travels again, Casanova arrived in Paris, and in November 1783 met Benjamin Franklin while attending a presentation on aeronautics and the future of balloon transport. For a while, Casanova served as secretary and pamphleteer to Sebastian Foscarini, Venetian ambassador in Vienna. He also became acquainted with Lorenzo Da Ponte, Mozart's librettist, who noted about Casanova, "This singular man never liked to be in the wrong." Notes by Casanova indicate that he may have made suggestions to Da Ponte concerning the libretto for Mozart's Don Giovanni. Final years in Bohemia In 1785, after Foscarini died, Casanova began searching for another position. A few months later, he became the librarian to Count Joseph Karl von Waldstein, a chamberlain of the emperor, in the Castle of Dux, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic). The Count—himself a Freemason, cabalist, and frequent traveler—had taken to Casanova when they had met a year earlier at Foscarini's residence. Although the job offered security and good pay, Casanova describes his last years as boring and frustrating, though it was the most productive time for writing. His health had deteriorated dramatically, and he found life among peasants to be less than stimulating. He was only able to make occasional visits to Vienna and Dresden for relief. Although Casanova got on well with the Count, his employer was a much younger man with his own eccentricities. The Count often ignored him at meals and failed to introduce him to important visiting guests. Moreover, Casanova, the testy outsider, was thoroughly disliked by most of the other inhabitants of the Castle of Dux. Casanova's only friends seemed to be his fox terriers. In despair, Casanova considered suicide, but instead decided that he must live on to record his memoirs, which he did until his death. He visited Prague, the capital city and principal cultural center of Bohemia, on many occasions. In October 1787, he met Lorenzo da Ponte, the librettist of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's opera Don Giovanni, in Prague at the time of the opera's first production and likely met the composer, as well, at the same time. There is reason to believe that he was also in Prague in 1791 for the coronation of Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II as king of Bohemia, an event that included the first production of Mozart's opera La clemenza di Tito. Casanova is known to have drafted dialogue suitable for a Don Juan drama at the time of his visit to Prague in 1787, but none of his verses were ever incorporated into Mozart's opera. His reaction to seeing licentious behavior similar to his own held up to moral scrutiny as it is in Mozart's opera is not recorded. In 1797, word arrived that the Republic of Venice had ceased to exist and that Napoleon Bonaparte had seized Casanova's home city. It was too late to return home. Casanova died on 4 June 1798 at the age of 73. His last words are said to have been "I have lived as a philosopher and I die as a Christian". Casanova was buried at Dux (nowadays Duchcov in the Czech Republic), but the exact place of his grave was forgotten over the years, and remains unknown today. Memoirs The isolation and boredom of Casanova's last years enabled him to focus without distractions on his Histoire de ma vie, without which his fame would have been considerably diminished, if not blotted out entirely. He began to think about writing his memoirs around 1780 and began in earnest by 1789, as "the only remedy to keep from going mad or dying of grief". The first draft was completed by July 1792, and he spent the next six years revising it. He puts a happy face on his days of loneliness, writing in his work, "I can find no pleasanter pastime than to converse with myself about my own affairs and to provide a most worthy subject for laughter to my well-bred audience." His memoirs were still being compiled at the time of his death, his account having reached only the summer of 1774. A letter by him in 1792 states that he was reconsidering his decision to publish them, believing that his story was despicable and he would make enemies by writing the truth about his affairs, but he decided to proceed, using initials instead of actual names and toning down the strongest passages. He wrote in French instead of Italian because "the French language is more widely known than mine". The memoirs open with: Casanova wrote about the purpose of his book: He also advises his readers that they "will not find all my adventures. I have left out those which would have offended the people who played a part in them, for they would cut a sorry figure in them. Even so, there are those who will sometimes think me too indiscreet; I am sorry for it." In the final chapter, the text abruptly breaks off with hints at adventures unrecorded: "Three years later I saw her in Padua, where I resumed my acquaintance with her daughter on far more tender terms." In their original publication, the memoirs were divided into twelve volumes, and the unabridged English translation by Willard R. Trask runs to more than 3,500 pages. Though his chronology is at times confusing and inaccurate, and many of his tales exaggerated, much of his narrative and many details are corroborated by contemporary writings. He has a good ear for dialogue and writes at length about all classes of society. Casanova, for the most part, is candid about his faults, intentions, and motivations, and shares his successes and failures with good humor. The confession is largely devoid of repentance or remorse. He celebrates the senses with his readers, especially regarding music, food, and women. "I have always liked highly seasoned food. ... As for women, I have always found that the one I was in love with smelled good, and the more copious her sweat the sweeter I found it." He mentions over 120 adventures with women and girls, with several veiled references to male lovers as well. He describes his duels and conflicts with scoundrels and officials, his entrapments and his escapes, his schemes and plots, his anguish and his sighs of pleasure. He demonstrates convincingly, "I can say vixi ('I have lived')." The manuscript of Casanova's memoirs was held by his relatives until it was sold to F. A. Brockhaus publishers, and first published in heavily abridged versions in German around 1822, then in French. During World War II, the manuscript survived the allied bombing of Leipzig. The memoirs were heavily pirated through the ages and have been translated into some twenty languages. But not until 1960 was the entire text published in its original language of French. In 2010 the manuscript was acquired by the National Library of France, which has started digitizing it. Relationships For Casanova, as well as his contemporary sybarites of the upper class, love and sex tended to be casual and not endowed with the seriousness characteristic of the Romanticism of the 19th century. Flirtations, bedroom games, and short-term liaisons were common among nobles who married for social connections rather than love. Although multi-faceted and complex, Casanova's personality, as he described it, was dominated by his sensual urges: "Cultivating whatever gave pleasure to my senses was always the chief business of my life; I never found any occupation more important. Feeling that I was born for the sex opposite of mine, I have always loved it and done all that I could to make myself loved by it." He noted that he sometimes used "assurance caps" to prevent impregnating his mistresses. Casanova's ideal liaison had elements beyond sex, including complicated plots, heroes and villains, and gallant outcomes. In a pattern he often repeated, he would discover an attractive woman in trouble with a brutish or jealous lover (Act I); he would ameliorate her difficulty (Act II); she would show her gratitude; he would seduce her; a short exciting affair would ensue (Act III); feeling a loss of ardor or boredom setting in, he would plead his unworthiness and arrange for her marriage or pairing with a worthy man, then exit the scene (Act IV). As William Bolitho points out in Twelve Against the Gods, the secret of Casanova's success with women "had nothing more esoteric in it than [offering] what every woman who respects herself must demand: all that he had, all that he was, with (to set off the lack of legality) the dazzling attraction of the lump sum over what is more regularly doled out in a lifetime of installments." Casanova advises, "There is no honest woman with an uncorrupted heart whom a man is not sure of conquering by dint of gratitude. It is one of the surest and shortest means." Alcohol and violence, for him, were not proper tools of seduction. Instead, attentiveness and small favors should be employed to soften a woman's heart, but "a man who makes known his love by words is a fool". Verbal communication is essential—"without speech, the pleasure of love is diminished by at least two-thirds"—but words of love must be implied, not boldly proclaimed. Casanova claimed to value intelligence in a woman: "After all, a beautiful woman without a mind of her own leaves her lover with no resource after he had physically enjoyed her charms." His attitude towards educated women, however, was an unfavorable one: "In a woman learning is out of place; it compromises the essential qualities of her sex ... no scientific discoveries have been made by women ... (which) requires a vigor which the female sex cannot have. But in simple reasoning and in delicacy of feeling we must yield to women." Casanova's actions are considered by many in modern times to be predatory, despite his claims to contrary ("my guiding principle has been never to direct my attack against novices or those whose prejudices were likely to prove an obstacle"); he frequently targeted young, insecure or emotionally exposed women. Despite detailing what was clearly an abduction and gang rape ("It was during one Carnival, midnight had struck, we were eight, all masked, roving through the city ..."), Casanova convinced himself that the victim was willing. He avoided easy conquests or overly difficult situations as not suitable for his purposes. Casanova writes that he stopped short of intercourse with a 13-year-old named Helene: "little Helene, whom I enjoyed, while leaving her intact." In 1765, when he was 40, he purchased a 12-year-old girl in St. Petersburg as a sexual slave. In the memoirs, he described the Russian girl as emphatically prepubescent: "Her breasts had still not finished budding. She was in her thirteenth year. She had nowhere the definitive mark of puberty." (III, 196–7; X, 116–17). In 1774, when he was almost 50, Casanova encountered in Trieste a former lover, the actress Irene, now accompanied by her nine-year-old daughter. "A few days later she came, with her daughter, who pleased me (qui me plut) and who did not reject my caresses. One fine day, she met with Baron Pittoni, who loved little girls as much as I did (aimant autant que moi les petites filles), and took a liking to Irene’s girl, and asked the mother to do him the same honor some time that she had done to me. I encouraged her to receive the offer, and the baron fell in love. This was lucky for Irene." (XII, 238). Gambling Gambling was a common recreation in the social and political circles in which Casanova moved. In his memoirs, Casanova discusses many forms of 18th-century gambling—including lotteries, faro, basset, piquet, biribi, primero, quinze, and whist—and the passion for it among the nobility and the high clergy. Cheats (known as "correctors of fortune") were somewhat more tolerated than today in public casinos and in private games for invited players, and seldom caused affront. Most gamblers were on guard against cheaters and their tricks. Scams of all sorts were common, and Casanova was amused by them. Casanova gambled throughout his adult life, winning and losing large sums. He was tutored by professionals, and he was "instructed in those wise maxims without which games of chance ruin those who participate in them". He was not above occasionally cheating and at times even teamed with professional gamblers for his own profit. Casanova claims that he was "relaxed and smiling when I lost, and I won without covetousness". However, when outrageously duped himself, he could act violently, sometimes calling for a duel. Casanova admits that he was not disciplined enough to be a professional gambler: "I had neither prudence enough to leave off when fortune was adverse, nor sufficient control over myself when I had won." Nor did he like being considered as a professional gambler: "Nothing could ever be adduced by professional gamblers that I was of their infernal clique." Although Casanova at times used gambling tactically and shrewdly—for making quick money, for flirting, making connections, acting gallantly, or proving himself a gentleman among his social superiors—his practice also could be compulsive and reckless, especially during the euphoria of a new sexual affair. "Why did I gamble when I felt the losses so keenly? What made me gamble was avarice. I loved to spend, and my heart bled when I could not do it with money won at cards." Fame and influence Casanova was recognized by his contemporaries as an extraordinary person, a man of far-ranging intellect and curiosity. Casanova has been recognized by posterity as one of the foremost chroniclers of his age. He was a true adventurer, traveling across Europe from end to end in search of fortune, seeking out the most prominent people of his time to help his cause. He was a servant of the establishment and equally decadent as his times, but also a participant in secret societies and a seeker of answers beyond the conventional. He was religious, a devout Catholic, and believed in prayer: "Despair kills; prayer dissipates it; and after praying man trusts and acts." Along with prayer he also believed in free will and reason, but clearly did not subscribe to the notion that pleasure-seeking would keep him from heaven. He was, by vocation and avocation, a lawyer, clergyman, military officer, violinist, con man, pimp, gourmand, dancer, businessman, diplomat, spy, politician, medic, mathematician, social philosopher, cabalist, playwright, and writer. He wrote over twenty works, including plays and essays, and many letters. His novel Icosameron is an early work of science fiction. Born of actors, he had a passion for the theater and for an improvised, theatrical life, but with all his talents he frequently succumbed to the quest for pleasure and sex, often avoiding sustained work and established plans, and got himself into trouble when prudent action would have served him better. His true occupation was living largely on his quick wits, steely nerves, luck, social charm, and the money given to him in gratitude and by trickery. Prince Charles de Ligne, who understood Casanova well, and who knew most of the prominent individuals of the age, thought Casanova the most interesting man he had ever met: "there is nothing in the world of which he is not capable." Rounding out the portrait, the Prince also stated: "Casanova", like "Don Juan", is a long established term in the English language. According to Merriam Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, 11th ed., the noun Casanova means "Lover; esp: a man who is a promiscuous and unscrupulous lover". The first usage of the term in written English was around 1852. References in culture to Casanova are numerous—in books, films, theater, and music. Works 1752 – Zoroastro: Tragedia tradotta dal Francese, da rappresentarsi nel Regio Elettoral Teatro di Dresda, dalla compagnia de' comici italiani in attuale servizio di Sua Maestà nel carnevale dell'anno MDCCLII. Dresden. 1753 – La Moluccheide, o Sia i gemelli rivali. Dresden. 1769 – Confutazione della Storia del Governo Veneto d'Amelot de la Houssaie. Lugano. 1772 – Lana caprina: Epistola di un licantropo. Bologna. 1774 – Istoria delle turbolenze della Polonia. Gorizia. 1775–78 – Dell'Iliade di Omero tradotta in ottava rima. Venice. 1779 – Scrutinio del libro Eloges de M. de Voltaire par différents auteurs. Venice. 1780 – Opuscoli miscellanei (containing Duello a Varsavia and Lettere della nobil donna Silvia Belegno alla nobil donzella Laura Gussoni). Venice. 1780–81 – Le messager de Thalie. Venice. 1782 – Di aneddoti viniziani militari ed amorosi del secolo decimoquarto sotto i dogadi di Giovanni Gradenigo e di Giovanni Dolfin. Venice. 1783 – Né amori né donne, ovvero La stalla ripulita. Venice. 1786 – Soliloque d'un penseur. Prague. 1787 – Icosaméron, ou Histoire d'Édouard et d'Élisabeth qui passèrent quatre-vingts un ans chez les Mégamicres, habitants aborigènes du Protocosme dans l'intérieur de nôtre globe. Prague. 1788 – Histoire de ma fuite des prisons de la République de Venise qu'on appelle les Plombs. Leipzig. 1790 – Solution du probléme deliaque. Dresden. 1790 – Corollaire à la duplication de l'hexaèdre. Dresden. 1790 – Démonstration géometrique de la duplication du cube. Dresden. 1797 – A Léonard Snetlage, docteur en droit de l'Université de Goettingue, Jacques Casanova, docteur en droit de l'Universitè de Padou. Dresden. 1822–29 – First edition of the Histoire de ma vie, in an adapted German translation in 12 volumes, as Aus den Memoiren des Venetianers Jacob Casanova de Seingalt, oder sein Leben, wie er es zu Dux in Böhmen niederschrieb. The first full edition of the original French manuscript was not published until 1960, by Brockhaus (Wiesbaden) and Plon (Paris). In popular culture Film Casanova (1918), a Hungarian film featuring Béla Lugosi The Loves of Casanova, or Casanova, a 1927 French film starring Ivan Mozzhukhin Il cavaliere misterioso (The Mysterious Rider), a 1948 film by Riccardo Freda, in which Casanova is played by Vittorio Gassman in his debut as a lead actor Poslední růže od Casanovy (The Last Rose from Casanova), a 1966 Czech film featuring Felix le Breux as aging Casanova during his stay at Duchcov Giacomo Casanova: Childhood and Adolescence, a 1969 feature film by Luigi Comencini, starring Leonard Whiting Fellini's Casanova, a 1976 feature film by Federico Fellini, starring Donald Sutherland La Nuit de Varennes (1982), a film featuring Marcello Mastroianni Casanova (1987), a television movie, starring Richard Chamberlain Le Retour de Casanova (1992), a French comedy starring Alain Delon Casanova (2005), a feature film featuring Heath Ledger, Sienna Miller, Charlie Cox, and Lena Olin Casanova Variations (2014), a feature film starring John Malkovich Zoroastro, Io Casanova (2017) an Italian film featuring Galatea Ranzi Music Casanova Fantasy Variations for Three Celli (1985), a piece for cello trio by Walter Burle-Marx "Casanova" (1986), a song by the Russian rock group Nautilus Pompilius. Music by Vyacheslav Butusov, text by Ilya Kormil'tsev. "Casanova" (1987) song by R&B group LeVert. The song reached number 1 on the R&B chart as well as reaching number 5 on the pop chart. Casanova (1996), an album by the UK chamber pop band The Divine Comedy, inspired by Casanova "Casanova 70" (1997), a single by French electronic duo Air Casanova (2000), a piece for cello and winds by Johan de Meij "Casanova in Hell" (2006), a song by the UK group Pet Shop Boys, from their album Fundamental Performance works Casanova (1923), a comic opera in three acts with prologue and epilogue, by Ludomir Różycki Casanova (1928), an operetta by Ralph Benatzky, based on music by Johann Strauss Jr. Camino Real (1953), a play by Tennessee Williams, in which an aging Casanova appears in a dream sequence Casanova's Homecoming (1985), an opera by Dominick Argento Casanova (2007), a play by Carol Ann Duffy and Told by an Idiot theatre company, starring Hayley Carmichael as a female Casanova Casanova (2008), a musical by Philip Godfrey, first performed at the Greenwich Playhouse, London Casanova (2016), a pasticcio opera by Julian Perkins and Stephen Pettitt, first performed in the Baroque Unwrapped series at Kings Place, London Casanova (2017), a ballet by Northern Ballet, choreographed by Kenneth Tindall and based on the biography by Ian Kelly Casanova (2019), a musical performed by Takarazuka Revue and starring Rio Asumi as Casanova Television Casanova, a 1971 BBC Television serial, written by Dennis Potter and starring Frank Finlay Casanova, a 2005 BBC Television serial featuring David Tennant as young Casanova and Peter O'Toole as the older Casanova In 2017, an episode of Horrible Histories called "Ridiculous Romantics" featured Tom Stourton, portraying Casanova. Written works Casanovas Heimfahrt (Casanova's Homecoming) (1918) by Arthur Schnitzler The Venetian Glass Nephew (1925) by Elinor Wylie, in which Casanova appears as a major character under the transparent pseudonym "Chevalier de Chastelneuf" Széljegyzetek Casanovához (Marginalia on Casanova) (1939) by Miklós Szentkuthy Vendégjáték Bolzanóban (Conversations in Bolzano or Casanova in Bolzano) (1940), a novel by Sándor Márai Le Bonheur ou le Pouvoir (1980), by Pierre Kast The Fortunes of Casanova and Other Stories (1994), by Rafael Sabatini, includes nine stories (originally published 1914–1921) based on incidents in Casanova's memoirs Casanova (1998), a novel by Andrew Miller Casanova, Dernier Amour (2000), by Pascal Lainé Casanova in Bohemia (2002), a novel about Casanova's last years at Dux, Bohemia, by Andrei Codrescu Een Schitterend Gebrek (English title In Lucia's Eyes), a 2003 Dutch novel by Arthur Japin, in which Casanova's youthful amour Lucia is viewed as the love of his life "A Disciple of Plato", a short story by English writer Robert Aickman, first printed in the 2015 posthumous collection The Strangers and Other Writings, in which the main character—throughout described as "the philosopher"—is revealed in the last lines to be Casanova. See also Manon Balletti Don Juan Notes and references Bibliography External links Memoirs of Jacques Casanova de Seingalt 1725–1798 Ebook 1725 births 1798 deaths 18th-century Italian male writers 18th-century Italian novelists 18th-century Italian writers 18th-century Venetian writers Italian duellists Italian escapees Italian Freemasons Italian librarians Italian memoirists Italian Roman Catholics Italian writers in French Translators of Homer 18th-century memoirists	[ -0.1561751663684845, -0.3861616849899292, -0.15571627020835876, 0.305389940738678, 0.7295188903808594, 0.6503461599349976, 0.5125735402107239, 0.20567576587200165, -0.6894717812538147, -0.6167348623275757, -0.001957034459337592, 0.0992388129234314, -0.5922253727912903, 0.05003000423312187, -0.08528533577919006, -0.29592037200927734, 0.08540822565555573, -0.43794727325439453, -0.5052816867828369, 0.13630512356758118, -0.4991127848625183, 0.14646457135677338, -0.03154943883419037, 0.268569678068161, -0.4970266819000244, 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231700	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casanova%20%28disambiguation%29	Casanova (disambiguation)	Casanova often refers to Giacomo Casanova, an 18th-century Italian adventurer best known for his legendary womanizing. Casanova may also refer to: People Casanova (surname) Film and TV Casanova (1918 film), a 1918 Hungarian film Casanova, or The Loves of Casanova, a 1927 French film Casanova (1934 film), a 1934 French comedy drama film Casanova (1971 TV serial), a BBC television serial Casanova '73, a BBC1 sitcom starring Leslie Phillips Fellini's Casanova, a 1976 feature film by Federico Fellini Casanova (1987 film), an American biographical comedy TV-film directed by Simon Langton Casanova (2005 TV serial), a 2005 BBC Television serial starring David Tennant and Peter O'Toole Casanova (2005 film), a 2005 feature film starring Heath Ledger Books Casanova (novel), a 1998 novel by Andrew Miller Casanova (comics), a 2006 espionage comic book Music Casanova (Benatzky), a 1928 operetta, based on music by Johann Strauss II Casanova (German band), a German rock band Casanovas, a Swedish dansband The Casanovas, an Australian, Melbourne-based rock band Casanova (rapper), American rapper Casanova, a concerto for cello and wind orchestra by Johan de Meij Albums Casanova (Rondò Veneziano album) Casanova (Udo Lindenberg album) Casanova (The Divine Comedy album), 1996 Casanova, an album by the German rock band Casanova Songs "Casanova" (Anita Skorgan song), from the 1977 Eurovision Song Contest "Casanova" (Luv' song), from the 1979 album Lots of Luv''' "Casanova" (LeVert song), 1987 single from the album The Big Throwdown"Casanova" (Gisela song), 2008 Eurovision song by Gisela, representing Andorra "Casanova" (Paulina Rubio song), 2002 "Casanova" (Valery Leontiev song), 1993 "Casanova" (WeRe-VaNa song), 2021 "Casanova", a song by Norwegian duo Cir.Cuz, 2016 "Casanova", a song by Roxy Music from the 1974 album Country Life"Casanova", a song by Peaches from the 2000 album The Teaches of Peaches"Casanova", a song by Allie X from the 2017 album CollXtion IIPlaces Casanova, Haute-Corse, a commune of the Haute-Corse département of France, on the island of Corsica Casanova, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place in Centre County, Pennsylvania, United States Casanova, Virginia, an unincorporated community in Fauquier County, Virginia, United States Other uses Casanova (restaurant), a restaurant in Carmel-by-the-Sea, California, United States See also Casanovva'', a 2012 Indian Malayalam romantic action thriller film	[ -0.09123171120882034, -0.022510956972837448, -0.40438827872276306, 0.27195626497268677, -0.12427142262458801, 0.1823621690273285, 0.818896472454071, -0.1152474507689476, -0.6385435461997986, 0.17102141678333282, -0.12719738483428955, 0.2437654733657837, -0.40889593958854675, 0.7321534752845764, -0.23125526309013367, 0.3809637725353241, 0.3547841012477875, 0.21055740118026733, -0.25175097584724426, -0.3296678960323334, 0.2552684247493744, -0.0058100358583033085, 0.030680406838655472, -0.29926252365112305, -0.4700399339199066, -0.06245306879281998, -0.20477692782878876, -0.29217371344566345, -0.2573202848434448, 0.12005659937858582, -0.38012269139289856, 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231702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian	Venetian	Venetian often means from or related to: Venice, a city in Italy Veneto, a region of Italy Republic of Venice (697–1797), a historical nation in that area Venetian and the like may also refer to: Venetian language, a Romance language spoken mostly in the Veneto region Venice, Florida, a city in Sarasota County, United States The Venetian Las Vegas, a resort hotel and casino in Las Vegas, Nevada The Venetian Macao, a hotel and casino in Macau, China Venetian blind, or Venetian, a common type of window blind similar to Persian blind Venetian curtain, a type of theater front curtain The Venetian Woman, The Venetian Comedy, or The Venetian originally La veniexiana (play), a comedy in Venetian language, 1535-1537 The Venetians, an 1892 novel by Mary Elizabeth Braddon The Venetian (play), a work by Clifford Bax The Venetian (film), a 1958 TV movie directed by Ingmar Bergman The Venetian Woman (La venexiana), 1986 Italian erotic film by Mauro Bolognini Venetian fonts or typefaces See also Friulan, related to or from Friuli Venezia Giulia region of Italy Venice (disambiguation) Veneti (disambiguation) Venetia (disambiguation) List of things named Venetian Phoenician (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages	[ 0.07859639078378677, -0.05218242108821869, -0.26627472043037415, 0.17563290894031525, 0.441430926322937, 0.29034504294395447, 0.028943819925189018, 0.7658607363700867, -0.6275352835655212, -0.4602223038673401, -0.6771501302719116, 0.6028679609298706, -0.04733993485569954, 0.39899471402168274, 0.014091622084379196, 0.25416573882102966, 0.9512190818786621, 0.4328329861164093, -0.09156019240617752, -0.35721519589424133, -0.7329003214836121, 0.18726375699043274, 0.1357274204492569, -0.0038543555419892073, -0.3627724051475525, -0.02749045565724373, 0.10036904364824295, -0.029286237433552742, 0.07731358706951141, 0.127675399184227, 0.419431209564209, 1.0703575611114502, -0.7001389861106873, 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231703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastatt%20%28district%29	Rastatt (district)	Rastatt is a Landkreis (district) in the west of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighbouring districts are (from north clockwise) Karlsruhe, Calw, Freudenstadt and the Ortenaukreis. To the west it borders the French département Bas-Rhin. Rastatt completely surrounds the district-free city Baden-Baden. History The district was created in 1939 as the successor of the Oberamt Rastatt and later the Großkreis Baden. In 1973 it was merged with the majority of the neighboring district Bühl, and some small parts of the district Kehl. Geography The district is located in the Rhine valley. The south-east part, however, is part of the Northern Black Forest. The highest elevation is the Hoher Ochsenkopf. The county has three small exclaves within the borough of Baden-Baden. The largest of these is home to the Waldenecksee, the smallest, the old abbey of Fremersberg. Partnerships Since 1968 the district has partnership with the Finnish city Vantaa. The partnership with the Italian Provincia di Pesaro e Urbino was started in 1996. It is twinned with Fano in Italy, New Britain, Connecticut in the USA and also twinned with Woking, England in 2000. It is also twinned with the Czech town from which its Princess came from during the Baroque period and for whom the summer palace was built. Coat of arms The top-left corner of the coat of arms show a wine ladder, the symbol of the city Rastatt. The grapes in the top-right symbolize the viticulture in the area around Bühl. The red bar on yellow ground in the bottom-right is the symbol of Baden, and the rose in bottom-left is the symbol of the counts of Eberstein. Cities and towns References External links Official website (German) Karlsruhe (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ 0.02837158553302288, 0.8128321766853333, 0.44213980436325073, -0.6018553376197815, -0.6714124083518982, 0.602864682674408, 1.2912259101867676, 0.20220062136650085, -0.19000989198684692, -0.43961724638938904, -0.33642783761024475, 0.1572820097208023, 0.011549620889127254, 0.41851159930229187, -0.28870293498039246, 0.6344232559204102, 0.7864411473274231, 0.43973231315612793, 0.11653069406747818, -0.8338761329650879, -0.08626692742109299, -0.03908081725239754, 0.3718380630016327, -0.0469922237098217, -0.4708542227745056, -0.40943679213523865, 0.785007655620575, 0.5119211077690125, 0.0020944823045283556, -0.21239015460014343, -0.14521022140979767, 1.1154214143753052, -0.3976590633392334, -0.1586686372756958, 0.5173953175544739, 0.4209102392196655, 0.13459084928035736, -0.7508852481842041, 0.6993628740310669, -0.9873427748680115, -0.2736254036426544, 0.24931010603904724, 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231704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard%20disk%20recorder	Hard disk recorder	A hard disk recorder (HDR) is a system that uses a high-capacity hard disk to record digital audio or digital video. Hard disk recording systems represent an alternative to reel-to-reel audio tape recording and video tape recorders, and provide non-linear editing capabilities unavailable using tape recorders. Audio HDR systems, which can be standalone or computer-based, are typically combined with provisions for digital mixing and processing of the audio signal to produce a digital audio workstation (DAW). Direct-to-disk recording (DDR) refers to methods which may also use optical disc recording technologies such as DVD, and Compact disc. History Prior to the 1980s, most recording studios used analog multitrack recorders, typically based on reel-to-reel tape. The first commercial hard disk recording system was the Sample-to-Disk 16-bit, 50 kHz digital recording option for the New England Digital Synclavier II in 1982. Stereo audio was not immediately available due to data input and output limitations on hard drives of that time. The high cost and limited capacity of these solutions limited their use to large professional audio recording studios, and even then, they were usually reserved for specific applications such as film post-production. With the arrival of the compact disc in 1982, digital recording became a major area of development by equipment makers. Several affordable solutions were released during the late 1980s and early 90s; many of these continued to use tape, either in reels, or in more manageable videocassettes. In 1993, iZ Technology Corporation developed RADAR (Random Access Digital Audio Recorder distributed by Otari), designed to replace 24-track tape machines. By the mid-1990s, with the steady decline of hard disk prices and the corresponding increases in capacity and portability, the cost of hard disk recording systems had dropped to the point where they became affordable for even smaller studios. Hard disk systems have since become the preferred method for studio recording. On January 14, 2004, Engineers from Fairlight, WaveFrame and AMS were awarded Academy Scientific and Technical Awards for the development of hard disk recording technology Operation One major advantage of recording audio to a hard disk is that it allows for non-linear editing. Audio data can be accessed randomly and therefore can be edited non-destructively, that is, the original material is not changed in any way. Non-linear editing is not inherent to every hard-disk recording system, however. Different manufacturers implement different degrees of this facility. Hard disk recorders are often combined with a digital mixing console and are an integral part of a digital audio workstation (DAW). In this form, complex tasks can be automated, freeing the audio engineer from performing a final mix in real time. A personal computer can be used as a hard disk recorder with appropriate software; nowadays this solution is often preferred, as it provides a more flexible interface to the studio engineer. Many studio-grade systems provide external hardware, particularly for the analog-to-digital conversion stages, while less expensive software systems can use the sound card included with any modern computer. The major constraints on any hard disk recording system are the storage capacity, transfer rate, and processor speed. Some systems use lossy audio compression to minimize the first two factors. This solution is becoming increasingly rare, thanks to rapid increases in hard disk capacity. Products Stand-alone hard disk recorders are able to record audio or video without requiring a computer. Examples of notable stand-alone hard disk recorders and manufacturers include Alesis, Akai, Fostex, Korg, Mackie, TASCAM, Roland Corporation, Yamaha Pro Audio, RADAR and Zoom HD8 and HD16. Miniaturization of recording and storage technology for consumer video already allows the non-professional user to directly record home movies to a permanent storage medium like DVD. DDRs have replaced Magnetic tape based DV, Digital8, 8mm Video Format, VHS and MicroMV video tape recorders. Professional television studio DDRs video servers are being used to replace video tape recorders (VTR)s and VTR Cart machines, that playout television commercials and TV shows. DAWs are used in professional audio recording studios. Computer software can implement a hard disk recorder function. Applications Consumer applications include camcorders to high-end tapeless camcorders, digital video recorder (DVR) and set top box models like TiVo and personal computer based recorders. More professional applications include non-linear editing (NLE) systems like Avid Technology video editing systems, recording television productions/filmmaking in the field with professional video cameras in digital cinematography for digital cinema productions. Hard disk recorders are used in professional television studio from small systems able to record 2 hours to large multi port playout systems supporting hundreds of hours of material. See also DTE (direct to edit) DVD recorder Home recording SMPTE timecode References Digital audio recording Set-top box Television terminology	[ 0.14084891974925995, 0.08260755240917206, 0.04361536726355553, 0.7245862483978271, 0.18612359464168549, -0.34518003463745117, -0.4499695599079132, 0.13022151589393616, -0.1565781682729721, -0.37073421478271484, -0.6939562559127808, 0.8582818508148193, 0.020082691684365273, 0.28842103481292725, 0.015031162649393082, -0.06961064040660858, 0.2736220359802246, 0.30645787715911865, 0.17752403020858765, -0.5321498513221741, -0.25884008407592773, -0.41202008724212646, -0.1435873806476593, -0.31342336535453796, -0.3735455572605133, -0.24570173025131226, -0.08798438310623169, -0.09487160295248032, -0.07782060652971268, -0.1152852401137352, 0.13660764694213867, 0.16694776713848114, 0.06374635547399521, 0.2177385836839676, 0.24910828471183777, 0.14787223935127258, -0.40257564187049866, 0.06181401386857033, -0.3137240409851074, -0.6819091439247131, 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231705	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual%20desire	Sexual desire	Sexual desire is an emotion and motivational state characterized by an interest in sexual objects or activities, or by a drive to seek out sexual objects or to engage in sexual activities. It is an aspect of sexuality, which varies significantly from one person to another and also fluctuates depending on circumstances. It may be the single most common sexual event in human life. However, not every person experiences sexual desire; those who do not may be labelled asexual. Sexual desire is a subjective feeling state that can be triggered by both internal and external cues, and that may or may not result in overt sexual behaviour. Desire can be aroused through imagination and sexual fantasies, or by perceiving an individual whom one finds attractive. It is also created and amplified through sexual tension, which is caused by sexual desire that has yet to be consummated. Physical manifestations of sexual desire in humans include licking, sucking, tongue protrusion, and puckering and touching the lips. Desire can be spontaneous or responsive, positive or negative, and can vary in intensity along a spectrum. Theoretical perspectives Theorists and researchers employ two frameworks in their understanding of human sexual desire. The first is a biological framework, also known as sex drive (or libido), in which sexual desire comes from an innate motivational force like an instinct, drive, need, urge, wish, or want. The second is a sociocultural theory in which desire is conceptualized as one factor in a much larger context (e.g., relationships nested within societies, nested within cultures). Biological framework The biological approach views sexual drives as similar to other physical drives, such as hunger. An individual will seek out food—or, in the case of desire, pleasure—in order to reduce or avoid pain. Sex drive can be thought of as a biological need or craving that inspires individuals to seek out and become receptive to sexual experiences and sexual pleasure. Incentive motivation theory exists under this framework and states that the strength of motivation toward sexual activity depends on the strength or immediacy of the stimuli. If satiety is achieved, the strength of the incentive will increase in the future. Sex drive is strongly tied to biological factors such as "chromosomal and hormonal status, nutritional status, age, and general health". Sexual desire is the first of four phases of the human sexual response cycle, followed by arousal, orgasm, and resolution. However, while it is part of the response cycle, desire is believed to be distinct from genital sexual arousal. It has also been argued that desire is not a distinct phase in sexual response, but rather something that persists through arousal and orgasm or even longer. Although orgasm might make it difficult for a man to maintain his erection or a woman to continue with vaginal lubrication, sexual desire can persist nevertheless. Sociocultural framework In the sociocultural framework, desire indicates a longing for sexual activity for its own sake and not for any other purpose other than enjoyment, satisfaction, or the release of sexual tension. Sexual desire and activity may be produced to help achieve other means or to gain non-sexual rewards, such as increased closeness and attachment between partners. Under this framework, sexual desire is not an urge, implying that individuals have more conscious control over their desire. Sociocultural influences may push males and females into gender-specific roles in which social scripts dictate the appropriate feelings and responses to desire. This may lead to frustration if an individual's wants remain unfulfilled due to anticipated social consequences. Some theorists suggest that the experience of sexual desire may be socially constructed. Others argue that, although sociocultural factors greatly influence desire, they do not play a large role until after biological factors initiate it. Another view is that sexual desire is neither a social construction nor a biological drive. According to James Giles, it is an existential need based on the sense of incompleteness that arises from the experience of being gendered. Many researchers believe that relying on a single approach to the study of human sexuality is counterproductive, and that the integrations of and interactions among multiple approaches allow for the most comprehensive understanding. Sexual desire can manifest itself in more than one way; it is a "variety of different behaviours, cognitions, and emotions, taken together". Levine suggests that sexual desire has three components that link several theoretical perspectives together: Drive: The biological component. This includes anatomy and neuroendocrinology. Motivation: The psychological component. This includes personal mental states (mood), interpersonal states (e.g., mutual affection or disagreement), and social context (e.g., relationship status). Wish: The cultural component. This includes cultural ideals, values, and rules about sexual expression that are external to the individual. Sex differences In early life, usually before puberty, males are quite flexible regarding their preferred sexual incentive, but they later become inflexible. Females, on the other hand, remain flexible throughout their life cycle. This change in sexuality due to variations in situational, cultural, and social factors is called erotic plasticity. Beyond this, very little is known about sexual desire and sexual arousal in prepubescent children, or whether any feelings they may have are comparable to what they will experience as an adult. Boys typically experience and commence sexual interest and activity before girls do. Men, on average, also have significantly higher sex drives and desire for sexual activity than women do; this is correlated with the finding that men report more lifetime sexual partners, although mathematicians say it is logically impossible for heterosexual men to have more partners on average than heterosexual women. Sex drive is also related to sociosexuality scores: The higher the sex drive, the less restricted the sociosexual orientation (i.e., the willingness to have sex outside of a committed relationship). This is especially the case for women. Lippa used data from a BBC internet survey to examine cross-cultural patterns in sex differences for three traits: sex drive, sociosexuality, and height. These traits all showed consistent sex differences across nations, although women were found to be more variable than men in their sex drive. On average, male sexual desire is stronger and more frequent than women's, and lasts longer into the life cycle. Though women do not experience sexual desire as often as men, when they do, the intensity of the experience is equal to that of men. Societal perceptions of men and women—in addition to perceptions about acceptable sexual behaviour (e.g., men are expected to be more sexual and sometimes insatiable, while women are expected to be more reserved)—may contribute to expressed levels of sexual desire and satisfaction. DeLamater and Sill found that affect and feelings concerning the importance of sexual activity can affect levels of desire. In their study, women who said that sexual activity was important to the quality of their lives and relationships demonstrated low desire, while women who placed less emphasis on sexual activity in their lives demonstrated high desire. Men presented similar results. These findings were corroborated by Conaglen and Evans, who assessed whether levels of sexual desire influenced emotional responses and cognitive processing of sexual pictorial stimuli. They found that women with lower sexual desire responded to sexual stimuli more quickly in the picture recognition task, but rated the sexual images as less arousing and less pleasant than women with higher sexual desire. When presented with explicit sexual imagery and stimuli, women can become physically aroused without experiencing psychological desire or arousal. In one study, 97% of women reported having had sexual intercourse without experiencing sexual desire, while only 60% of men reported the same thing. Also, women may form a more significant association between sexual desire and attachment than men. Women may be more prone to fluctuations in desire due to the many phases and biological changes the female body experiences, such as menstrual cycles, pregnancy, lactation, and menopause. Though these changes are usually very small, women seem to have increased levels of sexual desire during ovulation and decreased levels during menstruation. An abrupt decline in androgen production can cause cessation of sexual thoughts and failure to respond to sexual cues and triggers that would previously have elicited desire. This is seen especially in postmenopausal women who have low levels of testosterone. Doses of testosterone administered transdermally have been found to improve sexual desire and sexual functioning. Older individuals are less likely to describe themselves as being at the extremes of the sexual desire spectrum. By the time individuals reach middle and old age, there is a natural decline in sexual desire, sexual capacity, and the frequency of sexual behaviour. DeLamater and Sill found that the majority of men and women do not officially report themselves as having low levels of sexual desire until they are 76 years old. Many attribute this decline to partner familiarity, alienation, or preoccupation with nonsexual matters such as social, relational, and health concerns. Measuring and assessing Defining sexual desire is a challenge because it can be conceptualized in many ways. Researchers consider the definition used in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV-TR (DSM-IV-TR), as well as what men and women understand their own desire to be. The lack of agreed-upon parameters for normal versus abnormal levels of sexual desire creates challenges in the measurement of desire and the diagnosis of sexual desire disorders. Many researchers seek to assess sexual desire by examining self-reported data and observing the frequency of participants' sexual behaviour. This method can pose a problem because it emphasizes only the behavioural aspects of sexual desire and does not account for cognitive or biological influences that motivate people to seek out and become receptive to sexual opportunities. Several scales have been developed to measure the factors influencing the development and expression of sexual desire. One is the Sexual Desire Inventory (SDI), a self-administered questionnaire that defines sexual desire as "interest in or wish for sexual activity". The SDI measures thoughts and experiences. Fourteen questions assess the strength, frequency, and importance of an individual's desire for sexual activity with others and by themselves. The scale proposes that desire can be split into two categories: dyadic and solitary desire. Dyadic desire refers to an "interest in or a wish to engage in sexual activity with another person and desire for sharing and intimacy with another", while solitary desire refers to “an interest in engaging in sexual behaviour by oneself, and may involve a wish to refrain from intimacy and sharing with others”. The Sexual Interest and Desire Inventory-Female (SIDI-F) was the first validated instrument developed to specifically assess the severity of hypoactive sexual desire disorder and responses to treatment for the disorder in females. The SIDI-F consists of thirteen items that assess a woman's satisfaction with her relationship; her recent sexual experiences, both with her partner and alone; her enthusiasm for, desire for, and receptivity to sexual behaviour; distress over her level of desire; and arousal. The scale has a maximum score of 51, with higher scores representing increased levels of sexual functioning. Factors affecting Levels of sexual desire may fluctuate over time due to internal and external factors. Social and relationship influences One's social situation can refer to the social circumstances of life, their present stage of life, or the state of their romantic relationship. It may also refer to their non-relationship status. Whether people think that their experience of desire or lack of experience is problematic depends on social circumstances such as the presence or absence of a partner. As social beings, many people seek lifetime partners and wish to experience that connection and intimacy. People often consider sexual desire essential to romantic attraction and relationship development. The experience of desire can ebb and flow with time, increasing familiarity with one's partner, and changes in relationship dynamics and priorities. Disorders Two sexual desire disorders are listed in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV-TR: Hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) is defined as persistently or recurrently deficient (or absent) sexual fantasies and desire for sexual activity which causes marked distress or interpersonal difficulty. This definition has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on sexual fantasies, which are usually used to supplement arousal. As a result, a group of sexuality researchers and clinicians have proposed the addition of sexual desire/interest disorder (SDID) to the DSM in hopes that it may more accurately encompass concerns experienced by women in particular. SDID is defined as low sexual desire, absent sexual fantasies, and a lack of responsive desire. Sexual aversion disorder (SAD) is defined as persistent or recurrent, extreme aversion to and avoidance of all or almost all genital sexual contact with a sexual partner. SAD is considered more severe than HSDD. Some have questioned its placement within the sexual dysfunction category of the DSM and have called for it to be moved to the specific phobia grouping as an anxiety disorder. Both HSDD and SAD have been found to be more prevalent in females than males; this is especially the case with SAD. Hypersexual disorder is associated with sexual addiction and sexual compulsivity. According to a proposed revision to the DSM, which would include it in future publications, hypersexual disorder is defined as recurrent and intense sexual fantasies, sexual urges, and sexual behavior where the individual is consumed with excessive sexual desire and repeatedly engages in sexual behaviour in response to dysphoric mood states and stressful life events. Health A serious or chronic illness can have an enormous effect on sexual desire. An individual in poor health may be able to experience desire but not have the motivation or strength to have sex. Chronic disorders like cardiovascular disease, diabetes, arthritis, enlarged prostate (in men), Parkinson's disease, cancer, and high blood pressure can negatively affect sexual desire, sexual functioning, and sexual response. There have been conflicting findings on the effect of diabetes on sexual desire, especially in men. Some studies have found that diabetic men show lower levels of desire than healthy, age-matched counterparts, while others have found no difference. Medications Certain medications can cause changes in the level of sexual desire through nonspecific effects on well-being, energy, and mood. Declining sexual desire has been linked to the use of anti-hypertension medication and many psychiatric medications, including antipsychotics, tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine-oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), and sedatives. The psychiatric medications that most severely decrease sexual desire are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Higher dosages of these medications are also correlated with a lowering of sexual desire. In women, anticoagulants, cardiovascular medications, statins, and anti-hypertension drugs contribute to low levels of desire. However, in men, only anticoagulants and anti-hypertension medications have been found to be related. Oral contraceptives can also lower sexual desire in as many as one in four women who use them. They are known to increase levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) in the body, and high SHBG levels are in turn associated with a decline in desire. Though it is not used as medication, the drug methamphetamine has a strong positive effect on many aspects of sexual behaviour, including desire. Hormones Sexual desire is said to be influenced by androgens in men and by both androgens and estrogens in women. Many studies associate the sex hormone testosterone with sexual desire. Another hormone thought to influence sexual desire is oxytocin. Exogenous administration of moderate amounts of oxytocin has been found to stimulate females to desire and seek out sexual activity. In women, oxytocin levels are at their highest during sexual activity. In males, the frequency of ejaculation affects libido. If roughly a week passes between ejaculations, there will be a stronger desire for sexual activity. Interventions Medical interventions are available for individuals who feel sexually bored, experience performance anxiety, or are unable to orgasm. For everyday life, a 2013 fact sheet from the Association for Reproductive Health Professionals recommends erotic literature and recalling instances when one felt sexy and sexual. Social and religious views Views on sexual desire and how it should be expressed vary significantly among societies and religions. Ideologies range from sexual repression to hedonism. Laws concerning specific forms of sexual activity, such as homosexual acts and sex outside marriage, vary by geography. In some countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Maldives, Morocco, Oman, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Sudan, and Yemen, any form of sexual activity outside marriage is illegal. Some societies have a double standard regarding male and female expressions of desire. Female genital mutilation is practiced in some regions in an attempt to prevent women from acting on their sexual desires. 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231707	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Goring%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Norwich	George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich	George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich (28 April 1585 – 6 January 1663) was an English soldier and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1621 and 1628 when he was raised to the peerage. Goring was the son of George Goring of Hurstpierpoint and Ovingdean, Sussex, and his wife Anne Denny, sister of Edward Denny, 1st Earl of Norwich. He matriculated from Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge in 1600, and may subsequently have spent some time in Flanders. He was knighted in 1608, became a favourite at court and benefitted from successful overseas policy and monopolies granted by King Charles I. In 1621 he was elected Member of Parliament for Lewes. He was made Knight Marshal in 1623. He was re-elected MP for Lewes in, 1624, 1625, 1626 and 1628. In 1628 he was created Baron Goring. He became a privy councillor in 1639 and Vice-Chamberlain of the Household. One year later the troubles between Charles and his Parliament became acute and Goring devoted his fortune freely to the royal cause; the king in November 1644 recreated for him the title which he created in 1628 for Lord Denny, Earl of Norwich, his uncle, which had just become extinct on his death. He went with Queen Henrietta Maria to the Netherlands in 1642 to raise money for the king, and in the autumn of the next year he was seeking arms and money from Cardinal Mazarin in Paris. His acts were revealed to the parliament in January 1644 by an intercepted letter to Henrietta Maria. He was consequently impeached of high treason but prudently remained abroad until 1647, albeit deprived of his lands and income, when he received a pass from parliament under a pretext of seeking reconciliation. Thus he was able to take a prominent part in the Second Civil War of 1648. He commanded the Kentish levies, which Fairfax dispersed at Maidstone and elsewhere and was forced to surrender unconditionally at Colchester. Norwich's refusal to surrender, even after the cause was known to be hopeless and the people of the town begged him to surrender, was considered to be against the rules of war. Two of his commanders were executed after the siege for their part in it. Norwich was condemned to exile in November 1648 by a vote of the House of Commons, but the next month the vote was annulled. Early in the next year a court formed under John Bradshaw and tried: Norwich, the Duke of Hamilton, Lord Capel, the Earl of Holland and Sir John Owen. Each received a death sentence on 6 March 1649, but petitions for mercy were presented to parliament, and Norwich's life was spared by the Speaker's casting vote. Shortly after his liberation from prison in May 1649 he joined the exiled court of Charles II who employed him in fruitless negotiations with the duke of Lorraine. He became captain of the king's guard at the Restoration, and in consideration of the fortune he had spent or income he had foregone in the king's service a pension of 2000 pounds per year was granted him. Norwich died at Brentford on 6 January 1663. Children By his wife Mary Nevill/Neville (died 1648), daughter of Edward Nevill, 8th Baron Bergavenny and Rachel Lennard, he had four daughters and two sons: George, Lord Goring; and Charles, who fought in the Civil War, succeeded his father in the earldom, and died without heirs in March 1671. Lady Elizabeth Goring (d. c. Nov. 1687), who married William Brereton, 2nd Baron Brereton Lady Catherine Goring, who married Edward Scott of Scot's Hall and had several children whose paternity her husband refused to acknowledge, on the grounds of her notorious infidelity (Prince Rupert was said to be one of her lovers); her son Thomas succeeded to the estates after Edward belatedly acknowledged him as his lawful son. Thomas married in 1663 Caroline Carteret, daughter of Sir George Carteret, 1st Baronet. Lady Lucy Goring, who married Sir Drue Deane Lady Diana Goring, who married firstly Thomas Covert of Slaugham, Sussex, and secondly George Porter, eldest son of the noted courtier Endymion Porter George Goring, Lord Goring (14 Jul 1608 – 25 Jul 1657) Charles Goring, 2nd Earl of Norwich (c. 1615 – 3 Mar 1671) References \|- \|- 1585 births 1663 deaths Alumni of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge 17th-century English soldiers English MPs 1621–1622 English MPs 1624–1625 English MPs 1625 English MPs 1626 English MPs 1628–1629 Cavaliers Earls of Norwich Military personnel of the English Civil War	[ -0.5837795734405518, -0.11184190213680267, 0.12767060101032257, -0.2851569652557373, -0.5980480313301086, 0.7308130264282227, 0.5472434759140015, -0.39918333292007446, -0.5421693921089172, 0.1146760880947113, 0.0061655971221625805, 0.1947319656610489, -1.0070000886917114, -0.3359246551990509, 0.2095281034708023, -0.011822733096778393, 0.07436186820268631, -0.3656475245952606, -0.23162132501602173, 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231709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonic	Tonic	Tonic may refer to: Tonic water, a drink traditionally containing quinine Soft drink, a carbonated beverage Tonic (physiology), the response of a muscle fiber or nerve ending typified by slow, continuous action Tonic syllable, the stressed syllable of a word Herbal tonic, a herbal medicine with tonic effects Tonic (music), a concept of music theory Tonic (band), an American rock band Tonic (Tonic album), 2010 Tonic (music venue), a New York City music venue, 1998–2007 Tonic (Medeski Martin & Wood album), 2000 Tonic (radio program), Canadian radio program Tonic suit, a garment made from a shiny mohair blend that was fashionable among the Mods of the mid 1960s Windtech Tonic, a Spanish paraglider design Tonic (film), a Bengali film See also Patent medicine that claims to have tonic properties Tonči Tonic sol-fa, a method of teaching sight-singing Tonic Sol-fa (a cappella group), American singing group with a largely pop-music-oriented 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231712	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communications%20Security%20Establishment	Communications Security Establishment	The Communications Security Establishment (CSE; , CST), formerly (from 2008-2014) called the Communications Security Establishment Canada (CSEC), is the Government of Canada's national cryptologic agency. It is responsible for foreign signals intelligence (SIGINT) and communications security (COMSEC), protecting federal government electronic information and communication networks, and is the technical authority for cyber security and information assurance. Administered under the Department of National Defence (DND), the CSE is accountable to the Minister of National Defence through its deputy head, the Chief of CSE. The National Defence Minister is in turn accountable to the Cabinet and Parliament. The Chief of the CSE is currently Shelly Bruce, who assumed the office on 27 June 2018. The Agency has recently built a new headquarters and campus encompassing . The new headquarters totals a little over and is adjacent to CSIS. History CSE originates from Canada's joint military and civilian code-breaking and intelligence efforts during the Second World War. Examination Unit The Examination Unit (XU) was established during the Second World War, in June 1941, as a branch of the National Research Council. It was the first civilian office in Canada solely dedicated to decryption of communications signals; until then, SIGINT was entirely within the purview of the Canadian military, and mostly limited to intercepts. In March 1942, XU moved next door to Laurier House in Sandy Hill, Ottawa; this location was chosen because they felt it would draw no suspicion to the enemies. In September, the Department of External Affairs established its Special Intelligence Section at XU with the purpose of reviewing decoded SIGINT with other collateral information to produce intelligence summaries. The original mandate of the Examination Unit was to intercept the communications of Vichy France and Germany. Its mandate later expanded to include interception and decryption of Japanese communications after Japan entered the war. The unit was estimated to have had 50 staff members at any one time. In total 77 people worked there. By 1945, the disparate SIGINT collection units of the Canadian Navy, Army, and Air Force, were consolidated into the Joint Discrimination Unit (JDU), which was headquartered in Ottawa in the same building as the XU. By the end of the War, the military JDU and the civilian XU were able to coordinate SIGINT collection, analysis, and dissemination so efficiently that it led officials to consider the establishment of peacetime SIGINT operations. In September 1945, U.S. President Harry Truman declared it would be vital to carry out such operations, and Canadian authorities came to the same conclusion in December later that year. On 13 April 1946, a secret Order in Council allowed for postwar continuation of wartime cryptologic efforts and thus the Communications Branch of the National Research Council of Canada (CBNRC) was founded. This agency would be the predecessor to today's Communications Security Establishment (CSE). Communications Branch of the National Research Council Beginning operations on 3 September 1946, the Communications Branch of the National Research Council (CBNRC) was the first peace-time cryptologic agency and was kept secret for much of its beginning. The CBNRC was established through a secret Order in Council signed on 13 April 1946, combining the civilian Examination Unit (XU) and the military Joint Discrimination Unit (JDU). Located at LaSalle Academy; . With Edward Drake as its first director, the agency worked with intercepted foreign electronic communications, collected largely from the Royal Canadian Signal Corps (RCCS) station at Rockcliffe Airport in Ottawa. CSE also worked with Canadian Forces Station Leitrim (CFS Leitrim; formerly 1 Special Wireless Station till 1949, and Ottawa Wireless Station till 1966), Canada's oldest operational signal intelligence (SIGINT) collection station, established by the RCCS in 1941 and located just south of Ottawa. In 1946, the station's complement was 75 personnel (compared to its around 2,000 employees in 2013–2014). This unit successfully decrypted, translated, and analyzed these foreign signals, and turned that raw information into useful intelligence reports during the course of the war. CBNRC finally began domestic COMSEC efforts on 1 January 1947. During the Cold War, the CBNRC was primarily responsible for providing SIGINT data to the Department of National Defence regarding the military operations of the Soviet Union. In February 1950, R. S. McLaren was appointed the first CBNRC Senior Liaison Officer (CBSLO) to Washington, D.C. In March 1962: CBNRC installed its first IBM supercomputer, costing CA$372k. In December 1964, CBNRC began collaboration on "Canadian ALVIS" (CID 610), the first and only Canadian cipher machine to be mass-produced; based on the British ALVIS (BID 610). CBNRC and the information it gathered and shared was kept secret for 34 years until 9 January 1974, when the CBC Television documentary show, The Fifth Estate, aired an episode focused on the organization, with research by James Dubro. This was the first time that the organization had ever been mentioned in public. This resulted in an outcry in the House of Common and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. Communications Security Establishment In 1975, the CBNRC was transferred to the Department of National Defence (DND) by an Order in Council, and became the Communications Security Establishment. CSE was now publicly known, and had diversified since the Cold War becoming the primary SIGINT resource in Canada. In 1988, CSE created the Canadian System Security Centre to establish a Canadian computer security standard among other goals. This led to the publication of the Canadian Trusted Computer Product Evaluation Criteria. Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Canada's Anti-terrorism Act (ATA) was ratified, receiving royal assent on 18 December 2001. It amended the National Defence Act to formally acknowledge and mandate the activities of CSE. It also made amendments to the Canadian Security Intelligence Service Act, the Criminal Code, and the Official Secrets Act (later the Security of Information Act). In early 2008, in line with the Federal Identity Program (FIP) of the Government of Canada, which requires all federal agencies to have the word Canada in their name, CSE adopted the applied title Communications Security Establishment Canada (CSEC; , CSTC). Since mid-2014, the organization has used its legal name (Communications Security Establishment) and initials (CSE) on its website and in public statements. In November 2011, CSE was made an independent agency, though still operating under the National Defence portfolio and constrained by the National Defence Act. In June 2019, the Communications Security Establishment Act was passed as part of an omnibus national security bill called the National Security Act 2017. Coming into force two months later, in August, the act set out the mandate and powers of CSE. As part of the omnibus bill, oversight of CSE activities was assumed by the newly created National Security and Intelligence Review Agency (NSIRA). Insignia CSE uses generic identifiers imposed by the Federal Identity Program. However, CSE is one of several federal departments and agencies (primarily those having law enforcement, security, or regulatory functions) that have been granted a badge by the Canadian Heraldic Authority. The badge was granted in 1994, while CSE's pennant was first raised in 1996 to mark the organization's 50th anniversary. From the 1990s to the mid 2000s, CSE's Information Technology Security program used a logo to identify its products and publications; the triangle represented threats, while the arc symbolized protection. Operations Unique within Canada's security and intelligence community, the Communications Security Establishment employs code-makers and code-breakers (cryptanalysis) to provide the Government of Canada with information technology security (IT Security) and foreign signals intelligence services. CSE also provides technical and operational assistance to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and federal law enforcement and security agencies, including the Canada Border Services Agency and the Canadian Air Transport Security Authority. Signal intelligence CSE's SIGINT program produces intelligence that responds to Canadian government requirements. At CFS Leitrim, the main military SIGINT facility in the south end of Ottawa, the establishment collects foreign intelligence that can be used by the government for strategic warning, policy formulation, decision-making in the fields of national security and national defence, and day-to-day assessment of foreign capabilities and intentions. The station at Leitrim specializes in intercepting electronic communications to and from embassies in Ottawa. Other Canadian military SIGINT facilities are located at: CFB Gander Newfoundland with a detachment from CFS Leitrim, CFS Masset, BC (under remote control from CFS Leitrim) and CFS Alert, Nunavut. CSE relies on its closest foreign intelligence allies, the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand to share the collection burden and the resulting intelligence yield. Canada is a substantial beneficiary and participant of the collaborative effort within the partnership to collect and report on foreign communications. During the Cold War, CSE's primary client for signals intelligence was National Defence, and its focus was the military operations of the then Soviet Union. Since the end of the Cold War, Government of Canada requirements have evolved to include a wide variety of political, defence, and security issues of interest to a much broader range of client departments. While these continue to be key intelligence priorities for Government of Canada decision-makers, increasing focus on protecting the safety of Canadians is prompting greater interest in intelligence on transnational issues, including terrorism. Code breaking equipment CSE code breaking capabilities degraded substantially in the 1960s and 1970s but were upgraded with the acquisition of a Cray X-MP/11 (modified) supercomputer delivered to the Sir Leonard Tilley building in March 1985 and the hiring of code breaking analysts. It was, at the time, the most powerful computer in Canada. In the early 1990s, the Establishment purchased a Floating Point Systems FPS 522-EA supercomputer at a cost of $1,620,371. This machine was upgraded to a Cray S-MP superserver after Cray acquired Floating Point Systems in December 1991 and used the Folklore Operating System supplied by the NSA in the US. These machines are now retired. Little information is available on the types of computers used by the CSE since then. However, Cray in the US has produced a number of improved supercomputers since then. These include the Cray SX-6, early 2000s, the Cray X1, 2003 (development funded in part by the NSA), Cray XD1, 2004, Cray XT3, Cray XT4, 2006, Cray XMt, 2006 and Cray CX1, 2008. It is possible that some of these models have been used by the CSE and are in use today. Canadian Centre for Cyber Security The Canadian Centre for Cyber Security (CCCS or Cyber Centre; ) is the Government of Canada authority responsible for monitoring threats, protecting national critical infrastructure against cyber incidents, and coordinating the national response to any incidents related to cyber security. As a unit under the Communications Security Establishment (CSE), the agency is Canada's computer emergency response team (CSIRT) and the Canadian government's computer Incident response team (CIRT). Officially created on 1 October 2018, CCCS consolidated the existing operational cyber-security units of several federal government organizations, including Public Safety Canada's Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre, Shared Services Canada's Security Operations Centre, and the CSE's Information Technology Security branch. History Formerly known as communications security (COMSEC), the CSE's Information Technology Security branch grew out of a need to protect sensitive information transmitted by various agencies of the government, especially the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT), Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA), DND, and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). The Cyber Centre was developed in response to CSE's consultations with Canadians in 2016 which identified various issues pertaining to cyber security in relation to the federal government, including accountability, departmental coordination, and leadership. In February 2018, the federal budget allocated funds for CSE, in collaboration with Public Safety Canada and Shared Services Canada, to launch the Cyber Centre. Officially created on 1 October 2018, CCCS consolidated the existing operational cyber-security units of several federal government organizations, including the Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre of Public Safety Canada; the Security Operations Centre of Shared Services Canada; and the Information Technology Security branch of CSE. Prior to opening, in June 2018, Minister Ralph Goodale appointed Scott Jones the head of the new Centre. Tutte Institute for Mathematics and Computing The Tutte Institute for Mathematics and Computing (TIMC) is a research institute programme of the Government of Canada responsible for conducting classified research in the areas of cryptology and knowledge discovery to support the Canadian Cryptologic Program and its Five-Eyes international partners. Though officially founded in 2009, TIMC officially opened and formally named in September 2011. Named after cryptanalyst and mathematician William T. Tutte, TIMC is based within CSE's Edward Drake Building in Ottawa. Sponsored and funded by the Communications Security Establishment, the institute is partnered with Institutes for Defence Analyses, CCR Princeton, CCR La Jolla, CCS Bowie, the Heilbronn Institute for Mathematical Research, Carleton University, and the University of Calgary and is working to create partnerships with other research institutes, government agencies and universities. Researchers Leland McInnes and John Healy at the Tutte Institute developed a technique called Uniform Manifold Approximation and Projection (UMAP), originally designed to analyze malware. The algorithm and software of UMAP has since been released by TIMC to the open-source community, and is now being used to answer questions about COVID-19. Facilities CSE occupies several buildings in Ottawa, including the Edward Drake Building and the neighbouring Sir Leonard Tilley Building. CSE moved to the Tilley Building in June 1961. On 26 February 2015, CSE officially inaugurated the Edward Drake Building, named for Lt. Colonel Edward Drake, a pioneer of the Canadian signals intelligence. With the rapid expansion in the number of CSE personnel since the 9/11 attack in the US, the CSE has built new facilities. A new CA$1.2 billion facility, encompassing , has been built in the eastern part of Ottawa, immediately west of the headquarters building for the Canadian Security Intelligence Service. Construction began in early 2011 and was completed in 2015. Governance and mandate Legislation In addition to those mentioned below, CSE is bound by all other Canadian laws, including the Criminal Code, the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, the Privacy Act, Security of Information Act, and the Avoiding Complicity in Mistreatment by Foreign Entities Act. In December 2001, the Canadian government passed omnibus bill C-36 into law as the Anti-Terrorism Act. The Act amended portions of the National Defence Act and officially recognized CSE's three-part mandate: To acquire and use information from the global information infrastructure for the purpose of providing foreign intelligence, in accordance with Government of Canada intelligence priorities. To provide advice, guidance and services to help ensure the protection of electronic information and of information infrastructures of importance to the Government of Canada. To provide technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies in the performance of their lawful duties. The Anti-Terrorism Act also strengthened CSE's capacity to engage in the war on terrorism by providing needed authorities to fulfill its mandate. In the 2007 Proceedings of the Canadian Senate Standing Committee on National Security and Defence, then-CSE Chief John Adams indicated that the CSE is collecting communications data when he suggested that the legislation was not perfect in regard to interception of information relating to the "envelope." Communications Security Establishment Act In June 2019, the Communications Security Establishment Act (CSE Act) was passed, as part of the National Security Act 2017. The Act, which came into force two months after passing, notes that there are five aspects of CSE's mandate: The acquisition of foreign intelligence (SIGINT) Cybersecurity and information assurance to help protect electronic information and information infrastructures of the Canadian government and those designated to be of importance to the government Defensive cyber operations Active cyber operations Technical and operational assistance to federal law enforcement and security agencies, the Canadian Forces, and the Department of National Defence. The CSE Act requires that CSE activities do not target Canadians anywhere in the world, or any person in Canada, "unless there are reasons to believe that there is an imminent danger of death or serious bodily harm. The Act also requires the CSE protect the privacy of Canadians and persons in Canada. As such, CSE is forbidden, by law, to intercept domestic communications. When intercepting communications between a domestic and foreign source, the domestic communications are destroyed or otherwise ignored. (After the September 11 attacks on the United States in 2001, however, CSE's powers expanded to allow the interception of foreign communications that begin or end in Canada, as long as the other party is outside the border and ministerial authorization is issued specifically for this case and purpose.) Governance and oversight The Minister of National Defence guides and authorizes the activities of CSE using ministerial directives, ministerial authorizations, and ministerial orders, all of which are based on the "government’s intelligence priorities as set out by Cabinet through discussion and consultations with the security and intelligence community." The Defence Minister cannot authorize any activities that are not included in the CSE mandate or grant CSE any powers that do not exist in Canadian law. Ministerial directives are how the Minister of National Defence instructs the Chief of CSE. CSE operates under a system of independent oversight: National Security and Intelligence Review Agency (NSIRA) — NSIRA is fully independent of government and of CSE. Its committee members are appointed by the sitting Prime Minister in consultation with Parliamentary leaders, and handle complaints against all Canadian national security agencies. Intelligence Commissioner — the Intelligence Commissioner is independent of CSE and has oversight of all national security and intelligence gathering activities of the Government of Canada, including CSE. The Commissioner issues an annual report to the Prime Minister, who must table it in Parliament after removing confidential and classified information. The Commissioner is entitled to receive all reports that are compiled by NSIRA. National Security and Intelligence Committee of Parliamentarians (NSICOP) — NSICOP is a committee of Parliamentarians that have the security clearances to review and report on any aspect of CSE's activities. CSE activities are also subject to several external oversight and review bodies. As with any other federal department or agency of Canada, the activities of CSE are also subject to review by various federal bodies, including: the Privacy Commissioner the Information Commissioner the Auditor General the Canadian Human Rights Commission the Commissioner of Official Languages Heads of the CSE Communications Security Establishment Commissioner Oversight over CSE was formerly provided by the Office of the Communications Security Establishment Commissioner (OCSEC; , BCCST), which was created on 19 June 1996 to review CSE's activities for compliance with the applicable legislation, accept and investigate complaints regarding the lawfulness of the agency's activities, and to perform special duties under the 'Public Interest Defence' clause of the Security of Information Act. The Commissioner provided an annual public report on his activities and findings to Parliament, through the Minister of National Defence. Between 1996 and 2019, there were six Commissioners: Claude Bisson (1996 June 19 – 2003) Antonio Lamer (2003 June 19 – 2006) Charles Gonthier (2006 August 1 – 2009) Peter Cory (2009 December 14 – 2010) Robert Décary (2010 June 18 – 2013) Jean-Pierre Plouffe (2013–2019) As part of an omnibus national security bill (the National Security Act, 2017) passed by Parliament in 2019, the OCSEC was abolished and its responsibilities divided between two newly created entities: employees of the OCSEC were transferred to the Office of the Intelligence Commissioner; and the review functions of the former OCSEC were assumed by the National Security and Intelligence Review Agency (NSIRA). The previous Commissioner of CSE, Jean-Pierre Plouffe, was appointed to the role of Intelligence Commissioner on 18 July 2019. ECHELON Under the 1948 UKUSA agreement, CSE's intelligence is shared with the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA), the British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ), the Australian Signals Directorate (ASD), and New Zealand's Government Communications Security Bureau (GCSB). Along with these services from the United States, the UK, New Zealand, and Australia, CSE is believed to form the ECHELON system. Its capabilities are suspected to include the ability to monitor a large proportion of the world's transmitted civilian telephone, fax and data traffic. The intercepted data, or "dictionaries" are "reported linked together through a high-powered array of computers known as 'Platform'." Controversies CBNRC and the information it gathered and shared was kept secret for 34 years until 9 January 1974, when the CBC Television documentary show, The Fifth Estate, aired an episode focused on the organization, with research by James Dubro. This was the first time that the organization had ever been mentioned in public. This resulted in an outcry in the House of Common and an admission by the Canadian government that the organization existed. A former employee of the organization, Mike Frost, claimed in a 1994 book, Spyworld, that the agency eavesdropped on Margaret Trudeau to find out if she smoked marijuana and that CSE had monitored two of former British prime minister Margaret Thatcher's dissenting cabinet ministers in London on behalf of the UK's secret service. In 1996, it was suggested that CSE had monitored all communications between National Defence Headquarters and Somalia, and were withholding information from the Somalia Inquiry into the killing of two unarmed Somalis by Canadian soldiers. In 2006, CTV Montreal's program On Your Side conducted a three-part documentary on CSE naming it "Canada's most secretive spy agency" and that "this ultra-secret agency has now become very powerful," conducting surveillance by monitoring phone calls, e-mails, chat groups, radio, microwave, and satellite. In 2007, former Ontario lieutenant-governor, James Bartleman, testified at the Air India Inquiry on May 3 that he saw a CSE communications intercept warning of the June 22, 1985 bombing of Air India Flight 182 before it occurred. Two former CSE employees have since testified that no CSE report was ever produced. In 2013, a coalition of civil liberties associations launched a campaign directed against the government's perceived lack of transparency on issues related to the agency, demanding more information on its purported domestic surveillance activities. Further criticism has arisen surrounding the construction costs of the agency's new headquarters in Ottawa. The project is slated to cost over CA$1.1 billion, making it the most expensive government building in Canadian history. In 2014, a leaked, top-secret presentation entitled “IP Profiling Analytics & Mission Impacts” summarized experiments tracking the cellphones of travellers passing through Toronto Pearson International Airport. Critics argued that the experiment was invasive and indiscriminate, while CSE countered that it was consistent with all relevant laws and mandates. In 2016, the CSE Commissioner found that one of the agency's metadata activities did not comply with the law. Specifically, CSE had failed to properly minimize certain Canadian identity information before sending it to foreign governments, contravening parts of the National Defence Act and the Privacy Act. Media portrayal In The Good Wife episode "Landing," both the NSA and the CSE are shown monitoring personal phone calls and hacking private cell phones' recording devices in order to listen in on personal conversations. One plaintiff describes the CSE as "the Canadian version of the NSA." See also Badge of the Communications Security Establishment CFS Leitrim Canadian Forces Information Management Group ECHELON Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) RCMP Security Service Security clearances Security of Information Act Treasury Board Cray List of intelligence agencies National Security Agency (US) GCHQ (UK) FAPSI (Russia) References External links Official website of the CSE Commissioner Lux ex Umbra – a blog about the CSE https://web.archive.org/web/20101012165353/http://www.img.forces.gc.ca/index-eng.asp – Canadian Forces Information Management Group https://web.archive.org/web/20090208001508/http://www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/em/ccirc/index-eng.aspx – Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre The Communications Security Establishment – Canada's Most Secret Intelligence Agency CSIS Official Web Site Department of National Defence (Canada) Federal departments and agencies of Canada Canada Canadian intelligence agencies Government 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231714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIA	TIA	TIA or Tia may refer to: Aviation Tampa International Airport, US, IATA code TPA Texas International Airlines, US, ICAO code Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza, Albania, IATA code Trans International Airlines, former U.S. airline company Tribhuvan International Airport (IATA code: KTM), Kathmandu, Nepal Trivandrum International Airport (IATA code: TRV), Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India Tucson International Airport (IATA code: TUS), Arizona, US Business and government Tía, a South American supermarket chain based in Ecuador Telecommunications Industry Association, U.S. Thanks In Advance, U.S. Total Information Awareness or Terrorism Information Awareness Program, US Transparency in Armaments, UN initiative Trust Indenture Act of 1939, US Geography Tia, Burkina Faso, a village in the Siglé Department of Boulkiemdé Province Tia, New South Wales, a settlement and parish in Australia Tia, Fiji, a village of Motusa in Fiji Tia-ye Olya, a village in Iran Tia-ye Sofla, a village in Iran Tia, Leh, a village in India Literature and arts Tia and Megumi Oumi, characters in the anime and manga series Zatch Bell! The Intellectual Activist, American monthly Objectivist magazine Tia, a character in the French TV series Galactik Football "T.I.A.", a song by K'naan in the album Troubadour Tournament Indoor Association, a division of Tournament of Bands, US Tia, a Diva Starz doll T.I.A., a secret spy agency from Spanish comic series Mort & Phil () People TiA (born 1987), female Japanese singer Tia (singer), female Japanese singer Tia (Maori explorer), early Māori explorer and chief Tia (princess) an ancient Egyptian princess during the 19th dynasty Tia (overseer of treasury), ancient Egyptian official, husband of Princess Tia Tia (name), people with the given name or surname Technology Transimpedance amplifier, a type of current-to-voltage converter Television Interface Adaptor, custom chip that is the heart of the Atari 2600 game console The Internet Adapter, 1993 software created by Cyberspace Development Other uses Tia (goddess), a goddess in the Haida religion Tia (moth), a genus of moths in the 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231715	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melisma	Melisma	Melisma (Greek: , melisma, song, air, melody; from , melos, song, melody, plural: melismata) is the singing of a single syllable of text while moving between several different notes in succession. Music sung in this style is referred to as melismatic, as opposed to syllabic, in which each syllable of text is matched to a single note. An informal term for melisma is a vocal run. History General Music of ancient cultures used melismatic techniques to induce a hypnotic trance in the listener, useful for early mystical initiation rites (such as Eleusinian Mysteries) and religious worship. This quality is still found in Greek music, Irish folk music and Arabic music where the scale consists of "quarter tones". Orthodox Christian chanting also bears a slight resemblance to this. Middle Eastern melismatic music was developed further in the Torah chanting, as well as by the Masoretes in the seventh or eighth centuries. It then appeared in some genres of Gregorian chant, where it was used in certain sections of the Mass, with the earliest written appearance around AD 900. The gradual and the alleluia, in particular, were characteristically melismatic, for example, while the tract is not, and repetitive melodic patterns were deliberately avoided in the style. The Byzantine Rite also used melismatic elements in its music, which developed roughly concurrently with the Gregorian chant. In Western music, the term "melisma" typically refers to Gregorian chant. (The first definition of melisma by the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary is "a group of notes or tones sung on one syllable in plainsong".) However, the term melisma may be used to describe music of any genre, including baroque singing, opera, and later gospel. Within the tradition of Religious Jewish music, melisma is still commonly used in the chanting of Torah, readings from the Prophets, and in the body of a service. Today, melisma is commonly used in Middle Eastern, African, and African American music, and Flamenco. Melisma is also commonly featured in Western popular music. Early in their careers, Ray Charles, Aretha Franklin, and Stevie Wonder used it sparingly. Melisma is used by countless pop artists such as Michael Jackson, although this form usually involves improvising melismata (and melismatic vocalise) over a simpler melody. During the fadeout of the Beatles' 1966 track "I Want to Tell You", bassist Paul McCartney can be heard singing a high-pitched melisma in the style of classical Indian music. Prevalence in popular music (mid 1980s to late 2000s) The use of melisma is a common feature of artists such as Deniece Williams, Stevie Wonder, Luther Vandross, Whitney Houston, Mariah Carey, Beyoncé, Christina Aguilera, among others. The use of melismatic vocals in pop music slowly grew in the 1980s. Deniece Williams topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart in May 1984, with "Let's Hear It for the Boy" with her melismatic vocals. Although other artists used melisma before, Houston's rendition of Dolly Parton's ballad "I Will Always Love You" pushed the technique into the mainstream in the 1990s. The trend in R&B singers is considered to have been popularized by Mariah Carey's song "Vision of Love", which was released and topped the U.S. charts in 1990, and went on to be certified gold. Recent backlash (late 2000s – early 2010s) As late as 2007, melismatic singers such as Leona Lewis were still scoring big hits, but around 2008–2009, this trend reverted to how it was prior to Carey and Houston's success – singers with less showy styles such as Kesha and Cheryl Cole began to outsell new releases by Carey and Christina Aguilera, ending nearly two decades of the style's dominance of pop-music vocals. Examples The traditional French carol tune "Gloria", to which the hymn "Angels We Have Heard on High" is usually sung (and "Angels from the Realms of Glory" in Great Britain), contains one of the most melismatic sequences in popular Christian hymn music. Twice in its refrain, the "o" of the word "Gloria" is held through 16 different notes. "Ding Dong Merrily on High", arranged by George Ratcliffe Woodward, contains an even longer melisma of 31 notes, also on the "o" of "Gloria". George Frideric Handel's Messiah contains numerous examples of melisma, as in the following excerpt from the chorus "For Unto Us a Child Is Born" (Part I, No. 12). The soprano and alto lines engage in a 57-note melisma on the word "born". Melisma is also used, though rarely and briefly, in the music of Jethro Tull: examples include the eponymous track of the album Songs From the Wood and the song "Skating Away (On the Thin Ice of the New Day)". One of the most striking instances in recent pop music occurs in Bruce Springsteen's "The Ties that Bind", in which the "I" in "bind" is iterated 13 times. A striking example is found in Bohemian Rhapsody by Queen, in which melisma on the syllables '-co' (of 'magnifico') and 'go' (of 'let me go') forms part of the dramatic structure of the song. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart also uses melisma in his Requiem Mass in D minor (K. 626) in the Kyrie sequence, with the "e" in "eleison" being elaborately sung in various notes. See also Arabic maqam Roulade References External links American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language entry on "melisma" Virginia Tech Multimedia Music Dictionary entry on melisma Singing techniques Musical terminology	[ -0.34764033555984497, -0.08563141524791718, -0.27220356464385986, -0.11705713719129562, -0.353130042552948, 0.5478923916816711, 0.5547798871994019, 0.27847087383270264, -0.4723644554615021, -0.5053693652153015, -0.527334988117218, 0.30442139506340027, -0.1432887762784958, -0.05855512246489525, -0.39453795552253723, 0.23369662463665009, 0.8534964323043823, -0.21070979535579681, 0.18937863409519196, -0.027198921889066696, -0.41164225339889526, 0.5419221520423889, 0.5612836480140686, -0.6361705660820007, 0.8326655626296997, -0.5046036839485168, -0.16477318108081818, 0.10172012448310852, 0.15481062233448029, 0.05791742727160454, 0.03398828208446503, 0.7302950024604797, 0.6027812957763672, -0.21200211346149445, 0.10273930430412292, -0.09567031264305115, 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231716	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20BFG	The BFG	The BFG (short for The Big Friendly Giant) is a 1982 children's book written by British novelist Roald Dahl and illustrated by Quentin Blake. It is an expansion of a short story from Dahl's 1975 book Danny, the Champion of the World. The book is dedicated to Dahl's late daughter, Olivia, who died of measles encephalitis at the age of seven in 1962. As of 2009, the novel has sold 37 million copies in UK editions alone, with more than 1 million copies sold around the world every year. An animated adaptation was released in 1989 with David Jason providing the voice of the BFG and Amanda Root as the voice of Sophie. It has also been adapted as a theatre performance. A theatrical Disney live-action adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg was released in 2016. Plot The start of the book begins with an eight-year-old orphan girl named Sophie lying in bed in an orphanage run by Mrs. Clonkers. She cannot sleep, and sees a strange sight in the street; a Giant Man, carrying a bag and an odd trumpet. He sees Sophie, who tries to hide in bed, but the giant picks her up through the window. Then he runs quickly to a large cave, which he enters. When he sets Sophie down, she begins to plead for her life, believing that the giant will eat her. The giant laughs and explains that most giants do eat human beings (which he pronounces as "human beans"), and that the people's origins affect their taste. For example, people from Greece taste greasy while people from Panama taste of hats. The giant then says that he will not eat her as he is the Big Friendly Giant, or BFG for short. The BFG explains that she must stay with him forever so that no one can know of his existence. He warns her of the dangers of leaving his cave as his nine neighbours are sure to eat her if they catch her. He also explains what he was doing with the trumpet and suitcase. He catches dreams, stores them in the cave, and then gives the good ones to children all around the world. He destroys the bad ones. The BFG then explains that he eats the only edible plant that will grow in the giants' homeland: snozzcumbers, which are disgusting striped cucumber-like vegetables with wart-like growths that taste like frog skins and rotten fish to Sophie and cockroaches and slime wanglers to the BFG. Another giant called the Bloodbottler then storms in. Sophie hides in a snozzcumber and is nearly accidentally eaten by the Bloodbottler. Bloodbottler luckily spits her out and then leaves in disgust. When Sophie announces she is thirsty, the BFG treats her to a fizzy soda pop drink called "frobscottle", which is delicious to both of them, and which causes noisy flatulence, which the BFG calls "Whizzpopping", because of the bubbles sinking downwards, rather than floating upwards. The next morning, the BFG takes Sophie to Dream Country to catch more dreams, but is tormented by the man-eating giants along the way, notably by their leader the Fleshlumpeater, the largest and most fearsome of the giants. In Dream Country, the BFG demonstrates his dream-catching skills to Sophie; but the BFG mistakenly captures a nightmare and uses it to start a fight among the other giants when Fleshlumpeater has a nightmare about a giant killer named Jack. Sophie later persuades him to approach the Queen of England about imprisoning the other giants. To this end, she uses her knowledge of London to navigate the BFG to Buckingham Palace and the BFG creates a nightmare for the Queen which describes the man-eating giants and leaves Sophie in the Queen's bedroom to confirm it. Because the dream included the knowledge of Sophie's presence, the Queen believes her and speaks with the BFG. A fleet of helicopters then follows Sophie and the BFG to the giants' homeland where the giants are tied up as they sleep and the helicopters carry them back to London where they are imprisoned in a deep pit with sheer walls and a high safety fence. The BFG is lowered in to untie them. Untying Fleshlumpeater last, he explains why they are being imprisoned. Outraged, Fleshlumpeater roars that they will devour the BFG instead, but he is hoisted out to safety. The man-eating giants find themselves being only fed snozzcumbers. On one occasion though, there is an incident where three drunken men climb over the fence surrounding the pit, fall in, and are eaten by the giants. Meanwhile, the orphanage is closed down and sold to become a teacherage. Afterwards, a huge castle is built as the BFG's new house, with a little cottage next door for Sophie. While they are living happily in England, gifts come from the governments of every country ever targeted by the giants (notably England, Sweden, Arabia, India, Panama, Tibet, Jersey, Chile, and New Zealand). After Sophie teaches the BFG how to read and write proper English, he writes a book of their adventures identified as the novel itself—under the name "Roald Dahl". Characters Sophie: The imaginative, creative and kind-hearted protagonist of the story who becomes a brave international heroine. Named after Dahl's first grandchild, Sophie Dahl. Voiced by Amanda Root in the 1989 film and portrayed by Ruby Barnhill in the 2016 film. The BFG: A friendly 24-foot-tall giant who has superhuman hearing and immense speed. His primary occupation is the collection and distribution of good dreams to children. He also appears in another novel, Danny, the Champion of the World, in which he is introduced as a folkloric character. His name is an initialism of 'Big Friendly Giant'. Voiced by David Jason in the 1989 film and motion-captured by Mark Rylance in the 2016 film. The Queen: The British monarch. Firm, bold, and ladylike, she plays an important role in helping Sophie and the BFG. Voiced by Angela Thorne in the 1989 film and portrayed by Penelope Wilton in the 2016 film. Mary: The Queen's maid. Voiced by Mollie Sugden in the 1989 film and portrayed by Rebecca Hall in the 2016 film. Mr. Tibbs: The Queen's butler. Voiced by Frank Thornton in the 1989 film and portrayed by Rafe Spall in the 2016 film. Mrs. Clonkers: The unseen director of the orphanage in which Sophie lives at the start of the novel; described as cruel to her charges. Voiced by Myfanwy Talog in the 1989 film and portrayed by Marilyn Norry in the 2016 film. The Heads of the Army and the Air Force: Two bombastic officers answering to the Queen. Voiced by Michael Knowles and Ballard Berkeley in the 1989 film and portrayed by Chris Shields and Matt Frewer in the 2016 film. Nine Man-Eating Giants: Each man-eating giant is about 50-feet-tall and proportionately broad and powerful and they only wear skirt-like coverings around their waists. According to the BFG, the flavours of the humans that the man-eating giants dine on depends on their country of origin: Turks taste like turkey, Greeks are too greasy (and hence apparently no giant ever visits that country), people from Panama taste like hats, the Welsh taste like fish, people from Jersey taste like cardigans, and the Danes taste like dogs. The Fleshlumpeater: The leader of the other eight man-eating giants and the largest and most horrible of the bunch. Voiced by Don Henderson in the 1989 film and motion-captured by Jemaine Clement in the 2016 film. The Bloodbottler: Second-in-command to the Fleshlumpeater and also the smartest of the bunch. He has a fondness for the taste of human blood. Voiced by Don Henderson in the 1989 film and motion-captured by Bill Hader in the 2016 film. The Manhugger: One of the nine man-eating giants. Motion-captured by Adam Godley in the 2016 film. The Meatdripper: One of the nine man-eating giants. He pretends to be a tree in a park so that he can pick off the humans that go under him. Motion-captured by Paul Moniz de Sa in the 2016 film. The Childchewer: One of the nine man-eating giants. Motion-captured by Jonathan Holmes in the 2016 film. The Butcher Boy: The youngest of the nine man-eating giants. Motion-captured by Michael Adamthwaite in the 2016 film. The Maidmasher: One of the nine man-eating giants. Motion-captured by Ólafur Darri Ólafsson in the 2016 film. The Bonecruncher: One of the nine man-eating giants who is known for crunching up two humans for dinner every night. He enjoys eating people from Turkey, making him the picky eater of the bunch. Although he will go to other countries such as joining the other eight in a trip to England. Motion-captured by Daniel Bacon in the 2016 film. The Gizzardgulper: The shortest of the nine man-eating giants. He often lies above the rooftops of the cities to grab people walking down the streets. Motion-captured by Chris Gibbs in the 2016 film. References in other Roald Dahl books The BFG first appears as a story told to Danny by his father in Danny, the Champion of the World. The ending is almost the same as James and the Giant Peach, when he writes a story about himself, by himself. Also, Mr. Tibbs relates to Mrs. Tibbs, the friend of Mr. Gilligrass, the U.S. president in Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. Awards and recognition The BFG has won numerous awards including the 1985 Deutscher Jugendliteraturpreis as the year's best children's book, in its German translation Sophiechen und der Riese and the 1991 Read Alone and Read Aloud BILBY Awards. In 2003 it was ranked number 56 in The Big Read, a two-stage survey of the British public by the BBC to determine the "Nation's Best-loved Novel". The U.S. National Education Association listed The BFG among the "Teachers' Top 100 Books for Children" based on a 2007 online poll. In 2012, it was ranked number 88 among all-time children's novels in a survey published by School Library Journal, a monthly with primarily U.S. audience. It was the fourth of four books by Dahl among the Top 100, more than any other writer. Editions English (hardcover, 1982) (hardcover, 1982) (paperback, 1982) (hardcover, 1984) (paperback, 1984) (paperback, 1985) (hardcover, 1993) (hardcover, 1993) (paperback, 1998) (paperback, 1999) (paperback, 2001) (hardcover, 2002) / (paperback, 2007) (audio CD read by Natasha Richardson) Selected translations (De GVR, Dutch, 1983) (The BFG, Spanish, 1984) (Sophiechen und der Riese, German, 1984) (Le bon gros géant, French, 1984) ( (, Japanese, 1985) (Il GGG, Italian, 1987) (Die GSR: die groot sagmoedige reus, Afrikaans, 1993) ( (), Korean, 1997) (Gjiganti i madh i mirë, Albanian, 199-) ( (), Chinese, 2000) (Yr CMM: yr èc èm èm, Welsh, 2003) (Uriașul cel príetenos, Romanian, 2005) (Wielkomilud, Polish, 2016) (De GFR, West Frisian, 2016) Adaptations Comic strip Between 1986 and 1998, the novel was adapted into a newspaper comic by journalist Brian Lee and artist Bill Asprey. It was published in the Mail on Sunday and originally a straight adaptation, with scripts accepted by Roald Dahl himself. After a while the comic started following its own storylines and continued long after Dahl's death in 1990. Stage play The play was adapted for the stage by David Wood and premiered at the Wimbledon Theatre in 1991. Films 1989 film On 25 December 1989, ITV broadcast an animated film based on the book and produced by Cosgrove Hall Films on television, with David Jason providing the voice of the BFG and Amanda Root as the voice of Sophie. The film was dedicated to animator George Jackson who worked on numerous Cosgrove Hall productions. 2016 film A theatrical live-action film adaptation was produced by Walt Disney Pictures, directed by Steven Spielberg, and starring Mark Rylance as the BFG, as well as Ruby Barnhill, Penelope Wilton, Jemaine Clement, Rebecca Hall, Rafe Spall, and Bill Hader. The film was released on 1 July 2016, to positive critical reception. TV series A TV series based on The BFG is being developed as part of Netflix's "animated series event", based on Roald Dahl's books. References 1982 British novels Children's books by Roald Dahl Fiction about giants BILBY Award-winning works British children's novels British fantasy novels Novels by Roald Dahl Novels set in London Jonathan Cape books Fictional giants Self-reflexive novels Cultural depictions of Elizabeth II British novels adapted into films British novels adapted into plays Novels adapted into comics 1982 children's books Literary characters introduced in 1982 Male characters in film Male characters in literature British children's books Novels about dreams Novels about nightmares	[ -0.8945704698562622, -0.030716881155967712, 0.18986350297927856, -0.44592154026031494, -0.0816788375377655, 0.20200982689857483, -0.24729900062084198, 0.23596864938735962, -0.5634793043136597, 0.12057281285524368, -0.9506588578224182, 0.09010232985019684, -0.4494795501232147, -0.26231205463409424, 0.0373726487159729, 0.13351336121559143, 0.49576789140701294, 0.6714951395988464, -0.4174977242946625, -0.8642606139183044, 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231718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny%20Logan%20%28singer%29	Johnny Logan (singer)	Seán Patrick Michael Sherrard (born 13 May 1954), better known by his stage name Johnny Logan, is an Irish singer and composer. He is known as being the only performer to have won the Eurovision Song Contest twice, in 1980 and 1987. He also composed the winning song in 1992. Logan first won the Eurovision Song Contest in 1980, with the song "What's Another Year" written by Shay Healy. In 1984, Logan composed the song "Terminal 3" which placed second at Eurovision, performed by Linda Martin. He won the contest for a second time in 1987 with "Hold Me Now", which he also wrote himself. His third win came in 1992, as composer of Linda Martin's winning entry "Why Me?". Early life Johnny Logan was born Seán Patrick Michael Sherrard on 13 May 1954 in Frankston, near Melbourne, Australia. Logan's father, Charles Alphonsus Sherrard, was a Derry-born Irish tenor known by the artistic name Patrick O'Hagan, and he was touring Australia at the time of Logan's birth. The family moved back to Ireland when Logan was three years old. He learnt the guitar and began composing his own songs by the age of thirteen. On leaving school he apprenticed as an electrician, while performing in pubs and cabaret. His earliest claim to fame was starring as "Adam" in the 1977 Irish musical Adam and Eve and Joseph in Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Career 1978–1986: First Eurovision win Logan adopted the stage name Johnny Logan after the main character of the film Johnny Guitar and released his first single in 1978. He first attempted to participate in the Eurovision Song Contest in 1979, when he placed third in the Irish National Final with the song "Angie". Readers of The Connaught Telegraph in Ireland voted Logan as Best New Male Artist. In 1980, Logan again entered the Irish National selection for the Eurovision Song Contest with the Shay Healy song "What's Another Year", winning the Irish final on 9 March in Dublin. Representing Ireland in the Netherlands, Logan won the Eurovision Song Contest on 19 April. The song became a hit all over Europe and reached number one in the UK. "In London" was released in June and "Save Me" shortly after. With confusion by radio stations over which to play, both singles flopped. Another single released in late 1980, a cover of a recent Cliff Richard song, "Give A Little Bit More" was a more concerted effort and although it narrowly missed the chart. Logan blames his lack of success in the UK on poor management and his inexperience. In early 1983, Logan attempted a comeback in the UK with the song "Becoming Electric" with a new sound and image and promotional push, but the failed to chart. In 1985, Logan released his third studio album Straight From The Heart which failed to chart. He also collaborated on the chart topping charity single "You'll Never Walk Alone" in aid of the Bradford City Disaster Fund. In 1986, Logan rebranded himself as Logan with the song "Stab in the Back", which also failed to chart. 1987–1991: Second Eurovision win In 1987, Logan made another attempt at Eurovision and with his self-penned song, "Hold Me Now", he represented Ireland at the Eurovision Song Contest in Belgium. The song won the contest and Logan became the first person to win the contest twice. "Hold Me Now" became a major European hit and reached number two in the UK. Logan released a cover of the 10cc song "I'm Not in Love", produced by Paul Hardcastle as a follow-up, and an album Hold Me Now. In 1988, Logan released "Heartland" which became a hit in the Irish charts and from then on, concentrated on his career in Ireland and Europe. In 1990, Logan recorded a country version of "Miss You Nights" with Elvis Presley's backing band The Jordanaires. He also wrote and sung the theme song Angels Don't Hide for the German television show Blue Blood. 1992–2000: Third Eurovision win Having composed the Irish Eurovision Song Contest 1984 entry for Linda Martin, "Terminal 3" (which finished in second place), Logan repeated the collaboration in 1992 when he gave Martin another of his songs, "Why Me". The song became the Irish entry at the finals in Sweden. The song took the title and cemented Logan as the most successful artist in Eurovision history with three wins. Author and historian John Kennedy O'Connor notes in his book The Eurovision Song Contest – The Official History that Logan is the only lead singer to have sung two winning entries and one of only five authors/composers (all men) to have written/composed two winning songs. On 16 April 1997 Logan left his handprints in concrete on the Walk of Fame in Rotterdam; The largest Star Boulevard in Europe. 2000–present: Recent career Logan continues to perform and write songs. He is sometimes referred to as "Mister Eurovision" by fans of the contest and the media at large. He has continued his love of participating in musical theatre, having toured Norway with Which Witch, an opera-musical originating in that country. In October 2005, "Hold Me Now" was voted as the third most popular song in Eurovision history at the 50th anniversary concert in Copenhagen, Denmark. "What's Another Year" was also nominated amongst the 14 finalists. Logan has sold more than 3 million copies worldwide. "Hold Me Now" is also a global million-seller. Logan has continued to have success, particularly in the Scandinavian countries. His 2007 album, The Irish Connection went platinum in Denmark, twice platinum in Norway and gold in Sweden. In 2009 and 2010, he performed in the Celtic rock opera Excalibur, and continued to do so in 2011. Logan was one of the recording artists that appeared in the Irish TV series The Hit going against Duke Special. He shortlisted the song "Prayin'" by Alan Earls and Jamie Wilson's "Rain" from the pitching rooms. He chose to release "Prayin'" for the chart battle against Special who chose a song called "1969" by Aaron Hackett. Logan won the chart battle with his song charting at number three in the charts while Special's charted at number five. Logan returned for the final where he performed "Prayin" with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra and was runner-up to Finbar Furey. In popular culture In 2002, he took part in the UK television quiz show Never Mind the Buzzcocks as a team panelist in a Eurovision-special. "Hold Me Now" has been adopted by fans of Bohemian F.C. (Bohemians) as their anthem and it is played in Dalymount and sung with gusto at both home and away matches. In 2007, Logan advertised McDonald's Eurosaver menu in Ireland. In 2007, he sang "A State of Happiness", advertising the Dutch Center Parcs. In 2011, Logan received some publicity over comments perceived as an attack on Jedward, that year's Irish Eurovision entry. When the identical twins appeared on The Late Late Show, presenter Ryan Tubridy asked them how they felt about Logan calling them "an embarrassment to Ireland". Logan later clarified those comments: "What I said was that I find them embarrassing to watch. It's like watching two Frank Spencers in Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em. It's like watching a train crash – you can't look away, but at the same time you don't want to see it". He subsequently refused an interview with RTÉ broadcaster Derek Mooney as, according to Mooney, "he thought we were going to stitch him up". Logan gave an interview to Today FM broadcaster Ray D'Arcy instead. On 16 December 2012, Logan appeared as musical guest on Romanian edition of X Factor. In May 2012, Anmary, the Latvian representative to 2012 Eurovision Song Contest held in Baku, Azerbaijan sang "Beautiful Song" where, in the opening lyrics, she sings: "I was born in distant 1980 / The year that Irish Johnny Logan won / Thirty years or more, they still remember / So dream away, today's the day I'm singing my song" referring to Logan's 1980 Eurovision win "What's Another Year". In 2020, The Sunday Times revealed a movie about the life and career of Logan was in the works - called Mr Eurovision. Logan performed "What's Another Year" during the Eurovision: Europe Shine a Light programme, held on 16 May 2020 as a replacement for the cancelled Eurovision Song Contest 2020. He performed the song with the programme's presenters Chantal Janzen, Edsilia Rombley and Jan Smit, alongside a choir of Eurovision fans. In June of 2021 Logan released a new single "Just one look" with Finnish singer Jannike. In 2022, he was a contestant in the second season of The Masked Singer in Belgium, as 'the red deer'. Personal life Logan lives in Ashbourne, County Meath, Ireland with his wife, Ailis and their three children, Adam, Fionn and Jack. He also has a daughter, Robyn (born in 1988) with Turkish dancer and actress Burçin Orhon. He rarely gives media interviews, claiming to have been frequently misquoted. Discography References External links 1954 births Living people Irish pop singers Irish male singers Eurovision Song Contest entrants for Ireland Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1980 Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1987 Eurovision Song Contest winners Singers from Melbourne Australian folk-pop singers Australian emigrants to Ireland Australian people of Irish descent	[ -0.24227626621723175, 0.09700339287519455, -0.5579044222831726, -0.7175064086914062, 0.23238785564899445, 0.8266150951385498, 0.7235156297683716, 0.07562430202960968, -0.2452664077281952, -0.17403917014598846, -0.0887218490242958, 0.24884501099586487, -0.2993769347667694, 0.34690114855766296, -0.04816897585988045, 0.3958546817302704, 0.16391107439994812, 0.02594171278178692, -0.042981747537851334, -0.38049644231796265, -0.2629605829715729, -0.23398928344249725, -0.3137477934360504, 0.48148441314697266, -0.5650800466537476, 0.4726725220680237, -0.39042654633522034, -0.23295724391937256, 0.2840605676174164, 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231720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desire%20%28disambiguation%29	Desire (disambiguation)	Desire is a sense of longing or hoping. It may also refer to: Places Desire Street, New Orleans, Louisiana Desire (New Orleans streetcar line), an historic streetcar line Desire Area, New Orleans Desire Projects People Désiré, a French male given name Désiré (baritone), stage name of French comic baritone Amable Courtecuisse (1823–1873) Arts and entertainment Films Desire (1920 film), a British film directed by George Edwardes-Hall Desire (1921 film), a German film directed by F.W. Murnau Desire (1923 film), an American film directed by directed by Rowland V. Lee Desire (1936 film), an American film starring Marlene Dietrich and Gary Cooper Desire (1946 film), an Italian film directed by Marcello Pagliero and Roberto Rossellini Desire (1958 film), a Czech film directed by Vojtěch Jasný Desire (1968 film), a South Korean film featuring Kim Ji-mee Desire (1974 film), a Hong Kong film starring Tony Liu Desire (1982 film), a Filipino-American film directed by Eddie Romero Desire (1993 film), an American film starring Kate Hodge Desire (2000 film), featuring Martin Donovan Desire (2017 film) an Argentine film starring Pampita Desires (film), a 1952 German film Q (2011 film), a French erotic drama starring Déborah Révy released in the USA as Desire The Desire (2010 film), a 2010 Indo-Chinese feature film The Desire (1944 film) (El deseo), a 1944 Argentine drama film The Desire (1948 film) (El deseo), a 1948 Mexican film Music Groups and labels Desire (band), an American/Canadian electronic act Desire, a New Zealand 1980s group Gary Havoc Albums Desire (Bob Dylan album), 1976 Desire (Hurts album), 2017 Desire (Iyanya album), 2013 Desire (Pharoahe Monch album), also the title song Desire (Tom Scott album), also the title song Desire (Toyah album), also the title song Desire (Tuxedomoon album), also the title song Desire, by BZN Songs "Desire" (Andy Gibb song), 1980 "Desire" (Claudette Pace song) "Desire" (Darin song), 2007 "Desire" (Do As Infinity song), 2001 "Desire" (Geri Halliwell song), 2005 "Desire" (Luna Sea song), 1995 "Desire" (Ought song), 2018 "Desire" (Ryan Adams song), 2002 "Desire" (U2 song), 1988 "Desire" (Years & Years song), 2014 "Desire", by Akina Nakamori "Desire", by En Vogue from Funky Divas "Desire", by The Gaslight Anthem from Handwritten "Desire", song List of compositions by Modest Mussorgsky "Desire", by Holly Valance from State of Mind "Desire", by Meg Myers from Make a Shadow "Desire", by Ozzy Osbourne from No More Tears "Desire", by Slayer from Diabolus in Musica "Desire", by Poets of the Fall from Carnival of Rust "Desire", by Raheem DeVaughn from Love Behind the Melody "Desire", by Roni Griffith "Desire", by Suicide Commando from Construct-Destruct "Desire", by Talk Talk from Spirit of Eden "Desire", by Toad the Wet Sprocket from Coil "Desire", by Vassy "Desire", by Yanni from Dare to Dream "Desire", by Yello from Stella "Desires", by Drake from Dark Lane Demo Tapes Television Desire (TV series), an American telenovela "Desire", an episode of Grey's Anatomy Other arts and entertainment Desire (DC Comics), a fictional character in The Sandman comic series Desire (manga), a yaoi manga written by Maki Kazumi and illustrated by Yukine Honami Desiré, an Old French Breton lai or rhymed tale Ships Desire (ship), a ship sailed by 16th-century explorers Thomas Cavendish and John Davis USS Desire (SP-786), a United States Navy patrol boat in commission from 1917 to 1919 Other uses HTC Desire, an Android-based phone by HTC See also Desiree (disambiguation) Desirable (disambiguation) Crave 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