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248062	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Dee	Arthur Dee	Arthur Dee (13 July 1579 – September or October 1651) was a physician and alchemist. He became a physician successively to Tsar Michael I of Russia and to King Charles I of England. Youth Dee was the eldest son of John Dee by his third wife, Jane, daughter of Bartholomew Fromond of East Cheam, Surrey. He was born at Mortlake on 13 July 1579. As a child he accompanied his father on travels through Germany, Poland and Bohemia. After his return to England he was placed at Westminster School, on 3 May 1592, under the tuition of Edward Grant and Camden. Anthony Wood was informed that he subsequently studied at Oxford, but he took no degree and it is not known which college he attended. Medicine Settling in London with the intention of practising "physic" (medicine), he exhibited at the door of his house a list of medicines which were said to be certain cures for many diseases. The censors of the College of Physicians summoned him to appear before them, but it is not known what the outcome was. Proceeding to Manchester, Dee married Isabella, daughter of Edward Prestwych, a justice of the peace. Through the recommendation of James I Dee was appointed one of the physicians to the Tsar Michael I of Russia. He remained in Russia for about 14 years, principally in Moscow. There he wrote his Fasciculus Chemicus, a collection of writings on alchemy. Returning to England on the death of his wife in 1637, Dee became physician to King Charles I. On his retirement, Arthur Dee moved to Norwich, where he became a friend of Sir Thomas Browne. His relationship to Browne has been little explored, only one literary critic speculating on it: The philosopher's stone In 2018, Megan Piorko, a PhD student at Georgia State University, discovered a coded text in one of Dee's alchemical notebooks purporting to contain a recipe for the so-called philosopher's stone, a mythical elixir of life capable of changing base metals into gold or silver and of imparting immortality. Piorko and digital humanities scholar Sarah Lang published the full text in September 2021. It was deciphered later that year by the mathematician and cryptologist Richard Bean of the University of Queensland. The decoded text describes the processing of an alchemical "egg" in an athanor, a slow-burning furnace popular with alchemists. Then there must be a wait for the three universal alchemical phases to occur: black, white, and red. If all steps are followed correctly, "you will have a truly gold-making elixir by whose benevolence all the misery of poverty is put to flight and those who suffer from any illness will be restored to health," the text states. While alchemy has been regarded as pseudoscience for centuries, a number of academics have voiced an interest in attempting to recreate Dee's experiment. Death and aftermath Arthur Dee, having fathered seven sons and six daughters, died in September or October 1651 and was buried in St George's Church, Tombland, Norwich. Most of his alchemical manuscripts and books were bequeathed to Sir Thomas Browne. In the early 20th century, Rasputin stole a number of Arthur Dee's Russian translations of his father's writings. These were later reclaimed by the Romanov family and returned to the Imperial Library in Moscow. References Charlotte Fell-Smith, John Dee (1909) Constable & Company, London . External links Fasciculus Chemicus or Chymical Collections. Expressing the Ingress, Progress, and Egress, of the Secret Hermetick Science out of the choicest and most famous authors London, 1650 1579 births 1651 deaths People educated at Westminster School, London 16th-century English medical doctors 17th-century English medical doctors English alchemists English occult writers 17th-century occultists 16th-century alchemists 17th-century alchemists	[ 0.2064344435930252, 0.716875433921814, -0.6674245595932007, -0.509595513343811, -0.007776801474392414, 0.6961984038352966, 1.395729899406433, -0.27264243364334106, 0.266804039478302, -0.18865817785263062, -0.09973210096359253, 0.30022066831588745, -0.2739374339580536, 0.4195494055747986, -0.42872947454452515, 0.29740259051322937, -0.23463663458824158, -0.43260183930397034, 0.04912402108311653, -0.13502280414104462, -0.07339605689048767, -0.27758610248565674, 0.13290604948997498, -0.09727064520120621, -0.32100582122802734, 0.10980251431465149, 0.05443967878818512, -0.4228782653808594, 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248064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Lewis%20B.%20Puller%20%28FFG-23%29	USS Lewis B. Puller (FFG-23)	USS Lewis B. Puller (FFG-23) was the fifteenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates in the United States Navy. She was the first US Navy ship to be named for United States Marine Corps Lieutenant General Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller (1898–1971). Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Lewis B. Puller was laid down on 23 May 1979, launched on 15 March 1980, and commissioned on 17 April 1982. Decommissioned and stricken on 18 September 1998, she was transferred to Egypt the same day as Toushka (F906). See also References External links MaritimeQuest USS Lewis B. Puller FFG-23 pages GlobalSecurity.org FFG-23 Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy Ships built in Los Angeles 1980 ships Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States Mubarak-class frigates Frigates of Egypt	[ -0.4352116584777832, 0.2021358609199524, -0.19839194416999817, -0.09326958656311035, -0.32942110300064087, 0.30223119258880615, 0.4013829827308655, -0.5421900153160095, -0.7603471279144287, 0.5014390349388123, 0.07991882413625717, 0.24703089892864227, -0.25672823190689087, 0.1781417727470398, 0.17233185470104218, 0.5284110903739929, -0.05120544880628586, 0.8167265057563782, 0.09410852938890457, -0.7481532692909241, -0.38820353150367737, -0.4368428587913513, 0.08107493817806244, 0.19542723894119263, -0.05161326378583908, 0.14853546023368835, 0.21409593522548676, -0.09354473650455475, 0.6449950933456421, -0.027824921533465385, 0.06252545863389969, 0.7161905169487, 0.05310650169849396, -0.20766103267669678, 0.19405682384967804, 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248066	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Jack%20Williams%20%28FFG-24%29	USS Jack Williams (FFG-24)	USS Jack Williams (FFG-24), sixteenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Pharmacist's Mate Third Class Jack Williams, who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his heroism in the Battle of Iwo Jima. Ordered from Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Jack Williams was laid down on 25 February 1980; launched on 30 August 1980, sponsored by Mrs. Fern Williams Carr, sister of PhM3c Williams; and commissioned on 19 September 1981, Commander Hugh Edward Carroll II in command. in 1983, the ship accidentally launched a live MK-46 torpedo while berthed at Naval Station Mayport in Florida. The torpedo skidded across the top of a concrete pier but did not detonate. Decommissioned and stricken on 13 September 1996, she was transferred to Bahrain the same day and recommissioned as . Jack Williams (FFG-24) was the first ship of that name in the US Navy. References External links navysite.de: USS Jack Williams MaritimeQuest USS Jack Williams (FFG-24) pages 1980 ships Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the Bahraini Navy Ships built in Bath, Maine Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States	[ -0.4583728313446045, 0.30156409740448, -0.19345563650131226, 0.04293004795908928, -0.2409060001373291, 0.6939891576766968, 0.8472927212715149, -0.260826051235199, -0.6487467288970947, -0.17333120107650757, -0.06295490264892578, 0.558466374874115, -0.06287264823913574, 0.12276677787303925, 0.6510597467422485, 0.7879201769828796, 0.4423224627971649, 0.5416589975357056, -0.39296409487724304, -0.8401069641113281, -0.15196622908115387, -0.39296984672546387, 0.38129448890686035, -0.0033187936060130596, 0.14446505904197693, 0.8044018149375916, 0.08830805867910385, 0.2811545729637146, 0.18794605135917664, 0.12385693192481995, -0.003725780639797449, 0.7069488167762756, 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248068	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naevius	Naevius	Naevius may refer to: Gnaeus Naevius, Roman poet and dramatist Naevius (spider), a genus of spiders Naevius Sutorius Macro, confidant of Roman emperors Tiberius and Caligula See also Naevia gens The Porta Naevia was a gate in the Servian Wall on the Aventine Hill of Rome	[ -0.05763379856944084, -0.44114792346954346, -0.29071757197380066, 0.1617739200592041, -0.4884001314640045, 1.2029831409454346, 0.8767940998077393, -0.085416778922081, -0.7927774786949158, -0.9129428267478943, -0.1602397859096527, -0.034349244087934494, -0.8070297837257385, 0.17654183506965637, 0.13669101893901825, -0.2889443039894104, -0.1709304004907608, 0.3777015805244446, 0.3394298553466797, -0.09460852295160294, 0.330878347158432, -0.007849625311791897, 0.12948134541511536, -0.9424480199813843, 0.3795340955257416, -0.15889932215213776, -0.3712773025035858, -0.1616106927394867, -0.16584736108779907, -0.0020862161181867123, 0.35534751415252686, 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248070	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Copeland%20%28FFG-25%29	USS Copeland (FFG-25)	USS Copeland (FFG-25) was the seventeenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates in the United States Navy. She was named for Rear Admiral Robert W. Copeland (1910–1973). Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Copeland was laid down on 24 October 1979, launched on 26 July 1980, and commissioned on 7 August 1982. Decommissioned and stricken on 18 September 1996, she was transferred to Egypt the same day as Mubarak (F911). After the 2011 revolution the ship was renamed to remove the former ruler's name. The ship is named Alexandria (F911) now. , she remained in active service with the Egyptian Navy. Copeland was the first ship of that name in the US Navy. References External links MaritimeQuest USS Copeland (FFG-25) pages Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy Ships built in Los Angeles United States Navy Washington (state)-related ships 1980 ships Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States Mubarak-class frigates Frigates of Egypt	[ -0.47186610102653503, -0.2462041676044464, 0.16723273694515228, 0.28243744373321533, -0.12177351117134094, 0.15969239175319672, 0.7251081466674805, -0.8925613760948181, -0.521772027015686, 0.2900143265724182, 0.006087362300604582, 0.08473734557628632, -0.09505928307771683, -0.15842384099960327, 0.4569953680038452, 0.6110826134681702, 0.22386395931243896, 0.5567348599433899, 0.004991788417100906, -0.7981297373771667, -0.059628743678331375, -0.2286769151687622, 0.40710127353668213, -0.07274724543094635, 0.18232136964797974, 0.6151304244995117, 0.4136736989021301, 0.014730553142726421, 0.49219122529029846, 0.09769804030656815, -0.1333378255367279, 0.6118992567062378, 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248071	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solidago	Solidago	Solidago, commonly called goldenrods, is a genus of about 100 to 120 species of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae. Most are herbaceous perennial species found in open areas such as meadows, prairies, and savannas. They are mostly native to North America, including Mexico; a few species are native to South America and Eurasia. Some American species have also been introduced into Europe and other parts of the world. Description Solidago species are perennials growing from woody caudices or rhizomes. Their stems range from decumbent (crawling) to ascending or erect, with a range of heights going from to over a meter. Most species are unbranched, but some do display branching in the upper part of the plant. Both leaves and stems vary from glabrous (hairless) to various forms of pubescence (strigose, strigillose, hispid, stipitate-glandular or villous). In some species, the basal leaves are shed before flowering. The leaf margins are most commonly entire, but often display heavier serration. Some leaves may display trinerved venation rather than the pinnate venation usual across Asteraceae. The flower is also the state flower of Kentucky. The flower heads are usually of the radiate type (typical daisy flower heads with distinct ray and disc florets) but sometimes discoid (with only disc florets of mixed, sterile, male and types). Only ray florets are female, others are male, hermaphroditic or entire sterile. Head involucres are campanulate to cylindric or attenuate. Floret corollas are usually yellow, but white in the ray florets of a few species (such as Solidago bicolor); they are typically hairless. Heads usually include between 2 and 35 disc florets, but in some species this may go up to 60. Filaments are inserted closer to the base of the corolla than its middle. Numerous heads are usually grouped in complex compound inflorescences where heads are arranged in multiple racemes, panicles, corymbs, or secund arrays (with florets all on the same side). Solidago cypselae are narrowly obconic to cylindrical in shape, and they are sometimes somewhat compressed. They have eight to 10 ribs usually and are hairless or moderately hispid. The pappus is very big with barbellate bristles. The many goldenrod species can be difficult to distinguish, due to their similar bright, golden-yellow flower heads that bloom in late summer. Propagation is by wind-disseminated seeds or by spreading underground rhizomes which can form colonies of vegetative clones of a single plant. They are mostly short-day plants and bloom in late summer and early fall. Some species produce abundant nectar when moisture is plentiful, or when the weather is warm and sunny. The section Ptarmicoidei is sometimes treated as a separate genus Oligoneuron, and is dropped by flat-topped to rounded corymbiform flowerheads. Taxonomy Solidago is in the family Asteraceae (formerly known as Compositae), a diverse and widespread clade containing approximately 23,000 species and 12 tribes, which inhabit all continents except Antarctica. Within Asteraceae, Solidago is in the tribe Astereae and the subtribe Solidagininaeae. The genus Solidago is monophyletic as indicated by morphological characters and molecular evidence. All Solidago species are herbaceous perennials, growing from approximately 2 cm to 2.5 m tall. Yellow to white, pistillate ray flowers and yellow, perfect disc florets are characteristic of Solidago inflorescences, which have a wide range of shapes. Molecular studies using nuclear rDNA have hypothesized boundaries on the genus Solidago, but there have been difficulties in parsing out evolutionary relationships at the sub-genus scale and defining which should be included and separated from Solidago. Solidago and related taxa Related Asteraceae genera, such as Chrysoma, Euthamia, and Oreochrysum, have been included within Solidago at one point or another, but morphological evidence has suggested otherwise. In a study comparing morphological characters of Solidago and related subgroups, the authors consider the subjectivity of classifying a genus and how to define it within broader tendencies concerning the taxonomy of North American Asteraceae. Little to no differences were observed between Solidago and the subgroups in terms of karyotype. However, external morphological characters such as habit, or the general appearance of the plant and how a suite of traits contribute to its phenotype; pappus size; and the point of freeing of stamen filaments from the corolla tube, are useful classification schemes for Solidago, since they are applied to differentiating between Asteraceae taxa. One school of Asteraceae taxonomy thought unites all taxa sharing similar floral head structure and subsequently ignores deviation from this morphology, while another places greater weight on these morphological deviations. The authors argue that the latter opinion should be applied. Since there is no theoretical foundation for relative taxonomic importance of traits, they assert that habit should be a central trait when defining taxa, and subsequently that all the subgroups considered in their study (Brachychaeta, Chrysoma, Euthamia, Oligoneuron, and Petradoria) should be segregated from Solidago. Results from a leaf anatomy study comparing differences in mesophyll, bundle sheath extensions, and midvein structure, among others in a suite of leaf traits, are incongruent with those in an earlier study. Based on the lack of bundle sheath extensions, it is suggested that Chrysoma, Euthamia, Gundlachia, and Petradoria should be distinct taxa and outside of Solidago. However, Brachychaeta, Brintonia, Oligoneuron, Oreochrysum, and Aster should be considered as components of Solidago. To summarize, the relation of Brachychaeta and Oligoneuron to Solidago is inconsistent based on these results. Both support the separation of Chrysoma, Euthamia, and Petradoria from Solidago. A study reviews the taxonomic position of Oligoneuron relative to Solidago, as based on taxonomic evidence, treats it as separate from Solidago, similarly to Kapoor & Beaudry (1966). The first molecular phylogeny based on chloroplast DNA treats Brachychaeta, Brintonia, Oligoneuron, and Oreochrysum as constituents of Solidago. Using consensus trees from ITS data, another study found support for Oligoneuron as part of Solidago, and the findings of Zhang (1996). More recently, an analysis of combined ITS and ETS data provided additional support for the inclusion of Oligoneuron as part of Solidago. Until the 1980s, the genus Euthamia was largely considered to be a part of Solidago due to morphological similarities between species in both genera, and a history of synonymy of Solidago lanceolata and Euthamia graminifolia. As mentioned, the lack of bundle sheath extensions in Euthamia compared to Solidago, and deviations in floral morphology present evidence for separation of these taxa. A taxonomy of Euthamia as a genus was presented, providing a detailed description of distinguishing external morphological characters, such as fibrous-roots, sessile leaves, and mostly corymbiform inflorescences. Evolutionary relationships within Solidago Chromosome counts and advances in molecular systematics have enabled greater understanding of evolutionary relationships within Solidago. At the time a taxonomy of Solidago was published, related taxa causing contention, such as Chrysoma, Euthamia, Oligoneuron, and Petradoria, were excluded from this genus. The number of Solidago species has remained relatively stable, around 120, with approximately 80 in North America. Due to monophyletic support for the New World taxa and taxonomic difficulties with Old World taxa, the taxonomy provided in the 1990s only includes North American taxa and thus treats Solidago as non-monophyletic. Existing molecular-based phylogenies provide monophyletic support for Solidago given its inclusion of Oligoneuron. Chromosome counts have proven to be a valuable character in Solidago taxonomy and in elucidating the cytogeographic history of the genus. Similar chromosome counts may indicate close evolutionary relationships, while different chromosome numbers may suggest distant relationships through reproductive isolation. Chromosome counts have been studied extensively in North America; all Solidago species have a base chromosome number of x=9, but the following ploidy levels have been observed: 2x, 3x, 4x, 6x, 8x, 10x, 12x, and 14x. Though negligible differences in karyotype among Solidago and related genera were found, Solidago taxa with multiple cytotypes are more common than those with one. Although chromosome count is a useful metric for differentiating among Solidago taxa, it may be problematic due to the frequent variation in ploidy levels. Cytogeographic patterns in the Solidago gigantea complex, with tetraploids occurring in eastern North America and hexaploids in Oregon and Washington, were observed. Cytogeographic patterns are also observed in the Solidago canadensis complex: hexaploids within S. canadensis have been observed east of the Great Plains and are treated as Solidago altissima, and diploids and tetraploids occurring in the Great Plains are treated as Solidago gilvocanescens. The taxonomic status of Solidago ptarmicoidei created an extensive debate due to frequency hybridization of S. ptarmicoidei with members of the Ptarmicoidei section of Solidago. It was asserted that S. ptarmicoides should be united with Solidago rather than the genus Aster due to external morphological features such as similar pappus length as well as the same chromosome base (x=9). Information about chromosome number is still a crucial part of current understanding and phylogenies of Solidago. Use and cultivation Young goldenrod leaves are edible. Native Americans used the seeds of some species for food. Herbal teas are sometimes made with goldenrod. Goldenrod often is inaccurately said to cause hay fever in humans. The pollen causing this allergic reaction is produced mainly by ragweed (Ambrosia sp.), blooming at the same time as the goldenrod and pollinated by wind. Goldenrod pollen is too heavy and sticky to be blown far from the flowers, and is pollinated mainly by insects. Frequent handling of goldenrod and other flowers, however, can cause allergic reactions, sometimes irritating enough to force florists to change occupation. Goldenrods are attractive sources of nectar for bees, flies, wasps, and butterflies. Honey from goldenrods often is dark and strong because of admixtures of other nectars. However, when honey flow is strong, a light (often water-clear), spicy-tasting monofloral honey is produced. While the bees are ripening the honey produced from goldenrods, it has a rank odor and taste; the finished honey is much milder. Goldenrods are, in some places, considered a sign of good luck or good fortune. They are considered weeds by many in North America, but they are prized as garden plants in Europe, where British gardeners adopted goldenrod as a garden subject long before Americans did. Goldenrod began to gain some acceptance in American gardening (other than wildflower gardening) during the 1980s. They have become invasive species in many other parts of the world, including China, Japan, Europe and Africa. Solidago canadensis, which was introduced as a garden plant in Central Europe, has become common in the wild, and in Germany is considered an invasive species that displaces native vegetation from its natural habitat. Goldenrod species are used as a food source by the larvae of many Lepidoptera species. The invading larva may induce the plant to form a bulbous tissue mass called a gall around it, upon which the larva then feeds. Various parasitoid wasps find these galls and lay eggs in the larvae, penetrating the bulb with their ovipositors. Woodpeckers are known to peck open the galls and eat the insects in the center. Cultivated species Cultivated goldenrods include S. bicolor, S. caesia, S. canadensis, S. cutleri, S. riddellii, S. rigida, S. shortii, and S. virgaurea. A number of cultivars have been selected, including several of hybrid origin. A putative hybrid with aster, known as ×Solidaster is less unruly, with pale yellow flowers, equally suitable for dried arrangements. Molecular and other evidence points to ×Solidaster (at least the cultivar 'Lemore') being a hybrid of Solidago ptarmicoides and Solidago canadensis, the former now in Solidago, but likely the "aster" in question. The cultivars 'Goldenmosa' and S. × luteus 'Lemore' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit. Industrial use Inventor Thomas Edison experimented with goldenrod to produce rubber, which it contains naturally. Edison created a fertilization and cultivation process to maximize the rubber content in each plant. His experiments produced a plant that yielded as much as 12% rubber. The tires on the Model T given to him by his friend Henry Ford were made from goldenrod. Like George Washington Carver, Henry Ford was deeply interested in the regenerative properties of soil and the potential of alternative crops such as peanuts and soybeans to produce plastics, paint, fuel and other products. Ford had long believed that the world would eventually need a substitute for gasoline, and supported the production of ethanol (or grain alcohol) as an alternative fuel. In 1942, he would showcase a car with a lightweight plastic body made from soybeans. Ford and Carver began corresponding via letter in 1934, and their mutual admiration deepened after George Washington Carver made a visit to Michigan in 1937. As Douglas Brinkley writes in "Wheels for the World," his history of Ford, the automaker donated generously to the Tuskegee Institute, helping finance Carver's experiments, and Carver in turn spent a period of time helping to oversee crops at the Ford plantation in Ways, Georgia. By the time World War II began, Ford had made repeated journeys to Tuskegee to convince George Washington Carver to come to Dearborn and help him develop a synthetic rubber to help compensate for wartime rubber shortages. Carver arrived on July 19, 1942, and set up a laboratory in an old water works building in Dearborn. He and Ford experimented with different crops, including sweet potatoes and dandelions, eventually devising a way to make the rubber substitute from goldenrod, a plant weed commercially viable. Carver died in January 1943, Ford in April 1947, but the relationship between their two institutions continued to flourish: As recently as the late 1990s, Ford awarded grants of $4 million over two years to the George Washington Carver School at Tuskegee. Extensive process development was conducted during World War II to commercialize goldenrod as a source of rubber. The rubber is only contained in the leaves, not the stems or blooms. Typical rubber content of the leaves is 7%. The resulting rubber is of low molecular weight, resulting in an excessively tacky compound with poor tensile properties. Traditional medicine Solidago virgaurea is used in a traditional kidney tonic by practitioners of herbal medicine to counter inflammation and irritation caused by bacterial infections or kidney stones. Goldenrod is also used in some formulas for cleansing of the kidney or bladder during a healing fast, in conjunction with potassium broth and specific juices. Some Native American cultures traditionally chew the leaves to relieve sore throats, and the roots to relieve toothaches. Medicinal exploration In various assessments by the European Medicines Agency with respect to Solidago virgaurea, non-clinical data shows diuretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, analgesic and spasmolytic, antibacterial, antifungal, anticancer and immunomodulatory activity. However, as no single ingredient is responsible for these effects, the whole herbal preparation of Solidago inflorescences must be considered as the active ingredient. Cultural significance The goldenrod is the state flower of the U.S. states of Kentucky (adopted 1926) and Nebraska (adopted 1895). Solidago altissima, tall goldenrod, was named the state wildflower of South Carolina in 2003. The sweet goldenrod (Solidago odora) is the state herb of Delaware. Goldenrod was the state flower of Alabama, but it was later rejected in favor of the camellia. In the Midwestern United States, the blooming of goldenrods in August is a reminder that it will soon be time for children to go back to school after summer vacation. Diversity Accepted species Solidago albopilosa E.L.Braun – whitehair goldenrod Solidago altiplanities C.E.S. Taylor & R.J.Taylor – high plains goldenrod Solidago altissima L. – Canada goldenrod, late goldenrod Solidago amplexicaulis Torr. & A.Gray Solidago arenicola B.R. Keener & Kral – southern racemose goldenrod Solidago argentinensis López Laphitz, Rita María & Semple Solidago arguta Ait. – Atlantic goldenrod, forest goldenrod, toothed goldenrod, cut-leaf goldenrod Solidago aurea Spreng. Solidago auriculata Shuttlw. ex Blake – eared goldenrod, clasping goldenrod Solidago bartramiana Fernald Solidago bicolor L. – white goldenrod, silverrod Solidago brachyphylla Chapman – Dixie goldenrod Solidago brendiae Semple Solidago buckleyi Torr. & Gray – Buckley's goldenrod Solidago caesia L. – wreath goldenrod, axillary goldenrod, bluestem goldenrod, woodland goldenrod Solidago calcicola (Fernald) Fernald Solidago californica Nutt. - California goldenrod Solidago canadensis L. – Canada goldenrod, Canadian goldenrod, common goldenrod Solidago chilensis Meyen Solidago compacta Turcz. Solidago confinis A.Gray Solidago coreana (Nakai) H.S.Pak Solidago curtisii Torr. & A.Gray – mountain decumbent goldenrod, Curtis' goldenrod Solidago dahurica (Kitagawa) Kitagawa ex Juzepczuk Solidago decurrens Loureiro Solidago delicatula Small – elmleaf goldenrod, smooth elm-leaf goldenrod Solidago drummondii Torr. & A.Gray. – Drummond's goldenrod Solidago durangensis G.L.Nesom Solidago elongata Nutt. – West Coast Canada goldenrod, Cascade Canada goldenrod Solidago erecta Nutt. – showy goldenrod, slender goldenrod Solidago ericamerioides G.L.Nesom Solidago faucibus Wieboldt – gorge goldenrod Solidago fistulosa P.Mill. – pine-barren goldenrod Solidago flexicaulis L. – zigzag goldenrod, broadleaf goldenrod Solidago gattingeri Chapman – Gattinger's goldenrod Solidago gigantea Ait. – giant goldenrod, tall goldenrod, early goldenrod, smooth goldenrod Solidago glabra Desf. Solidago glomerata Michx. – clustered goldenrod, skunk goldenrod Solidago guiradonis A.Gray – Guirado's goldenrod Solidago gypsophila G.L.Nesom Solidago hintoniorum G.L.Nesom Solidago hispida Muhl. ex Willd. – hairy goldenrod Solidago houghtonii Torr. & A.Gray ex A.Gray – Houghton's goldenrod Solidago humilis Mill. Solidago inornata Lunell Solidago juliae G.L.Nesom – Julia's goldenrod Solidago juncea Ait. – early goldenrod Solidago kralii Semple – Kral's goldenrod Solidago kuhistanica Juz. Solidago kurilensis Juz. Solidago lancifolia Torr. & A.Gray – lance-leaf goldenrod Solidago latissimifolia P.Mill. – Elliott's goldenrod Solidago leavenworthii Torr. & A.Gray – Leavenworth's goldenrod Solidago leiocarpa DC. in DC. &. A.DC. – Cutler's alpine goldenrod Solidago lepida DC. – western Canada goldenrod Solidago ludoviciana (Gray) Small – Louisiana goldenrod Solidago macrophylla Pursh – largeleaf goldenrod Solidago macvaughii G.L.Nesom Solidago microglossa DC. Solidago minutissima (Makino) Kitam. Solidago missouriensis Nutt. – Missouri goldenrod, prairie goldenrod, Tolmie's goldenrod Solidago mollis Bartl. – velvety goldenrod, soft goldenrod, woolly goldenrod Solidago multiradiata Ait. – Rocky Mountain goldenrod, alpine goldenrod, northern goldenrod, manyray goldenrod Solidago nana Nutt. – baby goldenrod, dwarf goldenrod, gray goldenrod Solidago nemoralis Ait. – gray goldenrod, dyersweed goldenrod, old-field goldenrod Solidago nitida Torr. & A.Gray – shiny goldenrod Solidago odora Ait. – anise-scented goldenrod, sweet goldenrod, fragrant goldenrod Solidago ohioensis Riddell – Ohio goldenrod Solidago orientalis G.L.Nesom Solidago ouachitensis C.E.S.Taylor & R.J.Taylor – Ouachita Mountains goldenrod Solidago ovata Friesner Solidago pacifica Juzepczuk Solidago paniculata DC. Solidago patagonica Phil. Solidago patula Muhl. ex Willd. – roundleaf goldenrod, roughleaf goldenrod Solidago petiolaris Ait. – downy ragged goldenrod Solidago perornata Lunell Solidago pilosa Mill. Solidago pinetorum Small – Small's goldenrod Solidago plumosa Small – plumed goldenrod, plumose goldenrod, Yadkin River goldenrod Solidago pringlei Fernald Solidago procera Aiton Solidago ptarmicoides (Torr. & A.Gray) B.Boivin – white flat-top goldenrod, upland white aster Solidago puberula Nutt. – downy goldenrod Solidago pulchra Small – Carolina goldenrod Solidago radula Nutt. – western rough goldenrod Solidago riddellii Frank ex Riddell – Riddell's goldenrod Solidago rigida L. – rigid goldenrod, stiff-leaf goldenrod Solidago roanensis Porter – Roan Mountain goldenrod Solidago rugosa P.Mill. – wrinkleleaf goldenrod, rough-stemmed goldenrod Solidago rupestris Raf. – rock goldenrod Solidago satanica Lunell Solidago sciaphila Steele – shadowy goldenrod Solidago sempervirens L. – seaside goldenrod, salt-marsh goldenrod Solidago serotina Retz. Solidago shortii Torr. & A.Gray – Short's goldenrod Solidago simplex Kunth : Mt. Albert goldenrod, sticky goldenrod Solidago spathulata DC. – coast goldenrod Solidago speciosa Nutt. – showy goldenrod, noble goldenrod Solidago spectabilis (D.C.Eat.) A.Gray – Nevada goldenrod, basin goldenrod Solidago sphacelata Raf. – autumn goldenrod, false goldenrod Solidago spithamaea M.A.Curtis – Blue Ridge goldenrod, skunk goldenrod Solidago spiraeifolia Fisch. ex Herder Solidago squarrosa Nutt. – stout goldenrod Solidago stricta Ait. – wand goldenrod, willow-leaf goldenrod Solidago tarda Mack. – Atlantic goldenrod Solidago tortifolia Ell. – twistleaf goldenrod Solidago uliginosa Nutt. – bog goldenrod, fall goldenrod Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. ex Willd. – elmleaf goldenrod Solidago velutina DC. – threenerve goldenrod, velvety goldenrod Solidago verna M.A.Curtis – springflowering goldenrod Solidago villosicarpa LeBlond – glandular wand goldenrod, hairy-seed goldenrod Solidago virgaurea L. – European goldenrod Solidago vossii J.S.Pringle & Laureto – Voss's goldenrod Solidago wrightii A.Gray – Wright's goldenrod Solidago yokusaiana Makino Natural hybrids Solidago × asperula Desf. (S. rugosa × S. sempervirens) Solidago × beaudryi Boivin (S. rugosa × S. uliginosa) Solidago × calcicola (Fernald) Fernald – limestone goldenrod Solidago × erskinei Boivin (S. canadensis × S. sempervirens) Solidago × niederederi Khek (S. canadensis × S. virgaurea) Solidago × ovata Friesner (S. sphacelata × S. ulmifolia) Solidago × ulmicaesia Friesner (S. caesia × S. ulmifolia) Formerly included Numerous species formerly considered members of Solidago are now regarded as better suited to other genera, including Brintonia, Duhaldea, Euthamia, Gundlachia, Inula, Jacobaea, Leptostelma, Olearia, Psiadia, Senecio, Sphagneticola, Symphyotrichum, Trixis, Xylothamia References External links Goldenrod identification. Andy's Northern Ontario Wildflowers. Goldenrods Group. Ontario Wildflowers. Solidago: Goldenrods. Astereae Lab. University of Waterloo (Canada). 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248072	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort%20Washington	Fort Washington	Fort Washington may refer to: Events Battle of Fort Washington, during the American Revolutionary War Places United States Fort Washington, a sub-post of Fort Adams, Mississippi, near Washington in the Mississippi Territory Fort Washington, California, a census-designated place Fort Washington (Manhattan), former American Revolutionary War-era fort in Manhattan, New York City Fort Washington, Maryland, a census-designated place Fort Washington Park, a historic fort that guarded Washington, DC Fort Washington (Massachusetts), an American Revolutionary War-era earthworks in Cambridge, near M.I.T. Fort Washington (Ohio), former frontier outpost in Cincinnati Fort Washington, Pennsylvania, census designated place Fort Washington Avenue, New York City Fort Washington Park (New York City), 160-acre park in Washington Heights, Manhattan, New York City Fort Washington station Fort Washington State Park Fort Washington Way, an expressway that carries Interstate 71 and US Route 50 in downtown Cincinnati See also Port Washington (disambiguation) The Saint of Fort Washington, a film	[ -0.22372682392597198, 0.39879536628723145, -0.2826046347618103, -0.12289010733366013, 0.10968594998121262, 0.5314602851867676, 0.8924769759178162, -0.022352272644639015, -0.37071695923805237, -0.5840939879417419, -0.31702253222465515, 0.06022271886467934, -0.44322577118873596, 0.5548006296157837, -0.48744577169418335, 0.48473837971687317, 0.32804200053215027, 0.17244501411914825, 0.5665113925933838, -0.007364578079432249, -0.41818270087242126, -0.1531868875026703, 0.3585226237773895, -0.6544222235679626, 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248074	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Gallery%20%28FFG-26%29	USS Gallery (FFG-26)	USS Gallery (FFG-26), eighteenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for three brothers: Rear Admiral Daniel V. Gallery (1901–1977), Rear Admiral William O. Gallery (1904–1981), and Rear Admiral Philip D. Gallery (1907–1973). Ordered from Bath Iron Works, Bath, Maine, on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Gallery was laid down on 17 May 1980, launched on 20 December 1980, co-sponsored by Mrs. Philip D. Gallery and Mrs. Daniel V. Gallery, and commissioned on 5 December 1981, commanded by Commander Norman Stuart Scott. Decommissioned and stricken on 14 June 1996, she was transferred to Egypt on 25 September 1996 as Taba (F916). , she remained in active service with the Egyptian Navy. Gallery was the first ship of that name in the US Navy. Coat of arms Shield The colors green and gold, and the rampant lions have been adapted from a personal device of the Gallery family. The lions, symbolic of courage and strength, face in different directions indicating that the brothers for whom this ship is named, served in both theaters of operation during World War II. The star alludes to their many awards, and denote excellence and achievement. The crossed swords, adapted from the Officer and Enlisted badges, allude to Naval Combat Operations. Crest Blue and gold are the colors traditionally associated with the Navy. The upraised arm in green and gold is an adaptation from the Gallery family device. The collared and chained sea-wolf symbolizes the only capture of a U-boat from the German wolf-packs during World War II. The crest also symbolizes the curbing and destruction of the enemy sub activities in the Pacific theatre. Motto Manu Forti – "With a Strong Hand" References External links MaritimeQuest USS Gallery (FFG-26) pages GlobalSecurity.org FFG-26 Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy Ships built in Bath, Maine 1980 ships Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States Mubarak-class frigates Frigates of Egypt	[ -0.3592601418495178, 0.5220637321472168, 0.23055078089237213, 0.029402082785964012, -0.20912399888038635, 0.6322096586227417, 0.5229685306549072, -0.6033263206481934, -0.6380637884140015, 0.1567639261484146, -0.2159022092819214, 0.5079337954521179, -0.09671374410390854, -0.05651329457759857, 0.5055948495864868, 0.6372107267379761, 0.011409780941903591, 0.27549681067466736, -0.2737649977207184, -0.6265537738800049, -0.01075359620153904, -0.30549609661102295, 0.39985013008117676, -0.36502939462661743, 0.007796191610395908, 0.21502603590488434, 0.6717183589935303, 0.38206565380096436, 0.24998366832733154, -0.13296598196029663, 0.03991727903485298, 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248075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pete%20Trewavas	Pete Trewavas	Peter Trewavas (born 15 January 1959) is an English musician, known as the bassist of Marillion. He joined in 1982, replacing Diz Minnitt, while acting occasionally as a backing vocalist and acoustic guitarist. Although he was born in Middlesbrough, Trewavas spent much of his childhood in the Buckinghamshire town of Aylesbury. It was in Aylesbury that he became involved in several bands, having most success with The Metros, before taking up his long term role in Marillion. Although still a full member of Marillion, Trewavas is also a member of the progressive rock supergroup Transatlantic. In 2004, Trewavas co-founded another group called Kino, with John Mitchell (Arena), John Beck (It Bites) and Chris Maitland (ex-Porcupine Tree). In 2011, Pete Trewavas joined up with his longtime friend Eric Blackwood to form the duo Edison's Children. The new project was designed to be a creative outlet for Pete Trewavas (who has traditionally recorded in a "band" or "group" format on bass and acoustic guitar), in which he could also play lead guitar, lead vocals, drum programming and keyboards as well as have full creative control over the writing and producing of the record with. The 72-minute concept album In The Last Waking Moments... about a man fighting to understand if a recent bizarre happening was reality or a descent into madness, was released on 11.11.11. The Edison's Children project would result in the release of the single "A Million Miles Away (I Wish I Had A Time Machine)". The song debuted on American Commercial Radio in June 2012 and by September it had reached the FMQB U.S. Commercial Radio Top 40 where it remained for 10 weeks (and stayed in the top 100 for 25 weeks) peaking at No. 32. Edison's Children did live performances in Montreal, Wolverhampton England and Port Zelande Netherlands opening up for Marillion's "Brave" performances during the Marillion 2013 Weekend. The Montreal show was recorded and released as a B-Side on their "In the Last Waking Moments..."-EP Single. The UK show was released on their latest album "Somewhere Between Here and There". Edison's Children released their second album, The Final Breath Before November, on 13 December 2013. It was mixed by Jakko Jakszyk, lead singer of King Crimson, John Mitchell, lead guitarist of It Bites, and Arena and Robin Boult, lead guitarist of Fish. The album featured Eric Blackwood on lead vocals and guitar and composition again along with Henry Rogers of DeeExpus and Touchstone. Pete Trewavas co-wrote and produced the album with Eric Blackwood and played lead guitar and lead vocals on many of tracks along with bass and programming for the symphonic orchestration. Edison's Children is expecting their third album "Somewhere Between Here and There", a "bridge album" containing 7 new songs and 6 original mixes from The Final Breath Before November by King Crimson's Jakko Jakszyk and John Mitchell, along with the live version of A Million Miles Away from Wolves UK to be released in June 2015. Work has already begun on a 4th epic album which is expected to be much "harder" than the more symphonic The Final Breath Before November. On 17 September 2012, during a Marillion concert at The Junction in Cambridge, Steve Hogarth announced that Trewavas was now called "Sweet Pea Tremendous" as it was the result of putting his name into an anagram solver. Trewavas has also appeared in Prog Aid, the charity project set up to raise money for victims of the 2004 tsunami. Trewavas was a guest musician on English progressive rock band Big Big Train's 2007 album, The Difference Machine. Though primarily a bassist, Trewavas has been known to write keyboard parts during his time with Transatlantic, and has played acoustic guitar on Marillion songs, particularly "Faith" and "Now She'll Never Know". With Edison's Children however, Trewavas commonly plays lead guitar, lead vocals, symphonic orchestral programming, guitar synthesizer, drum programming and several middle-eastern instrumentation. On 11 January 1999 Trewavas was hit by a car when cycling home from the studio Racket Club. He suffered multiple injuries and spent time in intensive care, and underwent surgery in his leg. Trewavas is a fan of the Football team Manchester United F.C. Equipment Trewavas uses: Laney Amplification and Ibanez Bass Guitars Laney B2 power amp & cabinets Laney RWB300 Combo Ibanez RDB Bass Fender Precision Bass Fender Jazz Bass Squier Precision Bass Squier Jazz Bass Rickenbacker 4080 Warwick Basses Elites stadium series 45–105 strings TC Electronic D-Two multi-tap rhythm delay processor Various Boss effects pedals: Delay, EQ, Chorus, Distortion, Octaver Sennheiser wireless system Roland PK5 Bass Pedals Controller References External links Pete Trewavas' homepage at Marillion.com Kino official homepage 1959 births Living people Acoustic guitarists English bass guitarists English male guitarists Kino (British band) members Male bass guitarists Marillion members People from Middlesbrough Transatlantic (band) members	[ -0.31272634863853455, -0.0766574814915657, -0.3896666467189789, -0.42631995677948, 0.21441493928432465, 1.2599928379058838, 0.29356780648231506, 0.0015372149646282196, -0.25040969252586365, 0.3213171660900116, 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248076	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inaccessible%20cardinal	Inaccessible cardinal	In set theory, an uncountable cardinal is inaccessible if it cannot be obtained from smaller cardinals by the usual operations of cardinal arithmetic. More precisely, a cardinal is strongly inaccessible if it is uncountable, it is not a sum of fewer than cardinals smaller than , and implies . The term "inaccessible cardinal" is ambiguous. Until about 1950, it meant "weakly inaccessible cardinal", but since then it usually means "strongly inaccessible cardinal". An uncountable cardinal is weakly inaccessible if it is a regular weak limit cardinal. It is strongly inaccessible, or just inaccessible, if it is a regular strong limit cardinal (this is equivalent to the definition given above). Some authors do not require weakly and strongly inaccessible cardinals to be uncountable (in which case is strongly inaccessible). Weakly inaccessible cardinals were introduced by , and strongly inaccessible ones by and . Every strongly inaccessible cardinal is also weakly inaccessible, as every strong limit cardinal is also a weak limit cardinal. If the generalized continuum hypothesis holds, then a cardinal is strongly inaccessible if and only if it is weakly inaccessible. (aleph-null) is a regular strong limit cardinal. Assuming the axiom of choice, every other infinite cardinal number is regular or a (weak) limit. However, only a rather large cardinal number can be both and thus weakly inaccessible. An ordinal is a weakly inaccessible cardinal if and only if it is a regular ordinal and it is a limit of regular ordinals. (Zero, one, and are regular ordinals, but not limits of regular ordinals.) A cardinal which is weakly inaccessible and also a strong limit cardinal is strongly inaccessible. The assumption of the existence of a strongly inaccessible cardinal is sometimes applied in the form of the assumption that one can work inside a Grothendieck universe, the two ideas being intimately connected. Models and consistency Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with Choice (ZFC) implies that the is a model of ZFC whenever is strongly inaccessible. And ZF implies that the Gödel universe is a model of ZFC whenever is weakly inaccessible. Thus, ZF together with "there exists a weakly inaccessible cardinal" implies that ZFC is consistent. Therefore, inaccessible cardinals are a type of large cardinal. If is a standard model of ZFC and is an inaccessible in , then: is one of the intended models of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory; and is one of the intended models of Mendelson's version of Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory which excludes global choice, replacing limitation of size by replacement and ordinary choice; and is one of the intended models of Morse–Kelley set theory. Here Def (X) is the Δ0 definable subsets of X (see constructible universe). However, does not need to be inaccessible, or even a cardinal number, in order for to be a standard model of ZF (see below). Suppose is a model of ZFC. Either V contains no strong inaccessible or, taking to be the smallest strong inaccessible in , is a standard model of ZFC which contains no strong inaccessibles. Thus, the consistency of ZFC implies consistency of ZFC+"there are no strong inaccessibles". Similarly, either contains no weak inaccessible or, taking to be the smallest ordinal which is weakly inaccessible relative to any standard sub-model of , then is a standard model of ZFC which contains no weak inaccessibles. So consistency of ZFC implies consistency of ZFC+"there are no weak inaccessibles". This shows that ZFC cannot prove the existence of an inaccessible cardinal, so ZFC is consistent with the non-existence of any inaccessible cardinals. The issue whether ZFC is consistent with the existence of an inaccessible cardinal is more subtle. The proof sketched in the previous paragraph that the consistency of ZFC implies the consistency of ZFC + "there is not an inaccessible cardinal" can be formalized in ZFC. However, assuming that ZFC is consistent, no proof that the consistency of ZFC implies the consistency of ZFC + "there is an inaccessible cardinal" can be formalized in ZFC. This follows from Gödel's second incompleteness theorem, which shows that if ZFC + "there is an inaccessible cardinal" is consistent, then it cannot prove its own consistency. Because ZFC + "there is an inaccessible cardinal" does prove the consistency of ZFC, if ZFC proved that its own consistency implies the consistency of ZFC + "there is an inaccessible cardinal" then this latter theory would be able to prove its own consistency, which is impossible if it is consistent. There are arguments for the existence of inaccessible cardinals that cannot be formalized in ZFC. One such argument, presented by , is that the class of all ordinals of a particular model M of set theory would itself be an inaccessible cardinal if there was a larger model of set theory extending M and preserving powerset of elements of M. Existence of a proper class of inaccessibles There are many important axioms in set theory which assert the existence of a proper class of cardinals which satisfy a predicate of interest. In the case of inaccessibility, the corresponding axiom is the assertion that for every cardinal μ, there is an inaccessible cardinal which is strictly larger, . Thus, this axiom guarantees the existence of an infinite tower of inaccessible cardinals (and may occasionally be referred to as the inaccessible cardinal axiom). As is the case for the existence of any inaccessible cardinal, the inaccessible cardinal axiom is unprovable from the axioms of ZFC. Assuming ZFC, the inaccessible cardinal axiom is equivalent to the universe axiom of Grothendieck and Verdier: every set is contained in a Grothendieck universe. The axioms of ZFC along with the universe axiom (or equivalently the inaccessible cardinal axiom) are denoted ZFCU (which could be confused with ZFC with urelements). This axiomatic system is useful to prove for example that every category has an appropriate Yoneda embedding. This is a relatively weak large cardinal axiom since it amounts to saying that ∞ is 1-inaccessible in the language of the next section, where ∞ denotes the least ordinal not in V, i.e. the class of all ordinals in your model. α-inaccessible cardinals and hyper-inaccessible cardinals The term "α-inaccessible cardinal" is ambiguous and different authors use inequivalent definitions. One definition is that a cardinal is called α-inaccessible, for α any ordinal, if is inaccessible and for every ordinal β < α, the set of β-inaccessibles less than is unbounded in (and thus of cardinality , since is regular). In this case the 0-inaccessible cardinals are the same as strongly inaccessible cardinals. Another possible definition is that a cardinal is called α-weakly inaccessible if is regular and for every ordinal β < α, the set of β-weakly inaccessibles less than is unbounded in κ. In this case the 0-weakly inaccessible cardinals are the regular cardinals and the 1-weakly inaccessible cardinals are the weakly inaccessible cardinals. The α-inaccessible cardinals can also be described as fixed points of functions which count the lower inaccessibles. For example, denote by ψ0(λ) the λth inaccessible cardinal, then the fixed points of ψ0 are the 1-inaccessible cardinals. Then letting ψβ(λ) be the λth β-inaccessible cardinal, the fixed points of ψβ are the (β+1)-inaccessible cardinals (the values ψβ+1(λ)). If α is a limit ordinal, an α-inaccessible is a fixed point of every ψβ for β < α (the value ψα(λ) is the λth such cardinal). This process of taking fixed points of functions generating successively larger cardinals is commonly encountered in the study of large cardinal numbers. The term hyper-inaccessible is ambiguous and has at least three incompatible meanings. Many authors use it to mean a regular limit of strongly inaccessible cardinals (1-inaccessible). Other authors use it to mean that is -inaccessible. (It can never be -inaccessible.) It is occasionally used to mean Mahlo cardinal. The term α-hyper-inaccessible is also ambiguous. Some authors use it to mean α-inaccessible. Other authors use the definition that for any ordinal α, a cardinal is α-hyper-inaccessible if and only if is hyper-inaccessible and for every ordinal β < α, the set of β-hyper-inaccessibles less than is unbounded in . Hyper-hyper-inaccessible cardinals and so on can be defined in similar ways, and as usual this term is ambiguous. Using "weakly inaccessible" instead of "inaccessible", similar definitions can be made for "weakly α-inaccessible", "weakly hyper-inaccessible", and "weakly α-hyper-inaccessible". Mahlo cardinals are inaccessible, hyper-inaccessible, hyper-hyper-inaccessible, ... and so on. Two model-theoretic characterisations of inaccessibility Firstly, a cardinal is inaccessible if and only if has the following reflection property: for all subsets , there exists such that is an elementary substructure of . (In fact, the set of such α is closed unbounded in .) Equivalently, is -indescribable for all n ≥ 0. It is provable in ZF that ∞ satisfies a somewhat weaker reflection property, where the substructure is only required to be 'elementary' with respect to a finite set of formulas. Ultimately, the reason for this weakening is that whereas the model-theoretic satisfaction relation can be defined, semantic truth itself (i.e. ) cannot, due to Tarski's theorem. Secondly, under ZFC it can be shown that is inaccessible if and only if is a model of second order ZFC. In this case, by the reflection property above, there exists such that is a standard model of (first order) ZFC. Hence, the existence of an inaccessible cardinal is a stronger hypothesis than the existence of a standard model of ZFC. See also Mahlo cardinal Club set Inner model Von Neumann universe Constructible universe Works cited . English translation: . 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248077	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray%20Wilson%20%28musician%29	Ray Wilson (musician)	Raymond Wilson (born 8 September 1968) is a Scottish singer and guitarist, vocalist in the post-grunge band Stiltskin and in Genesis from 1996 to 1998. Early career and Stiltskin Wilson started off in a band called Guaranteed Pure in the 1990s, which featured himself along with Paul Holmes (keyboards), Steve Wilson (guitars), John Haimes (bass) and Chris Cavanagh (drums). They released an album called Swing Your Bag, the title track of which was included on a compilation album on the label of Fish entitled The Funny Farm Project : Outpatients '93. He then joined Stiltskin; they released one album and had a No. 1 hit in the UK with the single "Inside". Genesis Wilson joined Genesis as the band's lead singer after Phil Collins officially announced his departure in March 1996. Genesis founder members Tony Banks and Mike Rutherford were handed a CD of the Stiltskin album The Mind's Eye from Virgin Records executives. They were impressed with Wilson's vocal abilities and had their manager, Tony Smith, contact him for an audition. Wilson was announced as the new lead singer of Genesis in June 1997. Their only album with Wilson, ...Calling All Stations..., was released that September and became a top 10 worldwide hit, except for the U.S. where it reached No. 54 on the Billboard 200 album chart. The album was re-issued in 2007. Genesis toured Europe in winter 1997 spring 1998, but the American leg was cancelled due to low ticket sales. The band went on an extended hiatus after the critical failure of the album. In May 2001, during an interview with Dave Negrin for website WorldofGenesis.com, Wilson said: They basically phoned me up and said, "Ray, we're not continuing." I've never really felt that I was out of the band as such; it's just that the band doesn't exist any more (laughs). When I heard that, it was just after the Cut tour, about a year and a half ago. I've read some articles saying that I was fired and stuff, but to be fair to them, they didn't phone me up and say, "Ray, you're fired. We're going to carry on and we're going to get somebody else to sing." Or, "We're going to carry on and get Phil back." There was never any of that. They just said, "We've decided not to continue because the market doesn't want us." I think they didn't want to completely close the door to ever doing anything again. Solo career In 1999, Wilson released the album Millionairhead with a solo project called Cut_. It was remastered in 2007 with three additional songs added. In 2003, he released a solo album under his own name entitled Change. The next year, he released another studio album entitled The Next Best Thing, which included a new version of the Stiltskin hit "Inside". In 2006, he released another Stiltskin album called She, and in 2007 a Stiltskin live CD featuring (amongst others) 8 of the 12 songs from She. This live CD was recorded 25 October 2006, at Harmonie, Bonn, Germany. DJ and trance producer Armin van Buuren has produced remixes of the songs "Another Day" (retitled "Yet Another Day") and "Gypsy" from Millionairhead. Both remixes have been released on van Buuren's own albums, and "Yet Another Day" was also released as a single. In 2014, the first Ray Wilson biography, Gypsy, by journalist Mario Giammetti, was published in Italy (Edizioni Segno). In June 2016, his new solo album Song for a Friend was released, which included ten unreleased acoustic tracks with a cover of Pink Floyd's "High Hopes." The original idea for the album title was Backseat Drivers. It was to be a double album. Wilson wanted to have one CD with acoustic music and a second CD with electric music. He then decided to split the two. In an interview he explained the decision was taken because the acoustic version of Song for a Friend would not have got the attention it deserves. The second disc (the electric and rockier collection of new songs) was later released in September of the same year as a stand-alone new album called Makes Me Think of Home. On 7 and 8 September 2018, Wilson gave two exclusive concerts in Poznań at Zamek Culture Centre to celebrate his 50th birthday. Those two special nights titled "50th Celebration Birthday Concerts" saw Wilson performing only Genesis (and band members) material during the first night, while his solo material from his various projects (solo, Stiltskin and Cut_) on the second date. This was the first time he played a full concert without any Genesis songs since his tenure with the band. Concerts with Steve Hackett In 2013, Wilson joined Steve Hackett for the latter's Genesis Revisited II Tour as a guest singer. He was featured in a special edition of the Genesis Revisited II album on the track "Carpet Crawlers". It was the first time since 1998 that Wilson had worked with a fellow Genesis member, albeit one he had not performed with as a member of the band. Discography Solo releases Studio albums Change (2003) – No. 88 Germany The Next Best Thing (2004) Propaganda Man (2008) Chasing Rainbows (2013) – No. 57 Germany Song for a Friend (2016) Makes Me Think of Home (2016) – No. 88 Germany The Weight of Man (2021) Live albums Live and Acoustic (2002) (previously entitled "Unplugged") Ray Wilson Live (2005) An Audience and Ray Wilson (2006) (limited edition CD and download) Ray Wilson and the Berlin Symphony Ensemble, Genesis Klassik Live in Berlin (2009) Ray Wilson and the Berlin Symphony Ensemble, Genesis Classic Live in Poznan (2011) Genesis VS Stiltskin - 20 Years and More (2014) – No. 21 Germany Up Close and Personal - Live at SWR1 (2014) Time and Distance (2017) ZDF@BAUHAUS May 20, 2018 (2018) Greatest Hits Upon My Life (2019) Singles "Change" (March 2003) "Yet Another Day" (April 2003) – No. 70 United Kingdom "Goodbye Baby Blue" (September 2003) "These Are the Changes" (June 2004) Stiltskin Studio albums The Mind's Eye (1994) – No. 12 UK, No. 11 Germany, No. 10 Austria, No. 76 Netherlands, No. 13 Sweden, No. 13 Switzerland, She (2006) Unfulfillment (2011) Live albums Stiltskin Live (2007) Singles "Inside" (1994) – No. 1 UK, No. 5 Germany, No. 2 Austria, No. 9 France, No. 7 Netherlands, No. 5 Norway, No. 4 Sweden, No. 5 Switzerland, No. 40 Australia, No. 20 New Zealand "Footsteps" (1994) – No. 34 UK, No. 34 Switzerland, No. 36 New Zealand "Rest in Peace" (1995) – No. 47 UK "She" (2006) "Lemon Yellow Sun" (2006) "First Day Of Change" (2011, Promo) Genesis Studio albums Calling All Stations (1997) – No. 2 UK, No. 54 US Singles "Congo" (September 1997) – No. 29 UK, No. 35 Austria, No. 31 Germany, No. 32 Switzerland, No. 25 US Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks "Shipwrecked" (December 1997) – No. 54 UK, No. 82 Germany "Not About Us" (March 1998) – No. 66 UK, No. 81 Germany Cut_ Studio albums Millionairhead (1999) Singles "Another Day" (1999; Germany-only single) "Sarah" (1999) "Millionairhead" / "Sarah" (1999; radio promo) Guaranteed Pure Swing Your Bag (1993) CD Artwork by Philip Paterson Collaborations 2000 "Big City Nights" (with Scorpions) (Moment of Glory) 2002 "Love Supreme" Turntablerocker (Smile) 2003 "Good Time Love" (with Amanda Lyon) (A tribute to Frank Miller: various artists album) 2003 "Yet Another Day" (with Armin Van Buuren) (76) – No. 70 UK, No. 34 Netherlands 2005 "Gypsy" (with Armin Van Buuren) (Shivers) 2005 "Roses" (with RPWL) (World Through My Eyes) 2005 "Roses (live)" & "Not about us (live)"(with RPWL) (Start the Fire: RPWL Live) 2009 "Show Me The Way" (with DJ Cosmo) 2010 "Should I Wait" (with Twentyeight) (In the Beginning) 2013 "Carpet Crawlers" (with Steve Hackett) (Genesis Revisited II: Selection) 2015 "Walking in Memphis" (with Tune Brothers) 2015 "Here Comes the Rain Again" (with Tune Brothers) 2015 "Easy Way Out" (with The Veterans) 2015 "Taking the Easy Way Out" (with The Veterans) (HOUSESESSION IBIZA IMS 2015 SAMPLER) 2017 "Bezustannie" (with Patrycja Markowska) (Krótka Płyta O Miłości) Personal life Wilson is the cousin of Ian Wilson, better known as Ian Catskilkin, of the UK indie band, Art Brut. Ray met his future wife Tyla Holmes in 2000 (she is the sister of Paul Holmes, the keyboard player in Wilson's then-band Guaranteed Pure). They started dating, and married in 2002. She began working as his assistant, and then tour manager. They separated at the end of 2006 but remained good friends, with Tyla keeping her managerial role even after the ending of their relationship. She later left the music industry and concentrated on a career as a personal trainer in Australia. In 2007, after a concert in Poland, Wilson met the dancer Małgorzata Mielech, also known as Gosia. After a few months of dating, he left Edinburgh and moved to Poznań in September 2008. To celebrate their lasting love, in 2016 Ray wrote a song for Gosia entitled "Not Long 'Til Springtime": she appeared as main actor in the official video of the song. As of 2018, the couple were engaged. Despite Wilson being reluctant in showing and talking about his personal life, he and Gosia gave a major interview with an exclusive photoshoot showing the duo together for the famous Polish magazine "Pani" in August 2018. References External links Scottish rock singers 21st-century Scottish male singers Scottish baritones Genesis (band) members 1968 births Living people People from Dumfries Scottish emigrants to Poland Virgin Records artists Inside Out Music artists 20th-century Scottish male singers	[ 0.8540464043617249, 0.033975016325712204, -0.007274366449564695, -0.2781307101249695, -0.04441564902663231, 0.4514811635017395, 0.7679781317710876, -0.26109036803245544, -0.15944485366344452, -0.032783377915620804, 0.13536436855793, 0.2598116099834442, -0.747072696685791, 0.34913042187690735, -0.010706881061196327, 0.6184428930282593, -0.3697115182876587, 0.04352099075913429, -0.47024279832839966, -0.3271684944629669, 0.22763368487358093, 0.04406942054629326, 0.2886955738067627, 0.00047445972450077534, -0.006482782773673534, 0.9508591890335083, 0.012559144757688046, 0.14632633328437805, 0.37712448835372925, -0.4253866970539093, 0.4509068727493286, 0.2109597623348236, 0.9246870875358582, 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248078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stingray%20%281964%20TV%20series%29	Stingray (1964 TV series)	Stingray is a British children's science-fiction television series created by Gerry and Sylvia Anderson and produced by AP Films (APF) for ITC Entertainment. Filmed in 1963 using a combination of electronic marionette puppetry and scale model special effects, it was APF's sixth puppet series and the third to be produced under the banner of "Supermarionation". It premiered in October 1964 and ran for 39 half-hour episodes. Set in the 2060s, the series follows the exploits of the World Aquanaut Security Patrol (WASP), an organisation responsible for policing the Earth's oceans. The WASP's flagship is Stingray, a combat submarine crewed by Captain Troy Tempest, navigator Lieutenant "Phones" and Marina, a mute young woman from under the sea. Stingrays adventures bring it into contact with various underwater civilisations, some friendly and others hostile, as well as strange natural phenomena. In preparation for the series, APF acquired new, larger studios that it would continue to occupy for the remainder of the 1960s. Filmed at a cost of approximately £1 million, Stingray was the first British TV series to be made entirely in colour, a move intended to increase its appeal to the lucrative American market. The underwater sequences were filmed "dry" by shooting the sets through thin aquaria, while surface shots were filmed on water tanks incorporating lowered back walls to create artificial horizons. Stingray was the first Supermarionation series whose puppet characters had interchangeable heads showing a range of facial expressions. Stingray was originally broadcast on the ITV network in the United Kingdom and in syndication in North America. The series has drawn a largely positive response from commentators, some of whom have compared its premise to the Cold War. Premise Stingray, a nuclear-powered combat submarine, is the flagship of the World Aquanaut Security Patrol (WASP), a branch of the World Security Patrol (WSP) responsible for policing the Earth's oceans in the mid-2060s. Armed with "sting missile" torpedoes, it can travel at up to underwater and reach depths of over . The WASP is based in the self-contained city of Marineville, located several miles inland somewhere on the West Coast of North America. It is connected to the Pacific Ocean via a tunnel leading to an "ocean door", through which Stingray is launched. General quarters alerts are sounded by rapid drumbeats played over the base's public address system. In emergency situations, the entire base can be lowered into underground bunkers via giant hydraulic jacks while fighter aircraft and interceptor missiles are launched to counter threats. WASP personnel acknowledge commands with the phrase "P.W.O.R." – short for "Proceeding With Orders Received". Stingray is piloted by the square-jawed Captain Troy Tempest. He is paired with Southern navigator Lieutenant George Lee Sheridan, nicknamed "Phones" for his secondary role as Stingrays hydrophone operator. Troy and Phones board Stingray from the Marineville stand-by lounge by sitting on twin seats that are then lowered into the submarine via injector tubes. They answer to the "hoverchair"-bound Commander Sam Shore, whose daughter, Lieutenant Atlanta Shore, works in the Marineville control tower and is enamoured of Troy. The series begins with the WASP's discovery that the ocean floor is home to many advanced civilisations. Among these is the undersea city of Titanica, ruled by King Titan. A despot, Titan commands the Aquaphibians, a warrior race who possess a fleet of lethal submersibles called "Mechanical Fish". In the first episode, Stingray is attacked by Titan's forces and Troy and Phones are captured. They are rescued by Titan's slave, Marina, a mute young woman from the undersea city of Pacifica who can breathe underwater. Marina defects to the WASP and becomes a permanent member of the Stingray crew. Troy becomes infatuated with her, making Atlanta jealous. Furious at Marina's betrayal, Titan swears revenge on "terraneans" (land people) in general and Troy and the WASP in particular. However, his attempts to destroy Stingray and Marineville are always thwarted, often due to the incompetence of his henchman Surface Agent X-2-Zero. Titan's spy on land, X-2-Zero operates from the Pacific island of Lemoy, where he lives in an outwardly dilapidated house whose interior conceals vast banks of sophisticated surveillance and tracking equipment. Some episodes revolve around encounters with other races living under the sea or within the Earth (some friendly and others hostile), or investigation of natural phenomena. The final episode is a clip show in which Troy is named "Aquanaut of the Year" and past missions are recounted in flashback. Episodes Episodes are listed in the order of original broadcast in the ATV London region. {{Episode table \|overall= \|title= \|director= \|writer= \|airdate= \|prodcode= \|airdateR= \|prodcodeR= \|episodes= {{Episode list \|EpisodeNumber=39 \|Title=Aquanaut of the Year \|DirectedBy=Alan Pattillo \|WrittenBy=Gerry and Sylvia Anderson \|OriginalAirDate= \|ProdCode=39 \|ShortSummary=Named "Aquanaut of the Year", Troy sits before a live TV audience as a selection of his adventures are recalled as flashbacks.Clip show episode including flashbacks to "Emergency Marineville", "Raptures of the Deep" and "Subterranean Sea". }} }} In a first for a Supermarionation series, Stingray included a Christmas episode, "A Christmas to Remember", and a clip show finale, "Aquanaut of the Year". The latter incorporates elements from This Is Your Life, for which APF was required to obtain approval from the programme's creator, Ralph Edwards. Negotiations with Edwards were slow to progress, so work began on an alternative clip show in which the main characters watch film recordings of some of Stingrays past missions. Production on this episode was halted when APF received permission to proceed with "Aquanaut of the Year". Special episodes APF used the framing scenes from the abandoned clip show to create a Stingray feature presentation. Written and directed by Alan Pattillo, this comprised four complete episodes and was privately screened for visiting Japanese TV executives. It has never had a TV broadcast. The linking material from the feature presentation was re-discovered in late 2000 or early 2001 and subsequently included on Stingray DVD releases.Archer and Hearn, p. 100. Several years later, BBC Wales and Granada International condensed the feature presentation to create a new Stingray clip show episode. Titled "The Reunion Party", this included material from three episodes and was broadcast on BBC Four as part of a "Gerry Anderson Night" in 2008. ITC compilation films In the early 1980s, two Stingray compilation films were produced by ITC New York. These were made for American TV and later released on home video. They were televised as part of an ITC package branded "Super Space Theater", which also included compilations from other Supermarionation series. Each of the Stingray films consists of re-edited versions of four of the original episodes. The second film, Invaders from the Deep, was broadcast as the first episode of movie-mocking TV comedy series Mystery Science Theater 3000 in 1988. Characters WASP personnel and allies Captain Troy Tempest (voiced by Don Mason): pilot of the WASP's flagship submarine, Stingray. "Phones" (voiced by Robert Easton): a WASP lieutenant, Stingrays navigator and hydrophone operator, and Troy's best friend. His real name, George Lee Sheridan, is mentioned in the series' publicity material but never spoken on-screen. Marina: a young woman from under the sea who joins the Stingray crew. She was enslaved by King Titan of Titanica but defects to the WASP in the first episode and quickly becomes Troy's love interest. She can breathe in or out of water and is mute like the rest of her race. Commander Samuel Shore (voiced by Ray Barrett): head of Marineville. Paralysed from the waist down, he uses a hoverchair to move about. The cause of his disability is revealed in the episode "The Ghost of the Sea": as a security agent for an ocean mining platform, he was injured when the facility was attacked by a hostile submersible. Lieutenant Atlanta Shore (voiced by Lois Maxwell): Commander Shore's daughter, the assistant controller in Marineville Tower and Marina's rival for Troy's affections. Sub-Lieutenant John Horatio Fisher (voiced by Ray Barrett): the junior assistant controller in Marineville Tower. In "Rescue from the Skies" he is seen training to be an aquanaut. WSP Commanders (voiced by Don Mason, Ray Barrett, Robert Easton and David Graham): three commanders based at WSP Headquarters in Washington, D.C. They appear in various episodes to brief Commander Shore and other WASP personnel. Admiral Jack Denver (David Graham): president of the WASP underwater research division. He went to college with Commander Shore and enjoys debating with him. "Doc" (voiced by David Graham): Marineville's doctor. He appears in the episodes "The Master Plan" and "Invisible Enemy". Aphony: Marina's father, ruler of the peaceful underwater city of Pacifica. He appears in the episodes "Plant of Doom" and "Tune of Danger". Oink (voiced by David Graham): a seal pup that becomes Marina's pet after he saves the Stingray crew from a bomb in the episode "Sea of Oil". Recurring villains King Titan (voiced by Ray Barrett): the tyrannical ruler of the underwater city of Titanica who wages war on the WASP. Surface Agent X-2-Zero (voiced by Robert Easton): Titan's inept agent on land, based in a dilapidated house on the Pacific island of Lemoy. The Aquaphibians (voiced by Robert Easton and David Graham): a race of undersea warriors who serve Titan. Their language resembles a series of gurgles. Teufel: Titan's pet, a large fish with supernatural powers that Titan keeps in a tank in his throne room and worships as a god. El Hudat and Abu (voiced by David Graham and Robert Easton) : the dictator of the island state of Hudatvia and his aide. They appear in the episodes "Star of the East" and "Eastern Eclipse". Grupa and Noctus (voiced by Ray Barrett and David Graham): a pair of undersea beings who appear in the episodes "A Nut for Marineville" and "Trapped in the Depths". Production In late 1962, as production on Fireball XL5 drew to a close, Gerry Anderson decided that an underwater series was the next logical step for production company AP Films (APF): "We had been on land and in space, so where could we go next? One possibility was underwater." He was inspired by childhood memories of U-boats in the Second World War, as well as by the mysteries of the ocean: "I was ... fascinated by trenches in the ocean that are as deep as mountains are high. There are features that man has never seen and pressures that are almost impossible to withstand. I began to wonder if there were areas of the Earth which had been little explored and felt justified in writing some wacky stuff." APF's financial backer Lew Grade, who had bought the company after the success of Fireball XL5, approved the concept and commissioned 26 episodes. Anderson named the new series "Stingray" partly from a belief that stingrays are dangerous animals (in reality, they are docile), but also because it "seemed an exciting title." In preparation for the new series, APF, then based on the Slough Trading Estate's Ipswich Road, moved to a larger site on the nearby Stirling Road at a cost of £75,000.Archer and Hearn, p. 90. The new studios, built inside a converted factory unit, contained three shooting stages: two for puppet filming and one for creating special effects. This arrangement allowed two episodes to be filmed simultaneously by separate crews. Production began in spring or June 1963 and the series was completed in ten months. Each episode required an average of 11 days of puppet filming and five-and-a-half days of effects filming. The total cost of the production was approximately £1 million (£ million in ). The budget per episode was £20,000, which enabled APF, whose earlier productions had been in black and white, to film in Eastmancolor.The opening credits refer to the colour process as "Videcolor". Though Stingray would debut in black and white in its country of origin, the switch to colour filming was intended to increase the series' chances of being bought by a network in the US, where colour TV broadcasts were already common. Sets were re-painted after NBC supplied APF with a list of colours believed to cause problems such as flaring or bleeding; according to Anderson, this was unnecessary because when filmed in Eastmancolor, a set "would appear on screen exactly as you had painted it." Some colours were avoided as they did not come out well in black and white, and models and sets were painted differently to ensure that they did not blend into each other. During the production of Stingray, APF became the UK's largest colour film consumer. As filming progressed, Grade extended his commission to 39 episodes. Around the time shooting on the final 13 episodes began, voice actors Don Mason and Robert Easton, who had understood that all members of the cast were on the same pay, learnt that they were in fact earning less than their co-star David Graham. They did not commit to the remaining episodes until their fees had been re-negotiated. Characters and puppets In her 2007 autobiography, Sylvia Anderson, who had voiced the regular characters of Jimmy Gibson in Supercar and Dr Venus in Fireball XL5, wrote that she devised Marina as a mute so that she could take a break from voice acting and "concentrate on the scripts and characters". Her voice parts in Stingray were limited to uncredited guest roles in the episodes "Raptures of the Deep" (as Marina) and "A Christmas to Remember".Bentley 2008, p. 93. Gerry Anderson said that Phones was inspired by memories of a sound engineer with whom he had once worked: "He spent so long with his headphones plugged in to various bits of equipment that he used to leave them on all the time, earning himself the nickname 'Phones'." Voice actor Robert Easton based the character's Southern American tones on his performance in the 1961 film Voyage to the Bottom of the Sea, in which he played a Southern radio operator. His voice for Surface Agent X-2-Zero was his impression of Peter Lorre, who had appeared in the same film. The Aquaphibians were voiced by Easton and Graham, their dialogue overlaid with a looped tape recording of bubbling water to create a gurgling effect. The process of designing and making the puppets took four months and each of the main characters was sculpted in duplicate to allow episodes to be filmed in pairs. Some of the main characters were modelled on real-life actors; for example, Troy Tempest drew heavily on the looks of James Garner.Peel, p. 19. Gerry Anderson said that he did not explicitly instruct the sculptors to base Troy on this actor; instead, he named Garner simply to help them visualise the character, as he could see that they were struggling with his original brief (which merely called for Troy to be square-jawed and heroic-looking). Titan was based on a young Laurence Olivier, and Surface Agent X-2-Zero on either Claude RainsRogers et al., p. 75. or Peter Lorre. Atlanta Shore has been likened to Lois Maxwell (who voiced the character), while Marina has drawn comparisons to both Ursula AndressSellers, pp. 89–90. and Brigitte Bardot.Rogers et al., p. 53. The Aquaphibians were modelled on an alien creature from the Fireball XL5 episode "XL5 to H2O".Hearn, p. 39.Stingray was the first Supermarionation series to feature puppets with glass eyes and poseable hands for increased realism. To make the puppets' eyes sparkle in a lifelike way, they were polished with silicon and illuminated by a small lamp. Another innovation was the creation of alternative heads to allow characters to display emotions: besides their "normal" heads, which had neutral expressions, the main characters could also be fitted with "smiling" and "frowning" heads.Archer and Hearn, p. 94. The female puppets' wigs were made of human hair; for the male puppets, mohair was used as it was softer and easier to style. Design and effects The Stingray submarine was designed by Reg Hill and built by Feltham-based company Mastermodels. The Marineville model was built in-house from wood and cardboard supplemented with pieces of model kits bought from a toy shop. It was lowered and raised by hydraulics. Most of the series' special effects were filmed on high-speed cameras with the footage slowed down in post-production to convey a sense of greater weight and scale. For the underwater sequences, Anderson had originally envisaged filming inside a water tank, but the cost of the specialist cameras and equipment required would have made this impractical. These scenes were ultimately filmed using a variation of a technique first used on Supercar: mounting a model ocean floor against a cyclorama and "flying" the puppets and miniature models across the set on wires from an overhead gantry, while shooting the action through a thin aquarium to distort the lighting. Vegetable dye was added to the aquarium to make the water more noticeable.Sellers, p. 91. Several aquaria were used; constructed by a company that supplied fish tanks to London Zoo, they were re-built with thicker glass after one of them burst from the water pressure. The move away from black and white sometimes caused problems as build-ups of algae in the aquaria caused the water to change colour. The illusion of scenes being set underwater was further enhanced by populating the aquaria with tropical fish of various sizes to create forced perspective.Rogers et al., p. 83. Food was dropped at various points around the tanks to keep the animals in shot. A disc with various portions cut out was placed in front of an overhead lamp and rotated to give the impression of light being refracted through the ocean, while the water in the aquaria was disturbed to create "rippling" effects. Wires were painted over to make them non-reflective and fans were used to simulate currents passing over puppets' hair and clothing. For the climax of the Stingray launch sequence, in which the vessel shoots out of an underwater tunnel, part of the set was painted onto the aquarium to conceal the air line that produced the accompanying rush of bubbles.Meddings, p. 33. Ocean surface shots in Supercar and Fireball XL5 had been filmed in an outdoor tank, but for Stingray several tanks were built inside the studio. Among the challenges presented by these shots was the need to make the scale models appear realistic while filming on water, which cannot be miniaturised. In a 1980 interview, Derek Meddings, the series' special effects director, described the process as "designing the shot carefully [...] then shoot[ing] it at very high speed (to make movement slower and therefore seemingly vaster) and hope you didn't get huge globules of water that would give the game away." Models were controlled using wires, poles and underwater tracks and rigs. To make the water look blue, the crew first tried experimenting with various lighting effects; these proved inadequate, so the water was dyed blue instead.La Rivière, p. 100. Various powders were used to create foam and whitewater. Each tank incorporated an artificial horizon system whereby the back wall was built low and the tank was deliberately overfilled to create a waterfall, blurring the divide between the rim of the tank and the painted-sky backdrop.Hearn, p. 38. The effect was sustained by collecting the escaping water in troughs and pumping it back into the tank.Rogers et al., p. 84. To conserve studio space, some scenes were filmed in a wedge-shaped tank that was tailor-built to align with the camera's field of view. One of the effects shots in the series' opening titles shows Stingray and a pursuing Mechanical Fish leaping out of the ocean and then plunging back under water; although this required complex manoeuvring of the wired scale models that made the shot extremely difficult to film, in the end the effects crew succeeded on the first take. Shots of aircraft in flight were filmed using a technique known as the "rolling sky", whereby the miniature models were positioned in front of a painted-sky canvas and remained static while an illusion of movement was created by running the background in a continuous loop around a pair of electrically-driven rollers. This system, devised by Meddings, made aerial shots easier to film as it took up very little studio space. Opening and closing titles The title sequence consists of a series of action shots featuring undersea explosions, Marineville going to red alert and Stingray doing battle with a Mechanical Fish. This is accompanied by dramatic narration from Commander Shore, who warns the audience to "Stand by for action!" before declaring that "Anything can happen in the next half-hour!" In the first 26 episodes, the title sequence opens in black and white before switching to colour; for the final 13 episodes, these first few seconds were replaced with all-colour footage. Jim Sangster and Paul Condon, authors of Collins Telly Guide, praise the introduction, writing that "Of all the programmes we've looked at for this book, there is none with a title sequence as thrilling as Stingray." Anthony Clark of the British Film Institute calls the sequence "a mini-adventure in itself ... Children's TV had never before been this exciting." According to John Peel, the Stingray titles contrasted greatly with those of Fireball XL5 and Supercar, which were more "straight narrative openings". Peel also argues that Stingray influenced the "rapid cutting, pounding rhythms and extreme stylising" of later TV title sequences. The series' closing titles focus on the love triangle between Troy, Marina and Atlanta. They feature Troy singing "Aqua Marina" – a song about his feelings for Marina, performed by Gary Miller with soprano backing vocals – while Atlanta gazes wistfully at his photograph. Broadcast and reception In the UK, Stingray was first broadcast on 4 October 1964 in the Anglia, Border, Grampian, London and Southern regions. It premiered on Channel Television, ATV Midlands and Westward Television on 6 October and Granada Television on 30 December. First shown in black and white, it was broadcast in colour for the first time in December 1969. The series received little publicity but replicated the success of earlier Supermarionation productions. It was repeated on ITV in 1981 and on BBC2 in the early 1990s, with further repeats in the early 00s.Bentley 2017, p. 194. In the US, the series was first shown in 1965. Premiering in colour, it was syndicated across more than 100 markets with sales exceeding £3 million.Rogers et al., p. 94. It ran on the Sci-Fi Channel in 1994. Critical response Writing in 2006, Robert Sellers described Stingray as the "first truly classic Anderson show", whose special effects "have stood the test of time remarkably well." Daniel O'Brien, author of SF:UK: How British Science Fiction Changed the World, considers it to be "perhaps the archetypal Gerry Anderson series". Ranking the Anderson productions, Morgan Jeffery of Digital Spy places Stingray fourth, calling it "a kids' adventure serial of the highest order". Andrew Blair of Den of Geek believes that when grouped with Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons, Stingray is "the lesser of the Holy Triumvirate of Supermarionation [...] It's shorter than the former, and lighter than the latter, giving it a comparatively breezy feel." He also describes it as "inherently a matinee adventure, an inspiring rush of mild peril and jaunty escapades". Comparing Stingray to the Andersons' earlier productions, media historian Marcus Hearn writes that the series essentially "[transfers] the format of Fireball XL5 to an underwater setting." Peel suggests that the decision to locate the action under the sea was influenced by the 1960s vogue for ocean exploration inspired by adventurers such as Jacques Cousteau and Thor Heyerdahl. Kim Newman describes Stingray as a "patrol show" in the same vein as Fireball XL5 and Supercar. Clark notes that Stingray, like its space-bound precursor, uses "some very simple elements – a four-square hero, a fantastic craft which lends its name to the show and a mix of fast-paced action and innocent humour." Despite praising Stingray, Peel considers Fireball XL5 and Thunderbirds to be more appealing. Peel also argues that of all Gerry Anderson's series, it is Stingray in which his preferred "tongue-in-cheek" style of humour is most prominent. Mike Fillis of TV Zone magazine regards Stingray as less "ambitious" than Thunderbirds but compares its "self-awareness" favourably to the "po-faced rigidity" of Captain Scarlet. He also praises its "well-drawn" characters and describes the water-based special effects as "surprisingly elegant". Paul Cornell, Martin Day and Keith Topping, authors of The Guinness Book of Classic British TV, view the effects as more "realistic" than those of earlier Anderson series. Though judging many of the episodes to be "predictable and corny", they add that the series' "knowingness" and "love of character [...] made the whole thing charming." Sangster and Condon describe the episodes as "mercifully shorter" than those of Thunderbirds, creating "tighter plotting and an engaging simplicity". The music has also been praised: Glenn Erickson describes it as "corny retro" appropriate to the series' tone, while Clark calls it the "best underwater adventure music ever written". Some commentators have been critical of the puppetry and effects. Paul Mavis of DVD Talk writes that the use of aquaria makes the underwater scenes look "a tad creaky" but believes that they compare well to contemporary feature film effects. Erickson writes that as in other Supermarionation series, the puppets' lack of mobility makes scenes feel "rather static". He notes that this limitation forces a large amount of movement to be kept off-screen: "Almost every capture by Aquaphibians ellipses difficult-to-film interaction, skipping straight to static talking scenes instead." Sangster and Condon argue that, while Stingray is mainly for children, it was also the first Anderson series to have adult appeal. According to Jon E. Lewis and Penny Stempel, authors of Cult TV: The Essential Critical Guide, the series combines "kiddie-time exciting narrative action" with imaginative spoofs for the "more sophisticated". Stingray has also attracted a variety of comment on its presentation of race and sex. Newman argues that through its use of "silver- and green-skinned" undersea villains and the "odd caricatured Arab baddie", Stingray, like Thunderbirds, conveys "square, almost 1950s" attitudes towards race. Mavis rejects claims of racism, noting that not all of the series' underwater beings are malevolent and that this is acknowledged in character dialogue. Nicholas J. Cull views the mute Marina as an example of a female Anderson character who is "subordinate" to men, while Erickson argues that Atlanta's role as an assistant makes her a gender stereotype. Erickson also writes that the love triangle between Atlanta, Troy and Marina (which Blair describes as an "unusual development" for a children's series) creates a "mild sexist tension". Mavis disagrees that the series is sexist, noting that while Atlanta "doesn't do much here except answer the phone", Marina saves Troy's life on several occasions. Cold War analysis Cull observes that in its depiction of the WASP, Stingray is one of several Gerry Anderson series that "assume the development of world government and world security institutions" and "reflect the 1960s vogue for stories set in secret organisations with extravagant acronyms." He compares the premise of the series to the Cold War, noting the conflict between the WASP and the undersea races and the latter's use of spies to infiltrate human society. He believes that the episode "Marineville Traitor", which focuses on a hunt for an "enemy within", has an "especially strong Cold War flavour". Cull also notes that while the Anderson productions often present nuclear technology as a threat, Stingray also shows it in a positive light: for example, the series' eponymous submarine is nuclear-powered. Sarah Kurchak of The A.V. Club suggests that compared to villains of earlier Anderson series, Titan and the Aquaphibians serve as a "more classically Cold War-style villainous Other". She adds that in the world of Stingray, "the battle lines between land and sea are clearly defined, the enemy is always watching, and the target of their aggression is always close to home." Kurchak also suggests that through his "multiple nightmares" about threats to Marineville, Troy embodies Cold War anxieties. O'Brien writes that Stingray contains "more than a touch of the Cold War ethos", arguing that Titan "could have easily belonged to an underwater branch of the Soviet Bloc." Tie-insStingray was featured in the Supermarionation tie-in comic TV Century 21 (later known as TV21) from its first issue, published by City Magazines/AP Films (Merchandising) in January 1965. The Stingray strip ran from TV Century 21 #1 (23 Jan. 1965) to TV21 #189 (30 Aug. 1968); it was originally by Alan Fennell & Ron Embleton; later contributors included Dennis Hooper, Gerry Embleton, and Michael Strand. The Stingray comics were reprinted in Polystyle Publications' Countdown in the years 1971–1972. The 1960s also saw the publication of two original novels by Armada Books: Stingray and Stingray and the Monster, written by John William Jennison under the pseudonym "John Theydon". Audio plays To supplement the TV episodes, in 1965 APF's sister company Century 21 Records released three audio plays in the form of 7-inch vinyl EP records. Originally marketed as "mini-albums", these feature the voice cast from the TV series and are each about 21 minutes long. They are included as special features on the UK Stingray DVD box set. Footnotes and references Footnotes References Works cited Originally published as: Stingray'' volume originally published separately as: External links 1960s British children's television series British children's science fiction television series 1960s British science fiction television series 1964 British television series debuts 1965 British television series endings British children's action television series British children's adventure television series British television shows featuring puppetry English-language television shows Fictional works set in the Pacific Ocean First-run syndicated television programs in the United States ITV children's television shows Marionette films Nautical television series Submarines in fiction Television series by ITC Entertainment Television series set in the 2060s Television series set on fictional islands Television shows adapted into comics Television shows adapted into novels Television shows set in Washington, D.C. 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248081	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahlo%20cardinal	Mahlo cardinal	In mathematics, a Mahlo cardinal is a certain kind of large cardinal number. Mahlo cardinals were first described by . As with all large cardinals, none of these varieties of Mahlo cardinals can be proved to exist by ZFC (assuming ZFC is consistent). A cardinal number is called strongly Mahlo if is strongly inaccessible and the set is stationary in κ. A cardinal is called weakly Mahlo if is weakly inaccessible and the set of weakly inaccessible cardinals less than is stationary in . The term "Mahlo cardinal" now usually means "strongly Mahlo cardinal", though the cardinals originally considered by Mahlo were weakly Mahlo cardinals. Minimal condition sufficient for a Mahlo cardinal If κ is a limit ordinal and the set of regular ordinals less than κ is stationary in κ, then κ is weakly Mahlo. The main difficulty in proving this is to show that κ is regular. We will suppose that it is not regular and construct a club set which gives us a μ such that: μ = cf(μ) < cf(κ) < μ < κ which is a contradiction. If κ were not regular, then cf(κ) < κ. We could choose a strictly increasing and continuous cf(κ)-sequence which begins with cf(κ)+1 and has κ as its limit. The limits of that sequence would be club in κ. So there must be a regular μ among those limits. So μ is a limit of an initial subsequence of the cf(κ)-sequence. Thus its cofinality is less than the cofinality of κ and greater than it at the same time; which is a contradiction. Thus the assumption that κ is not regular must be false, i.e. κ is regular. No stationary set can exist below with the required property because {2,3,4,...} is club in ω but contains no regular ordinals; so κ is uncountable. And it is a regular limit of regular cardinals; so it is weakly inaccessible. Then one uses the set of uncountable limit cardinals below κ as a club set to show that the stationary set may be assumed to consist of weak inaccessibles. If κ is weakly Mahlo and also a strong limit, then κ is Mahlo. κ is weakly inaccessible and a strong limit, so it is strongly inaccessible. We show that the set of uncountable strong limit cardinals below κ is club in κ. Let μ0 be the larger of the threshold and ω1. For each finite n, let μn+1 = 2μn which is less than κ because it is a strong limit cardinal. Then their limit is a strong limit cardinal and is less than κ by its regularity. The limits of uncountable strong limit cardinals are also uncountable strong limit cardinals. So the set of them is club in κ. Intersect that club set with the stationary set of weakly inaccessible cardinals less than κ to get a stationary set of strongly inaccessible cardinals less than κ. Example: showing that Mahlo cardinals κ are κ-inaccessible (hyper-inaccessible) The term "hyper-inaccessible" is ambiguous. In this section, a cardinal κ is called hyper-inaccessible if it is κ-inaccessible (as opposed to the more common meaning of 1-inaccessible). Suppose κ is Mahlo. We proceed by transfinite induction on α to show that κ is α-inaccessible for any α ≤ κ. Since κ is Mahlo, κ is inaccessible; and thus 0-inaccessible, which is the same thing. If κ is α-inaccessible, then there are β-inaccessibles (for β < α) arbitrarily close to κ. Consider the set of simultaneous limits of such β-inaccessibles larger than some threshold but less than κ. It is unbounded in κ (imagine rotating through β-inaccessibles for β < α ω-times choosing a larger cardinal each time, then take the limit which is less than κ by regularity (this is what fails if α ≥ κ)). It is closed, so it is club in κ. So, by κ's Mahlo-ness, it contains an inaccessible. That inaccessible is actually an α-inaccessible. So κ is α+1-inaccessible. If λ ≤ κ is a limit ordinal and κ is α-inaccessible for all α < λ, then every β < λ is also less than α for some α < λ. So this case is trivial. In particular, κ is κ-inaccessible and thus hyper-inaccessible. To show that κ is a limit of hyper-inaccessibles and thus 1-hyper-inaccessible, we need to show that the diagonal set of cardinals μ < κ which are α-inaccessible for every α < μ is club in κ. Choose a 0-inaccessible above the threshold, call it α0. Then pick an α0-inaccessible, call it α1. Keep repeating this and taking limits at limits until you reach a fixed point, call it μ. Then μ has the required property (being a simultaneous limit of α-inaccessibles for all α < μ) and is less than κ by regularity. Limits of such cardinals also have the property, so the set of them is club in κ. By Mahlo-ness of κ, there is an inaccessible in this set and it is hyper-inaccessible. So κ is 1-hyper-inaccessible. We can intersect this same club set with the stationary set less than κ to get a stationary set of hyper-inaccessibles less than κ. The rest of the proof that κ is α-hyper-inaccessible mimics the proof that it is α-inaccessible. So κ is hyper-hyper-inaccessible, etc.. α-Mahlo, hyper-Mahlo and greatly Mahlo cardinals The term α-Mahlo is ambiguous and different authors give inequivalent definitions. One definition is that a cardinal κ is called α-Mahlo for some ordinal α if κ is strongly inaccessible and for every ordinal β<α, the set of β-Mahlo cardinals below κ is stationary in κ. However the condition "κ is strongly inaccessible" is sometimes replaced by other conditions, such as "κ is regular" or "κ is weakly inaccessible" or "κ is Mahlo". We can define "hyper-Mahlo", "α-hyper-Mahlo", "hyper-hyper-Mahlo", "weakly α-Mahlo", "weakly hyper-Mahlo", "weakly α-hyper-Mahlo", and so on, by analogy with the definitions for inaccessibles, so for example a cardinal κ is called hyper-Mahlo if it is κ-Mahlo. A cardinal κ is greatly Mahlo or κ+-Mahlo if and only if it is inaccessible and there is a normal (i.e. nontrivial and closed under diagonal intersections) κ-complete filter on the power set of κ that is closed under the Mahlo operation, which maps the set of ordinals S to {αS: α has uncountable cofinality and S∩α is stationary in α} The properties of being inaccessible, Mahlo, weakly Mahlo, α-Mahlo, greatly Mahlo, etc. are preserved if we replace the universe by an inner model. Every reflecting cardinal has strictly more consistency strength than a greatly Mahlo, but inaccessible reflecting cardinals aren't in general Mahlo -- see https://mathoverflow.net/q/212597 The Mahlo operation If X is a class of ordinals, them we can form a new class of ordinals M(X) consisting of the ordinals α of uncountable cofinality such that α∩X is stationary in α. This operation M is called the Mahlo operation. It can be used to define Mahlo cardinals: for example, if X is the class of regular cardinals, then M(X) is the class of weakly Mahlo cardinals. The condition that α has uncountable cofinality ensures that the closed unbounded subsets of α are closed under intersection and so form a filter; in practice the elements of X often already have uncountable cofinality in which case this condition is redundant. Some authors add the condition that α is in X, which in practice usually makes little difference as it is often automatically satisfied. For a fixed regular uncountable cardinal κ, the Mahlo operation induces an operation on the Boolean algebra of all subsets of κ modulo the non-stationary ideal. The Mahlo operation can be iterated transfinitely as follows: M0(X) = X Mα+1(X) = M(Mα(X)) If α is a limit ordinal then Mα(X) is the intersection of Mβ(X) for β<α These iterated Mahlo operations produce the classes of α-Mahlo cardinals starting with the class of strongly inaccessible cardinals. It is also possible to diagonalize this process by defining MΔ(X) is the set of ordinals α that are in Mβ(X) for β<α. And of course this diagonalization process can be iterated too. The diagonalized Mahlo operation produces the hyper-Mahlo cardinals, and so on. Mahlo cardinals and reflection principles Axiom F is the statement that every normal function on the ordinals has a regular fixed point. (This is not a first-order axiom as it quantifies over all normal functions, so it can be considered either as a second-order axiom or as an axiom scheme.) A cardinal is called Mahlo if every normal function on it has a regular fixed point, so axiom F is in some sense saying that the class of all ordinals is Mahlo. A cardinal κ is Mahlo if and only if a second-order form of axiom F holds in Vκ. Axiom F is in turn equivalent to the statement that for any formula φ with parameters there are arbitrarily large inaccessible ordinals α such that Vα reflects φ (in other words φ holds in Vα if and only if it holds in the whole universe) . See also Inaccessible cardinal Stationary set Inner model References Large cardinals	[ -0.7673858404159546, 0.2964366674423218, -0.16401471197605133, -0.18326476216316223, -0.6947112679481506, 0.479127436876297, 0.5206506252288818, 0.16768352687358856, -0.4920274019241333, 0.049047764390707016, -0.9673516750335693, 0.05996479466557503, -0.32004424929618835, 0.5935729146003723, 0.5701194405555725, 0.4135967791080475, 0.39229634404182434, 0.576744794845581, -0.40945684909820557, -0.86552894115448, 0.5232762098312378, -0.19810594618320465, 0.21881310641765594, -0.23529380559921265, 0.35520005226135254, -0.031361743807792664, 0.0272394809871912, 0.2150612622499466, 0.14343146979808807, 0.5745483636856079, -0.04741622135043144, 0.7513914704322815, 0.10808879882097244, 0.03476535901427269, 0.26337695121765137, -0.18235386908054352, 0.5945611000061035, -0.25678929686546326, -0.09314685314893723, -0.1867975890636444, 0.8001633286476135, 0.06994304805994034, 0.23416998982429504, 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248083	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich%20City%20F.C.	Norwich City F.C.	Norwich City Football Club (also known as The Canaries or The Yellows) is an English professional football club based in Norwich, Norfolk. As of the 2021–22 season, the team competes in the Premier League, the top tier of English football, after winning the 2020–21 EFL Championship title. The club was founded in 1902. Since 1935, Norwich have played their home games at Carrow Road and have a long-standing and fierce rivalry with East Anglian rivals Ipswich Town, with whom they have contested the East Anglian derby 134 times since 1902. Norwich have won the League Cup twice, in 1962 and 1985. The club's highest ever league finish came in 1992–93 when they finished third in the Premier League. The club is nicknamed The Canaries after the history of breeding the birds in the area, which is represented in the team’s iconic yellow and green kits. The fans' song "On the Ball, City" is the oldest football chant in the world, written in 1890 and still sung today. History Early years (1902–1934) Norwich City F.C. was formed after a meeting at the Criterion Café in Norwich on 17 June 1902 and played their first competitive match against Harwich & Parkeston, at Newmarket Road on 6 September 1902. They joined the Norfolk & Suffolk League for the 1902–03 season, but following a FA commission, the club was ousted from the amateur game in 1905, as it was deemed a professional organisation. Later that year Norwich were elected to play in the Southern League. With increasing crowds, they were forced to leave Newmarket Road in 1908 and moved to The Nest, a disused chalk pit. The club's original nickname was the Citizens, but this was superseded by 1907 by the more familiar Canaries after the club's chairman (who was a keen breeder of canaries) dubbed his boys "The Canaries" and changed their strip to yellow and green. During the First World War, with football suspended and facing spiralling debts, City went into voluntary liquidation on 10 December 1917. The club was officially reformed on 15 February 1919 – a key figure in the event was Charles Frederick Watling, future Lord Mayor of Norwich and the father of future club chairman, Geoffrey Watling. When, in May 1920, the Football League formed a third Division, Norwich joined the Third Division for the following season. Their first league fixture, against Plymouth Argyle, on 28 August 1920, ended in a 1–1 draw. The club went on to endure a mediocre decade, finishing no higher than eighth but no lower than 18th. The following decade proved more successful for the club with a club-record victory, 10–2, over Coventry City and promotion as champions to the Second Division in the 1933–34 season under the management of Tom Parker. Move to Carrow Road and an FA Cup semi-final (1934–1959) With crowds continuing to rise, and with the Football Association raising concerns over the suitability of The Nest, the club considered renovation of the ground, but ultimately decided on a move to Carrow Road. The inaugural match, on 31 August 1935 against West Ham United, ended in a 4–3 victory for the home team and set a new record attendance of 29,779. The biggest highlight of the following four seasons was the visit of King George VI to Carrow Road on 29 October 1938. However the club was relegated to the Third Division at the end of the season. The league was suspended the following season due to the Second World War, and did not resume until the 1946–47 season. City finished this and the following season in 21st place, the poor results forcing the club to apply for re-election to the league. The club narrowly missed out on promotion under the guidance of manager Norman Low in the early 1950s, but following the return of Tom Parker as manager, Norwich finished bottom of the football league in the 1956–57 season. The 1958–59 season saw Norwich reach the semi-final of the FA Cup as a Third Division side, defeating two First Division sides on the way: Tottenham Hotspur and Matt Busby's Manchester United. League Cup glory and a place in the First Division (1959–1973) In the 1959–60 season, Norwich were promoted to the Second Division after finishing second to Southampton, and achieved a fourth-place finish in the 1960–61 season. In 1962 Ron Ashman guided Norwich to their first trophy, defeating Rochdale 4–0 on aggregate in a two-legged final to win the League Cup. Sixth place in the league was the closest the club came to promotion to the First Division again during the 1960s, but after winning the division in the 1971–72 season under manager Ron Saunders, Norwich City reached the highest level of English football for the first time. They made their first appearance at Wembley Stadium in 1973, losing the League Cup final 1–0 to Tottenham Hotspur. The John Bond Era (1973–1980) Relegation to the Second Division in 1974 came after Saunders had departed and been succeeded by John Bond, but the board of directors kept faith in Bond and were quickly rewarded. A highly successful first season saw promotion back to the First Division and another visit to Wembley, again in the League Cup final, this time losing 1–0 to Aston Villa. Promotion, silverware and more cup runs (1980–1992) Bond departed to Manchester City in autumn 1980 and the club were relegated six months later, but bounced back the following season after finishing third under Bond's successor Ken Brown. In August 1981, Norwich City striker Justin Fashanu became the first black footballer to command a £1millon transfer fee when he moved to Nottingham Forest. The 1984–85 season was of mixed fortunes for the club; under Ken Brown's guidance, they reached the final of the Football League Cup at Wembley Stadium, having defeated Ipswich Town in the semi-final. In the final, they beat Sunderland 1–0, but in the league, both Norwich and Sunderland were relegated to the second tier of English football. This made Norwich the first English club to win a major trophy and suffer relegation in the same season; something which was not matched until Birmingham City also suffered relegation the season they won the League Cup 26 years later. Norwich were also denied their first foray into Europe with the ban on English clubs after the Heysel Stadium disaster. City bounced back to the top flight by winning the Second Division championship in the 1985–86 season. This was the start a club-record nine consecutive seasons in the top division of English football. High league placing in the First Division in 1988–89 would have been enough for UEFA Cup qualification, but the ban on English clubs remained. They also had good cup runs during this period, reaching the FA Cup semi-finals in 1989 and again in 1992. Early success in the Premier League era (1992–1995) During 1992–93, the inaugural season of the Premier League, Norwich City quickly emerged as surprise title contenders, before faltering in the final weeks to finish third behind the champions, Manchester United, and runners-up Aston Villa. Their top scorer that season was Mark Robins, who had been signed from Manchester United the previous summer. The following season Norwich participated in the UEFA Cup for the first (and only) time, losing in the third round to Inter Milan, but defeating Bayern Munich. Winning 2–1, Norwich were the first British team to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium. Mike Walker quit as Norwich City manager in January 1994, to take charge of Everton and was replaced by first team coach John Deehan who led the club to 12th place in the 1993–94 season in the Premier League. Norwich began the 1994–95 season well, despite the pre-season loss of top scorer Chris Sutton to Blackburn Rovers for a national record £5 million, and by Christmas they were seventh in the league. Norwich then won only one of their final 20 league games and slumped to 20th place and relegation, ending a nine-season run in the top flight. The Division One years (1995–2003) Shortly before relegation, Deehan resigned as manager and his assistant Gary Megson took over until the end of the season. Martin O'Neill, who had taken Wycombe Wanderers from the Conference to the Second Division with successive promotions, was appointed as Norwich City manager in summer 1995. He lasted just six months in the job before resigning after a dispute with chairman Robert Chase over money to strengthen the squad. Soon after, Chase stepped down after protests from supporters, who complained that he kept selling the club's best players and was to blame for their relegation. Chase's majority stakeholding was bought by Geoffrey Watling. English television cook Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn-Jones took over the majority of Norwich City's shares from Watling in 1996, and Mike Walker was re-appointed as the club's manager. He was unable to repeat the success achieved during his first spell and was sacked two seasons later with Norwich mid-table in Division One. Nigel Worthington took over as Norwich City manager in December 2000 following an unsuccessful two years for the club under Bruce Rioch and then Bryan Hamilton. He had been on the coaching staff under Hamilton who resigned with the club 20th in the First Division and in real danger of relegation to the third tier of English football for the first time since the 1960s. Worthington avoided the threat of relegation and, the following season, led City to a playoff final at the Millennium Stadium, which Norwich lost against Birmingham City on penalties. Return to the Premier League (2003–2009) The 2003–04 campaign saw the club win the First Division title, finishing eight points clear of second-placed West Bromwich Albion and returned to the top flight for the first time since 1995. For much of the 2004–05 season, the club struggled and, despite beating Manchester United 2–0 towards the end of the season, a last day 6–0 defeat away to Fulham condemned them to relegation. The club finished in ninth place in The Championship in the 2005–06 season and, as results in the 2006–07 season went against City, manager Nigel Worthington was sacked in October 2006, directly after a 4–1 defeat by Burnley. On 16 October 2006, Norwich announced that former City player Peter Grant had left West Ham United to become the new manager, and in February 2007, Grant replaced assistant Doug Livermore with his fellow Scot, Jim Duffy. Grant's side struggled for most of the season and made a poor start to the 2007–08 season, with only two wins by mid October; following a 1–0 defeat at fellow-strugglers Queens Park Rangers, Grant left the club by "mutual consent" on 9 October 2007. On 30 October 2007, former Newcastle United manager Glenn Roeder was confirmed as Grant's replacement. Roeder kept Norwich in the Championship with a 3–0 win over Queens Park Rangers, Norwich's penultimate game of the season. Relegation, promotion and yo-yo years (2009–present) On 14 January 2009 it was announced that Roeder had been relieved of his first team duties after 60 games in charge, and just 20 victories. A week later, Bryan Gunn was appointed as manager until the end of the season, but he was unable to prevent the club from being relegated on 3 May 2009, after a 4–2 defeat away at already relegated Charlton Athletic. Following their relegation, their first game of the season resulted in a shock 7–1 home defeat against East Anglian rivals Colchester United. This was the club's heaviest ever home defeat and Gunn was sacked six days later. On 18 August 2009, Paul Lambert was announced as the new manager, leaving his post at Colchester, and nine months later led Norwich to promotion back to the Championship as League One Champions, after a single season in League One. The following season saw Norwich promoted to the Premier League, finishing second in the table and completing the first back-to-back promotions from the 3rd tier to the 1st since Manchester City in 2000. The club finished in 12th place in their first season back in the Premier League. However, Lambert resigned within a month of the season's close to take up the vacant managerial spot at league rivals Aston Villa and was replaced by Chris Hughton. The 2012–13 season started poorly but a club record unbeaten run in the Premier League secured their third year in the Premier League with an 11th-place finish in the league. They were relegated back to the Championship after finishing 18th in the 2013–14 season and Hughton was sacked. After a mediocre first half of the 2014–15 season, Neil Adams resigned which paved the way for the appointment of then Hamilton Academical manager Alex Neil in January 2015. The appointment reinvigorated Norwich's season, and victory in the 2015 Championship playoff final secured an immediate return to the top division of English football. This was only temporary relief, as at the end of the next season they were relegated again to play the 2016–17 season in the Football League Championship. The following season started successfully, with the club sitting top of the Championship in mid-October. However, a poor run of form and results followed and on 10 March 2017, Alex Neil was sacked by the club. First-team coach Alan Irvine was placed in caretaker charge for the remainder of the season, ultimately finishing in 8th. On 25 May 2017, the club appointed German coach Daniel Farke as head coach, becoming the first head coach of the club in its 114-year history that was not from the British Isles. In Farke's first season, Norwich finished in 14th place. Despite a slow start, the following season was far more successful and the team spent most of the season at the top of the table – helped on by top scorer Teemu Pukki. Following a 2–1 win over Blackburn Rovers, the club was promoted back to the Premier League after a three-year absence as Championship winners. However, Norwich were once again relegated back down to the Championship after just a single season back in the top flight, becoming the first team in Premier League history to be relegated five times from the division. On 1 May 2021, Norwich were crowned champions of the 2020–21 EFL Championship, securing promotion back to the top flight at the first time of asking. Norwich failed to win a match in their first nine games back in Premier League in the 2021-2022 season, with a heavy 7-0 away defeat to Chelsea their heaviest loss. On 6 November 2021 despite recording their first Premier League win away at Brentford, Farke was sacked by the club. On 14 November 2021, the club appointed former Walsall, Brentford and Aston Villa manager Dean Smith as their new head coach. Colours and badge Norwich City's nickname, "The Canaries", has long influenced the team's colours and badge Originally, the club was nicknamed the Citizens ("Cits" for short), and played in light blue and white halved shirts, although the halves were inconsistent; "the blue was sometimes on the left-hand side of the shirt and sometimes on the right." The earliest known recorded link between the club and canaries comes in an interview recorded in the Eastern Daily Press with the newly appointed manager, John Bowman in April 1905. The paper quotes him saying "Well I knew of the City's existence... I have... heard of the canaries." "This as far as we can tell is the first time that the popular pastime of the day ie... rearing... canaries was linked with Norwich City FC... the club still played in blue and white, and would continue to do so for another two seasons." By February 1907, the nickname Canaries had come more into vogue; thoughts that an FA Cup tie against West Bromwich Albion (nicknamed "Throstles" after a bird) was "a bird -singing contest" were dismissed by the polymath C.B. Fry as "humbug" but the national press increasingly referred to the team as Canaries. The following season, to match the nickname, City played for the first time in Canary livery; "yellow shirts with green collars and cuffs. One paper produced the quote 'The Cits are dead but the Canaries are very much alive'." While the home colours of yellow and green remain to this day, the away colours have varied since introduction. For example, the away kit for the 2012–13 season was black shirts and shorts. A simple canary badge was first adopted in 1922. The current club badge consists of a canary resting on a football with a stylised version of the City of Norwich arms in the top left corner. For the club's centenary celebrations in 2002, a special badge was designed, featuring two canaries looking left and right, plus a ribbon noting the centenary. On 23 November 2021, the club unveiled a new club badge that will officially replace the current badge on all club branding from 17 June 2022 and will appear on club shirts from the 2022-23 season. The new badge is a modernised version of its predecessor that no longer has black keylines around the badge, as well as a redesigned version of the city’s coat of arms that has a much closer resemblance to a lion & Norwich Castle and a redesigned canary on a ball that’s more centralised in the badge than its predecessor. Stadium Norwich City F.C. played at Newmarket Road from 1902 to 1908, with a record attendance of 10,366 against Sheffield Wednesday in a second round FA Cup match in 1908. Following a dispute over the conditions of renting the Newmarket Road ground, in 1908 the club moved to a new home in a converted disused chalk pit in Rosary Road which became known as "The Nest". By the 1930s, the ground was too small for the growing crowds, and in 1935 the club moved to its current home in Carrow Road. The original stadium, "the largest construction job in the city since the building of Norwich Castle... was "miraculously" built in just 82 days... it was referred to [by club officials] as 'The eighth wonder of the world'" An aerial photograph from August 1935 shows three sides of open terracing and a covered stand, with a Colman's Mustard advertisement painted on its roof, visible only from the air. Another photograph, taken on a match day that same season, shows that despite the era's limited car ownership, a parking area was provided at the ground. Floodlights were erected at the ground in 1956, but their cost of £9,000 nearly sent the club into bankruptcy. However the success in the 1959 FA Cup secured the financial status of the club and allowed a cover to be built over the South Stand, which was itself replaced in 2003 when a new 7,000 seat South stand, subsequently renamed the Jarrold Stand, was built in its place. 1963 saw the record attendance for Carrow Road, with a crowd of 43,984 for a 6th round FA Cup match against Leicester City, but in the wake of the Ibrox disaster in 1971, safety licences were required by clubs, and this drastically reduced the ground's capacity to around 20,000. A two-tier terrace was built at the River End, and soon afterwards seats began to replace the terraces. By 1979 the stadium had a capacity of 28,392 with seats for 12,675. A fire in 1984 partially destroyed one of the stands, which eventually led to its complete demolition and replacement by 1987 of a new City Stand, which chairman Robert Chase described as "Coming to a football match within the City Stand is very much like going to the theatre – the only difference being that our stage is covered with grass". After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent outcome of the Taylor Report in 1990, the stadium was converted to all-seater. Today, Carrow Road is an all-seater stadium, with a capacity of 27,244. Supporters While much of the support that the club enjoys is local, there are a number of expatriate fan clubs, notably in London and stretching from Scandinavia to countries further afield such as the United Arab Emirates, Bermuda, Hong Kong, Thailand, Australia and the United States. The fans' song, On the Ball, City, is the oldest football song in the world still in use today; the song is, in fact, older than the club itself having probably been penned for Norwich Teachers or Caley's FC in the 1890s and adapted for Norwich City. Although the first use of the tune and song is disputed, it had been adopted by 1902 and it remains in use today in part if not the whole. The chorus is: Locally, much is made of the informal title "Pride of Anglia". Fans variously claim the title for either winning the East Anglian Derby, finishing highest in the league, having the better current league position, having the more successful club history or for reasons without any apparent logical basis. The club's main local rival is Ipswich Town. When Norwich and Ipswich meet it is known as the 'East Anglian Derby', or, informally, as the 'Old Farm Derby' – a comic reference to the 'Old Firm Derby' played between Scottish teams Celtic and Rangers. Norwich have currently been unbeaten against Ipswich for over 12 years, encompassing 12 matches, including 5-1 and 4-1 victories, as well as a victorious play-off semi final fixture in 2015. The club also maintains a healthy celebrity support with celebrity cook Delia Smith and comedian Stephen Fry both having moved from being fans of the club to running it. Actor Hugh Jackman is also a fan of the club, having been taken to Carrow Road as a child by his English mother, though he turned down an opportunity to become an investor in the club in 2010. BT Sport Presenter Jake Humphrey, who was born in Peterborough but moved to Norwich with his family at the age of nine, is another celebrity supporter. Other well-known supporters include Sky Sports presenter Simon Thomas, who is Vice-President of the Norwich City Supporters Trust, Norfolk-born musician, model and media personality Myleene Klass, fiction author Philip Pullman, and Labour ex-politician Ed Balls. Journalist and broadcaster Sir David Frost also declared his love for The Canaries during his lifetime. In March 2018, supporters helped the club raise £5,000,000 through a mini-bond investment scheme via sports investment platform Tifosy. The purpose of the mini-bond, called the Canaries Bond was to raise money to fund new academy facilities at Colney Training Ground for the Norwich City F.C. Under-23s and Academy. Ownership Norwich City FC is a public limited company that, in 2003, comprised approximately 8,000 individual shareholdings. Since purchasing their shares from Geoffrey Watling, Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn-Jones have been joint majority shareholders. At the 2006–07 Norwich City FC Annual General Meeting (on 18 January 2007) Smith and Wynn-Jones announced that they would be open to offers to buy their majority stake-holding in the club. They made clear that any prospective buyer would have to invest heavily in the squad, with regards to team improving. On 8 May 2007 the football club announced that Andrew and Sharon Turner had bought out all 5,000 shares belonging to former Board member, Barry Skipper and had given the club an interest-free loan of £2m. Mr and Mrs Turner are owners and directors of personal finance company Central Trust. During July 2008 Peter Cullum declared that he was interested in a takeover of the club, and pledged that he would invest £20m for enhancement of the playing squad. On 8 July the EDP reported that Delia Smith and the board had invited Peter Cullum for talks. Reports later stated that the talks had been terminated with immediate effect, and no deal was to be reached. On 2 September 2008, Andrew and Sharon Turner announced that they were leaving the football club's board of directors. This left a £2 million hole in Norwich City's budget. On 4 September 2008, Delia Smith and Michael Wynn-Jones announced that they would be injecting £2 million, avoiding financial problems for the club. The 2011 Annual General Meeting, attended by over 500 shareholders, saw joint majority shareholder Delia Smith and Stephan Phillips re-elected as directors and new director Stephen Fry formally re-elected having joined the Board the previous August. On 27 December 2015, former Shadow Chancellor Ed Balls was appointed Chairman, however he left in late 2018. Statistics and records Kevin Keelan holds the record for Norwich appearances, having played 673 first-team matches between 1963 and 1980. Ralph Hunt holds the record for the most goals scored in a season, 31 in the 1955–56 season in Division Three (South), with Johnny Gavin the top scorer over a career – 122 between 1948 and 1955. Teemu Pukki holds the club record for most international caps, with 87 for Finland. The club's widest victory margin in the league was their 10–2 win against Coventry City in the Division Three (South) in 1930. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 10–2 against Swindon Town in 1908 in the Southern Football League. Norwich's record home attendance is 43,984 for a sixth-round FA Cup match against Leicester City on 30 March 1963. With the introduction of regulations enforcing all-seater stadiums, it is unlikely that this record will be beaten in the foreseeable future. The highest transfer fee received for a Norwich player is £33 million from Aston Villa for Emiliano Buendía in June 2021, while the most spent by the club on a player was the signing of Milot Rashica for £9.4 million (€11 million) from Werder Bremen. The club's highest league finish was third in the FA Premier League in 1992–93. The 2019–20 season was Norwich's 26th in the top flight of English football. The club has won the League Cup twice (most recently in 1985) and reached the FA Cup semi-final three times, most recently in 1992. Norwich have taken part in European competition just once, reaching the third round of the UEFA Cup in 1993–94 and are the only English side to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium. Club sponsors Source: Between 2006 and 2008 the club was sponsored by airline Flybe but on 26 April 2008, it was announced that the company was stepping down as the main sponsor. On 29 April 2008 it was announced that Aviva which has offices in the city and is the parent company of the former Norwich Union, would be the new shirt sponsor, having signed a three-year contract. In 2009 the deal was extended until the end of the 2011–12 season. It was further extended in 2012 by four more years to the end of the 2015–16 season. During the 2016–17 season, Aviva Community Fund were Norwich's main shirt sponsor. On 26 June 2017, the club announced that Swedish mobile betting company LeoVegas would take over as their main shirt sponsor for three seasons, starting from the 2017–18 season. On 7 June 2021, the club announced that Asian online betting company BK8 Sports would replace Dafabet as their main shirt sponsor, starting from the 2021-22 season. However on 10 June 2021, the club announced that their agreement with BK8 Sports would be terminated as a result of backlash from supporters over the company's use of sexually provocative advertising on its social media accounts. On 25 June 2021, the club announced that Lotus Cars would replace BK8 as the club's shirt sponsor for the 2021–22 season. Players First-team squad Out on loan Development squad Notable players Past (and present) players who are the subjects of Wikipedia articles can be found here During the club's centenary season, a "Hall of Fame" was created, honouring 100 former players chosen by fan vote. Further players have been inducted into the Norwich City Hall of Fame in 2003, 2006 and 2012. Greatest Ever Norwich City XI (1902-2008) In 2008, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Norwich City team. Kevin Keelan (1963–80) Ian Culverhouse (1985–94) Steve Bruce (1984–87) Duncan Forbes (1968–81) Mark Bowen (1987–96) Darren Huckerby (2003–08) Ian Crook (1986–97) Martin Peters (1975–80) Darren Eadie (1993–99) Chris Sutton (1991–94) Iwan Roberts (1997–2004) Players of the Season Club staff Backroom staff Board of directors Managers As of 15 June 2021. Not including caretaker managers. Only professional, competitive matches are counted. Honours Norwich City have won a number of honours: League Football League Second Division/EFL Championship (Tier 2) Winners (5): 1971–72, 1985–86, 2003–04, 2018–19, 2020–21 Runners-up (1): 2010–11 Play-offs Winners (1): 2015 Play-offs Runners-up (1): 2002 Football League Third Division/EFL League One (Tier 3) *Winners (2): 1933–34 (South), 2009–10 Runners-up (1): 1959–60 CupLeague CupWinners (2): 1961–62, 1984–85 Runners-up (2): 1972–73, 1974–75 European football Friendship Trophy Each time they meet, Norwich and Sunderland contest the Friendship Trophy, a game dating back to the camaraderie forged between fans of the two clubs at the time of the 1985 League Cup final that they contested. Sunderland are the current holders having beaten Norwich 3–1 at Carrow Road on 13 August 2017 in the 2017–18 EFL Championship. In popular culture In the 2001 film Mike Bassett: England Manager, the eponymous hero, played by Ricky Tomlinson, rises to prominence as a result of success as manager of Norwich City, having won the 'Mr Clutch Cup'. The celebratory scenes of the open-top bus ride around the city (right) were actually shot in St Albans, Hertfordshire, rather than Norwich. In 1972 the Children's Film Foundation released a movie called The Boy Who Turned Yellow about a boy living in London who supports Norwich City. In the film, he and everyone and everything else on his tube train are turned yellow. That night he is visited by a yellow alien called Nick, short for electronic, who teaches him all about electricity. The link to the football club is used to explain why the boy already has so many yellow things in his bedroom. In a 2015 episode of the Channel 4 sitcom Peep Show, character Super Hans encourages Mark to pursue his love interest, no matter the odds, because "Norwich are never going to win the league, but they still turn up every week, don't they? The pricks." Norwich City Ladies Norwich City Ladies is the women's football club affiliated to Norwich City. They are managed by Scott Emmerson and compete in the Women's South East Combination League, in the third tier of English women's football. According to Norwich City, "They are the official women's team of Norwich City Football Club and are linked to the Girls' Centre of Excellence programme". Consequently, 95% of the club's players have progressed from the youth ranks. Norwich City LFC play their home games at The Nest, Norwich. Notesi: This includes matches played at an amateur level.ii: Norwich's highest finish in the first tier is third in the 1992–93 Premier Leagueiii: Norwich's best performances in the FA Cup' have been appearances in the semi-finals in 1959, 1989, 1992 References Further readingCanary Citizens by Mike Davage, John Eastwood, Kevin Platt, published by Jarrold Publishing, (2001), Norfolk 'n' Good: A Supporter's View of Norwich City's Best-ever Season by Kevin Baldwin, published by Yellow Bird Publishing, (1993), Second Coming: Supporter's View of the New Era at Norwich City by Kevin Baldwin, published by Yellow Bird Publishing, (1997), Norwich City Miscellany by Edward Couzens-Lake, published by Pitch Publishing, (2010), Fantasy Football by Edward Couzens-Lake, published by Legends Publishing, (2012), Norwich City: Greatest Games'' by Edward Couzens-Lake, published by Pitch Publishing, (2012), External links NCFC Official Site The Pink 'Un BBC Norfolk's Norwich City Page Norwich City Anthem 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248084	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20gold	Black gold	Black gold or Black Gold may refer to: Commodities Petroleum or crude oil Black pepper Colored gold#Black gold Arts and entertainment Film and television Black Gold (1928 film), a 1928 film produced by Norman Studios Black Gold (1936 film), starring Frankie Darro Black Gold (1947 film) Black Gold (1962 film), an adventure film Gentle Ben 2: Black Gold, a 2003 remake of Gentle Ben Black Gold (2006 film), a documentary about the fair-trading of coffee beans Black Gold (2011 Nigerian film), a drama Black Gold (2011 Qatari film), a war film co-produced with France, Tunisia and Italy Black Gold (TV series), a documentary about oil-drilling in West Texas Music Black Gold (band), a band from Brooklyn, New York Black Gold (Jimi Hendrix recordings), an unreleased Jimi Hendrix album Black Gold (Nina Simone album), 1970 Black Gold (Kutt Calhoun album), 2013 Black Gold: The Best of Soul Asylum Black Gold: Best of Editors "Black Gold" (song), a 1993 song by Soul Asylum from Grave Dancer's Union "Black Gold", a 1997 song by Millencolin from For Monkeys "Black Gold", a 2005 song by Running Wild from Rogues en Vogue "Black Gold", a 2006 single by The Prom Kings "Black Gold", a 2010 song by Foals from Total Life Forever "Black Gold", a 2012 song by Esperanza Spalding from Radio Music Society Video games Black Gold (video game), a video game of the strategy genre released in 1989 by reLINE Software World War III: Black Gold, a 2001 strategy game made by JoWood and Reality Pump Black Gold Online, a 2014 steampunk MMORPG Published by Snail Games Other media Black Gold (novel), a 1987 novel about South Africa by Anthony Sampson Black Gold, a 2001 art installation by Nathaniel Mellors Other uses Black Gold, Kentucky Black Gold (horse) (1921–1928), winner of 1924's Kentucky Derby Black gold (jewelry), a type of gold used in jewelry Black gold (politics), a term used in the Republic of China (Taiwan) to refer to political corruption Ouro Preto, city and former gold rush town in Minas Gerais, Brazil whose name means "Black Gold" See also Asterix and the Black Gold, the twenty-sixth volume of the Asterix comic book series Land of Black Gold, the fifteenth of The Adventures of Tintin Black and Gold (disambiguation) Gold (disambiguation)	[ -0.061589233577251434, 0.44651514291763306, -0.5650721788406372, 0.0440148301422596, 0.16463600099086761, 0.2225845605134964, 0.1614782065153122, 0.013104261830449104, -0.8528815507888794, 0.23389634490013123, -0.2091449648141861, 0.8258302807807922, -0.425167441368103, 0.6434173583984375, 0.22115574777126312, 0.5352671146392822, 0.844519317150116, 0.300618976354599, -0.4402361810207367, -0.39518627524375916, -0.48333653807640076, -0.0608934722840786, 0.47725480794906616, -0.24043485522270203, -0.2077977955341339, -0.12482945621013641, 0.06450144201517105, 0.6374546885490417, -0.07550875842571259, 0.5534687638282776, 0.14585712552070618, 0.2352297157049179, 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248085	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero%20sharp	Zero sharp	In the mathematical discipline of set theory, 0# (zero sharp, also 0#) is the set of true formulae about indiscernibles and order-indiscernibles in the Gödel constructible universe. It is often encoded as a subset of the integers (using Gödel numbering), or as a subset of the hereditarily finite sets, or as a real number. Its existence is unprovable in ZFC, the standard form of axiomatic set theory, but follows from a suitable large cardinal axiom. It was first introduced as a set of formulae in Silver's 1966 thesis, later published as , where it was denoted by Σ, and rediscovered by , who considered it as a subset of the natural numbers and introduced the notation O# (with a capital letter O; this later changed to the numeral '0'). Roughly speaking, if 0# exists then the universe V of sets is much larger than the universe L of constructible sets, while if it does not exist then the universe of all sets is closely approximated by the constructible sets. Definition Zero sharp was defined by Silver and Solovay as follows. Consider the language of set theory with extra constant symbols c1, c2, ... for each positive integer. Then 0# is defined to be the set of Gödel numbers of the true sentences about the constructible universe, with ci interpreted as the uncountable cardinal ℵi. (Here ℵi means ℵi in the full universe, not the constructible universe.) There is a subtlety about this definition: by Tarski's undefinability theorem it is not, in general, possible to define the truth of a formula of set theory in the language of set theory. To solve this, Silver and Solovay assumed the existence of a suitable large cardinal, such as a Ramsey cardinal, and showed that with this extra assumption it is possible to define the truth of statements about the constructible universe. More generally, the definition of 0# works provided that there is an uncountable set of indiscernibles for some Lα, and the phrase "0# exists" is used as a shorthand way of saying this. There are several minor variations of the definition of 0#, which make no significant difference to its properties. There are many different choices of Gödel numbering, and 0# depends on this choice. Instead of being considered as a subset of the natural numbers, it is also possible to encode 0# as a subset of formulae of a language, or as a subset of the hereditarily finite sets, or as a real number. Statements implying existence The condition about the existence of a Ramsey cardinal implying that 0# exists can be weakened. The existence of ω1-Erdős cardinals implies the existence of 0#. This is close to being best possible, because the existence of 0# implies that in the constructible universe there is an α-Erdős cardinal for all countable α, so such cardinals cannot be used to prove the existence of 0#. Chang's conjecture implies the existence of 0#. Statements equivalent to existence Kunen showed that 0# exists if and only if there exists a non-trivial elementary embedding for the Gödel constructible universe L into itself. Donald A. Martin and Leo Harrington have shown that the existence of 0# is equivalent to the determinacy of lightface analytic games. In fact, the strategy for a universal lightface analytic game has the same Turing degree as 0#. It follows from Jensen's covering theorem that the existence of 0# is equivalent to ωω being a regular cardinal in the constructible universe L. Silver showed that the existence of an uncountable set of indiscernibles in the constructible universe is equivalent to the existence of 0#. Consequences of existence and non-existence Its existence implies that every uncountable cardinal in the set-theoretic universe V is an indiscernible in L and satisfies all large cardinal axioms that are realized in L (such as being totally ineffable). It follows that the existence of 0# contradicts the axiom of constructibility: V = L. If 0# exists, then it is an example of a non-constructible Δ set of integers. This is in some sense the simplest possibility for a non-constructible set, since all Σ and Π sets of integers are constructible. On the other hand, if 0# does not exist, then the constructible universe L is the core model—that is, the canonical inner model that approximates the large cardinal structure of the universe considered. In that case, Jensen's covering lemma holds: For every uncountable set x of ordinals there is a constructible y such that x ⊂ y and y has the same cardinality as x. This deep result is due to Ronald Jensen. Using forcing it is easy to see that the condition that x is uncountable cannot be removed. For example, consider Namba forcing, that preserves and collapses to an ordinal of cofinality . Let be an -sequence cofinal on and generic over L. Then no set in L of L-size smaller than (which is uncountable in V, since is preserved) can cover , since is a regular cardinal. Other sharps If x is any set, then x# is defined analogously to 0# except that one uses L[x] instead of L. See the section on relative constructibility in constructible universe. See also 0†, a set similar to 0# where the constructible universe is replaced by a larger inner model with a measurable cardinal. References Real numbers Determinacy Large cardinals Constructible universe	[ -0.2731665372848511, -0.09847640246152878, -0.33093103766441345, 0.20838981866836548, -0.35885295271873474, 0.06930837035179138, 0.30371707677841187, -0.14871777594089508, 0.3307347595691681, -0.0625278428196907, -0.15674139559268951, 0.5774862766265869, -0.35023805499076843, 0.19949528574943542, 0.010971792042255402, 0.365520715713501, 0.5292462706565857, -0.04003331810235977, -0.7228298783302307, -0.45256534218788147, 0.0733649954199791, -0.12001363188028336, -0.2610090970993042, -0.5933606624603271, 0.22210316359996796, 0.15316946804523468, -0.17238332331180573, -0.1388687640428543, 0.017327891662716866, 0.5779888033866882, -0.3406454026699066, 0.4038640856742859, 0.11129019409418106, -0.044551167637109756, -0.08715002983808517, 0.1274539828300476, 0.03312474116683006, 0.42225053906440735, 0.024973111227154732, -0.41601723432540894, 0.36313262581825256, -0.3459157645702362, 0.5691719055175781, 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248086	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash%20Mihok	Dash Mihok	Dashiell Raymond Mihok (; born May 24, 1974) is an American actor and director best known for playing Brendan "Bunchy" Donovan in the Showtime drama Ray Donovan. Early life Mihok was born in New York City, the son of theater actors Andrea Mihok (née Cloak) and Raymond Thorne (né Mihok). He has two older sisters: Gwen Mihok, an actress, and Cecily Trenka, a science teacher. He is of Czech and British descent. Mihok grew up in Greenwich Village and lived in the artist community Westbeth on Bank Street. Mihok went to PS 3, a public elementary school in Manhattan, currently named the John Melser Charrette School. He attended the Center School (MS 243) for middle school. While attending Bronx High School of Science, where he played baseball as a middle infielder, Mihok joined CityKids Repertory, and appeared in the short-lived TV show, CityKids, which featured local New York child actors and Jim Henson's The Muppets. Mihok also attended the Professional Children's School in Manhattan with best friend, actor Donald Faison. Career Acting Mihok got his start doing guest spots in local New York City productions of Law & Order, NYPD Blue, and New York Undercover. In 1994, Mihok debuted in the independent film, Black is White. In 1995, Mihok appeared in the CBS movie of the week, Murderous Intent. In 1996, Mihok appeared in director Barry Levinson's film, Sleepers, which was notable for its depiction of sexual abuse. Mihok said he did a lot of research for that role. He was also in the Angelina Jolie film, Foxfire. In 1996, the Leonardo DiCaprio and Claire Danes-starring Romeo + Juliet was Mihok's breakout role. To prepare for his audition, Mihok studied Shakespeare and had five extensive audition sessions with director Baz Luhrmann before landing the role of Benvolio. The film shot on location in Mexico, and Mihok said he considers the experience life-changing. In 1998, for Terrence Malick's Thin Red Line, Mihok said he spent an intensive six months working on the film, with the amount of footage constituting a full starring part, but during editing was reduced to an ensemble role as Private First Class Doll. In 1996, Mihok was a featured regular in the role of Joey in the Rhea Perlman CBS sitcom Pearl. In 1999, he appeared on The WB series Felicity, where he portrayed Lynn, a competitive swimmer, in multiple episodes. He has been featured in roles in films such as The Day After Tomorrow, The Perfect Storm, I Am Legend, and Silver Linings Playbook. He has had starring roles in independent features such as Telling You and Loveless in Los Angeles. In 2006, Mihok appeared in the film Hollywoodland and in 2007 in the film, Firehouse Dog. In 2008, he played Detective Martin Soap in the film Punisher: War Zone. In 2011, Mihok directed a short film called Abby. The film stars his sister, Gwen. He also directed the 2006 short film called That Guy. As part of the 2011 straight-to-video film, Lifted, Mihok and the actor who plays his son in the film, Uriah Shelton, recorded a song called "I Miss You." The film features many musical and dance performances by Mihok. In 2013, Mihok portrayed the character "Gage" in Payday 2 web series. Since 2013, Mihok has co-starred as Brendan "Bunchy" Donovan in the Showtime drama Ray Donovan. Bunchy had been sexually abused by a priest as a child and is an alcoholic and suffers from sexual anorexia. For the show the cast works out at the Santa Monica, California boxing gym Wild Card West with boxer Rob Garcia. Mihok was slated to direct an episode in 2017, as he said he has been directing pilots to prepare. He directed the season 7 episode "An Irish Lullaby" which aired December 15, 2019. In 2014, he portrayed Whelan, in the horror-thriller film, Before I Wake, co-starring in the Mike Flanagan-directed film Annabeth Gish, Thomas Jane and Kate Bosworth. In 2016, Mihok appeared in the film, So B. It, which stars Alfre Woodard, Cloris Leachman, Jacinda Barrett, and John Heard. In 2017, Mihok appeared in the independent film, The Girl Who Invented Kissing, as Victor, a man who becomes mentally handicapped after being in a car accident. He stars opposite Suki Waterhouse and Vincent Piazza, who plays his younger brother. In 2017, Mihok played a car salesman in the film Car Dogs, which features Patrick J. Adams, Octavia Spencer, Josh Hopkins, among others. Music When he was 12 years old, Mihok started a band with his friends which was called S.D.C. (Sam, Dash, Chris aka Strictly Devastating Crew). In 2004, Mihok appeared on Sicilian-Puerto Rican New York-based rapper Sabac Red's record Sabacolypse: A Change Gon' Come, on the track "I Have A Dream." The lyrics refer to tics that people exhibit as symptoms of Tourette syndrome. For the 2005 movie Green Street Hooligans, Mihok wrote the title track "Test of a Man." During this time he also collaborated with Daniel Freedman, a jazz drummer, percussionist, and composer on various music projects. Since 2015, Mihok has been in the band Diz and the Fam. Members of Diz and the Fam are Mike Choi, Kenny Echizen, Justin Frazier, Sharlotte Gibson, Morris Hayes, Joel Hellman, Brett Nolan, and Elliot Yamin. The band has released three singles. The 2015 video for Love (feat. Jeff Taylor) features many actors from Ray Donovan. Other work Mihok studied dance. He can be seen dancing opposite then-girlfriend Alanis Morissette in her music video "So Pure". Mihok is also a photographer. His photography of Morissette is used on the back cover of her "Thank U" single and is credited for Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie. Personal life Mihok was named after writer Dashiell Hammett, the author of The Thin Man, The Glass Key and The Maltese Falcon. His Czech surname is pronounced "my"-Hawk. Mihok was diagnosed with Tourette syndrome at age six, and is a spokesperson and is on the board for the nonprofit Jaylen's Challenge, founded by the then 9-year old, Jaylen Arnold. He is an active supporter of the Tourette Syndrome Association. Mihok's two older sisters both have Tourette's; it is often genetic. Mihok once stated that an early reason he became an actor was because he had so much experience in hiding his Tourette's. He said the focus required of acting allows him to mask many of his tics. Mihok says the biggest misconception about Tourette's Syndrome is about vocal tics, called coprolalia. Not everyone with Tourette's does that: "Tics tend to wax and wane, not everybody's screaming obscenities all the time." Mihok said he took medication during high school for the Tourette's. In 1997, Mihok met Alanis Morissette through mutual friend Leonardo DiCaprio during a trip to Cuba. The lyrics to the songs "So Pure" from Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie and "That Particular Time" from Under Rug Swept are about him. In 2009, Mihok married singer Valeria Mason. They have two children and live in Los Angeles. Mihok has said that he is a Roman Catholic. Awards 1999: Satellite Awards, Special Achievement Award, Outstanding Motion Picture Ensemble for The Thin Red Line 2014: Tourette Association of America, Shining Star Award 2017: Beverly Hills Film Festival, Best Actor for The Girl Who Invented Kissing Filmography Film Television Theater 1985: Romeo and Juliet by Sergei Prokofiev, American Ballet Theatre, Metropolitan Opera 1987: Carrying School Children by Thomas Babe, Theater for the New City Miscellaneous Discography 2004: Sabacolypse: A Change Gon' Come by Sabac Red – track called "I Have A Dream" ft. Dash Mihok & Cenophia Mitchell 2005: "Test of a Man" by Dash Mihok – from the film Green Street Hooligans 2009: "I Miss You" by Uriah Shelton and Dash Mihok – from the film Lifted 2009: "Sunshine (Ft. Dash Mihok)" sung by Uriah Shelton featuring Dash Mihok – from the film Lifted 2015: "Stolen Hearts" by Dash Mihok – from Payday 2 DIZ and The Fam 2015: Love (feat. Jeff Taylor) – Single (DIZ Music Inc) 2015: The Evil That Men Do – Single (Diz and The Fam) – featured on Ray Donovan 2016: Be Better – Single (DZE Music) References External links Diz and the Fam 1974 births 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American male television actors American people of British descent American people of Czech descent Living people Male actors from New York City People with Tourette syndrome The Bronx High School of Science alumni Catholics from New York (state)	[ -0.31299081444740295, -0.2667025923728943, -0.5569571256637573, -0.26093798875808716, 0.3612199127674103, 0.08107975870370865, 0.6467301249504089, 0.19356323778629303, -0.2877267897129059, -0.18457917869091034, -0.3178368806838989, 0.7093183994293213, -0.10777125507593155, -0.5628497004508972, 0.40765467286109924, 0.27363526821136475, 0.027008363977074623, -0.08066695183515549, 0.2517380118370056, -0.3135400712490082, -0.4964492917060852, 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248087	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron%20vote	Iron vote	The "iron vote" is a political term for a voter that can be reliably counted on to vote for one party or another. This phrase was most notably used beginning as early as a decade ago in Asian democratic elections, specifically Taiwan: Taiwanese (. These usually include strong supporters of Taiwan independence or Chinese reunification. The Kuomintang (KMT) was defeated in 2000 elections by the loss of iron votes. The result shows that "iron vote" can only be taken as reference. People who strongly believe in their "iron vote" may have an unexpected outcome. The same term is also used in Hong Kong, referring to strong supporters of the pro-democracy camp or the pro-Beijing camp. A related term in United States politics is yellow dog Democrat. The opposite is a swing voter. See also Iron rice bowl Elections in Taiwan Taiwan References External links Adam Carr's Election Archive ROC Central Election Commission Politics of Taiwan	[ 0.10950838774442673, 0.2956821024417877, -0.2794625461101532, 0.39148396253585815, -0.24118298292160034, 0.4073682725429535, 0.08508547395467758, 0.027769679203629494, -0.326617956161499, -0.0711081326007843, -0.07783994823694229, -0.04750114679336548, -0.5156002640724182, -0.15764321386814117, -0.3186171352863312, 0.29366928339004517, 0.02744186297059059, 0.7397651672363281, -0.015698635950684547, -0.20564281940460205, 0.23802557587623596, 0.3956701457500458, 0.004611611366271973, -0.1844116598367691, -0.11385063827037811, 0.04232332482933998, 0.5995103716850281, -0.5465169548988342, -0.47159191966056824, 0.24929842352867126, 0.033867839723825455, 0.5369411110877991, -0.17726299166679382, -0.02931179665029049, -0.2556385099887848, 0.1912388950586319, -0.04761477932333946, -0.32808277010917664, 0.3781973123550415, 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248088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow%20dog%20Democrat	Yellow dog Democrat	Yellow Dog Democrats was a political term applied to voters in the Southern United States who voted solely for candidates who represented the Democratic Party. The term originated in the late 19th century. These voters would allegedly "vote for a yellow dog before they would vote for any Republican". The term is now more generally applied to refer to any Democrat who will vote a straight party ticket under any circumstances. The South Carolina Democratic Party and Mississippi Democratic Party, among other state parties, continue to use the phrase to refer to committed members of the Democratic Party in the "Yellow Dog Club". The phrase "yellow dog" may be a reference to a breed of dog known as the Carolina Dog indigenous to the Americas, specifically the Southern United States, and not descended from Eurasian breeds. History and usage The phrase "Yellow Dog Democrat" is thought to have achieved popularity during the 1928 presidential race between Democratic candidate Al Smith and Republican candidate Herbert Hoover, when Senator J. Thomas Heflin (D-Alabama) crossed party lines and formally supported Hoover. Many Southern voters disliked several items on Smith's platform, as well as his Roman Catholic faith, but still voted for him. The term was also used by Abraham Lincoln in an 1848 speech on the presidential campaign of General Zachary Taylor, whose Democratic opponent was General Lewis Cass. Lincoln derided Cass as one of several recent Democratic presidential candidates in the mold of Andrew Jackson by saying: A fellow once advertised that he had made a discovery by which he could make a new man out of an old one, and have enough of the stuff left to make a little yellow dog. Just such a discovery has Gen. Jackson's popularity been to you [Democrats]. You not only twice made President of him out of it, but you have had enough of the stuff left to make Presidents of several comparatively small men since; and it is your chief reliance now to make still another. In the run-up to the 1892 presidential election, African-American journalist C. H. J. Taylor of Kansas City, Kansas, in his paper The American Citizen, used the term to refer to Republicans in the West who, he wrote, "would vote for a yellow dog out there if he was named Republican." In 1893, the Kansas City Journal, a Republican paper, criticized "This thing of voting for 'yaller dogs', and expecting them to turn black-and-tan after the election," with reference to Missouri voters always voting for Democrats, then being surprised at their allegedly invariable corruption. In the 1900 Kentucky gubernatorial contest involving Kentucky Governor William Goebel, Theodore Hallam was criticized at a Democratic Party meeting for first supporting Goebel, then campaigning against him. The critic pointed out that Hallam earlier had said "if the Democrats of Kentucky, in convention assembled, nominated a yaller dog for governor you would vote for him" and asked "why do you now repudiate the nominee of that convention, the Honorable William Goebel?" Hallam responded: "I admit," he stated blandly, "that I said then what I now repeat, namely, that when the Democratic Party of Kentucky, in convention assembled, sees fit in its wisdom to nominate a yaller dog for the governorship of this great state, I will support him — but lower than that ye shall not drag me!" There are indications that the term was in widespread and easily understandable use by 1923. In a letter written in Huntland, Tennessee, by W. L. Moore of Kansas City, Missouri, on May 9, 1923, on the occasion of his 90th birthday, Moore writes: I am a Democrat from inheritance, from prejudice and principle, if the principle suits me. But I have passed the yaller dog degree. See also Blue Dog Coalition, a caucus of United States Congressional Representatives of the Democratic Party who identify as moderates or fiscal conservatives Boll weevil, a segregationist Southern Democrat (used in the mid- and late-20th century) Congressional Progressive Caucus Conservative Democrat Factions in the Democratic Party Solid South Straight-ticket voting References External links http://www.yellowdogdemocrat.com/history.htm http://www.merrycoz.org/voices/bartlett/AMER10.HTM http://gaslight.mtroyal.ab.ca/exitX16.htm http://userwww.service.emory.edu/~marisa/hrmoore.letter.html http://legacy.c-span.org/questions/weekly55.asp Dogs in popular culture Factions in the Democratic Party (United States) Metaphors referring to dogs Political history of the United States Political terminology of the United States Politics of the Southern United States	[ -0.6052637696266174, -0.21861432492733002, -0.8235824108123779, 0.3069669306278229, -0.23355931043624878, 0.8009191155433655, 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248092	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniklinikum%20Aachen	Uniklinikum Aachen	The Uniklinikum Aachen, full German name Universitätsklinikum Aachen ("University Hospital Aachen", abbreviated UKA), formerly known as Neues Klinikum ("New Clinic"), is the university hospital of the city of Aachen, Germany. It is part of the RWTH Aachen and contains its whole medical faculty. In addition to wards and common hospital facilities such as laundry and sterilization units, the Uniklinikum Aachen houses educational and research facilities including specialized clinics, theoretical and clinical institutes, lecture halls and training rooms. The hospital's exterior has extensive visible pipes, which give the building an industrial appearance reminiscent of an oil refinery. History In 1966 the RWTH Aachen school of medicine was founded. At that time, the municipal hospitals in Aachen became university hospitals, but soon it was realized that they were too small. In 1972 the construction of the Klinikum Aachen began, with a project of Aachen architects Weber & Brand. Ten years later, the first rooms could be used by the faculty. The rest of the building was finished section by section. The construction was delayed because of problems with soft ground that could not support the whole building. The official opening was celebrated in 1985. Its original name was Neues Klinikum ("New Clinic") because there was already a hospital called Klinikum in Aachen at that time; the Klinikum does not exist anymore. Facts and figures References External links Universitätsklinikum Aachen Hospital buildings completed in 1985 RWTH Aachen University Buildings and structures in Aachen Aachen Hospitals established in 1985 High-tech architecture 1985 establishments in Germany Municipal hospitals Medical and health organisations based in North Rhine-Westphalia	[ 0.5201002359390259, -0.032008614391088486, 0.16209213435649872, -0.6251580715179443, 0.15408453345298767, 0.7037627696990967, 0.5564437508583069, 0.26775556802749634, 0.02993994951248169, -0.7463259696960449, -0.23528122901916504, 0.09650709480047226, 0.24710248410701752, 0.21009358763694763, 0.26224473118782043, 0.15918567776679993, 1.076116919517517, 0.3307642936706543, -0.3253057301044464, -0.25680795311927795, -0.00746276555582881, -0.31653517484664917, 0.540154755115509, 0.49515464901924133, 0.06921063363552094, -0.3757873475551605, 0.392529159784317, 0.10949616134166718, -0.014611290767788887, 0.08244594931602478, 0.22931647300720215, 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248094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Petherton	North Petherton	North Petherton is a small town and civil parish in Somerset, England, situated on the edge of the eastern foothills of the Quantocks, and close to the edge of the Somerset Levels. The town has a population of 6,730. The parish includes Hamp, Melcombe, Shearston, Woolmersdon and Huntworth. Dating from at least the 10th century and an important settlement in Saxon times, North Petherton became a town only in the late 20th century, until then claiming to be the largest village in England. A former market and administrative centre, North Petherton is now largely a dormitory town for workers in Bridgwater, 3 miles (5 km) to the north east, and Taunton, 8 miles (13 km) to the south west. The centre of the town is designated an Area of High Archaeological Potential (AHAP), and a number of buildings have been given listed building status. Toponymy The town is mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Nortperet. The name derives from the area's location to the north side of the River Parrett, from the Latin Paradæ 'barge' and from the Old English nor tun. History Long before the Norman Conquest, during Saxon times North Petherton was at the centre of a large royal estate, located on one of the historic communication routes through Somerset, and was both an important centre and the meeting place for the Hundred of North Petherton although the Petherton limit tithing of North Petherton was in the Hundred of Andersfield from the 1670s. At the time of the Norman invasion the Hundred covered a large area corresponding, today, roughly to a north–south corridor along the M5 motorway from Junction 25 near Taunton, to north of Junction 23 at Stretcholt, and east–west from Athelney to Goathurst. The Parish of North Petherton continues to be one of the largest in Somerset to this day. North Petherton Park King Henry II expanded the royal estate into the Royal Forest (hunting ground) of Petherton Park, which continued to exist until the 17th century. Geoffrey Chaucer (~1343–1400), author of The Canterbury Tales was appointed Deputy Forester of the Royal Forest of North Petherton towards the end of his life. The Royal Forest was probably similar in area to the Saxon Hundred of North Petherton. According to the late 13th century Hundred Rolls, King Henry II of England (died 1189) gave William of Wrotham lands at North Petherton. Between 1513 and 1535 Sir William Courtenay (d.1535) of Powderham, Devon was the keeper of North Petherton Park. Other The town itself it thought to have developed around the minster which, it is supposed, was on the same site as the current church. There is archaeological evidence indicating that there were timber buildings to the west of the church in the late Saxon period, and it is suspected that the remains of the Saxon settlement may continue to lie beneath the town centre. Excavations to the west of the church, on what is now the Community Centre site, revealed a 14th-century cemetery, which may have been used for victims of the plague, as well as indicating that the area was redeveloped in the late Middle Ages. It is thought that there may have been a mint in the town during the 10th or 11th century, and a charter to hold a market was granted in 1318, although it is thought that the market predated this. A shire hall, courthouse and guildhall are known to have exited and were probably located north of the church. A minor skirmish of the English Civil War took place in August 1644 outside what was then the cornhill, now the area of Fore Street between the Community Centre and the former George Inn. The Alfred Jewel, an object about long, made of filigree gold, cloisonné-enamelled and with a rock crystal covering, was found in 1693 at Petherton Park, North Petherton. Believed to have been commissioned by Alfred the Great, it is thought to have been the handle for a pointer that would have fitted into the hole at its base, and been used while reading a book out loud. It is inscribed, "AELFRED MEC HEHT GEWYRCAN," ("Alfred had me made"). It may be one of the "aestels" Alfred had sent to each bishopric with a copy of his translation of Pope Gregory the Great's book Pastoral Care. A replica of the jewel can be found in the church of St Mary. When the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal was opened in 1827 it joined the River Parrett by a lock at Huntworth, where a basin was constructed, but in 1841 the canal was extended to a floating harbour in Bridgwater, and the Huntworth link was filled in. The canal and river were not re-connected at this point when the canal was restored, because the Parrett is by then a salt water river laden with silt, whereas the canal contains fresh water. Not only is there a risk of silt entering the canal, but the salt water cannot be allowed to contaminate the fresh, as the canal is still used for the transport of drinking water for Bridgwater's population. The Crossways Swing Bridge over the canal in the parish was built in 1827 by John Rennie. It is a wooden bridge which rotated on steel ball-bearings in a circular track, a very early example of the use of ball bearings in this way. It was designated as a Grade II listed building but the mechanism was removed in 1987. The Higher and Lower Maunsel locks on the canal are either side of the Maunsel bridge which carries the A361. The stone Coxhill road bridge dates from the same time. Woolmersdon House in Woolmersdon is a Grade II listed late Georgian residence. In 1906, North Petherton became the first town in Britain (and perhaps the only one) to have street lights lit by piped acetylene gas, supplied by the North Petherton Gas and Carbide Company, operating from a plant in Mill Lane (photo). The plant was demolished towards the end of the 20th century to form a car park for the local doctor's surgery. Acetylene was replaced in 1931 by coal gas produced in Bridgwater, as well as by the provision of an electricity supply, and the Gas and Carbide Company was wound up. The North Petherton Rosco Acetylene Company (dating from at least 1898) may have supplied gas to the adjacent church prior to the Gas and Carbide Company. In 1926 the Bridgwater Beam Wireless Station was opened north east of the town. It was the UK receiving station for Marconi's UK-to-Canada Beam Wireless Service, (part of the Imperial Wireless Chain,) the first transoceanic shortwave wireless telegraph service in the world and operated until 2002. In 1984 North Petherton was provided with a small public library. As a result of a revitalised fund-raising campaign (originally begun decades earlier), this was followed a few years later by the construction of a Community Centre, opened in 1987, which was extended in 1991. Governance The civil parish of North Petherton includes the villages of North Newton (on the route of the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal) and Northmoor Green (also known as Moorland) in the Somerset Levels, as well as a number of other smaller settlements. Despite several reductions in size, with land redesignated to neighbouring parishes, North Petherton remains one of the largest parishes in Somerset at , and the largest in Sedgemoor. The town council (which is a parish council) has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The town council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The town council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council. The town falls within the Non-metropolitan district of Sedgemoor, which was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, having previously been part of Bridgwater Rural District, which is responsible for local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection and recycling, cemeteries and crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism. Somerset County Council is responsible for running the largest and most expensive local services such as education, social services, the library, roads, public transport, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning, although fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Devon and Somerset Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the South Western Ambulance Service. An electoral ward exists with the same name. Although North Petherton is the most populous area the ward stretches west to Broomfield and east to Lyng. In the north the ward adjoins Bridgwater. The total population for this ward as at the 2011 census was 7,155. It is also part of the Bridgwater and West Somerset county constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election. Geography North Petherton is situated on one of the historic communication routes through Somerset, and a turnpike through the town was opened between Bridgwater and Taunton in the 1730s. The opening of the nearby M5 motorway in the 1970s which relieved major traffic jams on the A38 through the town, also added to the attraction of the town for commuters and has consequently led to the construction of several new housing estates. The town lies on the route of the Macmillan Way West long-distance footpath. South east of the town near Lyng, on the opposite side of the M5 motorway but within the parish is North Moor, a 676.3 hectare biological Site of Special Scientific Interest. North Moor is a nationally important grazing marsh and ditch system on the Somerset Levels and Moors. A range of neutral grassland types supporting common and scarce plants has developed mainly due to variations in soils and management practices. Aquatic plant communities are exceptionally diverse with good populations of nationally scarce species. The site has special interest in its bird life. Climate Along with the rest of South West England, North Petherton has a temperate climate which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is approximately . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme than most of the United Kingdom because of the adjacent sea temperatures. The summer months of July and August are the warmest with mean daily maxima of approximately . In winter mean minimum temperatures of or are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, however convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the number of hours of sunshine. Annual sunshine rates are slightly less than the regional average of 1,600 hours. In December 1998 there were 20 days without sun recorded at Yeovilton. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection. Most of the rainfall in autumn and winter is caused by the Atlantic depressions, which is when they are most active. In summer, a large proportion of the rainfall is caused by sun heating the ground leading to convection and to showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is around . About 8–15 days of snowfall is typical. November to March have the highest mean wind speeds, and June to August have the lightest winds. The predominant wind direction is from the south-west. Economy North Petherton used to be a market town, with the right to hold a market having been granted in 1318, along with the right to an annual fair. In the past the town hosted a Starkey Knight and Ford brewery on Fore Street (demolished in the late 1960s), several maltings, a light engineering works (Trig Engineering, since moved to the Huntworth Business Park adjacent to the nearby Junction 24 of the M5 motorway), and in earlier times at least 7 watermills. Basket making and the manufacture of associated products including wicker furniture, was also a significant industry, at one time employing over 100 people in small factories and homes, until its decline in the second half of the 20th century. The products were distributed nationally via the railway station at Bridgwater. Nearby King's Cliff formerly provided a source of building stone for the town dating from at least Medieval times. The production of cloth and leather goods also used to take place in the town, the former being commemorated in the name of the road known as Dyer's Green. The extensive cider orchards that used to surround much of the town in the 19th century had largely disappeared by the end of the 20th, by which time local employment was largely restricted to service businesses and farming. Folly Foot fishery is based on a lake which is stocked with Koi, Mirror, Common and Ghost Carp. A new £100 m Regional Agricultural Business Centre, including an extensive Cattle Market and Dairy opened just beyond the outskirts of the town in 2007, following construction which began in 2006. This replaced the cattle markets in both Taunton and Bridgwater. Education North Petherton has two schools, North Petherton juniors and North Petherton infants, however they have been joined together to form one school, North Petherton Primary School. Secondary schools in nearby Bridgwater include: Robert Blake Science College, Brymore School, Chilton Trinity School, East Bridgwater Community School which was previously known as Sydenham School and is a Performing and Visual Arts College, and Haygrove School which has specialist Language College status. Special schools in the town include: Elmwood Special School, New Horizon Centre School and Penrose School. Further Education is provided by Bridgwater College which was formerly Bridgwater Technical School. Religious sites The town has the minster church of St Mary the Virgin, with a highly decorated tower which, at 112 feet (34 metres) high, is claimed to be one of the tallest towers in the West Country. The building is mainly dated from the 15th century, with a minstrel gallery from 1623, a peal of six bells, and a clock built in Bridgwater in 1807. It has been designated by English Heritage as a grade I listed building. A specification of the organ can be found on the National Pipe Organ Register. The Church of St Peter has a tower which may be of Saxon origin which was altered in 1635. The rest of the church was completely rebuilt for Rev. Thomas Eaton in 1885. It is Grade II* listed. The Church of St. Michael has Norman origins and has seen various restorations since. It was last restored and extended in 1868 for Slade family of Maunsel House. In the cemetery is a 19th-century combined Non-conformist and Anglican Mortuary Chapel. Culture The annual North Petherton Carnival is part of the West Country Carnival circuit, and takes place in November, on the Saturday after the first Thursday in November. The date of the first Carnival at Bridgwater is the preceding Saturday, featuring most of the same participants. The Walnut Tree (rebranded in the 1970s from the Clarence Hotel, and before that as the New Inn) which now provides the only hotel accommodation in the town, was formerly in competition with the George Hotel (now closed), where monthly petty sessions (court hearings) were formerly held. The hotel is also used as the Headquarters for Pentathlon Carnival Club, one of the carnival clubs which class North Petherton as its 'local' carnival. Twinning North Petherton has been twinned with the commune of Ceaucé in Normandy since 1994. See also South Petherton References External links North Petherton Town Council Towns in Sedgemoor Civil parishes in Somerset Market towns in Somerset English royal forests Transatlantic telecommunications	[ -0.4728616178035736, 0.12317977100610733, 0.29461440443992615, -0.8696992993354797, 0.3099137842655182, 0.5019348859786987, 0.5458076000213623, -0.024808557704091072, 0.3839341998100281, -0.2051265984773636, -0.12174586206674576, 0.22819800674915314, 0.10419132560491562, 0.5215417742729187, -1.0647484064102173, 0.567197322845459, 0.06566879898309708, 0.3592669367790222, 0.23392778635025024, -0.5603929758071899, 0.10543598979711533, -1.0004364252090454, -0.13320685923099518, 0.23910167813301086, 0.22413252294063568, -0.06487508118152618, 0.5956805348396301, -0.008673773147165775, -0.1679147630929947, 0.23342235386371613, 0.13030637800693512, 0.5766852498054504, -0.12279734015464783, -0.46182897686958313, -0.11222237348556519, -0.0529201440513134, 0.5757573843002319, 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248095	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominic%20Monaghan	Dominic Monaghan	Dominic Monaghan (born 8 December 1976) is a British actor. He is best known for playing Meriadoc "Merry" Brandybuck in Peter Jackson's film trilogy The Lord of the Rings (2001–2003), and Charlie Pace on J. J. Abrams' television show Lost (2004–2010). Monaghan first gained fame as Hetty Wainthropp's sidekick Geoffrey in Hetty Wainthropp Investigates (1996–1998). His first film role was as Sasha in the television film Hostile Waters (1997) based on the true story of a Russian and an American submarine colliding in the Cold War. His other film roles include playing the young mutant Chris Bradley formerly known as Maverick in the superhero film X-Men Origins: Wolverine (2009) and playing Beaumont Kin in Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker (2019), reuniting with J.J. Abrams, the co-creator of Lost. He also has hosted the nature programme Wild Things with Dominic Monaghan (2012–2016). Early life Monaghan was born in West Berlin, West Germany, to British parents: Maureen, a nurse, and Austin Monaghan, who was of Irish descent, a science teacher. His older brother Matthew is the main songwriter and co-lead vocalist of the indie band Radiosepia and is a science teacher. Monaghan's family lived in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Stuttgart and Münster, moving about every four years. When he was about 11 years old, his family moved from Germany to Heaton Moor in Stockport, England. In Stockport, he attended St Anne's Roman Catholic High School (where his uncle taught and later became head teacher) and Aquinas College, where he studied English literature, drama and geography. Career Although Monaghan held many occupations when he was younger, he always wanted to be an actor. After his second year at St. Anne's, Monaghan became a regular in school plays such as Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol and Bugsy Malone before joining the Manchester Youth Theatre. There, he was scouted for Hetty Wainthropp Investigates, in which he starred alongside Patricia Routledge and Derek Benfield as Hetty's under-aged sidekick, Geoffrey Shawcross, for four series. Monaghan has since credited Routledge as "an amazing teacher" who taught him some "very valuable lessons" that have influenced his acting career. He made his feature-film debut as Russian sailor Sasha in the TV film Hostile Waters. Monaghan later starred in The Lord of the Rings film trilogy as Meriadoc Brandybuck, for which he achieved international acclaim and success. Monaghan narrated Ringers: Lord of the Fans, a documentary about The Lord of the Rings fandom. He also provided the narration for The Discovery Channel's documentary Devil's Bible in 2008. He also appeared in Soldiers of Fortune alongside Sean Bean and Christian Slater. He was a regular cast member on the ABC series Lost from 2004 to 2007, playing English ex-rockstar and drug addict Charlie Pace. Monaghan originally auditioned for the role of Sawyer. The role of Charlie was then changed from an old, washed up rocker from the 1980s, to a young one-hit wonder to accommodate Monaghan's age. Monaghan returned to the series as a special guest star after departing from the main cast. In 2009, Monaghan starred as Chris Bradley / Bolt in X-Men Origins: Wolverine. On 15 July 2009, it was confirmed that he would join the cast of ABC Studios' science fiction television series FlashForward as the character Simon. The series premiered on 24 September 2009. It was cancelled after its first season. On 18 March 2010, Monaghan was spotted at the Universal Sheraton filming a short called Gloria. It was part of a programme called REESES Puff's Extraordinary Cinema (where the teens replace the pros). He played the part of Caleb Reese. In 2010, Monaghan and Megan Fox made an appearance as a couple in an abusive relationship in the music video for rapper Eminem's song "Love the Way You Lie". Scenes include the celebrities on top of a liquor store. Fox and Monaghan also filmed inside the store and "at a seedy dive bar next door" to the store. In November 2012, a new show on Channel 5 titled Wild Things with Dominic Monaghan began airing in the UK. The documentary shows Monaghan travelling to various locations such as Venezuela and Ecuador to film and interact with the exotic and often dangerous local wildlife. During the summer of 2013, Monaghan appeared in several live-action teasers for 2K Marin's science fiction video game "The Bureau: XCOM Declassified". Monaghan is a fan of The Gaffer Tapes: Fantasy Football Podcast and has appeared as a guest in both April and November 2016 and May 2018, as well as submitting several audio questions which are played on the podcast. While appearing as a guest, Monaghan stated "It's the best fantasy football podcast out there". Monaghan is a contributing writer for the music and culture magazine Paste, primarily writing articles about Premier League football. Monaghan is the voice of Sightseeing Manchester's bus tour, recorded in March 2016. Since August 2018, he has been starring as a serial killer in Channel 9 Australia's Murder Mystery Drama show Bite Club, which is filmed in and around Sydney. He was named as part of the cast for the last film in the sequel trilogy which is Star Wars: The Rise of Skywalker, reuniting with J.J. Abrams, the co-creator of Lost. He appeared as Beaumont. In May 2020, Monaghan joined together with fellow Lord of the Rings castmates Sean Astin, Sean Bean, Orlando Bloom, Billy Boyd, Ian McKellen, Viggo Mortensen, Miranda Otto, John Rhys-Davies, Andy Serkis, Liv Tyler, Karl Urban, and Elijah Wood, plus writer Philippa Boyens and director Peter Jackson, to appear on Josh Gad's YouTube series Reunited Apart, which reunites the cast of popular movies through video-conferencing, and promotes donations to non-profit charities. Monaghan and castmate Billy Boyd started the podcast The Friendship Onion where they talk about their time filming The Lord of the Rings. Personal life Monaghan is a nature lover and has been active in the planting of trees and cacti. He bought a mango-tree forest in India. Monaghan has a great love for insects and reptiles that he developed during his childhood, and has kept an exotic assortment of pets, including a leaf-mantis named Gizmo, a black widow spider named Witchitar and an albino snake named Blink. The newly discovered species of spider Ctenus monaghani (:de:Ctenus monaghani) is named after him. An avid outdoorsman, Monaghan enjoys activities such as surfing, kayaking, snowboarding, football, basketball and hiking. He has also stated that he likes hunting for insects and reptiles outdoors. He learned karate as a child, used to practice yoga and often goes to the gym for strength and weight training. He is a longtime fan of hometown English Premier League football team Manchester United since his childhood. Monaghan loves to play various games and has hosted game nights for fellow cast members in the past, and is also fond of The New York Times crossword puzzle. He also enjoys playing League of Legends with fellow Lord of the Rings cast member Billy Boyd. Although English is his first language and the language of his higher education, he is fluent in German as well. On his right arm he has a tattoo of the English word "nine" written in the artificial script of Tengwar, a reference to his involvement in The Lord of the Rings and the fact that his character was one of the nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring. Seven other cast members and John Rhys-Davies' stunt double also got matching tattoos during the film's production, at Monaghan's instigation. Below that tattoo is another that reads, "Life imitates art", an Oscar Wilde quote. On his left arm is a tattoo, "Living is easy with eyes closed", a line from The Beatles' "Strawberry Fields Forever". He also has two stars tattooed on his left foot: one black, and one white. In 2010, Monaghan got two more tattoos, one on the upper side of the back ("Love you take is equal to the love you make", taken from the song "The End" by The Beatles). The other, done by Kat Von D on the television show LA Ink, is located on his lower right arm and reads "Luminous beings are we, not this crude matter", a quote from Yoda. He resides in Los Angeles, California. In 2008, Monaghan held a photographic exhibition in Los Angeles in which he sold prints of his own works. A portion of the proceeds from the exhibition were given to an orangutan rescue organisation. Monaghan was in a relationship with his Lost co-star Evangeline Lilly from 2004 to 2007. In June 2008, Monaghan travelled to Argentina with Lilly to film the pilot of the American version of CQC. Monaghan provided the inspiration for the naming of Billy Boyd's band Beecake after he sent his friend a picture of a cake covered in bees. Filmography Films Television Music videos Video games References External links Dominic Monaghan interview Living people 20th-century British male actors 21st-century British male actors Actors from Stockport British expatriates in the United States British male film actors British male television actors British people of Irish descent German male film actors German male television actors German people of Irish descent Male actors from Berlin Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners 1976 births	[ -0.6359446048736572, -0.14778462052345276, -0.7003992795944214, -0.7030900716781616, 0.42401134967803955, 0.7999112010002136, 0.5255321860313416, 0.22098228335380554, -0.04162527993321419, 0.2113577127456665, -0.7771649956703186, 0.8179667592048645, -0.14238782227039337, 0.13443386554718018, 0.4137286841869354, 0.5301879644393921, 0.22685226798057556, 0.2103608399629593, 0.15493661165237427, -0.5989693403244019, -0.16990816593170166, 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248097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indescribable%20cardinal	Indescribable cardinal	In mathematics, a Q-indescribable cardinal is a certain kind of large cardinal number that is hard to describe in some language Q. There are many different types of indescribable cardinals corresponding to different choices of languages Q. They were introduced by . A cardinal number κ is called Π-indescribable if for every Πm proposition φ, and set A ⊆ Vκ with (Vκ+n, ∈, A) ⊧ φ there exists an α < κ with (Vα+n, ∈, A ∩ Vα) ⊧ φ. Here one looks at formulas with m-1 alternations of quantifiers with the outermost quantifier being universal. Σ-indescribable cardinals are defined in a similar way. The idea is that κ cannot be distinguished (looking from below) from smaller cardinals by any formula of n+1-th order logic with m-1 alternations of quantifiers even with the advantage of an extra unary predicate symbol (for A). This implies that it is large because it means that there must be many smaller cardinals with similar properties. The cardinal number κ is called totally indescribable if it is Π-indescribable for all positive integers m and n. If α is an ordinal, the cardinal number κ is called α-indescribable if for every formula φ and every subset U of Vκ such that φ(U) holds in Vκ+α there is a some λ<κ such that φ(U ∩ Vλ) holds in Vλ+α. If α is infinite then α-indescribable ordinals are totally indescribable, and if α is finite they are the same as Π-indescribable ordinals. α-indescribability implies that α<κ, but there is an alternative notion of shrewd cardinals that makes sense when α≥κ: there is λ<κ and β such that φ(U ∩ Vλ) holds in Vλ+β. Equivalent conditions A cardinal is inaccessible if and only if it is Π-indescribable for all positive integers n, equivalently iff it is Π-indescribable, equivalently if it is Σ-indescribable. Π-indescribable cardinals are the same as weakly compact cardinals. If V=L, then for a natural number n>0, an uncountable cardinal is Π-indescribable iff it's (n+1)-stationary. Relationships in the large cardinal hierarchy A cardinal is Σ-indescribable iff it is Π-indescribable. The property of being Π-indescribable is Π. For m>1, the property of being Π-indescribable is Σ and the property of being Σ-indescribable is Π. Thus, for m>1, every cardinal that is either Π-indescribable or Σ-indescribable is both Π-indescribable and Σ-indescribable and the set of such cardinals below it is stationary. The consistency strength is Σ-indescribable cardinals is below that of Π-indescribable, but for m>1 it is consistent with ZFC that the least Σ-indescribable exists and is above the least Π-indescribable cardinal (this is proved from consistency of ZFC with Π-indescribable cardinal and a Σ-indescribable cardinal above it). Measurable cardinals are Π-indescribable, but the smallest measurable cardinal is not Σ-indescribable. However there are many totally indescribable cardinals below any measurable cardinal. Totally indescribable cardinals remain totally indescribable in the constructible universe and in other canonical inner models, and similarly for Π and Σ indescribability. References Large cardinals	[ -0.5820440053939819, 0.13939066231250763, -0.2237027883529663, 0.15396827459335327, -0.6398692727088928, 0.16240377724170685, 0.2662063241004944, 0.30743637681007385, 0.08546499162912369, -0.47083917260169983, -0.7597407698631287, 0.5355442762374878, -0.4724913239479065, 0.34722596406936646, 0.3422614634037018, 0.6049900054931641, 0.5912923216819763, 0.3290543258190155, -0.7922428846359253, -0.6605308651924133, 0.2130872905254364, 0.11424519121646881, 0.03568902611732483, -0.20262226462364197, 0.49484971165657043, -0.26178687810897827, -0.30414456129074097, 0.30953171849250793, -0.01911773532629013, 0.3144972324371338, -0.12289339303970337, 0.48342177271842957, -0.20837770402431488, -0.2219044715166092, -0.35954955220222473, -0.2427918016910553, 0.3850735127925873, -0.11393781006336212, -0.018998201936483383, -0.3094113767147064, 0.8291638493537903, 0.051868144422769547, 0.1592971682548523, 0.22732789814472198, -0.7241348624229431, -0.31416916847229004, 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248098	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20helicopter%20%28disambiguation%29	Black helicopter (disambiguation)	Black helicopter may refer to: Black helicopter, a conspiracy theory Black Helicopter (band), a band in Massachusetts, USA Black Helicopters, a band from Leeds, UK, members from which went on to form ¡Forward, Russia! "Black Helicopters," a song by the hip-hop group Non Phixion See also Helicopter (disambiguation) Black (disambiguation)	[ 0.7446033954620361, 0.42676660418510437, -0.5835627913475037, 0.009622741490602493, -0.04961559548974037, -0.01897990144789219, 0.626721978187561, 0.049443893134593964, -0.6180993318557739, 0.0031975237652659416, -0.10207879543304443, 0.2853286564350128, -0.6339586973190308, 0.6509573459625244, -0.1750987470149994, 0.6517376899719238, 0.09008554369211197, 0.6868859529495239, -0.41011694073677063, -0.5232071280479431, 0.02821776084601879, 0.14549341797828674, 0.3884879946708679, -0.517611026763916, -0.4344566762447357, 0.12523013353347778, 0.172989159822464, 0.1355108916759491, -0.4429323971271515, 0.5515987277030945, 0.14227452874183655, 0.7325995564460754, 0.4014023542404175, -0.4898214042186737, 0.523414671421051, 0.4083690345287323, 0.07596626877784729, -0.306225448846817, 0.17105109989643097, -1.0539045333862305, 0.1733544021844864, -0.39200326800346375, 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248101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20IIGS	Apple IIGS	The Apple IIGS (styled as II), the fifth and most powerful of the Apple II family, is a 16-bit personal computer produced by Apple Computer. While featuring the Macintosh look and feel, and resolution and color similar to the Amiga and Atari ST, it remains compatible with earlier Apple II models. The "GS" in the name stands for "Graphics and Sound," referring to its enhanced multimedia hardware, especially its state-of-the-art audio. The microcomputer is a radical departure from any previous Apple II, with a 16-bit 65C816 microprocessor, direct access to megabytes of random-access memory (RAM), and mouse. It is the first computer from Apple with a color graphical user interface (color was introduced on the Macintosh II six months later) and Apple Desktop Bus interface for keyboards, mice, and other input devices. It is the first personal computer with a wavetable synthesis chip, using technology from Ensoniq. The IIGS set forth a promising future and evolutionary advancement of the Apple II line, but Apple increasingly focused on the Macintosh platform. Apple ceased IIGS production in December 1992. Hardware features The Apple IIGS made significant improvements over the Apple IIe and Apple IIc. It emulates its predecessors via a custom chip called the Mega II and uses the then-new WDC 65C816 16-bit microprocessor. The processor runs at , which is faster than the 8-bit processors used in the earlier Apple II models. The 65C816 allows the IIGS to address considerably more RAM. The clock was a deliberate decision to limit the IIGS's performance to less than that of the Macintosh. This decision had a critical effect on the IIGS's success; the original 65C816 processor used in the IIGS was certified to run at up to . Faster versions of the 65C816 processor were readily available, with speeds of between 5 and 14 MHz, but Apple kept the machine at 2.8 MHz throughout its production run. Its graphical capabilities are the best of the Apple II series, with higher resolution video modes and more color. These include a 640×200-pixel mode with 2-bit color and a 320×200 mode with 4-bit color, both of which can select 4 or 16 colors (respectively) at a time from a palette of 4,096 colors. By changing the palette on each scanline, it is possible to display up to 256 colors or more per screen. With clever programming, it is possible to make the IIGS display as many as 3,200 colors at once. Audio is generated by a built-in Ensoniq 5503 digital synthesizer chip, which has its own dedicated RAM and 32 channels of sound. These channels can be paired to produce 15 voices in stereo. The IIGS supports both 5.25-inch and 3.5-inch floppy disks and has seven general-purpose expansion slots compatible with those on the Apple II, II+, and IIe. It also has a memory expansion slot for up 8 MB of RAM. The IIGS has ports for external floppy disk drives, two serial ports for devices such as printers and modems (which can also be used to connect to a LocalTalk network), an Apple Desktop Bus port to connect the keyboard and mouse, and composite and RGB video ports. A real-time clock is maintained by a built-in battery (a non-replaceable 3.6-volt lithium battery; removable in a later-revision motherboard). The IIGS also supports booting from an AppleShare server, via the AppleTalk protocol, over LocalTalk cabling. This was over a decade before NetBoot offered the same capability to computers running Mac OS 8 and beyond. Graphics In addition to supporting all graphics modes of previous Apple II models (40 and 80 columns text, Low and Double-Low, High and Double-High resolution) the Apple IIGS's Video Graphics Chip (VGC) introduced a new graphic mode called "Super-High Resolution". This new mode offers an increased screen resolution and a vastly wider color palette, with none of the limitations of earlier Apple II graphic modes (such as color bleeding and fringing). Super-High-Resolution supports 200 lines, in either 320 or 640 pixels horizontally. Both modes use a 12-bit palette for a total of 4,096 possible colors, with up to 256 colors (or more) on screen, though not all colors can appear onscreen at the same time. Usage of Super-High-Resolution mode may include: 320×200 pixels with a single palette of 16 colors. 320×200 pixels with up to 16 palettes of 16 colors. In this mode, the VGC holds 16 separate palettes of 16 colors in its own memory. Each of the 200 scan lines can be assigned any one of these palettes, allowing for up to 256 colors on the screen at once. 320×200 pixels with up to 200 palettes of 16 colors. In this mode, the CPU assists the VGC in swapping palettes into and out of the video memory so that each scan line can have its own palette of 16 colors allowing for up to 3,200 colors on the screen at once. 320×200 pixels with 15 colors per palette, plus a fill-mode color. In this mode, color 0 in the palette is replaced by the last non-zero color pixel displayed on the scan line (to the left), allowing fast solid-fill graphics (drawn with only the outlines). 640×200 pixels with 4 pure colors. 640×200 pixels with up to 16 palettes of 4 pure colors. In this mode, the VGC holds 16 separate palettes of 4 pure colors in its own memory. Each of the 200 scan lines can be assigned any one of these palettes allowing for up to 64 colors on the screen at once. 640x200 pixels with up to 200 palettes of 4 pure colors. In this mode, the CPU assists the VGC in swapping palettes into and out of the video memory so that each scan line can have its own palette of 4 colors allowing for up to 800 colors on the screen at once. 640×200 pixels with 16 dithered colors. In this mode, two palettes of four pure colors each are used in alternating columns. The hardware then dithers the colors of adjacent pixels to create 16 total colors on the screen. Each scan line on the screen can independently select either 320- or 640-line mode, fill mode (320-mode only), and any of the 16 palettes, allowing graphics modes to be mixed on the screen. This is most often seen in graphics programs where the menu bar is constantly in 640-pixel resolution and the working area's mode can be changed depending on the user's needs. Audio The Apple IIGS's sound is provided by an Ensoniq 5503 Digital Oscillator Chip (DOC) wavetable synthesis chip designed by Bob Yannes, creator of the SID synthesizer chip used in the Commodore 64. The ES5503 DOC is the same chip used in Ensoniq Mirage and Ensoniq ESQ-1 professional-grade synthesizers. The chip has 32 oscillators, which allows for a maximum of 32 voices (with limited capabilities when all used independently), though Apple's firmware pairs them for 16 voices, to produce fuller and more flexible sound, as do most of the standard tools of the operating system (the Apple MIDISynth toolset goes even a step further for richer sound, grouping four oscillators per voice, for a limit of seven-voice audio). The IIGS is often referred to as a 15-voice system, because one voice, or "sound generator" consisting of two oscillators, is always reserved as a dedicated clock for the sound chip's timing interrupt generator. Software that does not use the system firmware, or uses custom-programmed tools (certain games, demos and music software), can access the chip directly and take advantage of all 32 voices. The computer's audio capabilities were given as the primary reason for record label Apple Corps's 1989 resumption of legal action against Apple that had been previously suspended. Apple Corps claimed that the IIGS's audio chip violated terms of the 1981 settlement with the company that prohibited Apple, Inc. from getting involved in the music business. A standard -inch headphone jack is on the back of the case, and standard stereo computer speakers can be attached there. This jack provides only monaural sound and a third-party adapter card is required for stereo, despite that the Ensoniq and virtually all native software produces stereo audio. The Ensoniq can drive 16 speaker output channels, but the molex expansion connector Apple provided only allows 8. There is 64 KB of dedicated memory (DOC-RAM) on the IIGS motherboard, separate from system memory, for the Ensoniq chip to store its sampled wavetable instruments. To exploit the IIGS's audio capabilities, during its introduction, Apple sold Bose Roommate amplified speakers for the computer (matching its platinum color and with custom Bose/Apple logo grille covers). Expansion Like other Apple II machines before it, the IIGS is highly expandable. The expansion slots can be used for a variety of purposes, greatly increasing the computer's capabilities. SCSI host adapters can be used to connect external SCSI devices such as hard drives and a CD-ROM drive. Other mass-storage devices such as adapters supporting more recent internal 2.5-inch IDE hard drives can also be used. Another common class of Apple IIGS expansion cards is accelerator cards, such as Applied Engineering's TransWarp GS, replacing the computer's original processor with a faster one. Applied Engineering developed the PC Transporter, which is essentially an IBM-PC/XT on a card. A variety of other cards were also produced, including ones allowing new technologies such as 10BASE-T Ethernet and CompactFlash cards to be used on the IIGS. Development Steve Wozniak said in January 1985 that Apple was investigating the 65816, and that an 8MHz version would "beat the pants off a 68000 in most applications", but any product using it would have to be compatible with the Apple II. Rumors spread about his work on an "Apple IIx". The IIx was said to have a 16-bit CPU, one megabyte of RAM, and better graphics and sound. "IIx" was the code name for Apple's first internal project to develop a next-generation Apple II based on the 65816. The IIx project, though, became bogged down when it attempted to include various coprocessors allowing it to emulate other computer systems. Early samples of the 65816 were also problematic. These problems led to the cancellation of the IIx project, but later, a new project was formed to produce an updated Apple II. This project, which led to the released IIGS, was known by various codenames while the new system was being developed, including "Phoenix", "Rambo", "Gumby", and "Cortland". There were rumors of several vastly enhanced prototypes built over the years at Apple but none were ever released. Only one, the "Mark Twain", has been revealed so far. The Mark Twain prototype (named for Twain's famous quote "The reports of my death are greatly exaggerated") was expected to have the "ROM 04" revision (although prototypes that have been discovered do not contain any new ROM code) and featured an 8 MHz 65C816, built-in SuperDrive, 2 MB of RAM, and a hard drive. Some design features from the unsuccessful Apple III lived on in the Apple IIGS, such as GS/OS borrowing elements from SOS (including, by way of ProDOS, the SOS file system), a unique keyboard feature for dual-speed arrow keys, and colorized ASCII text. Release Limited Edition ("Woz"-signed case) As part of a commemorative celebration marking the 10th anniversary of the Apple II series' development, as well as Apple Computer itself celebrating the same anniversary, a special limited edition was introduced at product launch. The first 50,000 Apple IIGSs manufactured had a reproduced copy of Wozniak's signature ("Woz") at the front right corner of the case, with a dotted line and the phrase "Limited Edition" printed just below it. Owners of the Limited Edition, after mailing in their Apple registration card, were mailed back a certificate of authenticity signed by Wozniak and 12 key Apple engineers, as well as a personal letter from Wozniak himself (both machine-reproduced). Because the difference between standard and Limited Edition machines were purely cosmetic, many owners of new were able to "convert" to the Limited Edition by merely swapping the case lid from an older (and likely nonfunctional) machine. While of nostalgic value to Apple II users and collectors, presently these stamped-lid cases are not considered rare, nor do they have any particular monetary worth. Upgrading an Apple IIe Upon its release in September 1986, Apple announced it would be making a kit that would upgrade an Apple IIe to a IIGS available for purchase. This followed an Apple practice of making logic board upgrades available that dated from the earliest days of the Apple II until Steve Jobs' return to Apple in 1997. The IIe-to-IIGS upgrade replaced the IIe motherboard with a 16-bit IIGS motherboard. Users would take their Apple IIe machines into an authorized Apple dealership, where the IIe motherboard and lower baseboard of the case were swapped for an Apple IIGS motherboard with a new baseboard (with matching cut-outs for the new built-in ports). New metal sticker ID badges replaced those on the front of the IIe, rebranding the machine. Retained were the upper half of the IIe case, the keyboard, speaker and power supply. Original IIGS motherboards (those produced between 1986 and mid-1989) have electrical connections for the IIe power supply and keyboard present, although only about half of those produced have the physical plug connectors factory-presoldered in, which were mostly reserved for the upgrade kits. The upgrade cost US$500, plus the trade-in of the user's existing Apple IIe motherboard. It did not include a mouse, and the keyboard, although functional, lacked a numeric keypad and did not mimic all the features and functions of the Apple Desktop Bus keyboard. Some cards designed for the GS did not fit in the Apple IIe's slanted case. In the end, most users found that the upgrade did not save them much money once they purchased a 3.5-inch floppy drive, analog RGB monitor, and mouse. Software features Software that runs on the Apple IIGS can be divided into two major categories: 8-bit software compatible with earlier Apple II systems such as the IIe and IIc, and 16-bit IIGS software, which takes advantage of its advanced features, including a near-clone of the Macintosh graphical user interface. 8-bit Apple II compatibility Apple claimed that the IIGS was 95% compatible with contemporary Apple II software. One reviewer, for example, successfully ran demo programs that came on cassette with his 1977 Apple II. The IIGS can run all of Apple's earlier Apple II operating systems: Apple DOS, ProDOS 8, and Apple Pascal. It is also compatible with nearly all 8-bit software running on those systems. Like the Apple II+, IIe, and IIc, the IIGS also includes Applesoft BASIC and a machine-language monitor (which can be used for very simple assembly language programming) in ROM, so they can be used even with no operating system loaded from disk. The 8-bit software runs twice as fast unless the user turns down the processor speed in the IIGS control panel. System Software The Apple IIGS System Software utilizes a graphical user interface (GUI) very similar to that of the Macintosh and somewhat like GEM for PCs and the operating systems of contemporary Atari and Amiga computers. Early versions of the System Software are based on the ProDOS 16 operating system, which is based on the original ProDOS operating system for 8-bit Apple II computers. Although it was modified so that 16-bit Apple IIGS software can run on it, ProDOS 16 was written largely in 8-bit code and does not take full advantage of the IIGS's capabilities. Later System Software versions (starting with version 4.0) replaced ProDOS 16 with a new 16-bit operating system known as GS/OS. It better utilizes the unique capabilities of the IIGS and includes many valuable new features. The IIGS System Software was substantially enhanced and expanded over the years during which it was developed, culminating in its final official version, System 6.0.1, which was released in 1993. In July 2015, members of a computer group from France released a new, though unofficial, version of that System Software, dubbed "System 6.0.2" (and later followed by System 6.0.3 and 6.0.4), that primarily fixed some bugs. Graphical user interface Similar to that of the Macintosh, the IIGS System Software provides a mouse-driven graphical user interface using concepts such as windows, menus, and icons. This was implemented by a "toolbox" of code, some of which resides in the computer's ROM and some of which is loaded from disk. Only one major application can run at a time, although other, smaller programs, known as Desk Accessories, can be used simultaneously. The IIGS has a Finder application very similar to the Macintosh's, which allows the user to manipulate files and launch applications. By default, the Finder is displayed when the computer starts up and whenever the user quits an application that is started from it, although the startup application can be changed by the user. Software companies complained that Apple did not provide technical information and development tools to create IIGS-specific software. In 1988 Compute! reported that both Cinemaware and Intergalactic Development had to write their own tools to maximize their use of IIGS audio, with the latter stating that "these sorts of problems … are becoming well-known throughout the industry". Extensibility The IIGS System Software can be extended through various mechanisms. New Desk Accessories are small programs ranging from a calculator to simple word processors that can be used while running any standard desktop application. Classic Desk Accessories also serve as small programs available while running other applications, but they use the text screen and can be accessed even from non-desktop applications. Control Panels and initialization files are other mechanisms that allow various functions to be added to the system. Finder Extras permits new capabilities to be added to the Finder, drivers can be used to support new hardware devices, and users can also add "tools" that provide various functions that other programs can utilize easily. These features can be used to provide features that were never planned for by the system's designers, such as a TCP/IP stack known as "Marinetti". Multitasking capability A third party UNIX-like multitasking kernel was produced, called GNO/ME, which runs under the GUI and provides preemptive multitasking. In addition, a system called The Manager can be used to make the Finder more like the one on the Macintosh, allowing major software (other than just the "accessory" programs) to run simultaneously through cooperative multitasking. Reception After previewing the computer, BYTE stated in October 1986 that "The Apple IIGS designers' achievements are remarkable, but the burden of the classic Apple II architecture, now as venerable (and outdated) as COBOL and batch processing, may have weighed them down and denied them any technological leaps beyond an exercise in miniaturization." The magazine added that "hog-tied by [classic] Apple II compatibility, [the IIGS] approaches but does not match or exceed current computer capabilities" of the Macintosh, Commodore Amiga, or Atari ST, and predicted that many vendors would "enhance existing products for the [classic] Apple II instead of writing new software" that fully exploited the IIGS's power. inCider, which in September had warned that the next Apple II "needs (at least)... a megabyte of RAM... That's what the market wants", indeed reported in November that "Rather than risk investing time and money in programs that work only on the Apple IIGS, a number of software developers have simply upgraded old Apple II programs", and that the "most interesting program available specifically for the IIGS at this time is LearningWays' Explore-a-Story, which was released simultaneously for the good old 128K Apple IIe and IIc". The magazine concluded, "The moral is simple: Good hardware, even innovative hardware, won't give birth to good, new software overnight." Nibble was more positive, calling the price "fantastic" for "Steve Wozniak's dream machine". It praised the IIGS's "incredible" legacy Apple II compatibility, graphics, and sound, stated that only its slower speed made the computer significantly inferior to the Macintosh, and expected that Apple would soon introduce new products to better distinguish the two product lines. The magazine concluded that "The IIGS is an incredibly fine computer, arguably the finest assemblage of chips and resistors ever soldered together... Ladies and gentlemen of Apple, on behalf of the Apple II user community, you have earned our gratitude and admiration." Compute! described the IIGS in November 1986 as "two machines in one—a product that bridges the gap between the Macintosh and Apple IIe, and in so doing poses what may be serious competition for the Commodore Amiga and the Atari ST series". It described the IIGS's graphics "as different as night and day" from the earlier Apple IIs and the audio as "in a class by themselves... [it] justifies the price of the IIGS to many music fans and fanatics". The magazine reported that "well over one hundred outside developers were actively engaged in creating software for the IIGS", and predicted that "as new products are developed to take advantage of the IIGS, people will move away from the pure Apple II and toward the newer titles with their improved performance". Compute!'s Apple Applications in December 1987 reported, however, that "Many publishers have canceled or postponed their plans for Apple IIGS software and instead are cautiously introducing programs for the Apple IIc and IIe", while "many of the products for the Apple IIGS are simply versions of" older Apple II software "that incorporate color and use the mouse interface". So little IIGS software was available, it said, that "the hottest product... is AppleWorks. No mouse interface, no color, no graphics. Just AppleWorks from the IIe and IIc world". The magazine stated that many customers either chose the slightly more expensive Macintosh Plus or kept their inexpensive IIc or IIe which ran AppleWorks well, with the IIGS "in a strange position" in between. BYTEs Bruce Webster in January 1987 praised Apple for permitting Wozniak to finish the IIx project, but said that the company should have done so "a few years ago". The IIGS is an excellent replacement for the [earlier models from the] Apple II line, but it's awfully late in coming. The technology is more trailing-edge than leading-edge in many areas", with speed and graphics inferior to that of the Amiga and Atari ST. The other computers, he wrote, have both larger software libraries that use their power and lower prices; Webster found that a IIGS package costing $2500 was comparable to a $1500 Atari ST configuration. He concluded with a "qualified approval" of the computer: "It was necessary to prevent the Apple II line from dying off during the next year or so. However, Apple didn't go far enough." A BYTE review in April 1987 concluded that the IIGS "has the potential to be a powerful computer" but needed a faster CPU and more addressable memory. The magazine advised potential customers to compare the Macintosh, Amiga, and Atari ST's more powerful 68000 CPU with the IIGS's greater expandability and large Apple II software library. Compute! in 1988 urged Apple to make the computer faster, stating that "no matter which way you cut it, the IIGS is slow" and that IIGS-specific programs could not keep up with user actions. In 1989 the magazine stated "One of the biggest complaints of IIGS-specific software is the way it imitates the pace of a zombie. You'd think 16-bit software had died and voodoo-transformed into a shuffling, stumbling imitation of real computer applications." It reported that year that after increases in September, a IIGS with color monitor, two disk drives, and ImageWriter II cost more than $3,000, a price the magazine called "staggering". inCider also criticized the price increase, warning that it "opens the door further to low-cost MS-DOS computers". Technical specifications Microprocessor WDC 65C816 running at 2.8 MHz 8-bit data bus, with selectable 8- or 16-bit registers 24-bit addressing, using a 16-bit address bus and a multiplexed bank address Memory 1 MB of RAM built-in (256 kB in original) (expandable to 8 MB) 256 kB of ROM built-in (128 kB in original) Video modes Emulation video 40- and 80-column text, with 24 lines (16 selectable foreground, background, and border colors) Low resolution: 40×48 (16 colors) High resolution: 280×192 (6 colors) Double low resolution: 80×48 (16 colors) Double high resolution: 560×192 (16 colors) Native video Super-high resolution (320 mode) 320×200 (16 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) 320×200 (256 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) 320×200 (3200 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) Super-high resolution (640 mode) 640×200 (4 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) 640×200 (16 dithered colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) 640×200 (64 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) 640×200 (800 colors, selectable from 4,096 color palette) Fill mode 320×200, sections of screens filled in on-the-fly for up to 60 frame/s full-screen animation Mixed mode 320/640×200, horizontal resolution selectable on a line-by-line basis Audio Ensoniq 5503 digital oscillator chip 8-bit audio resolution 64 kB of dedicated sound RAM 32 oscillator channels (15 voices when paired) Support for eight independent stereo speaker channels Expansion Seven Apple II Bus slots (50-pin card-edge) IIGS Memory Expansion slot (44-pin card-edge) Internal connectors Game I/O socket (16-pin DIP) Ensoniq I/O expansion connector (7-pin molex) Specialized chip controllers IWM (Integrated Woz Machine) for floppy drives VGC (video graphics controller) for video Mega II (Apple IIe computer on chip) Ensoniq 5503 DOC (sample-based synthesis) Zilog Z8530 SCC (serial port controller) Apple Desktop Bus microcontroller FPI (Fast Processor Interface) or CYA (Control Your Apple) External connectors NTSC composite video output (RCA connector) Joystick (DE-9) Audio-out (-inch mono phono jack) Printer-serial 1 (mini-DIN8) Modem-serial 2 (mini-DIN8) Floppy drive (D-19) Analog RGB video (DA-15) Apple Desktop Bus (mini-DIN4) Revision history While in production between September 1986 and December 1992, the Apple IIGS remained relatively unchanged from its inception. During those years, however, Apple did produce some maintenance updates to the system which mainly comprised two new ROM-based updates and a revamped motherboard. It is rumored that several prototypes that greatly enhanced the machine's features and capabilities were designed and even built, though only one has ever been publicly exposed (i.e. the "Mark Twain"). Outlined below are only those revisions and updates officially released by Apple. Original firmware release ("ROM version 00") During the entire first year of the machine's production, an early, almost beta-like, firmware version shipped with the machine and was notably bug-ridden. Some limitation of this include the fact that the built-in RAM Disk can't be set larger than 4 MB (even if more RAM is present) and the firmware contains the very early System 1.x toolsets. It became incompatible with most native Apple IIGS software written from late-1987 onward, and OS support only lasted up to System 3. The startup splash screen of the original ROM only displays the words "Apple IIgs" at the top center of the screen, in the same fashion that previous Apple II models identify themselves. Video Graphics Controller (VGC) replacement Very early production runs of the machine had a faulty video graphics controller (VGC) chip that produced strange cosmetic glitches in emulated (IIe/IIc) video modes. Specifically, the 80-column text display and monochrome double-high-resolution graphics had a symptom where small flickering or static pink bits would appear between the gaps of characters and pixels. Most users noticed this when using AppleWorks classic or the Mousedesk application that was a part of System 1 and 2. Apple resolved the issue by offering a free chip-swap upgrade to affected owners. Second firmware release ("ROM version 01") In August 1987, Apple released an updated ROM that was included in all new machines and was made available as a free upgrade to all existing owners. The main feature of the new ROM was the presence of the System 2.x toolsets and several bug fixes. The upgrade was vital, as software developers, including Apple, ceased support of the original ROM upon its release (most native Apple IIGS software written from late-1987 onwards would not run unless a ROM 01 or higher was present, and this included the GS/OS operating system). This update also allows up to 8 MB for the RAM Disk, added some new features for programmers, and reported the ROM version and copyright information on the startup splash screen. Standard RAM increased to 512 KB In March 1988, Apple began shipping IIGS units with 512 KB of RAM as standard. This was done by preinstalling the Apple IIGS Memory Expansion Card (that was once sold separately) in the memory expansion slot—the card had 256 KB of RAM on board with empty sockets for further expansion. The built-in memory on the motherboard remained at 256 KB and existing users were not offered this upgrade. Third firmware release ("ROM version 3"); 1 MB of RAM In August 1989, Apple increased the standard amount of RAM shipped in the IIGS to 1.125 MB. This time the additional memory was built-in on the motherboard, which required a layout change and allowed for other minor improvements as well. This update introduced both a new motherboard and a new ROM firmware update; however, neither was offered to existing owners—even as an upgrade option (the new ROM, now two chips, is incompatible with the original single-socket motherboard). Apple had cited the reason an upgrade was not being offered was that most of the features of the new machine could be obtained in existing machines by installing System 5 and a fully populated Apple IIGS Memory Expansion Card. The new ROM firmware was expanded to 256 KB and contained the System 5.x toolsets. The newer toolsets increased the performance of the machine by up to 10%, due to the fact that less had to be loaded from disk, tool ROM read access being faster than RAM, and their highly optimized routines compared to the older toolsets (pre-GS/OS-based). In addition to several bug fixes, also added were more programmer assistance commands and features, a cleaned-up control panel with improved mouse control and RAM Disk functionality, more flexible Appletalk support and slot-mapping. In terms of hardware, the new motherboard is a cleaner design that drew less power and resolved audio noise issues that interfered with the Ensoniq synthesizer in the original motherboard. Over four times more RAM is built-in, with double the ROM size, and an enhanced Apple Desktop Bus microcontroller provides native support for sticky keys, mouse emulation, and keyboard LED support (available on extended keyboards). Hardware shadowing of Text Page 2 was introduced, improving compatibility and performance with the classic Apple II video mode. The clock battery is now user-serviceable, being placed in a removable socket, and a jumper location was added to lock out the text-based control panel (mainly useful in school environments). Support for the Apple-IIe-to-IIGS upgrade was removed, and some cost-cutting measures had some chips soldered in place rather than being socketed. As the firmware only worked in this motherboard and no new firmware updates were ever issued, users commonly referred to this version of the IIGS as the "ROM 3". International versions Like the Apple IIe and Apple IIc built-in keyboards before it, the detached IIGS keyboard differs depending on what region of the world it was sold in, with extra local language characters and symbols printed on certain keycaps (e.g. French accented characters on the Canadian IIGS keyboard such as "à", "é", "ç", etc., or the British Pound "£" symbol on the UK IIGS keyboard). Unlike previous Apple II models, however, the layout and shape of keys were the same standard for all countries, and the ROMs inside the computer were also the same for all countries, including support for all the different international keyboards. In order to access the local character set layout and display, users would change settings in the built-in software-based control panel, which also provides a method of toggling between 50/60 Hz video screen refresh. The composite video output is NTSC-only on all IIGS systems; users in PAL countries are expected to use an RGB monitor or TVs which featured RGB SCART. This selectable internationalization makes it quick and simple to localize any given machine. Also present in the settings is a QWERTY/DVORAK keyboard toggle for all countries, much like that of the Apple IIc. Outside North America, the Apple IIGS shipped with a different 220 V clip-in power supply, making this and the plastic keycaps the only physical differences (and also very modular, in the sense of converting a non-localized machine to a local one). Gus Apple designed the Apple IIe Card to transit Apple IIe customers to the Macintosh LC, particularly schools who had a large investment in Apple II software. While Apple discussed creating an LC plug-in IIGS card, they felt that the cost of selling it would be as much as an entire LC and abandoned it. However, the educational community had a substantial investment in the IIGS software as well, which made upgrading to a Macintosh a less attractive proposition than had been for the Apple IIe. As a result, Apple software designers Dave Lyons and Andy Nicholas spearheaded a program to develop a IIGS software emulator they called Gus in their spare time, which would run on the Power Macintosh only. Apple did not officially support the project. Nevertheless, seeing the need to help switch their educational customers to the Macintosh (as well as sell Power Macs), Apple unofficially distributed the software for free to schools and other institutions that signed a non-disclosure agreement. It was never offered for public sale, but is now readily available on the internet, along with many third-party classic Apple II emulators. Gus represents one of the few software emulators developed within Apple (officially or otherwise), including MacWorks and Mac OS X Classic environment. The app was publicly demonstrated in Rhapsody's Blue Box at WWDC 1997. Legacy The Apple Desktop Bus, which for a long time was the standard for most input peripherals for the Macintosh, first appeared on the IIGS. In addition, the other standardized ports and addition of SCSI set a benchmark which allowed, for the first time, Apple to consolidate their peripheral offerings across both the Apple II and Macintosh product lines, permitting one device to be compatible with multiple, disparate computers. The IIGS is also the first Apple product to bear the new brand-unifying color scheme, a warm gray color Apple dubbed "Platinum". This color would remain the Apple standard used on the vast majority of products for the next decade. The IIGS is also the second major computer design, after the Apple IIc, where Apple worked with Hartmut Esslinger's team at Frog Design. The consistent use of the new corporate color and matching peripherals ushered in the Snow White design language, which was used exclusively for the next five years and made the Apple product line instantly recognizable around the world. The inclusion of a professional-grade sound chip in the Apple IIGS was hailed by both developers and users, and hopes were high that it would be added to the Macintosh; however, it drew another lawsuit from Apple Corps. As part of an earlier trademark dispute with the business arm of The Beatles, Apple Computer had agreed not to release music-related products. Apple Corps considered the inclusion of the Ensoniq chip in the IIGS a violation of that agreement. Developers John Carmack, co-founder of id Software, started his career by writing commercial software for the Apple IIGS, working with John Romero and Tom Hall. Wolfenstein 3D, based on the 1981 Apple II game Castle Wolfenstein, came full-circle when it was released for the Apple IIGS in 1998. Two mainstream video games, Zany Golf and The Immortal, both designed by Will Harvey, originated as Apple IIGS games that were ported to other platforms, including the Sega Genesis. Pangea Software started as an Apple IIGS game developer. Naughty Dog started with the classic Apple II machines, but later developed for the IIGS. Rumors and canceled developments In August 1988, inCider magazine reported Apple was working on a new Apple IIGS. It was stated it had a faster CPU, improved graphics (double the vertical resolution, 256 colors per scanline and 4,096 colors per screen), 768 kB of RAM, 256 kB of ROM, 128 kB of sound DOC-RAM and a built-in SCSI port. No new machine would appear that year. In 1989 Compute! reported on speculation that Apple would announce at the May AppleFest a "IIGS Plus" with a processor two to three times faster, 768 kB to 1 MB RAM, and a SCSI port. The speculation was partially based on Apple CEO John Sculley stating that the IIGS would receive a new CPU in 1989. No new computer appeared, but in August the IIGS started shipping with 1 MB RAM in the base configuration. VTech, makers of the 8-bit Apple II-compatible Laser 128, announced plans for a IIGS-compatible computer in 1988 for under $600. They demonstrated a prototype in 1989, but the computer was never released. Cirtech produced a working prototype of a black-and-white Macintosh hardware emulation plug-in card for the IIGS dubbed "Duet". Using a 68020 processor, custom ROM and up to 8 MB RAM, Cirtech claimed it outperformed the Macintosh IIcx. The project was ultimately canceled due to the projected high cost of the board. See also Apple IIc Plus Juiced.GS, the last Apple II publication KansasFest, an annual convention for Apple II users List of Apple IIGS games References External links "The New Apple IIGS" from Compute! magazine (November 1986) Apple II History from Steven Weyhrich What is the Apple IIGS, reviews of many Apple IIGS applications GS Snow White design language Computer-related introductions in 1986 16-bit computers fr:Apple II#Apple IIGS (Septembre 1986)	[ -0.5400593280792236, 0.007132670842111111, 0.24085868895053864, -0.054500024765729904, 0.17670489847660065, 0.39339974522590637, 0.030787929892539978, 0.18901678919792175, -0.2518409788608551, -0.3726175129413605, -0.33659783005714417, 0.2974955439567566, -0.6137606501579285, 0.0236514862626791, 0.23059576749801636, -0.07515189051628113, 0.7888877987861633, 0.1347896158695221, -0.46902480721473694, -0.40418484807014465, 0.1363927125930786, 0.08305281400680542, 0.4744803309440613, -0.36815062165260315, -0.4607287049293518, 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248102	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurable%20cardinal	Measurable cardinal	In mathematics, a measurable cardinal is a certain kind of large cardinal number. In order to define the concept, one introduces a two-valued measure on a cardinal , or more generally on any set. For a cardinal , it can be described as a subdivision of all of its subsets into large and small sets such that itself is large, and all singletons are small, complements of small sets are large and vice versa. The intersection of fewer than large sets is again large. It turns out that uncountable cardinals endowed with a two-valued measure are large cardinals whose existence cannot be proved from ZFC. The concept of a measurable cardinal was introduced by Stanislaw Ulam in 1930. Definition Formally, a measurable cardinal is an uncountable cardinal number κ such that there exists a κ-additive, non-trivial, 0-1-valued measure on the power set of κ. (Here the term κ-additive means that, for any sequence Aα, α<λ of cardinality λ < κ, Aα being pairwise disjoint sets of ordinals less than κ, the measure of the union of the Aα equals the sum of the measures of the individual Aα.) Equivalently, κ is measurable means that it is the critical point of a non-trivial elementary embedding of the universe V into a transitive class M. This equivalence is due to Jerome Keisler and Dana Scott, and uses the ultrapower construction from model theory. Since V is a proper class, a technical problem that is not usually present when considering ultrapowers needs to be addressed, by what is now called Scott's trick. Equivalently, κ is a measurable cardinal if and only if it is an uncountable cardinal with a -complete, non-principal ultrafilter. Again, this means that the intersection of any strictly less than κ-many sets in the ultrafilter, is also in the ultrafilter. Properties Although it follows from ZFC that every measurable cardinal is inaccessible (and is ineffable, Ramsey, etc.), it is consistent with ZF that a measurable cardinal can be a successor cardinal. It follows from ZF + axiom of determinacy that ω1 is measurable, and that every subset of ω1 contains or is disjoint from a closed and unbounded subset. Ulam showed that the smallest cardinal κ that admits a non-trivial countably-additive two-valued measure must in fact admit a κ-additive measure. (If there were some collection of fewer than κ measure-0 subsets whose union was κ, then the induced measure on this collection would be a counterexample to the minimality of κ.) From there, one can prove (with the Axiom of Choice) that the least such cardinal must be inaccessible. It is trivial to note that if κ admits a non-trivial κ-additive measure, then κ must be regular. (By non-triviality and κ-additivity, any subset of cardinality less than κ must have measure 0, and then by κ-additivity again, this means that the entire set must not be a union of fewer than κ sets of cardinality less than κ.) Finally, if λ < κ, then it can't be the case that κ ≤ 2λ. If this were the case, then we could identify κ with some collection of 0-1 sequences of length λ. For each position in the sequence, either the subset of sequences with 1 in that position or the subset with 0 in that position would have to have measure 1. The intersection of these λ-many measure 1 subsets would thus also have to have measure 1, but it would contain exactly one sequence, which would contradict the non-triviality of the measure. Thus, assuming the Axiom of Choice, we can infer that κ is a strong limit cardinal, which completes the proof of its inaccessibility. If κ is measurable and p∈Vκ and M (the ultrapower of V) satisfies ψ(κ,p), then the set of α < κ such that V satisfies ψ(α,p) is stationary in κ (actually a set of measure 1). In particular if ψ is a Π1 formula and V satisfies ψ(κ,p), then M satisfies it and thus V satisfies ψ(α,p) for a stationary set of α < κ. This property can be used to show that κ is a limit of most types of large cardinals that are weaker than measurable. Notice that the ultrafilter or measure witnessing that κ is measurable cannot be in M since the smallest such measurable cardinal would have to have another such below it, which is impossible. If one starts with an elementary embedding j1 of V into M1 with critical point κ, then one can define an ultrafilter U on κ as { S⊆κ : κ∈j1(S) }. Then taking an ultrapower of V over U we can get another elementary embedding j2 of V into M2. However, it is important to remember that j2 ≠ j1. Thus other types of large cardinals such as strong cardinals may also be measurable, but not using the same embedding. It can be shown that a strong cardinal κ is measurable and also has κ-many measurable cardinals below it. Every measurable cardinal κ is a 0-huge cardinal because κM⊆M, that is, every function from κ to M is in M. Consequently, Vκ+1⊆M. Real-valued measurable A cardinal κ is called real-valued measurable if there is a κ-additive probability measure on the power set of κ that vanishes on singletons. Real-valued measurable cardinals were introduced by . showed that the continuum hypothesis implies that is not real-valued measurable. showed (see below for parts of Ulam's proof) that real valued measurable cardinals are weakly inaccessible (they are in fact weakly Mahlo). All measurable cardinals are real-valued measurable, and a real-valued measurable cardinal κ is measurable if and only if κ is greater than . Thus a cardinal is measurable if and only if it is real-valued measurable and strongly inaccessible. A real valued measurable cardinal less than or equal to exists if and only if there is a countably additive extension of the Lebesgue measure to all sets of real numbers if and only if there is an atomless probability measure on the power set of some non-empty set. showed that existence of measurable cardinals in ZFC, real valued measurable cardinals in ZFC, and measurable cardinals in ZF, are equiconsistent. Weak inaccessibility of real-valued measurable cardinals Say that a cardinal number is an Ulam number if whenever then Equivalently, a cardinal number is an Ulam number if whenever is an outer measure on a set , and a disjoint family of subsets of , for is -measurable for every then The smallest infinite cardinal is an Ulam number. The class of Ulam numbers is closed under the cardinal successor operation. If an infinite cardinal has an immediate predecessor that is an Ulam number, assume satisfies properties ()–() with . In the von Neumann model of ordinals and cardinals, choose injective functions and define the sets Since the are one-to-one, the sets are disjoint. By property () of , the set is countable, and hence Thus there is a such that implying, since is an Ulam number and using the second definition (with and conditions ()–() fulfilled), If then Thus By property (), and since , by (), () and (), It follows that The conclusion is that is an Ulam number. There is a similar proof that the supremum of a set of Ulam numbers with an Ulam number is again a Ulam number. Together with the previous result, this implies that a cardinal that is not an Ulam number is weakly inaccessible. See also Normal measure Mitchell order List of large cardinal properties Notes Citations References . . . . . . . A copy of parts I and II of this article with corrections is available at the author's web page. . . 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248103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warlords%20%28card%20game%29	Warlords (card game)	Warlords is an out-of-print collectible card game published in September 1997 by Iron Crown Enterprises. Gameplay Based on the Warlords III computer game, Warlords is a simple multi-player fantasy game. The objective is to become the first player to become the supreme Warlord. This is achieved by exploring, finding treasure, or waging war by assembling followers, gathering armies, and building citadels. The game was criticized for using a "Combat Resolution Table" where a player would add the Battle Value of their Army, Hero, Ally, and Artefact (sic) in a given stack, add terrain bonuses, subtracts the defender's total Battle Value, and then compare it to the table to determine the number of cards lost in each stack. The cards had no rarities and lacked tournament support at the time. Reception The reviewer from the online second volume of Pyramid stated that "Warlords. One of the best tactical combat games ever created for home computers. [...] Now it's a trading card game designed by the same folks as the computer games, and let me tell you its one of the most enjoyable TCGs I've played yet." References External links Warlords at BoardGameGeek Card games introduced in 1997 Collectible card games Iron Crown Enterprises games	[ -0.553148627281189, 0.229597806930542, 0.15102490782737732, 0.12635116279125214, -0.669100821018219, 0.16094528138637543, -0.014343023300170898, -0.2529046833515167, -0.4536841809749603, -0.1845059096813202, -0.34144294261932373, 0.058996785432100296, -0.05328526347875595, 0.2724534571170807, 0.3123301565647125, 0.25596946477890015, 0.1379319727420807, 0.21615388989448547, -0.6584041714668274, -0.4898014962673187, -0.2810257375240326, -0.41732123494148254, 0.5597834587097168, -0.17091470956802368, -0.051069457083940506, 0.09107373654842377, 0.543641209602356, 0.11043519526720047, 0.11142527312040329, 0.4856542944908142, 0.3470880389213562, 0.4245356619358063, 0.24028369784355164, -0.5664317607879639, 0.0012183478102087975, -0.2552592158317566, -0.19767993688583374, -0.0029092279728502035, -0.24968235194683075, -0.27962803840637207, 0.3756956160068512, 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248104	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong%20cardinal	Strong cardinal	In set theory, a strong cardinal is a type of large cardinal. It is a weakening of the notion of a supercompact cardinal. Formal definition If λ is any ordinal, κ is λ-strong means that κ is a cardinal number and there exists an elementary embedding j from the universe V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ and That is, M agrees with V on an initial segment. Then κ is strong means that it is λ-strong for all ordinals λ. Relationship with other large cardinals By definitions, strong cardinals lie below supercompact cardinals and above measurable cardinals in the consistency strength hierarchy. κ is κ-strong if and only if it is measurable. If κ is strong or λ-strong for λ ≥ κ+2, then the ultrafilter U witnessing that κ is measurable will be in Vκ+2 and thus in M. So for any α < κ, we have that there exist an ultrafilter U in j(Vκ) − j(Vα), remembering that j(α) = α. Using the elementary embedding backwards, we get that there is an ultrafilter in Vκ − Vα. So there are arbitrarily large measurable cardinals below κ which is regular, and thus κ is a limit of κ-many measurable cardinals. Strong cardinals also lie below superstrong cardinals and Woodin cardinals in consistency strength. However, the least strong cardinal is larger than the least superstrong cardinal. Every strong cardinal is strongly unfoldable and therefore totally indescribable. References Large cardinals	[ -0.574219822883606, -0.2732471823692322, -0.37350910902023315, -0.1398845911026001, -0.7361811995506287, 0.073713019490242, 0.27383995056152344, 0.3308267295360565, -0.261417955160141, -0.38018783926963806, -1.0268919467926025, 0.6430326104164124, -0.48933136463165283, 0.18376731872558594, 0.07590127736330032, 0.428241491317749, 0.5884034037590027, 0.2832129895687103, -0.4575589597225189, -0.47918257117271423, 0.07333932816982269, -0.0346425361931324, 0.030193883925676346, -0.19131416082382202, 0.4885358512401581, -0.18257451057434082, -0.22510696947574615, 0.07669231295585632, 0.5693485736846924, 0.6214610934257507, 0.16394078731536865, 0.8759636878967285, -0.08406806737184525, 0.03919965401291847, -0.2269219160079956, -0.25150781869888306, 0.8508718013763428, -0.10242993384599686, 0.13649004697799683, -0.02395402081310749, 0.9221851825714111, -0.04465959966182709, 0.3290208876132965, 0.38111814856529236, -0.5163467526435852, -0.4131104350090027, 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248105	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodin%20cardinal	Woodin cardinal	In set theory, a Woodin cardinal (named for W. Hugh Woodin) is a cardinal number such that for all functions there exists a cardinal with and an elementary embedding from the Von Neumann universe into a transitive inner model with critical point and An equivalent definition is this: is Woodin if and only if is strongly inaccessible and for all there exists a which is --strong. being --strong means that for all ordinals , there exist a which is an elementary embedding with critical point , , and . (See also strong cardinal.) A Woodin cardinal is preceded by a stationary set of measurable cardinals, and thus it is a Mahlo cardinal. However, the first Woodin cardinal is not even weakly compact. Consequences Woodin cardinals are important in descriptive set theory. By a result of Martin and Steel, existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals implies projective determinacy, which in turn implies that every projective set is Lebesgue measurable, has the Baire property (differs from an open set by a meager set, that is, a set which is a countable union of nowhere dense sets), and the perfect set property (is either countable or contains a perfect subset). The consistency of the existence of Woodin cardinals can be proved using determinacy hypotheses. Working in ZF+AD+DC one can prove that is Woodin in the class of hereditarily ordinal-definable sets. is the first ordinal onto which the continuum cannot be mapped by an ordinal-definable surjection (see Θ (set theory)). Shelah proved that if the existence of a Woodin cardinal is consistent then it is consistent that the nonstationary ideal on is -saturated. Woodin also proved the equiconsistency of the existence of infinitely many Woodin cardinals and the existence of an -dense ideal over . Hyper-Woodin cardinals A cardinal is called hyper-Woodin if there exists a normal measure on such that for every set , the set is --strong is in . is --strong if and only if for each there is a transitive class and an elementary embedding with , and . The name alludes to the classical result that a cardinal is Woodin if and only if for every set , the set is --strong is a stationary set. The measure will contain the set of all Shelah cardinals below . Weakly hyper-Woodin cardinals A cardinal is called weakly hyper-Woodin if for every set there exists a normal measure on such that the set is --strong is in . is --strong if and only if for each there is a transitive class and an elementary embedding with , , and The name alludes to the classic result that a cardinal is Woodin if for every set , the set is --strong is stationary. The difference between hyper-Woodin cardinals and weakly hyper-Woodin cardinals is that the choice of does not depend on the choice of the set for hyper-Woodin cardinals. Notes and references Further reading For proofs of the two results listed in consequences see Handbook of Set Theory (Eds. Foreman, Kanamori, Magidor) (to appear). Drafts of some chapters are available. Ernest Schimmerling, Woodin cardinals, Shelah cardinals and the Mitchell-Steel core model, Proceedings of the American Mathematical Society 130/11, pp. 3385–3391, 2002, online Large cardinals Determinacy	[ -0.6078327298164368, -0.07202840596437454, -0.45810073614120483, -0.2933671176433563, -0.7843109965324402, 0.4815022051334381, 0.4661560356616974, -0.13080792129039764, -0.20931507647037506, -0.36575406789779663, -0.6044976711273193, 0.304958313703537, -0.4525580406188965, 0.31706658005714417, 0.20850378274917603, 0.2412659078836441, 0.9598178863525391, 0.5077731013298035, -0.4630275368690491, -1.2025415897369385, 0.2690531313419342, 0.15019550919532776, 0.06010327488183975, -0.33698174357414246, 0.45313042402267456, 0.08393465727567673, -0.3031063377857208, -0.07289443165063858, 0.7856232523918152, 0.41891801357269287, 0.01587371528148651, 0.7112014889717102, 0.26672056317329407, -0.5071154832839966, 0.07976285368204117, -0.3231974244117737, 0.6159185767173767, -0.5836194753646851, 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248110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Neville%2C%205th%20Earl%20of%20Salisbury	Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury	Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury (1400 – 31 December 1460) was an English nobleman and magnate based in northern England who became a key supporter of the House of York during the early years of the Wars of the Roses. He was the father of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker". Origins He was born in 1400 at Raby Castle in County Durham, the third son (and tenth child) of Ralph de Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, by his first son by his second wife, Joan Beaufort, the youngest of the four legitimised children and only daughter of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (third surviving son of King Edward III), by his mistress, later wife, Katherine Swynford. The Neville lands were primarily in County Durham and Yorkshire, but both King Richard II and King Henry IV (Joan's cousin and half-brother respectively) found the family useful to counterbalance the strength of the Percys on the Scottish Borders. This led to Ralph's earldom being granted in 1397, and to his appointment as Warden of the West March in 1403. Ralph's marriage to Joan Beaufort, at a time when the distinction between royalty and nobility was becoming more important, can be seen as another reward; as a granddaughter of King Edward III, she was a member of the royal family. The children of Ralph's first wife, Margaret Stafford, made good marriages to local nobility, and his eldest son had married into royalty in the person of Elizabeth Holland, but his Beaufort children married into even greater families. Three of Richard's sisters married dukes, the youngest Cecily, married Richard, Duke of York. Marriage Richard married Alice Montagu, daughter and heiress of Thomas Montagu, 4th Earl of Salisbury. The date of Richard and Alice's marriage is not known, but it must have been before February 1421, when as a married couple they appeared at the coronation of Queen Catherine of Valois. At the time of the marriage, the Salisbury inheritance was not guaranteed, as not only was Thomas Montacute still alive, but in 1424 he remarried (to Alice Chaucer, granddaughter of the poet Geoffrey Chaucer). This second marriage was without issue and when the Thomas Montagu died in 1428, Richard Neville and Alice were confirmed as the Earl and Countess of Salisbury. Salisbury came into possession of greater estates than, as a younger son under primogeniture, he could reasonably have expected. Strangely, his eldest half-brother John Neville apparently agreed to many of the rights to the Neville inheritance being transferred to his step-mother Joan Beaufort, and her son Salisbury inherited these on her death in 1440. He also gained possession of the lands and grants made jointly to Ralph and Joan. Ralph's heir (his grandson Ralph Neville, 2nd Earl of Westmorland) as the representative of the senior line, disputed the loss of his inheritance, and although he agreed to a settlement in 1443, it was on unequal terms – Salisbury kept the great Neville possessions of Middleham and Sheriff Hutton, as well as the more recent grant of Penrith. Only Raby Castle, the family's most ancient possession, returned to the senior branch. The resultant Neville–Neville feud was later to become absorbed into the destructive Percy-Neville feud. Salisbury's marriage gained him his wife's quarter share of the Holland inheritance. Ironically, his Salisbury title came with comparatively little in terms of wealth, though he did gain a more southerly residence at Bisham Manor in Berkshire. Warden of the West March The defence of the Scottish Border was carried out by two Wardens– that of the East March (based at Berwick-upon-Tweed) and that of the West March at Carlisle. Both offices had been held by the Percy family in the fourteenth century, and their support of King Henry IV seemed to have paid off in 1399, when Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland was appointed Warden of the West March and his son Henry Percy ("Hotspur") as Warden of the East March. But Hotspur rebelled, and his father was held to be complicit in his treason. After Hotspur was killed at the Battle of Shrewsbury in 1403, Ralph Neville was employed by King Henry V to capture the elder Percy. His reward was to succeed the Percys as Warden of both Marches. Under King Henry V, the Percys were restored to their lands, and eventually in 1417, to the East March. The West March, however, was to become an almost hereditary Neville appointment. Salisbury became Warden of the West March in 1420. It was one of the most valuable appointments in England, worth £1,500 in peacetime and four times that if war broke out with Scotland. Although, unlike Calais, it did not require a permanent garrison, the incessant raiding and border skirmishes meant that there would always be a ready supply of trained and experienced soldiers at the Warden's command. Salisbury must have been high in Henry V's estimation, as he was also appointed Justice of the Peace in Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Durham. In 1431 he accompanied the young King Henry VI to France for his coronation, and on his return was made Warden of the East March. In 1436 he resigned both posts, although this may have originally intended as a means of forcing the crown to make good its arrears of payment. When his resignation was accepted, he accompanied his brother-in-law Richard, Duke of York, to France, taking 1,300 men-at-arms and archers with him. He returned the following year, and in November became a member of the King's Council. He did not resume either of the Wardenships, as the Percy-Neville dispute took up most of his time, but when this was resolved in 1443 he resumed the Wardenship of the West March. Although this was at a reduced fee of just under £1,000, the money was secured on specific sources of Crown income, not on the frequently uncollectable tallies. This may reflect his experiences of 1436. Neville and Percy At the end of 1443, from his principal seat at Middleham Castle in Wensleydale, Salisbury could look with some satisfaction at his position. He was a member of the King's Council and Warden of the West March. His brother Robert Neville was the Bishop of Durham, and another of his brothers, William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent, had the custody of Roxburgh Castle. He had seven children, four boys and three girls. In 1436 the two oldest children, Cicely and Richard, made excellent marriages to the son and daughter of Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick. It was becoming apparent that the rise of the Nevilles was coming to an end. The king, who during the late 1430s had started to exercise personal rule, was more concerned to promote the fortunes of his closest relatives – and Salisbury was only related by a junior, legitimised and female line. In this context, the local rivalry between the Nevilles and the Percys in the north of England was likely to take on greater importance. A strong and capable ruler would be able to control such feuds, or even profit by them. A weak king could find the disputes spreading from local to regional or national conflict. The Percys had lands throughout northern England, while the northern lands of the Nevilles were concentrated in north Yorkshire and in County Durham. As Warden of the West March, Salisbury was in a position to exert great power in the north-west, in spite of holding only Kendal and Penrith. The Percys resented the fact that their tenants in Cumberland and Westmorland were being recruited by Salisbury, who even with the reduced grant of 1443 still had great spending power in the region. The senior Neville line (now related by marriage to the Percys) still resented the inequitable settlement of their inheritance dispute. The fifteenth century could be regarded as the peak of "bastard feudalism" – when every subject needed a "good lord". In return for a commitment by the retained man to provide (usually) military support, the lord would give his retainer a small annual fee, a badge or item of clothing to mark his loyalty (livery) and provide help for him in his disputes with his neighbours (maintenance). Northern England was a long way from the Palace of Westminster, and rapid legal redress for wrongs was impossible. With his economic power as Warden, Salisbury could provide better support for Percy tenants than Northumberland, unpaid in regard to the East March for years, could hope to. In 1448, during the renewal of the war with Scotland, Northumberland took his forces through Salisbury's West March – a grave breach of etiquette. Northumberland was defeated at the Battle of Sark, and his son Henry Percy, Lord Poynings was captured. The fact that Salisbury lost 2,000 horses trying to respond to this attack, and was then excluded (along with Northumberland) from the subsequent peace negotiations, can only have inflamed relations between the two families. Over time, the ill will might have receded, but Northumberland's second son, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, spent the next few years stirring up trouble in Yorkshire – particularly at York, situated between the Percy estates of Spofforth and Healaugh, and Neville's castle at Sheriff Hutton. On 24 August 1453, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, assembled a force of men-at-arms and archers perhaps as large as 1,000 strong, intending to waylay Salisbury and his family at Heworth Moor, outside York, as he made for Sheriff Hutton. Salisbury had been attending the wedding of his son Thomas in Tattershall Castle, Lincolnshire, and although his escort would have been smaller, it would have been better armed than Egremont's York craftsmen and tradesmen. Salisbury and his retinue fought them back, arriving unscathed at Sheriff Hutton, but the episode marked the beginning of what was virtually a private war. The bride, Maud Stanhope, was the widow of Lord Willoughby of Eresby, his son would become a Yorkist. Another of the Yorkist party, John Neville, was later Lord Montagu. Maud was due to inherit the manors of Wressle and Burwell from her uncle, Lord Cromwell, who had obtained them from the Percys through litigation. Historian John Sadler argues this was the first incident in the Yorkist/Lancastrian affinities lawless squabble leading to civil war. Neville and York Salisbury changed his allegiance to Richard, Duke of York, who made him Lord Chancellor in 1455. This enabled Salisbury to advance the interests of his retainers against the Percies; for example Thomas de la More petitioned against Lord Egremont, whom de la More claimed had threatened to kill him years earlier. When King Henry VI tried to assert his independence and dismiss York as Protector, Salisbury joined him in fighting at the First Battle of St Albans, claiming that he was acting in self-defence. In 1458 he participated in The Love Day, an attempt at reconciliation held in London. He was notably successful in the Battle of Blore Heath, but after the Yorkist army collapsed in the Rout of Ludford Bridge, Salisbury escaped to Calais, having been specifically excluded from a royal pardon. He returned to England with York in 1460, and was slain on 30–31 December 1460, the night after the Battle of Wakefield. Death and burial After the defeat of the Yorkists at the Battle of Wakefield, Salisbury himself escaped the battlefield but was captured during the night. Upon discovery, battle worn and now a traitor to the realm, he was taken to the Lancastrian camp. Although due to his great wealth the Lancastrian nobles might have been prepared to allow Salisbury to ransom himself, he was nevertheless dragged out of Pontefract Castle and beheaded by the local population, to whom he had been a harsh overlord. He was buried first at Pontefract, but his sons transferred his body to the family mausoleum at Bisham Priory in Berkshire where they erected a monument to his memory. The effigy from this was brought to St Mary's Church at Burghfield, near Reading, after the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The effigy of a lady alongside him wears a headdress which is not thought to be of the right date to be his wife, but she may represent one of the earlier Countesses of Salisbury buried at Bisham. Marriage and issue He married Alice Montacute (1407-1462), daughter and heiress of Thomas Montacute, 4th Earl of Salisbury (1388-1428), by whom he had twelve children: Sons Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (1428–1471), "The Kingmaker", eldest son and heir, who married Lady Anne Beauchamp and had issue. Sir Thomas Neville (c. 1429–1460), who was knighted in 1449 and died at the Battle of Wakefield. He was the second husband of Maud Stanhope (30 August 1497), who married firstly Robert Willoughby, 6th Baron Willoughby de Eresby (died 25 July 1452), and thirdly Sir Gervase Clifton, beheaded 6 May 1471 after the Battle of Tewkesbury. John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (c. 1431–1471), married Isabel Ingaldesthorpe and had issue. George Neville (1432–1476), who became Archbishop of York and Chancellor of England. Ralph Neville (b. 1440 approx.), did not survive infancy Robert Neville (b. 1446 approx.), did not survive infancy Daughters Joan Neville (c. 1424–1462), who married William FitzAlan, 16th Earl of Arundel, and had issue. Cecily Neville (c. 1425–1450), who married Henry Beauchamp, 1st Duke of Warwick (1425–1446), and by him had one daughter, Anne Beauchamp, 15th Countess of Warwick (1444–1449), on whose death her title passed to her paternal aunt, who in turn had married her maternal uncle Richard Neville (below named). Alice Neville (c. 1430–1503), who married Henry FitzHugh, 5th Baron FitzHugh. Their daughter, Elizabeth, married William Parr, thus making them great-grandparents of Catherine Parr, sixth wife of King Henry VIII. Eleanor Neville (c. 1438–before 1472), who married Thomas Stanley, 1st Earl of Derby, and had issue. Katherine Neville (1442–1504), who married first William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington, and second William Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings, had issue. Margaret Neville (c. 1444–1506), who married John de Vere, 13th Earl of Oxford. Ancestry References Sources Further reading External links Royal Berkshire History: Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury (1400–1460) Sir Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury War of the Roses: Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury (1400–1460) \|- 1400 births 1460 deaths 15th-century English nobility Burials at Bisham Abbey Neville Executed people from County Durham Knights of the Garter Lord Chancellors of England Members of the Privy Council of England Richard Peers jure uxoris People executed under the Lancastrians People executed under the Plantagenets by decapitation People from Bisham People of the Wars of the Roses People from Staindrop Younger sons of earls Barons Monthermer Barons Montagu	[ -0.5655563473701477, -0.6537249684333801, 0.29048803448677063, -0.13037633895874023, -0.35796859860420227, 0.727280855178833, 0.22106297314167023, 0.0040040211752057076, -0.38650697469711304, -0.4939775764942169, 0.00034903903724625707, 0.24452106654644012, -0.10470283776521683, 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248111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Keel	John Keel	John Alva Keel, born Alva John Kiehle (March 25, 1930 – July 3, 2009) was an American journalist and influential UFOlogist who is best known as author of The Mothman Prophecies. Early life Keel was born in Hornell, New York, the son of a small-time bandleader. His parents separated and he was raised by his grandparents. He was interested in magic and had his first story published in a magicians' magazine at age 12. He left school at the age of 16 after taking all the science courses. He worked as a freelance contributor to newspapers, scriptwriter for local radio and television outlets, and author of pulp articles such as "Are You A Repressed Sex Fiend?" He served in the US Army during the Korean War on the staff of the American Forces Network at Frankfurt, Germany. He claimed that while in the Army he was trained in psychological warfare as a propaganda writer. Career After leaving the military he worked as a foreign radio correspondent in Paris, Berlin, Rome and Egypt. In 1957, he published Jadoo, a book describing his time in Egypt and India investigating the Indian rope trick and the legendary yeti. In 1966 he produced the "spy and superhero" spoof novel The Fickle Finger of Fate. Influenced by writers such as Charles Fort, he began contributing articles to Flying Saucer Review and took up investigating UFOs and assorted Forteana as a full-time pursuit. Keel analyzed what he called "windows" and "waves" (or flaps, as they are often called) of reported UFO events, concluding that a disproportionate number occurred on Wednesdays and Saturdays. A member of the Screenwriters Guild, Keel reportedly wrote scripts for Get Smart, The Monkees, Mack & Myer for Hire, and Lost in Space. In 1967, Keel popularized the term "men In black" in an article for the men's adventure magazine Saga, entitled "UFO Agents of Terror". Rejection of Extraterrestrial hypothesis Like contemporary 1960s researchers such as J. Allen Hynek and Jacques Vallée, Keel was initially hopeful that he could somehow validate the prevailing extraterrestrial visitation hypothesis. However, after one year of investigations, Keel concluded that the extraterrestrial hypothesis was untenable. Indeed, both Hynek and Vallée eventually arrived at a similar conclusion. As Keel himself wrote: I abandoned the extraterrestrial hypothesis in 1967 when my own field investigations disclosed an astonishing overlap between psychic phenomena and UFOs... The objects and apparitions do not necessarily originate on another planet and may not even exist as permanent constructions of matter. It is more likely that we see what we want to see and interpret such visions according to our contemporary beliefs. In UFOs: Operation Trojan Horse Keel argues that a non-human or spiritual intelligence source has staged whole events over a long period of time in order to propagate and reinforce certain erroneous belief systems. For example, monsters, ghosts and demons, the fairy faith in Middle Europe, vampire legends, mystery airships in 1897, mystery aeroplanes of the 1930s, mystery helicopters, anomalous creature sightings, poltergeist phenomena, balls of light, and UFOs. Keel conjectured that ultimately all of these anomalies are a cover for the real phenomenon. He used the term "ultraterrestrials" to describe UFO occupants he believed to be non-human entities capable of taking on whatever form they want. In Our Haunted Planet, Keel discussed the seldom-considered possibility that the alien "visitors" to Earth are not visitors at all, but an advanced Earth civilization, which may or may not be human. Interdimensional life is also considered. Keel took no position on the ultimate purpose of the phenomenon other than that the UFO intelligence seems to have a long-standing interest in interacting with the human race. The Mothman Prophecies His 1975 book The Mothman Prophecies was Keel's account of his investigation into alleged sightings in and around Point Pleasant, West Virginia of a huge, winged creature called "Mothman." The book combines Keel's account of receiving strange phone calls with reports of mutilated pets and culminates with the December 15, 1967, collapse of the Silver Bridge across the Ohio River. The book was widely popularized as the basis of a 2002 film of the same name starring Richard Gere, Will Patton, Laura Linney and Alan Bates. Gere and Bates played two parts of Keel's personality. Bates' character was "Leek," which was "Keel" spelled backwards, and Gere's character worked for a newspaper, "John Klein," also a play on Keel's name. In the May/June 2002 issue of Skeptical Inquirer, journalist John C. Sherwood, a former business associate of UFO researcher Gray Barker, published an analysis of private letters between Keel and Barker during the period of Keel's investigation. In the article, "Gray Barker's Book of Bunk," Sherwood reported finding significant differences between what Keel wrote at the time of his investigation and what he wrote in his first book about the Mothman reports, raising questions about the book's accuracy. Sherwood also reported that Keel, who was well known for writing humorous and outrageous letters to friends and associates, would not assist him in clarifying the differences. Later years and impact Prolific and imaginative, Keel was considered a significant influence within the UFO and Fortean genre. For many years, Keel resided in the Upper West Side of New York City. He was a lifelong bachelor. Keel died on July 3, 2009, in New York City, at the age of 79. Works Jadoo (1957) The Fickle Finger of Fate (Fawcett, 1966) Operation Trojan Horse (1970) Strange Creatures From Time and Space (1970) Our Haunted Planet (1971) The Flying Saucer Subculture (1973) The Mothman Prophecies (1975) The Eighth Tower (1975) Why Ufos (1978) (reprint of Operation Trojan Horse) The Cosmic Question (1978) (British version of The Eighth Tower) Disneyland of the Gods (1988) The Complete Guide to Mysterious Beings (1994) (revised version of Strange Creatures from Time and Space) The Best of John Keel (Paperback 2006) (Collection of Keel's Fate Magazine articles) Flying Saucer to the Center of Your Mind: Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2013) The Outer Limits of the Twilight Zone: Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2013) Searching For the String: Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2014) The Great Phonograph in the Sky: Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2015) The Perspicacious Percipient: How to Investigate UFOs and Other Insane Urges - Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2015) The Passionate Percipient: Illusions I Have Known And Loved - Selected Writings of John A. Keel (2015) Pursuing the Addenda: Supernatural Reports From the Natural World (2016) References Notes External links John Keel - Daily Telegraph obituary Fortean Times 1992 interview (archival) John Keel magazine articles (archival) John A Keel's Thoughts on The Philadelphia Experiment Mothman Central SciFi Online Interview with Keel (archival) The Great UFO Wave of '73: Interview with John A. Keel FortFest tapes Ultraterrestrials: Do they walk among us?, article by Ken Korczak at Unexplained Mysteries, 26 March 2006 John Keel website with bibliography and biographical details Ben Robinson tribute (archival) 1930 births 2009 deaths American fortean writers American UFO writers JFK-UFO conspiracy theories Forteana Cryptozoologists Mothman Parapsychologists Ufologists United States Army soldiers United States Army personnel of the Korean War People from Hornell, New York People from the Upper West Side	[ 0.4415532052516937, 0.3479478359222412, -0.40743833780288696, 0.32991933822631836, -0.09424781799316406, 0.14823830127716064, -0.046055566519498825, -0.013573900796473026, 0.23859325051307678, 0.08192234486341476, -0.1146295964717865, 0.42143771052360535, -0.5352634191513062, 0.2400086224079132, -0.5157651305198669, -0.4644591510295868, -0.21924787759780884, -0.5622368454933167, -0.7610905170440674, -0.3014771640300751, -0.0390327014029026, -0.26386138796806335, 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248112	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kavalactone	Kavalactone	Kavalactones are a class of lactone compounds found in the kava shrub. Kavalactones are under research for potential to have various psychotropic effects, including anxiolytic and sedative/hypnotic activities. Enzyme inhibition Kava extract has been shown to potently inhibit a wide range of hepatic enzymes, suggesting a very high potential for interactions with many pharmaceuticals and herbal medications. Research Several preliminary studies are assessing potential effects of kava, including its anxiolytic actions and hepatotoxicity, but the role specifically of kavalactones among many other kava compounds for these effects remains under study. Toxicity Several kavalactones (e.g. methysticin and yangonin) affect a group of enzymes involved in metabolism, called CYP1A1. Hepatotoxicity occurred in a small portion of previously healthy kava users, particularly from extracts, as opposed to whole root powders. Compounds At least 18 different kavalactones have been identified to date, with methysticin being the first identified. Multiple analogues, such as ethysticin, have also been isolated. Some consist of a substituted α-pyrone as the lactone while others are partially saturated. The average elimination half-life of kavalactones typically present in kava root is 9 hr. Biosynthesis The kavalactone biosynthetic pathway in Piper methysticum was described in 2019. See also Pipermethystine References External links The great kava boom: how Fiji's beloved psychoactive brew is going global The Guardian, 2020 Monoamine oxidase inhibitors GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators Anxiolytics Analgesics Sedatives Anticonvulsants Nootropics	[ -0.6397568583488464, 0.4001467823982239, -0.5237771272659302, -0.07405061274766922, -0.7433571815490723, 0.16949757933616638, 0.5559857487678528, -0.08113386482000351, 0.18024258315563202, 0.4203898012638092, -0.3298287093639374, 0.33873260021209717, -0.3001983165740967, 0.6478317379951477, 0.27546021342277527, 0.5396986603736877, 0.3393636643886566, 0.8557762503623962, 0.5387731790542603, -0.6992434859275818, 0.0619204081594944, -0.5409879684448242, -0.0327645018696785, -0.0798671767115593, 0.21834447979927063, 0.04642191529273987, 0.3671203553676605, 0.8472143411636353, 0.6139654517173767, -0.5035949945449829, -0.17963840067386627, 1.190447449684143, 0.4865744113922119, -0.13719502091407776, 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248113	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia%20Record	Columbia Record	The Columbia Record was an afternoon daily newspaper published in Columbia, South Carolina. It was established in 1897. International Paper & Power Co. purchased The Record in 1929 from R. Charlton Wright, who had been principal owner since 1918. The State had declined a chance to buy the paper in 1928 and subsequently faced stiff competition from its local rival. In 1945 The State finally purchased The Record from International Paper Co. The State for $550,000, to form the State-Record Company. The company was purchased by Knight-Ridder in 1986 and publication of the Columbia Record ceased on April 1, 1988. One of the quirks of the paper was that it printed the weekly entertainment section on green newsprint. The decision to close The Record was the natural outgrowth of the decline of afternoon papers nationally. By 1987, the paper's circulation was only 27,000 of which only 15,000 were exclusive Record subscribers. The rest also subscribed to The State. The decision to close the paper was announced by publisher Ben Morris on Jan. 20, 1988. All 50 Record employees were transferred to The State. Among the reporters to work at The Record was Marilyn Walser Thompson, who was on staff from 1974 to 1982. She gained national recognition for reporting on South Carolina's nuclear industry. She later worked for The Washington Post, the Los Angeles Times, The New York Times and Reuters, as Washington bureau chief. At The Post, she helped manage investigative teams that won Pulitzer Prizes in 1999 and 2000. She also broke the story of Strom Thurmond's biracial child. In the 1987 official style guide and employee instruction manual, the paper was described as a "modest alternative/news editorial voice" to the newspaper of record, The State. The focus was on "the people, public business and private commerce" of Richland and Lexington counties. Of course, company policy was to "spoonfeed" readers relevant information "as defined by editors to help them be informed and productive citizens." Both The State and The Record had strict rules against obscenities, which extended even to "mild expletives" such as damn or hell. Only the three top editors could approve publishing "ass" or the other words. "The editors and publisher of The State and The Columbia Record do not consider it a badge of journalist integrity to keep pace with the movies or other segments of society in the area of bar talk," Executive News Editor Thomas N. McLean wrote. References Further reading Palmettos and Oaks: A Centennial History of The State, Robert A. Pierce, 2011, The State-Record Co., Columbia, S.C. 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248114	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstrong%20cardinal	Superstrong cardinal	In mathematics, a cardinal number κ is called superstrong if and only if there exists an elementary embedding j : V → M from V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ and ⊆ M. Similarly, a cardinal κ is n-superstrong if and only if there exists an elementary embedding j : V → M from V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ and ⊆ M. Akihiro Kanamori has shown that the consistency strength of an n+1-superstrong cardinal exceeds that of an n-huge cardinal for each n > 0. References Set theory Large cardinals	[ -0.6957757472991943, 0.09184197336435318, 0.13552089035511017, -0.13031712174415588, -0.7030040621757507, 0.20737209916114807, 0.471024751663208, 0.4570252597332001, -0.24162209033966064, -0.49174225330352783, -0.9454579949378967, 0.38783028721809387, -0.5674648880958557, 0.11831752210855484, 0.18058465421199799, 0.45953720808029175, 0.6713076829910278, 0.4583853483200073, -0.8215571641921997, -0.5188955664634705, 0.1861191838979721, -0.16373305022716522, 0.1535596251487732, -0.09995412081480026, 0.5022356510162354, -0.18135902285575867, 0.00700576975941658, 0.04224551469087601, 0.6054272055625916, 0.5558949708938599, -0.19477610290050507, 0.8517416715621948, 0.2496185153722763, 0.07924242317676544, 0.11160482466220856, -0.4423004984855652, 0.6833803653717041, 0.07173101603984833, 0.04371952638030052, 0.018907593563199043, 0.6932791471481323, 0.19587640464305878, 0.19826364517211914, 0.1777367740869522, -0.637315571308136, -0.5906209945678711, 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248115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speak%20of%20the%20Devil%20%28Ozzy%20Osbourne%20album%29	Speak of the Devil (Ozzy Osbourne album)	Speak of the Devil is a live album by English heavy metal vocalist Ozzy Osbourne, released on 27 November 1982. It is a double album consisting entirely of live renditions of songs originally recorded by Osbourne's previous band Black Sabbath. The album was entitled Talk of the Devil in the UK, that being the more commonly expressed idiom there. In the UK, it was the second of four Osbourne albums to attain Silver certification (60,000 units sold) by the British Phonographic Industry, achieving this in January 1983. Background Planned album with Rhoads In early February 1982, a decision was made by Osbourne’s management and record label to record a live album consisting entirely of songs he had recorded in the 1970s with Black Sabbath. Several factors led to this decision. Sabbath’s publishing deal with their previous management had recently expired; by re-recording these songs all the songwriters (including Osbourne) would benefit from the publishing royalties. Additionally, Jet Records had cut a distribution deal with CBS Records which saw the small label stand to make a sizeable profit from the release. Business decisions aside, Black Sabbath was also readying its own live album release and Osbourne wanted his album in stores first. "We were both going through our own miseries," recalled Sabbath bassist Geezer Butler. "We couldn't afford not to release Live Evil and Ozzy was forced into making Speak of the Devil." The plan to record an album of Black Sabbath covers was not met with enthusiasm by Osbourne's band. Guitarist Randy Rhoads and drummer Tommy Aldridge refused to participate, feeling that they had established themselves as recording artists and such an album would be a step backwards professionally. They shared their feelings with bassist Rudy Sarzo; though Sarzo wasn't completely comfortable refusing to participate, he chose to stand with his bandmates and the trio informed manager Sharon Arden of their decision. Though Sharon took the news reasonably well, Ozzy was furious. He responded by going on what Sarzo described as "the worst drinking binges I had ever witnessed" and his relationship with Rhoads never fully recovered. It was during this tumultuous period that Osbourne was infamously arrested for drunkenly urinating on the Alamo. Several hours before the Alamo incident, he drunkenly fired the entire band (including Rhoads), though he later had no memory of doing so. Osbourne frequently confronted Rhoads on the tour bus and taunted him with claims that the likes of Frank Zappa and Gary Moore were willing to replace him for the live album. Osbourne's unstable and confrontational behavior soon convinced Rhoads to leave the band. He grudgingly agreed to perform on the live album but would depart after fulfilling his contractual obligations to Jet Records, which consisted of one more studio album and subsequent tour. The original plan was to record the album at Toronto's Maple Leaf Gardens. The show, complete with half-naked girls on the stage in what manager Sharon anticipated would be "the greatest rock spectacle ever", would also be videotaped and released for the burgeoning home video market. These plans all crumbled upon Rhoads' sudden death weeks later in a plane crash. Arrival of Brad Gillis After the death of Rhoads, the band carried on for a short time with guitarist Bernie Tormé, until both parties agreed that the arrangement was not working out. Guitarist Brad Gillis arrived in New York City from California on April 5, 1982, to audition for Osbourne's band. Sharon dispatched Sarzo to Gillis' hotel room to teach him the songs. Though Gillis was vaguely familiar with Osbourne's music after seeing the band perform live the previous summer at the Day on the Green in Oakland, he was completely unfamiliar with Black Sabbath's music. He borrowed a friend's old Black Sabbath albums to become more familiar with the songs before leaving for New York City. His ability to faithfully reproduce Rhoads' parts earned Gillis the job, and he subsequently traveled with the band and became familiar with the material as Bernie Torme played his last few shows before leaving. On April 12, 1982, Gillis performed with the band during soundcheck before a show in Binghamton, New York, and played his first show with the band later that evening. Torme was described as "the consummate professional" during this period, staying with the band until Gillis was ready to step in, even waiting backstage during Gillis' first few shows in case he was needed. Rehearsals On September 19, 1982, the band and crew arrived in New York City to begin rehearsals for the two shows that would be recorded to comprise the Speak of the Devil album. Over the following few days, Gillis, Sarzo, and Aldridge would rehearse in what Sarzo described as a "gloomy midtown Manhattan studio" while Osbourne himself was nowhere to be found. The band was given only five days to learn the songs, though in Aldridge's case, he was quite familiar with Black Sabbath's material after opening for the band countless times as a member of Black Oak Arkansas in the 1970s. As the band began rehearsing, Sharon arrived and informed them, "Now boys, don’t expect to see much of Ozzy at rehearsals. He’s not being very cooperative." The record company planned to include previously recorded live versions of "Iron Man", "Children of the Grave", and "Paranoid" featuring Rhoads on guitar, so Sharon told the band to not bother rehearsing those particular songs. As rehearsals continued without Ozzy, the band was still coming to terms with the loss of Rhoads, and morale was very low. The band members resented the fact that they were rehearsing for an Ozzy Osbourne album while Osbourne himself could not be bothered even showing up. It was during this period that Sarzo, who was already recording the Metal Health sessions in secret with Quiet Riot, made his final decision to leave Osbourne's band. Recording Osbourne, who had not rehearsed the songs with his band at all, finally showed up for soundcheck the day of the first show on September 26, 1982, and had tremendous difficulty remembering the lyrics to many of the songs. During the shows, he placed a folding chair with a desk lamp on top of it at center stage, and placed a notebook with handwritten lyrics to the songs on the chair. Throughout the shows, he often stood by this chair, singing as he read the lyrics from the notebook. The Ritz, which held just under 1,000 people, was sold-out for the performances. Sarzo described the audiences as "rowdy", and also described the acoustics of the converted Latin ballroom as warm, intimate, and perfect for their needs. The band typically used side-fill monitors to allow the musicians to hear the drums while playing on larger stages, but the Ritz's smaller stage forced them to be removed for these shows. This change forced Gillis and Sarzo to spend the majority of the shows standing directly in front of the drum riser in order to hear Aldridge's drums over the intense volume of the band's backline. The mood during the shows was casual, as the usual spectacle of Osbourne's live performances was scaled back with the emphasis instead placed on capturing the tightest possible performances for the recordings. The Record Plant's mobile studio was parked in an alley behind the Ritz to capture the performances on tape. The band members dressed down, not wearing their usual stage clothes, with Osbourne himself sporting sweatpants and a bald head after drunkenly shaving off his familiar long hair a few days prior. Near the ends of the shows, as "Iron Man", "Children of the Grave" and "Paranoid" came up in the setlist, the band let loose and made less effort to play tight, as they had been told by management that these performances would not be included on Speak of the Devil; previously recorded live versions of those songs featuring Rhoads on guitar were to be used instead. A decision was later made to save the Rhoads versions for a future release, and thus the versions of those songs which ultimately appeared on Speak of the Devil were taken from one of the performances at The Ritz. Sarzo recalled listening to the final mixes of those songs and being appalled at how sloppy his playing was on those three tracks, as they had only run through them a couple of times in rehearsal. As the band, minus Osbourne, flew back to Los Angeles on September 28 after completing the shows, Gillis played them the demo recordings he had made with Night Ranger that would comprise the band's soon-to-be released debut album, while Sarzo played them the new Quiet Riot recordings he had been working on in secret. Upon arriving in Los Angeles, Sarzo promptly quit Osbourne's band and officially rejoined Quiet Riot, prompting a long and bitter feud with Osbourne that would culminate in the vocalist assaulting him backstage at the US Festival in 1983. Gillis also left Osbourne's band shortly thereafter, returning to Night Ranger weeks later. Speak of the Devil represents the only official Osbourne recording to feature the guitarist's work. Album producer Max Norman stated in 2007 that due to a limited budget, he had Osbourne and the band perform an entire extra show with no audience in the afternoon of either the 26th or 27 September. Norman recorded that performance in the event that the actual live shows were not of suitable quality for release. "At least we've got a choice and we'll have more material to draw from", he said of this decision. According to Norman, the finished album features three songs from that performance with crowd noise later added in post-production. Though Norman did not specifically identify which tracks he was referring to, he said "If you got nothing to do for a couple of days you could just lie there and listen to them in the headphones and figure out which songs had the real audience and which ones didn't." Soundboard recordings of both performances, which exist as bootleg recordings, seem to prove that all tracks appearing on the album with the exception of "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" were taken from the 27 September show. "Sabbath Bloody Sabbath" was not played at either of the Ritz concerts and the recorded version included on Speak of the Devil is believed to have come from the afternoon recording referenced by Norman. Other A double album, Speak of the Devil represents the fulfillment of a contractual obligation, as Osbourne owed Jet Records two more records. Though the album has long been a fan favorite, Osbourne himself has publicly renounced Speak of the Devil, stating that it was only released to satisfy a contractual obligation. The live versions of "Iron Man", "Children of the Grave" and "Paranoid" featuring Randy Rhoads which were originally intended to be part of Speak of the Devil were eventually released in 1987 on Tribute, an album dedicated to the memory of the deceased guitarist. Though they had been full-time members of Osbourne's band for some time, this is Osbourne's first album to feature bassist Sarzo and drummer Aldridge. The duo had been credited on the 1981 Diary of a Madman album but did not actually perform on it. Speak of the Devil'''s gatefold includes multiple photos of a member of Osbourne's road crew (who took part in the stage show by bringing the vocalist drinks between songs) who suffered from dwarfism and who Osbourne nicknamed "Ronnie", a joke aimed at Ronnie James Dio. Dio had replaced Osbourne as Black Sabbath's lead vocalist and stood only 5' 4" tall.Speak of the Devil was released one month before Osbourne's former band, Black Sabbath, released their own live album entitled Live Evil, a situation which contributed to a growing rivalry between the two camps. In the US, sales of Speak of the Devil were much better than those of Live Evil, while in the UK it was Live Evil which attained the higher chart-placing: figures on ultimate sales are not widely available. The original CD release of Speak of the Devil omitted the song "Sweet Leaf", presumably due to time constraints. It was, however, reinstated for the 1995 reissue of the album. Track listing All songs written by Ozzy Osbourne, Tony Iommi, Geezer Butler and Bill Ward. Video A Japan-only official release video also entitled Speak of the Devil'' has been available since the early 1980s. This video release has no relation to the album of the same name, consisting of Osbourne's early solo material rounded out by three Black Sabbath numbers. This video release features an outdoor live performance recorded on 23 June 1982, at Irvine Meadows Amphitheatre with the same backing band as the album of the same name. The recording was done by MTV and originally broadcast on the cable network on 31 October 1982, under the title "MTV Halloween Live from Irvine". Being an outdoor show, wind resulted in insufficient haze from the fog machines to reflect the laser light show, and thus they weren't used; the lasers seen in the final edit were added later in post-production. On 16 July 1982, the band members gathered at Jet Records' offices in Los Angeles to watch the final edit. Osbourne was unhappy with the laser show and stormed out of the room. Bassist Rudy Sarzo later observed him in the parking lot, drunkenly letting the air out of the producer's tires in protest. This video was finally released in the US in DVD format on 17 July 2012 from Eagle Rock Entertainment. Following its US release, this DVD has been met with positive responses. William Clark of Guitar International said, "Everything from the stage sets, to the action on stage and the powerful Ozzy persona make this live performance, in a word, fantastic". Personnel Band members Ozzy Osbourne - vocals, harmonica on "The Wizard" Brad Gillis - guitar Rudy Sarzo - bass Tommy Aldridge - drums Production Max Norman - producer, engineer, mixing at Record Plant Studios, New York Chuck Weisner - live sound Tim Young - mastering Charts Album Singles Certifications References External links 1982 live albums Ozzy Osbourne live albums Albums produced by Max Norman Jet Records live albums Epic Records live albums	[ 0.09440668672323227, 0.610675573348999, -0.27678972482681274, 0.05154266953468323, -0.7451926469802856, 0.2643951177597046, 0.7601383924484253, 0.03869098797440529, 0.13458251953125, -0.03653370589017868, 0.4351049065589905, 1.0289572477340698, -0.6859033107757568, 0.08512184768915176, 0.3117542564868927, 0.4188465476036072, 0.05730796977877617, -0.026357710361480713, -0.34603628516197205, -1.0261470079421997, 0.5859066247940063, -0.25571855902671814, 0.17843246459960938, 0.1446264535188675, -0.16012535989284515, 0.34470075368881226, 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248116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercompact%20cardinal	Supercompact cardinal	In set theory, a supercompact cardinal is a type of large cardinal. They display a variety of reflection properties. Formal definition If λ is any ordinal, κ is λ-supercompact means that there exists an elementary embedding j from the universe V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ, j(κ)>λ and That is, M contains all of its λ-sequences. Then κ is supercompact means that it is λ-supercompact for all ordinals λ. Alternatively, an uncountable cardinal κ is supercompact if for every A such that \|A\| ≥ κ there exists a normal measure over [A]< κ, in the following sense. [A]< κ is defined as follows: An ultrafilter U over [A]< κ is fine if it is κ-complete and , for every . A normal measure over [A]< κ is a fine ultrafilter U over [A]< κ with the additional property that every function such that is constant on a set in . Here "constant on a set in U" means that there is such that . Properties Supercompact cardinals have reflection properties. If a cardinal with some property (say a 3-huge cardinal) that is witnessed by a structure of limited rank exists above a supercompact cardinal κ, then a cardinal with that property exists below κ. For example, if κ is supercompact and the generalized continuum hypothesis (GCH) holds below κ then it holds everywhere because a bijection between the powerset of ν and a cardinal at least ν++ would be a witness of limited rank for the failure of GCH at ν so it would also have to exist below κ. Finding a canonical inner model for supercompact cardinals is one of the major problems of inner model theory. See also Indestructibility Strongly compact cardinal List of large cardinal properties References Large cardinals	[ -0.6550791263580322, -0.1902664750814438, -0.14794383943080902, 0.13740704953670502, -0.5675455331802368, 0.1358082890510559, 0.4200248420238495, 0.8338527679443359, -0.45110276341438293, -0.3781423568725586, -1.3015196323394775, 0.5238547921180725, -0.5105152726173401, 0.35153043270111084, 0.19023896753787994, 0.35177770256996155, 0.7856026291847229, 0.5932161808013916, -0.5799887776374817, -0.5766904950141907, -0.002018561353906989, 0.025443900376558304, 0.11638469249010086, -0.3165362477302551, 0.3337059020996094, -0.2851840555667877, -0.35956788063049316, 0.22973336279392242, 0.6058861017227173, 0.6356297731399536, 0.06350433826446533, 0.8418642282485962, 0.09892373532056808, 0.07031261175870895, -0.008259985595941544, -0.42584744095802307, 0.8807255625724792, -0.2306516468524933, -0.08088494092226028, -0.1841309368610382, 0.9276401400566101, -0.036173462867736816, 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248117	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huge%20cardinal	Huge cardinal	In mathematics, a cardinal number κ is called huge if there exists an elementary embedding j : V → M from V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ and Here, αM is the class of all sequences of length α whose elements are in M. Huge cardinals were introduced by . Variants In what follows, jn refers to the n-th iterate of the elementary embedding j, that is, j composed with itself n times, for a finite ordinal n. Also, <αM is the class of all sequences of length less than α whose elements are in M. Notice that for the "super" versions, γ should be less than j(κ), not . κ is almost n-huge if and only if there is j : V → M with critical point κ and κ is super almost n-huge if and only if for every ordinal γ there is j : V → M with critical point κ, γ<j(κ), and κ is n-huge if and only if there is j : V → M with critical point κ and κ is super n-huge if and only if for every ordinal γ there is j : V → M with critical point κ, γ<j(κ), and Notice that 0-huge is the same as measurable cardinal; and 1-huge is the same as huge. A cardinal satisfying one of the rank into rank axioms is n-huge for all finite n. The existence of an almost huge cardinal implies that Vopěnka's principle is consistent; more precisely any almost huge cardinal is also a Vopěnka cardinal. Consistency strength The cardinals are arranged in order of increasing consistency strength as follows: almost n-huge super almost n-huge n-huge super n-huge almost n+1-huge The consistency of a huge cardinal implies the consistency of a supercompact cardinal, nevertheless, the least huge cardinal is smaller than the least supercompact cardinal (assuming both exist). ω-huge cardinals One can try defining an ω-huge cardinal κ as one such that an elementary embedding j : V → M from V into a transitive inner model M with critical point κ and λM⊆M, where λ is the supremum of jn(κ) for positive integers n. However Kunen's inconsistency theorem shows that such cardinals are inconsistent in ZFC, though it is still open whether they are consistent in ZF. Instead an ω-huge cardinal κ is defined as the critical point of an elementary embedding from some rank Vλ+1 to itself. This is closely related to the rank-into-rank axiom I1. See also List of large cardinal properties The Dehornoy order on a braid group was motivated by properties of huge cardinals. References . . . A copy of parts I and II of this article with corrections is available at the author's web page. 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248118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzo%20Music	Lorenzo Music	Gerald David "Lorenzo" Music (May 2, 1937 – August 4, 2001) was an American actor, producer and writer. Music began his career in the 1960s as a writer and a regular performer on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. In the 1970s, Music co-created the sitcom The Bob Newhart Show with David Davis and composed its theme music with his wife, Henrietta. He also wrote episodes for The Mary Tyler Moore Show and Rhoda, and got his major voiceover role for playing the unseen, but often heard, Carlton the Doorman in Rhoda. Music gained fame in the 1980s for voicing Jim Davis' comic strip character Garfield on twelve animated specials, and later in cartoons, video games, and commercials until his death in 2001. Music's distinctive voice of Garfield is still often used in animated specials in his legacy. Early life Gerald David Music was born on May 2, 1937 in Brooklyn, New York. He was six years old when his family moved to Duluth, Minnesota, for his father's job at one of the shipyards. He was student at Central High School and then at the University of Minnesota Duluth. Music met his wife Henrietta at the latter, in the Theatre Arts Department. Together, they formed a comedy duo named Gerald and His Hen, who performed together for eight years. Music changed his first name to Lorenzo for spiritual reasons after he became a member of the international spiritual association Subud. Career Writing career (1962–1981) Music became a writer and a regular performer on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour during 1968 and 1969. His work as a writer on The Mary Tyler Moore Show in 1970 would lead him to his big break. Music was the co-creator of The Bob Newhart Show with his producer/writing partner David Davis. The show ran on CBS from 1972 to 1978; he also co-wrote the theme song to the show with his wife Henrietta. Music continued writing for The Mary Tyler Moore Show spin-off Rhoda. While casting Rhoda, the producers were looking for a voice actor to play the part of a character that would be heard but never seen: Carlton the doorman. When they heard Music's sleepy, husky voice, they offered him that role, which made his voice recognizable to a worldwide television audience. The character was popular enough to warrant a one-off single in 1975 called "Who Is It?" (b/w "The Girl in 510", United Artists UA-XW643-X), which became a regional hit. Music also co-produced and co-wrote a 1980 animated special called Carlton Your Doorman which won an Emmy Award. Though it was actually a pilot episode, CBS did not pick it up as a series. In 1976, Lorenzo and Henrietta were given the opportunity to host a syndicated television variety show of their own. The Lorenzo and Henrietta Music Show was produced at a time when there was a glut of television variety shows, but it did not last. In 1983, Music voiced the character Ralph the All-Purpose Animal in the stop-motion animated film Twice Upon a Time. Garfield (1982–2001) In 1982, Jim Davis's Garfield was the most popular comic strip in America. Compilation books and merchandising of the strip were topping best seller lists, and Davis was negotiating to make an animated television special. Producers needed someone to voice the main character in the strip: Garfield, a fat, lazy, sarcastic and demanding cat. The audition attracted several famed vocal talents, including Sterling Holloway, the voice of Winnie the Pooh. After one audition, Music was immediately cast as the voice of Garfield; in Davis's words, "I looked at the room full of [voice] actors, and then in the corner I saw Lorenzo, quietly licking himself". Music would serve as the voice of Garfield in more than 12 television specials, in the Garfield and Friends animated television series that ran from 1988-1994 on CBS, video games and commercials until 2001. He last voiced Garfield for an automobile commercial that year. Other voice work Music voiced characters for shows such as TaleSpin as Sgt. Dunder, The Real Ghostbusters as the original voice of Peter Venkman, Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears as Tummi Gummi, Fluppy Dogs as Ozzie the Green Cool Fluppy, Pac-Man, Pound Puppies as Teensy in the season 2 episode Little Big Dog, and Darkwing Duck. In the mid-1990s, after Garfield and Friends, Darkwing Duck and Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears concluded, Music retired from cartoon voice acting. During the 1980s, Music also did voice-overs for many commercials for prime-time TV, such as Larry the Crash Test Dummy in the "You Could Learn a Lot from a Dummy" public safety announcements sponsored by the U.S. Department of Transportation and for Florida grapefruit juice, a lesser known series of commercials extolling Florida agriculture as opposed to the more popular "Florida orange juice" commercials. In keeping with his beliefs in Subud and emphasis on charity, Music frequently volunteered his time on a suicide hotline. Music recalled that sometimes a caller would change his tone: "I am bankrupt, my wife ran off with another man... Hey, you sound just like that cat on TV!" Later years (1995–2001) In 1996, Music's voice could be heard on Stan Freberg's Stan Freberg Presents the United States of America Volume Two album, released as a CD by Rhino Records. Music appeared on the album as James Madison and Robert E. Lee. Music also appeared as an intercom announcer on an episode of The Drew Carey Show. In the early 1990s, he served as the voice-over for commercials for Ore-Ida Potatoes and Fruit and Cream Strawberry Twinkies. He later served as the pitchman for Ruggles Ice Cream (a local brand from Orrville, Ohio). Personal life Music was married to composer/writer Henrietta Music; together they had four children. Death Music died from complications related to lung and bone cancer on August 4, 2001, at age 64. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered at sea. Legacy Since Music's death, Frank Welker has often replaced him as the voice of Garfield in recent productions of the Garfield franchise including three fully-CGI films: Garfield Gets Real, Garfield's Fun Fest, and Garfield's Pet Force and the CGI animated series, The Garfield Show. In the live-action films Garfield: The Movie and Garfield: A Tail of Two Kitties, Garfield's voice was provided by Bill Murray. Coincidentally, Music voiced Peter Venkman (a role originally played by Murray) in the first two seasons of the animated series of The Real Ghostbusters, before being replaced by Dave Coulier. Welker provided the voices of Ray Stantz and Slimer in the same series. Filmography Film Television Animated film Animation Video games Production credits Writer Producer Consultant References External links 1937 births 2001 deaths American comedy writers American male film actors American male pop singers American male television actors American male voice actors American people of Serbian descent American Subud members American television writers Deaths from bone cancer Deaths from cancer in California Deaths from lung cancer Male actors from Duluth, Minnesota Male actors from New York City American male television writers Musicians from Brooklyn Musicians from Duluth, Minnesota Primetime Emmy Award winners Screenwriters from Minnesota Screenwriters from New York (state) Television producers from New York City University of Minnesota Duluth alumni 20th-century American screenwriters 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American male singers 20th-century American singers Television producers from Minnesota	[ -0.32075321674346924, 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248127	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy%20Lee%20Jones	Tommy Lee Jones	Tommy Lee Jones (born September 15, 1946) is an American actor and film director. He has received four Academy Award nominations, winning Best Supporting Actor for his performance as U.S. Marshal Samuel Gerard in the 1993 thriller film The Fugitive. His other notable starring roles include Texas Ranger Woodrow F. Call in the television miniseries Lonesome Dove, Agent K in the Men in Black film series, Sheriff Ed Tom Bell in No Country for Old Men, Hank Deerfield in In the Valley of Elah, the villain Two-Face in Batman Forever, Mike Roark in disaster film Volcano, terrorist William "Bill" Strannix in Under Siege, Texas Ranger Roland Sharp in Man of the House, rancher Pete Perkins in The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada, which he also directed, Colonel Chester Phillips in Captain America: The First Avenger, CIA Director Robert Dewey in Jason Bourne, and Warden Dwight McClusky in Natural Born Killers. He most recently appeared in science fiction film Ad Astra in 2019 and in the comedy The Comeback Trail in 2020. Jones has also portrayed historical figures such as businessman Howard Hughes in The Amazing Howard Hughes, Radical Republican Congressman Thaddeus Stevens in Lincoln, executed murderer Gary Gilmore in The Executioner's Song, U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur in Emperor, businessman Clay Shaw, the only person prosecuted in connection with the assassination of President John F. Kennedy in JFK, Oliver Vanetta "Doolittle" Lynn, in Coal Miner's Daughter, and baseball player Ty Cobb in Cobb. Early life Jones was born on September 15, 1946, in San Saba, Texas. His mother, Lucille Marie (), a police officer, school teacher, and beauty shop owner, and his father, Clyde C. Jones (1926–1986), was a cowboy and oil field worker. The two were married and divorced twice. He has said that he is of part Cherokee descent. He was raised in Midland, Texas, and attended Robert E. Lee High School. Jones soon moved to Dallas and graduated from the St. Mark's School of Texas in 1965, which he attended on scholarship. College He attended Harvard College on a need-based scholarship; his roommate was future Vice President Al Gore. As an upperclassman, he stayed in Dunster House with roommates Gore and Bob Somerby, who later became editor of the media criticism site The Daily Howler. Jones graduated cum laude with a Bachelor of Arts degree in English in 1969; his senior thesis was on "the mechanics of Catholicism" in the works of Flannery O'Connor. At Harvard, he was a pupil of dramatist Robert Chapman. College football Jones played guard at Harvard from 1965 to 1968. He was a member of the Harvard's undefeated 1968 football team. He was named as a first-team All-Ivy League selection, and played in the 1968 Game. The game featured a memorable and last-minute Harvard 16-point comeback to tie Yale. He recounted his memory of "the most famous football game in Ivy League history" in the documentary Harvard Beats Yale 29-29. Career Early acting and film (1960s–1980) Jones moved to New York to become an actor, making his Broadway debut in 1969's A Patriot for Me in a number of supporting roles. In 1970, he landed his first film role, coincidentally playing a Harvard student in Love Story (Erich Segal, the author of Love Story, said that he based the lead character of Oliver on aspects of two undergraduate roommates he knew while on a sabbatical at Harvard, Jones and Al Gore). In early 1971, he returned to Broadway in Abe Burrows' Four on a Garden where he shared the stage with Carol Channing and Sid Caesar. Between 1971 and 1975 he portrayed Dr. Mark Toland on the ABC soap opera, One Life to Live. He returned to the stage for a short-lived 1974 production of Ulysses in Nighttown, an adaptation of one episode from James Joyce's novel Ulysses, playing Stephen Dedalus opposite Zero Mostel's Leopold Bloom and directed by Burgess Meredith. It was followed by the acclaimed TV movie The Amazing Howard Hughes, where he played the lead role. In films, he played an escaped convict hunted in Jackson County Jail (1976), a Vietnam veteran in Rolling Thunder (1977), an automobile mogul, co-starring with Laurence Olivier in the Harold Robbins drama The Betsy, and Police Detective 'John Neville' opposite Faye Dunaway in the 1978 thriller Eyes of Laura Mars. In 1980, Jones earned his first Golden Globe nomination for his portrayal of country singer Loretta Lynn's husband, Doolittle "Mooney" Lynn, in Coal Miner's Daughter. In 1981, he played a drifter opposite Sally Field in Back Roads, a comedy that received middling reviews. Increased exposure (1983–2004) In 1983, he received an Emmy for Best Actor for his performance as murderer Gary Gilmore in a TV adaptation of Norman Mailer's The Executioner's Song. That same year he starred in a pirate adventure, Nate and Hayes, playing the heavily bearded pirate Captain Bully Hayes. In 1989, he earned another Emmy nomination for his portrayal of Texas Ranger Woodrow F. Call in the acclaimed television mini-series Lonesome Dove, based on the best-seller by Larry McMurtry. In the 1990s, blockbuster hits such as JFK co-starring Kevin Costner, The Fugitive co-starring Harrison Ford, Batman Forever co-starring Val Kilmer, and Men in Black with Will Smith made Jones one of the highest paid and most in-demand actors in Hollywood. His performance as Deputy U.S. Marshal Samuel Gerard in The Fugitive received broad acclaim and an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and a sequel. When he accepted his Oscar, his head was shaved for his role in the film Cobb, which he made light of in his speech: "The only thing a man can say at a time like this is 'I am not really bald'. Actually I'm lucky to be working". Among his other well-known performances during the 1990s were those of the accused conspirator Clay Shaw/Clay Bertrand in the 1991 film JFK (which earned him another Oscar nomination), as a terrorist who hijacks a U.S. Navy battleship in Under Siege and as a maximum-security prison warden who's in way over his head in Natural Born Killers. He also played the role of "Reverend" Roy Foltrigg in the 1994 film The Client. Jones co-starred with director Clint Eastwood as astronauts in the 2000 film Space Cowboys, in which both played retired pilots and friends/rivals leading a space rescue mission together. Later years (2005–present) In 2005, the first theatrical feature film Jones directed, The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada, was presented at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival. Jones's character speaks both English and Spanish in the film. His performance won him the Best Actor Award at Cannes. His first film as a director had been The Good Old Boys in 1995, a made-for-television movie. Two strong performances in 2007 marked a resurgence in Jones's career, one as a beleaguered father investigating the disappearance of his soldier son in In the Valley of Elah, the other as a Texas sheriff hunting an assassin in the Oscar-winning No Country for Old Men. For the former, he was nominated for an Academy Award. Jones has been a spokesman for Japanese brewing company Suntory since 2006. He can be seen in various Japanese TV commercials of Suntory's Coffee brand Boss as a character called "Alien Jones," an extraterrestrial who takes the form of a human being to check on the world of humans. Many of these commercials can be seen on YouTube. In 2011, Jones appeared in public service announcements on Japanese television, joining a number of other popular figures who sang two sentimental songs in remembrance of those lost in the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. In 2010, Jones appeared alongside Ben Affleck in the recession drama The Company Men. The film premiered at the Sundance Film Festival, where early reviews praised Jones's performance as "pitch-perfect." Jones had a role in the Marvel Studios film, Captain America: The First Avenger. He also directed, produced and co-starred with Samuel L. Jackson in an adaptation of The Sunset Limited. In 2012, there was another turning point in Jones's career, starting with playing Agent K again in Men in Black 3, portraying Arnold Soames in the romantic dramedy Hope Springs, and co-starring as Thaddeus Stevens in Steven Spielberg's Lincoln. Jones's performance in Lincoln received wide critical acclaim, and he was nominated for an Oscar for the fourth time, for Best Supporting Actor. Personal life Jones was married to Kate Lardner, the niece of screenwriter and journalist Ring Lardner Jr., from 1971 to 1978. He has two children from his second marriage to Kimberlea Cloughley, the daughter of Phil Hardberger, former mayor of San Antonio: Austin Leonard (born 1982) and Victoria Kafka (born 1991). On March 19, 2001, he married his third wife, Dawn Laurel. Jones resides in Terrell Hills, Texas, a city just outside of downtown San Antonio, and speaks Spanish, which he used to good effect in Men in Black. He owns a cattle ranch in San Saba County, Texas, and a ranch near Van Horn, Texas, which served as the set for his film The Three Burials of Melquiades Estrada. He owned an equestrian estate in Wellington, Florida, until he sold it in 2019. Jones is a polo player, and he has a house in a polo country club in Buenos Aires, Argentina. He is a supporter of the Polo Training Foundation. He is an avid San Antonio Spurs fan; he is often seen courtside at Spurs games. At the 2000 Democratic National Convention, he gave the nominating speech for his former college roommate, Al Gore, as the Democratic Party's nominee for President of the United States. Filmography Film Television Stage Advertising Awards and nominations Western honors See also Notable alumni of St. Mark's School of Texas References Further reading Grunert, Andrea, "Les bons et les méchants selon Tommy Lee Jones", in: Francis Bordat et Serge Chauvin (eds.) Les bons et les méchants Université Paris X, 2005, p. 339–352, External links Harvard Football player page 1946 births 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American people of Welsh descent Male actors from Texas American male film actors American football offensive linemen American polo players American male stage actors American male soap opera actors American male television actors Best Supporting Actor Academy Award winners Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners Harvard College alumni Harvard Crimson football players Living people Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Miniseries or Movie Primetime Emmy Award winners Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture Screen Actors Guild Award winners People from Midland, Texas Male actors from San Antonio People from San Saba, Texas Robert E. Lee High School (Midland, Texas) alumni St. Mark's School (Texas) alumni Male Western (genre) film actors Film directors from Texas Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role Screen Actors Guild Award winners People from Wellington, Florida Film producers from Texas American male screenwriters Texas Democrats People from Bexar County, Texas American people who self-identify as being of Native American descent Film directors from Florida Screenwriters from Texas Screenwriters from Florida Film producers from Florida	[ -0.014831431210041046, 0.07380271703004837, -0.7520536184310913, -0.2996883988380432, 0.9553543925285339, 0.540927529335022, 0.5670315027236938, 0.19336210191249847, -0.5130122900009155, 0.07355430722236633, -0.37399980425834656, 1.1210293769836426, -0.18834488093852997, 0.06224337965250015, -0.1328224539756775, 0.3275248408317566, 0.31372007727622986, 0.10065776854753494, -0.26500430703163147, -0.6435664296150208, -0.59029221534729, -0.07863005995750427, 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248130	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Neville%2C%201st%20Marquess%20of%20Montagu	John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu	John Neville, 1st Marquess of Montagu (c. 1431 – 14 April 1471) was a major magnate of fifteenth-century England. He was a younger son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, and the younger brother of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, the "Kingmaker". From an early age he was involved in fighting for his House, particularly in the feud that sprang up in the 1450s with the Neville family's major regional rivals, the Percy family. John Neville was personally responsible for much of the violence until, with his brothers, they defeated and imprisoned their enemies. This was taking place against the backdrop of a crisis in central government. The king, Henry VI, already known to be a weak ruler, suffered a mental collapse which led to a protectorate headed by John's uncle, Richard, Duke of York. Within two years an armed conflict had broken out, with York openly in rebellion against the king, and his Neville cousins supporting him. John fought with his father and Warwick against the king at the first Battle of St Albans, at which they had the victory. Following a few years of uneasy peace, the Yorkists' rebellion erupted once again, and John Neville fought alongside his father and elder brother Thomas at the Battle of Blore Heath in September 1459. Although the Earl of Salisbury fought off the Lancastrians, both his sons were captured, and John, with Thomas, spent the next year imprisoned. Following his release in 1460, he took part in the Yorkist government. His father and brother died in battle just after Christmas 1460, and in February the next year, John – now promoted to the peerage as Lord Montagu – and Warwick fought the Lancastrians again at St Albans. John was once again captured and not released until his cousin Edward, York's son, won a decisive victory at Towton in March 1461, and became King Edward IV. John Neville soon emerged, with Warwick, as representatives of the king's power in the north, which was still politically turbulent, as there were still a large number of Lancastrians on the loose attempting to raise rebellion against the new regime. As his brother Warwick became more involved in national politics and central government, it devolved to John to finally defeat the last remnants of Lancastrians in 1464. Following these victories, Montagu, in what has been described as a high point for his House, was created Earl of Northumberland. At around the same time, however, his brother Warwick became increasingly dissatisfied with his relationship with the king, and began instigating rebellions against Edward IV in the north, finally capturing him in July 1469. At first, Montagu helped suppress this discontent, and also encouraged Warwick to release Edward. Eventually, however, his brother went into French exile with the king's brother George, Duke of Clarence, in March 1470. During Warwick's exile, King Edward stripped Montagu of the Earldom of Northumberland, making him Marquis of Montagu instead. John Neville appears to have seen this as a reduction in rank, and accepted it with poor grace. He seems particularly to have complained about the lack of landed estate that his new marquisate brought with it, calling it a "pie's nest". When the Earl of Warwick and Clarence returned, they distracted Edward with a rebellion in the north, which the king ordered Montagu to raise troops to repress in the king's name. Montagu, however, having raised a small army, turned against Edward, almost capturing him at Olney, Buckinghamshire; the king, with his other brother Richard, Duke of Gloucester, fled into exile in Burgundy. While in exile, Warwick had allied with the old king, Henry VI and his Queen, Margaret of Anjou, Henry was restored to the throne, and Warwick now effectively ruled the kingdom, This return to Lancastrianism did not, however, last long; within the year, Edward and Gloucester had returned. Landing only a few miles from Montagu in Yorkshire – who did nothing to stop them – the Yorkists marched south, raising an army. Montagu followed them, and, meeting up with his brother at Coventry, they confronted Edward over a battlefield at Barnet. John Neville was cut down in the fighting, Warwick died soon after, and within a month Edward had reclaimed his throne and Henry VI and his line was extinguished. Youth and early career Montagu was the third son of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury, and Alice Montacute, 5th Countess of Salisbury, and a younger brother of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, "the Kingmaker." John Neville's upbringing and career was entwined with that of the north of England and specifically, the marcher areas, the eastern and western borders between Scotland and England, controlled from Berwick and Carlisle respectively. His Early activity there consisted of diplomatic meetings with the Scots, at which he acted as a witness, between 1449 and 1451. He was also one of three men who were instructed, in a letter of 3 February 1449, to not attend the forthcoming parliament and remain in the north guarding the border. He was knighted by King Henry VI at Greenwich on 5 January 1453, alongside Edmund and Jasper Tudor, his brother Thomas Neville, William Herbert, Roger Lewknor, and William Catesby. Feud with the Percys Sir John Neville was from the branch of the Neville family based at Middleham Castle in Yorkshire, rather than that of Westmorland. It has been claimed that he, as a "landless younger son" was partially to blame for his family's long-running feud with the Lancastrian Percy family of Northumberland. The first outburst of violence that took place was a result of the 1 May 1453 royal licence for John Neville's brother, Thomas Neville to marry Maud Stanhope being issued. News of this must have reached the north within the fortnight, for by the twelfth, one of the Earl of Northumberland's younger sons, Thomas Percy, Lord Egremont, began recruiting men. In August 1453, John Neville raided the Percy castle of Topcliffe, possibly with the intention of seizing Egremont. Failing to find him, Neville resorted to threatening the Percy tenantry who were in residence. He and Egremont were subsequently summoned to appear before the Royal Council, a summons which was ignored by both. Feuding continued through summer 1453, and even though they had been instructed to keep the peace, by the 27 July, the council was issuing letters to Northumberland and Salisbury regarding their sons. This was followed by more letters to the sons. In Knaresborough, the locals generally aligned themselves with John Neville due to the unpopularity of Sir William Plumpton (the king's man), from whom they began stealing with impunity, which resulted in severe injuries when the Neville brothers demonstrated a "show of force" in January 1454. John Neville was with his brother's wedding party when Egremont ambushed them on the return from Tattershall Castle. This took place on Heworth Moor on 24 August 1453. The next month, John took a raiding party and ransacked Egremont's Catton manor, "breaking windows and shattering tiles." With his brothers, Thomas and Richard, as well as the Earl of Salisbury, they faced the Earl of Northumberland and his sons at Topcliffe on 20 October 1453, although a peace was then negotiated. The feud continued for much of the next year, and only came to a halt with a battle at Salisbury's manor of Stamford Bridge, near York on 31 October 1454. Thomas and John confronted, and decisively beat, Egremont and Richard Percy, whom the Nevilles captured. Marriage John Neville married Isabel Ingoldsthorpe (c.1441 – 20 May 1476), of Burrough Green and Sawston, Cambridgeshire, on 25 April 1457; Archbishop Thomas Bourchier officiated the marriage at Canterbury Cathedral. Isabel was not only the heiress of her father, Sir Edmund Ingaldsthorpe (who had died on 2 September 1456), but also the heiress of her maternal uncle, John Tiptoft and his Earldom of Worcester. It may have been that Earl of Worcester had engineered the match. A letter to John Paston on 1 May 1457 described how "the Erle [of Warwick's] yonger broþere maryed to Ser Edmund Ynglthorp's doughter upon Seynt Markes Day; the Erle of Worcestre broght aboute the maryage." She was a greater heiress than might have been expected for a youngest son like John. John was granted seven southern manors by his father and mother, the Earl and Countess of Salisbury, for his part. John Neville's marriage caused a dispute with Queen Margaret: even though Isabel was over fourteen years-old (and therefore of legal age), the Queen claimed that Isabel was still her ward. As a result, Queen Margaret insisted that John pay her a fine for his marriage to Isabel: he was bound to pay her £1,000 in ten instalments. Wars of the Roses The king had become incapacitated in August 1453, which had led to the Duke of York being appointed protector and controlling the government. By Christmas of 1454, however, King Henry had recovered from his illness, which removed the basis for York's authority. Having reconvened the court at Westminster by mid-April 1455, Henry and a select council of nobles decided to hold a great council at Leicester. York and the Nevilles anticipated that Somerset would bring charges against them at this assembly. John Neville included, they gathered an armed retinue and marched to stop the royal party from reaching Leicester, intercepting them at St Albans. Although only a small affray, it resulted in the deaths of some important people; viz. the Duke of Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland, and Lord Clifford. It has been suggested that, whilst Somerset might have been targeted by York, the latter too might have been intentionally slain by the Neville brothers. It was John who, after the battle, appears to have been responsible for the victorious Duke of York removing Sir William Skipwith from the household offices the latter held of the Duke. Neville was said to have achieved this by pointing out how Skipwith failed to join York in battle; John Neville subsequently shared in the profits of York's redistribution of Skipwith's ex-offices. In December 1456, the new Duke of Somerset tried to attack John Neville in London's Cheapside; Somerset had already attempted something similar to John's brother Warwick the previous month. John's encounter, reported contemporary chroniclers, would have become a "skirmish" if the mayor had not intervened. As it had been John who had "spearheaded" the Neville retaliation to the Percies during their feud, Salisbury entered into a bond for Thomas and John's behaviour on 23 March 1458. John, however continued to receive commissions from the government. He was part of a delegation of twenty-two Ambassadors nominated to discuss breaches of the Truce with Burgundy on 14 May that year, and two months later he was investigating the murder of a royal serjeant. In 1459, he was appointed steward of the Honour of Pontefract. Reconciliation between the crown and the sons of the dead lords of St Albans on the one half and of York and his Neville allies did not last, however. In mid-September 1459, the Earl of Salisbury, intending to meet York at the latter's castle at Ludlow, marched south from Middleham Castle with his household, retainers, and a force of around five-thousand men. John and Thomas were with him. Salisbury's force was engaged by a much larger royal army under the command of Lord Audley on 23 September at Blore Heath, near Mucklestone, Staffordshire. Even though he had numerical superiority the result was defeat for Audley, who was killed. However at some point John Neville – along with his brother Thomas and their father's retainer James Harrington were captured. This might have occurred in their pursuit of fleeing Lancastrians the next day or alternatively they may have been injured in battle and had been sent home. Either way, captured at Acton Bridge near Tarporley, Cheshire, the four were imprisoned in Chester Castle. John Neville was not released until July 1460. As a result, he was not present at the Yorkists' rout at the Battle of Ludford Bridge, which resulted in his father and brother's exile in Calais. He had still been attainted at the Parliament of Devils in October 1459 and only restored in August the next year. He was not released until June that year, and remained in London with during York's return from exile, and his claiming of the throne. On 1 November 1460, York appointed John the king's Chamberlain for a crown-wearing ceremony at St Paul's Cathedral. He stayed in London as word arrived that Lancastrians were gathering an army in the north; York, Salisbury, and John's brother Thomas marched north to confront them. On 30 December 1460 they went down to a crushing defeat outside York's castle at Sandal, at the Battle of Wakefield where York and Thomas were killed, and Salisbury captured and beheaded the next day. John Neville appears to have been Lieutenant of the castle of Calais, whilst Warwick served as its Captain. During the Protector's absence that winter, and after York's and Salisbury's death, alongside his brothers Warwick and George (the Chancellor) Neville was part of the head of government. Elevation to the peerage and war in the north According to Benet's Chronicle, John Neville was elevated to the peerage as Lord Montagu in the January 1461 parliament. It was also at this parliament that he presented a petition, regarding his wife, in which he reiterated that in common law women receive livery of their lands at fourteen years of age, and he requested parliament to reaffirm this. In February he was elected to the Order of the Garter. He was installed on 21 March 1462, when he took his father's choir stall in Windsor Castle's St. George's Chapel. By February 1461 Queen Margaret's army was marching south. Warwick and John, with their "frantically raised" army, collected the King and marched north to confront the Queen's army on the Great North Road. The two armies met on 17 February at the Second Battle of St Albans – this time, just outside the town. In the resulting encounter, Warwick was "outflanked and now outmatched," whereas John seems to have kept his army together up until the point the King's person was regained by the Lancastrians. Montagu commanded the left flank of the Yorkist army, which itself was subdivided into a group of archers in the town itself, with the majority posted on Bernards Heath, stretching eastwards towards Warwick's vanguard. This "bloody and bitter encounter" saw Warwick and John's army defeated. The Earl escaped; Montagu was captured and sent to York Castle. It seems probable that he escaped execution after the battle because, as the Milanese Ambassador wrote, "a brother of my lord of Somerset is a prisoner [of Warwick's] at Calais." As a result of his capture and imprisonment in York, Montagu escaped participation in the biggest and probably bloodiest battle of the Wars of the Roses which took place on 29 March 1461 at Towton in Yorkshire. This decisive Yorkist victory led to Montagu being released the next day, when the son of the Duke of York – and England's de facto new king – Edward IV entered York in triumph. Montagu and Warwick then stayed in the north to attempt the recapture of northern castles still in Lancastrian hands; as John Gillingham has put it, "the unfinished military business would have to be left to the Nevilles." And on 10 May 1461 Montagu was commissioned to raise troops against both the Lancastrian remnants and the king of Scotland. One of Montagu's first actions was to successfully raise the siege of Carlisle, "with prompt action." Carlisle had had its suburbs burnt and been under siege from June by a Scottish-Lancastrian force, but was easily relieved by him, apparently killing 6,000 Scots and Lord Clifford's brother in the process, before Warwick had even arrived. The military campaign that followed was focussed on the recapture of strategically vital castles on the Northumbrian border. Alnwick Castle was commanded by a shell keep, to which extra towers had been added, as well as to the curtain wall, with a solid barbican and gatehouse. Bamburgh Castle was on a high spur ridge with three baileys, a large keep, and fortified gateways. Dunstanburgh Castle stood on a dolerite spur which had the sheer drop of a cliff on one side. Montagu besieged Bamburgh, the most important of these northern bulwarks, due to its distance from London and proximity to Scotland. By 26 December 1462, when the garrison surrendered, they "had been reduced to eating their horses." Montagu joined Warwick in escorting the chariot of six horses in the funeral cortege conveying the mortal remains of their father and brother from Pontefract Castle to the family mausoleum at Bisham Abbey, on 14–15 February 1463. On 6 May he was appointed Warden of the Eastern March; Warwick was his counterpart on the western marches. Later that year, he led an expedition to Norham Castle, which had been besieged by the Scots for the previous eighteen days, and relieved it on 26 July; this was followed by a Chevauchée into Scotland which only ceased when Montagu's force ran out of supplies. Royal patronage In the meantime though, John received the first royal patronage of the reign, being granted the royal gold and silver mines in Devon and Cornwall worth £110 annually, for life. This was followed by duty payments from York and Kingston upon Hull and manors belonging to the dead Lancastrian Viscount Beaumont. In June 1461 he received the wardship of Edward Tiptoft, the heir of John Tiptoft, during his minority, and also the lands of Lord Clifford (who had died at Ferrybridge in a sharp encounter the night before Towton). Professor A. J. Pollard has noted, ironically, that Neville "had to earn his rewards." In 1462 he was appointed Steward of the Household of the Palatinate of Durham, for which he received around £40 a year. This was twice the salary his legally-trained and "non-noble" successors would receive from the Bishop in later years, and has been described as a "unique post." Hexham and Hedgeley Moor In spite of Montagu's and Warwick's northern successes in the years following Towton, a not-insubstantial Lancastrian army was still active in the area; it had been slowly been re-taking castles, like Bamburgh, Hexham, Langley, Norham, and Prudhoe Castles, between February and March 1464. This threatened Newcastle, a major Yorkist supply centre. Local Lancastrians were returning to their estates, such as the Cliffords, who regained their castle at Skipton Craven with no royal response, military or otherwise. They "virtually controlled most of the country immediately south of the Scottish border", wrote Charles Ross, although very few local gentry directly supported them. The situation was severe enough that in April 1464 he was too occupied with the northern situation to travel to London, and was exempted from attending the Order of the Garter Chapter meeting on the 29th of the month. He has been described as the king's 'resident commander' in the north and a "confident and aggressive commander." In early 1464, the Lancastrians having coalesced in the East March, the ongoing peace negotiations with the Scots were moved from Newcastle to York. Montagu was sent to escort their embassy through now-unfriendly territory. On his way to pick them up at Norham, he only avoided an ambush near Newcastle, by a small force of eighty spear and bowmen under Sir Humphrey Neville, by changing his route. The Scottish embassy he eventually collected at Norham had been delayed, and it was on the return journey that the Duke of Somerset with Lords Roos and Hungerford, Sir Richard Turnstall, and Sir Thomas Findern and the bulk of the Lancastrian army (approximately 5,000 men) ambushed Montagu at the Battle of Hedgeley Moor on 25 April 1464. The assault failed, and left Sir Ralph Percy dead on the field. Montagu, having delivered the Scottish embassy to Newcastle, left there on 14 May, either with Lords Greystoke and Willoughby or picking them up en route with other supporters, to seek out the Lancastrians. The next day, at Hexham – having crossed the Tyne "either at Bulwell or Corbridge" – he attacked the rebels in their camp which was on the south side of Devil's Water river. Montagu, his army swelled with new recruits from Newcastle, and men raised by Montagu's brother, the Archbishop of York, may have had up to 10,000 men. Leading his army "forward at the charge," Montagu's attack soon became a rout, with the Lancastrian army dissolving and attempting escape over the bridge. Lords Roos, Hungerford, Findern, and Tallboys survived the battle only to be executed, on Montagu's order – and probably in his presence – with the Duke of Somerset in Newcastle. Following Hexham, Montagu ordered the largest number of beheadings the civil wars had yet seen. Earl of Northumberland In May 1464, Hexham, Langley and Bywell castles surrendered to Montagu. Eight days later, on 27 May, he was created Earl of Northumberland, while Henry Percy was imprisoned in the Tower. The Earldom gave an income of between £700 and £1,000 a year. This, wrote Cora L. Scofield, was his reward for his decisive victories, since the Crown "had played no direct part in them." That summer Montagu recaptured the three Northumberland castles – Dunstanburgh, Alnwick, and Bamburgh – that had been previously lost. Later that year – the "high watermark of his House, the zenith of the Nevilles" – Montagu's brother George was appointed Archbishop of York, with John his Treasurer at his enthronement feast. During the feast, John's wife Isabel, sat at the children's table, supervising Warwick's two daughters and the young Duke of Gloucester. Later years Following the final crushing of the Lancastrian resistance, Montagu's role focussed on diplomacy and peace keeping. In June 1465 he was commissioned to contract marriages "between English and Scottish subjects" as well as to treat for a perpetual peace with Scotland, as a result of which, Montagu returned the captured Duke of Albany to Scotland, for which he was paid fifty marks. It was during this time (Hicks has suggested around January 1465) that Montagu and Lord Scales were requested by the Duke of Brittany to accompany a force of 3,000 Breton archers supplied by him, for the League of the Public Weal against Louis XI of France. However, due to commitments in the north with Warwick, Montagu ended up taking no part in this campaign. In 1465 Montagu received the main grant of the Percy Earldom of Northumberland estates, and on 25 March the following year he was granted the constableships and honours of Knaresborough and Pontefract Castles, which Warwick and before him their father had previously held, and also the castles of Tickhill, Snaith, and Dunstanburgh. This was to repay his arrears in back wages from his Wardenship of the East March, from an indenture of 1 June 1463. On the same day he was made Steward of the Duchy of Lancaster (north of the Trent), and it was from the profits of the duchy that his wages were coming from, amounting to approximately £1,000. Warden of the Marches The Wardens were the military guardians of the border from the late fourteenth-century, and their salaries made them the highest-paid among Crown officers, but this was inclusive of the cost of raising troops and maintaining defence. This has also been described as controlling "private armies raised at the Crown's expense." By the mid-fifteenth century, the Wardenship of the East March was the most important of the two northern marcher lordships. Marcher Wardens were granted the right to recruit by their being "explicitly" exempted from the 1468 Statute of Livery, which restrained- or attempted to restrain- retaining. Montagu, however, was allowed to continue retaining in times of peace as well as war. At this point Humphrey Neville was still on the run, and Montagu required troops to be raised on various occasions; in 1467, for example, Beverley sent him troops to deal with Humphrey's resistance. Warwick's rebellion In 1467, as part of his brother's plan for a closer relationship with the French, John and Isabelle accompanied Warwick in escorting the French King's envoys to Canterbury. However, by this time, it was being rumoured that Warwick was moving towards supporting the House of Lancaster, as a result of dissatisfaction over the king's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and his pursuit of an anti-French foreign policy. In 1469, Warwick organised Robin of Redesdale's rebellion against Edward IV in Yorkshire and in July that year the king's brother George, Duke of Clarence married Warwick's daughter Isabelle whilst anchored off Calais; this was in direct defiance of the king's own wishes. It seems that Montagu, however, reacted strongly against his brother's machinations, and, unlike him, was satisfied with his current position. On 27 October 1469, Henry Percy had taken his oath of fealty to the King, and had been released from the Tower. The following year saw the return of Robin of Redesdale and another rebellion on behalf of Warwick. Montagu was forced to come down from the Scottish border to suppress it; this he did, but, one historian has suggested, albeit that he "allowed the leaders to escape ... ensuring that the rebellion could rise again" at a more opportune moment. Almost immediately, Montagu was forced to crush another rebellion, this time lead by a Robin of Holderness, but calling for the return of Percy to the Northumberland Earldom. The Redesdale rebels soon reformed into an army big enough to march south and defeat a royal force at the Battle of Edgecote Moor on 26 July 1469. King Edward still accepted that Montagu was uninvolved in his brother's rebellion, and in the event, Montagu was the only Neville to accompany the king on his journey from the north back to London. However, it was while Edward was in York that he ordered the rehabilitation of Henry Percy to his family Earldom on 25/27 March 1470. On the same day John was elevated to the Marquessate of Montagu, and now outranked his brother, an Earl, in the English peerage. Historians have since questioned, however, whether his new title had the gravitas that his previous Earldom had had, and have even suggested that the king was "walking a tightrope" as to whether Montagu would actually accept it or not. To compensate him for the loss of the Percy estates Montagu was granted the lands of the dead Earl of Devon, and Montagu's son, George was created Duke of Bedford. These were substantial estates, providing an income of at least £600 per annum. Montagu was to be the new regional magnate – as he had been in the north – to fill an existing power vacuum. Rebellion and death Montagu, though, was not happy with the new arrangements, and King Edward has been held responsible for turning Montagu from a friend to an enemy. Warkworth's Chronicle describes him as condemning these grants to him as "a [mag]pyes] nest." Montagu had been on the Scottish border since at least January 1470. Following unrest in Lincolnshire and the subsequent Lincolnshire rebellion, the king marched from London to crush the rising. This he did at the Battle of Empingham. Following the battle, Edward headed north where he was met by Montagu and Northumberland at Doncaster. Warwick and Clarence's involvement in the Lincolnshire uprising had by now been established, and they fled to Calais. Further trouble broke out in the summer of 1470 in the north, with friends and relatives of Warwick in open rebellion. The new Earl of Northumberland was unable to put down these risings, so the king, once again marched north to deal with it personally. Modern historians generally consider that these rebellions were a deliberate trap, instigated by Warwick and Clarence from Calais. On 24 June 1470 the Wardenship of the East March was stripped from Montagu and given to Percy. Edward was still in the north with Percy when he received word that the Warwick and Clarence had landed in Dartmouth. At Doncaster, the king awaited Montagu, who was in the north raising a substantial force in Edward's name. Edward waited; but on 29 September 1470, marching to the King, Montagu declared for Warwick. His last-minute, surprise defection from the king has been called "decisive". The king was trapped; disbanding his army, and with a few followers, he escaped to Bishop's Lynn, sailing for Burgundy on 2 October. Readeption of Henry VI On 3 October, with Edward IV in exile, Henry VI was released from the Tower and returned to the throne by Warwick. Almost immediately, Montagu was granted the wardship of the executed Earl of Worcester's heir and estates, as well as of the young Lord Clifford. He was reappointed to the Wardenship of the East March, with its salary, on 22 October 1470. However, Montagu did not profit from the new regime as he probably expected to. He did not regain the Earldom of Northumberland. Further, he lost some of the Courtney lands that had come with his Marquessate to the newly returned Earl of Devon. Montagu had no active role in government, and does not seem to have sat in Council, although he was appointed Chamberlain to the King's Household. Although he was confirmed in command of the new King's forces in the north and in possession of the manor of Wressle on 21 March 1471, he did not regain any other Percy estates. Indeed, it has been suggested that his loyalty might still have been suspect by the newly arrived Lancastrians: having been summoned to the November 1470 parliament, Polydor Virgil states that he had to apologise there for his prior support of Edward. Montagu even had to pay cash for the king's pardon, which he only received after making a lengthy speech, declaring that he had only remained faithful to Edward out of fear. Montagu, having responsibility for the defence of the north, received various commissions of array, which reflected the government's knowledge that King Edward was equipping a Burgundian-backed fleet in order to re-invade. Montagu was to raise men from all across the north. On 14 March 1471, King Edward landed at Ravenspur, on the coast of Yorkshire; he had intended to land in East Anglia, but this had been established as being unsafe. Montagu, it has been suggested, could have "snuffed out" Edward's army almost immediately had he moved fast enough. Montagu was in Pontefract Castle as Edward passed by (where even his castle bailiff deserted him for the returning king, taking the castle's funds with him). Montagu's army, composed of local militias, was probably in the region of several thousand men, between 6,000 and 7,000, and increased as he trailed Edward south. Montagu arrived at Coventry, where the Earl of Warwick was camped, in early April 1471; this was probably the day after Clarence had defected back to his brother Edward, and taken his army with him. Battle of Barnet Heath By 12 April 1471, Montagu, with his brother Warwick and the Duke of Exeter, the Earl of Oxford, and Viscount Beaumont were approaching London with their army. Edward, having arrived in London on 11 April and been reunited with his queen, met Montagu and Warwick a few miles north of London, outside the village of Barnet. It is possible that he commanded a smaller army, perhaps of only 9,000 men, and probably no more than 14,000. The battle on 14 April was a "confused affair" and fought in fog. It has been suggested that it was Montagu who persuaded Warwick to fight on foot at Barnet, leaving the horses tethered at the rear, in order to demonstrate their commitment to the cause by taking the same risks as the common soldier. Montagu probably controlled the centre battle of Warwick's army, facing Edward's own section, on the Great North Road from Barnet to St. Albans. Warkworth's Chronicle states that Warwick had an army of 20,000 men and that the battle beginning at 0400, lasted until ten o'clock that morning. Contemporaries have favourably described Montagu's martial skill at Barnet. Philippe de Commines called him as "a very courageous knight," and the Burgundian observer Jean de Waurin wrote that, in the thick of the fighting, Montagu was "cutting off arms and heads like a hero of romance." The Earl of Oxford, commanding the right wing of the Neville army, broke the opposing Yorkist line, under William, Lord Hastings, early in the battle. Oxford's men proceeded to chase the fleeing soldiers, and ended up looting away from the battlefield. Oxford managed to regroup his men, but, returning to the battlefield, as James Ross has put it, "disaster struck." In the time he and his force had been absent, the line of battle had shifted almost ninety degrees, so instead of returning to attack Edward's rear, he crashed into Montagu's section. The fog prevented identification, and Oxford's men fought with Montagu's. Montagu may, one chronicler suggests, have mistakenly seen Oxford's "Streaming star" banner as the king's "Sunne in splendour," and thus believe that the Earl had gone over to York. Recently though, one historian has pointed out that, in fact, Oxford had never previously used such a cognizance, and it was more prosaically just a case of men confused by fog. At some point, possibly around this time, Montagu was killed; he was certainly dead before his brother. The Arrivall chronicler states this occurred "in plain battle," and in the thick of the fighting, rather than in the rout that later followed. Aftermath The bodies of Warwick and Montagu were laid out "on the morrow after" and "openly shewed and naked" in St. Paul's, to prevent rumour starting that they had in fact survived the battle; Warkworth too said that the King personally directed this, and arranged for the corpses "to be put in a cart ... to be laid in the church of Paul's, on the pavement, that every man might see them; and so they lay for three or four days" before granting permission to their brother George for their burial at Bisham Priory. Issue By his wife Isabel Ingoldsthorpe (c.1441-1476), daughter and heiress of Sir Edmund Ingaldsthorpe (d.1456) of Burrough Green and Sawston, Cambridgeshire (who survived him and remarried, on 25 April 1472 (as his second wife), to Sir William Norreys of Yattendon), he had a son and five daughters: George Neville, Duke of Bedford (c. 1461–1483), eldest son and heir. It appears that Montagu had wanted to marry George to Anne Holland, heiress of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter; however by 1466 she had already married Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset . He died without issue, having been stripped of his dukedom in 1478. Anne Neville, eldest daughter, who married Sir William Stonor of Stonor in Pyrton, Oxfordshire, a grandson of William de la Pole, 1st Duke of Suffolk. Elizabeth Neville, who married firstly Thomas Scrope, 6th Baron Scrope of Masham, a dedicated Yorkist, and secondly Sir Henry Wentworth of Nettlestead. Margaret Neville, who married firstly Sir John Mortimer (died before 12 November 1504), only son of Sir Hugh Mortimer and Eleanor Cornwall; secondly Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, and thirdly Robert Downes, Gentleman. Lucy Neville, who married firstly Sir Thomas FitzWilliam of Aldwark, North Yorkshire, and secondly Sir Anthony Browne. Isabel Neville, who married firstly Sir Thomas Huddleston of Millom, Cumberland (an important regional family and old allies of the Nevilles), and secondly Sir William Smythe of Elford in Staffordshire. Arms Montagu took for his crest "a griffin issuing from a ducal crown". His coat of arms was the Neville "Gules a saltire argent" with a label "gobony argent and azure crescent" for differencing, as a younger son, being a reference to the arms of Beaufort (Neville arms with label compony of Beaufort, borne as a difference to the paternal Neville arms (Gules, a saltire argent) by the descendants of the second marriage of w:Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland (d.1425) to Joan Beaufort, a legitimised daughter of John of Gaunt, 4th son of King Edward III). This coat, when he was made Marquis of Montagu, was later augmented with further quarterings. Notes References Bibliography External links \|- 1430s births 1471 deaths 15th-century English nobility Marquesses in the Peerage of England Earls of Northumberland Knights of the Garter People of the Wars of the Roses English military personnel killed in action John Younger sons of earls Burials at Bisham Abbey Barons Montagu	[ -0.5988231897354126, 0.1010022684931755, -0.07980035245418549, -0.21288150548934937, -0.2502087950706482, 0.8974154591560364, 0.5697664022445679, 0.025012563914060593, -0.693141520023346, -0.3634800910949707, -0.24744294583797455, -0.23554275929927826, -0.5376829504966736, 0.38894447684288025, 0.2071189284324646, 0.5651825666427612, -0.41438624262809753, 0.13667172193527222, -0.20204174518585205, -1.0845667123794556, 0.6141079664230347, 0.1159249022603035, -0.414198100566864, 0.3847872316837311, 0.3409106433391571, 0.11942759901285172, 0.5184685587882996, -0.2451922744512558, -0.003506700275465846, 0.06301971524953842, 0.19145336747169495, 0.5350030064582825, 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248132	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arachnology	Arachnology	Arachnology is the scientific study of arachnids, which comprise spiders and related animals such as scorpions, pseudoscorpions, and harvestmen. Those who study spiders and other arachnids are arachnologists. More narrowly, the study of spiders alone (order Araneae) is known as araneology. The word "arachnology" derives from Greek , arachnē, "spider"; and , -logia, "the study of a particular subject". Arachnology as a science Arachnologists are primarily responsible for classifying arachnids and studying aspects of their biology. In the popular imagination, they are sometimes referred to as spider experts. Disciplines within arachnology include naming species and determining their evolutionary relationships to one another (taxonomy and systematics), studying how they interact with other members of their species and/or their environment (behavioural ecology), or how they are distributed in different regions and habitats (faunistics). Other arachnologists perform research on the anatomy or physiology of arachnids, including the venom of spiders and scorpions. Others study the impact of spiders in agricultural ecosystems and whether they can be used as biological control agents. Subdisciplines Arachnology can be broken down into several specialties. These topics include: acarology – the study of ticks and mites araneology – the study of spiders scorpiology – the study of scorpions Arachnological societies Arachnologists are served by a number of scientific societies, both national and international in scope. Their main roles are to encourage the exchange of ideas between researchers, to organise meetings and congresses, and in a number of cases, to publish academic journals. Some are also involved in science outreach programs, such as the European spider of the year, which raise awareness of these animals among the general public. International International Society of Arachnology (ISA) website Africa African Arachnological Society (AFRAS) website Asia Arachnological Society of Japan (ASJ) website Asian Society of Arachnology (ASA) website Indian Society of Arachnology website Iranian Arachnological Society (IAS) website Australasia Australasian Arachnological Society website Europe Aracnofilia – Associazione Italiana di Aracnologia website Arachnologia Belgica – Belgian Arachnological Society (ARABEL) website Arachnologische Gesellschaft (AraGes) website Association Francaise d'Arachnologie (AsFrA) website British Arachnological Society (BAS) website Czech Arachnological Society website European Society of Arachnology (ESA) website Grupo Ibérico de Aracnologia (Iberian Peninsula) website Magyar Arachnolgia – Hungarian Arachnology North America American Arachnological Society (AAS) website Arachnological journals Scientific journals devoted to the study of arachnids include: Acarologia Acta Arachnologica – published by the Arachnological Society of Japan Arachnida: Rivista Aracnologica Italiana Arachnology – published by the British Arachnological Society Arachnology Letters – published by the Arachnologische Gesellschaft International Journal of Acarology Journal of Arachnology – published by the American Arachnological Society Revista Ibérica de Aracnología – published by the Grupo Ibérico de Aracnología Revue Arachnologique Serket Popular arachnology In the 1970s, arachnids – particularly tarantulas – started to become popular as exotic pets. Many tarantulas thus become more widely known by their common names such as the Mexican redknee tarantula (Brachypelma smithi). Various societies now focus on the husbandry, care, study, and captive breeding of tarantulas, and other arachnids. They also typically produce journals or newsletters with articles and advice on these subjects. British Tarantula Society (BTS) website Deutsche Arachnologische Gesellschaft (DeArGe) website The American Tarantula Society (ATS) website See also Cultural depictions of spiders Entomology :Category:Arachnologists References External information links International Society of Arachnology Spider Myths: Spiders are Easy to Identify Spiders and humans Subfields of zoology Subfields of arthropodology	[ 0.6191118359565735, -0.0037361793220043182, -1.0560647249221802, 0.1668601930141449, 0.036446839570999146, 0.3023001551628113, 0.8199247121810913, 0.6128563284873962, -0.5167277455329895, -0.4885958433151245, -0.2572007179260254, 0.5216804146766663, -0.3037298321723938, 0.19207333028316498, -0.3621109426021576, 0.7641481757164001, 0.5595332384109497, 0.06635913252830505, 0.023405492305755615, 0.15995164215564728, -0.7972934246063232, -0.026079874485731125, -0.09539882093667984, -0.28161361813545227, 0.352666974067688, -0.31867745518684387, -0.49112141132354736, 0.3681824207305908, 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248135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azide	Azide	Azide is the anion with the formula . It is the conjugate base of hydrazoic acid . is a linear anion. Organic azides are organic compounds with the formula , containing the azide functional group. The dominant application of azides is as a propellant in air bags. Preparation Sodium azide is made industrially by the reaction of nitrous oxide, with sodium amide in liquid ammonia as solvent: Many inorganic azides can be prepared directly or indirectly from sodium azide. For example, lead azide, used in detonators, may be prepared from the metathesis reaction between lead nitrate and sodium azide. An alternative route is direct reaction of the metal with silver azide dissolved in liquid ammonia. Some azides are produced by treating the carbonate salts with hydrazoic acid. Bonding Azide is isoelectronic with carbon dioxide , cyanate , nitrous oxide , nitronium ion and cyanogen fluoride NCF. Per valence bond theory, azide can be described by several resonance structures; an important one being ^-N=\overset{+}N=N^- Reactions Azide salts can decompose with release of nitrogen gas. The decomposition temperatures of the alkali metal azides are: (275 °C), (355 °C), (395 °C), and (390 °C). This method is used to produce ultrapure alkali metals. Protonation of azide salts gives toxic hydrazoic acid in the presence of strong acids: Azide as a ligand forms numerous transition metal azide complexes. Some such compound are more shock sensitive. They decompose with sodium nitrite when acidified. This is a method of destroying residual azides, prior to disposal. Many inorganic covalent azides (e.g., chlorine, bromine, and iodine azides) have been described. The azide anion behaves as a nucleophile; it undergoes nucleophilic substitution for both aliphatic and aromatic systems. It reacts with epoxides, causing a ring-opening; it undergoes Michael-like conjugate addition to 1,4-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. Azides can be used as precursors of the metal nitrido complexes by being induced to release , generating a metal complex in unusual oxidation states (see high-valent iron). Applications About 251 tons of azide-containing compounds are produced annually, the main product being sodium azide. Sodium azide is the propellant in automobile airbags. It decomposes on heating to give nitrogen gas, which is used to quickly expand the air bag: Heavy metal azides, such as lead azide, , are shock-sensitive detonators which decompose to the corresponding metal and nitrogen, for example: Silver azide and barium azide are used similarly. Some organic azides are potential rocket propellants, an example being 2-dimethylaminoethylazide (DMAZ) . Safety Azides are explosophores and toxins. Sodium azide is as toxic as sodium cyanide (with an oral of 27 mg/kg in rats) and can be absorbed through the skin. Heavy metal azides, such as lead azide are primary high explosives detonable when heated or shaken. Heavy-metal azides are formed when solutions of sodium azide or HN3 vapors come into contact with heavy metals or their salts. Heavy-metal azides can accumulate under certain circumstances, for example, in metal pipelines and on the metal components of diverse equipment (rotary evaporators, freezedrying equipment, cooling traps, water baths, waste pipes), and thus lead to violent explosions. See also Pentazenium References External links Synthesis of organic azides, recent methods Synthesizing, Purifying, and Handling Organic Azides	[ -0.0029696731362491846, 0.293485164642334, -0.18123941123485565, -0.35390764474868774, -0.7748398780822754, -0.29355594515800476, 0.3554331660270691, 0.1733819544315338, -0.08548787236213684, 0.08604326844215393, -0.5541649460792542, 0.4212063252925873, -0.34585022926330566, 0.6311628222465515, 0.39413923025131226, 1.0660566091537476, 0.6728994846343994, 0.5924330353736877, 0.09366504848003387, -0.4514111280441284, 0.29942038655281067, -0.1729387491941452, 0.037622321397066116, -0.7723028659820557, 0.8269152641296387, -0.4235101044178009, 0.07308188825845718, 0.528496265411377, 0.320042222738266, -0.3496050536632538, -0.03009096160531044, 0.5528762340545654, 0.46111443638801575, -0.18895086646080017, 0.5046116709709167, 0.6502818465232849, -0.06379925459623337, 0.006432141177356243, -0.35270196199417114, -0.052647579461336136, 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248136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria%20Jones	Gloria Jones	Gloria Richetta Jones (born October 19, 1945) is an American singer and songwriter who first found success in the United Kingdom, being recognized there as "The Queen of Northern Soul". She recorded the 1965 hit song "Tainted Love" and has worked in multiple genres as a Motown songwriter and recording artist, backing vocalist, and as a performer in musicals such as Hair. In the 1970s, she was a keyboardist and vocalist in Marc Bolan's glam rock band T. Rex. She and Bolan were also in a committed romantic relationship and had a son together. Biography Early life and career Jones was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, and moved to Los Angeles, California, at the age of seven, where she first started singing. Jones' first taste of fame came at the age of 14, when, while still at school, she formed with Frankie Kahrl and Billy Preston the successful gospel group the COGIC Singers, with whom she recorded the album It's a Blessing. Although she remained with the group for some four years, she soon found herself drawn into the Los Angeles pop scene. In 1964, Jones, in her late teens, was discovered by the songwriter Ed Cobb. Signing with Cobb's Greengrass Productions, she recorded her first hit record, "Heartbeat Pts 1 & 2," which Cobb wrote and produced. She toured the United States, performing on several American television programs, footage of which still exists. One performance occurred at a Rock and Soul show in Disneyland in the summer of 1965. "Heartbeat" became a rhythm and blues tune which was recorded later by Dusty Springfield, Spencer Davis and many other artists. By then, Jones had recorded other songs for Uptown Records, a subsidiary of Capitol/EMI. Included among these was another Cobb-written song, "Tainted Love". So strong was Jones's following in Northern England that she was proclaimed "The Queen of Northern Soul". Jones also recorded an album for the Uptown label entitled Come Go with Me which was released in 1966. Jones studied piano, and acquired an advanced classical degree primarily in the works of Bach. In 1968, she joined the cast of Catch My Soul, a rock and soul version of the play Othello, which included cast members Jerry Lee Lewis, The Blossoms, and Dr. John. During the summer of 1968, she performed in a play called Revolution, at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles. That winter, she joined the Los Angeles cast of Hair, the musical. Eventually, she was to meet Pam Sawyer, who asked her to write for Motown Records. Jones and Sawyer were amongst the second string of writers at Motown, but still wrote for such artists as Gladys Knight & the Pips, Commodores, The Four Tops and The Jackson 5. As Jones was also initially a singer for the label, protocol demanded a pseudonym, so for some of her co-writes she used the name LaVerne Ware (not to be confused with another Motown songwriter/producer, Leon Ware). Songs that Jones worked on during this period include The Supremes' "Have I Lost You" (writer), Marvin Gaye and Diana Ross's "My Mistake (Was to Love You)" (writer), Junior Walker's "I Ain't Goin' Nowhere" (writer/producer) and the Four Tops' "Just Seven Numbers (Can Straighten Out My Life)" (writer). In 1970 she provided backing vocals on Ry Cooder's eponymous first album. The most remembered song that Jones penned was Gladys Knight and the Pips' "If I Were Your Woman", which was nominated for a Grammy in 1971. Jones left Motown at the end of 1973, following the release of her album Share My Love. After Motown Jones first met Marc Bolan of T. Rex in 1969 while performing in Hair (Los Angeles cast). While touring in Europe, Bolan and Jones met for the second time at the Speakeasy in London. In 1972, she was recommended by Warner Brothers' Bob Regehr to sing backing vocals behind T. Rex at Winterland in San Francisco. Soon after joining T. Rex, Jones and Bolan became romantically involved. They had a son, Rolan Bolan (b. September 26, 1975). She sang backing vocals and played clavinet with T. Rex from 1973 to 1977. Her rendition of "Dock of the Bay" appears as a bonus track on T. Rex's album Bolan's Zip Gun. Jones released an album in 1976, called Vixen, which featured several songs written by Bolan, and he also was the producer for the album. In 1977, Jones worked with the group Gonzalez, producing several of their singles, and also penning the disco hit, "Haven't Stopped Dancing Yet" for the group. She toured the UK with Gonzalez, first on the Bob Marley tour, and then with Osibisa. She was the driver of the car, a Mini 1275 GT, that crashed near Barnes Common, striking a tree and killing Bolan at 4 a.m. on September 16, 1977, on the way back to Bolan's Richmond property. They were returning from an evening at a restaurant in Mayfair where they had both been drinking wine. Jones was found by her brother Richard, her foot trapped beneath the clutch by the engine, while Bolan was found still in the passenger seat which had been dislodged and landed in the rear of the vehicle. Jones broke her jaw in the accident. When she was well enough to leave the hospital, she was informed that Bolan's fans had looted most of their possessions from their house. She was later scheduled to appear in court in London on charges of being unfit to drive and of driving a car in a dangerous condition. However, she left the UK with her son and returned to the US before the court date so the Coroner's Court recorded a verdict of accidental death. After Bolan Having lost her possessions, Jones moved with her son back to Los Angeles where they stayed with Jones' family. In 1978, she released the album Windstorm, which she dedicated to the memory of Bolan: the back cover reads, "Special dedication in memory of my son's father, Marc Bolan, whom we miss very much." Her single "Bring on the Love" was a success on the American R&B chart. Jones stayed in the music industry for several years after, releasing an album produced by Ed Cobb, titled Reunited in 1981. She also collaborated again with Billy Preston and other Cogic Singers for a 1984 reunion album The Cogic's. She has since worked as a musical supervisor for films. In 2010, together with her son Rolan, she established the Marc Bolan School of Music & Film in Makeni, Sierra Leone. Discography Solo studio albums 1966 – Come Go with Me 1973 – Share My Love 1976 – Vixen (not released in the US) 1978 – Windstorm 1982 – Reunited 1996 – Vixen / Windstorm (CD release) 2009 – Share My Love (CD release) With T. Rex 1974 – Zinc Alloy and the Hidden Riders of Tomorrow 1974 – Light of Love 1975 – Bolan's Zip Gun 1976 – Futuristic Dragon 1977 – Dandy in the Underworld With The COGIC'S 1966 – It's a Blessing 1984 – The COGIC'S US solo singles UK solo singles (selection) 1973 – "Tin Can People" / "So Tired" 1976 – "Get It On (Part 1)" / "Get It On (Part 2)" 1976 – "I Ain't Going Nowhere" / "Simplicity Blues" 1976 – "Tainted Love" (New Version) / "Go Now" (Album Version) (12" – MAXI) 1977 – "To Know You Is to Love You" / "City Port" (with Marc Bolan) 1977 – "Go Now" (Single Version) / "Drive Me Crazy (Disco Lady)" 1977 – "Bring on the Love" (Single Version) / "Cry Baby" 1977 – "Bring on the Love" (Album Version) / "Bring on the Love" (Instrumental) 1978 – "When I Was a Little Girl" /"When I Was a Little Girl" (Instrumental) 1978 – "Windstorm" / "Blue Light Microphone" 1979 – "Listen to Me" / "Father I'm Coming Home" (From the v/a Double Album Alpha Omega) Backing vocal work 1966 With Denny Brooks on Denny Brooks 1966 With Gary St. Clair on Gary St. Clair 1966 With Charles Wright & the Watts 103rd Street Rhythm Band on Music For The Times We Live In 1968 With Neil Young on Neil Young 1968 With Jackie DeShannon on "Put a Little Love in Your Heart" 1969 with the Brothers and Sisters of Los Angeles on Dylan's Gospel Gloria sings lead on "I Shall Be Released", "Chimes of Freedom", and "I'll Be Your Baby Tonight" 1970 With Ry Cooder on Ry Cooder 1970 With Daniel Moore on Daniel Moore 1971 With Jesse Davis on Jesse Davis 1971 With Ry Cooder on Into the Purple Valley 1971 With REO Speedwagon on REO Speedwagon 1971 With Roy Ayers/Roy Ayers Ubiquity on He's Coming 1971 With Alan Gerber on Alan Gerber Album 1972 With Buffy Saint Marie on Moonshot 1972 With Elvin Bishop on Rock My Soul 1972 With Delaney Bramlett on Some Things Coming (Heartbeat) 1973 With Judee Sill on Heart Food 1973 With Little Feat on Dixie Chicken 1973 With John Kay on My Sportin' Life 1973 With Maria Muldaur on Maria Muldaur 1973 With Joe Cocker on Joe Cocker 1973 With Judee Sill on Heart Food 1973 With Eddie Floyd on Soul Street 1973 With REO Speedwagon on Ridin' the Storm Out 1974 With Michael Edward Campbell on Michael Edward Campbell 1974 With The Commodores on Machine Gun 1975 With Michael Masser on The Original Soundtrack of Mahogany 1975 With Harry Nilsson on Duit on Mon Dei 1977 With Billy Preston on Whole New Thing 1977 With T. Rex on Dandy in the Underworld 1978 With Steve Harley on Hobo with a Grin 1979 With Billy Preston on Late at Night 1980 With Lonnie Liston Smith on Love is the Answer Songwriting and production Filmography See also List of disco artists (F-K) References Bibliography External links Jones and Bolan, 5th photo 1945 births Living people African-American rock musicians American expatriates in Sierra Leone American expatriates in England Motown artists Songwriters from Ohio Record producers from Ohio Musicians from Cincinnati Northern soul musicians Singers from Ohio T. 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248138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Percy%2C%20Earl%20of%20Worcester	Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester	Thomas Percy, Earl of Worcester, KG (134323 July 1403) was an English medieval nobleman and naval commander best known for leading the rebellion with his nephew Henry Percy, known as 'Harry Hotspur', and his elder brother, Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. Lineage He was the younger son of Henry de Percy, 3rd Baron Percy, and Mary, daughter of Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster, who descended from Henry III of England. He was the younger brother of Henry Percy, 1st Earl of Northumberland. Percy never married or had children. He was the great-great grandson of Henry III of England. Career Worcester fought against England's traditional enemy France in the Hundred Years' War, and then served in various important governing posts in English-controlled France, as Ambassador, Seneschal. He was appointed Admiral of the North from 26 Jan 1384–22 February 1385. In the 1390s he built Wressle Castle. He was created Earl of Worcester in 1397 by King Richard II. In 1399 he was appointed Admiral of the Kings Fleet in Ireland. Close to the crown Along with his brother and nephew, he took part in Henry IV's deposition of Richard II, and later, in turn, in their own subsequent rebellion against King Henry IV. Capture and execution He was captured at the Battle of Shrewsbury and publicly beheaded in Shrewsbury two days later, on 23 July 1403. He was buried in St. Peter's, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England. His head was displayed in London on London Bridge. Fictional portrayals He appears in Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 1 as the main plotter of the 1403 rebellion. Ancestry References 1343 births 1403 deaths 14th-century English Navy personnel 15th-century English Navy personnel Thomas Younger sons of barons Percy English admirals Knights of the Garter People executed under the Lancastrians People executed under the Plantagenets by decapitation Male Shakespearean characters Lord High Admirals of England Peers created by Richard II	[ -0.3101840317249298, -0.358930766582489, -0.2863641083240509, -0.14067092537879944, -0.32152530550956726, 0.9083796143531799, 0.6386098265647888, -0.27145513892173767, -0.479765385389328, -0.42925676703453064, -0.18140874803066254, 0.4345893859863281, -0.4706383943557739, -0.25612035393714905, -0.13695652782917023, 0.3504638671875, 0.5794174075126648, -0.4752577841281891, -0.15080681443214417, -0.2412758320569992, 0.4619515538215637, -0.25139349699020386, 0.21841084957122803, 0.14726091921329498, 0.6979072690010071, -0.2597026526927948, 1.0973856449127197, -0.41935691237449646, -0.13456961512565613, 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248143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag%20of%20Northern%20Ireland	Flag of Northern Ireland	The only official flag in Northern Ireland is the Union Flag of the United Kingdom. The flying of various flags in Northern Ireland is a significant sectarian issue, with different communities identifying with different flags. The Ulster Banner was used by the Northern Ireland government from 1953 until the government and parliament were abolished in 1973. Since then, it has had no official status. However, it is still used as the flag of Northern Ireland by loyalists and unionists and to represent Northern Ireland internationally in some sporting competitions. The Saint Patrick's Saltire represents Northern Ireland indirectly as Ireland in the Union Flag. It is sometimes flown during Saint Patrick's Day parades in Northern Ireland and is used to represent Northern Ireland during some royal events. In recent years, there have been calls for a new, neutral flag for Northern Ireland, most recently as a recommendation by the Commission on Flags, Identity, Culture and Tradition in December 2021. Flag of the Government of Northern Ireland (1924–1973) The Ulster Banner, also known as the "Red Hand Flag" or the "Ulster Flag" (not to be confused with the provincial Flag of Ulster), was the flag that was granted a royal warrant for use to the Government of Northern Ireland in 1924. In common with other British flags, any civic status of the flag was not defined in law. The Government of Northern Ireland was granted arms (the Coat of arms of Northern Ireland) by Royal Warrant and had the right to display these arms on a flag or banner. This right was exercised for the Coronation in 1953 when the banner was flown for the first time over Parliament Buildings in honour of the Queen's visit. Also during the Queen's visit, on July 1, 1953, the Minister for Home Affairs announced that, while the Union flag was the only standard officially recognised, those who wished to have a distinctive Ulster symbol might use the banner. When the Parliament of Northern Ireland was dissolved by the British government under the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973, the flag ceased to be used by a body with a royal warrant but remains the only flag which represents Northern Ireland at international level in sport. Since the Northern Ireland government and parliament were abolished in 1972, the use of the Ulster Banner among loyalists has increased. Official use of flags There are various practices for the flying of flags by public bodies in Northern Ireland. The Flags Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 2000 requires that the Union Flag be flown over specified government buildings including Parliament Buildings and state offices on specified "named days" (honouring, for example Queen Elizabeth II's official birthday). The regulations also provide that, on the occasion of a visit to a government building by the British Monarch, the Royal Standard shall be flown and the Union Flag can be flown, and on state visits from other heads of state the Union Flag and the national flag of the country of the visitor can be flown. The regulations prohibit any flags being flown from the relevant buildings except as expressly permitted by the regulations. When flags representing the "Home Countries" of England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales are flown at official ceremonies, Northern Ireland is sometimes represented by the St. Patrick's Cross, for instance on the barge Gloriana during the 2012 Thames Diamond Jubilee Pageant. In May 2016 the Ulster Banner was flown from horseback during the Musical Ride of the Household Cavalry at The Queen's 90th Birthday Celebration at Windsor, alongside the flags of England, Scotland and Wales. Other regulations exist for other public bodies in Northern Ireland. Use of flags by the Police Service of Northern Ireland is governed by the Police Emblems and Flags Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2002, which provides that no flag shall be used by the Service other than its own flag. Local authorities Legislation relating to flag flying does not apply to District Council buildings, and District Councils follow a range of practices varying from flying the Union Flag on a number of council buildings every day of the year as at Lisburn, to flying no flags on any building, flying only the council flag or flying flags on the designated days in the same way as government buildings. In 2004, Belfast City Council commissioned a study on the flying of the Union Flag which noted that the Ulster Banner was flown alongside it by three unionist-controlled district councils at that time: Ards Borough Council, Carrickfergus Borough Council and Castlereagh Borough Council. These councils have since been replaced. Displaying flags In Northern Ireland, some members from each of the unionist and nationalist communities use flags to declare their political allegiances and to mark territory. Unionists and loyalists fly the Union Flag and Ulster Banner to show their support for the union and/or their allegiance to Northern Ireland. Irish nationalists and republicans fly the Irish tricolour to show their support for a United Ireland. After the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, flags continue to be a source of disagreement in Northern Ireland. The Agreement states that: Nationalists pointed to this to argue that the use of the Union Flag for official purposes should be restricted, or that the Irish tricolour should be flown alongside the British flag on government buildings. Sinn Féin ministers in the power-sharing Northern Ireland Executive instructed that the Union Flag was not to fly from buildings operated by their respective departments. This power was removed from ministers by virtue of the Flag Regulations (Northern Ireland) Order 2000, mentioned above. All signatories to the Belfast Agreement also declare their acceptance of the "principle of consent" (i.e. that there will be no change to the constitutional position of Northern Ireland unless a majority votes for it), and Unionists argued that this provision amounts to recognising that the Union Flag is the only legitimate official flag in Northern Ireland. The problem was discussed in detail and various proposals made including suggestions for a new flag. Flag proposals Haass talks In 2013, US diplomat Richard Haass chaired talks between the political parties in Northern Ireland dealing with, among other things, the issue of flags. The resulting draft proposals, which were not agreed to by the parties, included the idea of a new flag for Northern Ireland, and the possibility of a "circumscribed role for the sovereign flag of Ireland in conjunction with the Union flag." Proposed "Civic Flag" In December 2021, the Commission on Flags, Identity, Culture and Tradition (FICT) published its final report which included a recommendation that a new "Civic Flag for Northern Ireland" should be adopted and be flown at buildings of the Northern Ireland Executive, Northern Ireland Assembly and local district councils in Northern Ireland. The commissions suggested that the design for the new flag should incorporate expressions of Britishness and Irishness and should also represent the diversity of the community in Northern Ireland. International sport The Ulster Banner is used to represent the Northern Ireland team at the Commonwealth Games, to represent golfers on the PGA Tour, and by FIFA to represent the Northern Ireland national football team. See also Northern Ireland flags issue List of flags used in Northern Ireland Coat of arms of Northern Ireland References External links FOTW: Northern Ireland CAIN: Flags in Northern Ireland The Union Flags and flags of the United Kingdom Northern Ireland	[ 0.3168945908546448, 0.12167554348707199, 0.21057376265525818, -1.2297652959823608, -0.008301328867673874, -0.13702206313610077, 0.38215920329093933, 0.9536557197570801, -0.739628255367279, -0.48315832018852234, -0.6738561987876892, -0.2431035339832306, -0.5481322407722473, 0.6488494873046875, -0.31651508808135986, 1.0110344886779785, 0.5039970874786377, 0.8888851404190063, 0.31225988268852234, -0.59724360704422, -0.06106431409716606, -0.2623571455478668, -0.28848353028297424, 0.13281570374965668, 0.3246045708656311, -0.28842756152153015, 0.7320540547370911, -0.17133548855781555, -0.3136994242668152, 0.6205642223358154, 0.3614097833633423, 0.13711492717266083, -0.008771604858338833, 0.024494584649801254, 0.30880823731422424, 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248146	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameo-Kid	Cameo-Kid	Cameo-Kid was a United States-based record label in the 1920s. Cameo-Kid was a subsidiary of Cameo Records, marketing recordings intended for children. Cameo-Kid used professional artists with known names in their recordings, including star Vaudeville singers and noted dance-band musicians. This was unlike some other early Children's records labels, which tended to feature recordings by unnamed and undistinguished talent. Cameo-Kid artists probably recorded these discs while in the Cameo studios for recording more mainstream records. Cameo-Kid Records are double-sided 7-inch gramophone records. 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248148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credo%20Reference	Credo Reference	Credo Reference or Credo (formerly Xrefer) is an American company that offers online reference content by subscription and partners with libraries to develop information-literacy programs or produce library marketing plans and materials. Founded in 1999, Credo Reference provides full-text online versions of over 3,500 published reference works from more than 100 publishers in a variety of major subjects. These include general and subject dictionaries as well as encyclopedias. The company's customers are libraries, library systems, k-12 schools, and universities, which subscribe to the service for their patrons' use. In 2010, a review of general reference sources by Library Journal focused on Credo Reference and three similar services. The review noted Credo Reference's internal linking within the site from one reference work to another. History The company was founded as Xrefer in 1999. Xrefer initially provided free access to several dozen reference works. In 2002, Béla Hatvany, founder of Computer Library Services (CLSI) and Silverplatter, invested in Xrefer and funded the company's transition to becoming an online reference database product for libraries. The company established an office in Boston, MA USA, which would later become its headquarters. The name Credo Reference was adopted in June 2007; the company also moved its England office from London to Oxford in that year. In 2018, Credo Reference was acquired by Infobase Publishing. References Further reading Golderman, Gail; Connolly, Bruce. "eReviews: General Reference Sources and Short Takes", Library Journal.com, Oct 15, 2010. 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248151	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wexis	Wexis	Wexis is a humorous portmanteau used to refer to the alleged duopoly of publishing conglomerates that dominate the U.S. legal information services industry – namely, West Publishing and LexisNexis. Neither of these companies is independent – they are parts of much larger conglomerates that dominate the entire information services sector. West is owned by Thomson Reuters, while LexisNexis is a division of RELX Group. These companies dispute the allegation that they are a duopoly; LexisNexis sued TheLaw.net which used the terms "Wexis" and "duopoly" in its marketing literature. Antitrust issues The United States district court imposed various requirements regarding the companies' operations in a consent decree resulting from an antitrust inquiry by the United States Department of Justice under the Hart-Scott-Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act in connection with Thomson's purchase of West Publishing, and West's and Lexis's settlement of various outstanding claims in that proceeding. For example, West was required to license the "star pagination" in its printed reporters under certain terms. Otherwise, lawyers in jurisdictions that require citations to all official and unofficial reporters would have to subscribe to both online services to get all the necessary page numbers for citations in their briefs. The judge also had concerns about the Thomson and West products ordered to be divested through a sale to Lexis, primarily statutory and case law publications of Lawyers Cooperative Publishing, such as United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers' Edition and United States Code Service, but those sales were ultimately approved. Both companies are known for their aggressive marketing programs in American law schools. Law students may print documents for free that are obtained through their respective services. Both companies ran programs through which students earned points (based on their number of searches) that could be redeemed for free gifts. While LexisNexis still runs its rewards program, WestLaw has discontinued its promotion. Wolters Kluwer is the largest company which has attempted to establish a beachhead against the "Wexis" duopoly; it took over offline legal publishers like Aspen Publishing and online legal services like Loislaw (though it later sold the latter in 2015), and owns Commerce Clearing House (CCH). However, Wolters has not yet unified its online and offline legal offerings under a single brand (although it has gathered its existing brands under the umbrella of "Wolters Kluwer Law and Business"). Most importantly, Wolters lacks an automated cross-referencing or citation-checking service that can directly compete against Westlaw's KeyCite or Shepard's Citations from LexisNexis. Bloomberg Industry Group is the best known of the remaining law publishing companies. Both Bloomberg and CCH have arrangements with Lexis and Westlaw to publish their content though those electronic services, although they also provide their subscribers web access to certain publications. See also References United States law Legal research	[ 0.4578491747379303, 0.1413709819316864, 0.4225127398967743, 0.21312730014324188, -0.1066371276974678, -0.4426271617412567, -0.1513141691684723, 0.47724631428718567, -0.04755854979157448, -0.028542108833789825, -0.5449093580245972, 0.3661412000656128, -0.007349926047027111, 0.46877968311309814, -0.058159731328487396, -0.20934665203094482, -0.11780411005020142, 0.9148595929145813, -0.17525486648082733, -0.22306883335113525, -0.36136913299560547, 0.18639962375164032, 0.38490167260169983, -0.7758698463439941, 0.16168902814388275, -0.19828981161117554, -0.04552631452679634, -1.0603350400924683, -0.027065308764576912, 0.36108338832855225, 0.7974993586540222, 0.5861929655075073, -0.44209352135658264, 0.15155214071273804, -0.02775578573346138, -0.1207873672246933, 0.35031333565711975, -0.024199318140745163, 0.08834517747163773, -0.5831866264343262, 0.27592116594314575, -0.34490805864334106, 0.2226177155971527, -0.025928275659680367, 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248159	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inert%20gas	Inert gas	An inert gas is a gas that does not undergo chemical reactions under a set of given conditions. The noble gases often do not react with many substances and were historically referred to as the inert gases. Inert gases are used generally to avoid unwanted chemical reactions degrading a sample. These undesirable chemical reactions are often oxidation and hydrolysis reactions with the oxygen and moisture in air. The term inert gas is context-dependent because several of the noble gases can be made to react under certain conditions. Purified argon and nitrogen gases are most commonly used as inert gases due to their high natural abundance (78.3% N2, 1% Ar in air) and low relative cost. Unlike noble gases, an inert gas is not necessarily elemental and is often a compound gas. Like the noble gases, the tendency for non-reactivity is due to the valence, the outermost electron shell, being complete in all the inert gases. This is a tendency, not a rule, as noble gases and other "inert" gases can react to form compounds. Production The inert gases are obtained by fractional distillation of air, with the exception of helium which is separated from a few natural gas sources rich in this element, through cryogenic distillation or membrane separation. For specialized applications, purified inert gas shall be produced by specialized generators on-site. They are often used by chemical tankers and product carriers (smaller vessels). Benchtop specialized generators are also available for laboratories. Applications Because of the non-reactive properties of inert gases they are often useful to prevent undesirable chemical reactions from taking place. Food is packed in inert gas to remove oxygen gas. This prevents bacteria from growing. It also prevents chemical oxidation by oxygen in normal air. An example is the rancidification (caused by oxidation) of edible oils. In food packaging, inert gases are used as a passive preservative, in contrast to active preservatives like sodium benzoate (an antimicrobial) or BHT (an antioxidant). Historical documents may also be stored under an inert gas to avoid degradation. For example, the original documents of the U.S. Constitution are stored under humidified argon. Helium was previously used, but it was less suitable because it diffuses out of the case more quickly than argon. Inert gases are often used in the chemical industry. In a chemical manufacturing plant, reactions can be conducted under inert gas to minimize fire hazards or unwanted reactions. In such plants and in oil refineries, transfer lines and vessels can be purged with inert gas as a fire and explosion prevention measure. At the bench scale, chemists perform experiments on air-sensitive compounds using air-free techniques developed to handle them under inert gas. Helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon are inert gases. Inert gas systems on ships Inert gas is produced on board crude oil carriers (above 8,000 tonnes)(from Jan 1, 2016) by using either a flue gas system or by burning kerosene in a dedicated inert gas generator. The inert gas system is used to prevent the atmosphere in cargo tanks or bunkers from coming into the explosive range. Inert gases keep the oxygen content of the tank atmosphere below 5% (on crude carriers, less for product carriers and gas tankers), thus making any air/hydrocarbon gas mixture in the tank too rich (too high a fuel to oxygen ratio) to ignite. Inert gases are most important during discharging and during the ballast voyage when more hydrocarbon vapor is likely to be present in the tank atmosphere. Inert gas can also be used to purge the tank of the volatile atmosphere in preparation for gas freeing - replacing the atmosphere with breathable air - or vice versa. The flue gas system uses the boiler exhaust as its source, so it is important that the fuel/air ratio in the boiler burners is properly regulated to ensure that high quality inert gases are produced. Too much air would result in an oxygen content exceeding 5%, and too much fuel oil would result in carryover of dangerous hydrocarbon gas. The flue gas is cleaned and cooled by the scrubber tower. Various safety devices prevent overpressure, the return of hydrocarbon gas to the engine room, or having a supply of IG with too high oxygen content. Gas tankers and product carriers cannot rely on flue gas systems (because they require IG with O2 content of 1% or less) and so use inert gas generators instead. The inert gas generator consists of a combustion chamber and scrubber unit supplied by fans and a refrigeration unit which cools the gas. A drier in series with the system removes moisture from the gas before it is supplied to the deck. Cargo tanks on gas carriers are not inerted, but the whole space around them is. This arrangement allows the tanks to be kept cool using a small heel of cargo while the vessel is in ballast while retaining the explosion protection provided by the inert gas. Inert gas systems on aircraft Inert gas is produced on board commercial and military aircraft in order to passivate fuel tanks. On hot days, fuel vapor in fuel tanks may otherwise form a flammable or explosive mixture which if oxidized, could have catastrophic consequences. Conventionally, Air Separation Modules (ASMs) have been used to generate inert gas. ASMs contain selectively permeable membranes. They are fed compressed air which drives the separation of oxygen from the air. For fuel tank passivation, it is not necessary to remove all oxygen, but rather enough to stay below the lean flammability limit and the lean explosion limit. Welding In gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), inert gases are used to shield the tungsten from contamination. It also shields the fluid metal (created from the arc) from the reactive gases in air which can cause porosity in the solidified weld puddle. Inert gases are also used in gas metal arc welding (GMAW) for welding non-ferrous metals. Some gases which are not usually considered inert but which behave like inert gases in all the circumstances likely to be encountered in some use can often be used as a substitute for an inert gas. This is useful when an appropriate pseudo-inert gas can be found which is inexpensive and common. For example, carbon dioxide is sometimes used in gas mixtures for GMAW because it is not reactive to the weld pool created by arc welding. But it is reactive to the arc. The more carbon dioxide that is added to the inert gas, such as argon, will increase your penetration. The amount of carbon dioxide is often determined by what kind of transfer you will be using in GMAW. The most common is spray arc transfer, and the most commonly used gas mixture for spray arc transfer is 90% argon and 10% carbon dioxide. Diving In underwater diving an inert gas is a component of the breathing mixture which is not metabolically active, and serves to dilute the gas mixture. The inert gas may have effects on the diver, but these are thought to be mostly physical effects, such as tissue damage caused by bubbles in decompression sickness. The most common inert gases used in breathing gas for commercial diving are nitrogen and helium. See also for aircraft , a fire and explosion prevention procedure to avoid the formation of an ignitable atmosphere, accomplished by flushing a closed system with an inert gas , a fire and explosion prevention procedure to make an ignitable atmosphere safe, accomplished by injecting an inert gas References Noble gases Gases Industrial gases hy:Իներտ գազեր	[ 0.022618524730205536, 0.5171709060668945, -0.46131631731987, -0.04363352432847023, -0.058527350425720215, -0.41972285509109497, 0.38176363706588745, 0.19299381971359253, 0.3809187710285187, -0.5447721481323242, -0.7750352621078491, 0.4643455445766449, -0.3817669749259949, 0.46975672245025635, 0.27894818782806396, 0.3681795299053192, 0.5984795689582825, 0.4912615418434143, 0.14137597382068634, -0.18165040016174316, -0.03068535029888153, 0.07425113022327423, -0.17015019059181213, -0.4073139727115631, 0.626979410648346, -0.5361438989639282, -0.035637788474559784, 0.3172650933265686, -0.09811610728502274, 0.12355731427669525, 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248166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Bulgarians	List of Bulgarians	This is a list of famous or notable Bulgarians throughout history. Bulgarian monarchs Kubrat Batbayan Asparukh of Bulgaria Tervel of Bulgaria Kormesiy of Bulgaria Sevar of Bulgaria Kormisosh of Bulgaria Vinekh of Bulgaria Telets of Bulgaria Sabin of Bulgaria Umor of Bulgaria Toktu of Bulgaria Pagan of Bulgaria Telerig of Bulgaria Kardam of Bulgaria Krum of Bulgaria Omurtag of Bulgaria Malamir of Bulgaria Presian of Bulgaria Boris I Michael Simeon the Great Peter I of Bulgaria Boris II of Bulgaria Roman of Bulgaria Samuil of Bulgaria Gavril Radomir of Bulgaria Ivan Vladislav of Bulgaria Presian II of Bulgaria Peter (II) Delyan of Bulgaria Constantin Bodin (Peter (III)) Ivan Asen I of Bulgaria Peter IV of Bulgaria Kaloyan of Bulgaria Boril of Bulgaria Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria Kaliman I of Bulgaria Michael Asen I of Bulgaria Kaliman II of Bulgaria Mitso Asen of Bulgaria Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria Michael Asen II of Bulgaria Ivaylo of Bulgaria Ivan Asen III of Bulgaria George I of Bulgaria Smilets of Bulgaria Chaka of Bulgaria Theodore Svetoslav of Bulgaria George II of Bulgaria Michael III Shishman of Bulgaria Ivan Stephen of Bulgaria Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria Ivan Sratsimir of Bulgaria Constantine II of Bulgaria Alexander I of Bulgaria Ferdinand I of Bulgaria Boris III of Bulgaria Simeon II of Bulgaria Performing arts Directors Stephen C. Apostolof Christo Christov Slatan Dudow Georgi Djulgerov Tonislav Hristov Lyudmil Kirkov Nikola Korabov Nikola Kovachev Vulo Radev Petar B. Vasilev Binka Zhelyazkova Actors See also List of Bulgarian actors Zahari Baharov Maria Bakalova George Baker Nikolay Binev Stefan Danailov Nina Dobrev Yana Marinova Itzhak Fintzi Georgi Georgiev Georgi Georgiev-Getz Kiril Gospodinov Stanislav Ianevski Gloria Ivanova Georgi Kaloyanchev Apostol Karamitev Nevena Kokanova Todor Kolev Victoria Koleva Julian Kostov Marius Kurkinski Moni Moshonov (born 1951), Bulgarian-born Israeli actor and comedian Stoyanka Mutafova Lyubomir Neikov Georgi Partsalev Katya Paskaleva Bashar Rahal Hristo Shopov Naum Shopov Petar Slabakov Kosta Tsonev Grigor Vachkov Models Silvia Dimitrova Nina Dobrev Nansi Karaboycheva Yana Marinova Diliana Popova Dancers Asen Gavrilov Journalists Oggy Boytchev Nikolay Kolev - Michmana Elena Yoncheva Television Todor Kolev Niki Kunchev Milen Tsvetkov Aleksandra Sarchadjieva Slavi Trifonov Ralitsa Vassileva Literature Authors Elisaveta Bagryana Petar Beron Ran Bosilek Assen Bossev Hristo Botev Elias Canetti Dobri Chintulov Chudomir Clement of Ohrid Constantine of Preslav Atanas Dalchev Dimcho Debelyanov Alexenia Dimitrova Dimitar Dimov Vasil Drumev Petya Dubarova John Exarch Dora Gabe Nikolai Haitov Paisiy Hilendarski Chernorizetz Hrabar Nikolai Hristozov Angel Karaliychev Lyuben Karavelov Stefan Kisyov Aleko Konstantinov Miladinov Brothers Aleksandra Monedzhikova Grigor Parlichev Elin Pelin Ivailo Petrov Valeri Petrov Julian Popov Maria Popova Yordan Radichkov Radoy Ralin Kuzman Shapkarev Pencho Slaveykov Petko Slaveykov Hristo Smirnenski Emiliyan Stanev Zahari Stoyanov Anton Strashimirov Stanislav Stratiev Edvin Sugarev Dimitar Talev Tzvetan Todorov Stefan Tzanev Nikola Vaptsarov Ivan Vazov Pavel Vezhinov Vladislav the Grammarian Dobri Voinikov Sofronii Vrachanski Peyo Yavorov Nedyalko Yordanov Yordan Yovkov Music Composers See also List of Bulgarian composers Nikola Atanasov Victor Chuchkov Alexandra Fol Marin Goleminov Michail Goleminov Dobri Hristov Nikolay Kaufman Nikolo Kotzev Petar Krumov John Kukuzelis Filip Kutev Kiril Lambov Milcho Leviev Emanuil Manolov Georgi Minchev Dimitar Nenov Ivo Papasov Albena Petrovic-Vratchanska Stefan Popov Anna-Maria Ravnopolska-Dean Petko Stainov Dobrinka Tabakova Ralitsa Tcholakova Georgi Tutev Stefan Valdobrev Pancho Vladigerov Singers and musicians ''See also List of Bulgarian musicians and singers Alexis Weissenberg Andrea Angela Tosheva Boris Christoff Christina Morfova Desi Slava Elena Nicolai Elitsa Todorova Emil Dimitrov Filipp Kirkorov Gena Dimitrova Georgi Minchev Gery-Nikol Gloria Ivan Yanakov (pianist) Ivanka Ninova Ivo Papasov Kiril Marichkov Kamen Tchanev Lili Ivanova Ljuba Welitsch Ludmilla Diakovska Marius Kurkinski Mira Aroyo Nayden Todorov Neva Krysteva Nicolai Ghiaurov Nikola Giuzelev Poli Genova Raina Kabaivanska Ralitsa Tcholakova Slavi Trifonov Spens Stefan Valdobrev Svetla Protich Sylvie Vartan Theodosii Spassov Valya Balkanska Vassil Naidenov Vesselina Kasarova Yildiz Ibrahimova Yoan Kukuzel Visual arts Architects Victoria Angelova Milka Bliznakov Andrey Damyanov Kolyu Ficheto Georgi Fingov Naum Torbov Painters Angel Metodiev Bencho Obreshkov Boris Georgiev Christo Yavashev – Christo Chudomir Dechko Uzunov Dimitre Mehandjiysky Ekaterina Savova-Nenova George Papazov Hristofor Zhefarovich Ilia Beshkov Ivan Markvichka Ivan Nenov Jules Pascin Keratza Vissulceva Konstantin Shtarkelov Nikola Avramov Nikola Marinov Radi Nedelchev Silvia Dimitrova Vladimir Dimitrov - Maistora Yaroslav Veshin Yanko Tihov Zahariy Zograf Zlatyu Boyadzhiev Sculptors Ivan Minekov Christo Todor Todorov Vezhdi Rashidov Others Annie Ivanova, arts curator Christo Vladimirov Javacheff, along with Jeanne-Claude Peter Lazarov, graphic artist Alex Maleev, cartoonist Toma Tomov, graphic artist Business Delyan Peevski Emil Kyulev Georgi Naydenov Iliya Pavlov Kroum Pindoff Tihomir Kamenov State Politicians Georgi Atanasov Prince Alexander of Battenberg Nikola Mushanov Boyko Borisov Todor Burmov Teodor Teodorov Filip Dimitrov Georgi Dimitrov Konstantin Dimitrov Simeon Djankov Kimon Georgiev Reneta Indzhova Vasil Kolarov Ivan Kostov Andrey Lukanov Nadezhda Mihailova Georgi Parvanov Solomon Pasi Vasil Radoslavov Simeon Saxe-Coburg-Gotha Aleksandar Stamboliyski Stefan Stambolov Aleksandar Malinov Petar Stoyanov Andrey Lyapchev Zhan Videnov Zhelyu Zhelev Todor Zhivkov Revolutionaries Todor Aleksandrov Georgi Benkovski Dame Gruev Gotse Delchev Tsanko Dyustabanov Hadzhi Dimitar Panayot Hitov Todor Kableshkov Stefan Karadzha Lyuben Karavelov Vasil Levski Georgi Obretenov Nikola Karev Nikola Obretenov Tonka Obretenova Gjorche Petrov Yane Sandanski Boris Sarafov Georgi Sava Rakovski Hristo Tatarchev Filip Totyu Panayot Volov Stoyan Zaimov Hristo Botev Mara Buneva Voivodes Angel Apostol Petkov Chavdar Ilyo Indzhe Karposh Manush Kapitan Petko Voyvoda Academics Stephan Angeloff, microbiologist Krassimir Atanassov, mathematician Angel Balevski, inventor Petar Beron, educator Veselin Beshevliev, classicist Georgi Bliznakoff, chemist Kiril Bratanov, biologist Ljubomir Chakaloff, mathematician George Chaldakov, vascular biologist Stamen Grigorov, physician Asen Hadjiolov, biologist Anastas Ishirkov, human geographer Christo Ivanov, organic chemist Assen Jordanoff, airplane constructor Rostislaw Kaischew, physical chemist Ludmil Katzarkov, mathematician Georgi Kitov, archaeologist Boicho Kokinov, cognitive scientist Georgi Lozanov, psychologist Georgi Manev, physicist Stefan Marinov, dissident physicist Marco Mincoff, literary scholar Georgi Nadjakov, physicist, discovered the external photoeffect Nikola Obreshkov, mathematician Dimiter Orahovats, physiologist Dimitar Paskov, pharmacist and chemist Angel Penchev, neurologist Peter Petroff, prolific inventor Ivan Atanassov Petrov, neurologist Stefka Petrova, nutritionist Dimitar Sasselov, astrophysicist Blagovest Sendov, mathematician Ivan Stranski, physical chemist, proposed the mechanism of Stranski-Krastanov growth Elka Todorova, social psychologist Evgeny Vatev, physicist, inventor Asen Zlatarov, chemist Vasil Zlatarski, historian Economists Stoyan Alexandrov Lyuben Berov Martin Dimitrov Simeon Djankov Nikolay Nenovsky Antoaneta Vassileva Philosophers Peter Deunov Julia Kristeva Isaac Passy Tzvetan Todorov Maria Todorova Sports Athletics Rostislav Dimitrov, triple jumper Yordanka Donkova, world record holder and one world title in hurdling (1988) Stefka Kostadinova, world record holder and two world titles in high jump (1987, 1995) Tereza Marinova, triple jumper Khristo Markov, 1988 Olympic triple jump champion Petya Pendareva, sprinter Iva Prandzheva, long jumper and triple jumper Boxing Georgi Kostadinov, boxer, won the Olympic Flyweight gold medal at the 1972 Munich Olympic Games for Bulgaria Daisy Lang, boxer, world champion in three different weight categories Ivailo Marinov, boxer, won the Olympic Flyweight gold medal at the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games, among others Kubrat Pulev, boxer Tervel Pulev, boxer Svilen Rusinov, boxer Chess Ivan Cheparinov, chess player Antoaneta Stefanova, Women's World Chess Champion (2004) Silvio Danailov, chess player and manager Veselin Topalov, World Chess Champion (2005) Volleyball Aleksandra Delcheva Strashimira Filipova Lyubomir Ganev Evgeni Ivanov Matey Kaziyski Plamen Konstantinov Nikolay Nikolov Vladimir Nikolov Teodor Salparov Martin Stoev Hristo Tsvetanov Eva Yaneva Boyan Yordanov Ivan Zarev Antonina Zetova Andrey Zhekov Dimitar Zlatanov Football Georgi Asparuhov Krassimir Balakov Dimitar Berbatov Hristo Bonev Dinko Dermendzhiev Petar Houbchev Trifon Ivanov Ivan Kolev Emil Kostadinov Nikola Kotkov Yordan Letchkov Stanislav Manolev Borislav Mikhailov Dimitar Penev Luboslav Penev Martin Petrov Stiliyan Petrov Aleksandar Shalamanov Nasko Sirakov Hristo Stoichkov Darin Todorov Emil Urumov Dimitar Yakimov Zlatko Yankov Petar Zhekov Andrey Zhelyazkov Tennis Grigor Dimitrov Katerina Maleeva Magdalena Maleeva Manuela Maleeva Tsvetana Pironkova Other sports Blagoy Blagoev, silver medalist in Olympic Games (1980) and all-time senior world record holder in snatch (195.5 kg, competing at 90 kg) Nikolay Bukhalov, two Olympic and five world titles in canoeing Albena Denkova, World Figure Skating Champion in ice dancing (pairs) (2006, 2007) Vasil Etropolski (born 1959), Olympic and world champion sabre fencer Georgi Georgiev, two world titles in Sambo (2003, 2006) Maria Gigova, three rhythmic gymnastics world titles (1969, 1971, 1973), Guinness World Records Mariya Grozdeva, sport shooter Ivan Ivanov, Olympic weightlifter Tanyu Kiryakov, pistol shooter Dan Kolov, wrestler Kaloyan Mahlyanov (Kotooshu), sumo wrestler Maria Petrova, three rhythmic gymnastics world titles (1993, 1994, 1995), Guinness World Records Hristo Prodanov, mountaineer Evgeniya Radanova, speed skater and racing cyclist Neshka Robeva, rhythmic gymnast Alexander Rusev, wrestler, rower and powerlifter Valentin Yordanov, two Olympic, seven world and seven European titles in wrestling Yordan Yovchev, world champion and six-time Olympic gymnast Theology Antim I Evtimiy of Tarnovo Vladislav the Grammarian Peter Deunov (Master Beinsa Douno), founder of the Universal White Brotherhood Cuisine Silvena Rowe Ivan Zvezdev Criminals Borislav Georgiev Emil Kyulev Georgi Iliev Georgi Stoev Iliya Pavlov Konstantin "Samokovetsa" Dimitrov Vasil Iliev Gallery See also Bulgaria Bulgarians Bulgarian language Notes	[ 0.47553178668022156, 0.6971522569656372, -0.6764578223228455, -0.5049154758453369, -0.5411233305931091, 0.25053608417510986, 0.9979488253593445, 0.8557930588722229, -0.823663055896759, 0.082722969353199, -0.25498154759407043, -0.2344403862953186, -0.23088689148426056, 0.7910729646682739, -0.10281218588352203, 0.6253895163536072, -0.011529318057000637, 0.7286097407341003, 0.3919355571269989, -0.23052048683166504, -0.06245114654302597, -0.008872839622199535, 0.6898558139801025, -0.547294557094574, -0.2632925808429718, 0.1000308096408844, 0.40258464217185974, -0.12375874072313309, 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248171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronius	Petronius	Gaius Petronius Arbiter (; ; c. AD 27 – 66; sometimes Titus Petronius Niger) was a Roman courtier during the reign of Nero. He is generally believed to be the author of the Satyricon, a satirical novel believed to have been written during the Neronian era (54–68 AD). Life A reference to Petronius by Sidonius Apollinaris places him and/or his Satyricon in Massalia (ancient Marseille). He might have been born and educated there. Tacitus, Plutarch and Pliny the Elder describe Petronius as the elegantiae arbiter (also phrased arbiter elegantiarum), "judge of elegance", in the court of the emperor Nero. He served as suffect consul in 62. Later, he became a member of the senatorial class who devoted himself to a life of pleasure. His relationship to Nero was apparently akin to that of a fashion advisor. Tacitus gives this account of Petronius in his historical work the Annals (XVI.18): None of the ancient sources give any further detail about his life, or mention that he was a writer. However, a medieval manuscript written around 1450 of the Satyricon credited a "Titus Petronius" as the author of the original work. Traditionally, this reference is linked with Petronius Arbiter, since the novel appears to have been written or at least set during his lifetime. The link, however, remains speculative and disputed. As a writer Petronius' development of his characters in the Satyricon, namely Trimalchio, transcends the traditional style of writing of ancient literature. In the literature written during Petronius' lifetime, the emphasis was always on the typical considerations of plot, which had been laid down by classical rules. The character, which was hardly known in ancient literature, was secondary. Petronius goes beyond these literary limitations in his exact portrayals of detailed speech, behaviour, surroundings, and appearance of the characters. Another literary device Petronius employs in his novel is a collection of specific allusions. The allusions to certain people and events are evidence that the Satyricon was written during Nero's time. These also suggest that it was aimed at a contemporary audience which consisted in part of Nero's courtiers and even Nero himself. One such allusion, found in chapter 9, refers to the story of the good wife Lucretia which was well known at the time: The message Petronius tries to convey in his work is far from moral and does not intend to produce reform, but is written above all to entertain and should be considered artistically. Nevertheless, his writings can be a valuable tool to better comprehend the customs and ways of life of Roman society at that particular time, since the author strives to preserve the plausibility of his representation, as can be noted by the frequent use of allusions and detailed descriptions of characters and behaviours. As the title implies, the Satyricon is a satire, specifically a Menippean satire, in which Petronius satirizes nearly anything, using his taste as the only standard. It is speculated that Petronius' depiction of Trimalchio mirrors that of Nero. Although the author's own opinion is never alluded to, the opinions of the characters involved in the story are evident, as is how Encolpius criticizes Trimalchio. Death Petronius' high position soon made him the object of envy for those around him. Having attracted the jealousy of Tigellinus, the commander of the emperor's guard, he was accused of treason. He was arrested at Cumae in 65 AD but did not wait for a sentence. Instead, he chose to take his own life. Tacitus again records his elegant suicide in the sixteenth book of the Annals: According to Pliny the Elder: "T. Petronius, a consular, when he was going to die through Nero's jealousy and envy, broke his fluorspar wine-dipper so that the emperor's table would not inherit it. It had cost 300,000 sesterces". T. Petronius and G. Petronius have been said to have been the same man. See also Asteroid 3244 Petronius, named after the satirist Glossarium Eroticum Supplements to the Satyricon Notes Further reading Breitenstein, Natalie, Petronius, Satyrica 1–15. Text, Übersetzung, Kommentar (2009. Berlin – New York: De Gruyter) (Texte und Kommentare, 32). Conte, Gian Biagio, The Hidden Author: An Interpretation of Petronius' Satyricon (1997. Berkeley: University of California Press). Connors, Catherine, Petronius the Poet: Verse and Literary Tradition in the Satyricon (1998. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press). Habermehl, Peter, Petronius, Satyrica 79–141. Ein philologisch–literarischer Kommentar. Band I: Satyrica 79–110. Berlin: de Gruyter. 2006. Habermehl, Peter, Petronius, Satyrica 79–141. Ein philologisch–literarischer Kommentar. Band II: Satyrica 111–118. Berlin: de Gruyter. 2020. Habermehl, Peter, Petronius, Satyrica 79–141. Ein philologisch–literarischer Kommentar. Band III: Bellum civile (Sat. 119–124). Berlin: de Gruyter. 2021. Jensson, Gottskalk, The Recollections of Encolpius. The Satyrica of Petronius as Milesian Fiction (2004. Groningen: Barkhuis Publishing and Groningen University Library) (Ancient narrative Suppl. 2). Prag, Jonathan and Ian Repath (eds), Petronius: A Handbook (2009. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell). Reeve, Michael D. 1983. Petronius. In Texts and Transmission: A Survey of the Latin Classics. Edited by Leighton D. Reynolds, 295–300. Oxford: Clarendon. Repath, Ian. 2010. "Plato in Petronius: Petronius in Platanona". The Classical Quarterly, 60(2), new series, 577–595. Rose, Kenneth F. C. 1971. "The Date and Author of the Satyricon". Mnemosyne, Bibliotheca Classica Batava, Supplementum 16. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Schmeling, Gareth. 2011. A Commentary on the Satyrica of Petronius. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press. Slater, Niall W. 1990. Reading Petronius. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Sullivan, John P. 1985. "Petronius’ Satyricon and its Neronian Context". In Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt: Geschichte und Kultur Roms im Spiegel der neuren Forschung, Vol. II, Part 32.3. Edited by Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, 1666–1686. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Vannini, Giulio, Petronius 1975–2005: bilancio critico e nuove proposte (2007. Goettingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht) (Lustrum, 49). Vannini, Giulio, Petronii Arbitri Satyricon 100–115. Edizione critica e commento (2010. Berlin – New York: De Gruyter) (Beiträge zur Altertumskunde, 281). External links Works by Petronius at Perseus Digital Library Latin text of the Satyricon from The Latin Library Petronii satirae et liber priapeorum, iterum edidit Franciscus Buecheler, adiectae sunt Varronis et Senecae satirae similesque reliquiae, Berolini apud Weidmannos, 1871. 20s births Year of birth uncertain 66 deaths Suffect consuls of Imperial Rome Ancient Romans who committed suicide Classical Latin novelists Roman-era poets Silver Age Latin writers Suicides by sharp instrument in Italy 1st-century Romans 1st-century writers Roman-era satirists Petronii Ancient Massaliotes	[ -0.8216593861579895, -0.2951963245868683, -0.4778628647327423, 0.3275517225265503, -0.1453835368156433, 1.179376244544983, -0.07267836481332779, 0.5763440728187561, -0.21348385512828827, -0.4310838580131531, 0.266464501619339, 0.2719542384147644, -0.7797935605049133, -0.0645207017660141, 0.5520874857902527, -0.013419521041214466, -0.34154897928237915, 0.5142280459403992, -0.07773957401514053, 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248175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Telic	Operation Telic	Operation Telic (Op TELIC) was the codename under which all of the United Kingdom's military operations in Iraq were conducted between the start of the invasion of Iraq on 19 March 2003 and the withdrawal of the last remaining British forces on 22 May 2011. The bulk of the mission ended on 30 April 2009 but around 150 troops, mainly from the Royal Navy, remained in Iraq until 22 May 2011 as part of the Iraqi Training and Advisory Mission. 46,000 troops were deployed at the onset of the invasion and the total cost of war stood at £9.24 billion in 2010. Background Operation Telic was one of the largest deployments of British forces since World War II. It was only approached in size by the 1991 Operation Granby deployment for the Gulf War and the 1956 Operation Musketeer Suez Crisis deployment. It was considerably larger than the 1982 Operation Corporate in the Falklands War, which saw around 30,000 personnel deployed and the Korean War, which saw fewer than 20,000 personnel deployed. Some 9,500 of the British servicemen and women who deployed on Operation Telic for the invasion and its aftermath were reservists, from the Territorial Army and from the Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment. Notice that additional British forces were deploying to the region (large numbers of RAF personnel were already deployed in Kuwait, Turkey and elsewhere in the region on Operations Northern Watch and Southern Watch) was given in three separate Commons statements by Geoff Hoon Secretary of State for Defence. On 7 January, the deployment of naval forces and Royal Marines was announced. 20 January saw the land forces deployment announced and 6 February the air forces. They were ready in time for hostilities to start on 19 March. When compared with the deployment of forces prior to the Gulf War things proceeded a great deal faster, with the slowest deploying elements taking 10 weeks to get from base to combat readiness in the theatre. The deployment used 64 British and foreign flagged merchant vessels. Telic means a purposeful or defined action (from Greek τέλος, telos). Unlike the United States who called their equivalent military deployment Operation Iraqi Freedom, the Ministry of Defence uses a computer to generate its names so that they carry no overtly political connotations. The meaning was initially unknown but as initial planning took place over the Christmas 2002 period, the term became jokingly known amongst personnel as a backronym for Tell Everyone Leave Is Cancelled. Command structure The force was commanded by a three-star tri-service headquarters. The commander of the operation was Air Marshal Brian Burridge, with Major General Peter Wall acting as his chief of staff. The headquarters was situated at CENTCOM headquarters in Qatar. The three services each had two-star commanders leading operations. The Royal Navy commander was Rear Admiral David Snelson who had his headquarters ashore in Bahrain. The afloat Royal Navy commander was Commodore Jamie Miller, who had the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal as his flagship. The 1st (United Kingdom) Armoured Division was commanded by Major General Robin Brims. Three army brigades were assigned to the division. 16 Air Assault Brigade was commanded by Brigadier 'Jacko' Page, 7th Armoured Brigade by Brigadier Graham Binns and 102nd Logistic Brigade by Brigadier Shaun Cowlam. 3 Commando Brigade was also under the operational command of the division and was commanded by Brigadier Jim Dutton. The Royal Air Force commander was Air Vice-Marshal Glenn Torpy. Major General Wall took over command of 1st Armoured Division on 1 May 2003. He was replaced as Chief of Staff by Major General Barney White-Spunner. Rear Admiral Snelson was succeeded by Major General Tony Milton, Commandant General Royal Marines as maritime forces commander on 16 April 2003. Post-invasion On 11 July 2003, 1st Armoured Division handed control over south-east Iraq to 3rd Mechanised Division, Major General Wall was succeeded by Major General Graeme Lamb as commander of British ground forces in Iraq. Unlike the invasion period, by then there was a substantial presence from many nations other than America, Britain, Australia and Poland. In addition to British troops, 3rd Division now commanded Italian, Dutch, Danish, Czech, Lithuanian, Norwegian and New Zealand forces. 3rd Division handed over a new composite divisional headquarters on 28 December 2003. Major General Andrew Stewart took over from General Lamb as commander of British forces. After the end of major operations, the main components of the British forces changed greatly. 3 Commando Brigade was withdrawn in early May and 16 Air Assault Brigade left later in the same month apart from a couple of infantry battalions. 7 Armoured Brigade remained until relieved by 19 Mechanised Brigade at the same time as 3rd Division took over from 1st Division. 102 Logistics Brigade was relieved by 101 Logistic Brigade in late May. Most of the RAF aircraft left the area with a few retained for patrols over Iraq and support of ground forces. British naval forces also returned to more usual levels, with two surface combatants, a tanker and a repair ship present in early July. A further rotation of ground troops occurred in November 2003, with 19 Mechanised Brigade relieved by 20th Armoured Brigade; 20th Armoured Brigade in its turn being relieved by 1 Mechanised Brigade. In April 2004, 20th Armoured Brigade turned over its responsibilities to 1 Mechanised Brigade and Lieutenant General John McColl was appointed deputy commander of occupation ground forces. By July 2004 the British area saw its fifth commander when Major General Bill Rollo took over. At the end of 2004 General Rollo was succeeded by Major General Jonathan Riley and in November of that year 4 Armoured Brigade rotated to replace 1 Mechanised Brigade. In May 2005, 4 Armoured Brigade was replaced by 12 Mechanised Brigade with the handover of responsibility taking place on 30 May. In May 2006 7th Armoured Brigade, the Desert Rats were relieved by 20th Armoured Brigade under the command of Brigadier James Everard. October 2006 saw 19 Light Brigade take over from 20th Armoured Brigade. 1 Mechanised Brigade provided HQ and troops for Op TELIC 10, deploying to Iraq in June 2007. During that tour, both the PJCC and Basra Palace were handed back to Iraqi control. They handed over to 4th Mechanised Brigade on 1 December 2007. Equipment The conflict saw over 100 fixed-wing aircraft and over 100 rotary-wing aircraft of virtually every type in the British inventory deployed. It also saw a 33 ship fleet, which was the largest taskforce deployed by the UK since the Falklands War. Some 120 Challenger 2 main battle tanks, 150 Warrior infantry fighting vehicles, 32 L131 self-propelled 155 mm howitzers and 36 L118 105 mm towed howitzers were deployed with the land forces, with reconnaissance vehicles and everything else that makes a modern mechanised and armoured force function. During the post invasion phase, and following a number of British casualties blamed on inadequate equipment, a great deal of new equipment was purchased to help deal with the threats posed by insurgents. These included 166 armoured Pinzgauer Vector PPVs, 108 Mastiff PPVs, 145 enhanced FV430 Mk3 Bulldogs, Lockheed Martin Desert Hawk UAVs and 8 Britten-Norman Defender ISTAR aircraft. Casualties A total of 179 British Armed Forces personnel died serving on Operation Telic between the start of the campaign in March 2003 and the end of operations in July 2009; 136 in hostile incidents and the remaining 43 under non-hostile circumstances. Full non-fatal casualty records are currently only available for the period after 1 January 2006. From that date, 3,598 British personnel were wounded, injured or fell ill (315 wounded in action); 1,971 of whom required aeromedical evacuation. However, these totals are likely to rise significantly as and when full records for 2003 to 2006 become available. By 11 March 2007, more than 2,100 soldiers had returned from Iraq suffering from some form of mental illness, including PTSD. In fiction The British television film The Mark of Cain depicted service of a fictional British Army unit, the 1st Battalion Northdale Rifles in Operation Telic, just after the end of combat operations and in the first stages of the occupation. A stage production based on the Black Watch was also created, drawing on experiences of veterans of the war. It was played out to much acclaim throughout Scotland in 2006. See also List of British gallantry awards for the Iraq War List of United Kingdom Military installations used during Operation Telic Iraq Inquiry References External links Campaign Medal for Operation Telic British Fatalities in Iraq (MoD) Gallery of images from 20th Armoured Brigade's tour of Iraq during Op TELIC 8 (MoD) Telic 2003 in Iraq Conflicts in 2003 British Armed Forces deployments Wars involving the United Kingdom Iraq–United Kingdom relations 21st-century Royal Air Force deployments British Army deployments	[ 0.025502877309918404, -0.04129679128527641, 0.3745326101779938, -0.5816518068313599, -0.08900667726993561, 0.047279927879571915, 0.4444272220134735, 0.05157678201794624, 0.0023262742906808853, 0.22090484201908112, -0.7239525318145752, 0.5636786818504333, -0.13645558059215546, 0.13422615826129913, -0.24296835064888, 0.42798876762390137, 0.38166487216949463, 0.1886160671710968, -0.02289312705397606, -0.044718801975250244, -0.06670559197664261, -0.27924081683158875, 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248176	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphodelus%20ramosus	Asphodelus ramosus	Asphodelus ramosus, the branched asphodel, is a perennial herbaceous plant in the order Asparagales. Similar in appearance to Asphodelus albus and particularly Asphodelus cerasiferus and Asphodelus aestivus, it may be distinguished by its highly branched stem and smaller fruits. There has been a lot of confusion over the nomenclature and taxonomy of the species, owing to its similarity to Asphodelus aestivus. Asphodelus ramosus is native to the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, northern Africa, and the Middle East. It can also be found in the Canary Islands. It is particularly common in coastal areas of the Mediterranean with intensive grazing and occasional fire. In some areas it shows an affinity for acidic soils, mainly schist. It can form abundant colonies, usually flowering in February to May. It has been thought to be Homer's asphodel of the underworld, but so has the closely related Asphodeline lutea. The branched asphodel is known to contain colchicine, a chemical used in the treatment of gout. Physical characteristics Asphodelus ramosus is a geophyte, having an underground storage organ which enables the plant to survive adverse conditions, such as excessive heat and drought. Its leaves, growing to a height of –, contain alkaloids that are harmful to sheep and goats in the wet, winter months, but during the summer when their leaves dry out, they lose their toxicity. Its very numerous flowers are white with six tepals bearing a central brown streak. The fruits are small round capsules. Uses Some traditional folk usages of the plant have been to make a glue from the plant's root. A remedy against warts is also derived from its root. According to Dioscorides, a concoction made from its roots (mixed with wine) induces vomiting. Formerly, the entire plant was used in treating venomous snake bites (its efficacy yet to be proven scientifically). 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248177	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menippus	Menippus	Menippus of Gadara (; Menippos ho Gadareus; fl. 3rd century BC) was a Cynic satirist. The Menippean satire genre is named after him. His works, all of which are lost, were an important influence on Varro and Lucian, who ranks Menippus with Antisthenes, Diogenes, and Crates as among the most notable of the Cynics. Life Little is known about the life of Menippus. He was a Greek, perhaps of Phoenecian descent from the Greek city of Gadara in Coele-Syria. The ancient sources agree that he was a slave. He was in the service of a citizen of Pontus, but in some way obtained his freedom and relocated to Thebes. Diogenes Laërtius relates a dubious story that he amassed a fortune as a money-lender, lost it, and committed suicide. Writings His works (written in a mixture of prose and verse) are all lost. He discussed serious subjects in a spirit of ridicule, and especially delighted in attacking the Epicureans and Stoics. Strabo and Stephanus call him the "earnest-jester" (, spoudogeloios). His writings exercised considerable influence upon later literature, and the Menippean satire genre is named after him. Although the writings of Menippus no longer survive, there are some fragments of Varro's Saturae Menippeae, which were written in imitation of Menippus. One of the dialogues attributed to Lucian, his avowed imitator, who frequently mentions him, is called Menippus, but since the sub-title ("The Oracle of the Dead") resembles that of a work ascribed to Menippus by Diogenes Laërtius, it has been suggested that it is imitated from his Necromancy. Diogenes Laërtius says the following works were written by Menippus: Νέκυια – Necromancy Διαθῆκαι – Wills Ἐπιστολαὶ κεκομψευμέναι ἀπὸ τῶν θεῶν προσώπου – Letters artificially composed as if by the Gods Πρὸς τοὺς φυσικοὺς καὶ μαθηματικοὺς καὶ γραμματικοὺς – Replies to the Natural Philosophers, and Mathematicians, and Grammarians Γονὰς Ἐπικούρου – The Birth of Epicurus Τὰς θρησκευομένας ὑπ' αὐτῶν εἰκάδας – The School's reverence of the twentieth day (celebrated in the Epicurean school) In addition, Athenaeus mentions works called Symposium and Arcesilaus, and Diogenes Laërtius mentions a Sale of Diogenes () written by Menippus which seems to be the main source of the story that Diogenes of Sinope was captured by pirates and sold into slavery. Notes References External links Lives & Writings on the Cynics, directory of literary references to Ancient Cynics Menippus – Lucian's dialogue in which Menippus visits Hades 3rd-century BC philosophers 3rd-century BC writers 3rd-century BC poets Ancient Greek poets Ancient Greek satirists Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen Cynic philosophers Hellenistic-era philosophers from Syria Year of birth unknown Year of death unknown	[ -0.33962002396583557, 0.11567150801420212, -0.8604884147644043, 0.06698709726333618, -0.7647355794906616, 0.8792465329170227, 0.1974567323923111, 0.40866848826408386, -0.71319979429245, -0.4427308738231659, 0.17289873957633972, 0.5706115365028381, -1.0013433694839478, -0.006019975524395704, 0.08379144966602325, 0.26231649518013, -0.38864701986312866, 0.7622354030609131, 0.40595197677612305, -0.32782697677612305, 0.32911553978919983, -0.2735532224178314, 0.38097670674324036, -0.2574279308319092, -0.08661341667175293, 0.15687264502048492, -0.22298207879066467, 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248182	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space%20charge	Space charge	Space charge is a concept in which excess electric charge is treated as a continuum of charge distributed over a region of space (either a volume or an area) rather than distinct point-like charges. This model typically applies when charge carriers have been emitted from some region of a solid—the cloud of emitted carriers can form a space charge region if they are sufficiently spread out, or the charged atoms or molecules left behind in the solid can form a space charge region. Space charge only occurs in dielectric media (including vacuum) because in a conductive medium the charge tends to be rapidly neutralized or screened. The sign of the space charge can be either negative or positive. This situation is perhaps most familiar in the area near a metal object when it is heated to incandescence in a vacuum. This effect was first observed by Thomas Edison in light bulb filaments, where it is sometimes called the Edison effect. Space charge is a significant phenomenon in many vacuum and solid-state electronic devices. Cause Physical explanation When a metal object is placed in a vacuum and is heated to incandescence, the energy is sufficient to cause electrons to "boil" away from the surface atoms and surround the metal object in a cloud of free electrons. This is called thermionic emission. The resulting cloud is negatively charged, and can be attracted to any nearby positively charged object, thus producing an electric current which passes through the vacuum. Space charge can result from a range of phenomena, but the most important are: Combination of the current density and spatially inhomogeneous resistance Ionization of species within the dielectric to form heterocharge Charge injection from electrodes and from a stress enhancement Polarization in structures such as water trees. "Water tree" is a name given to a tree-like figure appearing in a water-impregnated polymer insulating cable. It has been suggested that in alternating current (AC) most carriers injected at electrodes during a half of cycle are ejected during the next half cycle, so the net balance of charge on a cycle is practically zero. However, a small fraction of the carriers can be trapped at levels deep enough to retain them when the field is inverted. The amount of charge in AC should increase slower than in direct current (DC) and become observable after longer periods of time. Hetero and homo charge Hetero charge means that the polarity of the space charge is opposite to that of neighboring electrode, and homo charge is the reverse situation. Under high voltage application, a hetero charge near the electrode is expected to reduce the breakdown voltage, whereas a homo charge will increase it. After polarity reversal under ac conditions, the homo charge is converted to hetero space charge. Mathematical explanation If the "vacuum" has a pressure of 10−6 mmHg or less, the main vehicle of conduction is electrons. The emission current density (J) from the cathode, as a function of its thermodynamic temperature T, in the absence of space-charge, is given by Richardson's law: where = elementary positive charge (i.e., magnitude of electron charge), = electron mass, = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10−23J/K, = Planck's constant = 6.62 x 10−34 J s, = work function of the cathode, = mean electron reflection coefficient. The reflection coefficient can be as low as 0.105 but is usually near 0.5. For tungsten, (1 − ř)A0 = 0.6 to 1.0 × 106 A m−2 K−2, and φ = 4.52 eV. At 2500 °C, the emission is 28207 A/m2. The emission current as given above is many times greater than that normally collected by the electrodes, except in some pulsed valves such as the cavity magnetron. Most of the electrons emitted by the cathode are driven back to it by the repulsion of the cloud of electrons in its neighborhood. This is called the space charge effect. In the limit of large current densities, J is given by the Child–Langmuir equation below, rather than by the thermionic emission equation above. Occurrence Space charge is an inherent property of all vacuum tubes. This has at times made life harder or easier for electrical engineers who used tubes in their designs. For example, space charge significantly limited the practical application of triode amplifiers which led to further innovations such as the vacuum tube tetrode. On the other hand, space charge was useful in some tube applications because it generates a negative EMF within the tube's envelope, which could be used to create a negative bias on the tube's grid. Grid bias could also be achieved by using an applied grid voltage in addition to the control voltage. This could improve the engineer's control and fidelity of amplification. It allowed to construct space charge tubes for car radios that required only 6 or 12 volts anode voltage (typical examples were the 6DR8/EBF83, 6GM8/ECC86, 6DS8/ECH83, 6ES6/EF97 and 6ET6/EF98). Space charges can also occur within dielectrics. For example, when gas near a high voltage electrode begins to undergo dielectric breakdown, electrical charges are injected into the region near the electrode, forming space charge regions in the surrounding gas. Space charges can also occur within solid or liquid dielectrics that are stressed by high electric fields. Trapped space charges within solid dielectrics are often a contributing factor leading to dielectric failure within high voltage power cables and capacitors. Space-charge-limited current In vacuum (Child's law) First proposed by Clement D. Child in 1911, Child's law states that the space-charge-limited current (SCLC) in a plane-parallel vacuum diode varies directly as the three-halves power of the anode voltage and inversely as the square of the distance d separating the cathode and the anode. For electrons, the current density J (amperes per meter squared) is written: where is the anode current and S the surface area of the anode receiving the current; is the magnitude of the charge of the electron and is its mass. The equation is also known as the "three-halves-power law" or the Child–Langmuir law. Child originally derived this equation for the case of atomic ions, which have much smaller ratios of their charge to their mass. Irving Langmuir published the application to electron currents in 1913, and extended it to the case of cylindrical cathodes and anodes. The equation's validity is subject to the following assumptions: Electrons travel ballistically between electrodes (i.e., no scattering). In the interelectrode region, the space charge of any ions is negligible. The electrons have zero velocity at the cathode surface. The assumption of no scattering (ballistic transport) is what makes the predictions of Child–Langmuir law different from those of Mott–Gurney law. The latter assumes steady-state drift transport and therefore strong scattering. In recent years, various models of SCLC current have been revised as reported in two review papers. In semiconductors In semiconductors and insulating materials, an electric field causes charged particles, electrons, to reach a specific drift velocity that is parallel to the direction of the field. This is different from the behavior of the free charged particles in a vacuum, in which a field accelerates the particle. The proportionality factor between the magnitudes of the drift velocity, , and the electric field, , is called the mobility, : Drift regime (Mott–Gurney law) The Child's law behavior of a space-charge-limited current that applies in a vacuum diode doesn't generally apply to a semiconductor/insulator in a single-carrier device, and is replaced by the Mott–Gurney law. For a thin slab of material of thickness , sandwiched between two selective Ohmic contacts, the electric current density, , flowing through the slab is given by: where is the voltage that has been applied across the slab and is the permittivity of the solid. The Mott–Gurney law offers some crucial insight into charge-transport across an intrinsic semiconductor, namely that one should not expect the drift current to increase linearly with the applied voltage, i.e., from Ohm's law, as one would expect from charge-transport across a metal or highly doped semiconductor. Since the only unknown quantity in the Mott–Gurney law is the charge-carrier mobility, , the equation is commonly used to characterize charge transport in intrinsic semiconductors. Using the Mott–Gurney law for characterizing amorphous semiconductors, along with semiconductors containing defects and/or non-Ohmic contacts, should however be approached with caution as significant deviations both in the magnitude of the current and the power law dependence with respect to the voltage will be observed. In those cases the Mott–Gurney law can not be readily used for characterization, and other equations which can account for defects and/or non-ideal injection should be used instead. During the derivation of the Mott–Gurney law, one has to make the following assumptions: There is only one type of charge carrier present, i.e., only electrons or holes. The material has no intrinsic conductivity, but charges are injected into it from one electrode and captured by the other. The carrier mobility, , and the permittivity, , are constant throughout the sample. The current flow is not limited by traps or energetic disorder. The current is not predominantly due to doping. The electric field at the charge-injecting electrode is zero, meaning that the current is governed by drift only. Derivation Consider a crystal of thickness carrying a current . Let be the electric field at a distance from the surface, and the number of electrons per unit volume. Then the current is given has two contributions, one due to drift and the other due to diffusion: When is the electrons mobility and the diffusion coefficient. Laplace's equation gives for the field: Hence, eliminating , we have: After integrating, making use of the Einstein relation and neglecting the term we obtain for the electric field: where is a constant. We may neglect the term because we are supposing that and . Since, at , , we have: It follows that the potential drop across the crystal is: Making use of () and () we can write in terms of . For small , is small and , so that: Thus the current increases as the square of . For large , and we obtain: As an application example, the steady-state space-charge-limited current across a piece of intrinsic silicon with a charge-carrier mobility of 1500 cm2/V-s, a dielectric constant of 11.9, an area of 10−8 cm2 and a thickness of 10−4 cm can be calculated by an online calculator to be 126.4 μA at 3 V. Note that in order for this calculation to be accurate, one must assume all the points listed above. In the case where the electron/hole transport is limited by trap states in the form of exponential tails extending from the conduction/valence band edges, the drift current density is given by the Mark-Helfrich equation, where is the elementary charge, with being the thermal energy, is the effective density of states of the charge carrier type in the semiconductor, i.e., either or , and is the trap density. Low voltage regime In the case where a very small applied bias is applied across the single-carrier device, the current is given by: Note that the equation describing the current in the low voltage regime follows the same thickness scaling as the Mott–Gurney law, , but increases linearly with the applied voltage. Saturation regimes When a very large voltage is applied across the semiconductor, the current can transition into a saturation regime. In the velocity-saturation regime, this equation takes the following form Note the different dependence of on between the Mott–Gurney law and the equation describing the current in the velocity-saturation regime. In the ballistic case (assuming no collisions), the Mott–Gurney equation takes the form of the more familiar Child–Langmuir law. In the charge-carrier saturation regime, the current through the sample is given by, where is the effective density of states of the charge carrier type in the semiconductor. Shot noise Space charge tends to reduce shot noise. Shot noise results from the random arrivals of discrete charge; the statistical variation in the arrivals produces shot noise. A space charge develops a potential that slows the carriers down. For example, an electron approaching a cloud of other electrons will slow down due to the repulsive force. The slowing carriers also increases the space charge density and resulting potential. In addition, the potential developed by the space charge can reduce the number of carriers emitted. When the space charge limits the current, the random arrivals of the carriers are smoothed out; the reduced variation results in less shot noise. 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248189	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaia%20hypothesis	Gaia hypothesis	The Gaia hypothesis (), also known as the Gaia theory, Gaia paradigm, or the Gaia principle, proposes that living organisms interact with their inorganic surroundings on Earth to form a synergistic and self-regulating, complex system that helps to maintain and perpetuate the conditions for life on the planet. The hypothesis was formulated by the chemist James Lovelock and co-developed by the microbiologist Lynn Margulis in the 1970s. Lovelock named the idea after Gaia, the primordial goddess who personified the Earth in Greek mythology. In 2006, the Geological Society of London awarded Lovelock the Wollaston Medal in part for his work on the Gaia hypothesis. Topics related to the hypothesis include how the biosphere and the evolution of organisms affect the stability of global temperature, salinity of seawater, atmospheric oxygen levels, the maintenance of a hydrosphere of liquid water and other environmental variables that affect the habitability of Earth. The Gaia hypothesis was initially criticized for being teleological and against the principles of natural selection, but later refinements aligned the Gaia hypothesis with ideas from fields such as Earth system science, biogeochemistry and systems ecology. Even so, the Gaia hypothesis continues to attract criticism, and today many scientists consider it to be only weakly supported by, or at odds with, the available evidence. Overview Gaian hypotheses suggest that organisms co-evolve with their environment: that is, they "influence their abiotic environment, and that environment in turn influences the biota by Darwinian process". Lovelock (1995) gave evidence of this in his second book, showing the evolution from the world of the early thermo-acido-philic and methanogenic bacteria towards the oxygen-enriched atmosphere today that supports more complex life. A reduced version of the hypothesis has been called "influential Gaia" in "Directed Evolution of the Biosphere: Biogeochemical Selection or Gaia?" by Andrei G. Lapenis, which states the biota influence certain aspects of the abiotic world, e.g. temperature and atmosphere. This is not the work of an individual but a collective of Russian scientific research that was combined into this peer reviewed publication. It states the coevolution of life and the environment through “micro-forces” and biogeochemical processes. An example is how the activity of photosynthetic bacteria during Precambrian times completely modified the Earth atmosphere to turn it aerobic, and thus supports the evolution of life (in particular eukaryotic life). Since barriers existed throughout the twentieth century between Russia and the rest of the world, it is only relatively recently that the early Russian scientists who introduced concepts overlapping the Gaia paradigm have become better known to the Western scientific community. These scientists include Piotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842–1921) (although he spent much of his professional life outside Russia), Rafail Vasil’evich Rizpolozhensky (1862 – c. 1922), Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863–1945), and Vladimir Alexandrovich Kostitzin (1886–1963). Biologists and Earth scientists usually view the factors that stabilize the characteristics of a period as an undirected emergent property or entelechy of the system; as each individual species pursues its own self-interest, for example, their combined actions may have counterbalancing effects on environmental change. Opponents of this view sometimes reference examples of events that resulted in dramatic change rather than stable equilibrium, such as the conversion of the Earth's atmosphere from a reducing environment to an oxygen-rich one at the end of the Archaean and the beginning of the Proterozoic periods. Less accepted versions of the hypothesis claim that changes in the biosphere are brought about through the coordination of living organisms and maintain those conditions through homeostasis. In some versions of Gaia philosophy, all lifeforms are considered part of one single living planetary being called Gaia. In this view, the atmosphere, the seas and the terrestrial crust would be results of interventions carried out by Gaia through the coevolving diversity of living organisms. The Gaia paradigm was an influence on the deep ecology movement. Details The Gaia hypothesis posits that the Earth is a self-regulating complex system involving the biosphere, the atmosphere, the hydrospheres and the pedosphere, tightly coupled as an evolving system. The hypothesis contends that this system as a whole, called Gaia, seeks a physical and chemical environment optimal for contemporary life. Gaia evolves through a cybernetic feedback system operated unconsciously by the biota, leading to broad stabilization of the conditions of habitability in a full homeostasis. Many processes in the Earth's surface essential for the conditions of life depend on the interaction of living forms, especially microorganisms, with inorganic elements. These processes establish a global control system that regulates Earth's surface temperature, atmosphere composition and ocean salinity, powered by the global thermodynamic disequilibrium state of the Earth system. The existence of a planetary homeostasis influenced by living forms had been observed previously in the field of biogeochemistry, and it is being investigated also in other fields like Earth system science. The originality of the Gaia hypothesis relies on the assessment that such homeostatic balance is actively pursued with the goal of keeping the optimal conditions for life, even when terrestrial or external events menace them. Regulation of global surface temperature Since life started on Earth, the energy provided by the Sun has increased by 25% to 30%; however, the surface temperature of the planet has remained within the levels of habitability, reaching quite regular low and high margins. Lovelock has also hypothesised that methanogens produced elevated levels of methane in the early atmosphere, giving a view similar to that found in petrochemical smog, similar in some respects to the atmosphere on Titan. This, he suggests tended to screen out ultraviolet until the formation of the ozone screen, maintaining a degree of homeostasis. However, the Snowball Earth research has suggested that "oxygen shocks" and reduced methane levels led, during the Huronian, Sturtian and Marinoan/Varanger Ice Ages, to a world that very nearly became a solid "snowball". These epochs are evidence against the ability of the pre Phanerozoic biosphere to fully self-regulate. Processing of the greenhouse gas CO2, explained below, plays a critical role in the maintenance of the Earth temperature within the limits of habitability. The CLAW hypothesis, inspired by the Gaia hypothesis, proposes a feedback loop that operates between ocean ecosystems and the Earth's climate. The hypothesis specifically proposes that particular phytoplankton that produce dimethyl sulfide are responsive to variations in climate forcing, and that these responses lead to a negative feedback loop that acts to stabilise the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere. Currently the increase in human population and the environmental impact of their activities, such as the multiplication of greenhouse gases may cause negative feedbacks in the environment to become positive feedback. Lovelock has stated that this could bring an extremely accelerated global warming, but he has since stated the effects will likely occur more slowly. Daisyworld simulations In response to the criticism that the Gaia hypothesis seemingly required unrealistic group selection and cooperation between organisms, James Lovelock and Andrew Watson developed a mathematical model, Daisyworld, in which ecological competition underpinned planetary temperature regulation. Daisyworld examines the energy budget of a planet populated by two different types of plants, black daisies and white daisies, which are assumed to occupy a significant portion of the surface. The colour of the daisies influences the albedo of the planet such that black daisies absorb more light and warm the planet, while white daisies reflect more light and cool the planet. The black daisies are assumed to grow and reproduce best at a lower temperature, while the white daisies are assumed to thrive best at a higher temperature. As the temperature rises closer to the value the white daisies like, the white daisies outreproduce the black daisies, leading to a larger percentage of white surface, and more sunlight is reflected, reducing the heat input and eventually cooling the planet. Conversely, as the temperature falls, the black daisies outreproduce the white daisies, absorbing more sunlight and warming the planet. The temperature will thus converge to the value at which the reproductive rates of the plants are equal. Lovelock and Watson showed that, over a limited range of conditions, this negative feedback due to competition can stabilize the planet's temperature at a value which supports life, if the energy output of the Sun changes, while a planet without life would show wide temperature changes. The percentage of white and black daisies will continually change to keep the temperature at the value at which the plants' reproductive rates are equal, allowing both life forms to thrive. It has been suggested that the results were predictable because Lovelock and Watson selected examples that produced the responses they desired. Regulation of oceanic salinity Ocean salinity has been constant at about 3.5% for a very long time. Salinity stability in oceanic environments is important as most cells require a rather constant salinity and do not generally tolerate values above 5%. The constant ocean salinity was a long-standing mystery, because no process counterbalancing the salt influx from rivers was known. Recently it was suggested that salinity may also be strongly influenced by seawater circulation through hot basaltic rocks, and emerging as hot water vents on mid-ocean ridges. However, the composition of seawater is far from equilibrium, and it is difficult to explain this fact without the influence of organic processes. One suggested explanation lies in the formation of salt plains throughout Earth's history. It is hypothesized that these are created by bacterial colonies that fix ions and heavy metals during their life processes. In the biogeochemical processes of Earth, sources and sinks are the movement of elements. The composition of salt ions within our oceans and seas is: sodium (Na+), chlorine (Cl−), sulfate (SO42−), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+) and potassium (K+). The elements that comprise salinity do not readily change and are a conservative property of seawater. There are many mechanisms that change salinity from a particulate form to a dissolved form and back. Considering the metallic composition of iron sources across a multifaceted grid of thermomagnetic design, not only would the movement of elements hypothetically help restructure the movement of ions, electrons, and the like, but would also potentially and inexplicably assist in balancing the magnetic bodies of the Earth's geomagnetic field. The known sources of sodium i.e. salts are when weathering, erosion, and dissolution of rocks are transported into rivers and deposited into the oceans. The Mediterranean Sea as being Gaia's kidney is found (here) by Kenneth J. Hsue, a correspondence author in 2001. Hsue suggests the "desiccation" of the Mediterranean is evidence of a functioning Gaia "kidney". In this and earlier suggested cases, it is plate movements and physics, not biology, which performs the regulation. Earlier "kidney functions" were performed during the "deposition of the Cretaceous (South Atlantic), Jurassic (Gulf of Mexico), Permo-Triassic (Europe), Devonian (Canada), Cambrian/Precambrian (Gondwana) saline giants." Regulation of oxygen in the atmosphere The Gaia theorem states that the Earth's atmospheric composition is kept at a dynamically steady state by the presence of life. The atmospheric composition provides the conditions that contemporary life has adapted to. All the atmospheric gases other than noble gases present in the atmosphere are either made by organisms or processed by them. The stability of the atmosphere in Earth is not a consequence of chemical equilibrium. Oxygen is a reactive compound, and should eventually combine with gases and minerals of the Earth's atmosphere and crust. Oxygen only began to persist in the atmosphere in small quantities about 50 million years before the start of the Great Oxygenation Event. Since the start of the Cambrian period, atmospheric oxygen concentrations have fluctuated between 15% and 35% of atmospheric volume. Traces of methane (at an amount of 100,000 tonnes produced per year) should not exist, as methane is combustible in an oxygen atmosphere. Dry air in the atmosphere of Earth contains roughly (by volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93% argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and small amounts of other gases including methane. Lovelock originally speculated that concentrations of oxygen above about 25% would increase the frequency of wildfires and conflagration of forests. This mechanism, however, would not raise oxygen levels if they became too low. If plants can be shown to robustly over-produce O2 then perhaps only the high oxygen forest fires regulator is necessary. Recent work on the findings of fire-caused charcoal in Carboniferous and Cretaceous coal measures, in geologic periods when O2 did exceed 25%, has supported Lovelock's contention. Processing of CO2 Gaia scientists see the participation of living organisms in the carbon cycle as one of the complex processes that maintain conditions suitable for life. The only significant natural source of atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) is volcanic activity, while the only significant removal is through the precipitation of carbonate rocks. Carbon precipitation, solution and fixation are influenced by the bacteria and plant roots in soils, where they improve gaseous circulation, or in coral reefs, where calcium carbonate is deposited as a solid on the sea floor. Calcium carbonate is used by living organisms to manufacture carbonaceous tests and shells. Once dead, the living organisms' shells fall. Some arrive at the bottom of the oceans where plate tectonics and heat and/or pressure eventually convert them to deposits of chalk and limestone. Much of the falling dead shells, however, re-dissolve into the ocean below the carbon compensation depth. One of these organisms is Emiliania huxleyi, an abundant coccolithophore algae which may have a role in the formation of clouds. CO2 excess is compensated by an increase of coccolithophoride life, increasing the amount of CO2 locked in the ocean floor. Coccolithophorides, if the CLAW Hypothesis turns out to be supported (see "Regulation of Global Surface Temperature" above), could help increase the cloud cover, hence control the surface temperature, help cool the whole planet and favor precipitation necessary for terrestrial plants. Lately the atmospheric CO2 concentration has increased and there is some evidence that concentrations of ocean algal blooms are also increasing. Lichen and other organisms accelerate the weathering of rocks in the surface, while the decomposition of rocks also happens faster in the soil, thanks to the activity of roots, fungi, bacteria and subterranean animals. The flow of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to the soil is therefore regulated with the help of living beings. When CO2 levels rise in the atmosphere the temperature increases and plants grow. This growth brings higher consumption of CO2 by the plants, who process it into the soil, removing it from the atmosphere. History Precedents The idea of the Earth as an integrated whole, a living being, has a long tradition. The mythical Gaia was the primal Greek goddess personifying the Earth, the Greek version of "Mother Nature" (from Ge = Earth, and Aia = PIE grandmother), or the Earth Mother. James Lovelock gave this name to his hypothesis after a suggestion from the novelist William Golding, who was living in the same village as Lovelock at the time (Bowerchalke, Wiltshire, UK). Golding's advice was based on Gea, an alternative spelling for the name of the Greek goddess, which is used as prefix in geology, geophysics and geochemistry. Golding later made reference to Gaia in his Nobel prize acceptance speech. In the eighteenth century, as geology consolidated as a modern science, James Hutton maintained that geological and biological processes are interlinked. Later, the naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt recognized the coevolution of living organisms, climate, and Earth's crust. In the twentieth century, Vladimir Vernadsky formulated a theory of Earth's development that is now one of the foundations of ecology. Vernadsky was a Ukrainian geochemist and was one of the first scientists to recognize that the oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere result from biological processes. During the 1920s he published works arguing that living organisms could reshape the planet as surely as any physical force. Vernadsky was a pioneer of the scientific bases for the environmental sciences. His visionary pronouncements were not widely accepted in the West, and some decades later the Gaia hypothesis received the same type of initial resistance from the scientific community. Also in the turn to the 20th century Aldo Leopold, pioneer in the development of modern environmental ethics and in the movement for wilderness conservation, suggested a living Earth in his biocentric or holistic ethics regarding land. Another influence for the Gaia hypothesis and the environmental movement in general came as a side effect of the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the United States of America. During the 1960s, the first humans in space could see how the Earth looked as a whole. The photograph Earthrise taken by astronaut William Anders in 1968 during the Apollo 8 mission became, through the Overview Effect an early symbol for the global ecology movement. Formulation of the hypothesis Lovelock started defining the idea of a self-regulating Earth controlled by the community of living organisms in September 1965, while working at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in California on methods of detecting life on Mars. The first paper to mention it was Planetary Atmospheres: Compositional and other Changes Associated with the Presence of Life, co-authored with C.E. Giffin. A main concept was that life could be detected in a planetary scale by the chemical composition of the atmosphere. According to the data gathered by the Pic du Midi observatory, planets like Mars or Venus had atmospheres in chemical equilibrium. This difference with the Earth atmosphere was considered to be a proof that there was no life in these planets. Lovelock formulated the Gaia Hypothesis in journal articles in 1972 and 1974, followed by a popularizing 1979 book Gaia: A new look at life on Earth. An article in the New Scientist of February 6, 1975, and a popular book length version of the hypothesis, published in 1979 as The Quest for Gaia, began to attract scientific and critical attention. Lovelock called it first the Earth feedback hypothesis, and it was a way to explain the fact that combinations of chemicals including oxygen and methane persist in stable concentrations in the atmosphere of the Earth. Lovelock suggested detecting such combinations in other planets' atmospheres as a relatively reliable and cheap way to detect life. Later, other relationships such as sea creatures producing sulfur and iodine in approximately the same quantities as required by land creatures emerged and helped bolster the hypothesis. In 1971 microbiologist Dr. Lynn Margulis joined Lovelock in the effort of fleshing out the initial hypothesis into scientifically proven concepts, contributing her knowledge about how microbes affect the atmosphere and the different layers in the surface of the planet. The American biologist had also awakened criticism from the scientific community with her advocacy of the theory on the origin of eukaryotic organelles and her contributions to the endosymbiotic theory, nowadays accepted. Margulis dedicated the last of eight chapters in her book, The Symbiotic Planet, to Gaia. However, she objected to the widespread personification of Gaia and stressed that Gaia is "not an organism", but "an emergent property of interaction among organisms". She defined Gaia as "the series of interacting ecosystems that compose a single huge ecosystem at the Earth's surface. Period". The book's most memorable "slogan" was actually quipped by a student of Margulis'. James Lovelock called his first proposal the Gaia hypothesis but has also used the term Gaia theory. Lovelock states that the initial formulation was based on observation, but still lacked a scientific explanation. The Gaia hypothesis has since been supported by a number of scientific experiments and provided a number of useful predictions. First Gaia conference In 1985, the first public symposium on the Gaia hypothesis, Is The Earth A Living Organism? was held at University of Massachusetts Amherst, August 1–6. The principal sponsor was the National Audubon Society. Speakers included James Lovelock, George Wald, Mary Catherine Bateson, Lewis Thomas, John Todd, Donald Michael, Christopher Bird, Thomas Berry, David Abram, Michael Cohen, and William Fields. Some 500 people attended. Second Gaia conference In 1988, climatologist Stephen Schneider organised a conference of the American Geophysical Union. The first Chapman Conference on Gaia, was held in San Diego, California on March 7, 1988. During the "philosophical foundations" session of the conference, David Abram spoke on the influence of metaphor in science, and of the Gaia hypothesis as offering a new and potentially game-changing metaphorics, while James Kirchner criticised the Gaia hypothesis for its imprecision. Kirchner claimed that Lovelock and Margulis had not presented one Gaia hypothesis, but four: CoEvolutionary Gaia: that life and the environment had evolved in a coupled way. Kirchner claimed that this was already accepted scientifically and was not new. Homeostatic Gaia: that life maintained the stability of the natural environment, and that this stability enabled life to continue to exist. Geophysical Gaia: that the Gaia hypothesis generated interest in geophysical cycles and therefore led to interesting new research in terrestrial geophysical dynamics. Optimising Gaia: that Gaia shaped the planet in a way that made it an optimal environment for life as a whole. Kirchner claimed that this was not testable and therefore was not scientific. Of Homeostatic Gaia, Kirchner recognised two alternatives. "Weak Gaia" asserted that life tends to make the environment stable for the flourishing of all life. "Strong Gaia" according to Kirchner, asserted that life tends to make the environment stable, to enable the flourishing of all life. Strong Gaia, Kirchner claimed, was untestable and therefore not scientific. Lovelock and other Gaia-supporting scientists, however, did attempt to disprove the claim that the hypothesis is not scientific because it is impossible to test it by controlled experiment. For example, against the charge that Gaia was teleological, Lovelock and Andrew Watson offered the Daisyworld Model (and its modifications, above) as evidence against most of these criticisms. Lovelock said that the Daisyworld model "demonstrates that self-regulation of the global environment can emerge from competition amongst types of life altering their local environment in different ways". Lovelock was careful to present a version of the Gaia hypothesis that had no claim that Gaia intentionally or consciously maintained the complex balance in her environment that life needed to survive. It would appear that the claim that Gaia acts "intentionally" was a statement in his popular initial book and was not meant to be taken literally. This new statement of the Gaia hypothesis was more acceptable to the scientific community. Most accusations of teleologism ceased, following this conference. Third Gaia conference By the time of the 2nd Chapman Conference on the Gaia Hypothesis, held at Valencia, Spain, on 23 June 2000, the situation had changed significantly. Rather than a discussion of the Gaian teleological views, or "types" of Gaia hypotheses, the focus was upon the specific mechanisms by which basic short term homeostasis was maintained within a framework of significant evolutionary long term structural change. The major questions were: "How has the global biogeochemical/climate system called Gaia changed in time? What is its history? Can Gaia maintain stability of the system at one time scale but still undergo vectorial change at longer time scales? How can the geologic record be used to examine these questions?" "What is the structure of Gaia? Are the feedbacks sufficiently strong to influence the evolution of climate? Are there parts of the system determined pragmatically by whatever disciplinary study is being undertaken at any given time or are there a set of parts that should be taken as most true for understanding Gaia as containing evolving organisms over time? What are the feedbacks among these different parts of the Gaian system, and what does the near closure of matter mean for the structure of Gaia as a global ecosystem and for the productivity of life?" "How do models of Gaian processes and phenomena relate to reality and how do they help address and understand Gaia? How do results from Daisyworld transfer to the real world? What are the main candidates for "daisies"? Does it matter for Gaia theory whether we find daisies or not? How should we be searching for daisies, and should we intensify the search? How can Gaian mechanisms be collaborated with using process models or global models of the climate system that include the biota and allow for chemical cycling?" In 1997, Tyler Volk argued that a Gaian system is almost inevitably produced as a result of an evolution towards far-from-equilibrium homeostatic states that maximise entropy production, and Kleidon (2004) agreed stating: "...homeostatic behavior can emerge from a state of MEP associated with the planetary albedo"; "...the resulting behavior of a symbiotic Earth at a state of MEP may well lead to near-homeostatic behavior of the Earth system on long time scales, as stated by the Gaia hypothesis". Staley (2002) has similarly proposed "...an alternative form of Gaia theory based on more traditional Darwinian principles... In [this] new approach, environmental regulation is a consequence of population dynamics. The role of selection is to favor organisms that are best adapted to prevailing environmental conditions. However, the environment is not a static backdrop for evolution, but is heavily influenced by the presence of living and vibration-based beings and organisms. The resulting co-evolving dynamical process eventually leads to the convergence of equilibrium and optimal conditions", but would also require progress of truth and understanding in a lens that could be argued was put on hiatus while the species was proliferating the needs of Economic manipulation and environmental degradation while losing sight of the maturing nature of the needs of many. (12:22 10.29.2020) Fourth Gaia conference A fourth international conference on the Gaia hypothesis, sponsored by the Northern Virginia Regional Park Authority and others, was held in October 2006 at the Arlington, VA campus of George Mason University. Martin Ogle, Chief Naturalist, for NVRPA, and long-time Gaia hypothesis proponent, organized the event. Lynn Margulis, Distinguished University Professor in the Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts-Amherst, and long-time advocate of the Gaia hypothesis, was a keynote speaker. Among many other speakers: Tyler Volk, co-director of the Program in Earth and Environmental Science at New York University; Dr. Donald Aitken, Principal of Donald Aitken Associates; Dr. Thomas Lovejoy, President of the Heinz Center for Science, Economics and the Environment; Robert Correll, Senior Fellow, Atmospheric Policy Program, American Meteorological Society and noted environmental ethicist, J. Baird Callicott. Criticism After initially receiving little attention from scientists (from 1969 until 1977), thereafter for a period the initial Gaia hypothesis was criticized by a number of scientists, such as Ford Doolittle, Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould. Lovelock has said that because his hypothesis is named after a Greek goddess, and championed by many non-scientists, the Gaia hypothesis was interpreted as a neo-Pagan religion. Many scientists in particular also criticised the approach taken in his popular book Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth for being teleological—a belief that things are purposeful and aimed towards a goal. Responding to this critique in 1990, Lovelock stated, "Nowhere in our writings do we express the idea that planetary self-regulation is purposeful, or involves foresight or planning by the biota". Stephen Jay Gould criticised Gaia as being "a metaphor, not a mechanism." He wanted to know the actual mechanisms by which self-regulating homeostasis was achieved. In his defense of Gaia, David Abram argues that Gould overlooked the fact that "mechanism", itself, is a metaphor — albeit an exceedingly common and often unrecognized metaphor — one which leads us to consider natural and living systems as though they were machines organized and built from outside (rather than as autopoietic or self-organizing phenomena). Mechanical metaphors, according to Abram, lead us to overlook the active or agential quality of living entities, while the organismic metaphorics of the Gaia hypothesis accentuate the active agency of both the biota and the biosphere as a whole. With regard to causality in Gaia, Lovelock argues that no single mechanism is responsible, that the connections between the various known mechanisms may never be known, that this is accepted in other fields of biology and ecology as a matter of course, and that specific hostility is reserved for his own hypothesis for other reasons. Aside from clarifying his language and understanding of what is meant by a life form, Lovelock himself ascribes most of the criticism to a lack of understanding of non-linear mathematics by his critics, and a linearizing form of greedy reductionism in which all events have to be immediately ascribed to specific causes before the fact. He also states that most of his critics are biologists but that his hypothesis includes experiments in fields outside biology, and that some self-regulating phenomena may not be mathematically explainable. Natural selection and evolution Lovelock has suggested that global biological feedback mechanisms could evolve by natural selection, stating that organisms that improve their environment for their survival do better than those that damage their environment. However, in the early 1980s, W. Ford Doolittle and Richard Dawkins separately argued against this aspect of Gaia. Doolittle argued that nothing in the genome of individual organisms could provide the feedback mechanisms proposed by Lovelock, and therefore the Gaia hypothesis proposed no plausible mechanism and was unscientific. Dawkins meanwhile stated that for organisms to act in concert would require foresight and planning, which is contrary to the current scientific understanding of evolution. Like Doolittle, he also rejected the possibility that feedback loops could stabilize the system. Lynn Margulis, a microbiologist who collaborated with Lovelock in supporting the Gaia hypothesis, argued in 1999 that "Darwin's grand vision was not wrong, only incomplete. In accentuating the direct competition between individuals for resources as the primary selection mechanism, Darwin (and especially his followers) created the impression that the environment was simply a static arena". She wrote that the composition of the Earth's atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere are regulated around "set points" as in homeostasis, but those set points change with time. Evolutionary biologist W. D. Hamilton called the concept of Gaia Copernican, adding that it would take another Newton to explain how Gaian self-regulation takes place through Darwinian natural selection. More recently Ford Doolittle building on his and Inkpen's ITSNTS (It's The Song Not The Singer) proposal proposed that differential persistence can play a similar role to differential reproduction in evolution by natural selections, thereby providing a possible reconciliation between the theory of natural selection and the Gaia hypothesis. Criticism in the 21st century The Gaia hypothesis continues to be broadly skeptically received by the scientific community. For instance, arguments both for and against it were laid out in the journal Climatic Change in 2002 and 2003. A significant argument raised against it are the many examples where life has had a detrimental or destabilising effect on the environment rather than acting to regulate it. Several recent books have criticised the Gaia hypothesis, expressing views ranging from "... the Gaia hypothesis lacks unambiguous observational support and has significant theoretical difficulties" to "Suspended uncomfortably between tainted metaphor, fact, and false science, I prefer to leave Gaia firmly in the background" to "The Gaia hypothesis is supported neither by evolutionary theory nor by the empirical evidence of the geological record". The CLAW hypothesis, initially suggested as a potential example of direct Gaian feedback, has subsequently been found to be less credible as understanding of cloud condensation nuclei has improved. In 2009 the Medea hypothesis was proposed: that life has highly detrimental (biocidal) impacts on planetary conditions, in direct opposition to the Gaia hypothesis. In a 2013 book-length evaluation of the Gaia hypothesis considering modern evidence from across the various relevant disciplines, Toby Tyrrell concluded that: "I believe Gaia is a dead end*. Its study has, however, generated many new and thought provoking questions. While rejecting Gaia, we can at the same time appreciate Lovelock's originality and breadth of vision, and recognize that his audacious concept has helped to stimulate many new ideas about the Earth, and to champion a holistic approach to studying it". Elsewhere he presents his conclusion "The Gaia hypothesis is not an accurate picture of how our world works". This statement needs to be understood as referring to the "strong" and "moderate" forms of Gaia—that the biota obeys a principle that works to make Earth optimal (strength 5) or favourable for life (strength 4) or that it works as a homeostatic mechanism (strength 3). The latter is the "weakest" form of Gaia that Lovelock has advocated. Tyrrell rejects it. However, he finds that the two weaker forms of Gaia—Coeveolutionary Gaia and Influential Gaia, which assert that there are close links between the evolution of life and the environment and that biology affects the physical and chemical environment—are both credible, but that it is not useful to use the term "Gaia" in this sense and that those two forms were already accepted and explained by the processes of natural selection and adaptation. See also References Sources Lovelock, James. The Independent. The Earth is about to catch a morbid fever, 16 January 2006. Lovelock, James (2006), interviewed in How to think about science, CBC Ideas (radio program), broadcast January 3, 2008. Link Further reading External links D. Abram: The Mechanical and the Organic: on the Impact of Metaphor in Science D. 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248190	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Somali%20music	Somali music	The Music of the Somali people () is music following the musical styles, techniques and sounds of the Somali people. Overview Traditional Somali music Somali people have a rich musical heritage centered on traditional Somali folklore. Somali songs are pentatonic. That is, they only use five pitches per octave in contrast to a heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. At first listen, Somali music might be mistaken for the sounds of nearby regions such as Ethiopia, Sudan or the Arabian peninsula, but it is ultimately recognizable by its own unique tunes and styles. Somali songs are usually the product of collaboration between lyricists (lahamiste), songwriters (abwaan), and vocalists (odka or "voice"). The Somali word for dance is ciyaar. Traditional instruments prominently featured in the music of Somaliland include the oud lute (kaban). It is often accompanied by small drums and a reed flute in the background. However, heavy percussion and metallic sounds are uncommon in Somaliland. The riverine and coastal areas of Somalia use a wide variety of traditional instruments including: Membranophones: nasaro, mokhoddon and masoondhe (high and heavy drums), reeme, jabbu and yoome (small drums); Aerophones: malkad and siinbaar (flutes), sumaari (double clarinet), fuugwo (trumpet) buun, muufe and gees-goodir (horns); Idiophones: shagal (metal clappers), shanbaal (wooden clappers), shunuuf (vegetable ankle rattles), tenegyo (xylophone); Chordophones: shareero (lyre), kinaandha (lute), madhuube (thumb piano), seese (one-chord violin) History Somali popular music began with the balwo style, pioneered by Abdi Sinimo, who rose to fame in the early 1940s. This new genre then in turn created the Heelo style of Somali music. Abdi's innovation and passion for music revolutionized Somali music forever. Introduction of melody in modern Somali song is credited to Abdullahi Qarshe, who is recognised for introducing the kaban (oud) as an accompaniment to Somali music. Qarshe is revered by Somalis as "father of Somali music". Many qaraami songs from this era are still extremely popular today. This musical style is mostly played on the kaban (oud). Prominent Somali kaban players of the 1950s include Ali Feiruz and Mohamed Nahari. During fascist Somalia, music was suppressed except for a small amount of officially sanctioned music. There were many protest songs (pioneered by the people of Somaliland who were trying to separate and gain independence from the totalitarian neglectful government of Somalia to create their own stable, peaceful government) produced during this period. Bands such as Waaberi and Horseed have gained a small following outside of the country. Others, like Ahmed Ali Egal, Maryam Mursal and Waayaha Cusub have fused traditional Somali music with pop, rock and roll, bossa nova, jazz, and other modern influences. Music recorded in the 1970s was preserved in Hargeisa, buried underground, and is now available at the Red Sea Foundation at the Hargeisa Cultural Center, and in Radio Hargeisa. The Barre dictatorial regime effectively nationalised the music scene, with bands and production under state control. Bands were operated by the police, the army and the national penitentiary. Female singers were encouraged more than was the case in most of East Africa. Most musicians had left the country before 1991. Hiddo Dhawr is now operating as the only live music venue in the city. Music institutions The first radio station in Somalia to air popular Somali music was Radio Kudu based in Hargeisa, modern-day Somaliland. The first song to be broadcast was composed by Guroon Jire in 1940 in English, Somali and Arabic, before being renamed the following year to Radio Somali. The head of the Music department was Mohamed Saeed (Guroon jire). Music is now regularly broadcast on the state-run Radio Mogadishu, as well as a number of private radio and popular television networks such as Horn Cable Television (a private company which is based in Somaliland). List of Somali musicians and musical groups Aar Maanta Abdi Qays Abdi Sinimo Abdullahi Qarshe Ahmed Gacayte Ahmed Mooge Liban Ali Feiruz Nimco Omer Yasminah Dur-Dur Band Guduuda 'Arwo Hasan Adan Samatar Hassan Sheikh Mumin Jiim Sheikh Muumin Khadija Qalanjo K'naan Magool Maryam Mursal Mohamed Mooge Liban Mohamed Nuur Giriig Saado Ali Warsame Sulekha Ali Waayaha Cusub Mohamed Sulayman Tubeec Hudeidi Xiddigaha Geeska See also Middle Eastern music Music of Ethiopia Notes References Ministry of Information and National Guidance, Mogadishu, Somalia (1974). Somali Culture and Folklore Mukhtar, Mohamed Haji (2003) Historical Dictionary of Somalia. Scarecrow Press. Puchowski, Douglas (2013). The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of World Music, Volume 1. 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248198	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBC%20Radio%20One	CBC Radio One	CBC Radio One is the English-language news and information radio network of the publicly owned Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. It is commercial-free and offers local and national programming. It is available on AM and FM to 98 percent of Canadians and overseas over the Internet, and through mobile apps. CBC Radio One is simulcast across Canada on Bell Satellite TV satellite channels 956 and 969, and Shaw Direct satellite channel 870. A modified version of Radio One, with local content replaced by additional airings of national programming, is available on Sirius XM channel 169. It is downlinked to subscribers via SiriusXM Canada and its U.S.-based counterpart, Sirius XM Satellite Radio. In 2010, Radio One reached 4.3 million listeners each week. It was the largest radio network in Canada. History CBC Radio began in 1936, and is the oldest branch of the corporation. In 1949, the facilities and staff of the Broadcasting Corporation of Newfoundland were transferred to CBC upon Newfoundland's entry into Canadian Confederation. Beginning in 1944, the CBC operated two English-language radio services: the original network became the Trans-Canada Network, and a second network, the Dominion Network, was established with CJBC in Toronto as its flagship. With the exception of CJBC, all 35 stations on the CBC Dominion Network were privately owned affiliates. Its programming tended to be lighter than that of the Trans-Canada Network, carrying more American programming in its schedule. The Dominion Network operated only in the evenings, freeing affiliates to air local programming during the day. Until 1958, the CBC was both a broadcaster, and the principal broadcast regulator in Canada. It used this dual role to take most of Canada's clear-channel frequencies on the AM dial. In 1962, the Dominion Network was dissolved and within a few years CJBC became a French-language station broadcasting the programming of Radio-Canada. In 1960, CBC began running distinct programming on its three existing FM English-language stations, which had been providing simulcasts of programming on its AM stations. The stations, located in Toronto, Ottawa and Montreal, broadcast a monoaural FM signal. Programming consisted mostly of classical music. The stations were linked by CN/CP Telecommunications via land-line and microwave. This service was discontinued in 1962, but resumed in 1964 in stereo. Eventually, a national satellite-distributed network of stereo FM stations was established. In 1975, the FM network was called CBC Stereo, and the AM service was designated CBC Radio. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, CBC Radio increased its current affairs and documentary content with an initiative known as the "Radio Revolution", using more ambitious, live coverage of news and current affairs including listeners as well as experts. The change began with national shows such as As It Happens. The change spread to CBC regional morning shows which developed three hours of live radio combining "survival information", about news, weather and traffic, with interviews and documentaries about local and national issues. CBC Radio Winnipeg was the first to embrace the format followed by Information Morning in Halifax, a move which increased audience and attracted coverage in Time magazine. CBC Radio stopped running commercials in 1974. Until 1995, the network signed off the air between 1:00 a.m. and 6:00 a.m. daily (5:00 a.m. weekdays on its Toronto flagship station, CBL)– in that year, it launched an overnight program, CBC Radio Overnight, which airs international news and documentary programs. In the early 1990s, the CBC began offering selected programs on the Internet. In September 1996, the network formally launched live audio streaming of both CBC Radio and CBC Stereo. Since the 1980s, many of the CBC's AM stations moved to FM in response to complaints of poor AM reception. This meant that the old distinction between the AM "Radio" network and the FM "Stereo" network was no longer accurate, even though many of the FM "Radio" stations broadcast in mono only. As a result, in 1997 CBC Radio became CBC Radio One and CBC Stereo became CBC Radio 2 (it is now CBC Music). Although some Radio One stations still broadcast on AM as of 2018, because of issues with urban reception of AM radio signals many of the remaining AM stations have added FM rebroadcasters in major urban centres within their broadcast area. CBC Radio One today From 2004 until early 2007, CBC Radio One promotional spots were announced by Canadian actress Shauna MacDonald, also known as "Promo Girl". Toronto-born Jeremy Harris took over from MacDonald. Until fall 2005, promos ended with one of two slogans: either "Because sometimes a picture needs a thousand words" or "Hear the big picture". Until early 2015, the slogan was "Canada Lives Here." The slogan was not replaced. In the fall of 2021, CBC Radio One's weekend evening programing was reorganized. With the removal of two-hour programs, with Vinyl Tap cancelled and Saturday Night Blues relegated to CBC Music, Saturday night programming features various music programs from CBC Music. In contrast, the Sunday night programming has the network's various spoken-word narrative programs concentrated from 7 p.m. to 12 a.m. (Eastern). Some CBC Radio One programs, such as As It Happens, air in the United States on some stations associated with Public Radio International. Definitely Not the Opera, Quirks & Quarks, The Vinyl Cafe, and Q are heard on some public stations in the northern United States. Some CBC-SRC programs were relayed on Radio Canada International for listeners abroad and others, such as the 2010 summer program Promised Land, have aired on Sirius Satellite Radio 169. CBC Radio One stations Only stations with a primary production centre, producing at least one local program, are listed below. Most of these stations are licensed as separate broadcast undertakings. Stations not considered primary production centres may have local content which is limited to local news updates. Each station also has a significant number of rebroadcasters in smaller communities within its service area; those are listed in each primary station's article. † Station has a "nested" FM rebroadcaster in home market Shortwave relays of Radio One Two CBC Radio One stations operate shortwave relay transmitters: CBN in St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, with call sign CKZN CBU in Vancouver, British Columbia, with call sign CKZU Both transmitters broadcast 1 kW ERP signals on a fixed frequency of 6.16 MHz. Some DXers have been able to log both transmitters simultaneously, but this is a rare occurrence due to the distance between the transmitters. The objective of the CBC transmissions on SW is also provide information to listeners in isolated and distant parts of the country which other usual forms of broadcast or communications are not well covered. During appropriated periods of radio propagation, the signals can reach other countries, as well the reception can turn difficult in dense populated areas due Electromagnetic interference. Programming Most schedules include hourly news readings that run from 6–12 minutes on the top of the hour except for major programming like the 6:00 p.m. news show and Cross Country Checkup. Some mid-day programs include only brief 90-second "information updates". On statutory holidays, local programming is replaced by special provincial programming or regional programs are broadcast provincewide on a rotating basis. In the summer months of July and August, some programming is temporarily shortened and/or replaced by special summer series. On Christmas Day, the majority of the day's programming is replaced with predominately holiday music showcases. Stations in the Canadian territories air a significantly different schedule with expanded local programming that includes a number of programs in local Indigenous languages. They air most of the core CBC Radio One schedule, although some programs may air in abbreviated versions (see CBC North for further information). The network also airs some programming syndicated from American public broadcasting services such as National Public Radio and Public Radio Exchange, including programs from the now defunct Public Radio International which merged with PRX in 2019, This American Life, Radiolab and the news series The World and, previously, The State We're In. With the exceptions of This American Life, which airs on Sunday nights at 11:00 p.m. and Snap Judgement which airs on Monday nights at 11:00 p.m., all other non-Canadian content airs after 1:00 a.m. as part of the CBC Radio Overnight programming block. Sirius XM The Radio One feed on Sirius XM Satellite Radio largely follows the Eastern Time schedule, and has no local programming, with repeats of other shows in time slots that would normally be occupied by local programming. As a consequence of using a single feed, most national programming outside the Eastern Time Zone is heard earlier or later than the regional outlet on terrestrial radio - for example: The World at Six is heard on Sirius XM as early as 3:00 p.m. Pacific Time in Vancouver, and as late as 7:30 p.m. Newfoundland Time in St. John's. Programs produced by NPR and PRX are not heard on CBC Radio One's Sirius XM service, as these are covered by channels programmed by NPR and PRX. In addition, the programs featured on CBC Radio Overnight are not heard on the Sirius XM feed. In these cases, as with the regional programming slots, repeats of earlier national programs are heard, as well as some CBC Music programming (such as Deep Roots). Podcasting Many CBC Radio programs are also distributed in podcast versions. In addition, the service has also created several programs which are distributed exclusively as podcasts. Original podcasts include Campus, a program devoted to stories about college and university student life; Someone Knows Something, which presents information about criminal cold cases; Uncover, an investigative journalism project; Missing and Murdered, which delves into stories of missing and murdered Indigenous women; and Back Story, in which foreign correspondents talk about the news stories they have covered. Selected episodes from the podcasts may also sometimes air terrestrially on CBC Radio One as substitute programs, or rerun material for regular programs such as The Current, such as during the summer season or when a regularly scheduled program is preempted due to a statutory holiday. Former affiliates While all CBC Radio stations today are owned and operated by the network there previously were a number of privately owned network affiliates of what is now CBC Radio One and its predecessors, the Trans-Canada Network, and the original CBC Radio network. Some were affiliates of the original CBC radio network prior to 1944, several of which had previously been affiliates of the CBC's predecessor, the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission. Some were affiliates of the Trans-Canada Network (1944-1962) and either disaffiliated from TCN or became CBC Radio affiliates when TCN became CBC Radio in 1962. Some transferred their affiliation to CBC Radio when the Dominion Network dissolved in 1962. Most affiliates disaffiliated as the CBC built new owned and operated stations, expanded coverage by other stations, or built transmitters to rebroadcast existing CBC Radio stations. Other affiliates were purchased from their owners by the CBC and are listed under CBC Radio One stations above or at List of defunct CBC radio transmitters in Canada if they are no longer operating. Stations that have disaffiliated: CFAC, Calgary - lost affiliation in 1948 with the launch of CBX. CFAR, Flin Flon - disaffiliated in 1984 after CBC launched CBWF-FM. CFCH, North Bay - disaffiliated in 1976 with the launch of CBCN-FM. CFCY, Charlottetown - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1977 with the opening of CBCT-FM. CFGP, Grande Prairie - disaffiliated in 1981 after the opening of CBXP-FM. CFJC, Kamloops - disaffiliated in 1977 with the launch of CBYK-FM. CFNB, Fredericton - disaffiliated in 1964 with the launch of CBZ. CFOB, Fort Frances - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962 as CKFI. Disaffiliated after the opening of CBQ in 1973. CFOM, Quebec City - as CJQC transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Became CFOM in 1964. Closed in 1975, replaced by CBVE-FM. CFOR, Orillia - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1964. CFOS, Owen Sound - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated and replaced by CBCB-FM, a rebroadcaster of CBL, in 1983. CFPA, Port Arthur - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1972 with the launch of CBQ. CFPL, London - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated, replaced by CBCL-FM in 1978. CFRC, Kingston - owned and operated Queen's University in partnership with the Kingston Whig-Standard newspaper. Affiliation transferred to the more powerful CKWS when the newspaper opened that station in 1942. CFRN, Edmonton - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1964 when CBR launched. CFVR, Abbotsford - established in 1962 as a semi-satellite of CHWK. Disaffiliated in 1981 with the launch of a repeater of CBU. CHAT, Medicine Hat - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1994 with the launch of CBRM-FM. CHSJ, St. John - was an affiliate of the Trans-Canada Network until 1962 when that network was merged with the Dominion Network to become CBC Radio. CHSJ remained a CBC Radio affiliate. CBC opened CBD in 1964 but CHSJ is listed as remaining a CBC affiliate until at least 1980. CHWK, Chilliwack - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1981 with the launch of a repeater of CBU. CJAT, Trail - disaffiliated in 1977 as a result of the launch of CBTA-FM. CJCA, Edmonton - disaffiliated in 1962 with the dissolution of the Trans-Canada Network. CFRN, the former Dominion Network affiliate, remained as an affiliate of the combined CBC Radio network. CJIC, - Sault Ste. Marie - disaffiliated in 1981 with the launch of CBSM-FM. Closed in 1992. CJOC, Lethbridge - disaffiliated in 1978 as CBRX-FM had signed on. CJVI, Victoria - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1991 with the launch of CBCV-FM. CJWA, Wawa - disaffiliated in 1985 with the opening of CBLJ, a retransmitter of CBCS-FM. CKCK, Regina - remained a Trans-Canada Network affiliate until 1962 when the network was merged with the Dominion network to become CBC Radio. CKCR, Kitchener - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliation granted in 1966 by Board of Broadcast Governors over CBC's objections. CKCV, Quebec City - disaffiliated in 1962 with the merger of the Trans-Canada Network and the Dominion Network and went from being a bilingual to a French-only station, with CFOM continuing as a CBC Radio affiliate. CKGB, Timmins - disaffiliated in 1984 with the launch of CBCJ-FM. CKLN, Nelson - remained a CBC affiliate until at least 1968. CKOC, Hamilton - was allowed to disaffiliate in 1962 as Hamilton was in range of CBL Toronto's signal. CKOR, Penticton - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1977 as a result of the launch of CBTP-FM. CKOV, Kelowna - disaffiliated in 1977 with the opening of a CBC repeater. CBTK-FM was launched in 1987. CKPR, Fort William - disaffiliated in 1962 with the merger of the Trans-Canada Network and Dominion Network. Former Dominion affiliate CFPA, in neighbouring Port Arthur, continued as the affiliate of the consolidated CBC Radio network. CKSO, Sudbury - disaffiliated in 1978 with CBCS-FM signing on. CKWS, Kingston - disaffiliated in 1978 with the opening of CBCK-FM. CKX, Brandon - transferred from the Dominion network in 1962. Disaffiliated in 1978 with the opening of CBWS-FM. For former Dominion Network affiliates, see Dominion Network#Stations See also Ici Radio-Canada Première, the CBC's French language equivalent to CBC Radio One References External links CBC Radio One CBC Radio on Sirius XM Canada CBC Radio Networks chronological history from the Canadian Communications Foundation's website. 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248200	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphodelus	Asphodelus	Asphodelus is a genus of mainly perennial flowering plants in the asphodel family Asphodelaceae that was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. The genus was formerly included in the lily family (Liliaceae). The genus is native to temperate Europe, the Mediterranean, Africa, the Middle East, and the Indian Subcontinent, and some species have been introduced to, and are now naturalized in, other places such as New Zealand, Australia, Mexico and southwestern United States. Many asphodels are popular garden plants, which grow in well-drained soils with abundant natural light. Character The plants are hardy herbaceous perennials with narrow tufted radical leaves and an elongated stem bearing a handsome spike of white or yellow flowers. Asphodelus albus and A. fistulosus have white flowers and grow from high; A. ramosus is a larger plant, the large white flowers of which have a reddish-brown line in the middle of each segment. Etymology The genus name is derived from the Greek ἀσφόδελος asphodelos. Species There are 16 species in the genus. Species Asphodelus acaulis Desf. – Branched asphodel – Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia Asphodelus aestivus Brot. – Summer asphodel, also known as Common asphodel and Silver rod – Western Mediterranean (mainly Portugal and Spain) Asphodelus albus Mill. – White asphodel, also known as Rimmed lichen – Mediterranean Asphodelus ayardii Jahand. & Maire – France, Spain, Italy, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Canary Islands Asphodelus bakeri Breistr. – Western Himalayas of northern India, northern Pakistan, etc. Asphodelus bento-rainhae P.Silva – Spain, Portugal Asphodelus cerasiferus J.Gay – France, Spain, Sardinia, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia Asphodelus fistulosus L. – Onion-leaved asphodel, also known as Onionweed – Mediterranean (naturalized in New Zealand, Mexico, southwestern United States, etc.) Asphodelus gracilis Braun-Blanq. & Maire – Morocco Asphodelus lusitanicus Cout. – Spain, Portugal Asphodelus macrocarpus Parl. – Mediterranean Asphodelus ramosus L. – Branched asphodel – southern Europe, northern Africa, the Middle East and Canary Islands Asphodelus refractus Boiss. – North Africa and Arabian Peninsula from Mauritania & Morocco to Saudi Arabia Asphodelus roseus Humbert & Maire – Spain, Morocco Asphodelus serotinus Wolley-Dod – Spain, Portugal Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. – Southeast Europe and northern Africa from the Mediterranean south to Mali, Chad, Sudan, Somalia; south-central Asia from Caucasus to India Asphodelus viscidulus Boiss. – North Africa, Middle East, Arabian Peninsula Formerly included Asphodelus luteus L. – synonym of Asphodeline lutea Uses The leaves are used to wrap burrata, an Italian cheese. The leaves and the cheese last about the same time, three or four days, and thus fresh leaves are a sign of a fresh cheese, while dried out leaves indicate that the cheese is past its prime. Mythology In Greek legend the asphodel is one of the most famous of the plants connected with the dead and the underworld. Homer describes it as covering the great meadow (), the haunt of the dead. It was planted on graves, and is often connected with Persephone, who appears crowned with a garland of asphodels. Its general connection with death is due no doubt to the greyish colour of its leaves and its yellowish flowers, which suggest the gloom of the underworld and the pallor of death. The roots were eaten by the poorer Greeks; hence such food was thought good enough for the shades. The asphodel was also supposed to be a remedy for poisonous snake-bites and a specific against sorcery; it was fatal to mice, but preserved pigs from disease. The Libyan nomads made their huts of asphodel stalks. Poetry The asphodel is mentioned by several poets in connection with the mythology of death, and by association, the afterlife - specifically the Isles of the Blessed and Elysium - part of the ancient Greek concept of the afterlife. Conrad Aiken: "Snowflake on asphodel—how clear, how bright / Snow's death on dying flower, yet both immortal" Elizabeth Barrett Browning: "As one who stands in dewless asphodel, Looks backward on the tedious time he had In the upper life." Florence Earle Coates: "beauty wove a magic spell/ For him, and early, at his need,/ Upon a bed of asphodel/ He found a tuneful reed" in poem "Henry Wadsworth Longfellow" Leonard Cohen: "But in his lapel, discreetly, he wore a sprig of asphodel." William Faulkner: "There asphodels are scattered through the night, Like ghosts of young beseeching hands." ONE WHO WAS LEFT LIVING, CHANSONS AU PRINTEMPS, handwritten with drawings, 1919, W. Faulkner, RFC Allen Ginsberg: "An Asphodel" Hesiod: "Children! They know not how much more the half is than the whole, nor how great is the profit in mallow and asphodel." Homer: "So I said and off he went, the ghost of the great runner, Aeacus’ grandson loping with long strides across the fields of asphodel, triumphant in all I had told him of his son, his gallant, glorious son." Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: "He, who wore the crown of asphodels, Descending, at my door began to knock." John Milton: "To embathe In nectared lavers strewed with asphodel." Edgar Allan Poe: "and when, one by one, the white daisies shrank away, there sprang up in place of them, ten by ten of the ruby-red asphodel" Alexander Pope: "Happy Souls who dwell In Yellow Meads of Asphodel, Or Amaranthine Bowers." Ezra Pound, "Canto XXI": "Danced there Athame, danced, and there Phaethusa/ With colour in the vein,/ Strong as with blood drink, once,/ With colour in the vein/ Red in the smoke-faint throat. Dis caught her up./ And the old man went on there/ beating his mule with an asphodel." Alfred Tennyson: "Others in Elysian valleys dwell, Resting weary limbs at last on beds of asphodel." Orville E. Watson: "see a river like Kokosing, in meadows sweet with asphodel" William Carlos Williams: "Asphodel, that greeny flower" Marie Laforêt: "Je t'ai donné mes bouquets d'asphodèles Oscar Wilde: "The heavy fields of scentless Asphodel, the loveless lips with which men kiss in hell"; "they sleep, they sleep, beneath the rocking trees where asphodel and yellow lotus twine" Dani Filth: "When the Sun goes out our powers/ Will extend throughout Heaven like Asphodel" Virginia Wolf: Orlando: "but some were early infected" ( love of literature), "by a germ said to be bred of the pollen of the asphodel". Notes References External links Asphodelaceae genera Asphodeloideae Garden plants	[ -0.5173295736312866, 0.46350163221359253, -0.34362518787384033, -0.21835802495479584, -0.22409163415431976, 0.5710663795471191, 0.5968301892280579, 0.19115757942199707, -0.3410842716693878, 0.2145523726940155, -0.02206241339445114, -0.2786875367164612, -0.8984352946281433, 0.43340498208999634, 0.332388311624527, 0.3258499205112457, 0.031376004219055176, 0.23975147306919098, 0.04128672927618027, -0.24391427636146545, 0.104535773396492, -0.34621527791023254, 0.7375283241271973, -0.6191645264625549, 0.6828651428222656, -0.6689105033874512, 0.5090617537498474, -0.1262991726398468, 0.9846152067184448, 0.03952796012163162, -0.28226202726364136, 1.0160549879074097, -0.01346530206501484, -0.5531425476074219, -0.5528306365013123, 0.09527046233415604, -0.362205445766449, -0.18694858253002167, 0.12695975601673126, -0.7075042724609375, 0.03997206315398216, -0.017893267795443535, 0.6020485758781433, 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248213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence%20Clemons	Clarence Clemons	Clarence Anicholas Clemons Jr. (January 11, 1942 – June 18, 2011), also known as The Big Man, was an American musician and actor. From 1972 until his death in 2011, he was the saxophonist for The E Street Band. Clemons released several solo albums. In 1985, he had a hit single with "You're a Friend of Mine", a duet with Jackson Browne. As a guest musician, he featured on Aretha Franklin's song "Freeway of Love". As an actor, Clemons appeared in several films, including New York, New York and Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. He also made cameo appearances in several TV series, including Diff'rent Strokes, Nash Bridges, The Simpsons, My Wife and Kids and The Wire. Together with his friend Don Reo, Clemons published Big Man: Real Life & Tall Tales (2009), a semi-fictional autobiography told in the third person. A documentary about his life directed by Nick Mead, entitled Clarence Clemons: Who Do I Think I Am?, was released in August 2019. Clemons died in 2011 at the age of 69. In 2014, he was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of the E Street Band. Early life Clarence Anicholas Clemons Jr. was born on January 11, 1942, in Norfolk County, Virginia (later the city of Chesapeake), the son of fish market owner Clarence Clemons, Sr. and his wife Thelma. He was the oldest of their three children. His grandfather was a Southern Baptist preacher and, as a result, the young Clemons grew up in a very religious environment listening to gospel music. When he was nine, his father gave him an alto saxophone as a Christmas present and paid for music lessons. He later switched to baritone saxophone and played in a high school jazz band. His uncle also influenced his early musical development when he bought him his first King Curtis album. Curtis, and his work with the Coasters in particular, would become a major influence on Clemons and led to him switching to tenor saxophone. As a youth, Clemons also showed potential as a football player, and graduated from Crestwood High School (now Crestwood Middle) before attending Maryland State College on both music and football scholarships. At 6' 4" and 240 pounds, he played as a lineman on the same team as Art Shell and Emerson Boozer and attracted the attention of the Cleveland Browns, who offered him a trial. Clemons also tried out for the Dallas Cowboys. However, the day before, he was involved in a serious car accident which effectively ended any plans of a career in the National Football League. He would eventually be posthumously inducted into the university's Athletics Hall of Fame on February 24, 2012. At age 18, Clemons had one of his earliest studio experiences, recording sessions with Tyrone Ashley's Funky Music Machine, a band from Plainfield, New Jersey, that included Ray Davis, Eddie Hazel and Billy Bass Nelson, all of whom later played with Parliament-Funkadelic. He also performed with Daniel Petraitis, a New Jersey and Nashville legend. These sessions were eventually released in 2007 by Truth and Soul Records as Let Me Be Your Man. While at Maryland State College, Clemons also joined his first band, the Vibratones, which played James Brown covers and stayed together for about four years between 1961 and 1965. While still playing with this band, he moved to Somerset, New Jersey, where he worked as a counselor for emotionally disturbed children at the Jamesburg Training School for Boys between 1962 and 1970. Music career E Street Band The story of how Clemons first met Bruce Springsteen has entered into E Street Band mythology. "The E Street Shuffle" contains a monologue about how they met, and the event was also immortalized in "Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out". They allegedly met for the first time in September 1971. At the time, Clemons was playing with Norman Seldin & the Joyful Noyze at The Wonder Bar in Asbury Park, New Jersey. Seldin was a Jersey Shore musician/entrepreneur who, as well as playing piano and leading various bands, had his own record label, Selsom Records. In 1969, Clemons had recorded an eponymous album with this band. In 2008, tracks from this album were reissued on an anthology, Asbury Park — Then and Now, put together by Seldin. It was Karen Cassidy, lead vocalist with the Joyful Noyze, who encouraged Clemons to check out Springsteen, who was playing with the Bruce Springsteen Band at the nearby Student Prince. Clemons recalled their meeting in various interviews: One night we were playing in Asbury Park. I'd heard The Bruce Springsteen Band was nearby at a club called The Student Prince and on a break between sets I walked over there. On-stage, Bruce used to tell different versions of this story but I'm a Baptist, remember, so this is the truth. A rainy, windy night it was, and when I opened the door the whole thing flew off its hinges and blew away down the street. The band were on-stage, but staring at me framed in the doorway. And maybe that did make Bruce a little nervous because I just said, "I want to play with your band," and he said, "Sure, you do anything you want." The first song we did was an early version of "Spirit in the Night". Bruce and I looked at each other and didn't say anything, we just knew. We knew we were the missing links in each other's lives. He was what I'd been searching for. In one way he was just a scrawny little kid. But he was a visionary. He wanted to follow his dream. So from then on I was part of history. However, well before this meeting, Clemons and Springsteen had moved within the same circle of musical acquaintances. Norman Seldin had managed and promoted several local bands, including The Motifs who featured Vinnie Roslin, later to play with Springsteen in Steel Mill. On April 22, 1966, Seldin had also organized a Battle of the Bands competition at the Matawan-Keyport Roller Drome in Matawan, New Jersey. Springsteen was among the entrants playing with his then band, The Castiles. Billy Ryan, who played lead guitar with The Joyful Noyze, also played in The Jaywalkers with Garry Tallent and Steve Van Zandt. Clemons himself had also played with Tallent in Little Melvin & The Invaders. In July 1972, Springsteen began recording his debut album Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J. and during breaks from recording, he jammed with Clemons and The Joyful Noyze on at least two occasions at The Shipbottom Lounge in Point Pleasant, New Jersey. When Springsteen then decided to use a tenor saxophone on the songs "Blinded by the Light" and "Spirit in the Night", he called Clemons. By October Springsteen was ready to tour and promote Greetings… and he put together a band featuring Clemons, Tallent, Danny Federici and Vini Lopez. Clemons played his last gig with Norman Seldin & The Joyful Noyze at the Club Plaza in Bayville, New Jersey, on October 21, 1972. Four days later Clemons made his debut with the formative E Street Band at an unadvertised, impromptu performance at The Shipbottom Lounge. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Clemons featured prominently on Springsteen's albums. On Born to Run he provided memorable saxophone solos on the title track, "Thunder Road", "She's the One", "Night" and "Jungleland". Darkness on the Edge of Town featured notable solos by Clemons on "Badlands" and "The Promised Land". The River saw Clemons featured on songs such as "The Ties That Bind", "Sherry Darling", "I Wanna Marry You", "Drive All Night" and "Independence Day" while Born in the U.S.A. saw solos on "Bobby Jean" and "I'm Goin' Down". Springsteen and other members of the band referred to Clemons as "The Big Man". At the end of shows, while recognizing members of the E Street Band, Springsteen referred to Clemons as "The Biggest Man You Ever Seen". He sometimes changed this depending on where the E Street Band performs — at their 2009 concert in Glasgow he introduced Clemons as "the biggest Scotsman you've ever seen". In April 2014, the E Street Band were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Clemons' widow accepted on his behalf. Solo career Outside of his work with the E Street Band, Clemons recorded with many other artists and had a number of musical projects on his own. The best known of these are his 1985 vocal duet with Jackson Browne on the Top-20 hit single "You're a Friend of Mine", and his saxophone work on Aretha Franklin's 1985 Top-10 hit single "Freeway of Love". He was managed briefly in the 1980s by former Crawdaddy editor Peter Knobler, at whose wedding Clemons played with his band, Clarence Clemons & the Red Bank Rockers. During the 1980s, Clemons also owned a Red Bank, New Jersey, nightclub called Big Man's West. He toured in the first incarnation of Ringo Starr & The All-Starr Band in 1989, singing "You're a Friend of Mine" (dueting with Billy Preston) and an updated rap arrangement of "Quarter to Three." In the mid-1990s, he recorded a Japan-only CD release called Aja and the Big Man "Get It On" with Los Angeles singer/songwriter Aja Kim. Clarence also sat in with the Grateful Dead during the Grateful Dead's Summer Solstice Simulcast concert in 1989. In 1992 he was involved in the sessions for the album Zoom by Alvin Lee. At this time he also recorded an instrumental record with Alan Niven producing, Peacemaker. In the 2000s, Clemons along with producer Narada Michael Walden, put together a group called The Temple of Soul, releasing a single called "Anna". He also recorded with philanthropic teen band Creation. Clemons collaborated with Lady Gaga on the songs "Hair" and "The Edge of Glory" from her album Born This Way, providing a saxophone track and solo. In April 2011, Clemons sat in on several tunes with the Grateful Dead "spinoff" band Furthur during a concert in Boca Raton, Florida. Just days before he suffered a major stroke, he shot a music video with Lady Gaga for "The Edge of Glory". Acting career Clemons appeared in several movies and on television, making his screen debut in Martin Scorsese's musical 1977 musical film New York, New York, in which he played a trumpet player. He played one of the 'Three Most Important People In The World' in the 1989 comedy film Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure. In 1985, Clemons was a special guest star in Diff'rent Strokes episode "So You Want to Be a Rock Star", in which he played the role of Mr. Kingsley, a young saxophonist helping Arnold Jackson to learn to play his sax. He was also a guest voice in an episode of The Simpsons. In 1990, he co-starred in the pilot episode of Human Target, a Rick Springfield action series intended for ABC. He also played the role of Jack in Swing starring opposite Lisa Stansfield and Hugo Speer, directed by Nick Mead. He appeared alongside Michael McKean and David Bowe as a miner in one episode of musician "Weird Al" Yankovic's children's television show The Weird Al Show. He made a cameo appearance in the sequel to The Blues Brothers, Blues Brothers 2000 (1999), as part of the metal section of super blues band The Louisiana Gator Boys. He appeared in the episode "Michael's Band" of Damon Wayans' television show My Wife and Kids as a musician, and performed an original composition, co written with bassist Lynn Woolever, called "One Shadow In The Sun". Clemons twice appeared as a Baltimore youth-program organizer in the HBO crime drama The Wire. He appeared in an episode of Brothers and in the "Eddie's Book" episode of 'Til Death as himself. Other work Together with his friend Don Reo, Clemons published Big Man: Real Life & Tall Tales (2009), a semi-fictional autobiography told in the third person. Personal life Married five times, Clemons fathered four sons: Charles, Christopher, Jarod, and Clarence III (known as Nick). His nephew, Jake Clemons, was introduced as the new saxophone player of the E Street Band in 2012 after Clemons' death. His decades-long friendship with motorsports legend Dick Moroso set the stage for him to move to Florida, where he became involved with various charitable organizations. Clemons was associated with spiritual guru Sri Chinmoy. Death Clemons died of complications from a stroke on June 18, 2011. Clemons suffered a massive stroke at his home in Florida, on June 12th. While initial signs had been hopeful after his hospitalization and two subsequent brain surgeries, he reportedly took a turn for the worse later in the week and died on June 18. He was 69. Upon announcement of Clemons' death, New Jersey Governor Chris Christie ordered all state flags to be lowered to half staff in his honor. He was survived by his four sons, Nick, Charles, Christopher, Jarod; his younger brother William Melvon Clemons, Sr. (1946–2014); and his fifth wife, Victoria, whom he had married in 2008. Tributes and legacy Springsteen said of Clemons: At their concert in Portsmouth, Virginia, on June 19, 2011, Phish covered "Thunder Road" as a tribute to Clemons. At an Eddie Vedder concert in Hartford, Connecticut, on June 18, 2011, upon hearing of Clemons' health struggles, Vedder wished Clemons well, and Vedder was soon notified by a sound tech that Clemons had died. Vedder later played a tribute to Clemons during the Pearl Jam song "Better Man", changing the lyrics to include, "Can't find a Bigger Man" (paying homage to Clemons' nickname "The Big Man"). During a subsequent performance on the Late Show with David Letterman, Vedder played a ukulele with "Clarence" written across the front of it. Before singing "Moment of Surrender" at the U2 concert in Anaheim on June 18, 2011, Bono paid tribute to Clemons. He read lyrics from Springsteen's "Jungleland" near the end of the song, and repeated them at the song's conclusion. Bono repeated this dedication and tribute during "Moment of Surrender" at the U2 concert in New Jersey on June 21 and again in Baltimore on June 22. Bon Jovi performed "Tenth Avenue Freeze-Out" as the first encore during their concert in Horsens on June 19, 2011. While playing that song, photos of Clemons were shown on the giant video screen behind the band. Jimmy Buffett added verses that included Clemons in "The Stories We Could Tell" during his final encore during his concert on June 21, 2011. The rest of the band left the stage and it was Buffett playing and singing alone. During The Gaslight Anthem's set at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival, frontman Brian Fallon dedicated their song "The '59 Sound" to Clemons. On July 17, 2011, a tribute concert was held at the Wonder Bar in Asbury Park, New Jersey. Springsteen performed a 45-minute set playing some of Clemons' songs. Clemons' son, Clarence III, (known as Nick), opened the show with his band, The Nick Clemons Band. On October 1, 2011, a tribute to Clemons took place at the Seminole Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Hollywood, Florida. Traditionally an annual charity event hosted by Clemons called The Classic Rock & Roll Party, the event paid tribute to Clemons' life and all he did for Home Safe, a non-profit organization helping victims of child abuse and domestic violence. In January 2012, Clemons' hometown paid tribute with memorial concerts featuring members of the E Street Band. The concert took place at The NorVa concert hall. In October 2011, Lady Gaga paid tribute to him when she accepted the "Big Man of the Year" from Little Kids Rock. In a June 21, 2012, concert in Sydney, Australia, Gaga dedicated her song "The Edge of Glory" in which Clemons had contributed. On July 28, 2012, in Gothenburg, Springsteen and the E Street Band performed "Jungleland" for the first time on the Wrecking Ball World Tour, with Clemons' nephew Jake Clemons playing the saxophone solo and the song being dedicated to Clemons. Discography Clarence Clemons & the Red Bank Rockers Rescue (1983) Clarence Clemons Hero (1985) A Night With Mr. C (1989) Peacemaker (1995) Aja and the Big Man Get It On (1995) Clarence Clemons & Temple of Soul Live in Asbury Park (2002) Live in Asbury Park, Vol. 2 (2004) Brothers in Arms (2008) Bruce Springsteen Greetings from Asbury Park, N.J. (1973) The Wild, the Innocent & the E Street Shuffle (1973) Born to Run (1975) Darkness on the Edge of Town (1978) The River (1980) Born in the U.S.A. (1984) Live/1975–85 (1986) Tunnel of Love (1987) Chimes of Freedom (1988) Greatest Hits (1995) Blood Brothers (1996) Tracks (1998) 18 Tracks (1999) Live in New York City (2001) The Rising (2002) The Essential Bruce Springsteen (2003) Hammersmith Odeon London '75 (2006) Magic (2007) Magic Tour Highlights (2008) Working on a Dream (2009) The Promise (2010) Wrecking Ball (2012) High Hopes (2014) Gary U.S. Bonds Dedication (1981) On the Line (1982) Lady Gaga Born This Way (2011) Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band (1990) Zucchero Blues (1987) Oro Incenso & Birra (1989) Zucchero (1991) Diamante (1994) Spirito Divino (1995) Selected others Dan Hartman: Images (1976) Southside Johnny & The Asbury Jukes: I Don't Wanna Go Home (1976) Pezband: Pezband (1977) Ronnie Spector & The E Street Band: "Say Goodbye To Hollywood" / "Baby, Please Don't Go" (1977) Scarlet Rivera: Scarlet Rivera (1977) Intergalactic Touring Band: Intergalactic Touring Band (1977) Carlene Carter: Two Sides to Every Woman (1979) Janis Ian: Night Rains (1979) Musicians United for Safe Energy: No Nukes (1979) Michael Stanley Band: Heartland (1980) Joan Armatrading: Me Myself I (1980) Various artists: In Harmony 2 (1981) Greg Lake: Greg Lake (1981) Schwartz: Schwartz (1981) Blue Steel: Nothing But Time (1981) Little Steven & The Disciples Of Soul: Men Without Women (1982) Hawks: 30 Seconds Over Otho (1982) Ian Hunter: All of the Good Ones Are Taken (1983) Steel Breeze: Heart on the Line (1983) Silver Condor: Trouble At Home (1983) Michael Stanley: Poor Side of Town (1984) Aretha Franklin: Who's Zoomin' Who? (1985) Twisted Sister: Come Out and Play (1985) Soundtrack: Porky's Revenge (1985) Artists United Against Apartheid: Sun City (1986) Jersey Artists For Mankind: "We've Got The Love" / "Save Love, Save Life" (1986) Gloria Estefan: Let It Loose (1987) Various artists: A Very Special Christmas (1987) Narada Michael Walden: Divine Emotions (1988) The Four Tops: Indestructible (1988) Todd Rundgren: Nearly Human (1989) Herman Brood: Freeze (1990) Soundtrack: Home Alone 2: Lost in New York (soundtrack) (1992) Lisa Stansfield et al.: Swing – Original Motion Picture Soundtrack (1999) Joe Cocker: Unchain My Heart (1990) Peter Maffay: 38317 (1991) Nils Lofgren: Silver Lining (1991) Alvin Lee: Zoom (1992) Roy Orbison: King of Hearts (1992) Jim Carroll: A World Without Gravity: Best of The Jim Carroll Band (1993) Dave Koz: Lucky Man (1993) Great White: Sail Away (1994) Luther Vandross: This is Christmas (1995) Craig and Co.: My Newish Jewish Discovery (1997) Various artists: Humanary Stew – A Tribute to Alice Cooper (1999) Nick Clemons Band: In the Sunlight (2001) Creation: World Without Windows (2005) Bruce Benson: A Healing Prayer (2007) Tyrone Ashley's Funky Music Machine: Let Me Be Your Man (2007) Stormin' Norman & Friends: Asbury Park — Then And Now (2008) Lady Gaga: "The Edge of Glory" (2011) Lady Gaga: "Hair" (2011) Jerry Garcia Band: Garcia Live Volume 13 (2020) Filmography Film New York, New York (1977) Cecil Powell Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure (1989) One of the Three Most Important People in the World Fatal Instinct (1993) Clarence Blues Brothers 2000 (1998) The Louisiana Gator Boys Swing (1999) Jack Television Diff'rent Strokes Mr. Kingsley: "So You Want to Be a Rock Star" (1985) Jake and the Fatman Blue Danny Boyd: "Why Can't You Behave?" (1989) The Flash (1990) Darrell Hennings: "Honor Among Thieves" (1990) Nash Bridges Big Barry in three episodes : "25 Hours of Christmas", "Aloha Nash" and "Javelin Catcher" (1996) The Sentinel Workman: "Dead Drop" (1997) The Weird Al Show Miner: "Mining Accident" (1997) Viper Leo Duquesne: "The Getaway" (1998) Penn & Teller's Sin City Spectacular one episode (1998) The Simpsons Narrator: "Grift of the Magi" (1999) My Wife and Kids Johnny Watson: "Micheal's Band" (2003) The Wire Roman: "Moral Midgetry" and "Hamsterdam" (2004) 'Til Death Himself : "Eddie's Book" (2009) Music videos "You're a Friend of Mine" With Jackson Browne (1985) "The Edge of Glory" by Lady Gaga (2011) See also List of saxophonists References External links Official site The Best of Clarence Clemons – public radio special VH1 site Interview with Chorus and Verse (Jan. 2004) Remembering Clarence Clemons — slideshow.Life "Remembering Springsteen's Saxman, Clarence Clemons" On Point 1942 births 2011 deaths 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248216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kusanagi%20no%20Tsurugi	Kusanagi no Tsurugi	is a legendary Japanese sword and one of three Imperial Regalia of Japan. It was originally called , but its name was later changed to the more popular ("Grass-Cutting Sword"). In folklore, the sword represents the virtue of valor. Legends The history of the extends into legend. According to , the god Susanoo encountered a grieving family of ("gods of the land") headed by in Izumo Province. When Susanoo inquired of Ashinazuchi, he told him that his family was being terrorized by the fearsome Yamata no Orochi, an eight-headed serpent of Koshi, who had consumed seven of the family's eight daughters and that the creature was coming for his final daughter, . Susanoo investigated the creature, and after an abortive encounter he returned with a plan to defeat it. In return, he asked for Kushinada-hime's hand in marriage, which was agreed. Transforming her temporarily into a comb (one interpreter reads this section as "using a comb he turns into [masquerades as] Kushinada-hime") to have her company during battle, he detailed his plan into steps. He instructed that eight vats of (rice wine) be prepared and put on individual platforms positioned behind a fence with eight gates. The monster took the bait and put one of its heads through each gate. With this distraction, Susanoo attacked and slew the beast (with his sword ), chopping off each head and then proceeded to do the same to the tails. In the fourth tail, he discovered a great sword inside the body of the serpent which he called . He presented the sword to the goddess Amaterasu to settle an old grievance. Generations later, during the reign of the 12th Emperor Keikō, was given to the great warrior, Yamato Takeru, as part of a pair of gifts given by his aunt, Yamatohime-no-mikoto, the Shrine Maiden of Ise Shrine, to protect her nephew in times of peril. These gifts came in handy when Yamato Takeru was lured onto an open grassland during a hunting expedition by a treacherous warlord. The lord had fiery arrows loosed to ignite the grass and trap Yamato Takeru in the field so that he would burn to death. He also killed the warrior's horse to prevent his escape. Desperately, Yamato Takeru used the to cut back the grass and remove fuel from the fire, but in doing so, he discovered that the sword enabled him to control the wind and cause it to move in the direction of his swing. Taking advantage of this magic, Yamato Takeru used his other gift, fire strikers, to enlarge the fire in the direction of the lord and his men, and he used the winds controlled by the sword to sweep the blaze toward them. In triumph, Yamato Takeru renamed the sword ("Grass-Cutting Sword") to commemorate his narrow escape and victory. Eventually, Yamato Takeru married and later fell in battle against a monster, after ignoring his wife's advice to take the sword with him. Folklore Although the sword is mentioned in the , this book is a collection of Japanese myths and is not considered a historical document. The first reliable historical mention of the sword is in the . Although the also contains mythological stories that are not considered reliable history, it records some events that were contemporary or nearly contemporary to its writing, and these sections of the book are considered historical. In the , the Kusanagi was removed from the Imperial palace in 688, and moved to Atsuta Shrine after the sword was blamed for causing Emperor Tenmu to fall ill. Along with the jewel () and the mirror (), it is one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan, the sword representing the virtue of valor. is allegedly kept at Atsuta Shrine but is not available for public display. During the Edo period, while performing various repairs and upkeep at Atsuta Shrine, including replacement of the outer wooden box housing the sword, the Shinto priest Matsuoka Masanao claimed to have been one of several priests to have seen the sword. Per his account, "a stone box was inside a wooden box of length , with red clay stuffed into the gap between them. Inside the stone box was a hollowed log of a camphor tree, acting as another box, with an interior lined with gold. Above that was placed a sword. Red clay was also stuffed between the stone box and the camphor tree box. The sword was about long. Its blade resembled a calamus leaf. The middle of the sword had a thickness from the grip about with an appearance like a fish spine. The sword was fashioned in a white metallic color, and well maintained." After witnessing the sword, the grand priest was banished and the other priests, except for Matsuoka, died from strange diseases. The above account therefore comes from the only survivor, Matsuoka. In The Tale of the Heike, a collection of oral stories transcribed in 1371, the sword is lost at sea after the defeat of the Heike in the Battle of Dan-no-ura, a naval battle that ended in the defeat of the Heike clan forces and the child Emperor Antoku at the hands of Minamoto no Yoshitsune. In the tale, upon hearing of the Navy's defeat, the Emperor's grandmother, Taira no Tokiko, led the Emperor and his entourage to commit suicide by drowning in the waters of the strait, taking with her two of the three Imperial Regalia: the sacred jewel and the sword Kusanagi. The sacred mirror was recovered in extremis when one of the ladies-in-waiting was about to jump with it into the sea. Although the sacred jewel is said to have been found in its casket floating on the waves, was lost forever. Although written about historical events, The Tale of the Heike is a collection of epic poetry passed down orally and written down nearly 200 years after the actual events, so its reliability as an historical document is questionable. Another story holds that the sword was reportedly stolen again in the sixth century by a monk from Silla. However, his ship allegedly sank at sea, allowing the sword to wash ashore at Ise, where it was recovered by Shinto priests. Current status Because no one is allowed to see the sword due to its divinity and Shinto tradition, the exact shape and condition of the sword has not been confirmed. The most recent appearance of the sword was in 2019 when Emperor Naruhito ascended the throne; the sword (as well as the jewel Yasakani no Magatama, the Emperor's privy seal and the State Seal) were shrouded in packages. Other Emperors' swords The sword is always hidden because of its divinity, and it is put in a box and put up by the chamberlain at the time of the enthronement ceremony. However, the Japanese sword held up by the Emperor's chamberlain, which can be seen at various Imperial ceremonies, is always close to the Emperor as an amulet, and is called . has changed over time; at present, two made by swordsmiths Nagamitsu and Yukihira in the Kamakura period play the role. Apart from these swords, the Imperial Family owns many swords, which are managed by the Imperial Household Agency. For example, one of the , is owned by the Imperial Family. The sword of the Crown Prince of Japan The Japanese crown prince has inherited two , or , and . While the sword is forbidden to be seen because of its divinity and is always kept in a box, the Crown Prince's sword is worn by the Crown Prince with the traditional costume at an official ceremony of the Imperial Household. The sword is the most important sword owned by the Crown Prince, given by the Emperor as proof of the official Crown Prince after the ceremony of his inauguration. Its origin is that it was given by Emperor Uda when Emperor Daigo became Crown Prince in 893, and the present, the sword is the second generation, made in the late Heian period. The sword is a made by Yukihira, a swordsmith in the Kamakura period, and the Crown Prince inherits it from the Emperor before his inauguration ceremony and wears it in various Imperial events except for the festival. This Yukihira sword is different from the Emperor's . See also Gladius References In Nenrin-Jahresringe: Festgabe für Hans A. Dettmer. Ed. Klaus Müller. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992. [158]–170. 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248221	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skipton	Skipton	Skipton (also known as Skipton-in-Craven) is a market town and civil parish in the Craven district of North Yorkshire, England. Historically in the East Division of Staincliffe Wapentake in the West Riding of Yorkshire, it is on the River Aire and the Leeds and Liverpool Canal to the south of the Yorkshire Dales. It is situated north-west of Leeds and west of York. At the 2011 Census, the population was 14,623. The town was listed in the 2018 Sunday Times report on Best Places to Live in northern England. History The name Skipton means 'sheep-town', a northern dialect form of Shipton. The name is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086. It was important during the English Civil War and was the site of prisoner of war camps during the First and Second World Wars. Skipton Castle was built in 1090 as a wooden motte-and-bailey by Robert de Romille, a Norman baron. In the 12th century William le Gros strengthened it with a stone keep to repel attacks from the Kingdom of Scotland to the north, the castle elevated Skipton from a poor dependent village to a burgh administered by a reeve. The protection offered by Skipton Castle during the Middle Ages encouraged the urbanisation of the surrounding area, and during times of war and disorder the town attracted an influx of families. It is now one of the most complete and best preserved medieval castles in England and is open to the public. One of the oldest mills in North Yorkshire, High Corn Mill is powered by the waters of Eller Beck, and dates to 1310 when it was owned by Robert de Clifford, 1st Baron de Clifford; at that point it was transferred to the powerful Clifford family by the then King Edward II. The mill as it appears today is only half of what used to exist when two mills were in operation to produce corn for the whole of Skipton. The mill has been completely redesigned, from the mill grounds to the buildings themselves. The outside walls of the mill have been sandblasted and the two main buildings of the old mill have been turned into flats from 2007 onwards, with one stand-alone building yet to be redesigned, touched or Sandblasted. Skipton became a prosperous market town, trading sheep and woollen goods: its name derives from the Old English sceap (sheep) and tun (town or village). A market stemming from its formative years still survives. In the 19th century, Skipton emerged as a small mill town connected to the major cities by the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and its branch Thanet Canal, (known locally as 'Springs branch canal'), but during the 20th century Skipton's economy shifted to tourism, aided by its historic architecture and proximity to the Yorkshire Dales. Since 1974, Skipton has been the seat of Craven District Council. The Skipton Building Society was founded in the town. In 2016 Skipton was voted the best place to live in England for the second time, having been voted for by the Sunday Times, two years earlier. Governance Skipton is part of the parliamentary constituency of Skipton and Ripon, which was created in 1983. Since its creation, the constituency has returned a Conservative Member of Parliament (MP). , the seat is held by Julian Smith, a former Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. Before 1983 Skipton had its own eponymous constituency. Skipton forms part of Craven District, a non-metropolitan district, and is home of the offices of Craven District Council. In 2007, proposals to make North Yorkshire County Council a unitary authority, removing the layer of government represented by Craven District, were rejected. Skipton has its own town council consisting of 16 councillors, formed by 4 members from each of the four wards within the parish boundaries, North, East, South and West. Skipton town councillors elect a town mayor each year at an annual general meeting. As of 2018, the town mayor is Councillor Alan Hickman. The town council offices are based on the high street, upstairs in the Town Hall. Economy The town's major local employer is Skipton Building Society, with its subsidiary companies. The town is home to several holiday companies, including Blue Water Holidays and several cottage holiday firms. It is a centre for recruitment agencies, with several hundred people employed in this sector. Recruitment firms include Medacs, HCL Doctors, Templars, Holt Doctors and Medic International and Justteachers. Tourism and retail sales are also significant. The Global Environmental Engineer JBA Consulting is headquartered here. There is a recruitment software company called LMS Recruitment Systems Ltd. The town is known as the "Gateway to the Dales", because of its close proximity to the Yorkshire Dales. Skipton has many visitors, particularly on market days (Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Saturday). As Skipton is the nearest and largest town to most of the small towns and villages within the Dales, it attracts numerous shoppers. In 2008, the Academy of Urbanism voted High Street the best shopping spot in Britain. The wide main street used to host the sheep market, but now a general market is held there four days a week and livestock is auctioned at the Auction Mart on the western edge of the town. The town has three official allotment sites. Chocolatier Whittakers, now based in the town, was established in 1889 in nearby Cross Hills. Ida Whittaker began making chocolates there in 1903, taught by the wife of the vicar of Kildwick. Culture and community On Saturday 13 July 1901, a gala was held in Skipton to raise money for the Skipton and District Cottage Hospital, built at the time of Queen Victoria's Jubilee, held on the Brick Buildings Fields off Bailey Road. This was such a major event in the area that extra trains were provided to bring visitors to the town from miles around. After the formation of the National Health Service, with the Skipton General Hospital being funded from central government, the Skipton Charities Gala continued raising money for local charities and non-profit-making organisations. The gala, held every year on the second Saturday in June, starts with a procession through the town centre to Aireville Park, where live performance acts entertain the public, culminating in live music and a firework display. Today, main events in Skipton include the annual heritage event Skipton Sheep Day which takes place on the first Sunday in July on Skipton High Street and showcases what Skipton and the Yorkshire Dales has to offer with demonstrations, stalls, entertainment and food on offer. Another main event on the annual calendar is Skipton Christmas Market which has been constantly voted in the top 10 of the UK's best Christmas Markets. Skipton Town Hall holds regular craft fairs and special events and houses the Craven Museum & Gallery as well as a tourist information centre. Skipton Little Theatre is located near the town centre. The Mart Theatre opened in October 2005 with funding from the European Regional Development Fund, Yorkshire Forward, Craven District Council and the Arts Council England. It provides rural theatre, events and other facilities within a functioning Auction Mart. In March 2014 The Sunday Times judged Skipton as the "best place to live" in Britain. In 2016 the paper said it was amongst the nine best towns in Yorkshire and the North East due to its market, schools and being close to the Dales, Skipton is twinned with the Bavarian town of Simbach. In May 2009 the town council decided to proceed with twinning with Erquinghem-Lys in France. Skipton has numerous public houses, three nightclubs and several restaurants. The local newspaper is the Craven Herald & Pioneer. Transport Skipton lies close to the junction of the A65 road (from Leeds to the Lake District) and the A59 from York to Liverpool. The north section (A65 & A59) of the £16.4 million Skipton Bypass opened in December 1981. The rest of the bypass (A629) opened in October 1982, greatly reducing journey times to the Dales. Skipton railway station gives access southbound to regular services for Leeds and Bradford on the electrified Airedale Line; northbound services connect to Lancaster, Morecambe and Carlisle, The route to Carlisle is along the scenic Settle-Carlisle Railway, passing over the Ribblehead Viaduct. Skipton bus station was rebuilt in 2009 and is the focal point for bus services throughout the local area. The Leeds and Liverpool Canal runs through Skipton and is a popular destination for tourists, with walking and boat hire. Education Primary education Non-denominational: Greatwood Community Primary School Water Street Community Primary School Ings Community Primary School Roman Catholic: St Stephen's Catholic Primary School Church of England: Christ Church Primary School Parish Church Primary School Secondary education As well as The Skipton Academy (ages 11–16), there are two single-sex grammar schools: Ermysted's Grammar School for boys, and Skipton Girls' High School (SGHS). Both schools are selective by entrance exam and obtain comparable high A-Level scores. On the basis of the 2009 A level results Ermysted's performed 13th best in the UK and SGHS was rated 42nd, but in 2011 later it was rated at number 44. Further education Craven College Craven College is next to "The Skipton Academy. " Sport Skipton is home to Skipton Town A.F.C. football club; Skipton Cricket Club, Skipton Church Institute Cricket Club and Skipton Kashmir, all cricket clubs; Skipton Cycling Club; Skipton Swimming Club; Skipton Athletics Club; Skipton Karate Centre; Strike Taekwondo; Craven Energy Triathlon Club; Skipton R.F.C., a rugby union club and Skipton Golf Club, founded in 1893. The Coulthurst Craven Sports Centre is adjacent to the rugby club, with facilities including all-weather football pitches and squash courts. Skipton Tennis Club is also adjacent to the Sports Centre and has been awarded the LTA Club of the Year Award on several occasions. There are a number of gyms in the town and a public swimming pool. Skipton is host to a free weekly Parkrun event which takes place in Aireville Park. On 5 July 2014, the Tour de France Stage 1 from Leeds to Harrogate passed through the town. Notable people A number of notable people have been born in Skipton. The philosopher Henry Sidgwick was born in Skipton in 1838. Thomas Spencer, the co-founder of Marks & Spencer, was born in Queen's Court, Skipton in 1858. The American mathematician Thomas William Edmondson was born in Skipton in 1869. Geoffrey Dawson, editor of The Times from 1912 to 1919 and from 1923 until 1941, was born in Skipton in 1874. Two politicians were born in Skipton: the former Conservative MP and Chancellor of the Exchequer Iain Macleod in 1913, and the Labour MP Joan Humble in 1951. Former British Prime Minister Winston Churchill's personal physician during the Second World War, Charles Wilson, the first Baron Moran, was born in Skipton in 1882. The poet and author Blake Morrison was born in Skipton in 1950. The former Manchester City footballer Rick Holden was born in Skipton in 1964. The actress Elaine Glover, who appeared in Footballers' Wives and HolbyBlue, was born in Skipton in 1983. Former Lancashire and England cricketer and current head coach of Lancashire County Cricket Club, Glen Chapple was born in Skipton in 1974. Former England and Leicestershire cricketer, and current England national selector, James Whitaker was born in Skipton in 1962. See also Holy Trinity Church, Skipton Plaza Cinema, Skipton St Stephen's Church, Skipton Craven Heifer References External links Skipton Town Council Skipton Chamber of Trade and Commerce Skipton's Official Events Website Skipton Business Improvement District or Skipton Town Partnership Market towns in North Yorkshire Civil parishes in North Yorkshire Craven District Towns in North Yorkshire	[ -0.510827898979187, -0.3593240976333618, -0.006069687195122242, -0.41036564111709595, 0.11772938817739487, 0.5138980150222778, -0.06799805164337158, 0.17090128362178802, -0.9341583847999573, 0.009254969656467438, -0.13378988206386566, -0.23105545341968536, -0.4043479561805725, -0.3042600750923157, -0.7868634462356567, 0.3054734766483307, -0.18965482711791992, 0.1281958818435669, -0.2980124354362488, -0.9023878574371338, 0.14391575753688812, -0.43229418992996216, -0.49698975682258606, 0.5605368614196777, 0.31522300839424133, -0.047289375215768814, 0.16978833079338074, -0.5431566834449768, 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248222	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fast%20and%20the%20Furious%20%282001%20film%29	The Fast and the Furious (2001 film)	The Fast and the Furious is a 2001 action film directed by Rob Cohen from a screenplay by Gary Scott Thompson, Erik Bergquist, and David Ayer, with the story credited to Thompson. It is the first installment in the Fast & Furious franchise and stars Paul Walker, Vin Diesel, Michelle Rodriguez, Jordana Brewster, Rick Yune, Chad Lindberg, Johnny Strong, and Ted Levine. In the film, Brian O'Conner, an undercover cop, is tasked with discovering the identities of a group of automobile hijackers led by Dominic Toretto. Preparations for The Fast and the Furious began after Cohen was introduced to illegal street racing in May 1998, with the screenplay originally developed by Thompson and Bergquist; Walker and Diesel were cast in late 1999, and Diesel contributed to script rewrites with Ayer as the rest of the cast was finalized. The production attended illegal street races, and is notable for its inclusion of street racers. After setting an initial release date for March 2001, principal photography began in July 2000 and lasted until that October, with filming locations including Los Angeles and southern California. The Fast and the Furious was theatrically released in the United States on June 22, 2001, by Universal Pictures. The film received mixed reviews from critics, many of whom praised the performances of Walker and Diesel and the action sequences, but criticism for its storyline and the ending. The film grossed over $200 million worldwide, becoming the 19th highest-grossing film of 2001. It launched a franchise starting with the sequel film 2 Fast 2 Furious (2003), which then led to an industry of tie-in products, including video games, amusement park attractions, and spin-off works, and merchandise including toys and clothing. The Fast and the Furious was reissued in a limited release in June 2016, to commemorate its fifteenth anniversary. Plot On a deserted highway, a heist crew driving three modified Honda Civics assault a truck carrying electronic goods, steal its cargo, and escape into the night. The following day, a joint Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and FBI task force sends LAPD officer Brian O'Conner undercover to locate the crew. He begins his investigation at Toretto's Market and flirts with its owner Mia, sister of the infamous street racer Dominic Toretto, while Dominic sits in the back office reading a newspaper. Dominic's crew, Vince, Leon, Jesse, and his girlfriend Letty, arrives. Vince, who has a crush on Mia, starts a fight with Brian until Dominic intervenes. That night, Brian brings a modified 1995 Mitsubishi Eclipse to an illegal street race, hoping to find a lead on the heist crew. Dominic arrives in his Mazda RX-7 and initiates a drag race between himself, Brian and two other drivers. Lacking funds, Brian is forced to wager his car. Dominic wins the race after Brian's car malfunctions, but the LAPD arrive before he can hand over his vehicle. Brian, in his car, helps Dominic escape, but they accidentally venture into the territory of Dominic's old racing rival, gang leader Johnny Tran and his cousin Lance Nguyen, who destroy Brian's vehicle. Dominic reiterates that Brian still owes him a "10 second car". Brian brings a damaged 1994 Toyota Supra to Dominic's garage as a replacement. Dominic and his crew begin the long process of restoring the vehicle, and Brian starts dating Mia. He also begins investigating Tran, convinced that he is the mastermind behind the truck hijackings. While investigating one garage at night, Brian is discovered by Dominic and Vince. Brian convinces them that he is researching his opponents' vehicles for the upcoming desert Race Wars. Together, the trio investigate Tran's garage, discovering a large quantity of electronic goods. Brian reports the discovery to his superiors and Tran and Lance are arrested. The electronics are proved to have been purchased legally, and Brian is forced to confront his suspicion that Dominic is the true mastermind. Brian is given 36 hours to find the heist crew, as the truckers are now arming themselves to defend against the hijackings. The following day, Dominic and Brian attend Race Wars. There, Jesse wagers his father's MK3 Volkswagen Jetta against Tran in his Honda S2000, but flees with the car after he loses. Tran demands Dominic recover the vehicle. That night, Brian witnesses Dominic and his crew leaving and realizes they are the hijackers. He reveals his true identity to Mia and convinces her to help him find the crew. Dominic, Letty, Vince, and Leon attack a semi-trailer truck, intending it to be their final heist. The armed driver shoots Vince and runs Letty off the road. Brian arrives with Mia and rescues Vince. He is forced to reveal his identity to call in emergency medical care to save Vince. Dominic, Mia and the rest of the crew leave before the authorities can arrive. Some time later, Brian arrives at Dominic's house to apprehend him as he is getting his father's 1970 Dodge Charger R/T out of the garage. He demands Brian leave, since he is not running, but is going to rescue Jesse who has no one else to look after him. Instead Jesse arrives at his house and pleads for protection. Tran and Lance ride by on motorbikes and shoot Jesse dead. Brian and Dominic give chase in their separate vehicles, finding and killing Tran and injuring Lance. Brian then pursues Dominic, with them both eventually acquiescing to a quarter-mile drag race. The pair barely cross a railroad before a train passes, which ends the race in a draw, but Dominic crashes his car into a truck. Instead of arresting him, Brian gives Dominic the keys to his own car, asserting that he still owes him a 10-second car from their first race. Dominic leaves in the Supra as Brian walks away. In the post-credits scene, Dominic is seen driving through Baja California, Mexico, in a 1970 Chevrolet Chevelle SS. Cast Paul Walker as Brian O'Conner:An LAPD officer sent to infiltrate a crew of hijackers. Mia's love interest. Vin Diesel as Dominic Toretto:Leader of the heist crew and a professional street racer. He was banned from professional racing after a violent retaliatory attack on the man who accidentally killed Dominic's father. Michelle Rodriguez as Letty Ortiz: A member of Dominic's crew and his girlfriend. Jordana Brewster as Mia Toretto: Dominic's sister and owner of the Toretto general store. Brian's love interest. Rick Yune as Johnny Tran: A Vietnamese gang leader and rival of Dominic. Chad Lindberg as Jesse: A member of Dominic's crew. Highly intelligent with math, algebra, and in computing, but he suffers from attention deficit disorder. Johnny Strong as Leon: A member of Dominic's crew. Matt Schulze as Vince: A member of Dominic's crew and his childhood friend. He harbors an unrequited love for Mia. The central cast is rounded out by Ted Levine and Thom Barry as Tanner and Bilkins respectively, members of the team that organized the investigation to place Brian undercover. Noel Gugliemi appears as Hector, the organizer of the drag race. Musician and rapper Ja Rule and car tuner R.J. de Vera also act as Edwin and Danny, fellow drivers at the drag race who race against Dominic and Brian. Vyto Ruginis plays Harry, an informant and owner of The Racer's Edge. Reggie Lee portrays Lance Nguyen, Tran's cousin, and right-hand man. Neal H. Moritz and Rob Cohen both appear in cameos; Moritz plays an unnamed driver of a black Ferrari F355 convertible who is given a challenge by Brian, while Cohen plays a Pizza Hut delivery man. Production Development Director Rob Cohen was inspired to make the film after reading a 1998 Vibe magazine article called "Racer X" about street racing in New York City and watching an actual illegal street race at night in Los Angeles, with the screenplay originally developed by Gary Scott Thompson and Erik Bergquist. The film's original title was Redline before it was changed to The Fast and the Furious. Roger Corman licensed the title rights of his 1954 film The Fast and the Furious to Universal so that the title could be used on this project; both films were about racing. David Ayer was brought into the project to help rework the script. Ayer changed it from the "mostly white and suburban story" set in New York to a diverse one set in Los Angeles. Producer Neal H. Moritz, who had previously worked with Paul Walker on the film The Skulls (2000), gave the actor a script and offered him the role of Brian O'Conner. Eminem was offered the role, but turned it down to work in his own movie 8 Mile and Mark Wahlberg and Christian Bale were also considered for the role. Originally, the studio told the producers they would green-light the film if they could get Timothy Olyphant to play the role of Dominic Toretto. Olyphant, however, who had starred in the previous year's car-themed blockbuster Gone in 60 Seconds, declined the role. Moritz instead suggested Vin Diesel, who had to be convinced to take the role even though he had only played supporting roles up to that point. The role of Mia Toretto was originally written for Eliza Dushku, who turned down the role and Sarah Michelle Gellar, Jessica Biel, Kirsten Dunst and Natalie Portman auditioned for the role. Filming The film was shot in various locations within Los Angeles and parts of southern California, from July to October 2000. Key locations included Dodger Stadium (on the opening scene where Brian tests his Eclipse on the parking lot), Angelino Heights, Silver Lake and Echo Park (the neighborhoods around Toretto's home), as well as Little Saigon (where Tran destroys the Eclipse) and the San Bernardino International Airport (the venue for Race Wars, which attracted over 1,500 import car owners and enthusiasts). The entire last rig heist scene was filmed along Domenigoni Parkway on the southern side of San Jacinto/Hemet in the San Jacinto Valley near Diamond Valley Lake. Prior to filming, both Jordana Brewster and Michelle Rodriguez did not have driver's licenses, so they took driving lessons during production. For the climactic race scene between Brian and Toretto, separate shots of both cars crossing the railroad and the train crossing the street were filmed, then composited together to give the illusion of the train narrowly missing the cars. A long steel rod was used as a ramp for Toretto's car to crash through the semi-truck and fly in mid-air. An alternate ending titled "More than Furious" was filmed, in which Tanner drops Brian off at the Toretto home, where he encounters Mia packing, intending to move away. Brian reveals that he resigned from the LAPD, who let him go quietly, and that he wants another chance with her. When Mia tells him that it's not going to be that simple, Brian tells her that he's got time. This ending was released in the collection bundle DVD version. During the filming of the movie, seventy-eight cars were wrecked both on and off-screen. Out of the seventy-eight cars, three cars were shown being destroyed in the film's trailer alone. Soundtrack The film's score was composed by music producer BT, mixing electronica with hip-hop and industrial influences. Two soundtracks were released for the film. The first one features mostly hip-hop and rap music. The second one, titled More Fast and Furious, features alternative metal, post-grunge and nu metal songs, as well as select tracks from BT's score. Release Box office The Fast and the Furious was released on June 22, 2001, in North America and ranked #1 at the box office, earning $40,089,015 during its opening weekend. Its widest release was 2,889 theaters. During its run, the film has made a domestic total of $144,533,925 along with an international total of $62,750,000 bringing its worldwide total of $207,283,925 on a budget of $38 million. Home media The Fast and the Furious was released on DVD on January 2, 2002. More than 5.5 million units were sold by April 2002. A second DVD entitled the "Tricked Out Edition", released on June 3, 2003, featured The Turbo Charged Prelude for 2 Fast 2 Furious, a short film that set the tone to the film's sequel. An abridged version of the short film is also on the sequel's DVD release. Reception Critical response On Rotten Tomatoes, The Fast and the Furious has an approval rating of 54% based on 154 reviews, and an average rating of 5.40/10. The website's critical consensus reads: "Sleek and shiny on the surface, The Fast and the Furious recalls those cheesy teenage exploitation flicks of the 1950s." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100 based on 29 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale. Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film "a gritty and gratifying cheap thrill, Rob Cohen's high-octane hot-car meller is a true rarity these days, a really good exploitationer, the sort of thing that would rule at drive-ins if they still existed." Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times called it "an action picture that's surprising in the complexity of its key characters and portents of tragedy." Vin Diesel's portrayal of Dominic Torretto won praise, with Reece Pendleton of the Chicago Reader writing that "Diesel carries the movie with his unsettling mix of Zen-like tranquillity and barely controlled rage." Other reviews were more mixed. Susan Wloszczyna of USA Today gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, saying that Cohen "at least knows how to keep matters moving and the action sequences exciting." Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C, saying it "works hard to be exciting, but the movie scarcely lives up to its title." Rita Kempley of The Washington Post gave the film a scathing review, calling it "Rebel Without a Cause without a cause. The Young and the Restless with gas fumes. The Quick and the Dead with skid marks." Paul Clinton of CNN wrote that Cohen "created a high-octane, rubber-burning extravaganza" but he criticized the film for "plot holes you could drive the proverbial truck through" and an "idiotic" ending. Accolades Merchandising Racing Champions released diecast metal replicas of the film's cars in different scales from 1/18 to 1/64. RadioShack sold ZipZaps micro RC versions of the cars in 2002. 1/24 scale plastic model kits of the hero cars were manufactured by AMT Ertl. References External links The Fast and the Furious at Netflix 2001 films 2001 action thriller films 2000s chase films 2001 crime thriller films 2000s heist films American action thriller films American chase films American crime thriller films American films American heist films 2000s English-language films Fictional portrayals of the Los Angeles Police Department Films based on newspaper and magazine articles Films directed by Rob Cohen Films produced by Neal H. Moritz Films scored by BT (musician) Films set in Los Angeles Films set in Mexico Films shot in Los Angeles German action thriller films German crime thriller films English-language German films German films Films with screenplays by David Ayer Films with screenplays by Gary Scott Thompson Fast & Furious films Universal Pictures films Original Film films	[ -0.47491809725761414, -0.28752413392066956, -0.26320892572402954, 0.15668080747127533, -0.164662703871727, 0.06136678159236908, 0.36305123567581177, 0.18921880424022675, -0.12198920547962189, 0.3847272992134094, -0.14386875927448273, 0.7405080199241638, 0.014339842833578587, -0.10638833791017532, 0.07847000658512115, 0.18520799279212952, 0.08136531710624695, -0.5486943125724792, 0.37798458337783813, -0.3493177592754364, -0.2589661478996277, -0.15138086676597595, 0.4034458100795746, -0.08001700043678284, 0.02516908198595047, 0.8202712535858154, -0.34865602850914, 0.3194473087787628, -0.4956079125404358, 0.08341963589191437, 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248223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Clarence	Duke of Clarence	Duke of Clarence is a substantive title which has been traditionally awarded to junior members of the British Royal Family. All three creations were in the Peerage of England. The title was first granted to Lionel of Antwerp, the second son of King Edward III, in 1362, as he had married a de Clare heiress with estates including Clare in Suffolk. Since he died without sons, the title became extinct. The title was again created in favour of Thomas of Lancaster, the second son of King Henry IV, in 1412. Upon his death, too, the title became extinct. The last creation in the Peerage of England was for George Plantagenet, brother of King Edward IV, in 1461. The Duke forfeited his title in 1478, after he had been convicted of treason against his brother. He allegedly met his end by being drowned in a butt of Malmsey (according to William Shakespeare). A fourth creation in England was suggested and planned to take effect; the title of Duke of Clarence was going to be given to Lord Guilford Dudley, husband of Lady Jane Grey, upon her coronation, as she declined to make her husband king. However, she was deposed before this could take effect. Two double dukedoms, of Clarence and St Andrews and of Clarence and Avondale, were later created for British royal princes. The title also took the form of an earldom for Queen Victoria's son Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany, and his son Prince Charles Edward, the Clarence earldom being a subsidiary title. Nomenclature The title does not refer to the minor River Clarence in Pas-de-Calais, Northern France, but is said by Polydore Vergil to originate from the manor and castle of Clare in Suffolk, the caput of a feudal barony, which was held by Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, in right of his wife, the heiress Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster, ultimate descendant and heiress of the previous holder, the de Clare family; Clare was among the many estates which she brought to her husband. After the Union of the Crowns in 1603, the holders of the title were also given titles named after Scottish places: St Andrews and Avondale. Duke of Clarence, first creation (1362) The title was first created for Lionel, a younger son of King Edward III who in 1352 had married Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster, the sole heiress via a female line of Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester. The name Clarence referred to the feudal barony of Clare in Suffolk, and as the holder of it (and others) by right of his wife Lionel was given that title. \| Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence \| \| 29 November 1338Antwerp, Duchy of Brabant (now Belgium)son of Edward III of England and Philippa of Hainault \| Elizabeth de Burgh, 4th Countess of Ulster13521 child \| 7 October 1368Alba, Piedmontaged 29 \|} Died without male issue. Duke of Clarence, second creation (1412) \| Thomas of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Clarence \| \| Autumn 1387son of Henry IV of England and Mary de Bohun \| Margaret Holland1411 \| 22 March 1421Battle of Baugé, Anjou, Franceaged 33 \|} Died without legitimate male issue. Duke of Clarence, third creation (1461) \| George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence \| \| 21 October 1449Dublin Castle, Irelandson of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York and Cecily Neville, Duchess of York \| Isabel NevilleJuly 14694 children \| 18 February 1478Tower of London, Londonaged 28 \|} Executed for treason in 1478 and honours forfeited. Similar titles Earls of Clarence (1881) The Prince Leopold, 1st Duke of Albany, 1st Earl of Clarence & 1st Baron Arklow (1853–1884), fourth son of Queen Victoria. Charles Edward, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, 2nd Duke of Albany, 2nd Earl of Clarence & 2nd Baron Arklow (1884–1954), posthumous son of the 1st Earl, had his British titles suspended in 1919 for waging war against Britain. For heirs to the suspended peerages, see Duke of Albany. Duke of Clarence and St Andrews (1789) William IV (1765–1837), who became king in 1830, at which point the title merged with the Crown. Duke of Clarence and Avondale (1890) Prince Albert Victor, 1st Duke of Clarence and Avondale (1864–1892) Family Tree Possible future creations The Dukedom is currently vacant. While there was some speculation that it was one of the options available for Prince Harry upon his wedding with Meghan Markle, press reports also noted the Dukedom's chequered past, including scandals and unfounded rumors of criminality related to Prince Albert Victor. Prince Harry was ultimately awarded the Dukedom of Sussex. 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248228	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20superheroines	List of superheroines	The following is a list of superheroines (female superheroes) in comic books, television, film, and other media. Each character's name is followed by the publisher's name in parentheses; those from television or movies have their program listed in square brackets, and those in both comic books and other media appear in parentheses. . A Aisha/Layla (Winx Club) Alisha (Misfits) Amber (Eclipse Comics) America Chavez (Marvel Comics) American Dream (Marvel Comics - MC2) American Maid (The Tick) Amethyst, Princess of Gemworld (DC Comics) Andromeda (DC Comics) Andromeda (Marvel Comics) Angela (Image Comics) + (Marvel Comics) Aquagirl (DC Comics) Argent (DC Comics) Arisia, the Green Lantern of Graxos IV (DC Comics) Arrowette (DC Comics) Artemis of Bana-Mighdall (DC Comics) Atom Eve (Image Comics) Atomic Betty (television series' title character) Aurora (Marvel Comics) Avengelyne (various) B B.Orchid (Killer Instinct) Ballistic (Cyberforce member; Top Cow) Barb Wire (Dark Horse) Batgirl (DC Comics) Batwoman (DC Comics) Beautiful Dreamer (DC Comics) Bella Donna (Marvel Comics) Belphegor (DC Comics) Claire Bennet (Heroes) Big Barda (Comics) Big Bertha (Marvel Comics) Binary (Marvel Comics) Vera Black (a.k.a. Sister Superior; DC Comics) Black Canary (DC Comics) Black Cat (Harvey Comics) Black Cat (Marvel Comics) Black Orchid (DC Comics) Black Widow (Natasha Romanoff) Black Widow (Timely Comics) Blackbat (DC Comics) Blacklight (Marvel Comics - MC2) Blink (Marvel Comics) Blossom (The Powerpuff Girls) Bloom (Winx Club) Bluebird (DC Comics) Bluestreak (Marvel Comics - MC2) Boodikka (Green Lantern Corps; DC Comics) Boom Boom (Marvel Comics) Brandy (Image Comics) Bubbles (The Powerpuff Girls) Buff (Marvel Comics) Bulleteer (DC Comics) Bulletgirl (see Bulletman and Bulletgirl; DC Comics) Bumblebee (DC Comics) Burka Avenger Burnout (Eclipse Comics) Buttercup (The Powerpuff Girls) C Callisto (Marvel Comics) Cambria (The Amory Wars) Captain Britain (Betsy Braddock) (Marvel Comics) Captain Confederacy (Marvel Comics) Captain Marvel (Marvel Comics) Captain Universe (Marvel Comics) The Cat (Marvel Comics) Cat Claw (Malibu Comics) Catwoman (DC Comics) Celsius (DC Comics) Cerise (Marvel Comics) Chance (Marvel Comics) Chase (DC Comics) Chastity (Chaos Comics) Choice (Marvel - Ultraverse) Cimarron (Eclipse Comics) Cinnamon (DC Comics) Clea (Marvel Comics) Coagula (DC Comics) Cobweb (America's Best Comics) Colt (AC Comics) Comet Queen (DC Comics, Legion of Super-Heroes) Copycat (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Copycat (Marvel Comics) Anya Corazon (Marvel Comics) Cornelia Hale (W.I.T.C.H.) Crazy Jane (DC Comics) Crimson Avenger III (DC Comics) Crimson Curse (Marvel Comics - MC2) Crimson Fox (DC Comics) Crystal (Marvel Comics) Cyberella (title character) (Helix comics) Cybergirl (title character) Cybersix Cyblade (Top Cow) Cyclone (DC Comics) D Dabung Girl (Deeper Learning Comics) Dagger (Marvel Comics) Darkstar (Marvel Comics) Darna (Mango Comics) Dart (DC Comics) Dart (Image Comics - Highbrow Ent) Dawn (Sirius Comics) Dawnstar (DC Comics) Dazzler (Marvel Comics) Dead Girl (Marvel Comics) Karolina Dean (Marvel Comics) Debrii (Marvel Comics) Deep Blue (DC Comics) Destiny (Marvel Comics) Devi (Virgin Comics) Diamond Lil (Marvel Comics) Diamondback (Marvel Comics) Diva (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Doctor Light (DC Comics) Doctor Midnight (DC Comics) Doll Girl (DC Comics) Dolphin (DC Comics) Domino (Marvel Comics) Domino Lady (Pulps) Dove as Dawn Granger (DC Comics) Dragonfly (AC Comics) Dragonna (Mars Ravelo's) Dream Girl (DC Comics) Dumb Bunny (DC Comics) Dusk (Marvel Comics) Dust (Marvel Comics) Dyna Girl (Krofft) E Echo (Marvel Comics) Elasti-Girl (DC Comics) Elastigirl/Mrs.Incredible (The Incredibles) Electra Woman (Krofft) Elektra (Marvel Comics) Empowered (Dark Horse Comics) Empress (DC) Energizer (from Power Pack; Marvel) The Engineer II (DC - Wildstorm) F Fairchild (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Faith (DC Comics) Fallen Angel (DC Comics) Fantômette (Collection Rose) Fathom (one of the Elementals, Comico Comics) Fathom (Aspen Comics) Feral (Marvel) Fever (DC Comics) Fire (DC Comics) Firebird (Marvel Comics) Firestar (Marvel Comics) Flamebird III-V (DC Comics) Fleur-de-Lis (DC Comics) Flint (WS) Flora (Winx Club) Forerunner (DC Comics) Free Spirit (Marvel Comics) Freefall (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Tara Fremont (AC Comics) Emma Frost (Marvel Comics) Fury I (DC Comics) Fury II (DC Comics) G Gamora (Marvel Comics) Ganymede (Marvel Comics) Garganta (AC Comics) Ghost (Dark Horse Comics) Glitter (Marvel - New Universe) Glory (various) Gloss (DC Comics) Godiva (DC Comics) Grace (DC Comics) Jean Grey (Marvel Comics) Gabby Gomez/Gum Girl (Disney/Hyperion) Gwen Tennyson (Ben 10) Gypsy (DC Comics) H Halo (DC Comics) Harbinger (DC Comics) Hawk as Holly Granger and Sasha Martens (DC Comics) Hawkeye (Kate Bishop) (Marvel Comics) Hawkgirl (DC Comics) Hawkwoman (DC Comics) Molly Hayes (Marvel Comics) Hay Lin (W.I.T.C.H.) Hellcat (Marvel Comics) Satana Hellstrom (Marvel Comics) Hepzibah (Marvel Comics) Hit Girl (Kick-Ass) Horridus (Image Comics - Highbrow Ent) Heather Hudson, formerly Sasquatch, Exiles member (Marvel Comics) Huntara (Marvel Comics) Huntress (DC Comics) Husk (Marvel Comics) I Ice (DC Comics) Icemaiden (DC Comics) Indigo (DC Comics), formerly Brainiac 8 Insect Queen (DC Comics) Invisible Woman (Marvel Comics) Natasha Irons (DC Comics) Isis (DC Comics) Irma Lair (W.I.T.C.H.) Ironheart (Marvel Comics) J Jade (DC Comics) Jann of the Jungle (Marvel Comics) Jayna (DC Comics) Jem and the Holograms (Hasbro) Jess (Misfits) Jet (DC Comics) Jet (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Jinx (DC Comics; Teen Titans TV series only) Jocasta (Marvel Comics) Daisy Johnson (Marvel Comics) Jolt (Marvel Comics) Jessica Jones (a.k.a. Jewel and Knightress; Marvel Comics) Rhea Jones (a.k.a. Lodestone; DC Comics) Joystick (Marvel Comics) Jubilee (Marvel Comics) Judomaster III (DC Comics) Jungle Girl (various) K Jennifer Kale (Marvel Comics) Bette Kane (DC Comics) Nova Kane (First) Karma (Marvel Comics) Kasumi (a.k.a. Batgirl; Cassandra Cain; DC Comics) Katana (DC Comics) Kelly (Misfits) Laurel Kent (DC Comics) Kid Flash (Iris West) (DC Comics) Kinetix (DC Comics) Kismet (Marvel Comics) Misty Knight (Marvel Comics) Knockout (DC Comics) Killer Frost (DC Comics) Kole (DC Comics) Kratha (Virgin Comics) Krystala (ABS-CBN) L Lady Blackhawk (DC Comics) Lady Deadpool (Marvel Comics) Lady Death (Chaos Comics) Lady Luck (The Spirit Section) Ladybug (Miraculous: Tales of Ladybug & Cat Noir) Ladyhawk (Marvel Comics) Liberty Belle (DC Comics) Lightning (DC Comics) Lightning Lass (a.k.a. Light Lass, Gossamer, Spark; DC Comics) Lightspeed (from Power Pack; Marvel Comics) Little Mermaid (DC Comics) Looker (DC Comics) La Lunatica (Marvel Comics) Lyja (a.k.a. Lazerfist and Ms. Fantastic; Marvel Comics; Marvel-MC2) M M (Marvel Comics) Madame Mirage (Top Cow Productions) Madame Xanadu (DC Comics) The Magdalena (Top Cow Productions) Magdalene (Marvel Comics) Magik (Marvel Comics) Magma (Marvel Comics) Manhunter (Kate Spencer) (DC Comics) Manitou Dawn (DC Comics) Marrina (Marvel Comics) Marrow (Marvel Comics) Marvel Girl (Marvel Comics) Mary Marvel (DC Comics) Aspen Matthews (Aspen Comics) Maxima (DC Comics) Maximum Ride (novel series and manga) Maya (DC Comics) Medusa (Marvel Comics) Mega Mindy Meggan (Marvel Comics) The Menagerie (DC Comics) Mera (DC Comics) Merry, Girl of 1000 Gimmicks (DC Comics) Lynn Michaels (a.k.a. "Lady Punisher"; Marvel Comics) Mighty B Nico Minoru (Marvel Comics) Mirage (DC Comics) Miss America (DC Comics) Miss America (Madeline Joyce) (Marvel Comics) Miss Fury Miss Martian (DC Comics) Mockingbird (Marvel Comics) Monstress (DC Comics) Moondragon (Marvel Comics) Moonstar (Marvel Comics) Moonstone (Marvel Comics) Motormouth (Marvel Comics) Ms. Marvel (Carol Danvers; see also Binary and Warbird; Marvel Comics) Ms. Marvel (Kamala Khan) (Marvel Comics) Ms. Marvel (Sharon Ventura; see also She-Thing; Marvel Comics) Ms. Mystic (originally Pacific Comics, then Continuity Comics) Ms. Victory Musa (Winx Club) N Namora (Marvel Comics) Namorita (Marvel Comics) Natalie Gooch (Disney/Hyperion) Negative Woman (DC Comics) Nelvana of the Northern Lights (Hillborough Studio) Nemesis (Marvel Comics) Nemesis II (DC Comics) Night Girl (DC Comics) Night Nurse (Marvel Comics) Nightshade (DC Comics) Nightstar (DC Comics) Nightveil (AC comics) Nikki (Marvel Comics) Nimona (HarperCollins) Ninja-Rina (Disney/Hyperion) Nocturne (Marvel Comics) Nova (Frankie Raye) (Marvel Comics) Number Seven / The White Violin (Vanya Hargreeves) (The Umbrella Academy) Number Three / The Rumor (Allison Hargreeves) (The Umbrella Academy) O Octobriana Aleta Ogord (see also Starhawk; Marvel Comics) Scarlet O'Neil (Newspaper Strip) Onyx (DC Comics) Oracle (DC Comics) Owlwoman (DC Comics) P Pantha (DC Comics) Violet Parr (The Incredibles) Penance (Marvel Comics) Sara Pezzini (Witchblade; Top Cow) Phantom Girl a.k.a. Apparition (DC Comics) Phantom Lady Phoenix (Marvel Comics) Photon (Marvel Comics) Pixie (Marvel Comics) Poison Ivy (Batman comic series) Polaris (as Overdrive; Marvel Comics) Power Girl (DC Comics) Power Princess (Marvel Comics) Princess Projectra a.k.a. Sensor (DC Comics) Promethea (America's Best Comics) Purple Flame (Deeper Learning Comics) Kitty Pryde (Marvel Comics) Psylocke (Kwannon) (Marvel Comics) Q Jenny Quantum (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Queen Hippolyta (DC Comics) Jesse Quick (DC Comics) R Rad (AC Comics) Rainbow (Eclipse Comics) Rainbow Brite (Hallmark Comics) Rampage (DC Comics) Raptor (Marvel Comics - MC2) Raven (DC Comics) Red Guardian (Marvel Comics) Red She-Hulk (Marvel Comics) Red Tornado (All-American Comics) Rescue (Marvel Comics) Revanche (Marvel Comics) Cecilia Reyes (Marvel Comics) Robin as Stephanie Brown or Carrie Kelley Rocket (DC Comics) Rogue (Marvel Comics) Ronin (Marvel Comics) Rose and Thorn II (DC Comics) Rose Tattoo (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Roxy (Winx Club) S Sabra (Marvel Comics) Sage (Marvel Comics) Sailor Moon (Kodansha manga) Saturn Girl (DC Comics) Savant (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Scarlet Witch (Marvel Comics) Scorpion (Carmilla Black) (Marvel Comics) Secret (DC Comics) Amanda Sefton (Marvel Comics) Selene (Underworld) Sepulchre (Marvel Comics) Sersi (Marvel Comics) Shadow Hunter (Virgin Comics) Shadow Lass a.k.a. Umbra (DC Comics) Shadowcat (Marvel Comics) Shadoweyes (SLG Publishing) Shadowhawk (Image Comics) Shakti (Raj Comics) Shamrock (Marvel Comics) Shanna the She-Devil (Marvel Comics) She-Dragon (Image Comics - Highbrow Ent) She-Hulk (Marvel Comics) She-Hulk (Lyra) (Marvel Comics) She-Ra Princess of Power (television series) She-Thing (Marvel Comics) She-Venom (Marvel Comics) Sheena (Wags) Liz Sherman (Dark Horse, Hellboy) SheZow (television series) Shi (Crusade) Shikari (DC Comics) Shining Knight (Ystina) (DC Comics) Shrinking Violet (DC Comics) Sif (Marvel Comics) Silhouette (Marvel Comics) Silk (Marvel Comics) Silk Spectre (DC Comics) Silver Fox (Marvel Comics) Silver Sable (Marvel Comics) Silver Scorpion Silverclaw (Marvel Comics) Siryn (Marvel Comics) Skids (Marvel Comics) Skyrocket (DC Comics) Snowbird (Marvel Comics) Songbird (Marvel Comics) Emma Sonnett (a.k.a. the 10th Muse) (various) Jenny Sparks (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Sparx (DC Comics) Speedy (Mia Dearden) (DC Comics) Spider Girl (DC Comics) Spider-Girl (Marvel Comics - MC2) Spider-Gwen (Marvel Comics) Spider-Woman (Marvel Comics) Dorothy Spinner (DC Comics) Spitfire (Marvel Comics) Spoiler (DC Comics) Spy Smasher (Katarina Armstrong; DC Comics) Squirrel Girl (Marvel Comics) Stacy X (Marvel Comics) Star Sapphire (DC Comics) Star-Spangled Kid (DC Comics) Stardust (AC Comics) Starfire (DC Comics) Stargirl (DC Comics) Stature (Marvel Comics) Stella (Winx Club) Stepford Cuckoos (Marvel Comics) Stinger (Cassandra Lang; Marvel Comics - MC2) Storm (Marvel Comics) Stripperella Sun Girl (Marvel Comics) Super Gran (TV series) SuperAvni (Deeper Learning Comics) Supergirl (DC Comics) Superwoman (DC Comics) Suprema (Awesome) Surge (Marvel) Swift (DC Comics - Wildstorm) T Talisman (Alpha Flight) (Marvel Comics) Tara (Marvel Comics) Taranee Cook (W.I.T.C.H.) Tecna (Winx Club) Terra (DC Comics, Teen Titans) Thor (comics) (Marvel Comics) as Jane Foster (comics) Thor Girl (Marvel Comics) Thunder III (DC Comics) Thunder (DC Comics) Jonni Thunder (DC Comics) Thundra (Marvel Comics) Tigra (Marvel Comics) Timeslip (Marvel Comics) Titaness (Mansion Comics) Topaz (Malibu Comics) Topaz (Marvel Comics) Touriya Naji (sarcasm comics) Traci 13 (DC Comics) Triplicate Girl a.k.a. Duo Damsel, Triad (DC Comics) Troia (DC Comics) Donna Troy (DC Comics) Tsunami (DC Comics) Katma Tui a.k.a. Green Lantern of Sector 1417 (DC Comics) Turbo (Marvel Comics) V Valda the Iron Maiden (DC Comics) Valkyrie (Marvel Comics) Vampirella (Dynamite Entertainment) Varga (Bulaklak Magazine) Velocity (Top Cow: Cyberforce) Venus (Marvel Comics) Vigilante (Patricia Tryce; DC Comics) Vindicator (Marvel Comics) Vixen (DC Comics) Vogue (various) Void (DC Comics - Wildstorm) Voodoo (DC Comics - Wildstorm: WildCats) W Jakita Wagner (DC Comics - Wildstorm: Planetary) Jenny "XJ-9" Wakeman (My Life as a Teenage Robot) Wallflower (Marvel Comics) The Wasp (Marvel Comics) Wave (a.k.a. Pearl Pangan; Marvel Comics' The New Agents of Atlas) Web Woman (Filmation) WhirlGirl (Web series title character) The White Witch (DC Comics) Wild Thing (Marvel Comics - MC2) Wilhelmina "Will" Vandom (W.I.T.C.H.) WilyKit (Thundercats) Wind Dancer (Marvel Comics) Colleen Wing (Marvel Comics) Winged Victory (Astro City) Witchblade (Top Cow Productions) Witchfire (DC Comics) Witchfire (Marvel Comics) Wolfsbane (Marvel Comics) The Woman in Red (Standard Comics) Wonder Girl (DC Comics) Wonder Girl (Cassie Sandsmark) (DC Comics) Wonder Twins (DC Comics) Wonder Woman (DC Comics) Wonder Woman (Just Imagine...; DC Comics) WordGirl (television series' title character) X X-23 (Marvel Comics) Xena Warrior Princess (Darkhorse Comics) XJ-9 (see Jenny "XJ-9" Wakeman) XS (DC Comics) Y Gertrude Yorkes (Marvel Comics) Z Zatanna (DC Comics) Zealot (DC Comics - Wildstorm) See also Girl Heroes''' List of female supervillains List of woman warriors in folklore, literature and popular culture Magical girl Portrayal of women in American comics Superheroine References External links Fes\|Superheroines Superheroines	[ 0.5539689660072327, 0.07470716536045074, -0.8573217988014221, 0.25186848640441895, -0.8861098885536194, 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248230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Telic%20order%20of%20battle	Operation Telic order of battle	This is the Operation Telic order of battle, which lists the British forces that took part in Operation Telic, including the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, subsequent operations during the occupation and military government of the country, and stabilisation operations under the Iraqi Interim Government and the Iraqi Transitional Government. The Invasion (Operation TELIC I) From January 2003 to 11 July 2003: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Major-General Freddie Viggers (May 2003 to July 2003) Maritime forces British Maritime Component Commander - Rear Admiral David Snelson (January 2003 to April 2003) British Maritime Component Commander - Major General Tony Milton (April 2003 to July 2003) Commander Amphibious Task Group - Commodore Jamie Miller HMS Ark Royal (Flagship) 4 Sea King ASaC7s of A Flight, 849 Naval Air Squadron 5 Chinook HC2s of No. 18 Squadron RAF HMS Ocean 10 Sea King HC4s of 845 Naval Air Squadron 6 Gazelle FAA Gazelle AH1 of 847 Naval Air Squadron 6 Lynx AH7 of 847 Naval Air Squadron HMS Cardiff 1 Lynx HAS8 of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Liverpool 1 Lynx HAS3 of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Edinburgh 1 Lynx of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS York 1 Lynx of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Chatham 2 Lynx of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Richmond (to July 2003) 1 Lynx HMA8 of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Marlborough 1 Lynx of 815 Naval Air Squadron HMS Sandown HMS Grimsby HMS Bangor HMS Blyth HMS Ledbury HMS Brocklesby HMS Roebuck HMS Scott HMS Splendid HMS Turbulent Support vessels of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary RFA Sir Bedivere RFA Sir Galahad RFA Sir Percivale RFA Sir Tristram RFA Argus 5 Sea King HAS6s of 820 Naval Air Squadron RFA Bayleaf RFA Brambleleaf RFA Orangeleaf RFA Grey Rover RFA Fort Austin RFA Fort Rosalie RFA Fort Victoria 5 Merlin HM1s of 814 Naval Air Squadron RFA Diligence 2 Lynxes of 814 Naval Air Squadron ashore in Bahrain Air forces British Air Forces Component Commander - Air-Vice Marshal Glenn Torpy Tornado GR4 Wing 1 - 18 Tornado GR4s and GR4As at Ali Al Salem Air Base, Kuwait Part of No. II Squadron Part of No. IX Squadron Part of No. XIII Squadron Part of No. 31 Squadron Part of No. 617 Squadron Tornado GR4 Wing 2 - 12 Tornado GR4s at Al Udeid Air Base, Qatar Part of No. 12 Squadron Part of No. 617 Squadron Harrier Wing 1 - 10 Harrier GR7s Part of No. I Squadron Part of No. 3 Squadron Harrier Wing 2 - 8 Harrier GR7s Part of No. IV Squadron at Al Jaber, Kuwait Leuchars Fighter Wing - 14 Tornado F3s at Prince Sultan in Saudi Arabia Part of No. 43 Squadron Part of No. 111 Squadron Nimrod MR2 Wing - 6 Nimrod MR2s Part of No. 120 Squadron Part of No. 201 Squadron Part of No. 206 Squadron Tristar Detachment - 4 Tristars of No. 216 Squadron VC10 Wing - 7 VC-10s at Prince Sultan Air Base in Saudi Arabia Part of No. 10 Squadron Part of No. 101 Squadron VC10 (for Aeromedical Evacuation) - 1 VC10 C1K at RAF Akrotiri from No. 10 Squadron Sentry Wing - 4 Sentry AEW1s Part of No. VIII Squadron Part of No. 23 Squadron BAe 125 Detachment - 3 BAe 125s of No. XXXII Squadron Hercules Wing - 6 Hercules Canberra Detachment - 2 Canberra PR9s of No. 39 (1 PRU) Squadron (a photo-reconnaissance unit) Azraq Air Base, Jordan Nimrod R1 Detachment - 1 Nimrod R1 of No. 51 Squadron Tactical Communications Wing. Tactical Supply Wing. Royal Air Force Regiment No 3 RAF Force Protection Wing HQ. No 4 RAF Force Protection Wing HQ. No 1 (Field) Squadron RAF Regiment (Ali Al Salem airbase, then attached to 42 Commando RM). No II (Para) Squadron RAF Regiment. No 16 (GBAD) Squadron RAF Regiment. No 51 (Field) Squadron RAF Regiment (incorporating elements of 63 (Field) Squadron RAF Regiment (the Queen's Colour Squadron)). Elements of 2503 (City of Lincoln), 2622 (Highland), 2625 (County of Cornwall) Squadrons Royal Auxiliary Air Force Regiment. Joint Chemical Biological Radiological and Nuclear Regiment. No 5131(Bomb Disposal) Squadron, as part of the Joint Force EOD Group 27 helicopters were also sent to the area, a mixture of Pumas, Chinooks and Merlins, although the breakdown of types within that number is yet to be determined. Beyond the Hercules aircraft that were based in theatre, virtually the whole of the rest of the Hercules fleet, the C-17 fleet, and those Tristars and VC10s that had remained based in the UK were involved in transport operations to and from the Persian Gulf. Ground forces GOC 1st Armoured Division: Major General Robin Brims (February 2003 to May 2003) GOC 1st Armoured Division: Major General Peter Wall (May 2003 to July 2003) 1st Armoured Division Headquarters and Signal Regiment 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards 12th Regiment, Royal Artillery 1st Battalion, The Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) 28 Regiment Royal Engineers 1 General Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 2 Close Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 2 Battalion Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 3 Battalion Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 1 Close Support Medical Regiment 5 General Support Medical Regiment 1 Regiment Royal Military Police A (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadron and W (Westminster Dragoons) Squadron, Royal Yeomanry Elements of 5 (STA) Royal Regiment of Artillery Elements of 33 (EOD) Regiment Royal Engineers Elements of 32 Regiment Royal Artillery - Phoenix Unmanned Aerial Vehicles Elements of 30 Signal Regiment Elements of 14 Signal Regiment 3 Commando Brigade - Brigadier Jim Dutton Headquarters 3 Commando Brigade 59 Independent (Commando) Squadron Royal Engineers 131 Independent (Commando) Squadron Royal Engineers (Volunteer) 9 (Commando) Assault Squadron 539 (Commando) Assault Squadron 29 (Commando) Regiment Royal Artillery - 18 105 mm howitzers 40 Commando, Royal Marines 42 Commando, Royal Marines 7 Armoured Brigade - Brigadier Graham Binns 7 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron 32 (Armoured) Regiment Royal Engineers (with 25 Armoured Engineer Squadron attached from 38 Engineer Regiment) 3rd Regiment Royal Horse Artillery - 32 AS-90 155 mm howitzers Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) battlegroup, 42 Challenger 2s, 28 Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicles (Warriors) 1st Battalion Irish Guards 2nd Royal Tank Regiment battlegroup, including elements of 1st Battalion The Light Infantry - 42 Challenger 2s, 28 Warriors The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) battlegroup, including elements of The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment- 28 Challenger 2s, 42 Warriors 1st Battalion Royal Regiment of Fusiliers battlegroup, including elements of Queen's Royal Lancers - 14 Challenger 2s, 42 Warriors 16 Air Assault Brigade - Brigadier 'Jacko' Page 16 Air Assault Brigade Headquarters D Squadron, Household Cavalry Regiment 216 Parachute Squadron Royal Signals Pathfinder Platoon 1st Battalion, Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskillings), 83rd, 87th and The Ulster Defence Regiment) 1st Battalion, The Parachute Regiment 3rd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment 7th Parachute Regiment Royal Horse Artillery 9 Parachute Squadron Royal Engineers 23 (Air Assault) Engineer Regiment 7 Air Assault Battalion Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 13 Air Assault Support Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 16 Close Support Medical Regiment 156 Provost Company Royal Military Police Joint assets National Support Element 102 Logistic Brigade - Brigadier Shaun Cowlam Headquarters 102 Logistic Brigade 2 Signal Regiment 39 Engineer Regiment 33 Field Hospital 34 Field Hospital 202 Field Hospital (Volunteer) 4 General Support Medical Regiment 3 Battalion Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 6 Supply Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 7 Transport Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 10 Transport Regiment Royal Logistic Corps (attached from 101 Logistic Brigade) 17 Port and Maritime Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 23 Pioneer Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 168 Pioneer Regiment Royal Logistics Corps (101 Squadron) 24 Regiment Royal Logistic Corps 5 Regiment Royal Military Police Elements of 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment Joint Helicopter Force Headquarters 3 Regiment Army Air Corps Elements of 21 Signal Regiment (AS) Elements of No. 662 Squadron - Lynx AH7s and Gazelle AH1s Elements of No. 663 Squadron - Lynx AH7s and Gazelle AH1s HMS Ark Royal 4 Sea King AsaC7s of Flight A 849 Naval Air Squadron 5 Chinook HC2s of No. 18 Squadron RAF HMS Ocean 10 Sea King HC4s of 845 Naval Air Squadron 6 Gazelle AH1 of 847 Naval Air Squadron 6 Lynx AH7 of 847 Naval Air Squadron Chinook Wing No. 7 Squadron RAF No. 18 Squadron RAF No. 27 Squadron RAF Puma Detachment No. 33 Squadron RAF Merlin detachment (1419 flt) No. 28 Squadron RAF Notes When a battalion is referred to as a battlegroup, it is not purely made up of units from the parent unit, but is an integrated team, combining armoured units with tanks, and mechanised infantry with infantry fighting vehicles. Also, whilst 16 Air Assault Brigade is apparently the only fighting brigade listed with its own organic helicopter support in this order of battle, 3 Commando Brigade had the helicopters on board Ocean and Ark Royal to call upon, and 7 Armoured Brigade wasn't really air mobile as a formation. There were also the RAF Pumas and Chinooks mentioned above for transport purposes. Special Forces elements of the British Army (Special Air Service) and Royal Marines (Special Boat Service) were also deployed but as the British government policy is not to comment on special forces activity, the exact details or elements deployed are officially unconfirmed. The contribution of reservists to the deployment (some 9,500 of the 46,000 personnel involved in the warfighting phase and its immediate aftermath, the vast majority from the Territorial Army, and in significant number in the subsequent roulements) is understated by the order of battle, as the only units to deploy in their entirety were 202 Field Hospital (with augmentees from the other TAVR Field Hospitals), 131 Independent Commando Squadron of the Royal Engineers as well as A (Royal Wiltshire Yeomanry) Squadron and W (Westminster Dragoons) Squadron of the Royal Yeomanry. The remainder were augmentees, called up individually from their units (which therefore do not feature in the order of battle) and employed to bring many of the units listed above up to their war-fighting strength. Finally, 3 Commando Brigade had a United States Marine Corps unit, 15th MEU under its command in the initial stages of the war. This went back to American command around 25 March. Roulements 1st Armoured Division remained in theatre, controlling UK ground forces until June 2003, when 3rd Mechanised Division's HQ arrived in theatre to take command of British forces. From December 2003 a series of composite HQs were established. 1st Roulement (Operation TELIC II) From 11 July 2003 to 4 November 2003: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Major-General Freddie Viggers (July 2003 to September 2003) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Major-General Andrew Figgures (September 2003 to November 2003) GOC 3rd (UK) Mechanised Division: Major General Graeme Lamb (July 2003 to November 2003) 3rd Mechanised Division Headquarters and Signal Regiment 10 Field Squadron (Air Support), 39 Engineer Regiment 3 Regiment, Royal Military Police 3 Close Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 3 Close Support Medical Regiment, Royal Army Medical Corps 5 Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers Elements of 5 Regiment Royal Artillery Elements of 7 Signal Regiment Elements of 14 Signal Regiment Elements of 30 Signal Regiment Elements of 4 General Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 4 General Support Medical Regiment, Royal Army Medical Corps Elements of 52nd Lowland Regiment (Territorial Army) Elements of East of England Regiment (Territorial Army) Elements of Tyne-Tees Regiment (Volunteers) 19 Mechanised Brigade 19 Mechanised Brigade Headquarters and 209 Signal Squadron 40 Regiment, Royal Artillery 38 Engineer Regiment 1st Battalion, The Queen's Lancashire Regiment 1st Battalion, King's Own Scottish Borderers 1st Battalion, The King's Regiment 2nd Battalion, The Light Infantry 1st Battalion, The Royal Green Jackets Elements of The Light Dragoons Elements of the Queen's Royal Lancers Elements of 2nd Royal Tank Regiment Elements of Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia) National Support Element 101 Logistic Brigade 101 Logistics Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron 27 Transport Regiment,(attached 236 Squadron RLC(V)Royal Logistic Corps 9 Supply Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 168 Pioneer Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 4 Regiment, Royal Military Police 33 Field Hospital Elements from 17 Port and Maritime Regiment, Royal Logistics Corps Elements from 29 Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements from 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements from 1 Postal & Courier Service Group 15 Field Support Squadron Royal Engineers Op Telic 2 & 3 Maritime Contribution HMS Cardiff (Handed over to HMS Richmond) HMS Richmond (to July 2003) HMS Sutherland (July 2003-October 2003) HMS Norfolk (October 2003-March 2004) HMS Kent RFA Diligence RFA Brambleleaf 2nd Roulement (Operation TELIC III) From: 4 November 2003 to 25 April 2004: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Major-General Andrew Figgures (November 2003 to March 2004) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John McColl (March 2004 to April 2004) GOC 3rd (UK) Mechanised Division: Major General Graeme Lamb (November 2003 to December 2003) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Andrew Stewart (December 2003 to April 2004) 16 Signals Regiment Elements from 14 Signals Regiment Elements from 30 Signals Regiment 20 Armoured Brigade 20 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron The Queen's Royal Hussars 26 Regiment Royal Artillery 35 Engineer Regiment 1st Battalion, The Light Infantry 1st Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Wales (24th/41st Foot) 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment 1st Battalion, The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) 1st Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) Cambrai Company The London Regiment Elements of 73 Engineer Regiment Elements of the West Midlands Regiment Elements of The Royal Rifle Volunteers Elements of The East of England Regiment (Militia) Elements of The 9th/12th Royal Lancers Elements of Royal Monmouthshire Royal Engineers (Militia) National Support Element 4 General Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 22 Field Hospital Elements of 33 Engineer Regiment (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) Elements of 1 Regiment, Royal Military Police Elements of 10 Transport Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 17 Port & Maritime Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 23 Pioneer Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 24 Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 5 General Support Medical Regiment, Royal Army Medical Corps 15 Field Support Squadron Royal Engineers Roulemented by 45 Field Support Squadron January 2004 Maritime Contribution HMS Kent HMS Norfolk (October 2003-March 2004) HMS Grafton (March 2004-July 2004) RFA Bayleaf 3rd Roulement (Operation TELIC IV) From 25 April 2004 to 1 November 2004: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John McColl (April 2004 to October 2004) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John Kiszely (October 2004 to November 2004) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Andrew Stewart (April 2004 to July 2004) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Bill Rollo (July 2004 to November 2004) 16 Signals Regiment Elements from 14 Signals Regiment Elements from 30 Signals Regiment Elements of 52nd Lowland Regiment (TA) Messines Coy from The London Regiment (TA) Elements of the Royal Yeomanry (TA) Elements of the Lancastrian and Cumbrian Volunteers (TA) Elements of the Royal Irish Rangers 1 Mechanised Brigade 1 Mechanised Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron 1st Regiment Royal Horse Artillery 22 Engineer Regiment Queen's Royal Lancers 1st Battalion, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment 1st Battalion, Royal Welch Fusiliers 1st Battalion, 22nd (Cheshire) Regiment 1st Battalion, Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment) 1st Battalion, The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders (Princess Louise's) Elements of The Household Cavalry Regiment Elements of the Honourable Artillery Company Elements of The Rifle Volunteers National Support Element 8 Transport Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 207 (V) Field Hospital relieved in 2004 UK Medical Group 256 (City of London) Field Hospital (V) Close Support Squadron, Royal Army Medical Phoenix Battery, 32 Regiment, Royal Artillery Corps Elements of 33 Engineer Regiment (Explosive Ordnance Disposal) Elements of 1 Regiment, Military Police Elements of 6 Supply Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 11 Explosive Ordnance Disposal Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 24 Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of 29 Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Elements of Scottish Transport Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps (Volunteers) Elements of 1 General Support Medical Regiment, Royal Army Medical Corps Elements of 104 (V) Regiment, Royal Artillery Elements of 6 Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers Maritime contribution HMS Grafton (March 2004-July 2004) HMS Somerset (July 2004-November 2004) HMS Echo RFA Bayleaf 4th Roulement (Operation TELIC V) From 1 November 2004 to 30 April 2005: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John Kiszely (November 2004 to April 2005) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Bill Rollo (November 2004 to January 2005) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Jonathon Riley (January 2005 to April 2005) 4 Armoured Brigade 4 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron 4th Regiment, Royal Artillery Phoenix Battery, 32 Regiment, Royal Artillery 21 Engineer Regiment Field Support Squadron, 28 Engineer Regiment 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards The Royal Dragoon Guards 1st Battalion, Scots Guards 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards 1st Battalion, the Duke of Wellington's Regiment (West Riding) 1st Battalion, the Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) (detached from UK operational area from end of October 2004 to south-east of Baghdad to support 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit) 40 Commando, Royal Marines Elements of the Honourable Artillery Company East and West Riding Regiment National Support Element 1 Battalion REME Elements of 7 Transport Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Squadron from General Support Medical Regiment Maritime Contribution HMS Somerset (July 2004-?) HMS Cumberland HMS Echo RFA Bayleaf Air Contribution Detachment of No. 10 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 14 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 24 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 30 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 32 Squadron RAF Detachment of RAF Kinloss Nimrod MR2 Wing Joint Helicopter Force?Iraq No. 51 Squadron RAF Regiment 5th Roulement (Operation TELIC VI) From 30 April 2005 to 31 October 2005: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Robin Brims (April 2005 to October 2005) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General James Dutton (April 2005 to October 2005) 12 Mechanised Brigade 12 Mechanised Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron 19th Regiment, Royal Artillery Phoenix Battery, 32 Regiment, Royal Artillery Surveillance and Target Acquisition Patrols Troop from the Honourable Artillery Company 106 (Yeomanry) Regiment, Royal Artillery 26 Engineer Regiment Field Support Squadron, 28 Engineer Regiment The King's Royal Hussars The Light Dragoons 1st Battalion, Coldstream Guards 1st Battalion, the Royal Anglian Regiment 1st Battalion, the Royal Regiment of Wales (24th/41st Foot) 1st Battalion, the Staffordshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's) 1st Battalion, the Royal Irish Regiment (27th (Inniskillings), 83rd, 87th and The Ulster Defence Regiment) East of England Regiment Royal Rifle Volunteers National Support Element 4 Battalion REME 3 Close Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps Squadron from General Support Medical Regiment Maritime Contribution HMS Marlborough (July 2004-March 2005) HMS Argyll (March 2005-August 2005) HMS Echo (to May 2005) HMS Scott RFA Bayleaf RFA Diligence Air Contribution Detachment of No. 10 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 101 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 14 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 24 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 30 Squadron RAF Detachment of No. 32 Squadron RAF Detachment of RAF Kinloss Nimrod MR2 Wing Joint Helicopter Force?Iraq No. 34 Squadron RAF Regiment 6th Roulement (Operation TELIC VII) From 1 November 2005 to 9 May 2006: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Nick Houghton (November 2005 to March 2006) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Robert Fry (March 2006 to May 2006) GOC - Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General John Cooper (November 2005 to May 2006) 7 Armoured Brigade 7 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron Phoenix Battery, 32 Regiment, Royal Artillery 3rd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery 32 Engineer Regiment 9th/12th Royal Lancers (The Prince of Wales's) 2nd Royal Tank Regiment The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) 2nd Battalion, The Parachute Regiment 1st Battalion, The Highlanders (Seaforth, Gordons and Camerons) 1st Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers 1st Battalion, The King's Own Royal Border Regiment 4th Battalion, The Parachute Regiment Cambrai Company The West Midlands Regiment Royal Welsh Regiment 1st Battalion, Royal Highland Fusiliers (Princess Margaret's Own Glasgow and Ayrshire Regiment) National Support Element 1st Battalion, The Royal Scots (The Royal Regiment) 2 Battalion, REME 2 Logistic Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 29 Close Support Medical Squadron 35 Battery Royal Artillery Maritime Contribution HMS Campbeltown (August 2005-February 2006) HMS St Albans (February 2006-?) HMS Bulwark (February 2006-?) 7th Roulement (Operation TELIC VIII) From 10 May 2006 to 14 November 2006: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Robert Fry (May 2006 to September 2006) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Graeme Lamb (September 2006 to November 2006) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General John Cooper (May 2006 to July 2006) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Richard Shirreff (July 2006 to November 2006) 20 Armoured Brigade 20 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron (200) 12th Regiment Royal Artillery 33 Engineer Regiment 35 Engineer Regiment 1st The Queen's Dragoon Guards The Queen's Royal Hussars 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards 1st Battalion, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires) 2nd Battalion, The Royal Anglian Regiment 1st Battalion, The Devonshire and Dorset Light Infantry 1st Battalion, The Light Infantry Lancastrian and Cumbrian Volunteers King's and Cheshire Regiment 1 Logistic Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps K (Hondeghem) Battery Royal Artillery 8th Roulement (Operation TELIC IX) From 14 November 2006 to June 2007: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Graeme Lamb (November 2006 to June 2007) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Richard Shirreff (November 2006 to January 2007) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Jonathan Shaw (January 2007 to June 2007) 19 Light Brigade 19 Light Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron (209) 40th Regiment Royal Artillery 38 Engineer Regiment The Queen's Royal Lancers 1st Royal Tank Regiment - H Sqn 2nd Royal Tank Regiment - EGYPT Sqn 1st Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (PWO) 2nd Battalion, The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment (King's Lancashire and Border) 1st Battalion, The Royal Green Jackets (renamed 2nd Battalion, The Rifles 1 Feb 2007) 1st Battalion, The Staffordshire Regiment (The Prince of Wales's) 2nd Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers 2nd Battalion, The Light Infantry (renamed 3rd Battalion, The Rifles 1 Feb 2007) The Black Watch, 3rd Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 19 Combat Service Support Battalion P Battery (The Dragon Troop) Royal Artillery (composite troop) L Troop Honourable Artillery Company Alamein Coy (FP) 7th Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland, (51st Highland) 9th Roulement (Operation TELIC X) From June 2007 to December 2007: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Graeme Lamb (June 2007 to July 2007) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Bill Rollo (July 2007 to December 2007) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Jonathan Shaw (June 2007 to August 2007) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Graham Binns (August 2007 to December 2007) Land component Headquarters, 1 Mechanised Brigade 215 Signal Squadron, Royal Signals Two squadrons from the Household Cavalry Regiment The King's Royal Hussars Two squadrons from the 2nd Royal Tank Regiment, Badger and Cyclops 1st Battalion, Irish Guards One company from 1st Battalion, The Royal Welsh 2nd Battalion, The Royal Welsh 4th Battalion, The Rifles 1st Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery 22nd Engineer Regiment One squadron from 23rd Pioneer Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps 3rd Logistic Support Regiment, Royal Logistic Corps One company from 6th Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 3rd Close Support Medical Regiment, Royal Army Medical Corps 158 Provost Company, 3rd Regiment, Royal Military Police 22 Battery, 32nd Regiment, Royal Artillery 34th Field Hospital, Royal Army Medical Corps Sea component HMS Cornwall HMS Enterprise RFA Bayleaf Two Mine Countermeasures vessels Contribution to the 60-man joint US-UK 'Naval Transition Team' Air component 845 Naval Air Squadron (Sea King Mk 4) Detachment from 652 Squadron, Army Air Corps (Lynx) No. 1419 Flight RAF (Merlin) No. 1 Squadron RAF Regiment 4th Force Protection Wing No. 120 Squadron RAF/No. 201 Squadron RAF (Nimrod MR2) No. 51 Squadron RAF (Nimrod R1) 814 Naval Air Squadron (Merlin) No. 216 Squadron RAF (TriStar) No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron RAF (BAe 125/BAe 146) No. 617 Squadron RAF (Tornado GR4) No. 23 Squadron RAF/No. 30 Squadron RAF (C-130J Hercules) No. 101 Squadron RAF (VC10) 10th Roulement (Operation TELIC XI) From December 2007 to June 2008: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Bill Rollo (December 2007 to March 2008) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John Cooper (March 2008 to June 2008) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Graham Binns (December 2007 to February 2008) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Barney White-Spunner (February 2008 to June 2008) 4 Mechanised Brigade 4 Mechanised Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron (204) The Royal Dragoon Guards D Battery, 3rd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery K Battery, 5th Regiment, Royal Artillery 21 Engineer Regiment 1st Battalion, Scots Guards The Royal Scots Borderers, 1st Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 1st Battalion, The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment (King's Lancashire and Border) 1st Battalion, The Mercian Regiment (Cheshires) 1st Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 115 Provost Company 1 (Close Support) Medical Regiment 12 Logistic Support Regiment 2nd Battalion Royal Welsh I 11th Roulement (Operation TELIC XII) From June 2008 to December 2008: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John Cooper (June 2008 to December 2008) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Barney White-Spunner (June 2008 to August 2008) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Andy Salmon (August 2008 to December 2008) 7 Armoured Brigade 7 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron (207) The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys) 1st Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers The Highlanders, 4th Battalion The Royal Regiment of Scotland 2nd Battalion, The Royal Anglian Regiment 3rd Regiment, Royal Horse Artillery 32 Engineer Regiment 2 Logistic Support Regiment 3 (Close Support) Medical Regiment 2nd Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 111 Provost Company Elements of 25/170 Bty, Royal Artillery 12th Roulement (Operation TELIC XIII) From December 2008 to 30 April 2009: Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General John Cooper (December 2008 to March 2009) Senior British Military Representative and Deputy Commanding General, Multinational Force, Iraq: Lieutenant-General Chris Brown (March 2009 to April 2009) GOC Multi-National Division (South-East): Major General Andy Salmon (December 2008 to March 2009) 20 Armoured Brigade 20 Armoured Brigade Headquarters and Signal Squadron (200) The Queen's Royal Hussars (Queen's Own and Royal Irish) 1st Royal Tank Regiment - RHQ and T Sqn 1st Battalion, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (Queen's and Royal Hampshires) 1st Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (14th/15th, 19th and 33rd/76th Foot) (Prince of Wales's Own) 5th Battalion, The Rifles 26 Regiment, Royal Artillery 35 Engineer Regiment 1 Logisitic Support Regiment 3rd Battalion, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers 110 Provost Company Aerial Assets 847 Naval Air Squadron between October 2007 and February 2008 with the Lynx AH.9 No. 651 Squadron, Army Air Corps between October 2004 and April 2009 with the Defender See also List of United Kingdom Military installations used during Operation Telic References External links Official Chronology on the National Archives War on Terror orders of battle Telic 2003 in Iraq 21st-century military history of the United Kingdom British Army deployments Wars involving the United Kingdom	[ -0.2712721824645996, 0.4750225245952606, 0.02624673768877983, -0.8247244358062744, -0.6615825891494751, 0.22354644536972046, 0.6721828579902649, -0.14206311106681824, -0.09323257952928543, 0.1308450698852539, -0.6769512295722961, 0.7784621119499207, -0.13032951951026917, 0.20799563825130463, -0.23815414309501648, 0.9966709613800049, -0.003936063963919878, 0.30901721119880676, -0.012801235541701317, -0.10226424783468246, 0.01170450821518898, -0.36381641030311584, 0.18666280806064606, -0.08709540218114853, 0.6805168986320496, 0.13813264667987823, 0.4878905117511749, 0.2451055347919464, -0.06690018624067307, -0.2095222920179367, 0.2948988974094391, 0.2145337164402008, -0.09819116443395615, 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248231	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Kent	Duke of Kent	The title of Duke of Kent has been created several times in the peerages of Great Britain and the United Kingdom, most recently as a royal dukedom for the fourth son of King George V. Since 1942, the title has been held by Prince Edward (born 1935), Queen Elizabeth II's cousin. Earliest history A title associated with Kent first appears anciently with the Kingdom of Kent (or Cantware), one of the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms that later merged to form the Kingdom of England. The Kings of Cantware (or Kent) date back to about 449. After 825, when the Kingdom of Kent was taken over by Egbert, King of Wessex, Kent became a dependency of Wessex and was ruled by sub-kings, usually related to the Wessex rulers. The titular kingship became something like the heir-apparent's title, as Aethelwulf, Egbert's son, became King of Kent in 825. By 860, Kent lost its status as a kingdom, becoming absorbed into Wessex. Earls of Kent The first title of Kent was that of the Earl of Kent in the Peerage of England. After the death of Godwin, Earl of Wessex, his son Leofwine (c. 1035–1066) became Earl of Kent sometime between 1056 and 1058. After Leofwine's death at Hastings in 1066, William the Conqueror named his half-brother, Odo of Bayeux (c. 1036–1097), who was also Bishop of Bayeux, the new Earl of Kent. However, Odo was twice removed from this title. The first occasion was in 1082, when he was imprisoned; the second was in 1088, after aiding in the Rebellion of 1088, after which he fled England. It was not until 1141 that the title returned, this time for William de Ipres; but he was deprived of the title in 1155. In 1227, it was revived for Hubert de Burgh, but became extinct with his death. In 1321, it was again revived for Edmund of Woodstock, and through the marriage of Joan Plantagenet to Thomas Holland, the title passed to the Holland family, which held the title until 1408. In 1461, it was revived for William Neville, and then in 1465 for Edmund Grey. The Grey family held the title until Henry Grey, 12th Earl of Kent, who was made Marquess of Kent in 1706 and Duke of Kent in 1710, died without male heirs in 1740. Marquess, then Duke of Kent Henry Grey (1671–1740) succeeded his father, Anthony Grey, as the 12th Earl of Kent in 1702. In 1706, he was elevated to Marquess of Kent, along with Earl of Harold and Viscount Goderich. In 1710 he was elevated once again as Duke of Kent, and following the death of his sons, Marquess Grey (1740) with a special remainder to his granddaughter. Henry had one son and five daughters with his first wife, Jemima Crew (d. 1728), and one son and one daughter with his second wife, Sophia Bentinck (d. 1741). By the time of Henry's death in 1740, both of his sons had died, Anthony (in 1723) and George (in 1733), leaving the Duke of Kent without a male heir. His granddaughter Lady Jemima Campbell would inherit two titles in her own right, Marchioness Grey and Baroness Lucas; but all Henry's other titles, particularly Duke of Kent, became extinct with his death. Royal dukedom, 1799 On 23 April 1799 the double dukedom of Kent and Strathearn was given, with the earldom of Dublin, to King George III's fourth son, Prince Edward Augustus. Edward had only one child, a daughter, Princess Alexandrina Victoria (the future Queen Victoria). Upon Edward's death in 1820, the dukedom of Kent and Strathearn became extinct, as he had no legitimate male heir. Royal earldom, 1866 The next creation of a title of Kent was not that of Duke or Marquess, but rather that of Earl, with the creation of Prince Alfred (1844–1900), the second son of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, as Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Ulster, and of Kent in 1866. The Duke of Edinburgh (who later became the reigning Duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha) had only one son, Prince Alfred, who would have inherited his father's titles had he not died before his father in 1899. With Prince Alfred's death in 1900, the earldom became extinct. Royal dukedom, 1934 In 1934, Prince George (1902–1942), the fourth son of King George V of the United Kingdom and Queen Mary, was created Duke of Kent, Earl of St Andrews and Baron Downpatrick. Prince George had three children before his death in 1942: Prince Edward, Princess Alexandra, and Prince Michael. Prince Edward, upon his father's death, succeeded to his father's peerages. The current Duke of Kent has two sons. King George V's Letters Patent of 30 November 1917 restricted the style Royal Highness and the titular dignity of Prince to the sons of the Sovereign, the male line grandsons of the Sovereign, and the eldest living son of the eldest son of the Prince of Wales. Great grandchildren of the Sovereign in the male line enjoy the courtesy titles of the children of dukes. Therefore, the heir apparent to the dukedom of Kent is George, Earl of St. Andrews (b. 1962). Lord St. Andrews married in 1988, and has three children. His son Lord Downpatrick (b. 1988) is second in line to his grandfather's peerages. When Lord St. Andrews succeeds, the dukedom will cease to be a Royal dukedom; as a great-grandson of a sovereign he will be styled His Grace The Duke of Kent. After Lord St. Andrews and Lord Downpatrick, the current duke's younger son Lord Nicholas Windsor is in remainder to the dukedom, as are the current duke's brother, Prince Michael of Kent, and his son, Lord Frederick Windsor. Duties The current Duke of Kent carries out numerous duties for the monarchy, both military and civil. As a Freemason, he is the Grand Master of the United Grand Lodge of England, and has served as the President of The Scout Association of the United Kingdom since 1975 and of the Royal Institution. He has performed a number of state visits to Commonwealth nations on behalf of the Queen. He has also acted as Counsellor of State. His Royal Highness is the Grand Prior (or Grand Master) of the Order of St Michael and St George. He holds numerous other appointments in the military. The Duke of Kent has been the patron of Endeavour, a national youth organisation, for 29 years. Coat of arms The coat of arms anciently associated with Kent is that of a rampant white horse upon a red field. This is primarily associated with the Kingdom of Kent and possibly the earldom as well. Today, this is seen on the Council of Kent's arms and flag. As a direct descendant of Queen Victoria, this is not the coat of arms of the present Duke of Kent. The coat of arms of the Duke of Kent consists of the following: Arms: those of the Royal Arms, differenced by a label of five points argent (silver, often depicted as white), the points charged with an anchor azure (blue) and a cross gules (red) alternately. Crest: On a coronet of four crosses-patées alternated with four strawberry leaves a lion statant guardant or (gold), crowned with the like coronet and differenced with a label as in the Arms. Supporters: The Royal Supporters differenced with the like coronet (as in the crest) and label as in the arms. The standard of the Duke of Kent is a flag version of his arms. The personal badge of the present Duke of Kent is 'E' encircled by the garter of the Order of the Garter, surmounted by a Type IV Princes coronet as in the Crest. Residence The Duke and Duchess of Kent currently live at Wren House in the grounds of Kensington Palace, but their office is based at York House at St. James's Palace. Dukes of Kent First creation, 1710 \| Henry Grey1710–1740also: Marquess Grey (1740), Marquess of Kent (1706), Earl of Kent (1465), Earl of Harold and Viscount Goderich (1706) and Baron Lucas of Crudwell (1663) \| \| 1671 \| (1) Hon. Jemima Crew1695 10 children (2) Lady Sophia Bentinck24 March 17292 children \| 1740 \|- \|} Second creation, 1934 \| Prince GeorgeHouse of Windsor1934–1942also: Earl of St Andrews and Baron Downpatrick (1934) \| \| 20 December 1902York Cottage, Sandringhamson of King George V and Queen Mary \| Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark29 November 19343 children \| 25 August 1942Dunbeathaged 39 \|- \| Prince EdwardHouse of Windsor1942–presentalso: Earl of St Andrews and Baron Downpatrick (1934) \| \| 9 October 1935Belgrave Square, Londonson of Prince George and Princess Marina \| Katharine Worsley8 June 19613 children \| now old \|- \|} Line of succession Prince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (born 1935) (1) George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews (b. 1962) (2) Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick (b. 1988) (3) Lord Nicholas Windsor (b. 1970) (4) Albert Louis Philip Edward Windsor (b. 2007) (5) Leopold Ernest Augustus Guelph Windsor (b. 2009) (6) Louis Arthur Nicholas Felix Windsor (b. 2014) (7) Prince Michael of Kent (b. 1942) (8) Lord Frederick Windsor (b. 1979) Family tree Knights of the Garter A number of the earls and dukes of Kent have also been knights of the Order of the Garter: Earls of Kent 1348: Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent 1376: Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent 1397: Thomas Holland, 3rd Earl of Kent 1403: Edmund Holland, 4th Earl of Kent 1439: William Neville, 1st Earl of Kent 1505: Richard Grey, 3rd Earl of Kent Dukes of Kent 1713: Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Kent (1671–1740) 1923: Prince George, 1st Duke of Kent (1902–1942) 1985: Prince Edward, 2nd Duke of Kent (1935–) Dukes of Kent and Strathearn 1801: Prince Edward, 1st Duke of Kent and Strathearn (1767–1820) See also Duchess of Kent British monarchy Kent Earls of Kent Kingdom of Kent References External links The Duke of Kent at the Royal Family website Duke of Kent at the Royal Institution, Ri Channel video, 6 December 1985 Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom 1710 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248234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Booby%20trap	Booby trap	A booby trap is a device or setup that is intended to kill, harm, or surprise a human being or an animal. It is triggered by the presence or actions of the victim and sometimes has some form of bait designed to lure the victim towards it. The trap may be set to act upon trespassers that enter restricted areas, and it can be triggered when the victim performs an action (e.g., opening a door, picking something up, or switching something on). It can also be triggered by vehicles driving along a road, as in the case of improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Booby traps should not be confused with mantraps which are designed to catch a person. Lethal booby traps are often used in warfare, particularly guerrilla warfare, and traps designed to cause injury or pain are also sometimes used by criminals wanting to protect drugs or other illicit property, and by some owners of legal property who wish to protect it from theft. Booby traps which merely cause discomfort or embarrassment are a popular form of practical joke. Etymology The Spanish word translates to "stupid, daft, naïve, simple, fool, idiot, clown, funny man, one who is easily cheated" and similar pejorative terms. The slang of , , translates to "dunce". Variations of this word exist in other languages (such as Latin), with their meaning being "to stammer". In approximately 1590, the word began appearing in the English language as booby, meaning "stupid person, slow bird". The seabird in question was the genus Sula, with their common name being boobies. These birds have large flat feet and wide wingspans for marine habitats but are clumsy and slow on shore making them easy to catch. The birds are also known for landing aboard seagoing vessels, whereupon they have been eaten by the crew. The phrase booby trap originally applied to schoolboy pranks, but took on its more sinister connotation during World War I. The term "booby trap" gives rise to the idea that an individual with the misfortune to be caught in the trap does so because the individual is a "booby", or that an individual who is caught in the trap thereby becomes a "booby". The word itself now has formal usage and a legal definition, as per the Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices. Military booby traps A military booby trap may be designed to kill or injure a person who activates its trigger, or employed to reveal the location of an enemy by setting off a signalling device. Most, but not all, military booby traps involve explosives. There is no clear division between a booby trap and buried conventional land mines triggered by a tripwire or directional mine. Other, similar devices include spring-guns and mechanisms such as the SM-70 directional antipersonnel mine. What distinguishes a booby trap is that its activation is intended to be unexpected to its victim. Thus booby trap design is widely varied, with traps or their trigger mechanisms often hidden. Frequently at least part of the device is improvised from standard ordnance, such as an artillery shell, grenade, or high explosive. However, some mines have features specifically designed for incorporation into booby traps and armies have been equipped with a variety of mass-produced triggering mechanisms intended to be employed in booby traps deployment. Part of the skill in placing booby traps lies in exploiting natural human behaviors such as habit, self-preservation, curiosity or acquisitiveness. A common trick is to provide victims with a simple solution to a problem, for example, leaving only one door open in an otherwise secure building, thereby luring them straight toward the firing mechanism. An example that exploits an instinct for self-preservation was used in the Vietnam War. Spikes known as punji sticks were hidden in grassy areas. When fired upon soldiers instinctively sought to take cover by throwing themselves down on the ground, impaling themselves on the spikes. Attractive or interesting objects are frequently used as bait. For example, troops could leave behind empty beer bottles and a sealed wooden packing case with "Scotch Whisky" marked on it before leaving an area. The rubble-filled packing case might be resting on top of an M5 or M142 firing device, connected to some blocks of TNT or to some C4 explosive stuffed into the empty fuze pocket of a mortar shell. Alternatively, the weight of the packing case might simply be holding down the arming lever of an RGD-5 grenade with a zero-delay fuze fitted and the pin removed. Either way, when the case is moved, the booby trap detonates, killing or severely injuring anyone in the immediate area. Many different types of bait object can be used. For example, soldiers may be tempted to kick a beer can lying on the ground as they walk past it. However the can, partially filled with sand to add weight, may be resting on top of an M5 pressure-release firing device screwed into a buried M26 grenade. Many purpose-built booby-trap firing devices exist such as the highly versatile M142 universal firing device (identical to the British L5A1 or Australian F1A1), or Yugoslavian UMNOP-1 which allow a variety of different ways of triggering explosives e.g. via trip wire (either pulling it or releasing the tension on it), direct pressure on an object (e.g. standing on it), or pressure release (lift/shift something) etc. Almost any item can be booby trapped in some way. For example, booby trapping a flashlight is a classic tactic: a flashlight already contains most of the required components. First of all, the flashlight acts as bait, tempting the victim to pick it up. More importantly, it is easy to conceal a detonator, some explosives, and batteries inside the flashlight casing. A simple electrical circuit is connected to the on/off switch. When the victim attempts to turn the flashlight on to see if it works, the resulting explosion blows their hand or arm off and possibly blinds them. The only limits to the intricacy of booby traps are the skill and inventiveness of the people placing them. For example, the "bait object" (e.g. a cash box in a corner of the room) which lures victims into the trap may not in fact be booby trapped at all. However, the furniture which must be pushed away in order to get to the bait has a wire attached, with an M142 firing device connected to a 155mm artillery shell on the other end of it. A booby trap may be of any size. However, as a general rule the size of most explosive booby traps use between 250 g and 1 kg of explosive. Since most booby traps are rigged to detonate within a metre of the victim's body, this is adequate to kill or severely wound. As a rule, booby traps are planted in any situation where there is a strong likelihood of them being encountered and triggered by the targeted victims. Typically, they are planted in places that people are naturally attracted to or are forced to use. The list of likely placement areas includes: the only abandoned houses left standing in a village, which may attract enemy soldiers seeking shelter. a door, drawer or cupboard inside a building that someone will open without thinking of what might be connected to it. If a door is locked, this makes people believe there could be something valuable behind it so they are more likely to kick it open, with fatal results. vehicles abandoned by the roadside, perhaps with some kind of victim "bait" left on the back seat such as a suitcase or large cardboard box. natural choke-points, such as the only footbridge across a river, which people must use whether they want to or not. important strategic installations such as airfields, railway stations and harbour facilities, all of which the invading forces will want to occupy and use. anything of use or value that people would naturally want to possess or which makes them curious to see what is inside it, e.g. a crate of beer, a pistol, a jerry can, a flashlight, discarded army rucksack or even a picture torn out of a pornographic magazine. A booby trap does not necessarily incorporate explosives in its construction. Examples include the punji sticks mentioned above and deadfall traps which employ heavy objects set up to fall on and crush whoever disturbs the trigger mechanism. However, setting non-explosive booby traps is labour-intensive and time-consuming, they are harder to conceal and they are less likely to do serious damage. In contrast, booby traps containing explosives are much more destructive: they will either kill their victims or severely wound them. Effects In addition to the obvious ability of booby traps to kill or injure, their presence has other effects such as these: demoralize soldiers as booby traps kill or maim comrades keep soldiers continually stressed, suspicious and unable to relax because it is difficult for them to know which areas, buildings or objects are safe slow down troop movement as soldiers are forced to sweep areas to see if there are more booby traps. make soldiers cautious instead of aggressive and confident create no-go areas (real or imagined) after a booby trap has killed or wounded someone cause a section or platoon to have to stop in order to deal with casualties, thus slowing and delaying those troops create confusion and disorientation as a prelude to an ambush Booby traps are indiscriminate weapons. Like anti-personnel mines, they can harm civilians and other unsuspecting noncombatants (during and after the conflict) who are unaware of their presence. Usage throughout history A type of booby trap was referred to in an 1839 news story in The Times. During the Vietnam War, motorcycles were rigged with explosives by the National Liberation Front and abandoned. U.S. soldiers would be tempted to ride the motorcycle and thus trigger the explosives. In addition, NLF soldiers would rig rubber band grenades and place them in huts that US soldiers would likely burn. Another popular booby trap was the "Grenade in a Can", a grenade with the safety pin removed in a container and a string attached, sometimes with the grenade's fuse mechanism modified to give a much shorter delay than the four to seven seconds typical with grenade fuses. The NLF soldiers primarily used these on doors and attached them to tripwires on jungle paths. The CIA and Green Berets countered by booby trapping the enemy's ammunition supplies, in an operation code-named "Project Eldest Son". The propellant in a rifle or machine-gun cartridge was replaced with high explosive. Upon being fired, the sabotaged round would destroy the gun and kill or injure the shooter. Mortar shells were similarly rigged to explode when dropped down the tube, instead of launching properly. This ammunition was then carefully re-packed to eliminate any evidence of tampering, and planted in enemy munitions dumps by covert insertion teams. A sabotaged round might also be planted in a rifle magazine or machine-gun belt and left on the body of a dead NLF soldier, in anticipation that the deceased's ammo would be picked up and used by his comrades. No more than one sabotaged round would be planted in any case, magazine, or belt of ammunition, to reduce the chances of the enemy finding it no matter how diligently they inspected their supplies. False rumors and forged documents were circulated to make it appear that the Communist Chinese were supplying the NLF with defective weapons and ammunition. Northern Ireland During the "Troubles" in Northern Ireland, booby trap bombs were often used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) to kill British Army soldiers and Royal Ulster Constabulary officers. A common method was attaching the bomb to a vehicle so that starting or driving it would detonate the explosive. According to the Sutton Index of Deaths, 180 deaths during the Troubles were the result of booby trap bombs, the vast majority of them laid by the Provisional IRA. Middle East During the Al-Aqsa Intifada, some Arab-Palestinian groups made wide use of booby traps. The largest use of booby traps (between 2000 and 2005, the period of the Intifada) was in the Battle of Jenin during Operation Defensive Shield where a large number (1000-2000 according to Palestinian militant captured in Jenin during the battle ) of explosive devices were planted by insurgents. Booby traps had been laid in the streets of both the camp and the town, ready to be triggered if a foot snagged a tripwire or a vehicle rolled over a mine. Some of the bombs were huge, containing as much as 250 lb (110 kg) of explosives. To counter the booby traps, anti-tank and anti-personnel mines the IDF sent armored D9 bulldozers to clear the area out of any explosive device and booby trap planted. The IDF D9 bulldozers were heavily armored and thus did not sustain any damage from the explosions, which were triggered by them as they pushed forwards. Eventually, a dozen D9 bulldozers went into action, razing the center of the refugee camp and forcing the Palestinian militants inside to surrender. Gallery As a rule, most purpose-made military booby-trap firing devices contain some form of spring-loaded firing pin designed to strike a percussion cap connected to a detonator at one end. The detonator is inserted into an explosive charge e.g. C4 or a block of TNT. Triggering the booby trap (e.g. by pulling on a trip-wire) releases the cocked firing pin which flips forward to strike the percussion cap, firing both it and the attached detonator. The resulting shock-wave from the detonator sets off the main explosive charge. Civilian use and legal ramifications Booby traps have been applied as defensive weapons against unwelcome guests or against non-military trespassers, but most jurisdictions consider the practice illegal. Many US states have laws specifically against the setting of booby traps and case precedent generally holds the property owner criminally and civilly liable. The highest precedent for this is People v. Ceballos, 12 Cal. 3d 470 (1974), which was heard before the California supreme court which gave the following remarks when rendering its verdict: "Allowing persons, at their own risk, to employ deadly mechanical devices imperils the lives of children, firemen and policemen acting within the scope of their employment, and others. Where the actor is present, there is always the possibility he will realize that deadly force is not necessary, but deadly mechanical devices are without mercy or discretion. Such devices are silent instrumentalities of death. They deal death and destruction to the innocent as well as the criminal intruder without the slightest warning. The taking of human life [or infliction of great bodily injury] by such means is brutally savage and inhuman." Computer viruses Many computer viruses take the form of booby traps in that they are triggered when an unsuspecting user performs an apparently ordinary action such as opening an email attachment. Practical jokes Instead of being used to kill, maim or injure people, booby traps can also be used for entertainment. Practical joke booby traps are typically disguised as everyday items such as cigars or packets of chewing gum, nuts or other snack items. When the victims attempts to use the item, the trap is triggered. Two of the best known examples of this are the exploding cigar and dribble glass; others include the Snake Nut Can and shocking gum. Booby traps can also be constructed out of household or workplace items and be triggered when the victim performs a common action. Examples of this include loosening the bolts in a chair so that it collapses when sat upon, or placing a bucket of water on top of a partly open door so that when the door is fully opened, the bucket tips onto the victim. A variant is the water bucket which when "thrown" at the target, is full of confetti. See also Area denial Anti-personnel Anti-handling device Cartridge Trap Combat engineer DEMIRA Deutsche Minenräumer Improvised explosive device Mercury switch Microswitch Mantrap Spring-gun Booby prize Protocol on Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices References External links US Army Training Film from 1944 (humorous cartoon with a serious message) Mines & Boobytrap devices - British guide dated 1943 How not to get caught by mines and boobytraps - US warning guide dated 1944, and still relevant How not to get caught by Vietnamese boobytraps - US guide dated 1969 Army Field Manual FM531 Boobytraps - US guide dated 1965 Photos of booby trap devices used in Angola Booby trap concepts and detection techniques The Straight Dope: What's the origin of "booby trap"? Photos of injuries inflicted by explosive boobytraps (Warning: graphic images) The M142 multi-function boobytrap firing device (technical specifications) Cut-away diagram and technical specifications of M5 pressure release boobytrap firing device Photo of M5 pressure release boobytrap firing device connected to a one pound block of TNT explosive Paolo Borsellino's road side bombing trigered by a booby trapped door bell Area denial weapons Guerrilla warfare tactics Practical joke devices	[ 0.4106599688529968, 0.3100307881832123, -0.6878618001937866, 0.14808622002601624, 0.4905143678188324, -0.25174590945243835, 0.7588191032409668, -0.03365011140704155, -0.5383724570274353, -0.21172091364860535, -0.787148118019104, 0.2513091564178467, -0.8134104013442993, 0.4206409752368927, -0.4834005832672119, 0.4321031868457794, 0.47845304012298584, 0.0621536448597908, 0.3553829491138458, -0.016533149406313896, -0.4441811740398407, -0.4714958667755127, -0.018511123955249786, -0.30097508430480957, 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248237	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torness%20nuclear%20power%20station	Torness nuclear power station	Torness nuclear power station is a nuclear power station located approximately east of Edinburgh at Torness Point near Dunbar in East Lothian, Scotland. It was the last of the United Kingdom's second generation nuclear power plants to be commissioned. Construction of this facility began in 1980 for the then South of Scotland Electricity Board (SSEB) and it was commissioned in 1988. It is a local landmark, highly visible from the A1 trunk road and East Coast Main Line railway. History After extensive discussions with the local planning authority and more than twenty other interested organisations, the South of Scotland Electricity Board (SSEB) sought approval of the Secretary of State for Scotland in 1973 for Torness as a site for a nuclear power station. A public exhibition was held at Dunbar in February 1974 to explain the Board's proposals, and in June 1974, a public inquiry was held. There was widespread public opposition to the building of a nuclear plant at Torness. Diverse campaigning groups came together to highlight the environmental and human cost of nuclear power stations. In May 1978, 4,000 people marched from Dunbar to occupy the Torness site. Many of them signed a declaration to “take all nonviolent steps necessary to prevent the construction of a nuclear power station at Torness”. The SSEB submitted designs for four types of reactor then being considered by HM Government for the next stage of the UK civil nuclear programme: the advanced gas-cooled reactor (AGR), the Steam Generating Heavy Water Reactor (SGHWR), the Light Water Reactor (LWR) and the High Temperature Reactor (HTR). In February 1975, the Secretary of State for Scotland granted the SSEB statutory consent for the location of future nuclear power stations and, after review of the four alternative reactor types, consent was given on 24 May 1978 for construction of the AGR station. The construction, which was undertaken by a consortium known as National Nuclear Corporation ('NNC'), began in 1980. The reactors were supplied by NNC, the boilers by NEI and the turbines by GEC. Torness was the last of the United Kingdom's second generation nuclear power plants to be commissioned (25 May 1988). The station consists of two advanced gas-cooled reactors (AGR) capable of producing a peak rating of 1,364MWe. Upon deregulation of the United Kingdom's electricity generation market it passed to the state-owned Scottish Nuclear, privatised as part of British Energy which was sold to the French company Électricité de France (EDF) in January 2009, and incorporated in the latter's UK subsidiary EDF Energy. It was expected to operate until 2030. Cracking is now expected to cause the closure of the plant in March 2028. Plant design Torness shares its design with Heysham 2 nuclear power station. The station was designed by NNC, a company created from the gradual amalgamation of five consortia that were formed in the 1950s and 1960s to build the UK's commercial nuclear power stations. NNC is now part of Jacobs Engineering Group. The graphite-moderated, gas-cooled design was proven at the WAGR – the Windscale experimental AGR facility – and is a significant evolution of the Magnox reactor designs. When first operated Torness probably had the most sophisticated and complex computerised control system for a nuclear power station worldwide, and far more sophisticated than earlier members of the advanced gas-cooled reactor fleet. Over 70 Ferranti Argus 700 computers are used in the control and instrumentation systems, which included Digital Direct Control (DDC) of the reactors. In 2020, the staff training simulator was replaced, partly to reflect plant upgrades and to simulate interactions between the two reactor systems and with auxiliary systems, and to provide modern simulation capabilities. The original reactor control system was unchanged. Nuclear fuel for Torness power station can be delivered and removed via a loading/unloading facility on a branch from the adjacent East Coast Main Line. Incidents In November 1999, a Panavia Tornado F.3 of the Royal Air Force crashed into the North Sea less than 1km from the power station following an engine failure. The UK Ministry of Defence commended the two crew members for demonstrating "exceptional levels of airmanship and awareness in the most adverse of conditions", because they ensured that the Tornado was clear of the power station before abandoning the aircraft. In May 2002, a gas circulator pump failed. Forensic evidence suggested an undetected fatigue crack in part of the impeller led to failure. In August, another gas circulator on the other Torness reactor showed signs of increasing vibration and was promptly shut down by the operators. Its subsequent disassembly revealed a fully developed fatigue related crack in a similar position to the first failure, but the prompt shutdown had prevented consequential damage. In August 2005, screens within the seawater cooling intake system were completely blocked by seaweed. This possibility had been foreseen for the plant and preprepared plans were activated, leading to both reactors being shut down. In June 2011, both reactors were manually shut down due to reduced flow of seawater after intakes were clogged by a large mass of jellyfish. See also Nuclear power in Scotland Nuclear power in the United Kingdom Energy policy of the United Kingdom Energy use and conservation in the United Kingdom James L. Gray (SSEB Chief Engineer) List of places in East Lothian References External links Heysham 2/Torness, Nuclear Engineering International wall chart, 1981 Account of visiting Torness by Charlie Stross Torness page of operator EDF's website Torness Visitor Centre which offers public tours of the facility Buildings and structures in East Lothian Energy infrastructure completed in 1988 Nuclear power stations in Scotland Nuclear power stations using Advanced Gas-cooled Reactors 1988 establishments in Scotland	[ -0.11462672054767609, 0.03856112062931061, 0.7040888667106628, -0.4257546663284302, -0.22907677292823792, -0.2778065800666809, 0.2807128131389618, -0.09217781573534012, -0.11976611614227295, 0.14368778467178345, -0.4492034912109375, 0.4386385679244995, -0.2569293975830078, 1.0019042491912842, 0.5184271335601807, 0.09561531990766525, 0.21640318632125854, 0.4198186695575714, -0.099441759288311, -0.7319830656051636, 0.33735403418540955, -0.2292601764202118, 0.5330396294593811, 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248239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Under%20a%20Pale%20Grey%20Sky	Under a Pale Grey Sky	Under a Pale Grey Sky is a live album by Sepultura, released on September 24, 2002, through Roadrunner Records. The album was recorded in the Brixton Academy, London on December 16, 1996. Max Cavalera left Sepultura shortly after the concert, following an argument with his band mates outside the band's touring bus. The two other bands performing on that same night were Strife and Floodgate. Album information The album was released by Roadrunner Records after dropping Sepultura from the label. The current band do not list the album as part of their discography. The set list for the show sees the band play the majority of that year's Roots album, as well as the most popular songs from their previous albums. The title of the album is a lyric in the title track from the band's fourth album Arise. There are many playing mistakes on the album, such as on "Territory" or "Troops of Doom". Track listing Disc one Disc two Credits Sepultura Max Cavalera – lead vocals, rhythm guitar Andreas Kisser – lead guitar, backing vocals Paulo Jr. – bass Igor Cavalera – drums, percussion Additional personnel Rick Rodney (Strife) – vocals (on "We Gotta Know") Colin Richardson – mixing References 2002 live albums Sepultura live albums Roadrunner Records live albums Albums recorded at the Brixton Academy	[ 0.4703642725944519, 0.1970459520816803, -0.2953633666038513, 0.20827612280845642, -0.26026421785354614, 0.2588726282119751, 0.6864718794822693, 0.18625974655151367, 0.22323177754878998, -0.7493407130241394, 0.3318313956260681, 0.2993032932281494, -0.2577377259731293, 0.4276313781738281, 0.3092978894710541, 0.3707369565963745, 0.166191965341568, 0.20153342187404633, 0.3100891411304474, -0.11354684084653854, 0.16323880851268768, -0.45795300602912903, -0.03507668152451515, -0.3085128366947174, -0.44289079308509827, 0.13429893553256989, 0.015974119305610657, 0.5871343016624451, 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248240	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duke%20of%20Cambridge	Duke of Cambridge	Duke of Cambridge, one of the eight current royal dukedoms in the United Kingdom , is a hereditary title of specific rank of nobility in the British royal family. The title (named after the city of Cambridge in England) is heritable by male descendants by primogeniture, and has been conferred upon members of the British royal family several times. The wife of the titleholder bears the title Duchess of Cambridge. The title of Duke of Cambridge, first created in 1660, superseded an earlier title of Earl of Cambridge. The title became extinct several times before being revived in 2011, when Queen Elizabeth II bestowed it on her grandson Prince William on 29 April 2011 upon his marriage to Catherine Middleton. History The title was first granted in 1660 by King Charles II (immediately following the Restoration of the Monarchy) to his infant eldest nephew Charles Stuart (1660–1661), the first son of the Duke of York (later King James II), though he was never formally created Duke of Cambridge as he died at the age of six months. The first officially recognised creation of the dukedom was in the Peerage of England in 1664, when King Charles II granted the title to his next eldest surviving nephew James Stuart, the infant second son of the Duke of York, who died early in 1667 at the age of three, when the title again became extinct. The title was then granted later that year by King Charles II to his next eldest surviving nephew Edgar Stuart, the third son of the Duke of York, who also died in infancy, in 1671 at the age of three, when the title became extinct the third time. The Duke of York's 4th son Charles (his eldest son by his second wife) was also styled Duke of Cambridge in 1677, but died when about a month old, not having lived long enough to be formally created duke. The title was recreated by Queen Anne in 1706 who granted it to George Augustus (later King George II), son of the Elector of Hanover (later King George I), her distant cousin (both being descended from King James I). When the title was created George Augustus was third in line to the throne, after his grandmother Sophia and his father. When he ascended to the throne as King George II in 1727, the dukedom merged with the Crown. The title was again recreated in the peerage of the United Kingdom and was granted in 1801 by King George III to his seventh son Prince Adolphus (1774–1850), then aged 27. Following his death in 1850 the title was inherited by his only son Prince George, 2nd Duke of Cambridge, whose three sons were barred from inheriting the title as his marriage had been in violation of the Royal Marriages Act 1772. Thus on the death of the 2nd Duke in 1904 the title again became extinct. During the period leading up to the 1999 wedding of Prince Edward, the youngest son of Queen Elizabeth II, some people speculated that the Dukedom of Cambridge or Sussex were the most likely to be granted to him, and The Sunday Telegraph later reported that Prince Edward was at one point set to be titled Duke of Cambridge. Instead, Prince Edward was created Earl of Wessex, and it was announced that he would eventually be created the next Duke of Edinburgh after his father. On 29 April 2011, the day of his wedding, it was announced that Queen Elizabeth II had created her grandson Prince William as Duke of Cambridge, Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus, titles relating respectively to places in England, Scotland and Northern Ireland, three of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom. The letters patent granting these titles received the great seal on 26 May 2011. They were illuminated by Andrew Stewart Jamieson. Dukes of Cambridge Styled, 1660 \| Charles StuartHouse of Stuart1660–1661 \| \| 22 October 1660Worcester House, Londonson of James, Duke of York (later King James II) and Anne Hyde \| not married \| 5 May 1661Whitehall Palace, Londonaged 6 months \|} First creation, 1664 \| James StuartHouse of Stuart1664–1667also: Earl of Cambridge and Baron of Dauntsey (1664) \| \| 12 July 1663St James's Palace, Londonson of James, Duke of York (later King James II) and Anne Hyde \| not married \| 20 June 1667Richmond Palace, Londonaged 3 \|} Second creation, 1667 \| Edgar StuartHouse of Stuart1667–1671also: Earl of Cambridge and Baron of Dauntsey (1667) \| \| 14 September 1667St James's Palace, Londonson of James, Duke of York (later King James II) and Anne Hyde \| not married \| 8 June 1671Richmond Palace, Londonaged 3 \|} Styled, 1677 \| Charles StuartHouse of Stuart1677–1677 \| \| 7 November 1677St James's Palace, Londonson of James, Duke of York (later King James II) and Mary of Modena \| not married \| 12 December 1677St James's Palace, Londonaged 35 days \|} Third creation, 1706 \| Prince GeorgeHouse of Hanover1706–1727also: Marquess of Cambridge, Earl of Milford Haven, Viscount Northallerton and Baron Tewkesbury (1706–1727);Prince of Wales (1714), Duke of Cornwall (1337) and Duke of Rothesay (1398) \| \| 30 October / 9 November 1683Herrenhausen, Hanoverson of Prince George of Brunswick-Lüneburg (later King George I) and Sophia Dorothea of Celle \| 22 August 1705Caroline of Ansbach10 children \| 25 October 1760Kensington Palace, Londonaged 76 \|- \| colspan=5\|Prince George succeeded as George II in 1727 upon his father's death, and his titles merged with the crown. \|} Fourth creation, 1801 \| Prince AdolphusHouse of Hanover1801–1850also: Earl of Tipperary and Baron Culloden (1801) \| \| 24 February 1774Buckingham Palace, Londonson of King George III and Queen Charlotte \| 18 June 1818Princess Augusta of Hesse-Kassel3 children \| 8 July 1850Cambridge House, Londonaged 76 \|- \| Prince GeorgeHouse of Hanover1850–1904also: Earl of Tipperary and Baron Culloden (1801) \| \| 26 March 1819Cambridge House, Hanoverson of Prince Adolphus and Princess Augusta \| 8 January 1847Sarah Fairbrother3 children \| 17 March 1904Londonaged 84 \|- \| colspan=5\|Prince George's marriage to Sarah Fairbrother produced three sons. However, due to the Royal Marriages Act 1772, the marriage was invalid and all his titles became extinct on his death. \|} Fifth creation, 2011 \| Prince WilliamHouse of Windsor2011–presentalso: Earl of Strathearn and Baron Carrickfergus (2011) \| \| 21 June 1982St Mary's Hospital, Londoneldest son of Charles, Prince of Wales and Diana, Princess of Wales \| 29 April 2011Catherine Middleton3 children \| Current age \|} Line of succession If Prince William dies before becoming king, then his sons are eligible to inherit the dukedom: Prince George of Cambridge (born 2013) Prince Louis of Cambridge (born 2018) If Prince William becomes king, his titles, including the dukedom, will merge with the crown. See also Duchess of Cambridge Duke of Cambridge's Personal Canadian Flag Marquess of Cambridge Earl of Cambridge References 1660 establishments in England 1801 establishments in the United Kingdom Dukedoms in the Peerage of the United Kingdom 2011 establishments in the United Kingdom British and Irish peerages which merged in the Crown Noble titles created in 1664 Noble titles created in 1667 Noble titles created in 1706 Noble titles created in 1801 Noble titles created in 2011 Prince William, Duke of Cambridge	[ -0.5371641516685486, 0.01903306134045124, 0.32059335708618164, -0.32654938101768494, -0.2725076973438263, 0.2884312570095062, 0.30491623282432556, 0.48154258728027344, -0.5171916484832764, -0.13670383393764496, -0.6719880104064941, -0.052751366049051285, 0.012891939841210842, 0.7417102456092834, 0.11585714668035507, -0.26265794038772583, 0.16759365797042847, -0.1057603508234024, -0.28365108370780945, -0.8253227472305298, -0.044001054018735886, 0.4006650149822235, 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248244	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Fortune	East Fortune	East Fortune is a village in East Lothian, Scotland, located 2 miles (3 km) north west of East Linton. The area is known for its airfield which was constructed in 1915 to help protect Britain from attack by German Zeppelin airships during the First World War. The RNAS airship station also included an airship hangar. In 1919 the British airship R34 made the first airship crossing of the Atlantic, flying from East Fortune to Mineola, New York. The name may mean "settlement where hogs are farmed", from Old English fōr, a hog, and tūn, a settlement. In 1922 several buildings and an area of land were used to create East Fortune Hospital. This served as a tuberculosis sanatorium for the south east region of Scotland until the onset of World War II. The airfield was then brought back into service as RAF East Fortune, initially a training airfield, and the hospital patients were transferred to Bangour Hospital in West Lothian. The hospital re-opened after the war, but by 1956, as the number of tuberculosis patients began to fall, the hospital changed its function to house the mentally handicapped. In 1997, the hospital closed down, and its patients were transferred to Roodlands Hospital in Haddington. For a short period in 1961, East Fortune operated as Edinburgh's airport while facilities at Turnhouse were being reconstructed. In 1975, the National Museum of Flight was opened at the airfield, and has since become a popular tourist attraction. It is also home to a Concorde, G-BOAA from the decommissioned British Airways fleet, which forms the centrepiece of a major exhibition about the Concorde programme. At the eastern side of the airfield the old runways and link roads of East Fortune airfield are now used as a motorcycle race track run by the Melville Motorcycle Club. There are around seven race weekends every year with racing on both Saturdays and Sundays, continually attracting over 200 competitors over the several classes available. Riders travel from the local area, Northumberland and as far as Ireland on occasions for most weekends. Melville Motorcycle Club run the track on a not-for-profit basis and have reinvested heavily in resurfacing and upgrading facilities. From 2014, the track also hosts a Greenpower race. At the western side of the airfield East of Scotland Microlights operate from the extension to the main runway that was laid in 1961 when the airfield was used as Edinburgh's Airport. An annual airshow is held, normally in July, however no aircraft are able to land during the airshow due to the runways being in an unfit state for aircraft operations. See also East Fortune railway station Sources External links Notes on East Fortune Hospital - The Fourth Statistical Account of East Lothian Railbrit - East Fortune Villages in East Lothian	[ -0.35401344299316406, 0.4383819103240967, 0.5324015617370605, -0.3520405888557434, 0.2746070325374603, 0.31853970885276794, 0.2759588956832886, -0.3455575108528137, -0.11291937530040741, 0.18769623339176178, -0.09858415275812149, 0.5004870891571045, 0.11834961920976639, 0.35713571310043335, -0.8574278354644775, 0.3111567199230194, -0.054339732974767685, 0.6488655805587769, -0.18057002127170563, -0.9906683564186096, 0.012492033652961254, -0.4192117154598236, 0.06264784932136536, 0.7276186347007751, 0.11041908711194992, 0.2587193548679352, 0.6883658766746521, -0.03526883199810982, 0.05932282283902168, -0.18943363428115845, -0.1510673612356186, -0.022208906710147858, 0.1309479922056198, -0.5555879473686218, 0.38185399770736694, -0.6521914005279541, 0.26954564452171326, 0.006687096785753965, 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248246	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Harrison	Ben Harrison	Ben Harrison may refer to: Ben Harrison (Australian footballer) (born 1975), Carlton, Richmond and Western Bulldogs player Ben Harrison (rugby league) (born 1988), Warrington Wolves player and Ireland international Ben Harrison (footballer, born 1997), English footballer Ben Harrison (sound designer), sound designer specialising in musical theatre and live events Ben Harrison, co-developer of the video game Angband Ben Harrison, character on Naturally, Sadie See also Benjamin Harrison (disambiguation)	[ 0.39918115735054016, 0.00014786836982239038, -0.21210326254367828, -0.30316734313964844, 0.47539374232292175, 0.6411484479904175, 0.3961586058139801, 0.029241984710097313, -0.4171628952026367, 0.006312915589660406, -0.3233959376811981, 0.6374436020851135, 0.028646424412727356, 0.016011113300919533, -0.006522327661514282, 0.4904104173183441, 0.22634056210517883, 0.1651143729686737, -0.15363191068172455, -0.4146621823310852, 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248255	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical%20Lutheran%20Church%20in%20America	Evangelical Lutheran Church in America	The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) is a mainline Protestant Lutheran church headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. The ELCA was officially formed on January 1, 1988, by the merging of three Lutheran church bodies. , it has approximately 3.14 million baptized members in 8,894 congregations. In 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.4 percent of the U.S. population self-identifies with the ELCA. It is the seventh-largest Christian denomination by reported membership, and the largest Lutheran denomination in the United States. The next two largest Lutheran denominations are the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) (with over 1.8 million members) and the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) (with approximately 350,000 members). There are also many smaller Lutheran church bodies in the United States, some of which were formed by dissidents to the major 1988 merger. The ELCA belongs to the World Council of Churches, the National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA, and the Lutheran World Federation. The ELCA is in full communion with the Episcopal Church, Moravian Church, Presbyterian Church (USA), Reformed Church in America, United Church of Christ, and the United Methodist Church. History Historically various Lutheran churches in the United States formed out of association of congregations formed related to national immigration waves. For instance, members of the Lutheran Church in America (LCA) (centered in New York City, New York and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) were largely descendants of immigrants in the colonial and mid-19th century period. The American Lutheran Church (ALC), with headquarters in Minneapolis, Minnesota, was influenced by descendants of the waves of Scandinavian and German immigration to the Midwest in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (AELC) (which had earlier withdrawn from the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod after 1975), was made up of many congregations through the lower Midwest. Over time, the national or ethnic identification by certain church associations lessened as descendants became more assimilated into general American society. Members across organizations began to have more in common as areas of the country urbanized and more people made their livings in suburbs and cities, rather than in rural farming areas. The ALC and LCA were already the result of earlier mergers among associated congregations once related to ethnic immigrant groups. In 1970, a survey by Strommen et al. found that 79 percent of Lutheran Church in America clergy, 62 percent of American Lutheran Church clergy, and 58 percent of Lutheran Church Missouri Synod clergy surveyed agreed that "a merger of all Lutheran groups in the United States into one organization is desirable". Disagreements among various congregations in the 1970s resulted in many leaving the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod after 1975, as it became dominated by theological and social conservatives. These dissidents churches formed the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (AELC). Following several years of discussions, the LCA, ALC, and AELC formally agreed in 1982 to unite. Implementing this agreement took longer: the new Evangelical Lutheran Church of America (ELCA) was effective on January 1, 1988, creating the largest Lutheran church body in the United States. The ALC and LCA had been formed by previous mergers. The American Lutheran Church In 1960, The American Lutheran Church was formed as a merger of the earlier ALC of 1930, largely members of German heritage; the United Evangelical Lutheran Church (UELC), with members of Danish background; and the Evangelical Lutheran Church (ELC), made up of members of Norwegian background. The Lutheran Free Church (LFC) joined three years later in 1963. The ALC brought approximately 2.25 million members into the new ELCA. It was the most theologically conservative of the forming bodies, having a heritage of Old Lutheran theology. It had been in fellowship for a decade with the Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod and officially held to biblical inerrancy in its constitution. It seldom enforced that stance by means of heresy trials or other doctrinal discipline. Its geographic center was in the Upper Midwest, especially Minnesota. Its headquarters and publisher (Augsburg Publishing House) were based on South Fifth Street in Minneapolis and one of its several seminaries was located in neighboring St. Paul. Its denominational magazine was The Lutheran Standard, published in Minneapolis. Some congregations in the ALC chose not to join the 1988 merger and instead formed the American Association of Lutheran Churches. The Lutheran Church in America The Lutheran Church in America (LCA) had been created in 1962, by a merger among the United Lutheran Church in America (created in 1918 by an earlier merger of three German Lutheran synods in the eastern U.S.); Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church, of Swedish ethnicity with some dating to the colonial era; the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church of America; and American Evangelical Lutheran Church, made up of ethnic Danish families. The LCA was the slightly larger partner and brought approximately 2.85 million members into the new ELCA. Their administrative offices were in the Church House, a former townhouse mansion on Madison Avenue in New York City. Its publishing house, Fortress Press, was on Queen Lane in northwest Philadelphia, and produced the church magazine, The Lutheran. Its demographic focus was on the East Coast, centered on Pennsylvania). It also had large numbers in the Midwest and some presence in the Southern Atlantic states. There are notable exceptions, but LCA-background churches tend to emphasize liturgical expression more than the ALC-background churches. Its theological orientation ranged from moderately liberal to neo-orthodox, with tendencies toward conservative Pietism in some rural and small-town congregations. Its theology originated in the Neo-Lutheran movement. The Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches In 1976, the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (AELC) was formed by 250 congregations that had left the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) in a schism precipitated by disputes over biblical inerrancy and ecumenism. These were part of the overall Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy that had been roiling American Protestant churches for several decades. In 1969 the LCMS had elected more conservative leadership under President Jacob A.O. Preus, replacing moderate incumbent Oliver Harms. The new leadership opened an investigation at the synod's Concordia Seminary in St. Louis, Missouri, about the faculty's commitment to inerrancy in biblical interpretation. It also opposed ecumenism. As a result, most of the faculty and student body walked out and established a separate institution named "Concordia Seminary-in-Exile" (but usually referred to as "Seminex"). The AELC was formed in 1976. It brought approximately 100,000 members into the ELCA. Its ethnic heritage was primarily from German immigrants of the mid-19th century, who came to the US following the revolutions in various principalities. Many were abolitionists and Unionists during the American Civil War. By the 1980s, the AELC theology generally resembled that of the LCA. Organization The ELCA is headed by a presiding bishop, who is elected by the Churchwide Assembly for a six-year term (it was a four-year term until 1995). To date, four people have been elected to the position of presiding bishop of the ELCA. Herbert W. Chilstrom served as the first presiding bishop from 1987 to 1995. He was followed by H. George Anderson (1995–2001), who had previously been the president of Luther College. The third presiding bishop was Mark Hanson, who is the past president of the Lutheran World Federation, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. Hanson began his tenure as bishop of the Church in 2001 and was re-elected in August 2007 for a second term. Elizabeth Eaton was elected presiding bishop in August 2013 and took office on November 1, 2013. She was reelected for a second term in 2019. In addition, the body of the Church Council is composed of representatives elected for a stated number of years from the various synods. These meet regularly with legislative powers in between sessions of the Churchwide Assemblies. The Conference of Bishops, which meets at least twice a year, is formed of 66 bishops (the 65 elected synodical bishops, together with the presiding bishop), plus the ELCA church secretary. It is consulted by the presiding bishop and the Church Council for advice on matters of doctrine, faith and order, and ecumenical relations. The ELCA website states that "While primarily advisory, the role of the Conference of Bishops is significant within the life of this church." The ELCA is divided into 65 synods, one of which is non-geographical (the Slovak Zion Synod) and 64 regional synods in the United States and the Caribbean, each headed by a synodical bishop and council; these synods are in turn grouped into nine regions. Within the ELCA the term synod refers to the middle judicatory, which is referred to in some other denominations as "presbyteries", "districts", "conferences" or "dioceses" (the most ancient and traditional term in Christianity). In other Christian churches, the term "synod" is used for a meeting or conference of ministers such as priests or bishops of a diocese, province (region) or nation or, in some Protestant churches, as the term for their annual governing convention. Some Evangelical Lutheran denominations overseas continue to use the ancient church title of "diocese". Outside of the United States, ELCA also has congregations in the Caribbean region (Bahamas which is combined with Florida in one synod; Bermuda, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands); and one congregation in the border city of Windsor, Ontario, a member of the Slovak Zion Synod. Before 1986, some of the congregations that form the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada were part of the ELCA's predecessor churches. Within the church structure are divisions addressing many programs and ministries. Among these are support for global mission, outdoor ministries, campus ministries, social ministries, and education. They include the Lutheran Peace Fellowship, Lutheran Women's Caucus, Lutheran Volunteer Corps, and the Lutheran Youth Organization ELCA Youth Gathering (formerly known in predecessor denominations as the Luther League). They cooperate with an ecumenical inter-Lutheran college/university student organization known as the Lutheran Student Movement-USA founded in 1922 and reorganized in 1969. The denominational publishing house is Augsburg Fortress, and the official denominational magazine is Living Lutheran. ELCA predecessor bodies established twenty-six colleges and universities, which are now affiliated with the ELCA and a large number of associated theological seminaries. Some of these are associated with neighboring universities or theological consortia. Most local congregations are legally independent non-profit corporations within the state where they are located and own their own property. Governing practice within the congregation ranges from congregational voters' assemblies or annual and special congregational meetings to elder-and-council-led, to congregations where the senior pastor wields great, if informal, power (more common in larger churches). Churchwide Assemblies The Churchwide Assembly consists of elected lay and ordained voting members. The Churchwide Assembly met biennially in odd-numbered years until 2013. Between meetings of the Churchwide Assembly, the ELCA Church Council governs the denomination, along with the advisory Conference of Bishops. At the Assembly, elections are held for general officers of the Church such as the presiding bishop, vice president and secretary, budgets are adopted, social statements examined and approved, and various other church business enacted, along with reports made and ecumenical visitors acknowledged. A constitutional amendment was passed in 2011 to change the Assembly to one meeting on a triennial basis after 2013. The Assembly was known as the "General Convention" in the ALC and the "Biennial Convention" in the LCA. 1987 Columbus, Ohio (ELCA Constituting Convention) 1989 Chicago, Illinois 1991 Orlando, Florida 1993 Kansas City, Missouri 1995 Minneapolis, Minnesota 1997 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 1999 Denver, Colorado 2001 Indianapolis, Indiana 2003 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 2005 Orlando, Florida 2007 Chicago, Illinois 2009 Minneapolis, Minnesota 2011 Orlando, Florida 2013 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 2016 New Orleans, Louisiana 2019 Milwaukee, Wisconsin 2022 Columbus, Ohio Beliefs Lutheranism Lutheranism is associated with the theology of Martin Luther, with its official confessional writings found in the Book of Concord. The ELCA accepts the unaltered Augsburg Confession (not the variata) as a true witness to the Gospel. The ELCA is less conservative than the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) or the more conservative Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS), the second and third largest Lutheran bodies in the United States, respectively. Although having a sizable conservative minority, most ELCA Lutherans are theologically moderate-to-liberal. Most other Lutheran bodies in the U.S. hold more strictly to Confessional Lutheranism. Differences within the ELCA Constituent congregations of the ELCA hold many differences of opinion, and have had disputes over social and doctrinal issues. In part, this is related to the history of having assimilated three different Lutheran church bodies, each with its own factions and divisions, but also to responses to changing social conditions in the United States. Old intra-group conflicts were inherited and new inter-group ones were created. Differences on issues usually reflect theological disputes between various parties. The ELCA is a very broad denomination. It contains groups of socially conservative or liberal factions with differing emphases on various topics such as liturgical renewal, confessional Lutheranism, charismatic revivalism, moderate to liberal theology, and liberal activism. The socially liberal segment of the ELCA is represented by independent organizations such as Lutherans Concerned/North America, Extraordinary Lutheran Ministries, and the Evangelical and Ecumenical Women's Caucus. What is now known as the Lutheran Coalition For Renewal (Lutheran CORE) is made up of socially conservative congregations that left the ELCA after it decided to accept openly gay clergy for ordination and calling. Adherents of Evangelical Catholicism practice High Church Lutheranism and include the members of the Society of the Holy Trinity. Those oriented toward Confessional Lutheranism, Evangelicalism, or an admixture of the two include the WordAlone network, and those involved with Lutheran Congregations in Mission for Christ. Members of the Charismatic Movement include congregations and pastors associated with the Alliance of Renewal Churches. Additionally, there has been a recent growth in Franciscan spirituality in the ELCA through the Order of Lutheran Franciscans. Scripture The ELCA constitution states: "This church accepts the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the inspired Word of God and the authoritative source and norm of its proclamation, faith, and life." ELCA clergy tend not to subscribe to a doctrine of biblical inerrancy, but see validity in various scholarly methods of analysis to help in understanding the Bible. This is in concord with most moderate Protestant bodies and in contrast to the LCMS and WELS, which practice the historical-grammatical method of biblical interpretation. Sacraments Like other Lutheran church bodies, the ELCA confesses at least two Sacraments: Communion (or the Eucharist) and Holy Baptism (including infant baptism). Confession and absolution is often included as a Sacrament; however, as it is a return to the forgiveness given in baptism, strictly speaking, there are only two sacraments. Guidance on sacramental practices in the ELCA is provided in The Use of the Means of Grace, a statement adopted by the 1997 Churchwide Assembly. In addition to the two sacraments, ELCA churches also practice acts that are sacramental in character, or sacramentals. These include confirmation, ordination, anointing the sick, confession and absolution, and marriage. The practice and the view of these as "minor sacraments" varies between churches of a "high" and "low" church nature. With respect to the eucharist or the Lord's Supper, the ELCA holds to the Lutheran doctrine of the sacramental union, that is, that Christ's body and blood is truly present "in, with and under" the bread and wine. All communicants orally receive not only bread and wine, but also the same body and blood of Christ that was given for them on the cross. Members of other denominations sometimes refer to this as a belief in consubstantiation. Lutherans, however, reject the philosophical explanation of consubstantiation, preferring to consider the presence of the Lord's body and blood as mysterious rather than explainable by human philosophy. The Lutheran belief in the holy mystery character of the consecrated bread and wine is more similar to that of Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox belief than to the views of most Protestants. In contrast, most Protestant church bodies doubt or openly deny that the true body and blood of Christ is eaten in the Lord's Supper. Unlike certain other American Lutheran church bodies, the ELCA practices open communion, permitting all persons baptized in the name of the Trinity with water to receive communion. Some congregations also commune baptized infants, similarly to Eastern Orthodox practice. The ELCA encourages its churches to celebrate the Eucharist at all services, although some churches alternate between non-eucharistic services and those containing the Lord's Supper. Social issues The ELCA's stances on social issues are outlined in its Social Statements and Messages. Social Statements, which must be adopted by a two-thirds majority of a Churchwide Assembly, have been adopted on the following topics: Abortion (1991) Church in Society (1991) Death Penalty (1991) Economic Life (1999) Education (2007) Environment (1993) Genetics (2011) Health and Health Care (2003) Human Sexuality (2009) Peace (1995) Race, Ethnicity & Culture (1993) Migrant Crisis (2019) Role of women The ELCA ordains women as pastors, a practice that all three of its predecessor churches adopted in the 1970s (The ALC and LCA in 1970, the AELC in 1976). Some women have become bishops, though the number is still low. The first female bishop, April Ulring Larson, was elected in the La Crosse area synod in 1992. In 2018, the ELCA elected its first African-American female bishops: Patricia Davenport in Southeastern Pennsylvania and Viviane Thomas-Breitfeld in South-Central Wisconsin. In 2013, Elizabeth Eaton became the first woman to be elected presiding bishop of the ELCA. The most recent ELCA hymnal, Evangelical Lutheran Worship, includes alternate gender-neutral invocations and benedictions in all settings. All of the psalms and many of the hymns and parts of the liturgy have been altered to remove masculine pronouns referring to God. In 2000, the Cooperative Clergy Study Project surveyed 681 ELCA pastors and found that 95 percent of ELCA clergy thought that all clergy positions should be open to women, while 2 percent disagreed. Ordination of LGBT clergy and blessings of same-sex marriages On August 21, 2009, the ELCA's Churchwide Assembly in Minneapolis voted to allow congregations to call and ordain gays and lesbians in committed monogamous relationships to serve as clergy. By a vote of 559 to 451, delegates approved a resolution declaring that the church would find a way for people in "publicly accountable, lifelong, monogamous same-gender relationships" to serve as official ministers. Congregations that do not wish to call these persons to ordained ministry are not required by these policy changes to do so. In reaction, Lutheran CORE, which opposed the decision, stated that it would "initiate a process that we hope will lead to a reconfiguration of North American Lutheranism." In February 2010, Lutheran CORE announced that it would secede from the ELCA and form a new denomination to be named the North American Lutheran Church (NALC). , 37 percent of ELCA pastors were found to support same-sex marriage. The ELCA, in removing sexual orientation as a bar for candidacy in the professional ministry, joined most of its Lutheran sister churches in Europe, including in Germany, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Iceland, and Austria. The ELCA is also among a growing number of Christian churches in the United States to make this move. In contrast, the board of one of the ELCA's partner churches, October 2009, the Evangelical Mekane Yesus Fellowship in North America, voted to declare disunity with the ELCA. A press release stated that the board was no longer "in good conscience" "able to commune and partner with ELCA Church that has willfully disobeyed the word of God and regrettably departed from the clear instructions of the Holy Scriptures" that "marriage is only between a man and a woman". This was followed by the general synod of the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus also breaking links with the ELCA. In April 2010, The Church Council of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America adopted revisions to ministry policy documents to bring them in line with the August 2009 vote, as well as adding sections on integrity, substance abuse and addiction. The release noted that the revised ministry policies would be posted on the church's website by the end of April 2010. Since August 2009, according to the office of the ELCA secretary, over 600 congregations have left the ELCA through January 2011. Income declined, with revenue of $66.7 million in 2010, down from $76.5 million in 2009. On May 31, 2013, Guy Erwin became the first openly gay man to be chosen bishop in the ELCA when he was elected to a six-year term as bishop of the Southwest California Synod. In 2015, the denomination ordained, officially, the first transgender pastor. Also in 2015, after the Supreme Court legalized same-sex marriage nationally in the US, the office of the presiding bishop released a letter informing members that each congregation is free to marry gay and lesbian couples or to choose not to do so. Since 2009 blessings of same-sex marriages are allowed in the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Creation and evolution The ELCA has not adopted an official position on creation or evolution, but there is general agreement on interpreting the Bible within its historical contexts and applying critical methods of research. In 2000, the Cooperative Clergy Study Project surveyed 681 ELCA pastors and found that 26 percent of ELCA clergy thought Scientific Creationism should be taught alongside evolution in biology classes, while 57 percent disagreed. Reproductive cloning The ELCA has not yet taken an official position regarding reproductive cloning. However, Task Force on Genetics of the church's "Church in Society" initiative is studying the theological and ethical issues that the world is likely to face in coming years as a result of Genetic Science. The task force has issued a draft report for comment and discussion. The draft statement covers a wide range of topics, from genetic testing to GMOs. A section in this report which has been described by an independent reviewer as "a remarkably nuanced analysis and statement regarding a very complex scientific, social, and religious issue." The task force recommends opposition to reproductive cloning, as almost all religious groups currently do. However, the main theological reasoning is unique. Lewis D. Eigen explains: The argument they articulate is not the common but weak argument that it would be "offensive to God," "against the will of God" or "man encroaching into God's domain", but they observe that the clone would be denied the dignity of possessing a unique human genotype. This is an extremely interesting argument—that each and every human being has the right to his or her own uniqueness—particularly a unique genotype. The draft statement further asserts that any clones that might be created should have full acceptance as human beings and access to rites of the church. Abortion The issue of abortion is a matter of contention within the ELCA. In a Social Statement adopted in 1991, the church set out its position on the matter as follows. The ELCA describes itself as "a community supportive of life", and encourages women to explore alternatives to abortion such as adoption. However, the Social Statement asserts that there are certain circumstances under which a decision to end a pregnancy can be "morally responsible". These include cases where the pregnancy "presents a clear threat to the physical life of the woman", situations where "the pregnancy occurs when both parties do not participate willingly in sexual intercourse", and "circumstances of extreme fetal abnormality, which will result in severe suffering and very early death of an infant." Regardless of the reason, the ELCA opposes abortion when "a fetus is developed enough to live outside a uterus with the aid of reasonable and necessary technology." The ELCA opposes "laws that deny access to safe and affordable services for morally justifiable abortions", and "laws that are primarily intended to harass those contemplating or deciding for an abortion." The statement emphasizes the prevention of circumstances leading to abortion, specifically encouraging "appropriate forms of sex education in schools, community pregnancy prevention programs, and parenting preparation classes." In 2000, the Cooperative Clergy Study Project found that one fifth of ELCA clergy favored banning abortion with a constitutional amendment. Euthanasia The ELCA official statement on "End of Life Decisions", adopted on November 9, 1992, disapproves euthanasia: "We oppose the legalization of physician-assisted death, which would allow the private killing of one person by another. Public control and regulation of such actions would be extremely difficult, if not impossible. The potential for abuse, especially of people who are most vulnerable, would be substantially increased." Ministry As a Lutheran church body, the ELCA professes belief in the "priesthood of all believers" as reflected in Martin Luther's To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, that all baptized persons have equal access to God and are all called to use their gifts to serve the body of Christ. Some people are called to "rostered ministry", or vocations of church leadership and service. After formation, theological training, and approval by local synods these people are "set aside, but not above" through ordination or commissioning/consecration. More and more ELCA congregations are employing specialized and even general ministers outside of this national oversight. An extensive "Study of Ministry" was embarked upon immediately after the 1988 merger as it became apparent that there were still discordant viewpoints and influences, especially by the pressure for a renewal of the office of deacon and its different manifestations to a more ancient and traditional view predating the Reformation into the earliest days of Christianity. The church makes a clear distinction between the deacon's "Ministry of Word and Service", and the Pastor's "Ministry of Word and Sacrament". In ELCA the word ordination refers specifically to the setting apart of an ordained pastor in the ministry of word and sacrament. The similar rite for setting apart a bishop is called installation, and the rite for setting apart a deacon is called consecration (since 2019, ordination has also become the term for setting apart deacons). All three rites (for bishops, pastors, and deacons) are formal liturgies, with prayer and the laying-on of hands by the bishop, or by the presiding bishop in the case of the installation of a new bishop. Since 2000, the ELCA has required all installations of new bishops to include the laying-on of hands by not fewer than three bishops who are known to be within the historic line of apostolic succession. Deacons Deacons are called to a "Ministry of Word and Service". The former lay rosters of deaconess, diaconal minister, and associate in ministry were all merged onto one roster, called Deacons, beginning in January 2017. Deacons serve in many roles in and beyond congregations. At their ordination they may be presented with a towel and basin (in reference to Jesus washing the feet of his disciples) as a sign of their servant ministry, but the rite of ordination (published in January 2017) also allows for other symbols to be presented, reflecting the broad range of diaconal service. The rite states: "Other symbols of the ministry of word and service may be given, which may reflect a particular focus of the deacon's call and vocation, such as a vessel containing oil, a Bible, or the book of worship." Pastors An ordained minister is called to the "Ministry of Word and Sacrament" and considered a "steward of the mysteries" of the Church (the means of grace). Pastors primarily serve congregations, but some serve in sector ministries including those of hospital chaplain and military chaplain. Pastors are ordinarily trained at one of eight ELCA seminaries located throughout the United States, although there are alternative paths for ordination to serve particular communities in which it is difficult to provide trained leaders or to allow rostering of clergy transferred from other denominations. Pastors generally hold a Bachelor of Arts degree or its equivalent, as well as a four-year master of divinity degree. They are required to learn biblical Hebrew and Greek, and spend at least a summer doing clinical pastoral education — an intensive program that gives them time to reflect on their pastoral craft, usually in a hospital setting. They are required to complete a one-year internship of full-time service in pastoral ministry. Bishops A bishop is a pastor called to serve (usually for a six-year term, which may be renewed) as the senior pastor of a synod, or called to serve as the presiding bishop of the ELCA. The Called to Common Mission agreement with the Episcopal Church in 2000 means that bishops are now ordained in the Apostolic Succession and remain permanently in that office for life. The fixed term of service as head of a synod has not changed, and there was no requirement in 2000 for existing ELCA bishops to be re-ordained within the historic episcopate; instead, the apostolic succession was received as a sign of historic continuity, without denying the traditional Lutheran belief that the Church is truly present where the sacraments of baptism and holy communion are administered, regardless of the historic nature (or otherwise) of the ministry. Before 2000 a pastor had served in the office of bishop and then returned to being known simply as a pastor when service as a bishop had ended. Following the 2000 agreement a former bishop may still return to the work of a local pastor, but he or she now retains the status of bishop, even if not exercising that ministry. Worship Published in 2006, Evangelical Lutheran Worship is the main hymnal used in congregations. Some congregations, however, continue to use the older Lutheran Book of Worship published by the Inter-Lutheran Commission on Worship in 1978, and some even continue to use the older Service Book and Hymnal (SBH) of 1958 or its antecedent precedent-setting Common Service of 1888 which laid out a traditional American Lutheran liturgy and later was included in subsequent worship books and hymnals of various churches especially The Common Service Book of 1917, adopted by the old United Lutheran Church in America, a predecessor of the LCA to 1962, and The Lutheran Hymnal (TLH-1941) of the LCMS. Many congregations also make use of supplementary resources recently published as well besides those authorized for the LBW by Augsburg-Fortress, Publishers. Many ELCA congregations are classically liturgical churches. Their liturgy is rooted in the Western liturgical tradition, though recent international Lutheran-Orthodox dialog sessions have had some minimal influence on Lutheran liturgy. Because of its use of the Book of Concord of 1580, with the Confessions, documents and beliefs of the Reformers, including the Augsburg Confession of 1530, Luther's Small Catechism of 1529 and the Large Catechism and its retention of many pre-Reformation traditions, such as vestments, feast days and the celebration of the Church Year, the sign of the cross, and the usage of a church-wide liturgy, there are many aspects of the typical ELCA church that are very catholic and traditional in nature. Many Evangelical Lutheran churches use traditional vestments (cassock, surplice, stole for services of the Word or non-Eucharistic liturgies or alb, cincture, stole, chasuble (pastor) or dalmatic (deacon), cope (processions) for Eucharists (Mass, Holy Communion), etc.). On special rare occasions even a bishop's cross/crozier and mitre (bishop's headpiece) have been used to designate the ancient robes and traditions of the Church originating in Roman times of which Luther and his fellow Reformers like Philip Melanchthon considered as "adiaphora" or of permissive use. Since the Second Vatican Council of the 1960s, most major parts of the ELCA's popular liturgies are worded exactly like the English language Mass of 1970 of the Roman Catholic Church. Many ELCA congregations use informal styles of worship or a blend of traditional and contemporary liturgical forms. Springing from its revered heritage in the Lutheran chorale, the musical life of ELCA congregations is just as diverse as its worship. Johann Sebastian Bach, the most famous Lutheran composer and African songs are part of the heritage and breadth of Evangelical Lutheran church music. The musical portion of the Lutheran liturgy includes metrical psalter, metrical responses and hymns. Evangelical Lutheran Worship has ten settings of Holy Communion, for example. They range from plainsong chant, to Gospel, to Latin-style music. Congregations worship in many languages, many of which are represented in Evangelical Lutheran Worship. Other books used in ELCA churches include the Lutheran Book of Worship (1978), and its supplements: With One Voice, This Far by Faith, and for Latino/Hispanic congregations: Libro de Liturgia y Cántico. Ecumenical relations The ELCA is a member of the National Council of Churches, the World Council of Churches, and Christian Churches Together and is a "partner in mission and dialog" with the Churches Uniting in Christ (formerly the Consultation on Church Union) formed in 1960. Full communion The Church maintains full communion relationships with other member churches of the Lutheran World Federation (which is a communion of 140 autonomous national/regional Lutheran church bodies in 78 countries around the world, representing nearly 66 million Christians) which was reorganized in 1948 from the earlier Lutheran World Convention of 1923. The ELCA has additionally full communion with the Episcopal Church, in which several congregations are jointly affiliated and hold mixed services. Also the ELCA has since established official full communion relationships with other Christian denominations such as the Moravian Church in America (with the exception of the Alaska Province), the Presbyterian Church (USA), the Reformed Church in America, the United Church of Christ, the Episcopal Church, and The United Methodist Church. In 2013, the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus severed ties, including communion and pulpit fellowship, with the ELCA over the issue of practices and teachings connected with homosexuality. Roman Catholic Church On October 31, 1999, in Augsburg, Germany, the Lutheran World Federation – of which the ELCA is a member – signed the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification with the Roman Catholic Church. The statement is an attempt to reconcile a historical theological divide between the two communions. The Declaration also states that the mutual condemnations between 16th century Lutherans and the Roman Catholic Church no longer apply to those that have signed onto the document. This was part of a series of "Lutheran-Roman Catholic Dialogues" have been taking place on an official basis every few years with statements and booklets on various theological topics published since 1966. Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod The differences between the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) arise from theological, historical, and cultural factors. The LCMS was briefly in fellowship with the former The American Lutheran Church, one of the ELCA predecessor bodies from 1969 to the early 1980s. Although the denominations cooperate through Lutheran World Relief and some university/college student ministries and military chaplaincy, they are not officially in communion with each other. When the first Lutheran immigrants came to North America, they started church bodies that reflected, to some degree, the churches they left behind in Europe. Many maintained until the early 20th century their immigrant languages. They sought pastors from the "old country" until patterns for the education of clergy could be developed here. Eventually, seminaries and church colleges were established in many places to prepare pastors to serve congregations. The earliest predecessor synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America was constituted on August 25, 1748, in Philadelphia under the influence of Henry Muhlenberg, known as the "Patriarch of American Lutheranism". It was known as the Ministerium of Pennsylvania and Adjacent States. The earliest nationwide "synod" or "union of synods" was established in 1820 as the General Synod, followed later by the General Council. The ELCA was created in 1988 by the merging of the 2.85-million-member Lutheran Church in America (1962), 2.25-million-member The American Lutheran Church (1960), and the 100,000-member Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches (1978). Previously, the ALC and LCA in the early 1960s came into being as a result of two mergers of eight smaller ethnically based Lutheran bodies composed of German, Norwegian, Danish, Finnish, Swedish, Slovak, Dutch, and others organized over 150 years. Some of these smaller ethnically based bodies previously had ecumenical arrangements involving the Missouri Synod. The LCMS was established in 1847 by German immigrants fleeing the forced Prussian Union between Lutherans and Reformed church members in European Germany, who later settled in Perry County, Missouri. It grew through immigration, offspring, and church mergers while participating in some, but not all of the dialogues, controversies, and compromises which affected the various predecessors of the ELCA during the 19th and 20th Centuries. In the mid-1970s the Seminex controversy at their Concordia Seminary in St. Louis over use of historical-critical biblical study led to the formation of the Association of Evangelical Lutheran Churches, later one of the predecessor bodies of the ELCA. The LCMS is the second largest Lutheran church body in North America with 2.1 million adherents. The ELCA tends to be more involved in ecumenical endeavors than the LCMS, which prohibits its clergy from worshiping in ecumenical gatherings. The ELCA is a member of the Lutheran World Federation, World Council of Churches and the National Council of Churches of Christ, USA. The LCMS rejects these as being unionist. Both the LCMS and the ELCA have policies relating to clergy sexual misconduct. Perry C. Francis, a former ELCA pastor turned professor, along with psychology professor Tracy D. Baldo, published the results of their 1994 study of clergy sexual misconduct in the journal Pastoral Psychology. Out of 270 ELCA and 117 LCMS clergy surveyed, 13.7 percent of ELCA clergy and 4.3 percent of LCMS clergy admitted to sexual misconduct with another person since they began their ministry. Results from the Pew Research Center U.S. Religious Landscape Survey of 2008: Comparison to LCMS in ELCA's point of view according to the Honoring Our Neighbor's Faith These conclusions are not agreed upon by the WELS or LCMS. Demographics Results from the Pew Research Center U.S. Religious Landscape Survey of 2008: Statistics Over 500,000 people have left the ELCA since the church's human sexuality decision in 2009. Approximately 700 congregations have voted to withdraw from the ELCA, representing about 7 percent of its 2009 congregational membership. The ELCA currently has a baptized membership of 3,142,777 people. In 2015, Pew Research estimated that 1.4 percent of the U.S. population, or roughly 4.4 million adherents, identify with the ELCA, and another 0.7 percent, or 2.2 million adherents, identify with mainline Lutheranism in general. A number of members of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America are former Roman Catholics. , the ELCA has approximately 8,894 congregations. See also Protestantism in the United States Christianity in the United States References Further reading Bodensieck, Julius, ed. The encyclopedia of the Lutheran Church (3 vol 1965) vol 1 and 3 online free Brauer, James Leonard and Fred L. Precht, eds. Lutheran Worship: History and Practice (1993) Granquist, Mark. Lutherans in America: A New History (2015) Meyer, Carl S. Moving Frontiers: Readings in the History of the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod (1986) Roeber, A. G. Palatines, Liberty, and Property: German Lutherans in Colonial British America (1998) Trexler, Edgar R. Anatomy of a Merger: People, Dynamics, and Decisions That Shaped the ELCA (1992) Wengert, Timothy J. and Mark Granquist, eds. Dictionary of Luther and the Lutheran Traditions (2017) Wolf, Edmund Jacob. The Lutherans in America; a story of struggle, progress, influence and marvelous growth. New York: J.A. Hill. 1889. A history of many of the bodies that merged to form the ELCA. About the Concordat: 28 Questions about the Agreement between the Episcopal Church and the Evangelical Church of America [i.e. the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]. Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, [1997?]. 43 p. Without ISBN A Commentary on [the Episcopal Church/Evangelical Lutheran Church in America] Concordat of Agreement, ed. by James E. Griffes and Daniel Martensen. Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg-Fortress; Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 1994. 159 p. Concordat of Agreement [between the Episcopal Church and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]: Supporting Essays, ed. by Daniel F. Martensen. Minneapolis, Minn.: Augsburg-Fortress; Cincinnati, Ohio: Forward Movement Publications, 1995. 234 p. 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248256	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principle%20of%20double%20effect	Principle of double effect	The principle of double effect – also known as the rule of double effect; the doctrine of double effect, often abbreviated as DDE or PDE, double-effect reasoning; or simply double effect – is a set of ethical criteria which Christian philosophers, and some others, have advocated for evaluating the permissibility of acting when one's otherwise legitimate act may also cause an effect one would otherwise be obliged to avoid. The first known example of double-effect reasoning is Thomas Aquinas' treatment of homicidal self-defense, in his work Summa Theologica.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/summa/3064.htm#article7 Summa Theologiae, IIa-IIae Q. 64, art. 7]</ref> This set of criteria states that an action having foreseen harmful effects practically inseparable from the good effect is justifiable if the following are true: the nature of the act is itself good, or at least morally neutral; the agent intends the good effect and does not intend the bad effect, either as a means to the good or as an end in itself; the good effect outweighs the bad effect in circumstances sufficiently grave to justify causing the bad effect and the agent exercises due diligence to minimize the harm. Intentional harm vis-à-vis side effects The principle of double effect is based on the idea that there is a morally relevant difference between an "intended" consequence of an act and one that is foreseen by the actor but not calculated to achieve their motive. So, for example, the principle is invoked to consider the terror bombing of non-combatants having as its goal victory in a legitimate war morally out of bounds, while holding as ethically in bounds an act of strategic bombing that similarly harms non-combatants with foresight as a side effect of destroying a legitimate military target. Because advocates of double effect propose that consequentially similar acts can be morally different, double effect is most often criticized by consequentialists who consider the consequences of actions entirely determinative of the action's morality. In their use of the distinction between intent and foresight without intent, advocates of double effect make three arguments. First, that intent differs from foresight, even in cases in which one foresees an effect as inevitable. Second, that one can apply the distinction to specific sets of cases found in military ethics (terror bombing/strategic bombing), medical ethics (craniotomy/hysterectomy), and social ethics (euthanasia). Third, that the distinction has moral relevance, importance, or significance. The doctrine consists of four conditions that must be satisfied before an act is morally permissible: The nature-of-the-act condition. The action, apart from the foreseen evil, must be either morally good or indifferent. The means-end condition. The bad effect must not be the means by which one achieves the good effect. Good ends do not justify evil means. The right-intention condition. The intention must be the achieving of only the good effect, with the bad effect being only an unintended side effect. All reasonable measures to avoid or mitigate the bad effect must be taken. The proportionality condition.'' There must be a proportionately grave reason for permitting the evil effect. Medicine The principle of double effect is frequently cited in cases of pregnancy and abortion. A doctor who believes abortion is always morally wrong may still remove the uterus or fallopian tubes of a pregnant woman, knowing the procedure will cause the death of the embryo or fetus, in cases in which the woman is certain to die without the procedure (examples cited include aggressive uterine cancer and ectopic pregnancy). In these cases, the intended effect is to save the woman's life, not to terminate the pregnancy, and the effect of not performing the procedure would result in the greater evil of the death of both the mother and the fetus. In cases of terminally ill patients who would hasten their deaths because of unbearable pain, or whose caregivers would do so for them (euthanasia, medical aid in dying, etc.), a principle of "double effect death" could be applied to justify the deliberate administration of a pain-killer in potentially unsafe doses—not in an attempt to end life but to relieve the pain suffered as it is considered harmful to the patient. The U.S. Supreme Court has voiced support for this principle in its deliberations over the constitutionality of medical aid in dying. Criticisms Consequentialists, in particular, reject the notion that two acts can differ in their moral permissibility if both have exactly the same consequences, or expected consequences. John Stuart Mill, a nineteenth-century advocate of the utilitarian version of consequentialism, argues that it is a mistake to confuse the standards for right action with a consideration of our motives to perform a right action: "He who saves a fellow creature from drowning does what is morally right, whether his motive be duty, or the hope of being paid for his trouble; he who betrays the friend that trusts him, is guilty of a crime, even if his object be to serve another friend to whom he is under greater obligations." According to Mill, scrutiny of motives will show that almost all good behavior proceeds from questionable intentions. Therefore, Mill argues, our moral analysis should ignore matters of motivation, and so we should reject DDE, which appeals to a distinction between intended and unintended consequences. Mill further claims that scrutiny of motives will reveal a man's character, but utilitarianism does not judge character, only the rightness or wrongness of actions. See also Trolley problem – a moral dilemma exploring the principle of double effect Competing harms and necessity – similar theories in law Lesser of two evils principle References External links Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry PhilPapers Bibliography: 'Doctrine of Double Effect' Bioethics Thomism Ethical principles Catholic Church and abortion	[ 0.14075984060764313, 0.07952884584665298, -0.47255808115005493, -0.07789235562086105, -0.05698918178677559, 0.09059813618659973, 0.7774143815040588, -0.42438021302223206, 0.17822951078414917, -0.1655818223953247, -0.3296942114830017, 0.6453139185905457, -0.6209273934364319, -0.01259620487689972, -0.483785480260849, 0.4543561637401581, 1.0044251680374146, 0.093363456428051, 0.092037133872509, -0.16841043531894684, 0.051152680069208145, 0.5941800475120544, -0.2475980818271637, -0.28612029552459717, -0.11251964420080185, 0.14231990277767181, 0.37611544132232666, -0.37627801299095154, -0.38670042157173157, 0.22422023117542267, 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248261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuo%20Miyagawa	Kazuo Miyagawa	was a Japanese cinematographer. Career Born in Kyoto, Miyagawa was taken with sumi-e Chinese ink painting from the age of eleven and began to sell his work as an illustrator while a teenager. He became interested in the cinema during the 1920s, particularly admiring the German Expressionist silents. He joined the Nikkatsu film company in 1926 after graduating from Kyoto Commercial School. He began as a laboratory technician before becoming an assistant cameraman. Miyagawa is best known for his tracking shots, particularly those in Rashomon (1950), the first of his three collaborations with filmmaker Akira Kurosawa. The other films with Kurosawa were Yojimbo (1961) and Kagemusha (1980). He also worked on multiple films directed by Kenji Mizoguchi, including Ugetsu (1953), but only on a single Yasujirō Ozu production, Floating Weeds (1959). He oversaw 164 cameramen for Kon Ichikawa's Tokyo Olympiad (1965), a documentary which necessitated the development of new exposure meters and viewfinders. Earlier, he had worked with Ichikawa on the drama films, Enjō ("The Temple of the Golden Pavilion", 1958), Odd Obsession (aka, The Key, 1959) and The Broken Commandment (1962). Miyagawa worked with Masahiro Shinoda in the 1980s, and at the end of his life was supervising the director's Owls' Castle ("Fukuro no Shiro"/"Castle of Owls", 1999). Miyagawa is considered the inventor of the cinematographic technique known as bleach bypass, for Ichikawa's film Her Brother (1960). Selected filmography Floating Weeds (1959) Her Brother (1960) A Certain Killer (1967) Zatoichi and the Fugitives (1968) Zatoichi Meets Yojimbo (1970) Zatoichi Goes to the Fire Festival (1970) Lone Wolf and Cub: Baby Cart in Peril (1972) References External links 1908 births 1999 deaths Japanese cinematographers	[ 0.035800751298666, 0.1335485726594925, -0.7553502917289734, -0.24344833195209503, -0.380666047334671, 0.5053439736366272, 0.5044574737548828, -0.09444522112607956, -0.31945517659187317, 0.14045043289661407, 0.041448984295129776, 0.1567707657814026, -0.043428000062704086, 0.2867225408554077, -0.1273949146270752, -0.23801490664482117, -0.05441886931657791, 0.33947518467903137, -0.24292069673538208, -0.5467833876609802, -0.23444810509681702, -0.46603232622146606, -0.1246342882514, -0.10336343199014664, -0.10249721258878708, 0.4014979600906372, -0.01289772056043148, 1.0375080108642578, 0.24884827435016632, -0.3305682837963104, 0.2683766186237335, 0.698883593082428, 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248269	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Canada	Music of Canada	The music of Canada has reflected the diverse influences that have shaped the country. Indigenous Peoples, the Irish, British, and the French have all made unique contributions to the musical heritage of Canada. The music has also subsequently been influenced by American culture because of the proximity between the two countries. Since French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1605 and established the first permanent French settlements at Port Royal and Québec in 1608, the country has produced its own composers, musicians and ensembles. Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes. Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music. The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles. Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970. The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements. Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. The national anthem, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980. Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906. History Indigenous music For thousands of years, Canada has been inhabited by indigenous peoples from a variety of different cultures and of several major linguistic groupings. Each of the Indigenous communities had (and have) their own unique musical traditions. Chanting - singing is widely popular, with many of its performers also using a variety of musical instruments. They used the materials at hand to make their instruments for thousands of years before Europeans immigrated to the new world. They made gourds and animal horns into rattles which were elaborately carved and beautifully painted. In woodland areas, they made horns of birchbark along with drumsticks of carved antlers and wood. Drums were generally made of carved wood and animal hides. These musical instruments provide the background for songs and dances. For many years after European settlement Canada, First Nations and Inuit peoples were discouraged from practicing their traditional ceremonies. However, impacts varied significantly depending on such aspects as the time period, relative population size, relation quality, resistance, etc. In 1606–1607 Marc Lescarbot collected the earliest extant transcriptions of songs from the Americas: three songs of Henri Membertou, the sakmow (Grand Chief) of the Mi'kmaq First Nations tribe situated near Port Royal, present-day Nova Scotia. 17th century French settlers and explorers to New France brought with them a great love of song, dance and fiddle playing. Beginning in the 1630s French and Indigenous children at Québec were taught to sing and play European instruments, like viols, violins, guitars, transverse flutes, drums, fifes and trumpets. Ecole des Ursulines and The Ursuline Convent are among North America's oldest schools and the first institutions of learning for women in North America. Both were founded in 1639 by French nun Marie of the Incarnation (1599–1672) alongside the laywoman Marie-Madeline de Chauvigny de la Peltrie (1603–1671) and are the first Canadian institutions to have music as part of the curriculum. The earliest written record of violins in Canada comes from the Jesuit Relation of 1645. The Jesuits additionally have the first documented organ sale, imported for their Québec chapel in 1657. Notre-Dame de Québec Cathedral, built in 1647, is the primatial church of Canada and seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec. It is the oldest Catholic "Episcopal see" in the New World north of Mexico and site of the first documented choir in Canada. In what was then known as New France, the first formal ball was given by Louis-Théandre Chartier de Lotbinière (1612–1688) on 4 Feb. 1667. Louis Jolliet (1645–1700) is on record as one of the first classically trained practicing musicians in New France, although history has recognized him more as an explorer, hydrographer and voyageur. Jolliet is said to have played the organ, harpsichord, flute, and trumpet. In 1700, under British rule at this time, an organ was installed in Notre-Dame Basilica in Montreal and military bands gave concerts on the Champ de Mars. A French-born priest, René Ménard, composed motets around 1640, and a second Canadian-born priest, Charles-Amador Martin, is credited with the plainchant music for the Sacrae familiae felix spectaculum, in celebration of the Holy Family feast day in 1700. 18th century Historically, music was composed in Canada's colonies and settlements during the 18th century, although very few popular named works have survived or were even published. The French and Indian Wars began and left the population economically drained and ill-equipped to develop cultural pursuits properly. The part-time composers of this period were nonetheless often quite skilled. Traditional songs and dances, such as those of the Habitants and Métis, were transmitted orally, from generation to generation and from village to village, thus people felt no need to transcribe or publish them. Printed music was required, for music teachers and their pupils, who were from the privileged minority where domestic music making was considered a proof of gentility. Music publishing and printing in Europe by this time was a thriving industry, but it did not begin in Canada until the 19th century. Canadian composers were not able to focus entirely on creating new music in these years, as most made their living in other musical activities such as leading choirs, church organists and teaching. Regimental bands were musically a part of civil life and typically featured a dozen woodwind and brass instruments, performing at parades, festive ceremonies, minuets, country dances and balls. After the 1760s, regular concerts became a part of the cultural landscape, as well as a wide variety of dancing. Operatic excerpts began to appear, and before the end of the century Canada had its first home-grown opera. A "Concert Hall" existed in Québec by 1764 and subscription concerts by 1770, given, one may presume, by band players and skilled amateurs. Programs for the Québec and Halifax concerts of the 1790s reveal orchestral and chamber music by Handel, J.C. Bach, Haydn, Mozart and Pleyel. Canada's first two operas were written, ca. 1790 and ca. 1808 by composer, poet, and playwright Joseph Quesnel (1746–1809). The instrument of favour for the lower class was the fiddle. Fiddlers were a fixture in most public drinking establishments. God Save the King/Queen has been sung in Canada since British rule and by the mid-20th century was, along with "O Canada", one of the country's two de facto national anthems. 19th century The beginning of the 19th century Canadian musical ensembles had started forming in great numbers, writing waltzes, quadrilles, polkas and galops. The first volumes of music printed in Canada was the "Graduel romain" in 1800 followed by the "Union Harmony" in 1801. Folk music was still thriving, as recounted in the poem titled "A Canadian Boat Song". The poem was composed by the Irish poet Thomas Moore (1779–1852) during a visit to Canada in 1804. "The Canadian Boat Song" was so popular that it was published several times over the next forty years in Boston, New York City and Philadelphia. Dancing likewise was an extremely popular form of entertainment as noted In 1807 by the Scottish traveler and artist George Heriot (1759–1839), who wrote... Among the earliest musical societies were Halifax's "New Union Singing Society" of 1809 and Québec's "Harmonic Society" of 1820. One of the first registered all-civilian musical ensembles was a religious sect organized from Upper Canada called the Children of Peace in 1820. In 1833, a student orchestra was organized at the Séminaire de Québec the Société Ste-Cécile, as it was known, and was one of the earliest ensembles of its kind in Lower Canada. The first appearance of a piece of music in a newspaper or magazine was in the pages of the Montreal twice-weekly newspaper, La Minerve, on September 19, 1831. Many immigrants during this time lived in relative isolation and music sometimes obtained through subscriptions to newspapers and magazines, provided entertainment and a life line to civilization. One of the earliest surviving publications in Canada of a song on the piano in sheet music format is "The Merry Bells of England" by J.F. Lehmann, of Bytown (later Ottawa) in 1840. It was published by John Lovell in the literary magazine Literary Garland. The Great Migration of Canada from 1815 to 1850, consisting largely of Irish, and British immigrants, broadened considerably the Canadian musical culture. 1844, Samuel Nordheimer (1824–1912) opened a music store in Toronto selling pianos and soon thereafter began to publish engraved sheet music. Samuel Nordheimers store was among the first and the largest specialized music publisher in the Province of Canada. They initially had the sole right to publish copies of Alexander Muir's "The Maple Leaf Forever" that for many years served as an unofficial Canadian national anthem. By the time of Canadian Confederation (1867), songwriting had become a favored means of personal expression across the land. In a society in which most middle-class families now owned a harmonium or piano, and standard education included at least the rudiments of music, the result was often an original song. Such stirrings frequently occurred in response to noteworthy events, and few local or national excitements were allowed to pass without some musical comment. The 1870s saw several conservatories open their doors, providing their string, woodwind and brass faculty, leading to the opportunity for any class level of society to learn music. One Sweetly Solemn Thought in 1876 by Hamilton-based Robert S. Ambrose, became one of the most popular songs to ever be published in the 19th century. It fulfilled the purpose of being an appropriate song to sing in the parlors of homes that would not permit any non-sacred music to be performed on Sundays. At the same time it could be sung in dance halls or on the stage along with selections from operas and operettas. "O Canada" was originally commissioned by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec, the Honourable Théodore Robitaille (1834–1897), for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony. Calixa Lavallée (1842–1891) wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier (1839–1920). The text was originally only in French, before it was translated into English from 1906 on. Leo, the Royal Cadet a light opera with music by Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and a libretto by George Frederick Cameron was composed in Kingston, Ontario in 1889. The work centres on Nellie's love for Leo, a cadet at the Royal Military College of Canada who becomes a hero serving during the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. The operetta focussed on typical character types, events and concerns of Telgmann and Cameron's time and place. 20th century 1900–1929 Prior to the development of the gramophone, Canadian songwriters' works were published as sheet music, or in periodicals in local newspapers such as The Montreal Gazette and Toronto Empire. Most recordings purchased by Canadians in the early days of the gramophone were made by American and British performers, behind some of these international hits were Canadian songwriters. Robert Nathaniel Dett (1882–1943) was among the first Black Canadian composers during the early years of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. His works often appeared among the programs of William Marion Cook's New York syncopated Orchestra. Dett himself performed at Carnegie Hall and at the Boston Symphony Hall as a pianist and choir director. Following quickly on the gramophone's spread came Canada's involvement in the First World War. The war was the catalyst for the writing and recording of large numbers of Canadian-written popular songs, some of which achieved lasting international commercial success. The military during World War I produced official music such as regimental marches and songs as well as utilitarian bugle calls. The soldiers had a repertoire of their own, largely consisting of new, often ribald, lyrics to older tunes. Canada's first independent record label Compo Company built a pressing plant (the largest of its day) in 1918 at Lachine, Quebec. Compo was originally created to serve the several American independent record companies such as Okeh Records which wanted to distribute records in Canada. The 1920s saw Canada's first radio stations, this allowed Canadian songwriters to contribute some of the most famous popular music of the early 20th century. Canada's first commercial radio station CFCF (formerly XWA) begins broadcasting regularly scheduled programming in Montreal in 1920, followed by CKAC, Canada's first French language radio station, in 1922. By 1923, there were 34 radio stations in Canada and subsequently proliferated at a remarkable rate, and with them spread the popularity of jazz. Jazz became associated with all things modern, sophisticated, and also decadent. In 1925, the Canadian Performing Rights Society was formed to administer public performance and royalties for composers and lyricists. It became known as the Composers, Authors and Publishers Association of Canada (CAPAC). Toronto-born Murray Adaskin (1906–2002) was a violinist, composer, conductor and teacher at the University of Saskatchewan. From 1923 to 1936 he was an orchestral and chamber musician with the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, he was later named head of music at the University of Saskatchewan. He was a composer-in-residence at the University of Saskatchewan, the first appointment of this type in Canada. 1930–1959 During the great depression in Canada, the majority of people listened to what today would be called swing (Jazz) just as country was starting its roots. The diversity in the evolution of swing dancing in Canada is reflected in its many American names, Jive, Jitterbug and Lindy. Canada's first big band star was Guy Lombardo (1902–1977), who formed his easy listening band, The Royal Canadians, with his brothers and friends. They achieved international success starting in the mid-1920s selling an estimated 250 million phonograph records, and were the first Canadians to have a #1 single on Billboards top 100. In 1932, the first Broadcasting Act was passed by Parliament creating the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission. It was to both regulate all broadcasting and create a new national public radio network. 1936, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation came into existence, at the time, a million Canadian households had a radio. Emerging from the Great Depression on near equal-footing to American popular music, Canadian popular music continued to enjoy considerable success at home and abroad in the following years. Among them Montreal's jazz virtuoso Oscar Peterson (1925–2007), considered to have been one of the greatest pianists of all time, releasing over 200 recordings and receiving several Grammy Awards during his lifetime. Also notable is Hank Snow (1914–1999), who signed with RCA Victor in 1936 and went on to become one of America's biggest and most innovative country music superstars of the 1940s and 1950s. Snow became a regular performer at the Grand Ole Opry on WSM in Nashville and released more than 45 LPs over his lifetime. Snow was one of the inaugural inductees to the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame started in 2003. Canada during the Second World War produced some patriotic songs, but they were not hits in the music industry sense. A number of Canadian singers who learned their craft in Canadian opera companies in the 1930s went on to sing in major international opera houses. Most notable from the 1940s is contralto singer Portia White (1911–1968). She achieved international fame because of her voice and stage presence. As a Canadian female of African descent, her popularity helped to open previously-closed doors for talented women who followed. She has been declared "A person of national historic significance" by the Government of Canada. In 1964 she performed for Queen Elizabeth II, at the opening of the Confederation Centre of the Arts. Following World War II a growth phase for Canadian bands was experienced, this time among school bands. Rapid advances in the inclusion of instrumental music study in formal school curricula brought about fundamental changes to the philosophy of the band movement and the type of repertoire available. The CHUM Chart debuted on May 27, 1957, under the name CHUM's Weekly Hit Parade, was in response to the fast-growing diversity of music that needed to be subdivided and categorized. The CHUM charts were the longest-running Top 40 chart in Canada ending in 1986. 1958 saw its first Canadian rock and roll teen idol Paul Anka, who went to New York City where he auditioned for ABC with the song "Diana". This song brought Anka instant stardom as it reached number one on the US Billboard charts. "Diana" has gone on to be one of the best selling 45s in music history. US-born rockabilly pioneer Ronnie Hawkins moved to Canada in 1958, where he became a key player in the Canadian blues and rock scene. The 4th of October was declared "Ronnie Hawkins Day" by the city of Toronto when Hawkins was inducted into Canada's Walk of Fame. He was also inducted into the Canadian Music Industry Hall of Fame and his pioneering contribution to rockabilly has been recognized with induction into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame. 1960–1999 Canadian artists and Canadian ensembles were generally forced to turn toward the United States to establish healthy long lasting careers during the 1960s. Canada would produce some of the world's most influential singer-songwriters during this time. Among the most notable is Neil Young who has been inducted into the Canadian Music Hall of Fame, Canada's Walk of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame twice. Leonard Cohen has been inducted into both the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame and is also a Companion of the Order of Canada. Folk legend Joni Mitchell is an Alberta native, and has been inducted into both the Canadian Music Hall of Fame and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Walt Grealis of Toronto started in the music business with Apex Records in 1960, the Ontario distributor for Compo Company. He later joined London Records, where he worked until February 1964, when he then established RPM weekly trade magazine. From the first issue of RPM Weekly on February 24, 1964 to its final issue on November 13, 2000, RPM was the defining charts in Canada. The American and British counterculture explosion and hippie movement had diverted music to that which was dominated by socially and American politically incisive lyrics by the late 1960s. The music was an attempt to reflect upon the events of the time – civil rights, the war in Vietnam and the rise of feminism. This led to the Canadian government passing Canadian content legislation to help Canadian artists. On January 18, 1971 regulations came into force requiring AM radio stations to devote 30 percent of their musical selections to Canadian content. Although this was (and still is) controversial, it quite clearly contributed to the development of a nascent Canadian pop star system. With the introduction in the mid-1970s of mainstream music on FM radio stations, where it was common practice to program extended performances, musicians were no longer limited to songs of three minutes' duration as dictated by AM stations for decades. Other notable musicians who have been one of the largest Canadian exports include the progressive rock band Rush and Bryan Adams. In the classical world, homegrown talent Canadian Brass was established in Toronto in 1970. Canada's first nationwide music awards began as a reader poll conducted by Canadian music industry trade magazine RPM Weekly in December 1964. A similar balloting process continued until 1970 when the RPM Gold Leaf Awards, as they were then known, were changed to the Juno Awards. The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences held the first Juno Award ceremony in 1975. This was in response to rectifying the same concerns about promotion of Canadian artists that the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission had. Canadian music changed course in the 1980s and 1990s, the changing fast-paced culture was accompanied by an explosion in youth culture. Until the mid-1960s, little attention was paid to music by Canadian daily newspapers except as news or novelty. With the introduction during the late 1970s of the "music critic", coverage began to rival that of any other topic. Canadian publications devoted to all styles of music either exclusively or in tandem with more general editorial content directed to young readers, was expanding exponentially. The influence and innovations of Canadian hip hop came to the foreground in Canada when music videos became an important marketing tool for Canadian musicians, with the debut of MuchMusic in 1984 and MusiquePlus in 1986. Now both English and French Canadian musicians had outlets to promote all forms of music through video in Canada. The networks were not just an opportunity for artists to get their videos played—the networks created VideoFACT, a fund to help emerging artists produce their videos. Canadian women at the end of the 20th century enjoyed greater international commercial success than ever before. Canadian women set a new pinnacle of success, in terms financial, critical and in their immediate and strong influence on their respective genres. They were the women and daughters who had fought for emancipation and equality a generation before. Like Shania Twain, Alanis Morissette and most notable is French-Canadian singer, Celine Dion, who became Canada's best-selling music artist, and who, in 2004, received the Chopard Diamond Award from the World Music Awards for surpassing 175 million in album sales, worldwide. 21st century The turn of the millennium was a time of incredible nationalism, at least as far as Canadian radio is concerned. The 1971 CRTC rules (30% Canadian content on Canadian radio) finally come into full effect and by the end of the 20th century radio stations would have to play 35% Canadian content. This led to an explosion in the 21st century of Canadian pop musicians dominating the airwaves unlike any era before. In 1996, VideoFACT launched PromoFACT, a funding program to help new artists produce electronic press kits and websites. At about the same time, the CD (cheap to manufacture) replaced the vinyl album and Compact Cassette (expensive to manufacture). Shortly thereafter, the Internet allowed musicians to directly distribute their music, thus bypassing the selection of the old-fashioned "record label". Canada's mainstream music industry has suffered as a result of the internet and the boom of independent music. The drop in annual sales between 1999 - the year that Napster's unauthorized peer-to-peer file sharing service launched - and the end of 2004 was $465 million. In 2007, Canada joined the controversial Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement talks, whose outcome will have a significant impact on the Canadian music industry. In 2010 Canada introduced new copyright legislation. The amended law makes hacking digital locks illegal, but enshrine into law the ability of purchasers to record and copy music from a CD to portable devices. The early 2000s saw Canadian independent artists continue to expand their audience into the United States and beyond. Mainstream Canadian artists with global recorded contracts such as Nelly Furtado, Avril Lavigne, Michael Bublé, Nickelback, Drake, The Weeknd, Shawn Mendes and Justin Bieber reached new heights in terms of international success, while dominating the American music charts. The late 2010s and early 2020 saw the death of Gord Downie of The Tragically Hip and Neil Peart of Rush, both incredibly influential figures in Canadian rock music. Anthems Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding the first legal steps to independence by over 50 years. The earliest, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812. "O Canada" - the national anthem adopted in 1980. "God Save the Queen" - Royal Anthem of Canada since 1980. "The Maple Leaf Forever" - unofficial old national anthem 1867. "Alberta" official anthem of Alberta. "Ode to Newfoundland" - official anthem of Newfoundland and Labrador. "The Island Hymn" - official anthem of Prince Edward Island. "Gens du pays" - unofficial anthem of Quebec. Commonly associated with Quebec sovereignty. Accolades The Canadian Music Hall of Fame established in 1976 honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements. The ceremony is held each year as part of Canada's main annual music industry awards, the Juno Awards. The Governor General's Performing Arts Awards for Lifetime Artistic Achievement are the foremost honours presented for excellence in the performing arts, in the categories of dance, classical music, popular music, film, and radio and television broadcasting. They were initiated in 1992 by then Governor General Ray Hnatyshyn, and winners receive $25,000 and a medal struck by the Royal Canadian Mint. Canada also has many specific music awards, both for different genres and for geographic regions: CASBY Awards – Canada's annual independent and alternative music awards Canadian Country Music Awards – Canada's annual country music industry awards GMA Canada Covenant Awards – Canada's national awards for the Gospel music industry East Coast Music Awards – annual music appreciation for the East Coast of Canada Felix Awards – annual prize for members of the Quebec music industry Canadian Folk Music Awards - annual ceremony for achievements in folk and world music MuchMusic Video Awards – Canada's annual music video awards Polaris Music Prize – award annually given to the best full-length Canadian album based on artistic merit Prism Prize - annual award for achievements in music video Canadian Urban Music Awards – Canada's annual urban music awards Canadian Aboriginal Music Awards – Canada's annual appreciation for the promoters, creators and performers of Aboriginal music Western Canadian Music Awards – annual music appreciation for the western part of Canada Cultural and regional Distinctive music scenes have been an integral part of the cultural landscape of Canada. With Canada being vast in size, the country throughout its history has had regional music scenes, with a wide and diverse accumulation of styles and genres from many different individual communities, such as Inuit music, music of the Maritimes and Canadian fiddle music. See also List of diamond-certified albums in Canada List of number-one singles (Canada) List of radio stations in Canada List of Canadian composers List of Canadian musicians List of bands from Canada Canadian classical music Canadian opera National Youth Orchestra of Canada The Top 100 Canadian Albums (2007) References Further reading Adria, Marco (1990). Music of Our times: Eight Canadian Singer-Songwriters. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company Ltd. Asselin, André (1968). Panorama de la musique canadienne. 2e éd., rev. et augm. Paris: Éditions de la disaspora française. Audley, Paul. "The Recording Industry" and "Radio", in his Canada's Cultural Industries: Broadcasting, Publishing, Records, and Film (Toronto: J. Lorimer & Co., in Association with the Canadian Institute for Economic Policy, 1983), p. 141–212. (pbk.) Edward Balthasar Moogk (1975). Roll Back the Years: History of Canadian Recorded Sound and Its Legacy, Genesis to 1930. National Library of Canada. N.B.: In part, also, a bio-discography; the hardback ed. comes with a "phonodisc of historical Canadian recordings" (33 1/3 r.p.m., mono., 17 cm.) which the 1980 pbk. reprint lacks. (pbk.) Edith Kathryn Moogk (1988). Title Index to Canadian Works Listed in Edward B. Moogk's "Roll Back the Years, History of Canadian Recorded Sound, Genesis to 1930", in series, C.A.M.L. Occasional Papers, no. 1. Canadian Association of Music Libraries. N.B.: Title and fore-matter also in French; supplements the index within E. B. Moogk's book. Lucien Poirier, ed. (1983). Répertoire bibliographique de textes de presentation generale et d'analyse d'oeuvres musicales canadienne, 1900–1980 = Canadian Musical Works, 1900–1980: a Bibliography of General and Analytical Sources. Under the direction of Lucien Poirier; compiled by Chantal Bergeron [et al.]. Canadian Association of Music Libraries. Truffaut, Serge (1984). Le Jazz à Montréal, in series, Collection Montréal. Montréal, Qué.: Groupe Québec-Rock. N.B.: A chronology. Without ISBN Canadian Music Catalogues and Acquisitions lists. Toronto, (1971) various lists of Canadian music (orchestral, vocal, chamber, choral). Women Musicians in Canada "on the record the Music Division of the National Library of Canada by C. Gillard. Ottawa : NLC, (1995) () External links Canadian Music Periodical (CMPI) - Library and Archives Canada RPM Magazine, 1964–2000 - Library and Archives Canada Meet American Top Musician Canadiana	[ 0.376166969537735, 0.6330563426017761, -0.6646072864532471, -0.03323759511113167, -0.30301177501678467, -0.10171657800674438, 0.02728845924139023, 1.0240087509155273, -0.5507174134254456, -0.8556444644927979, -0.16643933951854706, 0.0721496194601059, 0.21501310169696808, 0.5063366889953613, -0.5873521566390991, 0.8428533673286438, 0.06559715420007706, 0.4651787579059601, -0.0018971692770719528, -0.36906176805496216, -0.6467686891555786, -0.5642816424369812, 0.7205162048339844, 0.6973904967308044, 0.3726292550563812, -0.004511908162385225, 0.3723658323287964, 0.14521579444408417, -0.4305983781814575, -0.2749386429786682, -0.5228930115699768, 0.6034567952156067, 0.2970177233219147, -0.22964565455913544, 0.1995273381471634, -0.1038222461938858, -0.10105825960636139, -0.34877967834472656, 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248274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic%20transcription	Phonetic transcription	Phonetic transcription (also known as phonetic script or phonetic notation) is the visual representation of speech sounds (or phones) by means of symbols. The most common type of phonetic transcription uses a phonetic alphabet, such as the International Phonetic Alphabet. Versus orthography The pronunciation of words in all languages changes over time. However, their written forms (orthography) are often not modified to take account of such changes, and do not accurately represent the pronunciation. Words borrowed from other languages may retain the spelling from the original language, which may have a different system of correspondences between written symbols and speech sounds. Pronunciation can also vary greatly among dialects of a language. Standard orthography in some languages, such as English and Tibetan, is often irregular and makes it difficult to predict pronunciation from spelling. For example, the words bough, chough, cough, though and through do not rhyme in English even though their spellings might suggest otherwise. Other languages, such as Spanish and Italian have a more consistent (but still imperfect) relationship between orthography and pronunciation, while a few languages may claim to have a fully phonemic spelling system (a phonemic orthography). For most languages, phonetic transcription makes it possible to show pronunciation with something much nearer to a one-to-one relationship between sound and symbol than is possible with the language's orthography. Phonetic transcription allows one to step outside orthography, examine differences in pronunciation between dialects within a given language and identify changes in pronunciation that may take place over time. A basic principle of phonetic transcription is that it should be applicable to all languages, and its symbols should denote the same phonetic properties whatever the language being transcribed. It follows that a transcription devised for one individual language or group of languages is not a phonetic transcription but an orthography. Narrow versus broad transcription Phonetic transcription may be used to transcribe the phones of a language. In all systems of transcription there is a distinction between broad transcription and narrow transcription. Broad transcription indicates only the most noticeable phonetic features of an utterance, whereas narrow transcription encodes more information about the phonetic characteristics of the allophones in the utterance. The difference between broad and narrow is a continuum, but the difference between phonemic and phonetic transcription is usually treated as a binary distinction. Phonemic transcription is a particular form of broad transcription which disregards all allophonic difference; as the name implies, it is not really a phonetic transcription at all (though at times it may coincide with one), but a representation of phonemic structure. A transcription which includes some allophonic detail but is closely linked to the phonemic structure of an utterance is called an allophonic transcription. The advantage of the narrow transcription is that it can help learners to produce exactly the right sound and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation. The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription is rarely representative of all speakers of a language. While most Americans, Canadians, and Australians would pronounce the of little as a tap , many speakers in southern England would pronounce /t/ as (a glottal stop; t-glottalization) and/or the second as a vowel resembling (L-vocalization), possibly yielding . A further disadvantage of narrow transcription is that it involves a larger number of symbols and diacritics that may be unfamiliar to non-specialists. The advantage of broad transcription is that it usually allows statements to be made which apply across a more diverse language community. It is thus more appropriate for the pronunciation data in foreign language dictionaries, which may discuss phonetic details in the preface but rarely give them for each entry. A rule of thumb in many linguistics contexts is therefore to use a narrow transcription when it is necessary for the point being made, but a broad transcription whenever possible. Types of notational systems Most phonetic transcription is based on the assumption that linguistic sounds are segmentable into discrete units that can be represented by symbols. Many different types of transcription, or "notation", have been tried out: these may be divided into Alphabetic (which are based on the same principle as that which governs ordinary alphabetic writing, namely that of using one single simple symbol to represent each sound), and Analphabetic (notations which are not alphabetic) which represent each sound by a composite symbol made up of a number of signs put together. Alphabetic The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is the most widely used and well-known of present-day phonetic alphabets, and has a long history. It was created in the nineteenth century by European language teachers and linguists. It soon developed beyond its original purpose as a tool of foreign language pedagogy and is now also used extensively as a practical alphabet of phoneticians and linguists. It is found in many dictionaries, where it is used to indicate the pronunciation of words, but most American dictionaries for native English-speakers, e.g., American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Random House Dictionary of the English Language, Webster's Third New International Dictionary, avoid phonetic transcription and instead employ respelling systems based on the English alphabet, with diacritical marks over the vowels and stress marks. (See Pronunciation respelling for English for a generic version.) Another commonly encountered alphabetic tradition was originally created by American linguists for the transcription of Native American and European languages, and is still commonly used by linguists of Slavic, Indic, Semitic, Uralic (here known as the Uralic Phonetic Alphabet) and Caucasian languages. This is often labeled the Americanist phonetic alphabet despite having been widely used for languages outside the Americas. The principal difference between these alphabets and the IPA is that the specially created characters of the IPA are abandoned in favour of already existing typewriter characters with diacritics (e.g. many characters are borrowed from Eastern European orthographies) or digraphs. Examples of this transcription may be seen in Pike's Phonemics and in many of the papers reprinted in Joos's Readings in Linguistics 1. In the days before it was possible to create phonetic fonts for computer printers and computerized typesetting, this system allowed material to be typed on existing typewriters to create printable material. There are also extended versions of the IPA, for example: Ext-IPA, VoQS, and Luciano Canepari's canIPA. Aspects of alphabetic transcription The International Phonetic Association recommends that a phonetic transcription should be enclosed in square brackets "[ ]". A transcription that specifically denotes only phonemic contrasts may be enclosed in slashes "/ /" instead. If one is unsure, it is best to use brackets since by setting off a transcription with slashes, one makes a theoretical claim that every symbol phonemically contrasts for the language being transcribed. For phonetic transcriptions, there is flexibility in how closely sounds may be transcribed. A transcription that gives only a basic idea of the sounds of a language in the broadest terms is called a broad transcription; in some cases, it may be equivalent to a phonemic transcription (only without any theoretical claims). A close transcription, indicating precise details of the sounds, is called a narrow transcription. They are not binary choices but the ends of a continuum, with many possibilities in between. All are enclosed in brackets. For example, in some dialects the English word pretzel in a narrow transcription would be , which notes several phonetic features that may not be evident even to a native speaker. An example of a broad transcription is , which indicates only some of the features that are easier to hear. A yet broader transcription would be in which every symbol represents an unambiguous speech sound but without going into any unnecessary detail. None of those transcriptions makes any claims about the phonemic status of the sounds. Instead, they represent certain ways in which it is possible to produce the sounds that make up the word. There are also several possibilities in how to transcribe the word phonemically, but here, the differences are generally of not precision but analysis. For example, pretzel could be or . The latter transcription suggests that there are two vowels in the word even if they cannot both be heard, but the former suggests that there is only one. Strictly speaking, it is not possible to have a distinction between "broad" and "narrow" within phonemic transcription, since the symbols chosen represent only sounds that have been shown to be distinctive. However, the symbols themselves may be more or less explicit about their phonetic realization. A frequently cited example is the symbol chosen for the English consonant at the beginning of the words 'rue', 'rye', 'red': this is frequently transcribed as /r/, despite the symbol suggesting an association with the IPA symbol which is used for a tongue-tip trill. It is equally possible within a phonemic transcription to use the symbol , which in IPA usage refers to an alveolar approximant; this is the more common realization for English pronunciation in America and England. Phonemic symbols will frequently be chosen to avoid diacritics as much as possible, under a 'one sound one symbol' policy, or may even be restricted to the ASCII symbols of a typical keyboard, as in the SAMPA alphabet. For example, the English word church may be transcribed as , a close approximation of its actual pronunciation, or more abstractly as , which is easier to type. Phonemic symbols should always be backed up by an explanation of their use and meaning, especially when they are as divergent from actual pronunciation as . Occasionally a transcription will be enclosed in pipes ("\| \|"). This goes beyond phonology into morphological analysis. For example, the words pets and beds could be transcribed phonetically as and (in a fairly narrow transcription), and phonemically as and . Because and are separate phonemes in English, they receive separate symbols in the phonemic analysis. However, a native English speaker would recognize that underneath this, they represent the same plural ending. This can be indicated with the pipe notation. If the plural ending is thought to be essentially an s, as English spelling would suggest, the words can be transcribed and . If it is essentially a z, these would be and . To avoid confusion with IPA symbols, it may be desirable to specify when native orthography is being used, so that, for example, the English word jet is not read as "yet". This is done with angle brackets or chevrons: . It is also common to italicize such words, but the chevrons indicate specifically that they are in the original language's orthography, and not in English transliteration. Iconic In iconic phonetic notation, the shapes of the phonetic characters are designed so that they visually represent the position of articulators in the vocal tract. This is unlike alphabetic notation, where the correspondence between character shape and articulator position is arbitrary. This notation is potentially more flexible than alphabetic notation in showing more shades of pronunciation (MacMahon 1996:838–841). An example of iconic phonetic notation is the Visible Speech system, created by Scottish phonetician Alexander Melville Bell (Ellis 1869:15). Analphabetic Another type of phonetic notation that is more precise than alphabetic notation is analphabetic phonetic notation. Instead of both the alphabetic and iconic notational types' general principle of using one symbol per sound, analphabetic notation uses long sequences of symbols to precisely describe the component features of an articulatory gesture (MacMahon 1996:842–844). This type of notation is reminiscent of the notation used in chemical formulas to denote the composition of chemical compounds. Although more descriptive than alphabetic notation, analphabetic notation is less practical for many purposes (e.g. for descriptive linguists doing fieldwork or for speech pathologists impressionistically transcribing speech disorders). As a result, this type of notation is uncommon. Two examples of this type were developed by the Danish Otto Jespersen (1889) and American Kenneth Pike (1943). Pike's system, which is part of a larger goal of scientific description of phonetics, is particularly interesting in its challenge against the descriptive method of the phoneticians who created alphabetic systems like the IPA. An example of Pike's system can be demonstrated by the following. A syllabic voiced alveolar nasal consonant ( in IPA) is notated as MaIlDeCVoeIpvnnAPpaatdtltnransnsfSpvavdtlvtnransssfTpgagdtlwvtitvransnsfSrpFSs In Pike's notation there are 5 main components (which are indicated using the example above): M – manner of production (i.e., MaIlDe) C – manner of controlling (i.e., CVoeIpvnn) description of stricture (i.e., APpaatdtltnransnsfSpvavdtlvtnransssfTpgagdtlwvtitvransnsf) S – segment type (i.e., Srp) F – phonetic function (i.e., FSs) The components of the notational hierarchy of this consonant are explained below: See also English Phonetic Alphabet Eye dialect Orthographic transcription Phonetic spelling Phonetics Pronunciation respelling for English Pronunciation spelling Romanization Transliteration Notational systems Americanist phonetic notation ARPABET Cyrillic phonetic alphabet International Phonetic Alphabet Comparison of ASCII encodings of the International Phonetic Alphabet SAMPA X-SAMPA IPA chart for English RFE Phonetic Alphabet, (Revista de Filología Española) Stokoe notation to represent sign languages Uralic Phonetic Alphabet (UPA) Visible Speech Teuthonista Bibliography Albright, Robert W. (1958). The International Phonetic Alphabet: Its Background and Development. International Journal of American Linguistics (Vol. 24, No. 1, Part 3); Indiana University Research Center in Anthropology, Folklore, and Linguistics, publ. 7. Baltimore. (Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University, 1953). Canepari, Luciano. (2005). A Handbook of Phonetics: Phonetics. München: Lincom Europa, pp. 518. (hb). Ellis, Alexander J. (1869–1889). On Early English Pronunciation (Parts 1 & 5). London: Philological Society by Asher & Co.; London: Trübner & Co. International Phonetic Association. (1949). The Principles of the International Phonetic Association, Being a Description of the International Phonetic Alphabet and the Manner of Using It, Illustrated by Texts in 51 Languages. London: University College, Department of Phonetics. International Phonetic Association. (1999). Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hb); (pb). Jespersen, Otto. (1889). The Articulations of Speech Sounds Represented by Means of Analphabetic Symbols. Marburg: Elwert. Kelly, John. (1981). The 1847 Alphabet: An Episode of Phonotypy. In R. E. Asher & E. J. A. Henderson (Eds.), Towards a History of Phonetics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Kemp, J. Alan. (1994). Phonetic Transcription: History. In R. E. Asher & J. M. Y. Simpson (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (Vol. 6, pp. 3040–3051). Oxford: Pergamon. MacMahon, Michael K. C. (1996). Phonetic Notation. In P. T. Daniels & W. Bright (Ed.), The World's Writing Systems (pp. 821–846). New York: Oxford University Press. . Pike, Kenneth L. (1943). Phonetics: A Critical Analysis of Phonetic Theory and a Technique for the Practical Description of Sounds. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. Pullum, Geoffrey K.; & Ladusaw, William A. (1986). Phonetic Symbol Guide. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . Sweet, Henry. (1880–1881). Sound Notation. Transactions of the Philological Society, 177-235. Sweet, Henry. (1971). The Indispensable Foundation: A Selection from the Writings of Henry Sweet. Henderson, Eugénie J. A. (Ed.). Language and Language Learning 28. London: Oxford University Press. 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248279	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount%20Records	Paramount Records	Paramount Records was an American record label known for its recordings of jazz and blues in the 1920s and early 1930s, including such artists as Ma Rainey, Tommy Johnson and Blind Lemon Jefferson. Early years Paramount Records was formed in 1917 by United Phonographs, a subsidiary of the Wisconsin Chair Company, which trademarked its record brand from Port Washington and began issuing records the following year on the Puritan and Paramount labels. Puritan lasted only until 1927, but Paramount, based in the factory of its parent company in Grafton, Wisconsin, published some of the nation's most important early blues recordings between 1929 and 1932. The label's offices were located in Port Washington, Wisconsin and the pressing plant was located at 1819 S. Green Bay Road in Grafton, Wisconsin. The label was managed by Fred Dennett Key. The Wisconsin Chair Company made wooden phonograph cabinets for Edison Records. In 1915 it started making its own phonographs in the name of its subsidiary, the United Phonograph Corporation. It made phonographs under the Vista brand name through the end of the decade; the line failed commercially. In 1918, a line of records debuted on the Paramount label. They were recorded and pressed by a Chair Company subsidiary, the New York Recording Laboratories, Inc. which, despite its name, was located in the same Wisconsin factory in Port Washington. Advertisements, however, stated: "Paramounts are recorded in our own New York laboratory". In its early years, the Paramount label fared only slightly better than the Vista phonograph line. The product had little to distinguish itself. Paramount released pop recordings with average audio quality pressed on average quality shellac. With the coming of electric recording, both the audio fidelity and the shellac quality declined to well below average, although some Paramount records were well pressed on better shellac and have become collectible. In the early 1920s, Paramount was accumulating debt while producing no profit. Paramount began offering to press records for other companies on a contract basis at low prices. Race records Paramount was contracted to press discs for Black Swan Records. When the Black Swan company later floundered, Paramount bought out Black Swan and made records by and for African Americans. These so-called race music records became Paramount's most famous and lucrative business, especially its 12000 series. It is estimated that a quarter of all race records released between 1922 and 1932 were on the Paramount label. Paramount's race record series was launched in 1922 with vaudeville blues songs by Lucille Hegamin and Alberta Hunter. The company had a large mail-order operation which was a key to its early success. Most of Paramount's race music recordings were arranged by black entrepreneur J. Mayo Williams. "Ink" Williams, as he was known, had no official position with Paramount, but he was given wide latitude to bring African American talent to the Paramount recording studios and to market Paramount records to African American consumers. Williams did not know at the time that the "race market" had become Paramount's prime business and that he was keeping the label afloat. Problems with low fidelity and poor pressings continued. Blind Lemon Jefferson's 1926 hits, "Got the Blues" and "Long Lonesome Blues", were quickly rerecorded in the superior facilities of Marsh Laboratories, and subsequent releases used the rerecorded version. Both versions were released on compilation albums. In 1927, Ink Williams moved to competitor Okeh, taking Blind Lemon Jefferson with him for just one recording, "Matchbox Blues". Paramount's recording of the same song can be compared with Okeh's on compilation albums. In 1929, Paramount was building a new studio in Grafton, so it sent Charley Patton —"sent up" by Jackson, Mississippi, storeowner H. C. Speir —to the studio of Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana, where on June 14 he cut 14 famous sides, which led many to consider him the "Father of the Delta Blues". After Williams left Paramount, he placed the business in the hands of his secretary, Aletha Dickerson, who had not been informed that her former employer had quit. Dickerson continued working for Paramount, and eventually moved to the company's new headquarters is Grafton. In 1931, she quit when the management, facing hard times, cut her wages. Depression, closure, reissues The Great Depression drove many record companies out of business. Paramount stopped recording in 1932 and closed in 1935. In 1948, Paramount was bought by John Steiner, who revived the label for reissues of important historical recordings and new recordings of jazz and blues. In 1952, Steiner leased reissue rights to a newly formed Riverside jazz label. Riverside reissued 10" and then 12" LPs by many blues singers in the Paramount catalog, as well as jazz by such Chicago-based musicians as Jelly Roll Morton, King Oliver's Creole Jazz Band (which included a young Louis Armstrong), Johnny Dodds, Muggsy Spanier, and Meade Lux Lewis. The Riverside label remained active until 1964. The rights to Paramount's back catalog were acquired by George H. Buck in 1970. The use of the name "Paramount Records" was purchased from Buck by Paramount Pictures, a previously unconnected company. Like other record companies during the Great Depression, Paramount sold most of its master recordings as scrap metal. Some of the company's recordings were said to have been thrown into the Milwaukee River by disgruntled employees when the company was closing in the mid-1930s. A 2006 episode of the PBS television show History Detectives showed divers searching the river for Paramount masters and unsold 78s, but they were unsuccessful. Author Amanda Petrusich also dived in the river looking for records for her 2014 book Do Not Sell At Any Price, but did not find any. When Riverside re-released the original recordings, they used records from the collection of John Hammond. John Fahey's Revenant Records and Jack White's Third Man Records issued two volumes of remastered tracks from Paramount's catalog, The Rise and Fall of Paramount Records, Volume One (1917–27) and The Rise and Fall of Paramount Records, Volume Two (1928–32), on vinyl records with a USB drive for digital access. Each volume features 800 songs, contemporary ads and images (200 in volume one and 90 in volume 2), two books (a history of Paramount and a guide to the artists and recordings) and six 180-gram vinyl LPs, packaged in a hand-crafted oak case modeled after those that carried phonographs in the 1920s. See also List of record labels Paramount Records (1969) Puritan Records References External links 1924 Paramount catalog Online Discography, University of Wisconsin-Madison "In A Few Fateful Years, One Record Label Blew Open The Blues". Tom Cole, NPR Weekend Edition, January 31, 2015. "Paramount Records". Interview with author Amanda Petrusich on Central Time show on Wisconsin Public Radio, April 22, 2015. 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248285	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankfurt%20Airport	Frankfurt Airport	Frankfurt Airport (; , also known as Rhein-Main-Flughafen), is a major international airport located in Frankfurt, the fifth-largest city of Germany and one of the world's leading financial centres. It is operated by Fraport and serves as the main hub for Lufthansa, including Lufthansa CityLine and Lufthansa Cargo as well as Condor and AeroLogic. The airport covers an area of of land and features two passenger terminals with capacity for approximately 65 million passengers per year; four runways; and extensive logistics and maintenance facilities. Frankfurt Airport is the busiest airport by passenger traffic in Germany as well as the 4th busiest in Europe after London–Heathrow, Paris–Charles de Gaulle and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The airport is also the 13th busiest worldwide by total number of passengers in 2016, with 60.786 million passengers using the airport in 2016. In 2017, Frankfurt Airport handled 64.5 million passengers and nearly 70 million in 2018. It also had a freight throughput of 2.076 million metric tonnes in 2015 and is the busiest airport in Europe by cargo traffic. As of summer 2017, Frankfurt Airport serves more than 300 destinations in 5 continents, making it the airport with the most direct routes in the world. The southern side of the airport ground was home to the Rhein-Main Air Base, which was a major air base for the United States from 1947 until 2005, when the air base was closed and the property was acquired by Fraport (now occupied by Terminal 3). The airport celebrated its 80th anniversary in July 2016. Location Frankfurt Airport lies southwest of central Frankfurt, near the Autobahn intersection Frankfurter Kreuz, where two of the most heavily used motorways in Europe (A3 and A5) meet. The airport grounds, which form a city district of Frankfurt named Frankfurt-Flughafen, are surrounded by the Frankfurt City Forest. The southern portion of the airport grounds extend partially into the cities of Rüsselsheim am Main and Mörfelden-Walldorf, and a western portion of the grounds lie within the city of Kelsterbach. The airport is centrally located in the Frankfurt/Rhine-Main region, Germany's third-largest metropolitan region, which itself has a central location in the densely populated region of the west-central European megalopolis. Thereby, along with a strong rail and motorway connection, the airport serves as a major transport node for the greater region, less than two hours by ground to Cologne, the Ruhr Area, and Stuttgart. History The base opened as a German commercial airport in 1936, with the northern part of the base used as a field for fixed-wing aircraft and the extreme southern part near Zeppelinheim serving as a base for rigid airships. That section of Rhein-Main later became the base for the Graf Zeppelin, its sister ship LZ-130, and, until 6 May 1937, for the ill-fated Hindenburg. The airships were dismantled and their huge hangars demolished on 6 May 1940 during conversion of the base to military use. Luftwaffe engineers subsequently extended the single runway, and erected hangars and other facilities for German military aircraft. During World War II, the Luftwaffe used the field sporadically as a fighter base and as an experimental station for jet aircraft. First airport On 16 November 1909, the world's first airline was founded in Frankfurt am Main: The Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft (DELAG). DELAG then built the first airport in Frankfurt, called Airship Base at Rebstock, which was located in Bockenheim in the western part of the city and was primarily used for airships in the beginning. It opened in 1912 and was extended after World War I, but in 1924, an expert's report already questioned the possibility of further expansions at this location. With the foundation of Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1926, a rapid boom of civilian air travel started, and soon the airship base became too small to handle the demand. Plans for a new and larger airport located in the Frankfurt City Forest south-west of Schwanheim were approved in 1930 but were not realized due to the Great Depression. After the Machtergreifung in 1933, the government revived the plans and started the construction of the new airport. Second airport A two-storey station building with a six-storey tower originated in 1935 on the northern part of the airport, as well as other operating and outbuildings for maintenance and storage of aircraft. The approximately 100 hectares runway received a grass cover. The official opening of the new Flug- und Luftschiffhafen Rhein-Main took place on 8 July 1936. The first plane that landed was a Ju 52/3m. Six days later, on 14 July 1936, LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin landed at the airport. In 1936, 800 tons of cargo and 58,000 passengers were transported, and in 1937 these figures increased to 70,000 passengers and 966 tons of cargo. In the coming years, the new airport was the home base for the two largest German airships, LZ 127 Graf Zeppelin and LZ 129 Hindenburg. In 1938, Frankfurt was a central distribution point for the transport of airmail to North America. On 6 May 1937, the Hindenburg, flying from Frankfurt to New York, exploded shortly before it was scheduled to dock at Lakehurst. 36 people died. The accident marked the end of scheduled airship traffic and the end of the airship era. World War II After the beginning of World War II in 1939, all foreign airlines left the airport, and control of air traffic was transferred to the Luftwaffe. On 9 May 1940, the first bombers took off to attack France. From August to November 1944, a concentration camp was established in Walldorf, close to the airport site, where Jewish female prisoners were forced to work for the airport. The Allies of World War II destroyed the runway system with airstrikes in 1944, and the Wehrmacht blew up buildings and fuel depots in 1945, shortly before the US Army took control of the airport on 25 March 1945. After the German Instrument of Surrender, the war in Europe ended and the US Army started to build a new temporary runway at Frankfurt Airport. The southern part of the airport ground was occupied to build the Rhein-Main Air Base as an Air Force Base for the United States Air Forces in Europe. Berlin Airlift In 1948, the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' rail and road access to the sectors of West Berlin under Allied control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the Soviets practical control over the entire city. In response, the Western Allies organised the Berlin Airlift to carry supplies via air to the people in West Berlin. The airports in Frankfurt, Hamburg and Hannover were the primary bases for Allied aircraft. The heavy use of these so-called "Raisin Bombers" caused damage to the runway in Frankfurt and forced the US Army to build a second parallel runway. The airlift ended in September 1949 after the Soviet Union ended their blockade. Growth of the airport In 1951, restrictions for German air travellers were lifted and civil air traffic started to grow again. In 1952, Frankfurt Airport handled more than 400,000 passengers; a year later it was more than half a million. About 100 to 120 aeroplanes took off from and landed in Frankfurt daily. In 1955, Lufthansa resumed flights to and from Frankfurt and in the same year the Federal Republic of Germany gained its air sovereignty back from the Allies. In 1957, the northern runway was extended, first to and then to , to make it compatible with jet aircraft. The airport did not emerge as a major international airline hub until 1958 when a new passenger terminal called Empfangsanlage Ost (Terminal East, literally "Arrival Facility East") opened in the north-east corner of the airport site. Only four years later it was clear that the terminal was already too small for the demand. In 1961, Frankfurt already had 2.2 million passengers and 81,000 take-offs and landings, making it the second busiest airport in Europe behind Heathrow Airport, London. In 1962, it was decided to build an even larger terminal with a capacity of 30 million passengers per year. Work on this terminal began in 1965. The southern runway was extended to in 1964. In 1970, a new hangar was inaugurated; this accommodated six jet aircraft and was the world's largest hangar at the time. The new main terminal The new terminal, called Terminal Mitte (Central Terminal, today known as Terminal 1) is divided into three concourses (A, B and C) with 56 gates and an electric baggage handling system. Everything opened to the public on 14 March 1972. It was assumed that the terminal capacity would be sufficient for the next 30 years. Along with the new terminal a railway station (Frankfurt Airport station) was opened, the first airport railway station in the Federal Republic of Germany. A few days later the old Empfangsanlage Ost was closed. The third runway Planning for a third runway (called Startbahn 18 West) began in 1973. This project spawned massive protests by residents and environmentalists. The main points of conflict were increasing noise and pollution and the cutting down of protected trees in the Frankfurt City Forest. While the protests and related lawsuits were unsuccessful in preventing construction, the Startbahn West protests were one of the major crystallisation points for the German environmental movement of the 1980s. The protests even continued after the runway had been opened in 1984 and in 1987 two police officers were killed by a gunman. This incident ended the Startbahn West protests for good. Because of its orientation in the north–south direction, in contrast to the other east–west runways, the use of the third runway is limited. The Startbahn West can only be used for takeoffs to the south to avoid interference with air traffic on the other runways. Owing to this restriction the runway must be partially or fully closed when northward winds are too strong. Terminal 2 and the second railway station In 1990, work on a new terminal (Terminal 2) began because it was anticipated that Terminal Mitte would reach its capacity limit sooner than expected. The new terminal, divided into concourses D and E, was built to the east of the existing terminal where once the Empfangsanlage Ost had been. With its opening in 1994, Frankfurt Airport increased its terminal capacity to 54 million passengers per year. Along with the terminal opening, a people mover system called Sky Line was established to provide a fast connection between Terminal 2 and Terminal Mitte (now renamed Terminal 1). In 1999 a second railway station, primarily for InterCityExpress long-distance trains (called Frankfurt Airport long-distance station), opened near Terminal 1 as part of the new Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line. At the same time local and regional rail services were based at the existing underground station, now renamed Frankfurt Airport regional station. Closure of the Rhein-Main Air Base On 30 December 2005, the Rhein-Main Air Base in the southern part of the airport ground was closed and the US Air Force moved to Ramstein Air Base. The property was handed back to Fraport which allows the airport to use it to build a new passenger terminal. The property of the housing area for the soldiers, called Gateway Gardens, which was located north-east of the airport site, was given back to the city of Frankfurt in the same year and will be developed as a business district in the following years. The Airbus A380 and The Squaire From 2005 to 2007, a large Airbus A380 maintenance facility was built at Frankfurt Airport because Lufthansa wanted to station their future A380 aircraft fleet there. Both terminals also underwent major renovations in order to handle the A380, including the installation of a third boarding bridge at several gates. Lufthansa's first Airbus A380 went into operation in June 2010 and was named Frankfurt am Main. In 2011, a large office building called The Squaire (a blend of square and air) opened at Frankfurt Airport. It was built on top of the Airport long-distance station and is considered the largest office building in Germany with floor area. Main tenants are KPMG and two Hilton Hotels. Since 2012, the people mover "The Squaire Metro" connects the Squaire with the nine-storey parking structure. On a length of about 300 metres the so-called MiniMetro system with its two cabins can carry up to 1,300 passengers per hour. The constructor of the system was the Italian manufacturer Leitner. The fourth runway Plans to build a fourth runway at Frankfurt Airport were underway in 1997, but owing to violent conflicts with the concept Fraport let residents' groups and environmentalists participate in the process to find a mutually acceptable solution. In 2000, a task force presented their conclusion which generally approved a new runway, but of shorter length (only 2.8 kilometres compared to the other three 4-kilometre-long runways), which would serve as a landing-only runway for smaller aircraft. Additional requirements included improved noise protection arrangements and a strict ban on night flights between 11 pm and 5 am across the whole airport. In 2001, Fraport applied for approval to build the new runway, with three possible options. The conclusion was that a runway north-west of the airport site would have the least impact on local residents and the surrounding environment. The plans were approved by the Hessian government in December 2007, but the requested ban on night flights was lifted because it was argued that an international airport like Frankfurt would need night flights, especially for worldwide freight transport. Construction of the new long Runway Northwest in the Kelsterbach Forest began in early 2009. In 2012, the website Airport Watch reports weekly protests have been occurring at the airport since the opening of a fourth runway a year previously. Developments since 2011 The new runway officially went into operation on 20 October 2011, with an aircraft carrying Chancellor Angela Merkel, performing the first landing on 21 October. The centre line separation from the existing north runway is about . This allows simultaneous instrument landing system (ILS) operations on these two runways, which has not been possible on the other parallel runways, which do not meet the minimum separation for ILS operations. This allowed the airport to increase its capacity from 83 to 126 aircraft movements per hour. On 11 October 2011, the Hessian Administration Court ruled that night flights between 11pm and 5am (the so-called Mediationsnacht) are no longer allowed at Frankfurt Airport after the inauguration of the new runway, and therefore overrode the approval from the Hessian government from 2007 which allowed 17 scheduled flights per night. On 4 April 2012, the German Administrative Court confirmed the decision of the Hessian Administration Court, banning night flights between 11pm and 5am. To handle the predicted passenger amount of about 90 million in 2020, a new terminal section adjacent to Terminal 1 for an additional six million passengers opened on 10 October 2012. It is called Flugsteig A-Plus and exclusively used by Lufthansa mainly for their long-haul flights. Flugsteig A-Plus features eight parking positions that are able to handle four Airbus A380s or seven Boeing 747-8/747-400 at once. In November 2016, Ryanair announced the opening of a new base at Frankfurt Airport with four routes to Spain and Portugal. This move by Ryanair was heavily blasted, especially by Lufthansa, as Ryanair was granted high discounts and incentives regarding the airport's fees. On 28 February 2017, Ryanair announced its winter programme for Frankfurt which will see a further 20 new routes being added. 2011 shooting Albanian citizen, Arid Uka, a 21 year old at the time, targeted a United States Air Force bus parked outside the terminal building that was supposed to transport fifteen U.S. airmen to Ramstein Air Base. He reportedly walked up to a waiting airman, asked him for a cigarette, and wanted to know whether the airmen were bound for Afghanistan. When the airman said yes, according to German prosecutor Rainer Griesbaum, Uka waited for the airman to turn away and then shot him in the back of the head, killing him. Shouting "Allahu Akbar!" the attacker then entered the bus, shooting and killing the driver, and continued to fire three shots at two other airmen, wounding them. When he pointed his pistol at the head of another airman and pulled the trigger, the weapon jammed. Uka fled, but was pursued by the civilian airport employee Lamar Joseph Conner and Staff Sergeant Trevor Donald Brewer and shortly afterwards overpowered by two German police officers. He was subsequently arrested. Conner and Brewer later received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany in a ceremony on 16 January 2012. Federal Interior Minister Hans-Peter Friedrich presented the decoration, citing their "exemplary courage and action which helped the Federal Police arrest the suspect". Uka was sentenced to Life and will be deported. COVID-19 pandemic Portions of the airport were closed in early 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Northwest Runway and Runway 18 West were closed on March 23 and re-purposed for parking unused aircraft. Terminal 2 was also closed, and all passenger operations were concentrated in Terminal 1. The Northwest Runway re-opened in July to handle summer tourist demand, while Runway 18 West remained closed. With almost no passenger traffic in the spring months, Frankfurt's total passenger volume in 2020 fell to 18.8 million, the lowest figure recorded since 1984. Facilities Terminals Frankfurt Airport has two large main passenger terminals (1 and 2) and a much smaller dedicated First Class Terminal which is operated and exclusively used by Lufthansa. As is the case at London–Heathrow, Tokyo–Narita, Toronto–Pearson and Chicago–O'Hare's future Global Terminal, terminal operations are grouped for airlines and airline alliances rather than into domestic and international routes. Terminal 1 Terminal 1 is the older and larger one of the two passenger terminals. The landside is 420 metres long. It has been enlarged several times and is divided into concourses A, B, C and Z and has a capacity of approximately 50 million passengers per year. Terminal 1 is functionally divided into three levels, the departures level on the upper floor with check-in counters, the arrivals level with baggage claim areas on the ground floor and, underneath, a distribution floor with access to the regional station and underground and multilevel parking. Departures and arrivals levels each have separate street approaches. A bus station is located at arrivals level. Terminal 1 has a total of 103 gates, which include 54 gates equipped with jetways (25 in Concourse A, 18 in Concourse B, 11 in Concourse C). Concourse Z sits on top of Concourse A sharing the same jet bridges between both concourses. Flights to non-Schengen destinations depart from the Z gates and Schengen flights depart from the A gates. Pier A was extended by 500 metres in 2000, and a link between Terminal 1 and Terminal 2, as well as the Hall C extension opened in 2008. On 10 October 2012, an 800-metre-long westward expansion of Terminal 1 called Pier A-Plus went into operation. It provides more stands for wide-body aircraft like the Airbus A380. Terminal 1 is primarily used by Lufthansa, its associated companies (Brussels Airlines, Eurowings, Swiss International Air Lines and Austrian Airlines) and its Star Alliance partners (e.g. Aegean Airlines, Air Canada, Air China, Air India, All Nippon Airways, Asiana Airlines, Croatia Airlines, Egyptair, LOT Polish Airlines, Scandinavian Airlines, Singapore Airlines, South African Airways, TAP Air Portugal, Thai Airways, Turkish Airlines and United Airlines). Some airlines that are not part of the Lufthansa Group or Star Alliance also use Terminal 1. They include Air Malta, Bulgaria Air, Iran Air, Oman Air and Tunisair among others. SkyTeam member airline Middle East Airlines uses Terminal 1 (Concourses B and C). Terminal 2 Terminal 2, which has a capacity of 15 million passengers a year, was opened in 1994 and is divided into concourses D and E. A continuous concourse between Terminal 1C and 2D provides direct, but non-public access between the two terminals. It has eight gates with jetways and 34 apron stands, a total of 42 gates and is able to handle wide-body aircraft such as the Airbus A380. Terminal 2 is primarily used by airlines of the oneworld (e.g. American Airlines, British Airways, Cathay Pacific, Finnair, Iberia, Japan Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Qatar Airways, Royal Air Maroc, Royal Jordanian and S7 Airlines) and SkyTeam alliances (e.g. Aeroflot, Air France, China Airlines, China Eastern Airlines, Czech Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Garuda Indonesia, KLM, Korean Air, Saudia, TAROM and Vietnam Airlines; SkyTeam member Middle East Airlines operates out of Terminal 1, in concourses B and C). Terminal 2 is also used by airlines that do not belong to any of the three major airline alliances, including Air Moldova, Air Serbia, China Southern Airlines, Emirates, Kuwait Airways, LATAM Airlines, and Somon Air, among others. Terminal overview SkyLine Passengers and visitors can change terminals with the people mover system SkyLine which has three stops in Terminal 1 (at gates AZ, B and C) as well as one in Terminal 2 for all gates. Some stops can only by used by passengers in or outside the Schengen zone which is achieved by separated cars and station entrances. The travel time between the terminals is 2 minutes with trains arriving every 2–3 minutes during the day. Each train has two cars, one airside (outside the Schengen area) and one landside (within the Schengen area). Most stations have a platform on each side of the train, so landside passengers can only step out onto the landside platform, and airside passengers can only step out onto the airside platform. Additionally there is regular bus service between the terminals. Runways Frankfurt Airport has four runways of which three are arranged parallel in east–west direction and one in north–south direction. In 2010 three runways (Runways North, South and West) handled 464,432 aircraft movements, which equated to 83 movements per hour. With the start of operation of the Northwest Runway in October 2011 the airport was predicted to be able to handle 126 movements per hour. It is predicted that aircraft movements will increase up to 700,000 in the year 2020. By using the fourth runway, Frankfurt Airport is able for the first time to handle simultaneous parallel landings, because the distance between the north and the north-west runways is . Simultaneous parallel landings were not possible with the north and south runway pairing, because the separation distance did not meet the safety standards. During normal operation the two outer parallel runways (07L/25R and 07R/25L) are used for landings and the central parallel runway (07C/25C) and the Runway West (18) for take-offs. The three parallel runways have two markings because they can be operated in two directions while the Runway West can only be used in one direction. Future expansions Terminal 3 (under construction) In 2009, the German government decided to create third terminals for both Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport in order to handle expected passenger flows of 90 million in Frankfurt by 2020 and 50 million in Munich by 2017. The new terminal is scheduled to be built by Fraport, south of the existing terminals on the grounds of the former Rhein-Main Air Base. The new Terminal 3 is to accommodate up to 25 million passengers and will feature 75 new aircraft positions when completely constructed. An extension of the SkyLine people mover system is planned to connect the new terminal to Terminals 1 and 2 and the airport train stations. In August 2014, the city of Frankfurt granted building permission for the first phase of Terminal 3. The groundbreaking for the new terminal took place on 5 October 2015. Its first phase, consisting of the main building and two of the planned four piers (concourses 3H and 3J), is planned to open by 2026 and will be able to handle 15 million additional passengers per year. Total costs are estimated at 3 billion euros. In 2017, Frankfurt Airport first indicated that the second-phase construction of the easternmost pier (concourse 3G) could be moved forward so that low-cost carriers can use this pier from 2021. After approval by municipal authorities in 2018, the piers will be constructed and used according to the following timetable: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, Fraport postponed the opening of the new terminal to 2026 in March 2021. Concourse 3G (easternmost pier): Construction of first twelve bus gates, reachable via shuttle buses from terminals 1/2, in use by 2021 Construction of additional twelve bus gates by 2023/2024 Construction of passenger jet bridges by 2025/2026 Check-in area, concourses 3H and 3J (central piers): Construction by 2023 including transport systems for visitors, passengers and luggage to the other terminals Concourse 3H is planned for Schengen flights Concourse 3J is planned for non-Schengen flights Concourse 3K (westernmost pier): Possible third-phase expansion depending on development of passenger numbers Passenger Transport System A new passenger transport system is planned for the connection of the new terminal 3 and the existing terminals 1 and 2. It will use a track which is separate from the existing SkyLine people mover but will allow for interchanges between them. It is scheduled to have four stops in the final stage near the airport's two railway stations, at Terminals 1C and 2DE as well as the new Terminal 3. Airlines and destinations Passenger Lufthansa and their Star Alliance partners account for the majority of all traffic at Frankfurt Airport. The following airlines offer year-round and seasonal scheduled and charter flights at Frankfurt Airport: Cargo Other facilities CargoCity Frankfurt Airport is the second-largest multimodal transport airport in Europe and has several logistics facilities. These facilities are grouped at two areas at the airport ground: In the north (CargoCity Nord) and in the south (CargoCity Süd). In 2010 it was the second-busiest airport by cargo traffic in Europe after Paris–Charles de Gaulle Airport, handling 2,231,348 metric tonnes of loaded and unloaded freight. CargoCity is the name of the two large main areas featuring most of the airport's freight handling facilities: The 98 hectare large CargoCity Süd (South) is home to a cargo centre for dispatch service providers and freight forwarding businesses. Several transport companies like DHL Global Forwarding, Air China, LUG Aircargo Handling (Emirates, Japan Airlines, Korean Air, Cargolux Airlines, Aegean Airlines, Delta Air Lines, Siberian Airlines, South African Airways, Uzbekistan Airways) and Fraport Cargo Services are based here. CargoCity Nord (North) is the headquarters of Lufthansa Cargo. Additional facilities here are a Perishables Centre for fresh produced goods and the Frankfurt Animal Lounge for the transport of living animals. Airport City The airport ground and the surrounding area of Frankfurt Airport offer a large variety of on-airport businesses as well as airport-related businesses, including office space, hotels, shopping areas, conference rooms and car parks. The development of an airport city has significantly accelerated in recent years. Frankfurt Airport Centres The Frankfurt Airport Centre 1 (FAC 1) near Terminal 1 offers office and conference facilities, the newer FAC 2 is located within Terminal 2 and offers office space for airlines. Airport City Mall The Airport City Mall is located on the landside of Terminal 1, departure hall B. It offers national and international retailers and label stores, a supermarket and several restaurants. The Squaire The Squaire is an office building with a total floor area of . It is directly connected to Terminal 1 through a connecting corridor for pedestrians. The accounting firm KPMG, Lufthansa and two Hilton Hotels (Hilton Garden Inn Frankfurt Airport with 334 rooms and Hilton Frankfurt Airport with 249 rooms) occupy space in The Squaire. Main Airport Centre The Main Airport Centre, named after the Main river, is an office building with ten floors and about of office space. It is located at the edge of the Frankfurt City Forest near Terminal 2. Sheraton Hotel & Conference Centre Sheraton Hotels and Resorts offers 1,008 guest rooms adjacent to Terminal 1 and a conference centre for up to 200 delegates. Gateway Gardens Gateway Gardens is a former housing area for the US Air Force personnel based at the Rhein-Main Air Base, close to Terminal 2. Like the air base, the housing area was closed in 2005. Since then the area is being developed into a business location for airport-related companies. Lufthansa moved its airline catering subsidiary LSG Sky Chefs to Gateway Gardens, Condor and SunExpress are headquartered here. DB Schenker, the logistics company of Deutsche Bahn, have built a high-rise building. In December 2019, local trains were re-routed to run via Gateway Gardens station. The new stop for S-Bahn trains is located between Frankfurt Airport Regional Station and Frankfurt-Stadion station. The journey time will increase by 4 minutes but Deutsche Bahn have stated that they will use new trains (ET423) which will be faster and have more capacity. Further users Fraport's facilities are on the property of Frankfurt Airport. Its head office building is by Gate 3. The newly constructed headquarters were inaugurated there in 2012. The Fraport Driving School (Fraport Fahrschule) is in Building 501 of CargoCity South (CargoCity Süd). Lufthansa's main building, where the board of directors is seated, is called Lufthansa Aviation Centre (LAC). Lufthansa operates the Lufthansa Aviation Center (LAC), Building 366 at Frankfurt Airport. Several company departments, including Corporate Communications, Investor Relations, and Media Relations, are based at the LAC. Lufthansa also uses several other buildings in the area, including the Lufthansa Flight Training Center for flight training operations and the Lufthansa Basis BG2 as a central base and for crew briefing. As of 2011 Lufthansa Cargo has been headquartered in Building 451 of the Frankfurt Airport area. As of 2012 Lufthansa Cargo is located at Gate 25 in the CargoCity Nord area, Lufthansa Technik is located at Gate 23 and in the CargoCity Süd area. Star Alliance, an airline alliance, has its headquarters at the Frankfurt Airport Centre 1 (FAC 1) adjacent to Terminal 1. Airmail Centre Frankfurt, a joint venture of Lufthansa Cargo, Fraport, and Deutsche Post for airmail transport, has its head office in Building 189, between Terminals 1 and 2. Aero Lloyd previously had its head office in Building 182. Statistics Annual traffic Route statistics Ground transport Frankfurt Airport can easily be accessed by car, taxi, train or bus as it features an extensive transport network. There are two railway stations at the airport: one for suburban/regional trains and one for long-distance trains. Rail Regional station Frankfurt Airport regional station (Frankfurt Flughafen Regionalbahnhof) at Terminal 1, concourse B, provides access to the S-Bahn commuter rail lines S8 and S9. Each of these lines have trains departing every 15 minutes during daytime to Hanau Central Station eastwards via Frankfurt Central Station and Offenbach East Station or Wiesbaden Central Station westwards via Rüsselsheim or Mainz Central Station (line S8) or Mainz-Kastel Station (line S9). The journey time to Frankfurt Central Station is 10–12 minutes. Regional Express (RE) trains to Saarbrücken, Koblenz or Würzburg call at this station. These trains provide less frequent but additional connections between Frankfurt Airport and the Central Station. Long-distance station Frankfurt Airport long-distance station (Frankfurt Flughafen Fernbahnhof) was opened in 1999. The station is squeezed in between the motorway A 3 and the four-lane Bundesstraße B43, linked to Terminal 1 by a connecting corridor for pedestrians that bridges the Autobahn. It is the end point of the newly built Cologne–Frankfurt high-speed rail line, which links southern Germany to the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area, the Netherlands and Belgium via Cologne at speeds up to . About 10 trains per hour depart in all directions. Deutsche Bahn operates the AIRail Service in conjunction with Lufthansa, American Airlines and Emirates. The service operates to the central stations of Bonn, Cologne, Düsseldorf, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, Leipzig, Hamburg, Hannover, Mannheim, Munich, Nuremberg, Stuttgart and to Kassel-Wilhelmshöhe. Car Frankfurt Airport is located in the Frankfurt City Forest and directly connected to an Autobahn intersection called Frankfurter Kreuz where the A3 and A5 meet. It takes a 10–15 minutes by car or taxi to get to Frankfurt Central Station or the centre of the city. Passengers driving their own cars can park in multilevel parking garages (mostly underground) along the terminals. A long term holiday parking lot is located south of the runways and connected by shuttle bus to the terminals. Bicycle Terminal 1 and Terminal 2 can be reached by bicycle because one of the roads that run north of the airport passing the terminals can legally be used by bicycle. The airport authority has confirmed that the newly built terminal 3 will also be reachable by bicycle. Bus and coaches Various transport companies provide bus services to the airport from the surrounding areas as well as by coach to long-distance destinations. Previously All Nippon Airways operated a bus service to Düsseldorf exclusively for ANA customers; that way Düsseldorf passengers would be transported to Frankfurt Airport to board their ANA flights. In 2014 ANA established a separate flight from Tokyo to Düsseldorf, causing the bus services to end. Ground transport statistics In 2006, 29.5% of the 12,299,192 passengers whose air travel originated in Frankfurt came by private car, 27.9% came by rail, 20.4% by taxi, 11.1% parked their car at the airport for the duration of their trip, 5.3% came by bus, and 4.6% arrived with a rental car. Incidents and accidents On 4 January 1938, a Deutsche Lufthansa Junkers Ju-52 crashed in a snowstorm on approach to FRA due to icing. All three crew and three passengers were killed. On 29 September 1938, a Luftwaffe Junkers Ju-52 crashed due to a preliminary ground contact caused by a wrong estimation of height. One occupant of the four on board were killed. On 22 March 1952, a KLM Royal Dutch Airlines Douglas DC-6 on a return flight from Johannesburg to Amsterdam crashed 7 km NE of FRA into a forest. Nine crew and 36 passengers of the 47 total on board perished. On 14 October 1953, a Sabena Convair CV-240 crashed near Kelstenbach shortly after takeoff following loss of engine power 1 km N of FRA. All four crew and 40 passengers died. On 21 January 1967, an Air Ferry Douglas C-54, a cargo flight, struck trees some 2700 metres short of the runway while on a night-time instrument landing system approach. Both occupants were killed. On 24 November 1972, an Air Canada McDonnell Douglas DC-8 bound for Montreal, Canada was hijacked on the ground at FRA and a hijacker demanded a release of prisoners. The plane was stormed and the hijacker arrested. One person died. On 22 May 1983, during an air show at Rhein-Main Air Base, a Canadian RCAF Lockheed F-104 Starfighter crashed into a nearby road, hitting a car and killing all passengers, a vicar's family of five. The pilot was able to eject. On 19 June 1985, a bomb cloaked in a canvas bag was detonated approx at 14:42 in the afternoon in Hall B of the Rhein Main Frankfurt Airport, decimating that section of the airport. The blast resulted in three deaths and 32 injuries, of which four were considered serious. In September 2007, German authorities arrested three suspected terrorists for plotting a "massive" terror attack, which posed "an imminent threat" to Frankfurt Airport and the US Air Force base in Ramstein. On 2 March 2011, a gunman opened fire on a bus carrying US Air Force personnel at Frankfurt Airport, killing two and wounding two others. On 11 June 2018, Lufthansa Flight 426, an Airbus A340, preparing for a flight to Philadelphia International Airport sustained damage on pushback from the gate, the tow tug caught fire and the aircraft sustained damage to the nose and cockpit section. Ten airport staff, consisting of ground crew and emergency responders, suffered minor injuries as a result of smoke inhalation. The aircraft was written off. In media Frankfurt Airport is featured in the Discovery Channel series X-Ray Mega Airport (also known as Inside Frankfurt Airport). Jinder Mahal pinned R-Truth at the Frankfurt Airport for the 24/7 Championship. This title change was shown on WWE.com and WWE's official social media accounts. See also Horst Julius Freiherr Treusch von Buttlar-Brandenfels Deutsche Zeppelin Reederei List of airports in Germany List of busiest airports by cargo traffic List of busiest airports by international passenger traffic List of the busiest airports in Germany Transport in Germany References External links Official website Airports in Hesse Airports established in 1936 Transport in Frankfurt	[ -0.2611919343471527, -0.054190658032894135, 0.5956411361694336, -0.1733885258436203, 0.2770549952983856, 0.20271649956703186, 0.32383468747138977, 0.4929529130458832, 0.21462608873844147, -0.5784081816673279, -0.7520378232002258, -0.1610485017299652, -0.4386502802371979, 0.1792132407426834, 0.6811840534210205, -0.03209628537297249, 0.25210243463516235, 0.023884736001491547, 0.05211101472377777, -0.6139542460441589, -0.2309100478887558, -0.11674583703279495, 0.7216999530792236, 0.20381250977516174, 0.5054834485054016, -0.9513838887214661, 0.029164623469114304, 0.39219892024993896, 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248288	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nando%27s	Nando's	Nando's () is a South African multinational fast food chain that specialises in flame-grilled peri-peri style chicken. Founded in Johannesburg in 1987, Nando's operates over 1,200 outlets in 30 countries. Their logo depicts the Rooster of Barcelos, one of the most common symbols of Portugal. History The restaurant was founded in 1987 in Rosettenville, Johannesburg by Mozambique-born Fernando Duarte and South African-born Robert Brozin. Upon visiting a Portuguese-Mozambican takeaway named Chickenland, and trying the chicken with peri peri (a sauce that was first developed in nearby Mozambique and further refined in South Africa before being exported to other Portuguese territories and mainland Portugal) they bought the restaurant for about 80,000 rand (equivalent to about £25,000 at the time). They renamed the restaurant Nando's after Fernando's firstborn son. By 1989, the restaurant had three outlets in Johannesburg and one in Portugal. Capricorn Ventures International acquired the chain in 1992. In 2010, Advertising Age magazine named Nando's one of the world's top 30 hottest marketing brands alongside Tata Nano, MTN and Natura. During the same year, the success of Nando’s in the U.K. led The Guardian to write that Nando's was a modern restaurant brand that had “changed the face of British fast food.” Nando's 1,000th store worldwide opened in 2012. As of July 2014, the Nando's restaurant group was ultimately owned by South African businessman Dick Enthoven and his family, through the Luxembourg-domiciled company Yellowwoods. Enthoven's son, Robby Enthoven who took over running the restaurants in 1993, was responsible for expanding the Nando's chain in the United Kingdom. In 2018, American-based recruitment website Indeed named Nando's as the UK's sixth best private sector employer based on millions of employee ratings and reviews. As of February 2019, there were 936 Nando's branches in 23 countries worldwide. Worldwide locations Nando's has locations in five continents worldwide. Africa South Africa Fernando Duarte and his friend Robert Brozin are the founders of the first Nando's bought a restaurant previously called "Chickenland" and renamed it Nando's. They opened it in 1987. By 2018, there were 340 Nando's restaurants throughout its home market of South Africa. Botswana Nando's has been operating in Botswana since 1993. There are currently 17 restaurants in Botswana; 9 in Gaborone, 2 in Francistown and 1 each in Jwaneng, Maun, Mahalapye, Palapye, Kasane and Letlhakane. Eswatini There are 4 outlets in Eswatini (Swaziland); in Mbabane, Ezulwini, Matsapha and Manzini. Mauritius , there are 4 Nando's restaurant outlets within Mauritius; in Curepipe, Grand-Baie, Moka and Vacoas-Phoenix. Zambia Nando's began operating in Zambia in 2002. , Nando's has 6 restaurants in Zambia; 4 in Lusaka and 1 each in Ndola and Kitwe. Zimbabwe Nando's has been operating in Zimbabwe since 1995. , Nando's has 14 restaurants in Zimbabwe; 9 in Harare and 1 each in Bulawayo, Mutare, Gweru, Kwekwe and Victoria Falls. Asia Bahrain , Nando's has 5 restaurants in Bahrain; 2 in Manama and 1 each in Amwaj Islands, Isa Town and Saar. India Nando's has been established in India since 2010. , Nando's has 12 restaurants throughout the states and union territories of India; 4 in New Delhi, 3 in Bangalore, 2 in Gurgaon, and 1 each in Noida, Chandigarh and Dwarka (Delhi). Malaysia Nando's has been established in Malaysia since 1998. , Nando's has 73 restaurants operating throughout the states and federal territories of Malaysia (with the exception of Perlis and Labuan); 27 in Selangor, 19 in Kuala Lumpur, 2 in Putrajaya, 5 in Penang, 4 in Johor, 3 in Malacca, 3 in Perak, 3 in Sarawak, 2 in Negeri Sembilan and 1 each in Kedah, Kelantan, Pahang, Terengganu and Sabah. Pakistan Nando's has been established in Pakistan since 2001. , Nando's has 12 restaurants throughout Pakistan; 5 in Karachi, 4 in Lahore and 1 each in Islamabad, Faisalabad and Rawalpindi. Qatar In Qatar, Nando's has been established since 2001, with the first restaurant located on Salwa Road. , Nando's has 7 branches in Qatar, all of which are located in Doha. Saudi Arabia In Saudi Arabia, Nando's opened its first restaurant within the country on 12 December 2016 in Riyadh, and opened its first branch in Jeddah on 8 December 2018. , Nando's has 9 branches in Saudi Arabia; 3 in Riyadh, 3 in Jeddah; and 1 each in Dhahran, Dammam and Khobar. Singapore In Singapore, Nando's opened its first restaurant on 9 May 2010; and there are 6 outlets throughout the city of Singapore. United Arab Emirates Nando’s opened its first restaurant within the United Arab Emirates in Dubai (along Sheikh Zayed Road) in 2002 and opened its first branch in Abu Dhabi in 2014. , Nando's has 19 branches in the UAE; 13 in Dubai, 3 in Abu Dhabi and 1 each in Sharjah, Al Ain and Ras Al Khaimah. Europe Ireland Nando's was first established in Ireland in 2008. The company opened its flagship restaurant on St Andrew Street in the city centre of Dublin in November 2011, employing sixty staff members to manage a space spread over two floors. , they have expanded to a total of 12 outlets in Ireland, with 9 in Dublin, 2 in Cork, and 1 in Newbridge. United Kingdom Nando's opened its first restaurants within the United Kingdom, in 1992, in the west London suburbs of Ealing and Earls Court, initially focusing on takeaway food. The UK arm, owned by the Enthoven family via a private equity company, struggled until chairman Dick Enthoven put his son Robert in control. The focus then moved from takeaways to a mixed service (counter ordering and table service) model. This decision was taken after Nando's partnered with Harrison, a world-renowned branding and design agency. They also advised Nando's to design each restaurant individually so no two restaurants were the same, a brand characteristic of the chain. Nando’s expanded in the UK in 1993. The company now employs around 8,000 staff in the UK and as of 2013 had over 280 branches, with some sixty serving food conforming with Islamic dietary laws. In 2010, Nando's UK won the Sunday Timess best place to work award in the big company category. Its sauces and marinades were also retailed in UK supermarkets. Nando's claims to have the largest collection of South African art in the UK, with over 5,000 works displayed in restaurants; original artworks are commissioned by the company. The United Kingdom is one of Nando's largest markets. In March 2020, all 400 UK restaurants closed temporarily due to nationwide lockdown rules introduced by the government to limit the spread of COVID-19. In late April 2020, Nando's reopened select locations for delivery and collection services, with many more locations opening throughout May. In early July 2020, the restaurant chain started reopening a few of its outlets for eat-in service. In August 2021, Nando's UK was forced to temporarily close 45 of its 450 restaurants, due to Covid-related upheaval in the food industry causing a shortage of chicken. A Nando’s spokesperson said: “The UK food industry has been experiencing disruption across its supply chain in recent weeks due to staff shortages and Covid isolations, and a number of our restaurants have been impacted.” Nando's UK also told customers online that shortages were a result of staff “isolation periods” and suppliers “struggling to keep up with demand”, along with staffing issues at its suppliers’ factories as well as the shortage of HGV lorry drivers. Nando's UK also deployed its own staff to support some of its key suppliers onsite and “help get things moving again”. North America Canada Nando's has operated since 1994 in Canada. , there are 32 branches in Canada, with 4 in Alberta, 17 in British Columbia, and 11 in Ontario. United States Nando's opened its first restaurant location within the United States, at Washington, D.C. in 2008. After opening more outlets within the Washington metropolitan area, it expanded into the Chicago metropolitan area, opening its first outlet on 20 May 2015 within the metro area. , there are 43 restaurant outlets in the U.S. (only present within the Washington and Chicago metropolitan areas): 12 in Illinois, 6 in Washington, D.C., 15 in Maryland, and 10 in Virginia. Oceania Australia Nando's has been in continuous operation within Australia since 1990, when the first restaurant opened in Tuart Hill in Western Australia. , there were 155 restaurants in Australia; 63 in Victoria, 36 in Western Australia, 30 in Queensland, 16 in New South Wales, 4 in South Australia, 3 in Northern Territory, 2 in Tasmania and 1 in Australian Capital Territory. Notably, there has been various public battles between the parent company and its Australian franchisees. New Zealand Nando's opened their first outlet in New Zealand, at Glenfield in 2000. , there are 23 Nando's outlets throughout New Zealand, located in the regions of Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Christchurch, Hamilton and Wellington. Controversies Advertising Australian refugee advertisement In Australia, Nando's ran an advertising campaign based around the 2002 political controversy regarding the mandatory detention of refugees. The detainees had been waging a hunger strike campaign, even resorting to sewing their lips closed. Nando's adverts proclaimed that the strikers "decided to unsew their lips after hearing the news that with every Nando's quarter chicken combo, Nando's are giving away an extra quarter chicken free." Melbourne's Sphere Advertising said that the ad was designed to spark controversy, saying that they knew that "there's a section of our audience that's going to be uncomfortable... but we want to evoke a response." Malema advertisement During the South African national elections of 2009, Nando's made an advert lampooning African National Congress Youth League then president Julius Malema by using a puppet that resembled him. Malema's lawyers sued Nando's and the original advert was removed. However, an altered version was released, with the puppet's face pixelated and the voice altered. The puppet used in the advert was later sold at auction for 100,000 rand, which was donated to an educational charity. "Last dictators" advertisement In 2011, Nando's launched a "Last dictators" advert in South Africa. The 60-second commercial shows a sad Robert Mugabe dining alone at Christmas in a large mansion while he reminisces about "happier times" with former dictators, such as playing water tag with Muammar Gaddafi, making snow angels in the sand with Saddam Hussein, singing karaoke with Mao Zedong, pushing P. W. Botha on a swing set, and riding a Covenanter cruiser tank with Idi Amin in a similar fashion to Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet embracing each other from the film Titanic, while the music from "Those Were the Days" is played. Musekiwa Kumbula, holder of the Nando's franchise in Zimbabwe, said his group "strongly feels the advertisement is insensitive and in poor taste." The advert also offended Chipangano, a Zimbabwean youth militia loyal to Mugabe, who then demanded an apology from Nando's, threatened to boycott the South Africa-based chain, and demanded the advert be withdrawn or the restaurant face retribution. Nando's South Africa subsequently withdrew the advert citing threats to its staff in Zimbabwe from a youth group. Corporation tax bill Both The Guardian newspaper (UK) and the American non-profit publication ICIJ received documents in July 2014 revealing the details of past and present offshore clients of wealth managers Kleinwort Benson, including the Nando's restaurant group. The Guardian published its belief that, through the use of businesses in Malta, Guernsey and the Netherlands, Enthoven legally reduces the group's UK corporation tax bill by "up to a third." According to the British newspaper, Enthoven's profits eventually accumulate in the Kleinwort Benson-managed "Taro III Trust" that is based in Jersey and contains at least £750 million. While no member of the Enthoven family agreed to speak with The Guardian, a company representative explained that UK tax laws are not applicable to Enthoven, as "he is not resident in the US or the UK." The spokesperson also stated that, in the UK, Nando's paid corporation tax of £12.6 million on a profit of £58.2 million for the year ending February 2013. See also Chicken restaurant List of fast-food chicken restaurants Oporto – Australian-based Portuguese themed chicken restaurant TASTE Holdings – management group in which Chickenland (Pty) Ltd has significant shareholding References External links – (global) Fast-food chains of South Africa Restaurant franchises Companies based in Johannesburg Fast casual restaurants Restaurants established in 1987 Poultry restaurants Multinational food companies Multinational companies headquartered in South Africa 1987 establishments in South Africa South African brands	[ 0.7427181005477905, -0.19219917058944702, -0.3827414810657501, -0.19777068495750427, -0.13370732963085175, 0.5066516995429993, -0.10464051365852356, 0.6358090043067932, -0.1519274264574051, 0.07256591320037842, 0.07844879478216171, 0.11481505632400513, 0.2191711813211441, 0.3462749719619751, -0.010502706281840801, -0.30743637681007385, 0.724841833114624, 0.041311077773571014, 0.03937065228819847, -0.48308366537094116, 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248290	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paramount	Paramount	Paramount may refer to: Entertainment and music companies Paramount Global, also known simply as Paramount, an American mass media company formerly known as ViacomCBS. The following businesses are historically linked to this company, but not all are related by current ownership. Paramount+, an American streaming video service formerly known as CBS All Access Paramount Animation, an animation studio and division of Paramount Pictures founded in 2011 Paramount Communications, a company known as Gulf and Western Industries until 1989 Paramount Home Entertainment, a division of Paramount Pictures for home video distribution founded in 1976 Paramount Network, a current cable network previously called TNN and Spike TV Paramount Parks, a former subsidiary chain of theme parks Paramount Pictures, an American film studio, that serves as Paramount Global's namesake Paramount Players, a contemporary film division of Paramount Pictures founded in 2017 Paramount Records (1969), a defunct record label subsidiary Paramount Stations Group (PSG), a television stations group Paramount Television Studios, the current incarnation of Paramount Television, 2013–present Paramount Television (original), the original incarnation of Paramount Television, active 1967–2006 Paramount Television Network (PTN), a defunct TV network founded in the late 1940s Paramount Television Service (PTVS), a planned, but aborted, commercial television network from the late 1970s Paramount Vantage, a specialty film division of Paramount Pictures founded (as Paramount Classics) in 1998 United Paramount Network (UPN), a defunct American television network in existence from 1995 to 2006 United Paramount Theatres, a defunct movie theater chain Paramount Records, American jazz and blues label active in the 1920s and 1930s launched by United Phonographs, a subsidiary of the Wisconsin Chair Company Other companies Paramount Resources, a Canadian petroleum company Paramount Group, a South African defense company Transportation Paramount Airways, an airline based in Chennai, India Paramount Cars, a specialist British car maker active between 1950 and 1956 Schwinn Paramount, a high-end racing bicycle Other uses Paramount Building at 1501 Broadway, Manhattan, New York, U.S. Paramount Hotel on 46th Street, Manhattan, New York, U.S. Paramount Plaza at 1633 Broadway, Manhattan, New York, U.S. Paramount, California, U.S., a city in Los Angeles County The Paramount at Buckhead, a residential skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, U.S. Paramount chief, the highest-level political leader in a region or country Paramount leader, the highest leader in the People's Republic of China Lord paramount, a lord who held his fief from no superior authority Paramount, a difficulty level in Dance Dance Revolution Paramount interests, interests that are not guaranteed under Torrens title system of property law See also Paramount Theater (disambiguation)	[ 0.4866858124732971, -0.03523660823702812, 0.155647873878479, 0.11066587269306183, 0.1587962657213211, -0.2729973793029785, -0.5878553986549377, 0.24533481895923615, -0.380269855260849, 0.22305166721343994, -0.22133119404315948, 0.5238951444625854, -0.05636930093169212, 0.9679222106933594, -0.31058135628700256, 0.17750979959964752, 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248291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thornton%20Abbey	Thornton Abbey	Thornton Abbey was a medieval abbey located close to the small North Lincolnshire village of Thornton Curtis, near Ulceby, and directly south of Hull on the other side of the Humber estuary. Its ruins are a Grade I listed building, including notably England's largest and most impressive surviving monastic gatehouse. It was founded as a priory in 1139 by William le Gros, the Earl of Yorkshire, and raised to the status of abbey in 1148 by Pope Eugene III. It was a house for Augustinian or black canons, who lived a communal life under the Rule of St Augustine but also undertook pastoral duties outside of the Abbey. Officers within the abbey included a cellarer, bursar, chamberlain, sacrist, kitchener and an infirmer. A medieval hospital also operated near the abbey, founded no later than 1322. Due to its involvement in the area's burgeoning wool trade, Thornton was a wealthy and prestigious house, with a considerable annual income in 1534 of . The abbey was closed in 1539 by Henry VIII as part of the Dissolution of the Monasteries. It managed to survive by becoming a secular college, until it was closed in 1547. Thornton Abbey railway station is nearby. Later history Since the Dissolution of the Monasteries, the site has been owned by: Henry Randes (the Bishop of Lincoln); Sir Robert Tyrwhitt of Kettleby; Sir Vincent Skinner of Westminster (in 1602); Sir Robert Sutton; George Appleby; and in 1816 Charles, 1st Baron Yarborough. In May 1859, members of the Lincoln Diocesan Architectural Society visited the site and were given a guided tour by the Rev. J. Byron of North Killingholme. A report of the tour, published by the Stamford Mercury, records that access to site had been restricted due to damage "by bands of modern Vandals". Brass effigies, some in place, others "strewed amongst the growing grass", and the entrance to a subterranean passageway were also observed. In 1938, Sackville Pelham, 5th Earl of Yarborough handed the care of the abbey remains to HM Office of Works. The site is currently in the care of English Heritage and open to the public. It is necessary to book a visit in advance, and the interior spaces are closed at present. Architecture The founding abbey building from the 12th century was Romanesque in style, but nothing of it remains above ground. The later abbey from the 13th/14th centuries was built in Early Gothic style. Little remains of the building, except for three walls of the chapter house and part of the cloister, though the ground plan of the abbey is traced out. The main interest lies in the gatehouse which is among the earliest large-scale uses of brick in England. It stands two storeys high and is structurally intact. There are few windows in the building, and the internal dimensions are cramped due to the thickness of the walls. The outside of the building is adorned with three almost life-size statues directly above the gate. A bridge over the moat adjoins the gatehouse and is fortified with walls and garderobes. The nearby Abbot's Lodge is also a Grade I listed building. Elements of the ground floor of the monastic range of Thornton Abbey were converted to a house and the first floor rebuilt in the 17th century, reputedly by Sir Vincent Skinner, but the structure collapsed upon completion. Archaeology Thornton Abbey was relatively under-examined for its size and importance, until English Heritage launched a program of research beginning in 2007. This initial non-invasive research was followed by excavations performed by the University of Sheffield Department of Archaeology between 2011–16, directed by Dr Hugh Willmott. In 2013, continuing excavation work uncovered a Black Death plague pit in the cemetery of the abbey's hospital, containing the remains of at least 48 individuals including the skeletons of 27 children. DNA was successfully extracted and tested positive for Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for the plague, making this the first instance in Britain of a Black Death mass grave found in a rural, rather than urban, area. Dr. Willmott stated: "The finding of a previously unknown and completely unexpected mass burial dating to this period in a quiet corner of rural Lincolnshire is thus far unique, and sheds light into the real difficulties faced by a small community ill-prepared to face such a devastating threat." Burials at the abbey William le Gros, 1st Earl of Albemarle Aveline de Montfichet, wife of William de Forz, 3rd Earl of Albemarle References External links Page on English Heritage's website Blog post on the plague pit excavation, including video clips English Heritage sites in Lincolnshire Ruins in Lincolnshire Monasteries in Lincolnshire Augustinian monasteries in England 1539 disestablishments in England Religious organizations established in the 1130s Grade I listed buildings in Lincolnshire Christian monasteries established in the 12th century Museums in Lincolnshire Religious museums in England Gates in England 1139 establishments in England Ruined abbeys and monasteries Monasteries dissolved under the English Reformation	[ -0.35844722390174866, -0.23205935955047607, 0.0624842531979084, -0.5820586681365967, -0.09638741612434387, 0.8364675641059875, 1.0234099626541138, -0.04609649255871773, -0.29622992873191833, 0.3201123774051666, -0.10050450265407562, -0.7215628623962402, 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248295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Division%20%28sport%29	Division (sport)	In sports, a division is a group of teams who compete against each other for a championship. League system In sports using a league system (also known as a pyramid structure), a division consists of a group of teams who play a sport at a similar competitive level. Teams can move up to a higher division of play or drop down to a lower one via the process of promotion and relegation, based on their performance in the standings at the end of the season. The existence of divisions based on level of competition ensures that teams at one competitive level can play other teams at a similar competitive level, thus creating parity and more exciting matches. Franchise system In North America, where sports usually operate on a franchise system rather than a league system, a division is a group of teams within a league which is organized along geographical lines rather than competitive success. Teams based in cities that are in a particular region of the continent are grouped together in the same division. For instance, in Major League Baseball, both the American and National Leagues have East, Central, and West divisions; the teams in each division are mostly (but not always) located in the eastern, central, and western sections of North America respectively. In a franchise system, teams are not promoted or relegated as are teams in a league system. All teams in the league (and by extension, the divisions of the league) are at the same competitive level and remain so year after year. North American professional sports leagues often construct their season schedules in a way such that teams in a division play matches against each other more often than other teams in the league. This not only has the effect of reducing travel costs, but also creates exciting rivalries between the teams in the division. Moreover, the top teams in a division qualify for the postseason playoff tournament that crowns the league champion, which heightens the rivalries between the teams in a division. Geographically-based divisions can become skewed if an expansion team joins the league or if one of the franchises within a division moves to another city, necessitating a shuffling or realignment of the teams in a division. Furthermore, the results of the realignment may not always reflect geographical realities. For instance, in 1995, the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League (NFL) moved to St. Louis, Missouri and became the St. Louis Rams. The team retained its place in the NFC West division despite the fact that St. Louis is further east than Dallas, Texas, home of the Dallas Cowboys. Although Dallas is located in the south-central United States, the Cowboys are a member of the NFC East division due to their long-standing rivalries with the New York Giants, Philadelphia Eagles, and Washington Commanders, all of whom are located on the Eastern seaboard. U.S. college sports In U.S. college sports, a "division" has a meaning different from either sense listed above, although somewhat closer to that of the league system. The major governing bodies for college sports, the NCAA and NAIA, divide their member schools into large competitive groups. These groups are much larger than divisions in either the league or franchise system—for example, the NCAA's highest competitive level, Division I, has more than 300 member schools. The vast majority of teams are members of conferences, smaller groupings that usually have between 6 and 14 members. Conference champions, plus selected other teams, compete in national championship tournaments (with the exception of schools in the highest level of NCAA (American) football, which have never had an NCAA-recognized national championship). As an example, the NCAA is split into three divisions: Division I – Usually the largest and most prominent schools, with the largest athletic budgets. All Division I member schools are allowed to award athletic scholarships to students, although some schools and conferences voluntarily choose not to award athletic scholarships in some or all sports (most notably the Ivy League, which prohibits such scholarships in all sports). Division II – Generally smaller schools that do not choose to take on the sometimes-massive expense of Division I athletics. The NCAA allows D-II schools to award scholarships, but places much more stringent limits on the amount of athletic aid awarded than at the D-I level. Division III – Schools, usually but not always small institutions, at which intercollegiate sports is treated more as a regular student activity. In keeping with this philosophy, the NCAA prohibits Division III schools from awarding athletic scholarships. "Division" within conferences The term division is also used in US college sports to indicate the groupings of members of a given conference. However, this usage is more recent. The first conference to divide its teams into divisions was the Southeastern Conference which, upon expanding to 12 members in 1992, divided into Eastern and Western divisions. Other conferences have undergone similar expansion and division. The usage in the section above is still maintained. For example, the Georgia Bulldogs are in Division I, but are also in the Eastern Division of the Southeastern Conference. 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248297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia%20Routledge	Patricia Routledge	Dame Katherine Patricia Routledge, (; born 17 February 1929) is an English actress, singer and broadcaster with one of the longest careers of an entertainer, spanning more than 70 years. For her role as Hyacinth Bucket in the BBC sitcom Keeping Up Appearances (1990–1995), she was nominated for the BAFTA TV Award for Best Light Entertainment Performance in 1992 and 1993. Her film appearances include To Sir, with Love (1967) and Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River (1968). Routledge made her professional stage debut at the Liverpool Playhouse in 1952 and her Broadway debut in How's the World Treating You in 1966. She won the 1968 Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for her role in Darling of the Day, and the 1988 Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical for Candide. On television, Routledge came to prominence during the 1980s in monologues written by Alan Bennett and Victoria Wood; appearing in Bennett's A Woman of No Importance (1982), as Kitty in Victoria Wood: As Seen on TV (1985–1986), and being nominated for the BAFTA TV Award for Best Actress for Bennett's Talking Heads: A Lady of Letters (1988). She also starred as Hetty Wainthropp in the British television series Hetty Wainthropp Investigates (1989, 1996–1998). In 2017, she was made a dame by Queen Elizabeth II for her services to entertainment and charity. Early life Katherine Patricia Routledge was born on 17 February 1929 in Birkenhead. Her father was a haberdasher and gentlemen's outfitter. She was educated at Birkenhead High School, and the University of Liverpool. She gained a degree with honours in English Language and Literature. She was involved in the University's dramatic society, where she worked closely with the academic Edmund Colledge, who both directed and acted in several of the society's productions. It was Colledge who persuaded her to pursue an acting career. After graduating, she trained at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School and returned to Liverpool to begin her acting career at the Liverpool Playhouse. Career Theatre Routledge has had a prolific career in theatre, particularly musical theatre, in the United Kingdom and the United States. Her vocal range was labelled as a mezzo-soprano and a contralto. She has been a long-standing member of the Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), appearing in such acclaimed productions as the 1983 Richard III, which starred Antony Sher in the title role. Her West End credits include Little Mary Sunshine, Cowardy Custard, Virtue in Danger, Noises Off, The Importance of Being Earnest, and The Solid Gold Cadillac, as well as a number of less successful vehicles. She was nominated for the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Supporting Role for her work in And a Nightingale Sang in 1979. A classically trained singer, she has occasionally made forays into operetta including taking the title role in an acclaimed production of Jacques Offenbach's La Grande-Duchesse de Gérolstein at the 1978 Camden Festival; "As the Grand Duchess she invested every phrase, spoken or sung [...] with wit and meaning, and coloured her tone to express a wide variety of emotions. Never did she resort to the hoydenish behaviour that this role – in British productions at least – seems to invite." Routledge made her Broadway debut in Roger Milner's outrageous comedy How's the World Treating You? in 1966, returning in the short-lived 1968 musical Darling of the Day, for which she won the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical, sharing the honour with Leslie Uggams of Hallelujah, Baby! Following this, Routledge had roles in several more unsuccessful Broadway productions including a musical called Love Match, in which she played Queen Victoria; the legendary 1976 Leonard Bernstein flop 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, in which she portrayed every U.S. First Lady from Abigail Adams to Eleanor Roosevelt; and a 1981 musical, Say Hello to Harvey – based on the Mary Coyle Chase play Harvey (1944) – which closed in Toronto before reaching New York City. In 1980, Routledge played Ruth in the Joseph Papp production of The Pirates of Penzance, co-starring American actor Kevin Kline and pop vocalist Linda Ronstadt, at the Delacorte Theatre in New York City's Central Park, one of a series of Shakespeare in the Park summer events. The show was a hit and transferred to Broadway the following January, with Estelle Parsons replacing Routledge. A DVD of the Central Park production, with Routledge, was released in October 2002. She also performed in Façade at New York's Carnegie Recital Hall. Routledge won a Laurence Olivier Award in 1988 for her portrayal of the Old Lady in Leonard Bernstein's Candide in the London cast of the critically acclaimed Scottish Opera production. One critic noted "She stopped the show with 'I am so easily assimilated', and her long narration worked on at least two levels – it was both hilarious and oddly moving." She also played the role of Nettie Fowler to great acclaim in the 1993 London production of Carousel. In a 2006 Hampstead Theatre production of The Best of Friends, she portrayed Dame Laurentia McLachlan. In 2008, she played Queen Mary in Royce Ryton's play Crown Matrimonial. More recent work include the narrator in The Carnival of the Animals with the Nash Ensemble in 2010, the role of Dame Myra Hess in the play Admission: One Shilling in 2011, and Lady Markby in An Ideal Husband at the Chichester Festival Theatre in 2014. Film and television Routledge's screen credits include To Sir, with Love (1967), Pretty Polly (both 1967), 30 Is a Dangerous Age, Cynthia, The Bliss of Mrs. Blossom, Don't Raise the Bridge, Lower the River (all 1968), If It's Tuesday, This Must Be Belgium (1969) and Girl Stroke Boy (1971). Routledge's early television appearances included a role in Steptoe and Son, in the episode "Seance in a Wet Rag and Bone Yard" (1974), as a clairvoyant called Madame Fontana. She also appeared in Coronation Street, and as a white witch in Doctor at Large (1971). Also in 1971, Routledge played Mrs. Jennings in the BBC mini-series production of Sense and Sensibility. However, she did not come to prominence on television until she featured in monologues written for her by Alan Bennett and later Victoria Wood in the 1980s. She first appeared in A Woman of No Importance, the second installment of Bennett's anthology, Objects of Affection in 1982. She then played the opinionated Kitty in Victoria Wood: As Seen on TV in 1985. She performed two further monologues in Bennett's Talking Heads in 1987 and 1998. Routledge was nominated for a British Academy Television Award for Best Actress for the monologue "A Lady of Letters". In 1989 Routledge accepted the lead role of Hetty Wainthropp in an ITV mystery drama, Hetty Wainthropp: Missing Persons. ITV opted not to pursue a series after the pilot episode, but in 1996 the BBC produced the first series of Hetty Wainthropp Investigates, with Routledge again in the lead role. The show co-starred Dominic Monaghan as her assistant and Derek Benfield as her husband. It was first aired in January 1996, and ran until the autumn of 1998, with one special episode in 1999. Monaghan, who went on to enjoy a Hollywood career, has since credited Routledge as "an amazing teacher" who taught him some "very valuable lessons" in acting. In 1990, Routledge was cast as Hyacinth Bucket in the comedy series Keeping Up Appearances. She portrayed a formerly working-class woman with social pretensions (insisting her surname be pronounced "bouquet") and delusions of grandeur (her oft-mentioned "candlelight suppers"). Routledge delighted in portraying Hyacinth, as she claimed she couldn't stand people like her in real life. In 1991, she won a British Comedy Award for her portrayal, and she was later nominated for two BAFTA TV Awards in 1992 and 1993. The series ended at Routledge's request in 1995 despite its ongoing popularity. She wished to pursue other roles as a character actress. During an interview on Australian TV Patricia stated: "I'd much rather people look back and say 'I remember that' than say 'Oh, is that still on?'" Another reason she wished the series to end was that she felt that the writer, Roy Clarke, was rewriting old scripts. Routledge has also played several real-life characters for television, including Barbara Pym, and, in a dramatised BBC Omnibus biographical documentary of 1994, Hildegard of Bingen. In 2001 Routledge starred in Anybody's Nightmare, a fact-based television drama in which she played a piano teacher who served four years in prison for murdering her elderly aunt, but was acquitted following a retrial. Radio and audio books Routledge's extensive radio credits include several Alan Bennett plays and the BBC dramatisation of Carole Hayman's Ladies of Letters, in which she and Prunella Scales play retired women exchanging humorous correspondence over the course of several years. A tenth series of Ladies of Letters premiered on BBC Radio 4 in 2009. Radio work prior to 1985 included Private Lives, Present Laughter, The Cherry Orchard, Romeo and Juliet, Alice in Wonderland and The Fountain Overflows. Having a distinctive voice, Routledge has also recorded and released a variety of audiobooks including unabridged readings of Wuthering Heights and Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and abridged novelisations of the Hetty Wainthropp series. In 1966, she sang the role of Mad Margaret in Ruddigore, the title role in Iolanthe, and Melissa in Princess Ida, in a series of BBC Radio Gilbert and Sullivan recordings. She took part in a studio broadcast of Tchaikovsky's opera Vakula the Smith (narrating excerpts from the work by Gogol) in 1989. In 2006, she was featured in a programme of the "Stage and Screen" series on Radio 3. Charity work Routledge is an ambassador for the charity Royal Voluntary Service, previously known as WRVS. Personal life Routledge has never married and has no children. Of that, she said in a 2001 interview: "I didn't make a decision not to be married and not to be a mother. Life just turned out like that because my involvement in acting was so total". She has lived in Chichester since 2000, and regularly worships at Chichester Cathedral. She has helped raise £10,000 towards the restoration of the cathedral roof. , Routledge was a patron of the Beatrix Potter Society. Honours Routledge was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1993 Birthday Honours, Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2004 Birthday Honours, and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2017 New Year Honours for services to theatre and charity. In 2008, Routledge received an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters from Lancaster University for her contribution to drama and theatre. On 15 March 2019, Routledge received an honorary degree of Doctor of Letters from the University of Chester at the Chester Cathedral for her contributions to theatre and television. An honorary president of the Association of English Singers & Speakers (which exists to "encourage communication of English words in speech and song with clarity, understanding and imagination"), she has sponsored the annual AESS National English Song Prize from 2003 to the present. Screen and stage work Film Television Stage Discography Cast recordings Studio albums Awards and nominations References External links StackPath selected performances in Theatre Archive University of Bristol Interview January, 2015, in the Coeur d' Alene Press 1929 births Living people Actresses awarded British damehoods Actresses from Merseyside Alumni of Bristol Old Vic Theatre School Alumni of the University of Liverpool Audiobook narrators Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire English Anglicans English film actresses English musical theatre actresses English radio actresses English stage actresses English television actresses English voice actresses Laurence Olivier Award winners People educated at Birkenhead High School Academy People from Birkenhead Royal Shakespeare Company members Tony Award winners 20th-century English actresses 20th-century English women singers 20th-century English singers 21st-century English actresses 21st-century English women singers 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248298	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%20It%20Happens	As It Happens	As It Happens is a Canadian interview show that airs on CBC Radio One in Canada and various public radio stations in the United States through Public Radio Exchange. Its 50th anniversary was celebrated on-air on November 16, 2018. It has been one of the most popular and acclaimed shows on CBC Radio. The bulk of the program consists of one of the co-hosts, currently Carol Off, conducting telephone interviews with newsmakers and other persons of interest. The other co-host, Chris Howden as of January 6, 2020, introduces the interviews and other segments, such as "For the Record" recordings of speeches or press conferences, and musical interludes (or as former co-host Barbara Budd often referred to them, "the dance portion of the program"). Stations and time The show is broadcast each weekday from 6:30 to 8:00 p.m. (half an hour later in Newfoundland) throughout Canada. It used to be widely accessible to much of the northern United States, but as the CBC switched its CBC Radio One from powerful AM signals in Eastern Canadian urban centres to FM stations, it became harder to receive CBC content further away from the border. As It Happens can be heard on CBC Radio One's channel 169 on Sirius Satellite Radio (in both Canada and the U.S.), on an increasing number of American public radio stations, especially NPR affiliates with news radio formats, via distribution from CBC's American distribution partner Public Radio Exchange, and on the Internet via streaming audio at the CBC's website. Older broadcasts are available as a stream from the CBC's website, but without the music. As It Happens is heard on a delayed-broadcast basis in the United States, generally airing in a later-evening slot and often paired with Q; American stations that carry As It Happens do not air the final half-hour (7:30 to 8:00 p.m.) of the program. In the fall of 2009, the show also added an hour long repeat airing at midnight on weeknights called As It Happens: The Midnight Edition, which features an abbreviated edition of the 6:30 p.m. broadcast. During the summer, the program ends at 7:30 and is followed by a half-hour program from the network's schedule of short-run summer series. Most summers, one of those summer series is As It Happened: The Archive Edition, a separate program which airs previously broadcast interviews from the main series. History The show was introduced in 1968 as a reverse call-in show: rather than having the public call in, the reporters at As It Happens called newsmakers and pundits for their opinions. During the 1970s, the program produced 54-minute-long segments called "As It Happened, (insert year)", covering the major events of years past, particularly the 1930s and 1940s. During the CBC technicians strike in 1981, after a few weeks of music, the As It Happened segments were played each weeknight in chronological order as repeat filler material until the strike was resolved. Hosts 1968–1969: Phillip Forsyth, Harry Brown and William Ronald 1969–1971: Harry Brown and William Ronald 1971–1973: Barbara Frum, Harry Brown, Cy Strange 1973–1974: Barbara Frum and Harry Brown 1974–1981: Barbara Frum and Alan Maitland 1981–1985: Elizabeth Gray and Alan Maitland 1985–1987: Dennis Trudeau and Alan Maitland 1987–1993: Michael Enright and Alan Maitland 1993–1997: Michael Enright and Barbara Budd 1997–2005: Mary Lou Finlay and Barbara Budd 2006–2010: Carol Off and Barbara Budd 2010: Carol Off and guest host 2011–2019: Carol Off and Jeff Douglas 2019: Carol Off and guest host 2020–2022: Carol Off and Chris Howden 2022–present: Chris Howden When the interviewer is absent, other CBC journalists typically sit in as substitute interviewers; when the announcer is absent, substitutes may include other CBC personalities, actors such as R.H. Thomson, or program staffers; Howden himself sometimes appeared on the program as a guest announcer before being named co-host effective January 6, 2020. In January 2022, Off announced her retirement from As It Happens, effective February 25. Timeline of hosts Notable interviews The show has had many notable interviews, including: the wife of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn just after his arrest. Sandra Good, the best friend of Squeaky Fromme, just after her friend had attempted to shoot Gerald Ford. a Rwandan woman seemingly moments away from being killed by Tutsi militia during the 1994 Rwandan genocide—she stayed on the phone with As It Happens up to the point when the attackers knocked on her door. She was ultimately spared. The show has also interviewed a wide array of presidents, prime ministers, terrorists, inventors, and authors. Humour Despite the gravity of many of its stories, As It Happens is also known for being lighthearted and carrying news of the obscure and bizarre. For instance, during the early 1990s there were updates for several years on the battle over a large fibreglass fish that annoyed a neighbour in England. The show opens with humorous synopses of the day's stories, which are followed by a pun based on one of the same. An example is "radio that reads between the Linuses," following a story about baseball stats in the Peanuts comic strip. As it happens, the show's title is also a pun. Former host Barbara Frum once interviewed Cookie Monster from Sesame Street. Another well-remembered interview was with a hard-of-hearing but imperturbable British farmer who had grown a prize-winning giant cabbage. The 1976 interview was conducted by an increasingly frustrated Frum, who could not get the farmer to give any kind of coherent replies to her straightforward questions; by mid-interview, Frum was stuck repeatedly asking the question "What did you feed your cabbage?" a little bit louder each time. Exasperated, she finally asks him "WHAT. DID. YOU. FEED. THE. GODDAMN. CABBAGE?". It is still occasionally played as an amusing interlude on the show, as well as on CBC Radio's afternoon series Rewind. After Lloyd Robertson left CBC Television for CTV in 1976, the program conducted its own on-air auditions for his replacement as anchor of The National, eventually choosing Robert Stanfield as its nominee. Barbara Budd and Mary Lou Finlay maintained a recurring debate over whether ABBA's "Dancing Queen" was an appropriate choice of bumper music between interviews, and more recently Budd and Carol Off solicited listener feedback to determine the world's most annoying song. On one occasion when Budd was away on a sick leave that coincided with April Fools' Day, she and Finlay arranged a prank in which Budd gave an interview explaining that she had been given a Canada Council grant to tour the world visiting all the cities whose names she had ever mispronounced on the air. Following Finlay's retirement in 2005, she published The As It Happens Files, a memoir of her time with the program. The book was subtitled Radio That May Contain Nuts. The distance from Reading A frequently cited example of the show's sometimes whimsical sense of humour relates to its frequent references to the UK town of Reading, Berkshire. After almost any lighter news story or interview that emanates from any location in the UK, the As It Happens host will conclude the piece by straight-facedly noting how far the UK location is from Reading, frequently giving the distance in both miles and some other form of strange, non-standard measurement (e.g., 733,000 garden gnomes, lined up hat to hat). This long-standing tradition on the show dates from the mid-1970s, when English-born segment producer George Somerwill once concluded a program script with a note that a small village mentioned in the preceding segment was located 'nine miles from Reading'. This note, intended as a serious clarification, was totally baffling to most Canadian listeners—and even to the rest of the show's staff. It quickly became a running joke on the show to identify all places in the UK (even major centres like London) in relation to their proximity to the comparatively obscure borough of Reading. In her book The As It Happens Files, former show host Mary Lou Finlay notes that As It Happens has given a boost not just to Reading's profile, but also to its economy, as in recent years a number of Canadian fans of the show have made a point of visiting Reading when they are visiting the UK. Christmas and Hanukkah readings During the holiday season in late November and December each year, the show also maintains a tradition of airing one or more Christmas and Hanukkah themed stories narrated by past or present announcers. Alan Maitland's reading of Frederick Forsyth's The Shepherd is always played on the last show before Christmas Day, and Maitland's reading of O. Henry's "The Gift of the Magi" remains a popular staple of the program, as do Barbara Budd's narrations of How the Grinch Stole Christmas! and Aubrey Davis' Bone Button Borscht. Music The opening and closing themes—"Curried Soul" and "Koff Drops", respectively—are played by Moe Koffman. The second segment of the show begins with a 1987 rearrangement of "Curried Soul" by Billy Bryans. In September 2013, amidst much on-air fanfare, the decades-old "Curried Soul" opening theme was given a discreetly modernized remix by Socalled. During phone-in segments broadcast in the days following the new theme's premiere, listener reaction was mixed: some preferred the newer mix, while others stated their preference for the original 1969 recording. When Socalled appeared on CBC Radio's Q as a musical guest in June 2015, Off and Douglas joined him for a live performance of the song, with Douglas playing a shaker and Off playing cowbell. On extraordinary news occasions, the show may also broadcast alternate opening and closing theme music more reflective of a major news story, or may entirely skip opening theme music. For example, on the December 5, 2013 episode marking the death of Nelson Mandela, the show opened and closed with Ladysmith Black Mambazo's recording of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika"; on the October 22, 2014 episode covering the Parliament Hill shootings, the show opened with a montage of audio clips of the day's events, entirely skipping theme music; and on the November 11, 2016 episode following the death of Canadian musical and literary icon Leonard Cohen, the show opened with Cohen's "Bird on the Wire". Awards In 2005, the Audio-Visual Preservation Trust of Canada honoured Barbara Frum for her time with As It Happens. References External links The show's CBC Program Guide entry CBC Digital Archives – Celebrating CBC's As It Happens 1968 radio programme debuts Canadian news radio programs Canadian talk radio programs CBC News CBC Radio One programs Public Radio International programs	[ 0.802529513835907, -0.2178584486246109, 0.5523473620414734, 0.08909238874912262, -0.08274835348129272, -0.13897104561328888, 0.7090915441513062, 0.6159515976905823, -0.09173385053873062, -0.15011456608772278, -0.05443239584565163, 0.4485532343387604, 0.13052776455879211, 0.49558693170547485, -0.14019806683063507, -0.1845145970582962, -0.44294434785842896, 0.2479911595582962, 0.5827594995498657, -0.4728925824165344, -0.09999135136604309, -0.5428048372268677, 0.2622781991958618, -0.41428905725479126, 0.04636286944150925, 0.3454779088497162, 0.15389923751354218, -0.014138888567686081, -0.31385213136672974, 0.07601653784513474, -0.18986819684505463, 0.1836712807416916, -0.0036318819038569927, 0.09740601480007172, 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248308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hive%20mind	Hive mind	A hive mind or group mind may refer to: Shared intelligence Collective consciousness or collective intelligence, concepts in sociology and philosophy Group mind (science fiction), a type of collective consciousness Groupthink, in which the desire for harmony or conformity in a group results in irrational or dysfunctional decision-making Sheeple, a derogatory term referring to groups of people who mindlessly follow those in power Swarm intelligence, the collective behavior of decentralized, self-organized systems, natural or artificial The apparent consciousness of colonies of social insects such as ants, bees, and termites Universal mind, a type of universal higher consciousness in some esoteric beliefs Egregore, a concept in occultism which has been described as group mind Media Hive Mind (book), a 2015 nonfiction book by Garett Jones Hive Mind (The Internet album), 2018 Hive Mind (Sinch album), 2012 HiveMind, a video game that was planned but never released by Will Wright Apache HiveMind, a software framework Hive Minds, a BBC4 quiz-show started in 2015 and hosted by Fiona Bruce See also Mind Hive, a 2020 album by art punk band Wire Intentionality The Group Mind, a book by William McDougall Crowdsourcing Reddit Wikipedia	[ 0.337808758020401, 0.011005951091647148, -0.9236183762550354, 0.30132973194122314, -0.26971858739852905, -0.05260610207915306, 0.5222297310829163, 0.25071990489959717, -0.3449985384941101, -0.2733631134033203, -0.4016019105911255, 0.19564120471477509, -0.8332265019416809, 0.12167023867368698, -0.34912505745887756, 0.5495588779449463, 0.6611536145210266, 0.23929542303085327, -0.6947970390319824, 0.0036762787494808435, -0.1529710739850998, 0.1498270332813263, 0.041952185332775116, -0.09081299602985382, 0.31668198108673096, 0.10679561644792557, 0.22047282755374908, -0.06967205554246902, 0.05549709126353264, 0.14222843945026398, 0.03175479918718338, 0.36601710319519043, 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248309	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visionary%20art	Visionary art	Visionary art is art that purports to transcend the physical world and portray a wider vision of awareness including spiritual or mystical themes, or is based in such experiences. History The Vienna School of Fantastic Realism, first established in 1946, is considered to be an important technical and philosophical catalyst in its strong influence upon contemporary visionary art. Its artists included Ernst Fuchs, Rudolf Hausner, Arik Brauer, Wolfgang Hutter and Anton Lehmden among others. Several artists who would later work in visionary art trained under Fuchs, including Mati Klarwein, Robert Venosa, Philip Rubinov Jacobson and De Es Schwertberger. Definition Visionary art often carries themes of spiritual, mystical or inner awareness. Despite this broad definition, there does seem to be emerging some definition to what constitutes the contemporary visionary art 'scene' and which artists can be considered especially influential. Symbolism, Cubism, Surrealism and Psychedelic art are also direct precursors to contemporary visionary art. Notable visionary artists count Hilma af Klint, Hieronymous Bosch, William Blake, Morris Graves (of the Pacific Northwest School of Visionary Art), Emil Bisttram, and Gustave Moreau amongst their antecedents. Schools and organizations The Vienna School of Fantastic Realism, which includes Ernst Fuchs and Arik Brauer, is also a strong influence on visionary culture. It may also be considered the European version, with the names being interchangeable. The Society for the Art of Imagination, founded by Brigid Marlin serves as an important portal for visionary art events. More recently, a new wave of visionary artists collaborate to function as modern cooperatives involved in self-publishing and promotion of visionary artists through the internet and via festivals such as Burning Man and Boom Festival, and exhibition/ritual spaces such as Tribe 13, Temple of Visions, Psychedelic Dream Temple, The Vision Train, Synergenesis and the Interdimensional Art Movement. Organizations Society for Art of Imagination Society of Layerists in MultiMedia The VANA (visionary art film) project Chapel of Sacred Mirrors The Vision Train Gallery See also Burning Man Fantastic art Horror vacui Outsider art Psychedelic art Surrealism Alex Grey The Symbolist and Decadent art movement Temples of Humankind Conceptual art References Sources Cosmic Art Ramond & Lila Piper (Hawthorne Books) , 1975 Celestial Visitations The Art of Gilbert Williams (Pomegranate Artbooks) , 1979 Sacred Mirrors: The Visionary Art of Alex Grey", Carlo McCormick, Inner Traditions International, 1990 Raw Creation: Outsider Art and Beyond John Maizels,, 1996 The Art of Adolf Wolfli Elka Spoerri, Daniel Baumann and E. M. Gomez, , 2003 Nothing Is True - Everything Is Permitted: The Life of Brion Gysin John Geiger, (The Disinformation Company), 130. , 2005 Fantastic Art (Taschen) ( Schurian, Prof. Dr. Walter) (English edition), 2005 True Visions (Erik Davis and Pablo Echaurren) (Betty Books) , 2006 Metamorphosis: 50 Contemporary Surreal, Fantastic and Visionary Artists (beinArt) , 2007 Bibliography 1975 - Cosmic Art Ramond & Lila Piper (Hawthorne Books) 1979 - Celestial Visitations The Art of Gilbert Williams (Pomegranate Artbooks) 2005 - Fantastic Art (Taschen) ( Schurian, Prof. Dr. Walter) (English edition) 2006 - True Visions (Erik Davis and Pablo Echaurren) (Betty Books) 2007 - Metamorphosis (beinArt) 2011 - "Positive Creations" (Schiffer Publications) 2016 - El Canto de Abraxas'' de Álvaro Robles G. (Editorial Salón Arcano) External links Collection: "Folk, Self-Taught, Amateur, and Visionary Art" at the University of Michigan Museum of Art Visual arts genres Modern art Prophecy	[ 0.6795291900634766, 0.4398782551288605, -0.621279776096344, 0.23494890332221985, -0.30342066287994385, 0.05795664340257645, 0.699882447719574, 0.3633875250816345, 0.02363688312470913, -0.7514702677726746, -0.536731481552124, 0.37776076793670654, -0.21308203041553497, 0.5329987406730652, 0.06028905138373375, 0.2815473675727844, 0.4081439673900604, 0.08753573894500732, -0.13634836673736572, -0.2630308270454407, -0.6833120584487915, -0.401883602142334, 0.13904057443141937, -0.43694570660591125, -0.2696267068386078, -0.4283710718154907, 0.10777764022350311, -0.3771519660949707, -0.3454849421977997, -0.17490427196025848, 0.037274882197380066, 0.20680879056453705, -0.270192950963974, -0.4555107057094574, 0.009811979718506336, 0.3234543204307556, -0.38233762979507446, -0.6040973663330078, -0.5335584878921509, 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248310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet%20Tone%20Records	Velvet Tone Records	Velvet Tone Records was an American record label that was founded by Columbia Records in 1925 and shut down in 1932. Velvet Tone contained material identical to that of Columbia's two other low price labels, Harmony Records and Diva Records (and after Diva was discontinued, Clarion Records). Popular culture In Frank Capra's 1946 film, It's a Wonderful Life, Mary can be seen playing a record with a "Velvet Tone" label on the phonograph. A close examination reveals that it is "Buffalo Gals" performed by "Arthur Black and His Orchestra". However, the label's design is inconsistent with actual Velvet Tone labels. The prop record is a nod towards the film's assistant director, Arthur Black. See also List of record labels References External links Velvet Tone Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project American record labels Record labels established in 1925 Record labels disestablished in 1932 Jazz record labels	[ -0.3383001983165741, 0.10121916234493256, -0.3104625642299652, 0.2899370789527893, 0.12015512585639954, 0.028227433562278748, -0.05138131231069565, 0.3001759946346283, 0.04103604331612587, 0.17770399153232574, 0.2521984577178955, 0.5481115579605103, 0.08337851613759995, 0.4393255114555359, -0.6563915610313416, -0.2313835471868515, 0.11468280851840973, 0.270785391330719, 0.16294895112514496, -0.3549361824989319, -0.2472955584526062, 0.1363954097032547, 0.219838947057724, -0.050888899713754654, -0.2939130365848541, -0.3046044409275055, -0.14896778762340546, 0.028810769319534302, -0.2711448669433594, 0.26219314336776733, 0.28651607036590576, 0.3590908348560333, -0.21319171786308289, -0.3019278645515442, -0.4370874762535095, -0.4951406419277191, 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248314	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebenaceae	Ebenaceae	The Ebenaceae are a family of flowering plants belonging to order Ericales. The family includes ebony and persimmon among about 768 species of trees and shrubs. It is distributed across the tropical and warmer temperate regions of the world. It is most diverse in the rainforests of Malesia, India, tropical Africa and tropical America. Many species are valued for their wood, particularly ebony, for fruit, and as ornamental plants. Biology The fruits contain tannins, a plant defense against herbivory, so they are often avoided by animals when unripe. The ripe fruits of many species are a food source for diverse animal taxa. The foliage is consumed by insects. The plants may have a strong scent. Some species have aromatic wood. They are important and conspicuous trees in many of their native ecosystems, such as lowland dry forests of the former Maui Nui in Hawaii, Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests, Khathiar–Gir dry deciduous forests, Louisiade Archipelago rain forests, Madagascar lowland forests, Narmada Valley dry deciduous forests, New Guinea mangroves, and South Western Ghats montane rain forests. Ebony is a dense black wood taken from several species in the genus Diospyros, including Diospyros ebenum (Ceylon ebony, Indian ebony), Diospyros crassiflora (West African ebony, Benin ebony), and Diospyros celebica (Makassar ebony). Diospyros tesselaria (Mauritius ebony) was heavily exploited by the Dutch in the 17th century. Description The family includes trees and shrubs. The leaves are usually alternately arranged, but some species have opposite or whorled leaves. The inflorescence is usually a cyme of flowers, sometimes a raceme or a panicle, and some plants produce solitary flowers. Most species are dioecious. The flower has 3 to 8 petals, which are joined at the bases. There are usually several single or paired stamens, which are often attached to the inner wall of the corolla. Female flowers have up to 8 stigmas. The calyx is persistent. The fruits are berry-like or capsular. Like the wood of some species, the roots and bark may be black in color. Etymology The family name Ebenaceae is based on the genus name Ebenus, published by Otto Kuntze in 1891. It is a later homonym of Ebenus L., a genus already named in the family Fabaceae, and is thus nomen illegitimum. The plant that Kuntze had named Ebenus was accordingly reassigned to the genus Maba, which in turn has since been included in the genus Diospyros. Because the name Ebenaceae had become well known, having been used in major botanical references such as Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantarum, Engler and Prantl's Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien, and Hutchinson's Families of Flowering Plants, it was conserved and is therefore legitimate. Genera During the last century, seven genera have been included in the family at one time or another. One phylogenetic analysis reduced the family to four genera: References Ericales families	[ -0.36991769075393677, 0.4122268557548523, -0.5356860160827637, -0.1709045171737671, -0.30457866191864014, 0.3766092360019684, 0.9805458784103394, 0.2618575692176819, 0.2635800242424011, -0.16624964773654938, 0.14433185756206512, 0.27095338702201843, -0.7879714965820312, 0.5242387652397156, 0.2018132358789444, 0.6186875104904175, 0.13623826205730438, 0.5985665321350098, 0.13780926167964935, -0.6169049739837646, -0.3767932653427124, -0.7682164311408997, 0.7878117561340332, -0.25575581192970276, 0.72808438539505, -0.24638868868350983, 0.2170993685722351, -0.2878698706626892, 0.6281572580337524, -0.38174712657928467, -0.09450219571590424, 0.6995546817779541, 0.3786865770816803, -0.22166207432746887, 0.45478370785713196, 0.6883456707000732, -0.34792250394821167, -0.612284779548645, 0.160487100481987, -0.5674291849136353, 0.1273675113916397, 0.021183112636208534, 0.29140105843544006, 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248315	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art%20car	Art car	An art car is a vehicle that has had its appearance modified as an act of personal artistic expression. Art cars are often driven and owned by their creators, who are sometimes referred to as "Cartists". Most car artists are ordinary people with no artistic training. Artists are largely self-taught and self funded, though some mainstream trained artists have also worked in the art car medium. Most car artists agree that creating and driving an art car daily is its own reward. Artists like Roy Lichtenstein, Andy Warhol and others have designed BMW Art Cars and their work has been reflected in racing cars like the BMW V12 LMR. History The art car subculture started with several influences - the hippie-themed VWs of the late 1960s, the lowrider, as well as a Merry Pranksters' creation, the decorated school bus known as Furthur. During the late 1960s, singer Janis Joplin had a psychedelically-painted Porsche 356 and John Lennon, a paisley Rolls Royce. Partly in imitation, the late 1960s/early 1970s counterculture featured many painted VW Buses (sometimes with a peace symbol in place of the giant VW logo) and customized vehicles (e.g. a customized 1977 Cadillac Fleetwood seen in the film Escape from New York). Likewise, as a way of evading The Muppet Movie's main antagonist "Doc Hopper", Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem paint up the borrowed 1951 "bullet-nose" Studebaker Commander two-door owned by Fozzie Bear's uncle in a psychedelic manner, for Fozzie and Kermit the Frog to escape safely, at least for a while. Artist Larry Fuente was among the first to take motorized appliqué to the limit with his "Mad Cad." Later, artists David Best and Jackie Harris contributed their works to the art car world. An art car community began to cohere in the 1990s, inspired by movies and books with a wide underground following, and the development of innovative art display venues such as Burning Man. One of the main forces behind this is filmmaker and art car artist Harrod Blank, who created the art car documentaries Wild Wheels (1992), Driving The Dream (1998) and Automorphosis (2009). He also published two books Wild Wheels (1993, 2001) and Art Cars: the cars, the artists, the obsession, the craft (2002, 2007, 2012) Blank also co-founded with Philo Northrup the U.S.'s second largest art car festival in the San Francisco Bay Area: ArtCar Fest. Today many cars are covered by local newspapers and media. The only real way to get an idea of what is out there is to simply hit the road or attend an art car event. A New Year's Eve event in Houston, Texas, held on 31 December 2010 had over 100 Illuminated entrants, it is titled Gloworama, produced by ArtX (formerly Art Cars of Houston LLC prior to 2013 - their events are limited to illuminated vehicles only). The illuminated parade also drew the attention of the Galveston, Texas-based business empire Yaga's Entertainment, Inc. (the contract holder of Mardi Gras! Galveston 2011–2015) as part of their five-year contract signed on 18 November 2010. A well known early art car used for commercial advertisement was the Oscar Mayer Wienie Wagon—Later versions were known as the Wienermobile. These are bus-sized vehicles styled to appear as a hot dog on a bun. Commercial use of the art car has become popular in the 20th and continues into the 21st century. At the same time visionary applications including cars transformed into religious shrines continues to place visionary self-taught artists, student artists and corporate artists side by side on the road and at art car events. The art car culture was once strongest throughout Texas and the Southeast but now it extends throughout the United States and art car events can be found in many major cities as well as in small country towns. Art cars now very evident in the East, with a large event often held in Baltimore. In Canada, art cars are popular in British Columbia and also in the western Canadian plains with shows in Nanaimo, British Columbia and Regina, Saskatchewan. Other cars can be found throughout the world, most recently in Europe with the European arm of car-hire firm Avis supporting the movement. Artistic styles Art cars are public and mobile expressions of the artistic need to create. Often these days art cars derive their inspiration from popular culture. Others however, are created by visionary artists in order to express complex visions, philosophies and ideas. There is a wide and varied spectrum of purpose found in art cars. In creating an art car, the "exteriors and interiors of factory-made automobiles are transformed into expressions of individual ideas, values, beliefs and dreams. The cars range from imaginatively painted vehicles to extravagant fantasies whose original bodies are concealed beneath newly sculptured shells". Later themes have become more widely focused and more satirical or dark. Science fiction themes (monsters, giant insects from Them!, flying saucers), surrealism, and expressions of the Gothic and the sublime, are not uncommon. In parades and shows, "arted" bicycles or motor-scooters or costumed roller-skaters may also weave among the art cars. Some art car owners incorporate elements of music or street theater in their presentation. For cars to be roadworthy, artistic style must be kept with the constraints of the law. This generally means keeping turn signals and windows clear, license plates visible, and not extending beyond the width of a normal car frame. See also Art bike ArtCar Museum Cartist Automobile Art Festival BMW Art Car Dekotora Houston Art Car Parade Itasha Lowrider Truck art in South Asia Veilside VIP style Vochol References Klein, Tim. Art Cars Calendar, 21 January 2007. Retrieved 27 January 2007. External links Art Cars in Cyberspace Art Car World Art Cars page at AVAM BMW Art Cars An overview of all BMW art cars. Art Car Central Blog Gloworama Annual event . 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248316	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechTV	TechTV	TechTV is a defunct 24-hour cable and satellite channel based in San Francisco featuring news and shows about computers, technology, and the Internet. In 2004, it merged with the G4 gaming channel which ultimately dissolved TechTV programming. At the height of its six-year run, TechTV was broadcast in 70 countries, reached 43 million households, and claimed 1.9 million unique visitors monthly to its website. A focus on personality-driven product reviews and technical support made it a cultural hub for technology information worldwide, still existing today online through its former hosts' webcasts, most notably the TWiT Network. The offices were located at 650 Townsend Street, 94103, and the studios, of which there were two, were located at 535 York Street, 94110. Names It originally was called ZDTV by its founder, Ziff-Davis, when it debuted on May 11, 1998. It later was owned by Paul Allen's Vulcan Ventures. Vulcan Ventures sold TechTV to G4 Media (owned primarily by Comcast), which merged it with the video game channel G4 in May 2004 to form G4techTV. In February 2005, the name was changed back to G4, eliminating TechTV from the name completely. Show personalities The personalities of TechTV include Leo Laporte, Kate Botello, Roger Chang, Yoshi DeHerrera, John C. Dvorak, Carmine Gallo, Ali Hossaini, James Kim, Kris Kosach, Pam Krueger, Chris Leary, Chi-Lan Lieu, Jim Louderback, Tom Merritt, Megan Morrone, Patrick Norton, SuChin Pak, Michaela Pereira, Bill Rafferty, Kevin Rose, Martin Sargent, Catherine Schwartz, Adam Sessler, Laura Swisher, Morgan Webb, Tammy Cavadias and Liam Mayclem. Many former hosts of TechTV programs have gone on to create new programs distributed online: Leo Laporte's This Week in Tech, Chris Pirillo's live.pirillo.com, Systm, thebroken, From The Shadows, commandN, Diggnation, Infected with Martin Sargent, DL.TV, CrankyGeeks, InDigital, East Meets West, and Weezy and the Swish are some of the shows produced by alumni. Leo Laporte hosted Call for Help which aired until April 6, 2007. It was revamped and renamed The Lab with Leo Laporte and was shown on G4techTV Canada and the Australian HOW TO Channel. The show was filmed in HD and Laporte hoped to have it picked up by an American network. The series has since been cancelled due to poor ratings. Kevin Rose, who worked on "The Screen Savers" and "Unscrewed with Martin Sargent", co-founded Digg which he featured on "The Screen Savers" in 2004 , was hired by Google in March 2012, along with many of the employees at Rose's mobile app incubator called Milk. Former personalities Peter Barnes, Fox Business Channel Erica Hill, HLN host Leo Laporte, Leo Laporte's This Week in Tech, founder of TWiT.tv Kris Kosach, Host Audiofile Scott Herriot, Anchor of Internet Tonight and Sasquatch Hunter Michaela Pereira, former HLN host Chris Pirillo, created own website Victoria Recaño, formerly at KTLA Becky Worley, tech contributor for ABC TV's Good Morning America Liam Mayclem, Formerly Correspondent Internet Tonight Host Audiofile NOW KCBS FOODIE CHAP KCBS RADIO Tammy Cavadias, Community Production Manager Virtual characters Many of the founding staff of ZDTV had previously worked on MSNBC's The Site, which featured Dev Null, a virtual animated character voiced by Leo Laporte who interacted with host Soledad O'Brien. Improving on the technology used for Dev Null, ZDTV created two animated virtual characters who appeared as hosts for the network. Dash (voiced first by Paul McKinney and later by Patrick Flick and Chris Manners, with body performance by Jessa Brie Moreno and Slater Penney) and Tilde (voiced by Kate Botello and later by Laura LeBleu, with body performance by Jessa Brie Moreno and Slater Penney, in some support chat appearances Tilde was played by Theresa Quinn, Asst Production Manager) appeared in on-air and online promos for the network. Dash also appeared as a virtual correspondent on the show Internet Tonight in a segment called "The Homepage Hall of Fame" and briefly as the host of "Dash's Animation House." History ZDTV The channel originally launched on Monday May 11, 1998, on cable systems in Las Vegas, Detroit, parts of Georgia near Atlanta and parts of Maine. Vulcan Ventures first invested in ZDTV, a network that supplemented content from Ziff-Davis' computer and technology based print publications (at the time including PC Magazine, MacWEEK, and eWEEK), in November 1998, acquiring a one-third interest from Ziff-Davis. In November 1999, Vulcan purchased the remaining two-thirds in a transaction that was completed on January 21, 2000. The deal (which permitted Vulcan to temporarily continue using the "ZD" initials and "red diamond" logo) was worth approximately $204.8 million. An early adopter of ZDTV was Charter Communications (also owned by Paul Allen at the time), which began carrying the channel in Newnan, Georgia in July 1998. Beginning on Saturday August 1, 1998, ZDTV was broadcast in its native San Francisco, when the channel struck a deal with DirecTV to become available on Channel 273, via the providers' satellite dishes. In July 2000, it was announced that ZDNet would be acquired by CNET, placing ZDTV in the awkward position of using the initials and logo of a company that soon would belong to its main TV programming rival. However, a new name was already being worked on. TechTV On September 18, 2000, ZDTV was renamed TechTV, and a new on-air strategy was announced along with several new series including the music-technology series, AudioFile. Soon, TechTV made a huge commitment to enter into live broadcasting when it launched a nine-hour experimental news program called TechLive in April 2001. The show, which catered to day traders and business types, never caught on with TechTV's audience. In November 2001, following a massive round of layoffs, TechLive was divided into three one-hour shows. In the spring of 2002, TechLive was cut further into just one thirty-minute daily news magazine show, with a focus less on tech news and more on how technology changed people's lives. Beginning March 15, 2001, TechTV experienced repeated layoffs. In 2002, Silicon Spin (an opinion forum hosted by PC Magazine editor John C. Dvorak from the original ZDTV launched in May 1998) and AudioFile (a show for digital music enthusiasts launched in August 2000) were canceled, with its hosts being absorbed onto other network programs. 2003 saw the introduction of several new shows (such as Performance, Robot Wars, and Unscrewed with Martin Sargent). In late 2001 and early 2002, many Comcast cable systems dropped TechTV from their channel lineups. At the time, some viewers speculated that this was done to eliminate a competitor to the Comcast-owned G4. When Comcast's G4 Media acquired TechTV and merged it with G4 in 2004, a second theory emerged, which suggested that Comcast's actual motive was to lower TechTV's value, and ultimately its asking price. TechTV was also broadcast over the air on KTQW in Wichita, Kansas until the TechTV name was dropped during the G4 merger. In Davenport, Iowa from early 2001. St. Ambrose University carried the show feed for most of the day and early evening on their cable channel. For a short time after the change to G4TechTV it still carried the feed. It was dropped after complaints about some of the G4 later programming. International distribution A Canadian version of TechTV launched on September 7, 2001, as a joint venture of TechTV, Rogers Media, and Shaw Communications. The channel would later become G4techTV Canada to coincide with the American merger of TechTV and G4. The channel would change its name once again in mid-2009 to G4 Canada. In 2004, TechTV launched on Foxtel Digital in Australia. After the merger with G4, TechTV (then called G4techTV) left Australia lineups as its international feed ceased. On Malaysia's ASTRO platform, repeats of the international feed was run for some time after the international feed ceased before starting to import G4TV programming and retransmitting them locally on the same channel as the public educational service TV Pendidikan from 2002 to 2006. In Japan, Sony's So-net channel aired several TechTV programs until the fall of 2005 (they aired reruns after May 2004). In New Zealand, TechTV aired on Saturn Communications's channel 34 until May 2004. In addition to those countries, TechTV had existence in Russia and the United Kingdom. Merger and consolidation On March 25, 2004, Comcast's G4 gaming channel announced a merger with TechTV. This move became hugely controversial among loyal fans of TechTV and Leo Laporte, who, because of a contract dispute with Vulcan, left the channel. Shows with Laporte, including The Screen Savers and Call for Help, continued on with remaining staff taking over his hosting duties. Around May 6, 2004, G4 announced the termination of 250 employees from the San Francisco office by July 16, 2004, allowing approximately 80 to 100 employees to transition to G4's main office in Los Angeles if they agreed to relocate there. Shows from TechTV that weren't redundant to G4's offerings continued on until July, when the closing of the TechTV Offices would close the respective stages for these shows in turn. On May 10, 2004, G4 Media completed the acquisition of TechTV from Vulcan. G4techTV was launched in the U.S. on May 28, 2004. This led to the cancellation of many of the TechTV channels throughout carriers across the world (e.g.: systems with both channels active, systems limiting Comcast's number of channels on their lineup, etc.) On January 3, 2005, TechTV International began airing select programs from G4techTV. After the closure deadline passed on July 16, 2004, only Los Angeles produced shows would air on the new channel. The final production originating at TechTV in San Francisco was the September 2, 2004, episode of The Screen Savers (which was taped on July 16, 2004). On February 15, 2005, the TechTV brand was dropped from the United States G4techTV feed, leaving the network name as G4 – Video Game Television which also echoed the changes in programming made to the channel due to the merger for both G4's original offering and the greatly diminished TechTV originated shows (exceptions noted below); after that, G4 went through a rebranding and changed most of its programming to position itself as a male-oriented network. TechTV shows and personalities who survived the mergerThe Screen Savers survived somewhat in Attack of the Show!, remaining an open-format hosted talk show. On March 17, 2005, the staff made an announcement that they intended to reformat The Screen Savers to better fit the network, including the change of its name (a computer term for a program to protect a monitor from burned-in imagery, which no longer fit when The Screen Savers stopped covering computer self-help and DIY programming). It changed to Attack of the Show (a reference to the Star Wars prequel "Attack of the Clones"), and while still covering technology to a lesser extent, it also covers autos, sports, movies, new products and pop culture. Kevin Rose, Sarah Lane, and Brendan Moran stayed on after the transition to Attack of the Show for a short time, but Rose left on May 27, 2005, and both Lane and Moran left after their marriage on April 6, 2006, marking the final TechTV on-camera staff's exit from the program. Six TechTV personalities, Kevin Rose, Sarah Lane, Morgan Webb, Adam Sessler, Chi-Lan Lieu and Brendan Moran relocated to Los Angeles to join G4. Only two TechTV shows, Anime Unleashed and X-Play, survived the merger without any major changes. Anime Unleashed (and in turn, all of the anime series which aired on the block) was canceled in March 2006. X-Play was the last TechTV-created show in production under G4 until it was announced in late 2012 that it and Attack of the Show would both be cancelled in December 2012. In April 2012, Sessler was let go from G4. A proper reason was not given, however there have been rumors of a contractual dispute. Sessler was the last of the original hosts from the initial launch of ZDTV in 1998. When the network withdrew all their live programming in December 2012, Blair Butler and Webb were the only remaining TechTV personalities working at G4. Programs This is a list of programs broadcast by TechTV:Call for Help (1998-2004)Computer Shopper (1998-2000)CyberCrime (1998-2004)Digital Avenue (1998-2000)Fresh Gear (1998-2004)Internet Tonight (1998-2001)The Money Machine (1998-2001)The Screen Savers (1998-2004)Silicon Spin (1998-2001)TechLive (formerly ZDTV News (1998–2000) and TechTV News (2000–2001)) (2001-2004)X-Play (formerly GameSpot TV (1998–2001) and Extended Play (2001–2003)) (2003-2004)Zip File (1998-2001)Big Thinkers (1999-2002)AudioFile (2000-2002)Dash's Animation House (2000-2001)Working the Web (2000-2001)You Made It (2000-2001)Titans of Tech (2001)Tomorrow's World (2001-2002)Anime Unleashed (2002-2004)Eye Drops (2002)Future Fighting Machines (2002-2004)Max Headroom (2002-2003)Secret, Strange & True (2002-2003)The Tech of (2002-2004)Techno Games (2002-2004)Thunderbirds (2002-2004)Beyond Tomorrow (TV series) (2003-2004)Body Hits (2003)Conspiracies (2003)Invent This! (2003)Performance (2003-2004)Robot Wars (2003-2004)Spy School (2003-2004)Unscrewed with Martin Sargent (2003-2004)Wired For Sex (2003-2004)Nerd Nation (2004)Living with the Future (international)Music WarsPage ViewPlastic Surgery (international)Strange Science (international) Reunion A possible TechTV reunion was announced by Leo Laporte in his blog on July 21, 2006. Further details were also announced by Chris Pirillo on his blog. Nothing further has been mentioned about a reunion of TechTV staff since 2006. Laporte and Patrick Norton, however, did team up for a final skit on the series finale of Attack of the Show. See also List of TechTV personalities Revision3 TWiT.tv CNET TV, TechTV's primary competition until the 2004 merger with G4. CNET TV once aired syndicated on USA Network and the Sci-Fi Channel (SyFy); it now runs as an online video network and through on-demand service with cable and satellite. References External links TechTV website (redirects to G4 website) The TechTV Vault Internet Archive of TechTV website UndoTV website (redirects to geeks.pirillo.com) ZDTV starts broadcasting – News.com, May 11, 1998 G4 Canada website, which identified as G4techTV until June 2009. Continued to host Leo Laporte's TV shows (Call for Help, The Lab) until cancelled in 2008 after sale to Rogers Comm., and shares programming from American-produced shows from Comcast, Turner Broadcasting and other networks. Owned by Rogers Communications. DigitalLife TV – Targeted to replace the former TechTV network with the original concept, ownership, and hosts. The network went offline in 2009, with all hosts now employed on Revision3. Revision3 – An online video network co-founded by Kevin Rose covering technology. Features Tekzilla with Patrick Norton formerly of The Screen Savers, and diggnation. TWiT.TV (This Week in Tech) –Leo Laporte's podcast and online video network aimed at filling the void left by TechTV. Also hosted This Week in Fun'' with Sarah Lane and Martin Sargent, until it was put on indefinite hiatus in January 2010. 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248322	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinecure	Sinecure	A sinecure ( or ; from Latin sine 'without' and cura 'care') is an office, carrying a salary or otherwise generating income, that requires or involves little or no responsibility, labour, or active service. The term originated in the medieval church, where it signified a post without any responsibility for the "cure [care] of souls", the regular liturgical and pastoral functions of a cleric, but came to be applied to any post, secular or ecclesiastical, that involved little or no actual work. Sinecures have historically provided a potent tool for governments or monarchs to distribute patronage, while recipients are able to store up titles and easy salaries. A sinecure can also be given to an individual whose primary job is in another office, but requires a sinecure title to perform that job. For example, the Government House Leader in Canada is often given a sinecure ministry position so that they may become a member of the Cabinet. Similar examples are the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal and the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the British cabinet. The minister without portfolio is a frequent example of this sinecure, often employed to give cabinet-level positions to enough members of all partners in a coalition government. Other sinecures operate as legal fictions, such as the British office of Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds, used as a legal excuse for resigning from Parliament. History Sinecure, properly a term of ecclesiastical law for a benefice without the cure of souls, arose in the English Church when the rector had no cure of souls nor resided in the parish, the work of the incumbent being performed by a vicar. Such sinecure rectories were expressly granted by the patron. They were abolished by parliament under the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act of 1840. Other ecclesiastical sinecures were certain cathedral dignities to which no spiritual functions attached or incumbencies where by reason of depopulation and the like, the parishioners disappeared or the parish church was allowed to decay. Such cases eventually ceased to exist. The term is also used of any office or place to which salary emoluments or dignity, but no duties are attached. The British civil service and the royal household, for example, were loaded with innumerable offices which, by lapse of time, had become sinecures and were only kept as the reward of political services or to secure voting power in parliament. They were prevalent in the 18th century, but were gradually abolished by statutes during that and the following centuries. Current usage Below is a list of extant sinecures by country. United Kingdom Positions associated with the Cabinet Lord President of the Council Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal First Secretary of State Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster Paymaster General Positions associated with resignation from the House of Commons Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Chiltern Hundreds Crown Steward and Bailiff of the Manor of Northstead Positions associated with the Whips' Office Parliamentary Secretary to the Treasury – held by the Chief Whip in the House of Commons Treasurer of the Household – held by the Deputy Chief Whip in the Commons Comptroller of the Household – held by a senior Commons Whip Vice-Chamberlain of the Household – held by a senior Commons Whip Lords of the Treasury – held by the several junior Commons Whips Captain of the Honourable Corps of Gentlemen at Arms – held by the Chief Whip in the House of Lords Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard – held by the Deputy Chief Whip in the Lords Lords in Waiting – held by the several junior Lords Whips Ceremonial and honorary positions Lord Clerk Register Lord Steward of the Household Master of the Horse Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports Constable of the Tower of London Constable and Governor of Windsor Castle Canada Deputy Prime Minister of Canada President of the Privy Council (given to the Minister of Intergovernmental Affairs) Registrar General of Canada (given to the Minister of Industry) Receiver General for Canada (given to the Minister of Public Works and Government Services) Attorney General of Canada (given to the Minister of Justice) Australia Vice-President of the Executive Council See also Board member Emeritus, academia Minister without portfolio No-show job Quango Safe seat Featherbedding Ghost soldiers Christian churches: Abbé Benefice Simony Titular bishop References Bibliography Lord Mackay of Clashfern (ed.) (2002) Halsbury's Laws of England, 4th ed. Vol.14, "Ecclesiastical Law", (see also current updates) Definition on Enciclopedia Treccani Maurilio Guasco, Storia del clero, Bari:Laterza (1997), p. 20 Canon law of the Anglican Communion Common law	[ -0.09048152714967728, 0.05771808326244354, -0.46088096499443054, -0.007745710667222738, 0.18280863761901855, 0.2961632311344147, 0.5824432373046875, 0.27982550859451294, -0.11088301986455917, -0.2294524610042572, -0.8341363072395325, 0.40045005083084106, -0.20844873785972595, 0.01576811447739601, -0.4523989260196686, -0.09374311566352844, 0.9136052131652832, 0.7994767427444458, 0.051091525703668594, -0.036223314702510834, -0.5347661375999451, 0.08855222910642624, -0.49689599871635437, -0.34477031230926514, 0.6744270324707031, -0.36301031708717346, -0.07013341039419174, -0.42624154686927795, -0.7264208197593689, -0.312434583902359, 0.2610507607460022, -0.16334451735019684, 0.04356694221496582, -0.1283748596906662, 0.18805798888206482, 0.08331792801618576, -0.24646155536174774, 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248323	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Hopton%2C%201st%20Baron%20Hopton	Ralph Hopton, 1st Baron Hopton	Ralph Hopton, 1st Baron Hopton, (159628 September 1652), was an English politician, soldier and landowner. During the 1642 to 1646 First English Civil War, he served as Royalist commander in the West Country, and was made Baron Hopton of Stratton in 1643. Along with his close friend Sir Edward Hyde (later the Earl of Clarendon), he was made advisor to the future Charles II, when he was appointed to rule the West in early 1644. He commanded the last significant Royalist field army, and followed Charles into exile after surrendering in March 1646. A devout supporter of the Church of England, his personal opposition to Catholicism and Presbyterianism meant he took no further part in the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. He died in Bruges in 1652. In his stated account of the war, Clarendon described him as 'a man of great honour, integrity, and piety, of great courage and industry, and an excellent officer for any command but the supreme, to which he was not equal'. Life Ralph Hopton was born in early 1596, and baptised on 13 March at St Peter's, in Evercreech. He was the eldest child of Robert Hopton, 1575 to 1638, and Jane ( Kemeys, circa 1570 to 1610, who owned estates in Monmouthshire. His grandfather's lands in Suffolk had been sold to provide dowries for his ten surviving daughters, and Robert inherited Witham Friary in Somerset, acquired from Glastonbury Abbey after the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1538. He was educated at a local grammar school, possibly King's School, Bruton; various sources confirm he attended Lincoln College, Oxford, as did his uncle, Sir Arthur Hopton. In 1614, he studied law at Middle Temple in London, thus completing the education common for a man of his standing at the time. He married Elizabeth Capel (1596-1646) in 1623; their marriage was childless. His estates were inherited by his nephew Thomas Wyndham, son of his eldest sister Catherine. Career 1615 to 1642 From 1615 to 1618, Hopton was travelling in Europe, in order to 'learn languages'. In 1620, he joined an English volunteer force under Sir Horace Vere, sent to support Frederick of the Palatinate, newly appointed Protestant king of Bohemia. This was authorised by James I, whose daughter, Elizabeth, was Frederick's wife; Hopton's younger sister Abigail was one of her Maids of Honour. After Frederick's defeat at White Mountain in November 1620, he and his close friend William Waller were among those who escorted the Royal couple to safety, the Queen reportedly riding on his horse. They finally reached safety in the Dutch Republic in early 1621. Hopton returned to London in February, and elected Member of Parliament, or MP, for Shaftesbury, a constituency controlled by the Earl of Pembroke, a connection of his mother, Jane. Parliament's fury at James' lack of support for his sister, and the Protestant cause in general, found an outlet in charges against an elderly Catholic lawyer, Edward Floyd, accused of insulting Frederick. Despite his personal anti-Catholicism, Hopton argued Floyd should not be condemned without a proper hearing; he was ultimately released, after James intervened. When Parliament adjourned in June, he enlisted in Sir Charles Rich's Regiment of Foot, serving in the Palatinate campaign against the Catholic League. It appears likely he was among the English garrison of Frankenthal, which was ordered by James to surrender in March 1623. Back in England, he married Elizabeth Capell, five years his senior, and widow of Justinian Lewin, a Privy Councillor; while childless, their marriage was apparently happy. Invited to stand as MP for Somerset in 1624, he declined, instead joining an English force recruited by Mansfeld to relieve Breda, then besieged by the Spanish. They arrived in the Dutch Republic in February 1625, reportedly in an 'appalling state;' the expedition collapsed, Breda surrendered, and Hopton returned home in July. In his absence, Hopton was appointed MP for Bath in place of Nicholas Hyde, who switched to Bristol; Hyde was the uncle of Edward Hyde, future Earl of Clarendon. Their connection links Hopton with the constitutional monarchists, those who opposed attempts by Charles I to rule without Parliament, but ultimately supported him in 1642. During the 1625 to 1630 Anglo-Spanish War, Hopton refused to take part in the Cádiz expedition, accurately predicting its failure due to lack of funding. He was made a Knight of the Bath in February 1626, and MP for Wells in 1628. The following year, Charles dissolved Parliament, and did not recall it until 1640. Appointed Deputy lieutenant of Somerset, and a Justice of the Peace, Hopton inherited his father's estates in 1638. He avoided involvement in the political debates of the 1630s, but supported the levying of Ship money, and in 1639, raised a troop of cavalry to fight in the first of the 1639 and 1640 Bishops Wars. Charles refused to seek financing from Parliament, and the result was chaos; although he assembled 15,000 men at York, the vast majority were untrained, unfed, unpaid and mutinous conscripts from the Northern trained bands, armed with bows and arrows. He was obliged to agree the Treaty of Berwick, leaving the Covenanters in control of Scotland. Seeking funds for another attempt, in early 1640 Charles called what became known as the Short Parliament; Hopton was selected for Somerset, but the house refused to provide taxes without concessions, and was dissolved after three weeks. Hopton took no part in the 1640 war, another humiliating defeat; he was MP for Wells in the Long Parliament, this time called to raise the money to pay the Scots to return large parts of Northern England. Along with Edward Hyde and other moderates, he voted for the execution of Charles' chief advisor, the Earl of Strafford; unlike them, he also backed the strongly anti-Catholic Grand Remonstrance in late 1641. A committed supporter of the Church of England, the arrest of Archbishop Laud and exclusion of bishops from the Lords seems to have been the point when he changed sides. He defended the attempt to arrest the Five Members in January 1642, and in early March, was held in the Tower of London for two weeks for objecting to Parliament censuring the king. 1642 to 1646 After his release in March, Hopton was appointed Royalist Commissioner of Array for Somerset, placing him in command of the local trained bands. Despite Hopton's connections, the county was dominated by Parliament, forcing him to withdraw to Sherborne, in Dorset; the First English Civil War began on 22 August, when Charles raised his standard at Nottingham. Charles named the Marquess of Hertford as his Lieutenant General in the West. Threatened by a larger Parliamentary army under the Earl of Bedford, the Royalists retreated from Wells to Minehead, where Hopton advised Hertford to take the infantry and artillery across the water to South Wales. Accompanied by a small force of cavalry, Hopton joined Sir Bevil Grenville and other supporters in Cornwall. Under his command, the Royalists won victories at Braddock Down in January 1643, then Stratton in May. After the inconclusive Battle of Lansdowne on 5 July, he linked up with Hertford and Prince Maurice; their combined force destroyed William Waller's Western Association army at Roundway Down on 13 July. The biggest Royalist success of the war, it secured the West Country, apart from isolated garrisons in Plymouth and elsewhere. Temporarily blinded by an explosion after Lansdowne, Hopton was confirmed as Royalist commander in the West, made Baron Hopton of Stratton, and governor of Bristol. In September, it was agreed Prince Rupert would move against London, while Hopton advanced into Hampshire and Sussex, whose iron foundries were Parliament's main source of armaments. However, Rupert was checked at Newbury on 20 September, and although Hopton reached Winchester in November, he was prevented from moving further. In March 1644, he was defeated at Cheriton, ending the Royalist campaign in Southern England, and damaging his position with Charles. Although he served in the Lostwithiel campaign, his main role became one of administration; in early 1645, he was appointed to the Council advising the future Charles II. After Naseby in June, the Western Army was the last significant Royalist field force, but was scattered by the New Model Army at Langport in July. Hopton succeeded Lord Goring as commander in January 1646, but the remnants of his army were defeated at Torrington on 16 February 1646. He pulled back to Truro, where he surrendered to Thomas Fairfax on 12 March. 1646 to 1652 Along with Edward Hyde, he followed the Prince of Wales to Jersey; like the majority of his advisors, they refused to accompany him to Paris, concerned over the influence of his strongly Catholic mother, Henrietta Maria. His wife died shortly after, and in 1647, he moved to Rouen, where he stayed with his uncle, Sir Arthur Hopton, former Ambassador in Madrid. He resumed his position as advisor to Charles II during the 1648 to 1649 Second English Civil War, which continued after the execution of Charles I in January 1649. He resigned after Charles II signed the 1650 Treaty of Breda, which agreed to impose Presbyterianism on England in return for Scottish support in restoring him to the throne. An Episcopalian Church of England was central to Hopton's political beliefs, and he refused to support it. While in exile, he wrote Bellum civile, an account of his campaign in the West from 1642 to 1644. He died at Bruges in September 1652, and after the 1660 Restoration, his body was reburied at St Mary's, in Witham Friary in Somerset. Confiscated by Parliament in 1647, his estates were returned to his family, and inherited by his nephew Thomas Wyndham. References Sources External links 1596 births 1652 deaths Alumni of Lincoln College, Oxford Barons in the Peerage of England Peers of England created by Charles I Cavaliers Deputy Lieutenants of Somerset Military history of Cornwall English MPs 1621–1622 English MPs 1625 English MPs 1628–1629 English MPs 1640 (April) Knights of the Bath 17th-century soldiers Military personnel of the Thirty Years' War 17th-century English military personnel Military personnel of the English Civil War	[ -0.37454769015312195, -0.31817200779914856, -0.3724176585674286, -0.1944555640220642, -0.09677055478096008, 1.2483880519866943, 0.585280179977417, -0.26533085107803345, -0.9729723930358887, 0.060302868485450745, 0.12239421904087067, 0.17559118568897247, -0.8702783584594727, -0.1877533346414566, -0.5144039392471313, 0.05409238860011101, 0.1552312672138214, -0.017096685245633125, -0.5872791409492493, -0.7167428731918335, 0.4998474419116974, -0.2600204050540924, 0.3386319577693939, -0.3227589726448059, 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248331	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifford%20Brown	Clifford Brown	Clifford Benjamin Brown (October 30, 1930 – June 26, 1956) was an American jazz trumpeter and composer. He died at the age of 25 in a car accident, leaving behind four years' worth of recordings. His compositions "Sandu", "Joy Spring", and "Daahoud" have become jazz standards. Brown won the DownBeat magazine Critics' Poll for New Star of the Year in 1954; he was inducted into the DownBeat Hall of Fame in 1972. Early career Brown was born into a musical family in Wilmington, Delaware. His father organized his four sons, including Clifford, into a vocal quartet. Around age ten, Brown started playing trumpet at school after becoming fascinated with the shiny trumpet his father owned. At age thirteen, his father bought him a trumpet and provided him with private lessons. In high school, Brown received lessons from Robert Boysie Lowery and played in "a jazz group that Lowery organized", making trips to Philadelphia. Brown briefly attended Delaware State University as a math major before he switched to Maryland State College. His trips to Philadelphia grew in frequency after he graduated from high school and entered Delaware State University. He played in the fourteen-piece, jazz-oriented Maryland State Band. In June 1950, he was injured in a car accident after a performance. While in the hospital, he was visited by Dizzy Gillespie, who encouraged him to pursue a career in music. For a time, injuries restricted him to playing the piano. Brown was influenced and encouraged by Fats Navarro. His first recordings were with R&B bandleader Chris Powell. He worked with Art Blakey, Tadd Dameron, Lionel Hampton and J. J. Johnson, before forming a band with Max Roach. One of the most notable developments during Brown's period in New York was the formation of Art Blakey's Quintet, which would become the Jazz Messengers. Blakey formed the band with Brown, Lou Donaldson, Horace Silver, and Curley Russell, and recorded the quintet's first album live at the Birdland jazz club. During one of the rehearsal sessions, fellow trumpeter Miles Davis listened and joked about Clifford Brown's technical ability to the play the trumpet. The live recording session ultimately spanned two days with multiple takes needed on only a couple of the tunes. Just before the formation of the Clifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet, journalist Nat Hentoff and Brown interviewed for a DownBeat article titled "Clifford Brown – the New Dizzy". Later career Roach's stature had grown as he recorded with a host of other emerging artists (including Bud Powell, Sonny Stitt, Miles Davis and Thelonious Monk) and co-founded Debut, one of the first artist-owned labels, with Charles Mingus. Having participated in the legendary Jazz at Massey Hall concert of 1953, the drummer had relocated to the Los Angeles area and had replaced Shelly Manne in the popular Lighthouse All Stars. Roach and Brown formed the joint Clifford Brown/Max Roach Quintet in the mid-1950s with tenor saxophonist Harold Land, pianist Richie Powell, and bassist George Morrow, with Rollins taking Land's place in 1955. The band's creation began when the two bandleaders rented a studio in California. With Brown able to, in addition to the trumpet, play the piano and drums, Roach and Brown were able to experiment with these instruments extensively at the studio. They settled upon the standard bebop quintet of trumpet, saxophone, piano, bass, and drums, with saxophone, piano, and bass players needed. With first choice Sonny Stitt choosing his own direction for his music, the bandleaders settled upon former Count Basie bassist George Morrow, unconventional pianist Carl Perkins, and tenor saxophone player Teddy Edwards as the first group, although this line-up was short-lived. The group that had formed "sent shock waves throughout the jazz community" according to Sam Samuelson. As the band was still deciding on its personnel, Brown and Roach met alto saxophone player and multi-instrumentalist Eric Dolphy, who had his own apartment where he hosted jam sessions. Among the jam session's musicians were future quintet members Harold Land and George Morrow. Bud Powell's brother Richie arrived in the L.A. area around this time and was recruited as the quintet's pianist. The band accepted recording session offers and Brown composed several tunes that were adopted by the new quintet. Meanwhile, a larger, fully arranged band was organized for one of the upcoming recording sessions by Jack Montrose of Pacific Coast Jazz Records. The session "embrace[d] West Coast cool" with "immaculately performed charts," according to reviewer Gordon Jack of Jazz Journal. An early session of the Brown/Roach Quintet, featuring its new lineup, was titled Clifford Brown & Max Roach and featured several of Brown's new compositions. Samuelson referred to the album as a "nice gamut between boplicity and pleasant balladry". Other albums during the Brown/Roach collaboration included Brown and Roach, Inc. and Study in Brown. Brown also recorded albums outside of the quintet, including the Pacific Coast Jazz session and two albums with jazz vocalist Dinah Washington. Both of these were recorded from the jam session setting and featured other jazz trumpeters including Maynard Ferguson and Clark Terry. Following the Dinah Washington recordings, Brown slowed the pace of the recordings and traveled back to the East Coast, recording an album with Sarah Vaughan in December 1954. The experiments in bop continued in the 1955 session Study in Brown, such as use of instrument sounds to mimic an inner city environment in "Parisian Thoroughfare" and "international flavor" in "George's Dilemma". Jazz critic Scott Yanow referred to the album as "premiere early hard bop" and noted the quintet's "unlimited potential." A 1955 live performance by Clifford Brown with Billy Root and Ziggy Vines, sometimes mistakenly thought to have been recorded just before Brown's death a year later, was released on tape in 1973. Following this live session, the group, with Blakey temporarily replacing Roach at one point following a car accident, toured, visiting Chicago and then Rhode Island for the Newport Jazz Festival. Roach returned for this performance and jam session at Newport. Released in 1956, the final "official album" by the quintet – At Basin Street – introduced tenor saxophonist Sonny Rollins. The album was a "hard bop classic," and "highly recommended" by Scott Yanow. While previous quintet albums included original compositions, this album consisted mostly of jazz standards, although it did have a couple Richie Powell compositions. Personal life On June 26, 1954, in Los Angeles, Brown married Emma LaRue Anderson (1933–2005), who he called "Joy Spring". The two had been introduced by Max Roach. They celebrated their marriage vows three times, partly because their families were on opposite coasts and partly because of their different religious denominations – Brown was Methodist and Anderson was Catholic. They were first married in a private ceremony June 26, 1954, in Los Angeles (on Anderson's st birthday). They again celebrated their marriage in a religious setting on July 16, 1954, with the certificate being registered in Los Angeles County. A reception was held at the Tiffany Club where the Art Pepper/Jack Montrose Quintet had been replaced a few days earlier by the Red Norvo Trio with Tal Farlow and Red Mitchell. Anderson's parish priest followed them to Boston, where on August 1, 1954, they performed their marriage ceremony at Saint Richards Church in the Roxbury neighborhood. Brown stayed away from drugs and was not fond of alcohol. Rollins, who was recovering from heroin addiction, said that "Clifford was a profound influence on my personal life. He showed me that it was possible to live a good, clean life and still be a good jazz musician." Death In June 1956, Brown and Richie Powell embarked on a drive to Chicago for their next appearance. Powell's wife Nancy was at the wheel so that Clifford and Richie could sleep. While driving at night in the rain on the Pennsylvania Turnpike, west of Bedford, she is presumed to have lost control of the car, which went off the road, killing all three in the resulting crash. Brown is buried in Mt. Zion Cemetery, in Wilmington, Delaware. Legacy Jazz historian Ira Gitler said of Brown, "l’m sorry I never got to know him better. Not that it necessarily follows that one who plays that beautifully is also a marvelous person, but I think one can discern in Clifford Brown’s case that the particular kind of extraordinary playing was linked to an equally special human being... Photographs of Clifford Brown reveal some of that inner self; the shots in which he is depicted in a playing attitude show his intensity, that utter concentration and total connection with his instrument." In the 1990s, video from the TV program Soupy Sales was discovered of Clifford Brown playing two tunes. This is the only video recording known to exist of Brown. His nephew, drummer Rayford Griffin (né Rayford Galen Griffin; born 1958), modernized Brown's music on his 2015 album Reflections of Brownie. Brown's grandson, Clifford Benjamin Brown III (born 1982), plays trumpet on one of the tracks, "Sandu". Discography As leader New Faces, New Sounds (Lou Donaldson/Clifford Brown Quintet) (Blue Note, 1953) New Star on the Horizon (Blue Note, 1953) Jam Session (EmArcy, 1954) Clifford Brown with Strings (EmArcy, 1955) Clifford Brown & Max Roach (EmArcy, 1955) Brown and Roach Incorporated (EmArcy, 1955) Study in Brown (EmArcy, 1955) Best Coast Jazz (EmArcy, 1956) Clifford Brown All Stars (EmArcy, 1956) Clifford Brown and Max Roach at Basin Street (EmArcy, 1956) Jazz Immortal (Pacific Jazz, 1960) The Beginning And The End (Columbia, 1973) Live at the Bee Hive (Columbia, 1979) Pure Genius (Elektra Musician, 1982) More Study in Brown (EmArcy, 1983) Jams 2 (EmArcy, 1983) Alternate Takes (Blue Note, 1984) The Complete Blue Note and Pacific Jazz Recordings of Clifford Brown (5 LPs) (Mosaic Records, 1984) As sideman Art Blakey, Live Messengers (Blue Note, 1978) J. J. Johnson, Jay Jay Johnson with Clifford Brown (Blue Note, 1953), reissued as The Eminent Jay Jay Johnson Volume 1 Art Blakey and The Jazz Messengers, A Night at Birdland Vol. 1 (Blue Note, 1954) Art Blakey and The Jazz Messengers, A Night at Birdland Vol. 2 (Blue Note, 1954) Art Blakey and The Jazz Messengers, A Night at Birdland Vol. 3 (Blue Note, 1954) Helen Merrill, Helen Merrill (EmArcy, 1955) Sonny Rollins, Sonny Rollins Plus 4 (Prestige, 1956) Sarah Vaughan, Sarah Vaughan (EmArcy, 1955) Dinah Washington, Dinah Jams (EmArcy, 1955) Filmography 1988: Let's Get Lost – "Joy Spring" and "Daahoud" References Bibliography Nick Catalano, Clifford Brown: The Life and Art of the Legendary Jazz Trumpeter (Oxford University Press, 2001), External links "50 Years Later, Unmuted Awe for Clifford Brown" 1930 births 1956 deaths Musicians from Wilmington, Delaware 20th-century American musicians 20th-century trumpeters African-American jazz musicians African-American musicians American jazz 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248332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztalan%20State%20Park	Aztalan State Park	Aztalan State Park is a Wisconsin state park in the Town of Aztalan, Jefferson County. Established in 1952, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. The park covers along the Crawfish River. Aztalan is the site of an ancient Mississippian culture settlement that flourished during the 10th to 13th centuries. The indigenous people constructed massive earthwork mounds for religious and political purposes. They were part of a widespread culture with important settlements throughout the Mississippi River valley and its tributaries. Their trading network extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf Coast, and into the Southeast of the present-day United States. Pre-history (900–1300) Aztalan was first settled around 900 CE by a Native American culture known as the Middle Mississippian Tradition. The chief center of a Middle Mississippian settlement is at Cahokia, in present-day Illinois, a city that at its peak had 20,000–30,000 people. This was not surpassed by Europeans in North America until after 1800. These settlements are characterized by the construction of earthwork mounds, stockades, and houses, by decorated Mississippian culture pottery, and agricultural practices. There are also elements of the Woodland culture found there. The residents of Aztalan had long-distance trading relationships with other settlements, linked by their use of the rivers for transportation. For example, items found at the settlement include copper from Michigan's Upper Peninsula, shells from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and stone such as Mill Creek chert from other areas of the Midwest. Sometime between 1200 and 1300 CE, the Aztalan settlement was abandoned. Archeologists and historians surmise they may have outgrown environmental resources, or encountered more warfare from other cultures, but do not know for sure. The Little Ice Age occurred soon after 1300 and may have contributed to farming difficulties, putting too much stress on the local chiefdoms. Life in Aztalan Most of the residents lived in circular or rectangular houses which they built between the river and the eastern secondary wall. The placement of the structures suggests that the layout was planned. The dwellings were built around a central ceremonial plaza likely used for rituals and public gatherings, as has been found at similar locations. Posts for the house frames were placed either in individual holes, or in a trench dug slightly narrower than the posts. The walls were completed with wattle and daub, a plaster mixture of grass and clay. The roof was covered with bark or thatch. The doorway usually faced south to keep out the winter's north winds. Inside, a single family slept on pole-frame beds, covered with tamarack boughs, deer skins, and furs. Sometimes a fire was kept in the middle of the house and a hole in the roof let out the smoke. Storage pits dug in the earthen floor of the house held foods such as corn, nuts, and seeds in woven bags. Perishable foods such as meat were most likely stored outside prior to cooking. Refuse pits for garbage and community storage pits were located outside. The site was well chosen to provide a variety of food sources, and other resources. The staple of the diet was cultivated corn (maize), and other plants were also gathered as food, such as acorns, hickory nuts, and berries. Tobacco was grown at this time for sacred rituals, as tobacco seeds have been found at this site. The main source of meat was deer, especially in the winter. The people also caught and ate beaver, elk, fox, muskrats, and raccoons. They hunted birds and turtles, collected mussels, and caught fish in the Crawfish River directly next to the site. To help with fishing, the people set up rock barriers called fish weirs at key points, one of which is visible when the river is low. They caught catfish, bass, suckers, buffalo fish, pike, drum fish, and gar. They disposed of the thousands of shells from consumed mussels in middens. These have layers of shells several feet thick. The people living here gathered food and resources for tools and building. Other materials were obtained through trade. Trees nearby provided wood for posts for house walls and stockades, bows and arrow shafts, and firewood. Smaller tree branches and grass were used for bedding and roofs. Shells were used to make jewelry, beads, spoons, and digging tools. The people dug river clay to use in fashioning fired pottery. Traded items, used for ornamental or ceremonial purposes, were an attribute of status because of their rarity. Physical features The most obvious features of Aztalan are its pyramid-shaped, flat-topped platform mounds and the stockades, believed to have served both ceremonial and defensive functions. Mounds Three platform mounds remain on the site. The largest is the one in the southwest corner of the stockade; one almost as large is located in the northwest corner. The smallest of the three is along the east side of the settlement, near the Crawfish River (labeled "West Branch of Rock River" on the plates). The hill in the southeast corner is a natural gravel knoll, not built by the inhabitants. The largest mound was built in three stages, with a set of steps leading to the top, where a structure was built over the entire flat top. The mound was covered with a clay cap, probably to enhance its appearance. Corn was stored in pits inside the structure. Scholars have several theories about why the corn was kept there, and the overall purpose of the structure. It may have been the storage facility for the entire village, or storage for food just for the top village officials; it may have been used for ceremonies and rituals; or it could have been a house for the village officials. This topmost structure was rebuilt each time a larger stage of the mound was built on top of the old. The northwestern mound, used for formal burial, was also built in three stages. A special structure, approximately by , with its long axis towards the northeast–southwest, was built on the west side of the mound. Its doorway was in its southwest corner, and the structure was covered with a mixture of clay, willow branches, and grass. The floor was covered with a mat of what may have been cattails. The bodies of ten people were placed side by side on this, with their heads toward the doorway. The bones of another person were bundled together with cord and placed near them. Once this construction was complete, and the bodies were inside, the building was burned. The eastern mound had a large open-walled structure, about by , built on top of it, with firepits lined with white sand inside. The function of this mound and structure remain unclear. Additionally, to the northwest of the stockaded area, a row of round mounds extends northward. When archaeologists excavated in these mounds during the 1920s, they did not find the burial sites they had expected. Instead, each mound had a large post set in a pit in its center, surrounded by gravel and soil, with the pit capped with clay and gravel to hold the post steady. These mounds have been termed "marker mounds" because they may have been used to mark the site for travelers, but this is not certain. They may also have been used for announcements, message relays, or for calculations of astronomical phenomena, as has been found at other Mississippian sites, such as Cahokia. Stockade The settlement was surrounded on the north, west, and south sides by a palisade, a wall of logs set vertically into the ground. Narrow holes were dug into the ground, then the posts were lifted into position and set into the holes. The stockade was finished by people weaving flexible willow branches through the posts, and plastering the whole with a mixture of clay and grass to fill in the gaps, a technique similar to wattle and daub. At some point, a smaller stockade was built within the outer one to delimit the dwelling areas. Archeologists have not been able to determine whether both stockades existed simultaneously, for a layered defense, or one was built after the other fell into disuse. In 1850, Increase A. Lapham, an author, scientist, and naturalist, surveyed the site on behalf of the Smithsonian Institution, which was surveying ancient mounds. He described the outer stockade as being " long at the north end, long on the west side and on the south side; making a total length of wall of . The ridge or wall is about , and from to ) in height". It had at least 33 square bastions at regular intervals along its length, similar in form and placement to some European fortifications, in order to allow defensive warriors to cover that area by shooting arrows. In addition, others were built along the secondary walls. Rather than having a gate to protect the entrance, the builders constructed the entrance so that it was camouflaged from direct view and blended in with the wall on either side. During the time Aztalan was inhabited, two sets of outer stockades were built. The posts of the first one eventually rotted, and the second one burned and was never rebuilt. It is not clear whether the purpose of the stockade was to keep out invaders, or if the occupants built it for another reason. Modern discovery (1835–1919) A young man named Timothy Johnson discovered the ruins of the ancient settlement in December 1835. In January 1836, N. F. Hyer conducted the first rough survey of the site, and published his discovery in the Milwaukie Advertiser of January 1837. According to Lapham: The name Aztalan was given to this place by Mr. Hyer, because, according to Humboldt, the Aztecs, or ancient inhabitants of Mexico, had a tradition that their ancestors came from a country at the north, which they called Aztalan; and the possibility that these may have been remains of their occupancy, suggested the idea of restoring the name. It is made up of two Mexican words, atl, water, and an, near; and the country was probably so named from its proximity to large bodies of water. Hence the natural inference that the country about these great lakes was the ancient residence of the Aztecs. Hyer wrote, "We are determined to preserve these ruins from being ruined." However, in 1838, President Martin Van Buren refused a request by Massachusetts statesman Edward Everett to withdraw the site from public sale, and it was sold for $22. In the following years, the surface was plowed, the mounds were leveled for easier farming, pottery shards and "Aztalan brick" were hauled away by the wagonload to fill in potholes in township roads, and souvenir hunters took numerous artifacts. In 1850, Lapham urged the preservation of the stockade. At the time, the stockade was still standing, though not in the condition it had once been. State park foundation and reconstruction (1919–present) In 1919, archeological excavations began at Aztalan under the direction of Dr. S. A. Barrett. In 1920, the Landmarks Committee of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, under Publius V. Lawson, started a new effort to save what remained of Aztalan, supported by the Friends of Our Native Landscape and the Wisconsin Archeological Society. They made their first purchase of some of the land in 1921, three acres (12,000 m2) west of the stockade and containing eight conical mounds, and presented it to the Wisconsin Archeological Society. Work for preservation continued. In 1936, the state's archeological and historical societies petitioned the federal government for funds to reconstruct the stockade, without success, although during the Great Depression the US funded archeological work and preservation at numerous ancient sites around the country. In 1941, the newly founded Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society began an energetic campaign to preserve the stockade area. In 1945, the Wisconsin State Assembly passed a bill directing the State Planning Board to study the possibility of establishing a state park at Aztalan. In 1947, the Wisconsin State Legislature passed a resolution requesting the State Conservation Commission to purchase Aztalan. 120 acres (490,000 m2) were purchased to this end in 1948, and the Wisconsin Archeological Society and the Lake Mills-Aztalan Historical Society donated their holdings. Aztalan opened to the public in 1952 as Aztalan State Park. Aztalan was designated a registered National Historic Landmark in 1964 and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1966. In 1968, the state reconstructed portions of the stockade wall by placing new posts in the original holes. A section of this was also covered with the wattle and daub, but this has since worn away or been removed. See also Rock Lake, Wisconsin List of National Historic Landmarks in Wisconsin National Register of Historic Places listings in Jefferson County, Wisconsin References Further reading External links Aztalan State Park, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Aztalan site history, Milwaukee Public Museum Middle Mississippian culture Archaeological sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Wisconsin National Historic Landmarks in Wisconsin State parks of Wisconsin Protected areas of Jefferson County, Wisconsin Protected areas established in 1947 1947 establishments in Wisconsin 900s establishments National Register of Historic Places in Jefferson County, Wisconsin 10th-century establishments in North America	[ -0.10373308509588242, 0.7003836631774902, -0.2614942193031311, -0.4787440598011017, 0.4802006781101227, -0.0759609267115593, 1.3831819295883179, 0.7138621211051941, -0.25631842017173767, -0.06843169778585434, -0.20310766994953156, -0.08622607588768005, 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248333	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail%20Sholokhov	Mikhail Sholokhov	Mikhail Aleksandrovich Sholokhov (; – 21 February 1984) was a Russian novelist and winner of the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature. He is known for writing about life and fate of Don Cossacks during the Russian Revolution, the civil war and the period of collectivization, primarily in his most famous novel, And Quiet Flows the Don. Life and work Sholokhov was born in Russia, in the "land of the Cossacks" – the Kruzhilin hamlet, part of stanitsa Vyoshenskaya, in the former Administrative Region of the Don Cossack Host. His father, a Russian, Aleksander Mikhailovich Sholokhov (1865–1925), was a member of the lower middle class, at different times a farmer, a cattle trader, and a miller. Sholokhov's mother, Anastasia Danilovna Chernikova (1871–1942), the widow of a Cossack, came from Ukrainian peasant stock (her father was a peasant in the Chernihiv oblast). She did not become literate until a point in her life when she wanted to correspond with her son. His family were not Don Cossacks, but inogorodnye ("outlanders"), the rather disparaging term used by the Don Cossacks for outsiders who settled in the territory of the Don Cossack Host by the banks of the river Don. The inogorodyne tended to be much poorer than the Don Cossacks and were excluded from voting for officials in the Host government (the Don Cossack Host were allowed to elect almost of its leaders except for the ataman who headed the Host who was always appointed by the Emperor). Sholokhov attended schools in , Moscow, Boguchar, and Veshenskaya until 1918, when he joined the Bolshevik side in the Russian Civil War at the age of 13. He spent the next few years fighting. During the Russian Civil War, the inogorodnye tended to support the Reds while the Don Cossacks tended to support the Whites. Sholokhov began writing at 17. He completed his first literary work, the short story "The Birthmark", at 19. In 1922 Sholokhov moved to Moscow to become a journalist, but he had to support himself through manual labour. He was a stevedore, a stonemason, and an accountant from 1922 to 1924, but he also intermittently participated in writers' "seminars". His first published work was a satirical article, The Test (19 October 1923). In 1924 Sholokhov returned to Veshenskaya and began devoting himself entirely to writing. In the same year he married Maria Petrovna Gromoslavskaia (1901–1992), the daughter of Pyotr Gromoslavsky, the ataman of Bukanovskaya village. They had two daughters and two sons. Sholokhov's first book Tales from the Don, a volume of stories largely based on his personal experiences in his native region during World War I and the Russian Civil War, was published in 1926. The story "Nakhalyonok", partly based on his own childhood, was later made into a popular film. In the same year, Sholokhov began writing And Quiet Flows the Don, which took him fourteen years to complete (1926–1940). It became the most-read work of Soviet historical fiction, and it earned him both the 1941 State Stalin Prize and the 1965 Nobel Prize in Literature. It deals with the experiences of the Cossacks before and during World War I and the Russian Civil War. Another novel, Virgin Soil Upturned, which earned a Lenin Prize, took 28 years to complete. It is composed of two parts, Seeds of Tomorrow (1932) and Harvest on the Don (1960), and reflects life during collectivization in the Don area. It was heralded as a powerful example of socialist realism. The short story "The Fate of a Man" (1957) was made into a popular Russian film. During World War II Sholokhov wrote about the Soviet war effort for various journals. He also covered the devastation caused by Wehrmacht troops along the Don. His mother was killed when Veshenskaya was bombed in 1942. Sholokhov's unfinished novel They Fought for Their Country is about World War II (known in the Soviet Union, and now in Russia, as the Great Patriotic War). Sholokhov's collected works were published in eight volumes between 1956 and 1960. Authorship of texts First rumors of Sholokhov's supposed plagiarism appeared in 1928 following the success of the first two volumes of And Quiet Flows the Don: it was speculated that the author stole the manuscript from a dead White Army officer. Sholokhov asked the Pravda newspaper to prove his authorship, submitted his manuscripts of the first three volumes of And Quiet Flows the Don and the plan of the fourth one. In 1929 a special commission was formed that accepted Sholokhov's authorship. In the conclusion signed by four experts, the commission stated that there was no evidence of plagiarism on the one hand, and on the other hand the manuscripts' style was close to that of Sholokhov's previous book, Tales from the Don. The allegations resurfaced in the 1960s with Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn as a notable proponent, possibly in retaliation for Sholokhov's scathing opinion of Solzhenitsyn's novella One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. Several other writers have been proposed as the 'original' author, although Fyodor Kryukov, a Cossack and Anti-Bolshevik who had died in 1920 has emerged as the leading candidate. In 1984 Norwegian Slavicist and mathematician Geir Kjetsaa, in a monograph written with three other colleagues, provided statistical analyses of sentence lengths showing that Mikhail Sholokhov was likely the true author of And Quiet Flows the Don, The debate focused on the published book, because Sholokhov's archive was destroyed in a bomb raid during the Second World War and no manuscript material or drafts were known. 143 pages of the manuscript of the 3rd & 4th books were later found and returned to Sholokhov; since 1975, they have been held by the Pushkin House in St Petersburg. Then, in 1987, several hundred pages of notes and drafts of the work were discovered, including chapters excluded from the final draft. The writing paper dates back to the 1920s: 605 pages are in Sholokhov's own hand, and 285 are transcribed by his wife, Maria, and sisters. Sholokhov had had his friend Vassily Kudashov look after it, and after he was killed at war his widow took possession of the manuscript, but she never disclosed it. The manuscript was finally obtained by the Institute of World Literature of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1999 with assistance from the Russian government. In 1999 the Russian Academy of Science carried out an analysis of the manuscript and came to the conclusion that And Quiet Flows the Don had been written by Sholokhov himself. A lengthy analysis by Felix Kuznetsov of the creative process visible in the papers provides detailed support for Sholokhov's authorship. During the 2000s a Russian-Israeli linguist Zeev Bar-Sella once again stated that Sholokhov was not the true author of And Quiet Flows the Don as well as his other works. Based on his own textual analysis of the novel he asserts that the manuscripts were written by Sholokhov not earlier than 1929 and names the writer Viktor Sevsky (real name Veniamin Krasnushkin) as the true author. Political and social activity Sholokhov met Joseph Stalin in 1930, and subsequently was one of very few people who dared to give the dictator a truthful account of what was happening in the country and nonetheless was not punished. In the 1930s, he wrote several letters to Stalin from his home in Veshenskaya about the appalling conditions in the kolkhozes and sovkhozes along the Don, requesting assistance for the farmers. In January 1931, he warned: "Comrade Stalin, without exaggeration, conditions are catastrophic!" On 4 April 1933, he sent a long letter in which, among many other details, he named two OGPU officers whom he accused of torturing prisoners from his district. Stalin reacted by sending a senior official, Matvei Shkiryatov, to investigate. The two officers were arrested and sentenced to death; their sentences were later revoked, but they were banned from working in Sholokhov's home village. Stalin also arranged for extra food to be sent to Veshenskaya and the neighbouring district. Sholokhov joined the CPSU in 1932, and in 1937 he was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. In August 1937, his best friend, the secretary of the Veshenskaya party committee, P.K. Lugovoi, was arrested. Sholokohov was due to take part in an international writers' conference, but he refused to leave the country while Lugovoi was being held. Stalin sent another official, Vladimir Stavsky, to investigate, and invited Sholokhov to visit him in the Kremlin. After their meeting, on 4 November 1937, Lugovoi and two other prisoners on whose behalf Sholokhov had interceded were released, but in a subsequent letter to Stalin, he complained that the people responsible for wrongfully arresting them had not been punished. On a visit to Moscow in 1938, Sholokhov met Yevgenia Yezhova, wife of Nikolai Yezhov, the chief of police, and checked into a hotel room with her, unaware that the room was bugged. Yezhov heard the recording and attacked Yezhova. On 23 October 1938, Sholokhov met Stalin in the Kremlin to complain that he had been put under surveillance in Veshenskaya, but when Yezhov was summoned to explain, he claimed not to know why. They met again on 31 October: this time the officer who had been investigating Sholokhov was also summoned. He said his orders had come from Moscow, but Yezhov again denied giving the order. Sholokhov claimed that he completed the fourth and last volume of And Quiet Flows the Don and its sequel on 21 December 1939, the day when the USSR was celebrating what was supposedly Stalin's 60th birthday, and celebrated by opening a bottle of wine that Stalin had given him. He then wrote to Stalin to say how he had marked the special day. In 1959 he accompanied Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev on a trip to Europe and the United States. He became a member of the CPSU Central Committee in 1961, Academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences in 1939, and was a member of the USSR Supreme Soviet. He was twice awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor, and later became vice president of the Union of Soviet Writers. He commented on the Sinyavsky–Daniel trial at the 23rd Congress by saying that the prison terms meted out to Sinyavsky and Daniel had been much too lenient compared to the "revolutionary understanding of what is right" during the 1920s, which turned part of the Soviet intelligentsia against him and resulted in two open letters by Lydia Chukovskaya and Yuri Galanskov addressed to Sholokhov. Late years Sholokhov almost stopped writing after 1969 and spent the late years at the Vyoshenskaya stanitsa. He used his Order of Lenin money to build a local school and his Nobel Prize to take the family on a road trip over Europe and Japan. In 1972 he became a vocal critic of Alexander Yakovlev, then a head of the Central Committee Propaganda Department, and his article "Against Antihistoricism" which attacked Russian nationalism; this resulted in a Politburo meeting and removal of Yakovlev from his position (he was then sent as an ambassador to Canada). Mikhail Sholokhov died on 21 February 1984, from laryngeal cancer. He was buried in the grounds of his house at the Vyoshenskaya stanitsa along with his wife Maria Petrovna Sholokhova (nee Gromoslavskaya, 1902—1992). Honours and Awards Soviet Union Foreign Legacy An asteroid in main-belt is named after him, 2448 Sholokhov. Sholokhov Moscow State University for Humanities bears his name. His house at the Vyoshenskaya stanitsa was turned into the National Sholokhov Museum-Reserve. There are a number of monuments in Moscow and Rostov-on-Don. Grigory and Aksinya and Grigory and Aksinya in a boat sculptures in the Vyoshenskaya stanitsa and Rostov-on-Don, respectfully. The Moscow National Guard Presidential Cadets School is named after him. Selected publications Donskie Rasskazy, 1925 – Tales of the Don. Lazorevaja Step, 1926. Tikhii Don, 4 vol., 1928–1940 (The Quiet Don) – And Quiet Flows the Don (1934); The Don Flows Home to the Sea (1940); Quiet Flows the Don (1966). A three-part film version, directed by Sergei Gerasimov and starring P. Glebov, L. Khityaeva, Z. Kirienko and E. Bystrltskaya, was produced in 1957–1958. Podnyataya Tselina, 1932–1960 – Virgin Soil Upturned (1935); Harvest on the Don (1960). Oni Srazhalis Za Rodinu, 1942 – They Fought for Their Country. Nauka Nenavisti, 1942 – Hate / The Science of Hatred. Slovo O Rodine, 1951. Sudba Cheloveka, 1956–1957 – Fate of a Man. A film version, Destiny of a Man, directed by Sergei Bondarchuk and starring Sergei Bondarchuk, Pavlik Boriskin, Zinaida Kirienko, Pavel Volkov, Yuri Avelin, and K. Alekseev, was produced in 1959. Sobranie Sochinenii, 1956–1958 – collected works (8 vols.) Oni Srazhalis Za Rodinu, 1959 – They Fought for their Country Sobranie Sochinenii, 1962 – collected works (8 vols.) Early Stories, 1966. One Man's Destiny, and Other Stories, Articles, and Sketches, 1923–1963, 1967 Fierce and Gentle Warriors, 1967. Po Veleniju Duši, 1970 – At the Bidding of the Heart Sobranie Sochinenii, 1975 (8 vols.) Rossiya V Serdtse, 1975. SLOVO O RODINE, 1980. Collected Works, 1984 (8 vols.) Sobranie Sochinenii, 1985 (collected works) (8 vols.) Sholokhov I Stalin, 1994. References Cited sources Further reading Boeck, Brian J, Stalin's Scribe: Literature, Ambition, and Survival: The Life of Mikhail Sholokhov (2019) excerpt Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr. "Sholokhov and the riddle of ‘The Quiet Don’". The Times Literary Supplement, 24 May 2016 (originally published 1974). External links Nobel-winners.com's article on Michail Sholokhov 107 years of Sholokhov, from SovLit.net. On-line Sholokhov texts (Russian) Politicians Praise Soviet-Era Writer Mikhail Sholokhov’s Contribution to World Literature Sholokhov Moscow State University for Humanities Stremya Tihogo Dona: Solzhenitsyn's accusations of plagiarism An interview with Bar-Sela And Quiet Does not Flow the Don: Statistical Analysis of a Quarrel between Nobel Laureates (PDF) Sholokhov: biography, photos, prose, critical essays 1905 births 1984 deaths People from Sholokhovsky District People from Don Host Oblast Communist Party of the Soviet Union members First convocation members of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union Don Cossacks Heroes of Socialist Labour Soviet Marxist writers Nobel laureates in Literature People of the Russian Revolution Soviet Nobel laureates Soviet novelists Soviet male writers 20th-century male writers Soviet short story writers 20th-century Russian short story writers Russian people of Ukrainian descent Stalin Prize winners Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences Members 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248334	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarmouth%2C%20Nova%20Scotia	Yarmouth, Nova Scotia	Yarmouth is a town in southwestern Nova Scotia, Canada. A port town, industries include fishing, and tourism. It is the terminus of a ferry service to Portland, Maine, run by Bay Ferries. History Originally inhabited by the Mi'kmaq, the region was known as "Keespongwitk" meaning "Lands End" due to its position at the tip of the Nova Scotia peninsula. European settlement The region was visited in 1604 by Samuel de Champlain, who named it "Cap-Fourchu", meaning "forked or cloven cape." The first Europeans to make a settlement on these shores were the French Acadians. They set up a small fishing settlement known as "Tebouque" in the mid 1600s and by 1750 the population was 50 people. During the Seven Years' War, New England Planters settled at what is now the town of Yarmouth in 1759; the grantees were from Yarmouth, Massachusetts and they requested that Yarmouth be named after their former home. Yarmouth was founded on June 9, 1761, when a ship carrying three families arrived from Sandwich, Massachusetts. The ship carried the families of Sealed Landers, Ebenezer Ellis, and Moses Perry. During the American Revolution, some in Yarmouth were sympathetic to the rebellion. Following the war, Acadians originally from the Grand-Pré district who returned from exile in 1767 settled in the Yarmouth area. American Revolution There were a number of inhabitants of Yarmouth who supported the American patriots. Despite the American Privateer raids in the Raid on Yarmouth, Nova Scotia (1775), the inhabitants still sheltered American prisoners after the Battle off Yarmouth (1777). After the American Revolution, substantial numbers of United Empire Loyalists arrived in 1785. Shipbuilding Through the 19th century the town was a major shipbuilding centre, at one point boasting more registered tonnage per capita than any other port in the world. From 1874 to 1885, Yarmouth was the second largest port of registry in Canada following Saint John, New Brunswick. In 1878, Yarmouth's tonnage peaked at 453 vessels aggregating 166,623 tons, and in 1879, the town had the second largest registered tonnage in Canada. Yarmouth ships were found in most major ports throughout the world at this time, including ships noted for courageous crews such as the ship Research in 1861 and ships noted for great size such as the ship County of Yarmouth in 1884, one of the largest wooden hull ships ever built in Canada. John Patch, the son of a Yarmouth sea captain, developed and built one of the first modern screw propeller driven ships in 1832 (4 years before John Ericsson's patent). First demonstrated in Yarmouth Harbour during the summer of 1833, Patch was unsuccessful in a patent application in that year, but he continued to improve his propeller and received an American patent in 1849 which drew praise in American scientific circles. However, by 1849 there were multiple competing versions of the screw propeller. Patch never received money or recognition and died a poor man at Yarmouth in 1861. The town of Yarmouth was incorporated on August 6, 1890. Railways As wooden shipbuilding declined in the late 19th century, Yarmouth's shipowners re-invested their capital into factories, iron-hulled steamships, and railways. The town's first railway was the locally owned Western Counties Railway which was built from Yarmouth to Digby in the 1870s. It eventually was merged into the Dominion Atlantic Railway (DAR), with a network extending into the Annapolis Valley, Halifax and Truro; the DAR later became a subsidiary of Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR). The Halifax and Southwestern Railway was built along the south shore linking Yarmouth with Shelburne, Liverpool, Bridgewater and Halifax in the early 20th century; the H&SW was eventually merged into the Canadian National Railway (CNR). While iron-hulled steamships had led to the decline of Yarmouth's once-thriving wooden shipbuilding industry, they also made the port a vital connection between Nova Scotia's rail lines and steamships destined for Boston and New York. Rail services were abandoned to Yarmouth in stages, beginning in 1982 (CNR) and ending in 1990 (CPR). Steamships and ferries Tourism has been a major industry in Yarmouth since the 1880s when Loran Ellis Baker founded the Yarmouth Steamship Company. Steamship and railway promotion based in Yarmouth created the first tourism marketing in Nova Scotia. Baker's steamships operated between Yarmouth and Boston until 1900, when the company was purchased by the Dominion Atlantic Railway. The DAR and Halifax and Southwestern Railway offered connections for passengers arriving in Yarmouth with steamship services operating to New York City and Boston. In 1939, examiners at Yarmouth's Merchant Marine Institution made seafaring history by issuing master's papers to Molly Kool, the first female ship captain in the Western World. Steamship connections between Yarmouth and Boston / New York were maintained by Eastern Steamship Lines but were suspended with the start of World War II; the SS Yarmouth Castle was one of many vessels which served this route. The service resumed a few years after the war with the S.S. Yarmouth, under the same company. This service continued into the mid 1950s and was then replaced with the M.V. Bluenose. CNR, CN Marine and Marine Atlantic Following the war, as the economy of western Nova Scotia improved, the need for a year-round daily service was made evident. The service was needed as a more timely route for transport of goods between markets in Nova Scotia and the United States. Demand increased for passenger traffic as well. This led citizens of southwestern Nova Scotia to undertake an extensive lobbying effort with the federal government to establish a ferry service in the Gulf of Maine connecting Yarmouth with a port in New England. In 1949 the Canadian Maritime Commission began to study the possibility of a ferry service connecting with a port in the US. After some controversy as to whether to return to the traditional Boston or New York service, a decision was made to focus the effort on a service from Yarmouth to Bar Harbor. In 1954 the federal government contracted Davie Shipbuilding to construct MV Bluenose which was launched in 1955 and began service in 1956 under the management of Canadian National Railway (CNR) and later (1977-1982) under the management of a federal Crown corporation named CN Marine. In 1978 CN Marine started operating MV Marine Evangeline on a service from Yarmouth to Portland, Maine. In 1982 the old Bluenose was retired from the Bar Harbor service and sold. CN Marine replaced her with a newer vessel MV Stena Jutlandica which was renamed MV Bluenose to prevent confusion in tourism marketing literature. In 1986 CN Marine was reorganized into the Crown corporation Marine Atlantic and in 1997 the federal government decided to end its financial support for the Gulf of Maine ferry service, soliciting proposals from private sector ferry companies to operate the route. Lion Ferry, Prince of Fundy Cruises, Scotia Prince Cruises The growth of post-war automobile-based tourism saw the provincial government encourage additional ferry service with New England, a region with many family connections to the Maritimes dating to the 18th century and which accelerated during the first half of the 20th century. In 1970 the MV Bluenose service operated by CNR was joined by the MS Prince of Fundy on a route connecting Yarmouth with Portland, Maine operated by Lion Ferry. The service was supplemented between 1973 and 1976 by MS Bolero, however by 1976 both vessels were replaced by the MS Caribe. Lion Ferry sold Yarmouth's second ferry service to Prince of Fundy Cruises who purchased MS Stena Olympica and renamed it MS Scotia Prince. The service underwent another ownership change in 2000 and was renamed Scotia Prince Cruises. In 2004 the company discovered toxic mould in its Portland terminal, owned by the City of Portland, canceling its 2005 season. The City of Portland subsequently canceled the company's lease and evicted Scotia Prince Cruises, thus ending this ferry service. Bay Ferries In 1997 Bay Ferries, a subsidiary of Northumberland Ferries Limited, was the successful bidder for the federal government's Gulf of Maine ferry service. Only the operating licence was transferred as well as the right to be the primary user of the federal government-owned ferry terminals in Yarmouth and Bar Harbor; the service would receive no subsidy from the federal government. Bay Ferries purchased MV Bluenose from Marine Atlantic and used that vessel for the remainder of the 1997 season before selling it. In 1998 Bay Ferries introduced the first high speed catamaran passenger-vehicle ferry service in North America when it purchased HSC Incat 046 from Incat in an aggressive bid to expand the Yarmouth - Bar Harbor ferry service. Throughout the 1990s the market for ferry services in southwestern Nova Scotia was threatened by significant expansions of 4-lane expressways in northern Nova Scotia and across southern New Brunswick so it was theorized that the Yarmouth - Bar Harbor ferry service could maintain market share if the ferry voyage time was shortened. Marketed as "The Cat", the use of the ferry service grew largely due to Bay Ferries' investment and the novelty of riding the ultra-modern high speed catamaran. In 2002 Bay Ferries traded in HSC Incat 046 for a larger vessel HSC The Cat which was also marketed as "The Cat". Beginning in 2003, Bay Ferries began operating HSC The Cat during the winter months on services in the Caribbean. Following the end of the service offered by Scotia Prince Cruises in 2004, Bay Ferries began operating HSC The Cat in 2006 between Yarmouth to Portland, in addition to Bar Harbor; the old Portland ferry terminal being replaced by the newly built Ocean Gateway International Marine Passenger Terminal. Following a decline in American tourism to Nova Scotia, as well as record-high fuel prices, Bay Ferries sought subsidies from the federal and provincial governments for its Gulf of Maine ferry service. The federal government refused to provide a subsidy, having removed itself from operating such a service in 1997. However, the provincial government offered a subsidy to cover the operating loss and this was subsequently provided in 2007, 2008 and 2009. In 2009 the provincial government canceled the subsidy and Bay Ferries announced in December 2009 that it was ending its ferry service and sold the vessel. Nova Star Cruises In 2013 the provincial government posted a request for proposals for re-establishing a Yarmouth - Maine ferry service, stating that a successful proponent would receive a $21 million subsidy over a 7-year period. In September 2013 it was announced that Nova Star Cruises was the successful proponent and in November 2013 it was confirmed that the service would start May 1, 2014 with the MV Nova Star offering daily round trips between Yarmouth and Portland. Nova Star Cruises also announced it was examining the possibility of using the vessel during the winter months on a service between Colombia and Panama bypassing the Darién Gap. Nova Star's contract to provide ferry services between Yarmouth and Portland was not renewed for 2016. Return of The Cat On March 24, 2016, Bay Ferries Limited announced that it had reached an agreement with the U.S. Maritime Administration and the U.S. Navy for a multi-year charter of HST-2. The vessel will be operated for a passenger/vehicle ferry service in the Gulf of Maine between Portland, Maine and Yarmouth. The service and vessel will be branded as The CAT to align with the previous branding used by Bay Ferries. The vessel underwent a refit at a shipyard in South Carolina and the service began on June 15, 2016. Second World War During the first year of the Second World War, Yarmouth was selected as the location for a British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP) facility. RCAF Station Yarmouth was originally opened in 1940 as three separate training sites (the East Camp, the West Camp and the Air Base). The East Camp was home to a detachment of the Royal Air Force's No. 34 Operational Training Unit (from RCAF Station Pennfield Ridge), who trained bomber crews, as well as the Royal Navy's No. 1 Naval Air Gunners School who were located at Yarmouth from 1 January 1943 to 30 March 1945. The West Camp was home to an RCAF Anti-Submarine Bomber Reconnaissance Squadron and several Eastern Air Command Bomber Reconnaissance Squadrons, such as 162 Squadron. The Air Base was home to the 9th Light Anti-Aircraft Artillery, various RCAF and RAF Bomber Squadrons and an Army Co-operation Reconnaissance Flight. Its primary function was as an administrative and logistical support base to the RAF and RCAF squadrons in the area, in addition to providing a Weather Information Section, an Armament Section and a firing range. A Hudson bomber from Royal Canadian Air Force Bomber Reconnaissance Squadron 113 in Yarmouth became the first aircraft of RCAF's Eastern Air Command to destroy a submarine, sinking U-754 about south of Yarmouth on July 31, 1942. The sinking resulted in 43 casualties and no survivors. Several smaller installations associated with RCAF Station Yarmouth were located in southwestern Nova Scotia, including a bombing range at Port Maitland, a fuel depot at Digby, and radar detachments at Plymouth, Tusket, Bear Point, Port Mouton and Rockville. In 1944, a detachment of the US Navy briefly came to Yarmouth to test the effectiveness of a blimp service. After a crash, the RCAF decided against this venture. RCAF Station Yarmouth closed in 1945. The airfield was sold to the Department of Transport in 1946 and became the Yarmouth Airport. A Canadian Army training camp (known as Camp 60) on Parade Street also provided basic and artillery training for 20,000 soldiers during the war. Culture The Western Branch of the Art Gallery of Nova Scotia is located in Yarmouth. The town is also home to the Yarmouth County Museum & Archives which preserves the history of the town and surrounding county and operates the Killam Brothers building on the waterfront. The Firefighters Museum, part of the Nova Scotia Museum system and the privately run Sweeney Fisheries Museum are also located in Yarmouth. The Izaak Walton Killam Memorial house, founded in 1963, serves as the town's public library. It is the largest branch of Western Counties Regional Library and houses the regional library's headquarters. The Yarmouth Arts Regional Council was established in 1974, under the leadership of Lydia Davison, a local music teacher. Over the next five years, with the assistance of the Canada Council and many volunteers, the Yarmouth Arts Regional Centre (Th'YARC) was constructed on the site of a former garage on Parade Street. Th'YARC continues to operate to this day, with the 350-seat Lydia Davison Theatre, an art gallery and a print-making shop. A popular but unsupported cultural belief in Yarmouth holds that the American composer Meredith Willson wrote his well-known song "It's Beginning to Look a Lot Like Christmas" while staying in Yarmouth's Grand Hotel. In August 2004, a record mako shark was caught off the coast of Yarmouth during the Yarmouth Shark Scramble. It weighed and set a new Canadian record. It is considered one of the largest mako sharks ever caught. Seafest is an annual 7 day festival organized since 1979. Buildings and structures Yarmouth is known for some of the most exuberant examples of Victorian houses styles in the Maritimes, a legacy of the wealthy captains and shipowners of the town's seafaring Golden Age. A heritage district preserves several blocks of these residences, including the Lovitt House and Eakin/Hatfield House. On the waterfront, two historic warehouses survive from the sailing era, the Killam Brothers and Parker-Eakin's buildings, each with an associated wharf, which are the focal points of summer waterfront events. Yarmouth's Main Street is marked by several distinctive Victorian commercial buildings such as the turreted Yarmouth Block Building. The largest building in the town is a 1970s hotel, the Rodd Grand Hotel. It is built on the site of the original Grand Hotel, a Second Empire hotel which was the town's landmark for many years. A landmark for Yarmouth Harbour is the large Cape Forchu Lighthouse which is located a few kilometers away at the headland of Cape Forchu, the peninsula that guards Yarmouth Harbour. The tall "apple core" style is a notable example of modernist style light tower. Climate Yarmouth has a humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb) of the maritime influence, typical of climates surrounded by the sea but close to large continents such as southern Norway and coastal Hokkaido but with latitude variations. Being exactly in the -3 °C isotherm in the average of the coldest month (east of the city), causing that in peninsular areas like Yarmouth Bar and Cape Forchu are between a transition band for the oceanic climates (Cfb). Winters are cool and rainy with a January average of though owing to strong maritime influences, temperatures below are very rare, and the average high never drops to below freezing at any point in the year. During this period of time, the weather can be unsettled and cloudy due to the Nor'easters coming up the coast from the southwest. As a result, Yarmouth averages only 68–100 hours of sunshine from December to February or 25%–34% of possible sunshine. The average annual snowfall is , which can come from Nor'easters from the southwest with a maximum snow depth of in January, owing to its mild winters, among the mildest in Canada east of the Rockies. Yarmouth's summers are cool due to the strong coastal influence from the sea which keeps summer temperatures cool, meaning temperatures above are very rare. The average temperature in the warmest month, August is . Spring and fall are transitional seasons in which falls are warmer than spring since the waters are at the warmest temperatures in fall and the coldest during early spring. Precipitation is significant, averaging over a year, with July and August the driest months on average and November the wettest month on average. An outstanding feature is Yarmouth's late-fall to early-winter precipitation maximum, owing to the combination of intense storm activity from November to January and relatively more-stable summers, with thunderstorm activity here much less frequent than in the U.S. Northeast, Mid-Atlantic and points southward. Yarmouth averages 1898 hours of sunshine or 42% of possible sunshine with summer being the sunniest and winter being the cloudiest. Yarmouth averages 191 days of fog each year. The highest temperature ever recorded in Yarmouth was on 16 July 2013. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 14 February 1894. Demographics In the 2016 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Town of Yarmouth recorded a population of 6,518 living in 3,116 of its 3,470 total private dwellings, a change of from its 2011 population of 6,761. With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2016. The town has long held the highest teen pregnancy rate in the province. Many studies have been done using teenagers in the town to examine the phenomenon. Media Yarmouth has been featured as a playable location in the 2014 video game Assassin's Creed Rogue, which takes place during the French and Indian War, and the Seven Years' War. See also References Notes External links Populated coastal places in Canada Populated places established in 1761 Towns in Nova Scotia	[ -0.5582543611526489, 0.21087075769901276, 0.19848021864891052, -0.018134910613298416, 0.4061511158943176, 0.5442295670509338, 0.2203822284936905, 0.29810571670532227, -0.427215039730072, -0.48576951026916504, -0.17635250091552734, 0.4105854630470276, 0.02062680386006832, 0.061334673315286636, -0.45320406556129456, 0.6821659803390503, -0.3242776393890381, 0.21858039498329163, -0.23769116401672363, -0.5590670108795166, -0.05360895395278931, -0.4345119595527649, 0.1686633676290512, 0.3695875406265259, 0.1842917501926422, 0.7490280270576477, 0.7259142398834229, 0.40594083070755005, -0.5443095564842224, 0.10618878155946732, -0.463352233171463, 0.544352114200592, -0.9220872521400452, -0.09144116938114166, 0.7550032138824463, 0.09989416599273682, 0.33450233936309814, -0.18371865153312683, 0.07957172393798828, -0.49181389808654785, -0.2121235877275467, 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248336	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macroprolactin	Macroprolactin	Macroprolactin is a physiologically inactive form of prolactin found in a small proportion of people. It is in fact prolactin bound to IgG. Macroprolactin is important, as some laboratory assays will detect it as prolactin, leading to a falsely elevated prolactin result. This can lead to a misdiagnosis of hyperprolactinaemia in some people, especially those with other symptoms, such as infertility or menstrual problems. There are certain chemicals, such as polyethylene glycol, that can be added to remove macroprolactin from a suspicious sample. The sample can then be re-analysed to see if the prolactin levels are still high. The gold standard test to diagnose macroprolactin is gel-filtration chromatography. Literature Sadideen H, Swaminathan R. (2006): "Macroprolactin: what is it and what is its importance?" Int J Clin Pract. 60(4):457-61. 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248339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brandon%2C%20Manitoba	Brandon, Manitoba	Brandon () is the second-largest city in the province of Manitoba, Canada. It is located in the southwestern corner of the province on the banks of the Assiniboine River, approximately west of the provincial capital, Winnipeg, and east of the Saskatchewan border. Brandon covers an area of and has a population of 51,313, while its census metropolitan area has a population of 54,268. It is the primary hub of trade and commerce for the Westman Region as well as parts of southeastern Saskatchewan and northern North Dakota, an area with a combined population of over 180,000 people. The City of Brandon was incorporated in 1882, having a history rooted in the Assiniboine River fur trade as well as its role as a major junction on the Canadian Pacific Railway. Known as The Wheat City, Brandon's economy is predominantly associated with agriculture; however, it also has strengths in health care, manufacturing, food processing, education, business services, and transportation. Brandon is an integral part of the higher education network in Manitoba, with several facilities located in the city including Brandon University, Assiniboine Community College, Robertson College, and the Manitoba Emergency Services College. Canadian Forces Base Shilo is located east of Brandon and maintains close ties with the city. Brandon's Keystone Centre, one of the largest consolidated entertainment, recreation, convention, and agriculture complexes in Canada, is the home of the Brandon Wheat Kings and the Royal Manitoba Winter Fair. History Prior to the influx of people from Eastern Canada, the area around Brandon was primarily used by the Sioux people, the Bungays, the Yellow Quills, and the Bird Tails. In the 1870s and early 1880s, the Plains Bison were nearly wiped out by over-hunting. With the destruction of their staff of life, the buffalo, the nomadic Sioux people began to agree to settle in reservations such as the Sioux Valley Dakota Nation, or left the area entirely. French Canadians also passed through the area on river boats on their way to the Hudson Bay Post, Fort Ellice located near present-day St. Lazare, Manitoba. The city of Brandon gets its name from the Blue Hills south of the city, which got their name from a Hudson's Bay trading post known as Brandon House, which got its name from a hill on an island in James Bay where Captain James had anchored his ship in 1631. During the 1870s it was believed by most that the transcontinental railway would take a northwesterly direction from Portage la Prairie. Many thought that the route would most likely go through either Minnedosa or Rapid City, Manitoba because they were both located at natural river crossings. Rapid City was the front runner for the site of the new railway and had prepared for the impending building boom accordingly. But suddenly, in 1881, the builders of the railway decided to take a more westerly route from Winnipeg, towards Grand Valley. Grand Valley was located on the northern side of the Assiniboine, opposite the side of the river where present-day Brandon sits. Grand Valley was originally settled by two brothers John and Dougal McVicar, and their families. With the expectation of the new railroad, settlers and prospectors now rushed to an area they had previously avoided. Around 1879 a few settlers led by Reverend George Roddick had begun to build their new homes about south of Grand Valley, at the foot of the Brandon Hills. Meanwhile, in Grand Valley with the promise of the railway, the town began to boom. Regular voyages were made by steam sternwheelers to the city, each bringing more and more settlers. In the spring of 1881, General Thomas L. Rosser, Chief Engineer of the Canadian Pacific Railway arrived in Grand Valley. It was Rosser's job to choose the townsites for the railway. Rosser approached Dougald McVicar of Grand Valley and offered him $25,000 for the railway in Grand Valley. McVicar countered with $50,000 to which Rosser replied that "I'll be damned if a town of any kind is ever built here". So instead Rosser crossed the Assiniboine river and built the site of the railway on the high sandy south of the River, west of Grand Valley. So the site was then moved to a site just west of today's current First Street bridge in Brandon. A shanty had been built there by a man named J.D. Adamson, and it was on this quarter section Adamson claimed that Rosser chose as the townsite for the CPR Railway and named Brandon. After the location of the railway was once again changed, there was still hope that Grand Valley could become a rival neighbour to Brandon. But late in June 1881 it became clear that Grand Valley would not have lasted as a city long term. A flood hit in late June, and as the city was built on a low-lying part of the river, flooded quickly and dramatically. Because Grand Valley was built on a low flood plain, and Brandon was built on the heights on the other side, it became apparent that Brandon was the best place for a city in the area. Rosser had chosen Brandon as the townsite in May 1881, within a year settlers had flocked to Brandon in such numbers that it was incorporated as a city. Brandon never spent any time as a town or village but has only existed as a city. An Internment camp was set up at the Exhibition Building in Brandon from September 1914 to July 1916. Post World War II, Brandon experience a minor disaster when an explosion at the Manitoba Power Commission's steam plant caused the 40 metre (130 ft) brick chimney to collapse, killing two workers in the process. In contemporary times, Brandon City Council elected its first female mayor when Shari Decter Hirst defeated incumbent Dave Burgess in the 2010 municipal election. Geography Brandon is located in south-western Manitoba, on the banks of the Assiniboine river. It is located in the Canadian Prairies and resides in the aspen parkland ecoregion of the prairies. The terrain is generally flat and rolling surrounding Brandon, and there is a large valley located within the city. The Brandon hills are located to the southeast, from which Brandon got its name. Brandon is from the provincial capital, Winnipeg; and from the Saskatchewan border. Climate Brandon has a dry continental climate (Köppen Dfb, USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 2b) with warm, sometimes hot summers and cold, dry winters. Daytime temperatures range from in July to in January. Brandon has a fairly dry climate, with of precipitation annually, and as such is located in the Palliser's Triangle region of the Prairies. There is measurable rainfall on 56.0 days throughout the year, and 38.8 days with snowfall. Snow falls from October to April; however, snow has fallen as late as May and as early as September. The highest temperature ever recorded in Brandon was on 11 July 1936. The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 1 February 1893. General seasons Winter: November to March Spring: April to May Summer: June to August Fall: September to October Demographics In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Brandon recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021. The median age is 36.3 years old which is almost 5 years younger than the national average at 41.2 years old. There are 21,485 dwellings in Brandon with an occupancy rate of 94.3%, and the median cost of a dwelling at $264,781, much lower than the national average at $341,556. As far as education goes, for those between 25 and 64 years old, 57.0% have a post-secondary schooling degree, 29.8% have a high school degree (or equivalent) and 13.2% have no certificates, diplomas or degrees. The unemployment rate is 7.3% in Brandon, lower than the national average at 7.7%. The median household income before taxes is $65,960, and after taxes at $57,008. As of 2016, 88.8% of Brandon's residents are Canadian citizens. About 5.5% of residents are recent immigrants (from 2011 to 2016). Brandon is 70.1% white, 16.3% visible minorities and 13.6% aboriginal. The largest visible minority groups in Brandon are Latin American (5.0%), Chinese (3.8%), South Asian (3.0%), Black (2.1%) and Filipino (1.1%). English is the mother tongue of 80.3% of residents. Other common first languages were Spanish (4.5%), Chinese Languages (3.2%) French (1.3%), Ukrainian (1.3%), Gujarati (1.2%), and German (1.2%). Education Public schools in Brandon are governed by the Brandon School Division #40. There are approximately 7200 students, 900 staff, 22 schools and a budget exceeding $50 million. There are five high schools: Vincent Massey High School, Crocus Plains Regional Secondary School, and Neelin High School, Prairie Hope (formerly Neelin High School Off-Campus) and Sioux Valley High School. Brandon is also home to four post-secondary institutions: Brandon University, Assiniboine Community College, Robertson College, as well as the Manitoba Emergency Services College. Sports Local teams Brandon University Bobcats (Basketball/CWUAA) Brandon University Bobcats (Volleyball/CWUAA) Brandon Wheat Kings (Hockey/Western Hockey League) Wheat City Whiskey Jacks (Baseball/Expedition League) Major events The Brier – Canadian Men's Curling Championship (1963, 1982, 2019) The Scott Tournament of Hearts – Canadian Women's Curling Championship (1993, 2002) World Curling Championship – Men's & Women's World Curling Championship (1995) Canadian Olympic Curling Trials – Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Trials (1997) Canada Winter Games – Canada Winter Games (1979) Canada Summer Games – Canada Summer Games (1997) Special Olympics Canada – Canada Special Olympics Summer Games (2006) Memorial Cup - MasterCard Memorial Cup (2010) Sports venues Keystone Centre Brandon Community Sportsplex Andrews Field Transportation Brandon is serviced by Brandon Municipal Airport. Rider Express provide intercity bus service from Regina and Winnipeg once a week, also Brandon Air Shuttle provide bus service from Winnipeg Airport 4 times a day. Taxi service is available from numerous local taxi companies. The city of Brandon runs Brandon Transit, which provides daily bus service throughout the city, with 10 routes that operate seven days a week. Brandon has a system of walking/bike trails throughout the city. The Canadian Pacific Railway runs through Brandon; the station is a historic landmark. Cando Rail & Terminals is headquartered in Brandon. Media The Brandon Sun publishes daily newspapers. Music and the arts Brandon hosts many art festivals every year, including the Brandon Festival of the Arts, Brandon Jazz Festival, and the Brandon Folk Music Festival. In addition to the music festivals, the Brandon University School of Music hosts the annual 'Pro Series' which has included guests like Bob Brookmeyer, George Crumb, and the Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra. In 2009, Brandon hosted the Western Canadian Music Awards. The "Words Alive" was a yearly literary festival held in downtown Brandon, from 2007-2010. Authors that participated in this festival included Robert J. Sawyer, Maggie Siggins, Fred Stenson and Corey Redekop. Some of the local arts venues include the Western Manitoba Centennial Auditorium, Lorne Watson Recital Hall, Evans Theatre, and the Art Gallery of Southwestern Manitoba. Events and exhibitions The Provincial Exhibition of Manitoba is a non-profit organization established in 1872, which is now housed at the city's extensive Keystone Centre complex. It hosts Royal Manitoba Winter Fair (March) Manitoba Summer Fair (June) Manitoba Livestock Expo (November) AgDays – Canada's largest indoor agricultural trade show and program, and one of the premier shows of its kind in North America. Held in mid January each year at Brandon's Keystone Centre. Brandon Folk Music and Arts Festival is a weekend event held annually in late July. The festival is held outdoors on the grounds of the Keystone Centre. The Commonwealth Air Training Plan Museum, located at the Brandon Municipal Airport. Notable people William Otway Boger - WWI flying ace Turk Broda - ice hockey player Samuel Bronfman - businessman Michael Cain - pianist Kristen Campbell - ice hockey player Joseph Donaldson - politician Tommy Douglas - politician Joel Edmundson - ice hockey player James Ehnes – violinist Trent Frayne - sportswriter Glen Hanlon - ice hockey player Dan Halldorson - professional golfer Charles Hefferon - South African athlete Jerry Hemmings - basketball coach Ron Hextall - ice hockey player Douglas Hill - science fiction author William G. Hobbs, artist Edna Mayne Hull - writer Stanley Knowles - politician Keegan Kolesar - ice hockey player Kavavaow Mannomee - artist John Mayhew - cricket player Leslie McDorman - politician James Duncan McGregor - agriculturalist Daren Millard - sportscaster Kelsey Mitchell - cyclist Art Ross - hockey player and executive Karl Schroeder - science fiction author Haroon Siddiqui - journalist Andrew Unger - writer J.S. Woodsworth - minister Ken Wregget - hockey player See also HMCS Brandon 26th Field Artillery Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery St. Matthew's Anglican Cathedral, Brandon References External links Cities in Manitoba Hudson's Bay Company trading posts Populated places established in 1882	[ -0.2600201666355133, 0.35979026556015015, 0.477498859167099, -0.07072128355503082, -0.4099724590778351, 0.5909640789031982, 0.4837108850479126, 0.7471286654472351, -0.6273120641708374, -0.16477179527282715, -0.10852676630020142, 0.04317615181207657, -0.32016879320144653, 0.587830126285553, 0.1854337453842163, 0.8313136100769043, -0.06169543415307999, 0.5589935779571533, 0.03180144727230072, -0.6863424181938171, -0.33140525221824646, -0.3023206293582916, 0.5023618936538696, 0.5473381280899048, 0.5672380328178406, 0.41951796412467957, 0.844129204750061, 0.4685600996017456, -0.5142163038253784, 0.2535497844219208, -0.30206167697906494, 0.10655790567398071, -0.196992427110672, 0.34427163004875183, 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