id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
247791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abyssocottidae | Abyssocottidae | The Abyssocottidae are a family of fishes in the superfamily Cottoidea, the sculpins. They are known commonly as the deep-water sculpins. The entire family is endemic to Lake Baikal in Siberia.
Sculpins of this family mostly live in deep water, below . There are 24 known species in seven genera. These include, for instance, Abyssocottus korotneffi and Cottinella boulengeri which are among the deepest-living freshwater fish. Baikal is the deepest lake on Earth () and sculpins occupy even its greatest depths.
Evolution and systematics
Molecular studies based on mitochondrial DNA suggest that the Abyssocottidae along with other Lake Baikal cottoid fishes, now attributed to the likewise endemic Cottocomephoridae (Baikal sculpins) and Comephoridae (Baikal oilfish), together make a monophyletic group that has originated and diversified within the lake relative recently, since the Pliocene. The ancestors of this species flock comprising more than 30 species belonged to the widespread freshwater sculpin genus Cottus (in Cottidae). The Abyssocottidae itself appears as a natural group within this radiation, except that also the genus Batrachocottus should be included.
References
Fish of Russia | [
-0.29267001152038574,
0.09929279237985611,
-0.5272284150123596,
0.16061435639858246,
-0.08071088790893555,
0.41070327162742615,
0.27356424927711487,
0.8707271218299866,
-0.22641423344612122,
-0.6112971305847168,
0.20703521370887756,
0.51435786485672,
-0.3378855884075165,
0.45357248187065125,
0.34714651107788086,
0.7909612655639648,
0.05366486310958862,
0.29655253887176514,
0.08926741778850555,
-0.10493109375238419,
-0.2485324740409851,
-0.6628934144973755,
0.6089299917221069,
-0.463828444480896,
-0.09116007387638092,
0.0666876807808876,
0.21883173286914825,
0.6689075827598572,
0.7023212313652039,
-0.6000018119812012,
-0.2533271014690399,
1.078672170639038,
0.05305785313248634,
-0.08487994968891144,
-0.04032493755221367,
-0.16843533515930176,
-0.47730347514152527,
-0.2564743757247925,
-0.09774595499038696,
-0.5892437696456909,
0.09414121508598328,
-0.020420942455530167,
0.19785991311073303,
0.26572269201278687,
0.0587550550699234,
0.36055004596710205,
-0.8867431282997131,
-0.2060367316007614,
-0.965768575668335,
0.12262362986803055,
0.005026419647037983,
0.4383082389831543,
0.31588318943977356,
0.1989867389202118,
0.29066914319992065,
0.3335208296775818,
-1.3763172626495361,
0.4744827449321747,
0.09823807328939438,
-0.28518322110176086,
0.24607887864112854,
0.2842169404029846,
-0.27004024386405945,
-0.4585256576538086,
-0.2492290437221527,
0.7433192133903503,
-0.029773108661174774,
0.1833643764257431,
-0.4673464000225067,
0.5193904638290405,
0.4746096134185791,
-0.7592960596084595,
0.28711259365081787,
0.5381234884262085,
-0.048869017511606216,
-0.0062481132335960865,
-0.7401073575019836,
0.4860523045063019,
0.49810755252838135,
-0.4343128800392151,
0.18700283765792847,
-0.018761519342660904,
0.6678919196128845,
0.15562228858470917,
0.11188618838787079,
-0.17290979623794556,
-0.3203863799571991,
0.46543562412261963,
-0.5263533592224121,
0.5059136748313904,
-0.3767794072628021,
-0.023960614576935768,
0.9149848818778992,
0.7178820967674255,
0.1564265787601471,
-0.08490344882011414,
-0.06492666155099869,
0.13673090934753418,
0.3890973925590515,
0.3663160502910614,
-0.4586567282676697,
0.19524966180324554,
0.3020887076854706,
-0.06801412254571915,
-0.6303628087043762,
-0.09423019737005234,
-0.34144675731658936,
-0.045957669615745544,
-0.22597208619117737,
0.22734391689300537,
-1.2089438438415527,
-0.3261758089065552,
0.09351533651351929,
-0.16141533851623535,
-0.281116247177124,
-0.10452616959810257,
-0.2371755987405777,
-0.5521791577339172,
-0.24676480889320374,
-0.43641114234924316,
0.5496383309364319,
0.000282534456346184,
-0.3458428382873535,
0.5604020953178406,
-0.6013451814651489,
0.163658007979393,
0.23801220953464508,
0.5171229839324951,
-0.24319186806678772,
0.551422655582428,
0.14666758477687836,
0.8901327252388,
-0.21078871190547943,
0.4811129868030548,
0.0872417539358139,
-0.377728134393692,
-0.39497610926628113,
-0.15621669590473175,
0.454738587141037,
0.6107743978500366,
-0.6320000290870667,
0.014711675234138966,
-0.9780227541923523,
-0.402030348777771,
-0.5736528038978577,
-0.7438492178916931,
0.22588104009628296,
-0.048599012196063995,
-0.3943385183811188,
-0.6369278430938721,
0.3118927478790283,
-0.47188282012939453,
-0.3841415345668793,
0.4782596528530121,
-0.3986150324344635,
-0.38595470786094666,
0.5739839673042297,
-0.30106213688850403,
1.1143814325332642,
0.32178235054016113,
-0.28340214490890503,
-0.39458706974983215,
-0.24449841678142548,
-0.04958994314074516,
0.4583418667316437,
-0.43074068427085876,
0.028346262872219086,
-0.11332771927118301,
-0.2834419310092926,
1.118384838104248,
-0.5329614281654358,
0.23629899322986603,
0.8676506876945496,
-0.02353796549141407,
0.07222431153059006,
-1.0271319150924683,
-0.03186917304992676,
0.3540820777416229,
0.8049765229225159,
-0.20445625483989716,
-0.7621123790740967,
-0.04944121092557907,
-0.29003629088401794,
0.282109797000885,
0.7125791907310486,
0.08068409562110901,
0.3945578634738922,
0.25863170623779297,
0.4187307357788086,
-0.5307098627090454,
-0.3177795708179474,
-0.42063838243484497,
0.15727965533733368,
0.29910457134246826,
0.7418099045753479,
-0.04457060992717743,
-0.2536882162094116,
-0.26926538348197937,
0.24543726444244385,
0.14709143340587616,
-0.4252672791481018,
-0.27127352356910706,
-0.22578412294387817,
0.18411801755428314,
-0.8265740275382996,
0.6566137671470642,
-0.16399279236793518,
-0.07750830799341202,
-0.039346080273389816,
0.17117652297019958,
-0.19794857501983643,
-1.0216493606567383,
-0.3335743248462677,
-0.3634307086467743,
-0.03165552765130997,
-0.6352183222770691,
-0.16401585936546326,
-0.02249549888074398,
-0.060759902000427246,
-0.6221789717674255,
1.071373701095581,
-0.2005966603755951,
0.30153557658195496,
0.4469148814678192,
-0.6570605039596558,
0.6555787920951843,
1.0385489463806152,
0.26169052720069885,
0.8145632743835449,
-0.5867713093757629,
0.39241620898246765,
0.31668370962142944,
0.5022213459014893,
-0.7517841458320618,
0.4064297378063202,
-0.0614248588681221,
-0.03542132303118706,
-0.8827503323554993,
0.7694921493530273,
-0.3690078556537628,
0.4321620464324951,
-0.6009070873260498,
-0.6416410207748413,
0.25965815782546997,
1.0414842367172241,
-0.1153026670217514,
0.047493454068899155,
0.6096605062484741,
-0.8904263377189636,
-0.08005592972040176,
0.3377728760242462,
1.1970953941345215,
0.2700296640396118,
-0.5768014788627625,
-0.4728947877883911,
0.538320004940033,
0.4776369035243988,
-0.3202354907989502,
-0.05894007906317711,
-0.7375727295875549,
-0.724125325679779,
0.9793258905410767,
-0.126902237534523,
0.2377040535211563,
-0.4383369982242584,
-0.4188668727874756,
-0.3238847255706787,
-0.10518385469913483,
0.6689427495002747,
0.09938091039657593,
1.059337854385376,
0.3993755280971527,
-0.44026777148246765,
-0.23774473369121552,
-0.47320830821990967,
-0.09280083328485489,
0.04169798269867897,
0.13536208868026733,
-0.5761989951133728,
-0.0843125507235527,
0.2966923713684082,
0.46896353363990784,
0.256088525056839,
0.5694166421890259,
-0.5333185195922852,
-0.10407193005084991,
0.7378376126289368,
-0.3363414704799652,
-0.36873728036880493,
-0.7883832454681396,
0.20845350623130798,
0.029980218037962914,
-0.661619246006012,
0.15086479485034943,
-0.9882612824440002,
-0.013223289512097836,
-0.29927536845207214,
0.24908447265625,
0.408495157957077,
-0.8516638875007629,
-0.7358420491218567,
0.1427312046289444,
-0.08761759102344513,
0.3014744520187378,
-0.16328983008861542,
-0.11927880346775055,
0.0389549694955349,
0.5141628384590149,
-4.969829082489014,
0.14031456410884857,
-0.5575729012489319,
0.5739067196846008,
0.33104991912841797,
0.7874810099601746,
0.6116334795951843,
-0.8138407468795776,
-0.3079635798931122,
-0.33948031067848206,
0.21184755861759186,
0.42068907618522644,
0.012645878829061985,
0.26626649498939514,
0.29601141810417175,
0.2765984833240509,
-0.020672395825386047,
-0.3845181167125702,
-0.15978632867336273,
-0.4330534040927887,
-0.30259987711906433,
0.3970400393009186,
0.06026630476117134,
0.23233705759048462,
-0.26106616854667664,
0.134414404630661,
0.14574526250362396,
-0.1825341284275055,
-0.17749027907848358,
-0.3843228220939636,
-0.48788565397262573,
-0.5873239040374756,
-0.2714100182056427,
0.3679308593273163,
-0.16966818273067474,
-0.6664746999740601,
0.5623788833618164,
0.48373398184776306,
-0.2022286355495453,
-0.6092004179954529,
-0.7310484051704407,
0.012597151100635529,
-0.2359268069267273,
-0.16936653852462769,
0.563513994216919,
0.05633411183953285,
-0.0774712860584259,
-0.18993842601776123,
-0.1471228003501892,
1.2990949153900146,
-0.10884910821914673,
0.356241911649704,
-0.06372138112783432,
1.1995161771774292,
0.45946142077445984,
0.2463138997554779,
0.24002183973789215,
-0.13032513856887817,
0.46138766407966614,
0.6836223602294922,
0.4095268249511719,
-0.5166020393371582,
-0.11076045036315918,
-0.9130281805992126,
0.19647198915481567,
-0.07271844148635864,
-0.9241657257080078,
0.48608851432800293,
0.5078017711639404,
0.24543055891990662,
-0.2565549612045288,
0.4853111803531647,
-0.08021499216556549,
-0.9674585461616516,
0.5533266663551331,
-0.15031424164772034,
0.17013432085514069,
0.019725436344742775,
-0.5388569235801697,
0.356619268655777,
0.48260170221328735,
-0.299447625875473,
0.39621561765670776,
0.22858861088752747,
-0.12424874305725098,
-0.563679039478302,
-0.2543211877346039,
-0.13078457117080688,
0.3279731571674347,
0.002761530689895153,
0.1440196931362152,
-0.11102853715419769,
0.17903953790664673,
-0.0393676832318306,
0.35057130455970764,
0.6933819651603699,
0.42951011657714844,
0.3621978461742401,
0.363601416349411,
-0.9380046129226685,
0.7535125613212585,
-0.7407136559486389,
0.03296888619661331,
-0.1305665671825409,
-0.297133207321167,
-0.8361107110977173,
0.6860008239746094,
0.15423910319805145,
0.8006462454795837,
-0.6145637631416321,
0.3080774247646332,
-0.5111123323440552,
-0.8521800637245178,
-0.5507031083106995,
0.5147104263305664,
-0.5676496028900146,
-0.4337168335914612,
0.3850072920322418,
0.1584167778491974,
0.15938173234462738,
0.5417795777320862,
0.3502436578273773,
-0.2748228907585144,
-0.23066072165966034,
-0.7341206669807434,
-0.40322139859199524,
0.7349054217338562,
0.09587555378675461,
-0.4588181972503662,
-0.1346587836742401,
-0.24482659995555878,
0.22386182844638824,
-0.1699935346841812,
0.07558724284172058,
-0.2862957715988159,
-0.4315459430217743,
-0.4265505373477936,
0.26013320684432983,
0.2321946620941162,
0.22093069553375244,
0.3137986958026886,
-0.3273310661315918,
-0.4890815019607544,
-0.13151915371418,
0.4045930504798889,
0.6583200097084045,
-0.34059441089630127,
-0.6336719989776611,
0.11228150874376297,
1.107557773590088,
0.0503595694899559,
-0.09410715103149414,
0.18678218126296997,
-0.414334774017334,
0.40423765778541565,
0.26057565212249756,
0.15734082460403442,
0.35164952278137207,
0.1222890242934227,
-0.9399134516716003,
-0.39343687891960144,
0.10244555026292801,
-1.0755501985549927,
0.4153665006160736,
0.4712834656238556,
-0.31789082288742065,
-1.1533616781234741,
-0.6055043935775757,
-0.4198034405708313,
0.6029409766197205,
0.10817740112543106,
0.05267535522580147,
-0.3423653244972229,
-0.11667194962501526,
-0.16846604645252228,
-0.679715096950531,
-0.0207896139472723,
0.5163052082061768,
-0.3931775391101837,
-0.5965155959129333,
0.13989442586898804,
-0.1271427571773529,
-0.4203985035419464,
-0.4395398199558258,
0.0456552729010582,
-0.21498903632164001,
0.19779689610004425,
-0.2602057456970215,
-0.49149882793426514,
0.3211066424846649,
0.6605338454246521,
-0.05269065499305725,
0.21937952935695648,
0.24489161372184753,
-0.24568763375282288,
0.34001004695892334,
0.08265528082847595,
0.18353702127933502,
-0.31848081946372986,
-1.2002596855163574,
-0.42580974102020264,
0.5349496006965637,
-0.03347276896238327,
0.20963352918624878,
-0.2651934027671814,
-0.4649551808834076,
0.6407293677330017,
-0.10722934454679489,
-0.3061171770095825,
0.6621384620666504,
0.04780328646302223,
-0.6356205344200134,
-0.23887071013450623,
1.144193172454834,
0.2947523891925812,
0.38848623633384705,
0.12435014545917511,
-0.11821150034666061,
-0.21511252224445343,
-0.20533157885074615,
-0.24308016896247864,
-0.1307087391614914,
-0.4260532557964325,
-0.5005462765693665,
-0.7383723855018616,
0.5419768691062927,
0.4066964089870453,
-0.44705525040626526,
0.30080053210258484,
-0.38484540581703186,
-0.09477267414331436,
-0.06003488600254059,
-0.3219367563724518,
0.03523910045623779,
-0.2392767369747162,
0.31009891629219055,
0.04134693369269371,
0.24425135552883148,
-0.42832860350608826,
0.054792147129774094,
1.0668951272964478,
0.5940265655517578,
0.5924381613731384,
-0.5650743842124939,
0.5798971056938171,
-0.3933808505535126,
0.3265320360660553,
0.2042103260755539,
-0.6085987091064453,
0.33974623680114746,
0.9999601244926453,
-0.5267223119735718,
-0.8521866202354431,
-0.39437270164489746,
1.544146180152893,
-0.6070927381515503,
0.4250499904155731,
0.059651874005794525,
-0.1247870996594429,
0.029799383133649826,
-0.2551857531070709,
0.22824861109256744,
-0.30163809657096863,
0.3395313322544098,
-0.020284883677959442,
-0.4656575918197632,
0.1225576177239418,
0.17465101182460785,
0.9630217552185059,
-0.5666946172714233,
0.2426922619342804,
-0.15770824253559113,
-0.08402932435274124,
0.452894002199173,
-0.1135612279176712,
0.18698132038116455,
0.21445980668067932,
-0.9527541995048523,
-0.009387276135385036,
0.29508087038993835,
-0.7775024771690369,
-0.037039145827293396,
0.1695423424243927,
-0.3464641571044922,
-0.1546083241701126,
-0.6084343791007996,
-0.3110126554965973,
0.26809161901474,
-0.0033183698542416096,
-0.03723425418138504,
-0.5033443570137024,
-0.8204883337020874,
-0.4867042303085327,
-0.08640975505113602,
0.5458794832229614,
-0.17241892218589783,
0.1493946760892868,
0.12862882018089294,
-0.5031154751777649,
0.7629702091217041,
-0.4380682408809662,
0.962214469909668,
-0.5659637451171875,
-0.508781373500824,
0.38936588168144226,
0.16103728115558624,
-0.6536001563072205,
0.06991355866193771,
-0.14568647742271423,
0.11559922993183136,
0.4641295373439789,
-0.3406986892223358,
-0.17149949073791504,
0.8489373922348022,
-0.249189093708992,
0.48124873638153076,
0.3331056237220764,
-0.6039203405380249,
0.2249784618616104,
0.28331229090690613,
0.17836709320545197,
0.7999865412712097,
0.321017324924469,
0.33108004927635193,
-0.34264320135116577,
-0.2353496104478836,
-1.0672458410263062,
0.14436876773834229,
0.8161911964416504,
0.2522536516189575,
0.5738967657089233,
0.053665176033973694,
-1.0282833576202393,
-0.11059395968914032,
-0.44082918763160706,
0.24005171656608582,
-0.046182308346033096,
-0.3604750335216522,
0.140329509973526,
1.0305088758468628,
1.2586976289749146,
0.2211144119501114,
0.1971602886915207,
-0.0808834582567215,
-0.11581361293792725,
0.4680016338825226,
-0.990517795085907,
0.1661660224199295,
0.3617572784423828,
-0.35645005106925964,
0.15901458263397217,
-0.14455564320087433,
0.53338223695755,
-0.7200959324836731,
0.5129450559616089,
0.9319347739219666,
0.04513131082057953,
-0.3295010030269623,
0.17963315546512604,
-0.044165294617414474,
-0.24424871802330017,
-0.12653672695159912,
0.09765652567148209,
0.12506793439388275,
-0.44709911942481995,
0.03448484465479851,
-0.40521126985549927,
-0.5856127142906189,
-0.14308209717273712,
0.041917044669389725,
0.26481616497039795,
-0.12443708628416061,
0.25619766116142273,
0.15868760645389557,
0.4827493727207184,
0.6186571717262268,
-0.46809130907058716,
0.5675058364868164,
0.3307185471057892,
0.3484097123146057,
-0.6600648760795593,
0.11578737944364548,
-0.07705387473106384,
-0.3331800401210785,
0.35417312383651733,
-0.22513540089130402,
0.6141865253448486,
-0.0626944825053215,
0.46906864643096924,
0.046401917934417725,
-0.5809575319290161,
-0.6867589354515076,
0.022574255242943764,
0.10581713169813156,
-0.21901749074459076,
-0.453906387090683,
-0.3679850101470947,
0.7981534600257874,
0.03812381625175476,
-0.3074076771736145,
0.3465695381164551,
0.2630929946899414,
0.03851057216525078,
-0.2587883174419403,
-0.3184528648853302,
0.4325760006904602,
-0.26172780990600586,
0.3753722608089447,
-0.9322872757911682,
0.056540023535490036,
0.8256762027740479,
-0.23947077989578247,
-0.18627138435840607,
0.06393570452928543,
-0.1082041785120964,
0.3529859185218811,
0.866423487663269,
-0.7898930311203003,
0.04214569553732872,
-0.05508262664079666,
-0.3361329436302185,
-0.9512261748313904,
-0.1124640554189682,
0.6741213798522949,
0.20443907380104065,
-0.22512362897396088,
-0.05007941275835037,
0.01970484107732773,
-0.61644047498703,
0.7089046239852905,
-0.18967372179031372,
0.4365840554237366,
-0.5452885627746582,
0.14634768664836884,
-0.16142067313194275,
0.06711040437221527,
0.529483437538147,
0.7603989839553833,
0.3088986277580261,
-0.43844977021217346,
0.38252368569374084,
-0.1976052224636078,
0.2553463578224182,
-0.19477349519729614,
-0.0108511783182621,
0.0861651673913002,
-0.5529234409332275,
-0.8474833369255066,
-0.26999431848526,
0.35825115442276,
0.02126440964639187,
-0.4150480329990387,
0.5070515871047974,
0.25994348526000977,
-0.5216436982154846,
0.4854435324668884,
0.13978800177574158,
-0.5882447957992554,
0.016562163829803467,
0.10042763501405716
] |
247804 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semionotiformes | Semionotiformes | Semionotiformes is an order of primitive, ray-finned, primarily freshwater fish from the Middle Triassic (Anisian) to the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian). The best-known genus is Semionotus of Europe and North America. Their closest living relatives are gars (Lepisosteidae), with both groups belonging to the clade Ginglymodi within the Holostei.
Classification
Order †Semionotiformes Arambourg & Bertin 1958 sensu López-Arbarello 2012
Genus ?†Orthurus Kner 1866
Genus †Sangiorgioichthys Tintori & Lombardo 2007
Genus †Luoxiongichthys Wen et al. 2011
Genus †Aphanepygus Bassani 1879
Genus †Placidichthys Brito 2000
Family †Pleurolepididae Lütken 1871
Genus †Pleurolepis Agassiz 1863 non Quenstedt 1852
Family †Macrosemiidae Wagner 1860a corrig. Cope 1889 sensu Murray & Wilson 2009 [Macrosemii Wagner 1860a]
Genus †Eusemius Vetter 1881
Genus †Blenniomoeus Costa 1850 [Calignathus Costa 1853]
Genus †Enchelyolepis Woodward 1918
Genus †Palaeomacrosemius Ebert, Lane & Kolbl-Ebert 2016
Genus †Voelklichthys Arratia & Schultze 2012
Genus †Notagogus Agassiz 1833-1844 [Neonotagogus Bravi 1994]
Genus †Agoultichthys Murray & Wilson 2009
Genus †Histionotus Egerton 1854
Genus †Propterus Agassiz 1833-1844 [Rhynchoncodes Costa 1850]
Genus †Macrosemiocotzus González-Rodríguez, Applegate & Espinosa-Arrubarrena 2004
Genus †Legnonotus Egerton 1853
Genus †Macrosemius Agassiz 1833-1844
Family †Semionotidae Woodward 1890 sensu López-Arbarello 2012
Genus †Semionotus Agassiz 1832
Genus †Sargodon Plieninger 1847
Family †Callipurbeckiidae López-Arbarello 2012 [Paralepidotidae Hadding 1919 ex Lund 1920]
Genus †Occitanichthys López-Arbarello & Wencker 2016
Genus †Semiolepis Lombardo & Tintori 2008
Genus †Paralepidotus Stolley 1919
Genus †Macrosemimimus Schröder, López-Arbarello & Ebert 2012
Genus †Tlayuamichin López-Arbarello & Alvarado-Ortega 2011
Genus †Callipurbeckia López-Arbarello 2012
Timeline of genera
References
Prehistoric ray-finned fish orders
Lopingian first appearances
Late Cretaceous extinctions | [
0.0799178034067154,
-0.08862097561359406,
-0.496438592672348,
0.20062091946601868,
-0.2850688099861145,
0.6972888112068176,
0.8124319911003113,
0.1808817833662033,
0.06204815208911896,
-0.37495186924934387,
0.5583496689796448,
0.2080337554216385,
-0.3809703290462494,
0.6864777207374573,
-0.07960717380046844,
0.549510657787323,
0.06877671927213669,
0.17101137340068817,
-0.23855800926685333,
0.19766117632389069,
-0.2436661571264267,
-0.6129298806190491,
0.3196015954017639,
-0.4899088144302368,
0.1628928780555725,
0.4352719187736511,
0.052215684205293655,
0.8179005980491638,
0.5986148715019226,
-0.28826287388801575,
-0.048982903361320496,
0.540234386920929,
-0.2064593881368637,
-0.1789412647485733,
-0.40841108560562134,
0.0048283725045621395,
-0.37802040576934814,
-0.605896532535553,
-0.6666768193244934,
-0.8393853306770325,
-0.06126066669821739,
0.231126606464386,
-0.2722669839859009,
0.83697110414505,
-0.3835761249065399,
0.6397829055786133,
-1.1602811813354492,
0.43330955505371094,
-1.0363987684249878,
0.07197810709476471,
0.19466497004032135,
-0.2670558989048004,
0.7323698401451111,
0.6165130734443665,
-0.018664687871932983,
0.322919636964798,
-0.9847542643547058,
-0.08640670776367188,
-0.09795885533094406,
-0.5142686367034912,
-0.11521871387958527,
0.2625076174736023,
-0.3483086824417114,
-0.5054042935371399,
-0.004765417892485857,
0.5036326050758362,
-0.04903976246714592,
0.5127736926078796,
-0.3819264769554138,
0.09085015952587128,
-0.0766761526465416,
-0.3472970724105835,
0.39772674441337585,
0.683258056640625,
-0.3760577440261841,
-0.4564139246940613,
-0.14226502180099487,
0.3691774010658264,
0.8327749371528625,
-0.368367075920105,
-0.015893351286649704,
0.37406307458877563,
0.8496732115745544,
0.07001345604658127,
-0.016706569120287895,
-0.44279488921165466,
-0.4050075113773346,
-0.02226756326854229,
-0.6565082669258118,
0.4468272626399994,
-0.33083778619766235,
-0.011009784415364265,
0.6348781585693359,
0.6880388855934143,
0.06653594970703125,
-0.08850999921560287,
-0.9028045535087585,
0.44503483176231384,
0.3803822696208954,
-0.08382206410169601,
-0.6094141006469727,
-0.3010503649711609,
0.12260620296001434,
-0.22331662476062775,
-0.9299095273017883,
-0.6988327503204346,
-0.04468268156051636,
-0.758002519607544,
-0.42839300632476807,
0.1794378012418747,
-0.894350528717041,
-0.03960976004600525,
0.7218447923660278,
0.06268666684627533,
0.15145057439804077,
0.7550747394561768,
-0.2818097472190857,
-0.6787852048873901,
-0.4290826916694641,
-0.6825973987579346,
0.2757093906402588,
0.2177325040102005,
-0.08341766148805618,
0.015381802804768085,
-0.34749937057495117,
0.33291929960250854,
0.33344560861587524,
0.4429473876953125,
-0.49178948998451233,
-0.09359517693519592,
0.13753987848758698,
1.4503750801086426,
0.01729465276002884,
0.47815051674842834,
0.04138060659170151,
-0.23703667521476746,
-0.18807925283908844,
-0.2532901167869568,
0.1310318261384964,
0.41999322175979614,
-0.3814079463481903,
0.5644455552101135,
-0.633141279220581,
-0.43989118933677673,
0.27724578976631165,
-0.18260972201824188,
0.729169487953186,
0.035734713077545166,
-0.7223538756370544,
-0.25824180245399475,
0.02097822166979313,
-0.6893026232719421,
-0.2480742335319519,
0.5375930070877075,
-0.23090985417366028,
-0.17424699664115906,
0.18637973070144653,
0.15827491879463196,
0.6184505820274353,
0.07852298021316528,
0.16536884009838104,
-0.12675337493419647,
-0.6105314493179321,
0.13561353087425232,
1.011853814125061,
-0.551712691783905,
-0.14994417130947113,
0.22668835520744324,
-0.09873044490814209,
0.9587367177009583,
0.2606796622276306,
-0.06615161150693893,
0.5620701313018799,
-0.03013809397816658,
0.024675114080309868,
-0.6612423658370972,
0.015531159937381744,
0.606134831905365,
0.9295501708984375,
-0.8805257081985474,
-0.48312053084373474,
-0.06640919297933578,
0.33717745542526245,
0.5866922736167908,
0.27415457367897034,
0.07846127450466156,
0.32972434163093567,
0.63460773229599,
0.17744092643260956,
-0.1488659530878067,
-0.2560242712497711,
0.016040660440921783,
0.17257089912891388,
0.20062826573848724,
1.0534385442733765,
0.1592208594083786,
-0.22812113165855408,
0.07457855343818665,
-0.2093568593263626,
0.37582191824913025,
-0.1104116216301918,
0.06693877279758453,
-0.40104618668556213,
-0.15777471661567688,
-0.11521559208631516,
0.3606529235839844,
0.03031553141772747,
-0.28278058767318726,
0.3627578020095825,
0.45962443947792053,
0.0828491747379303,
-0.6055516600608826,
0.23980115354061127,
-0.10695122182369232,
-0.041222669184207916,
-0.26873689889907837,
0.07435578852891922,
0.49614617228507996,
0.019694147631525993,
-0.9221537113189697,
0.6347958445549011,
-0.21488283574581146,
0.44115185737609863,
-0.027096783742308617,
-0.2205696702003479,
0.2809171974658966,
1.018899917602539,
-0.15438827872276306,
0.6826665997505188,
-0.25753119587898254,
0.208887979388237,
0.278331458568573,
0.6460827589035034,
-0.4949190318584442,
0.5757888555526733,
-0.36645907163619995,
-0.14666126668453217,
-0.8922196626663208,
0.48866260051727295,
-0.850909411907196,
0.16601413488388062,
-0.2013886719942093,
-0.20375195145606995,
0.13335178792476654,
0.6766020655632019,
-0.6629897356033325,
0.5231516361236572,
0.8030408620834351,
-0.65199875831604,
0.009543768130242825,
-0.057464972138404846,
0.7016024589538574,
0.39121195673942566,
-1.0122562646865845,
-0.5909605622291565,
0.8143419027328491,
0.7458106875419617,
-0.18588724732398987,
0.18418894708156586,
0.10834766179323196,
-0.5518149137496948,
0.9308704137802124,
-0.03726070746779442,
-0.10407650470733643,
-0.494667649269104,
-0.5158650875091553,
-0.17629413306713104,
-0.6023477911949158,
0.5435472130775452,
0.014939587563276291,
0.9505108594894409,
0.12794429063796997,
-0.4262031614780426,
-0.02467970922589302,
-0.3523346781730652,
-0.6613863110542297,
-0.09122379124164581,
0.3050119876861572,
-0.45290932059288025,
-0.11237560212612152,
0.21731343865394592,
0.8643138408660889,
0.09681243449449539,
-0.023265307769179344,
-0.8677257895469666,
-0.2314126044511795,
0.34288161993026733,
-0.204011008143425,
0.07835648208856583,
-0.6705182194709778,
0.3963882327079773,
0.24999913573265076,
-1.191863775253296,
0.03883322700858116,
-1.0570728778839111,
0.28508034348487854,
-0.36525478959083557,
-0.016659846529364586,
0.1551191210746765,
-0.5797401666641235,
-1.2533513307571411,
0.05251925066113472,
0.07539530098438263,
0.37820371985435486,
0.0815669596195221,
-0.0998336672782898,
0.2493474930524826,
0.38977301120758057,
-5.028261184692383,
-0.22748075425624847,
-0.3364444673061371,
0.7168866395950317,
0.679169237613678,
0.8952933549880981,
0.6667078733444214,
-0.3664299249649048,
0.04391411691904068,
-0.13901101052761078,
0.09156284481287003,
0.5389977097511292,
-0.5696377158164978,
0.1300695836544037,
0.2603214681148529,
0.006490657571703196,
0.11114298552274704,
0.2773394286632538,
-0.07011791318655014,
-0.3357546329498291,
-0.25272196531295776,
0.03529762476682663,
0.2420388162136078,
0.2090940624475479,
-0.04211830720305443,
0.059676557779312134,
-0.08964237570762634,
-0.06628021597862244,
-0.11623392254114151,
-0.8199567794799805,
-0.5267557501792908,
-0.5715014934539795,
-0.19084309041500092,
0.1516493260860443,
0.06146783009171486,
0.14987227320671082,
1.1766505241394043,
0.7293559908866882,
-0.0019439412280917168,
-0.7785027027130127,
-0.39582812786102295,
0.07260118424892426,
-0.18228156864643097,
-0.04137624427676201,
0.5627499222755432,
0.09354547411203384,
0.06332508474588394,
0.003416165243834257,
-0.19855041801929474,
1.1654220819473267,
-0.2864922285079956,
0.1799878180027008,
0.20035362243652344,
1.167762041091919,
0.5769711136817932,
-0.030729591846466064,
0.5050585865974426,
0.1551896035671234,
0.08867139369249344,
0.47428640723228455,
0.3417500853538513,
-0.20670762658119202,
-0.4483855068683624,
-1.2458440065383911,
0.6710270047187805,
-0.21064935624599457,
-0.7763277292251587,
0.925149142742157,
-0.057123538106679916,
0.37493282556533813,
-0.6761771440505981,
0.7435925006866455,
-0.11108667403459549,
-0.7154440879821777,
0.8812254071235657,
-0.035964738577604294,
0.3944433331489563,
-0.1603272557258606,
-0.08863960206508636,
0.34912633895874023,
0.2297535389661789,
-0.6348122954368591,
0.29727187752723694,
1.0085077285766602,
0.5126688480377197,
-0.40154871344566345,
0.09838622808456421,
-0.19019101560115814,
-0.24952912330627441,
-0.15373237431049347,
0.2782265841960907,
-0.11349128186702728,
0.2850910723209381,
0.3285214602947235,
0.39073315262794495,
0.7864213585853577,
0.04832589253783226,
0.18038496375083923,
0.19791866838932037,
-0.6552339196205139,
0.7282865643501282,
-0.34217625856399536,
-0.14445489645004272,
0.6291069388389587,
-0.3106077313423157,
-0.9687657356262207,
-0.20406706631183624,
0.07498203963041306,
0.5056310892105103,
-0.3443071246147156,
0.16016501188278198,
-0.39143648743629456,
-0.4392220377922058,
-0.046630095690488815,
-0.006032217293977737,
-0.14274094998836517,
-0.7809998393058777,
0.2223692536354065,
0.5905621647834778,
0.27789416909217834,
-0.0603385828435421,
0.716830849647522,
-0.9295971989631653,
-0.04254019632935524,
-0.24516920745372772,
-0.40882745385169983,
-0.04388487711548805,
-0.12671977281570435,
-0.5976184010505676,
-0.04918557032942772,
0.06103726848959923,
-0.1306859701871872,
-0.6216208338737488,
-0.28757837414741516,
0.17038801312446594,
-0.2269059717655182,
-0.255894273519516,
-0.14449961483478546,
-0.15288127958774567,
-0.250973105430603,
-0.09206998348236084,
-0.6721383929252625,
-0.7089283466339111,
-0.0912330150604248,
-0.2982369065284729,
0.8616375923156738,
0.3578698933124542,
-0.7040026783943176,
-0.023027025163173676,
0.8353596329689026,
-0.045062046498060226,
-0.3776891529560089,
0.47316041588783264,
-0.7618827223777771,
0.07720781117677689,
-0.006345505826175213,
0.7761145234107971,
0.055080026388168335,
0.22617857158184052,
-0.38735252618789673,
-0.6559126377105713,
-0.22309543192386627,
-0.552653968334198,
0.43356290459632874,
0.6291427612304688,
-0.3778120279312134,
-1.1902096271514893,
-0.7099848985671997,
-0.32801321148872375,
0.09213553369045258,
-0.24728688597679138,
-0.06701730936765671,
-0.3545646369457245,
-0.3702903091907501,
0.20093964040279388,
-0.24624142050743103,
0.1507347971200943,
0.3173733055591583,
-0.9755864143371582,
-0.4853445589542389,
0.49503806233406067,
0.3104240298271179,
-0.023084906861186028,
-0.29975810647010803,
0.7379515767097473,
-0.20311106741428375,
-0.38664954900741577,
-0.449743390083313,
-0.9731091260910034,
0.43431219458580017,
0.37779921293258667,
0.41604161262512207,
0.7330400943756104,
-0.24047458171844482,
-0.65699303150177,
-0.007410475518554449,
0.016407975926995277,
0.49510037899017334,
-0.22624678909778595,
-0.962011992931366,
-0.2522619366645813,
0.29531723260879517,
-0.06608673930168152,
-0.09630988538265228,
0.23378898203372955,
-0.6237033009529114,
0.12149140983819962,
-0.14258350431919098,
0.3681124448776245,
0.059675298631191254,
-0.04818544536828995,
-0.7488857507705688,
-0.12372612208127975,
0.3681870102882385,
-0.20393800735473633,
-0.09070520848035812,
0.3945944905281067,
0.08810475468635559,
-0.24119099974632263,
-0.46792158484458923,
-0.3886546194553375,
-0.1181962788105011,
-0.5086042284965515,
-0.6225869655609131,
-0.7207662463188171,
0.5495193600654602,
0.3720521330833435,
0.11654604971408844,
0.11374028027057648,
-0.3220166563987732,
-0.11685790121555328,
-0.4859801232814789,
-0.27464133501052856,
-0.1903230994939804,
-0.11356812715530396,
-0.8310241103172302,
0.44029107689857483,
-0.04828688129782677,
-0.4122282564640045,
-0.10356207191944122,
0.9900913238525391,
0.9036432504653931,
0.8749198317527771,
-0.17731589078903198,
0.22464434802532196,
-0.7560545802116394,
0.6966555118560791,
0.04741872102022171,
-0.4803311228752136,
0.34387797117233276,
0.5208197236061096,
-0.24620205163955688,
-1.115586519241333,
-0.5126340985298157,
1.314759373664856,
-0.30003538727760315,
0.4212147295475006,
-0.012676452286541462,
-0.0956200361251831,
0.2174389809370041,
0.10113322734832764,
0.37826845049858093,
-0.38594916462898254,
-0.21131974458694458,
-0.42455312609672546,
-0.11018551141023636,
-0.2300437092781067,
-0.052260126918554306,
0.8600206971168518,
-0.2937716841697693,
0.05952521041035652,
-0.01333202701061964,
-0.08360771089792252,
0.5548495650291443,
-0.11979078501462936,
-0.045293573290109634,
0.25852131843566895,
-0.43843790888786316,
0.7150498628616333,
0.11285805702209473,
-0.733412504196167,
-0.05147959664463997,
0.22340956330299377,
-0.19199618697166443,
-0.2635597586631775,
-1.0601131916046143,
-0.14403466880321503,
-0.09284443408250809,
0.02417580597102642,
0.2046017348766327,
-0.37727952003479004,
-0.3606564700603485,
-0.6131210923194885,
-0.1751251518726349,
-0.02291443757712841,
-0.15812036395072937,
-0.11490487307310104,
0.6181471347808838,
-0.4022630453109741,
0.5718109011650085,
0.16063235700130463,
0.16164013743400574,
0.2437283843755722,
-0.14934612810611725,
-0.0986015573143959,
0.33968913555145264,
-0.12808524072170258,
0.2246612012386322,
0.42155665159225464,
0.3894657790660858,
0.27823564410209656,
-0.38781726360321045,
0.7171323299407959,
0.7141015529632568,
-0.5240480303764343,
0.6337518095970154,
0.35670769214630127,
-1.084488034248352,
-0.1270821988582611,
0.02699676714837551,
0.7113993167877197,
0.5359420776367188,
-0.42323461174964905,
0.17514926195144653,
-0.3948060870170593,
0.05175440385937691,
-1.1041070222854614,
-0.3798544406890869,
-0.1792396903038025,
0.6375998258590698,
0.2938956320285797,
0.32035893201828003,
-0.8356879353523254,
-0.3016470670700073,
-0.5480512380599976,
-0.21275606751441956,
-0.18189182877540588,
-0.17847344279289246,
0.3873142600059509,
1.0788304805755615,
0.838620126247406,
0.39621350169181824,
-0.2046363651752472,
-0.09663815051317215,
0.1316940039396286,
0.7328339219093323,
-0.3681787848472595,
0.0015977565199136734,
0.8484806418418884,
-0.05434492602944374,
0.43837204575538635,
-0.33264675736427307,
0.27660465240478516,
-0.13333503901958466,
0.2575099468231201,
0.02042793482542038,
0.6325364708900452,
-0.6616211533546448,
0.1839016228914261,
-0.07198593020439148,
-0.04821981489658356,
0.28900885581970215,
0.09503468126058578,
-0.13579010963439941,
-0.8083615303039551,
0.19565506279468536,
-0.09865203499794006,
-0.5938000082969666,
0.033099956810474396,
-0.21869555115699768,
0.5399506688117981,
-0.06623274087905884,
0.08233768492937088,
0.2400217354297638,
0.23809657990932465,
0.7444921135902405,
0.3413267433643341,
0.5841031670570374,
0.03323861584067345,
0.48744824528694153,
-0.45580241084098816,
-0.12761247158050537,
-0.1501070111989975,
-0.5072926878929138,
0.5910528898239136,
-0.354439914226532,
0.05735042691230774,
0.14849726855754852,
0.443841814994812,
0.08571793138980865,
-0.06335484981536865,
-0.8535622954368591,
-0.14934904873371124,
0.4001934230327606,
-0.5021355748176575,
0.09757325053215027,
-0.2747817635536194,
0.7409729957580566,
0.7939471006393433,
-0.32889819145202637,
-0.2239881008863449,
0.23076213896274567,
-0.2787167727947235,
0.11281637102365494,
0.11506316065788269,
0.6842057108879089,
-0.3807865381240845,
0.14184190332889557,
-0.6844365000724792,
0.3253142535686493,
0.91755211353302,
-0.012849451042711735,
-0.23710717260837555,
0.13253572583198547,
-0.09451522678136826,
0.1833336502313614,
0.774651825428009,
-0.8500891327857971,
-0.14888817071914673,
0.1020992249250412,
-0.043859370052814484,
-0.5006511807441711,
-0.547406792640686,
0.39319828152656555,
-0.544322669506073,
-0.17634308338165283,
-0.36106207966804504,
-0.07543202489614487,
-0.5819591879844666,
0.8915252685546875,
-0.08611226826906204,
0.19519855082035065,
-0.14611729979515076,
-0.07208423316478729,
-0.2892613410949707,
-0.17987637221813202,
0.639887809753418,
0.5428975820541382,
0.34852343797683716,
-0.3094390332698822,
0.05072733759880066,
0.017059436067938805,
0.21771985292434692,
0.08742265403270721,
-0.15028420090675354,
0.4274693429470062,
-0.18483920395374298,
-0.9264269471168518,
-0.9595517516136169,
-0.1556290239095688,
-0.18452571332454681,
0.09448935091495514,
0.21647363901138306,
0.013409603387117386,
-0.4704586863517761,
-0.06883265823125839,
-0.2659215033054352,
-0.7892131209373474,
0.2803715765476227,
0.4096428155899048
] |
247805 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grading%20in%20education | Grading in education | Grading in education is the attempt to apply standardized measurements of varying levels of achievement in a course. Grades can be assigned as letters (usually A through F), as a range (for example, 1 to 6), as a percentage, or as a number out of a possible total (often out of 100).
In some countries, grades are averaged to create a grade point average (GPA). GPA is calculated by using the number of grade points a student earns in a given period of time. GPAs are often calculated for high school, undergraduate, and graduate students, and can be used by potential employers or educational institutions to assess and compare applicants. A cumulative grade point average (CGPA), sometimes referred to as just GPA, is a measure of performance for all of a student's courses.
History
Yale University historian George W. Pierson writes: "According to tradition the first grades issued at Yale (and possibly the first in the country) were given out in the year 1785, when President Ezra Stiles, after examining 58 Seniors, recorded in his diary that there were 'Twenty Optimi, sixteen second Optimi, twelve Inferiores (Boni), ten Pejores.'" Yale later converted these adjectives into numbers on a 4-point scale, and some historians say this is the origin of the standard modern American GPA scale.
Bob Marlin argues that the concept of grading students' work quantitatively was developed by a tutor named William Farish and first implemented by the University of Cambridge in 1792. That assertion has been questioned by Christopher Stray, who finds the evidence for Farish as the inventor of the numerical mark to be unpersuasive. Stray's article also explains the complex relationship between the mode of examination (oral or written) and the varying philosophies of education these modes imply to both the teacher and the student. As a technology, grading both shapes and reflects many fundamental areas of educational theory and practice.
The A-D/F system was first adopted by Mount Holyoke College in 1897.
Criticism
It is criticized that grades are only short-term snapshots of how much a student has learned in a given period of time, which only partially reflect the actual performance and does not take sufficient account of the individual development of students. Likewise, poor grades over a longer period of time would give students the impression that they would learn very little or nothing, which jeopardizes the innate intrinsic motivation of every child to learn. Children who have already lost their desire to learn and only study for their grades have no reason to continue learning after they have achieved the best possible grade. In addition, poor grades represent destructive feedback for students, since they do not provide any constructive assistance, but only absolute key figures. It is also criticized that the way of thinking, which can often be traced back to the grading system, that bad grades lead to poor future prospects, leads to perplexity, pressure and stress among parents and children.
It is criticized that students often do not learn for their future life or out of interest in the material, but only for the grades and the associated status, which promotes bulimic learning.
German philosopher and publicist Richard David Precht criticizes the system of school grades in his book Anna, die Schule und der liebe Gott: Der Verrat des Bildungssystems an unseren Kindern. He believes that numbers from 1 to 6 do not do justice to the personalities of the children. In his opinion, grades are neither meaningful nor differentiated and therefore not helpful. For example, the questions whether a student has become more motivated, is more interested in a topic, has learned to deal better with failure and whether he has developed new ideas cannot be answered with grades. Instead, Precht suggests a differentiated written assessment of the students' learning and development path. In his opinion, the grading system comes from a psychologically and pedagogically uninformed era and does not belong in the 21st century.
German educational innovator Margret Rasfeld criticizes the system of grades as unhelpful and, in her opinion, the resulting competitive thinking in schools and says: "School is there to organize success and not to document failure."
German neuroscientist Gerald Hüther criticizes grades for being responsible for ensuring that students cannot specialize in any topic that they are enthusiastic about and have a talent for, since otherwise their grades in other areas would deteriorate. He also believes that "our society will not develop further...if we force all children to conform to the same evaluation standards".
Grading may also reflect the bias of the instructor thereby reinforcing systematic bias. For example, girls doing worse in science subjects.
Grading systems by country
Most nations have their own grading system, and different institutions in a single nation can vary in their grading systems as well. However, several international standards for grading have arisen recently, such as the European Baccalaureate.
England and Wales
In the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) exam taken by secondary school students in England and Wales, grades generally range from 9 (highest) to 1 (lowest). These replaced earlier A, B, C... grading. However, in GCSE Science, Mathematics Statistics, and any Modern Foreign Language, there are two tiers (higher and foundation). In the higher tier, grades 9 to 4 can be achieved, while in the foundation tier, only grades 5 to 1 can be awarded. The new 9–1 qualifications saw some more subjects such as English language and English literature go 'tierless,’ with the same paper covering all levels of demand. Generally, a 4 or above would be considered a pass and a 3 or below would be considered a fail by most institutions: for Mathematics and English Language and English Literature, and possibly Science, this would require a resit.
If a candidate does not score highly enough to get a grade 1, their results slip will have the letter U for "ungraded", meaning no grade was secured. Other letters such as X also exist in special circumstances.
In Wales, the grading is still from A* (highest) to G (lowest) with U a fail.
United States
Most colleges and universities in the United States award a letter grade A (best), B, C, D, or F (fail) for each class taken (potentially with + or - modifiers). These letter grades are then used to calculate a GPA from 0 to 4.0, using a formula where 4.0 is the best. The average GPA is 3.3 at private institutions and 3.0 at public institutions.
Various colleges, such as Evergreen State College and Hampshire College, do not use traditional grades. Brown University, an Ivy League school, does not calculate grade point averages, and all classes can be taken on a pass/fail basis. Another university that does not follow the grade point average is Antioch University, a private university, with multiple locations in the United States. Antioch University focuses on knowledge and learning, the professors write a written assessment of students regarding their academic performance in the class. Students transcripts show a pass/fail or they can request that their narrative assessments accompany their official transcript. Additionally, several high schools have decided to forgo grades. A notable example is Saint Ann's School in Brooklyn, which was ranked by the Wall Street Journal as the number one high school in the country for having the highest percentage of graduating seniors enroll in Ivy League and several other highly selective colleges, (Colleges can also look at SAT, ACT, Advanced Placement, and state standardized test scores.)
GPA in the United States job market
According to a study published in 2014, a one-point increase in high-school GPA translated to an 11.85% increase in annual earnings for men and 13.77% for women in the United States.
College students often wonder how much weight GPA carries in their employment prospects. In many fields, work experience (such as internships) gained during one's time in college are the most important factors that employers consider. Other factors include choice of major, volunteering, choice of extracurricular activities, relevance of coursework, GPA, and the reputation of one's college. The relative importance of these factors do vary between professions, but for a graduate's first job out of college, GPA is often quite high on the list of factors that employers consider. There is also criticism about using grades as an indicator in employment. Armstrong (2012) claimed that the relationship between grades and job performance is low and becoming lower in recent studies. Grade inflation at American colleges over recent decades has also played a role in the devaluation of grades.
India
Different educational boards use different metrics in awarding grades to students, along with the marks obtained in most cases. Central Board of Secondary Education follows a positional grading system where grades are given on basis of the position of the student, if the student is in the top 1/8th of the rank of the no. of passing candidates, grade is A1, next 1/8th A2, next 1/8th B1, and so on. This grading system is based on the relative position of the student rather than the actual marks, it compares marks of different students and then a grade is given.
See also
Grading on a curve
Sudbury school, a school model for ages 4 through 18 with schools internationally with no grading or grade levels
Competency-based learning, an alternative to the traditional letter grade system
Mastery Transcript Consortium, a group working to create alternatives to the traditional grading system in secondary schools
Test score
References
Academic transfer
Education reform
Educational evaluation methods
Student assessment and evaluation | [
0.26021742820739746,
0.6989440321922302,
-0.5456224083900452,
0.7012788653373718,
-0.0832151249051094,
0.06447641551494598,
0.6014347672462463,
0.7738596796989441,
-0.04259830713272095,
-0.6342250108718872,
-0.4217458665370941,
0.1796543300151825,
0.4912855327129364,
-0.468435674905777,
-0.23068657517433167,
0.2728298008441925,
0.652321994304657,
0.21816585958003998,
0.16898322105407715,
-0.2713507115840912,
-0.44978266954421997,
-0.05753222480416298,
-0.27454429864883423,
-0.058439284563064575,
0.17076700925827026,
0.1848991960287094,
0.45643168687820435,
-0.038680657744407654,
-0.4318888783454895,
-0.3445964455604553,
0.25573936104774475,
0.7611399292945862,
0.263522744178772,
0.22983460128307343,
-0.3383318781852722,
0.17714254558086395,
0.41723933815956116,
-0.09605158120393753,
-0.04602980613708496,
-0.8770288825035095,
-0.048083823174238205,
-0.07900543510913849,
-0.008641772903501987,
-0.26632094383239746,
-0.20759160816669464,
-0.6234362125396729,
-1.664018154144287,
-0.33686190843582153,
-0.8893452882766724,
-0.17226794362068176,
-0.8997852802276611,
0.634933352470398,
-0.018351688981056213,
0.33002468943595886,
-0.3025687336921692,
0.5385574698448181,
0.0006973238196223974,
0.087639220058918,
0.1534719467163086,
-0.10367443412542343,
0.8499391674995422,
0.2878216803073883,
-0.5021746754646301,
0.16182880103588104,
0.5303611755371094,
-0.25615543127059937,
0.018828941509127617,
0.3628259301185608,
-0.510404109954834,
-0.665987491607666,
-0.7442034482955933,
-0.33032432198524475,
0.3576831519603729,
0.32298779487609863,
-0.649581789970398,
0.1521972268819809,
-0.13647398352622986,
-0.006356075406074524,
-0.5306735634803772,
-0.8380839824676514,
-0.34316492080688477,
0.08590802550315857,
0.41159844398498535,
0.009862688370049,
0.24997062981128693,
0.36850643157958984,
-0.11069680750370026,
0.14893557131290436,
0.6548791527748108,
0.6338435411453247,
0.3223021924495697,
-0.18045951426029205,
0.5250825881958008,
0.10987841337919235,
0.19493016600608826,
-0.27312034368515015,
0.3215525448322296,
-0.25477877259254456,
-0.11700259149074554,
0.15996652841567993,
0.10800756514072418,
-0.021756073459982872,
0.7080270648002625,
0.46036699414253235,
-0.08612900227308273,
-0.3295300304889679,
0.3154115378856659,
-0.3895450234413147,
-0.17878112196922302,
-0.6262169480323792,
-0.5197756290435791,
0.33675482869148254,
-0.3821972608566284,
0.44627681374549866,
-0.6881116032600403,
0.29762178659439087,
0.2887384295463562,
0.48903170228004456,
-0.4414317309856415,
0.28066471219062805,
-0.3540644943714142,
0.527895450592041,
0.07290689647197723,
-0.14344240725040436,
0.08996382355690002,
0.6107219457626343,
0.7141407132148743,
0.6378920674324036,
-0.11094170063734055,
0.18374156951904297,
0.07553770393133163,
0.1973409652709961,
0.26572009921073914,
-0.16000348329544067,
-0.6220384836196899,
-0.27394118905067444,
0.5350285768508911,
-0.24951396882534027,
-0.03575155884027481,
0.48805955052375793,
-0.3215131461620331,
-0.5690550208091736,
-0.8094416856765747,
-0.2538621127605438,
0.38878047466278076,
-0.41789504885673523,
0.23002542555332184,
-0.12943029403686523,
0.10572445392608643,
0.13924652338027954,
0.3134978413581848,
0.2548130452632904,
-0.28189194202423096,
0.11437394469976425,
-0.0016584631521254778,
0.6078855395317078,
0.14177720248699188,
-0.06572364270687103,
-0.37553170323371887,
0.2494993656873703,
-0.16201551258563995,
0.014026849530637264,
0.1066347062587738,
-0.18225325644016266,
0.15300974249839783,
-0.16337332129478455,
0.19484223425388336,
0.6817433834075928,
0.06182324141263962,
0.25062742829322815,
-0.2925437390804291,
-0.16435742378234863,
0.08889228105545044,
-0.1714804619550705,
-0.21394547820091248,
0.035692907869815826,
-0.11037887632846832,
0.25429868698120117,
0.6329552531242371,
-0.027073008939623833,
-0.47525104880332947,
0.5388103127479553,
0.27207279205322266,
0.1606910079717636,
0.4135277569293976,
-0.3229026794433594,
0.4520319104194641,
-0.558501124382019,
-0.27590611577033997,
0.022555382922291756,
-0.4285086691379547,
-0.46989232301712036,
0.0664742961525917,
-0.6888253092765808,
0.9885637164115906,
-0.1033676415681839,
0.07399778813123703,
0.4609006643295288,
-0.30922603607177734,
0.24756602942943573,
0.15007777512073517,
-0.25772324204444885,
0.1895347386598587,
0.0024215008597820997,
-0.4859711527824402,
1.1638391017913818,
0.40520939230918884,
0.26784512400627136,
-0.23629361391067505,
-0.29188624024391174,
-0.1335110366344452,
-0.09106969833374023,
0.0900227501988411,
0.37471988797187805,
-0.2740577161312103,
0.3715341091156006,
-0.23016805946826935,
0.5240637063980103,
0.38104432821273804,
-0.4822811186313629,
0.7049182057380676,
-0.4246211051940918,
0.4285515248775482,
0.15014314651489258,
-0.22578012943267822,
0.19279371201992035,
-0.20297479629516602,
0.3558249771595001,
0.3370633125305176,
-0.7309972643852234,
0.2473633587360382,
0.36586159467697144,
0.42169076204299927,
-0.20997737348079681,
-0.45791178941726685,
-0.41036152839660645,
-0.5988775491714478,
-0.5102825164794922,
0.6859475374221802,
-0.49909383058547974,
-0.24886822700500488,
-0.05396321043372154,
-0.03402634337544441,
0.2278711050748825,
0.45601484179496765,
-0.03617536649107933,
-0.20939059555530548,
0.727823793888092,
-0.265116423368454,
0.19776935875415802,
0.2897855341434479,
0.025044791400432587,
0.17616084218025208,
-0.29392749071121216,
-0.6797603964805603,
-0.030538376420736313,
-0.35601091384887695,
-0.19223053753376007,
-0.07460147142410278,
-0.27377888560295105,
0.25091856718063354,
0.13113784790039062,
0.6364723443984985,
-0.07536770403385162,
0.27103039622306824,
-0.42466920614242554,
-0.4618981182575226,
-0.16042275726795197,
0.013692333362996578,
0.3885277807712555,
0.2256927788257599,
-0.18835598230361938,
-0.3222796618938446,
-1.5192865133285522,
-0.3213985562324524,
-0.6323094367980957,
0.5307278037071228,
0.31341028213500977,
-0.7894843816757202,
-0.2638513147830963,
0.14966759085655212,
0.30674731731414795,
-0.07645191252231598,
-0.24611635506153107,
0.13406158983707428,
-0.2473493069410324,
0.5882648229598999,
-0.34163811802864075,
0.3881078362464905,
0.1757349967956543,
-0.0865810289978981,
0.41137897968292236,
-0.43666383624076843,
-0.44842398166656494,
1.0394669771194458,
0.23988832533359528,
-0.00018468948837835342,
-0.061172712594270706,
0.09528461843729019,
-0.24023745954036713,
-0.024289412423968315,
0.2648051679134369,
0.1174599900841713,
0.2457805871963501,
0.24572131037712097,
-0.02026519365608692,
-0.22296956181526184,
-0.4472239911556244,
-5.518471717834473,
-0.13947154581546783,
-0.39431971311569214,
-0.22706860303878784,
0.06687375903129578,
-0.05413927137851715,
0.68887859582901,
-0.11065446585416794,
-0.7448934316635132,
0.24949891865253448,
-0.501895546913147,
-0.012125778943300247,
0.00643054349347949,
1.0511326789855957,
0.9350324869155884,
0.28595080971717834,
0.4636566936969757,
-0.24065952003002167,
0.13085481524467468,
0.8124665021896362,
0.09460510313510895,
0.044425927102565765,
-0.07396985590457916,
0.6215569376945496,
-0.4078776240348816,
0.3544667363166809,
-0.5559187531471252,
0.6929929852485657,
-0.6893619894981384,
-0.04200590029358864,
0.7971744537353516,
-0.26226481795310974,
-0.4334481954574585,
-0.7193523645401001,
-0.16620293259620667,
-0.0906570702791214,
0.5439859628677368,
0.5056595802307129,
-0.1785925328731537,
-0.04529935121536255,
-0.0015532021643593907,
0.24735575914382935,
-0.18747207522392273,
-0.20469720661640167,
-0.04824512451887131,
0.4706427752971649,
0.11451280862092972,
-0.2959001660346985,
-0.643625795841217,
0.39558348059654236,
-0.40893712639808655,
0.6559553146362305,
0.3834698796272278,
-0.22149385511875153,
-0.5181828141212463,
-0.19178102910518646,
0.7623348236083984,
0.13063235580921173,
-0.5575116872787476,
-0.049265313893556595,
-0.05687480419874191,
-0.5087782144546509,
0.009624658152461052,
-0.687548041343689,
-0.13638143241405487,
-0.5828862190246582,
-0.7267311811447144,
-0.4608951210975647,
-0.311716228723526,
0.21470856666564941,
-0.0023733836133033037,
0.08241017907857895,
0.16508078575134277,
-0.5551681518554688,
0.03397576883435249,
-0.553713858127594,
0.17793039977550507,
0.6920982003211975,
0.38965728878974915,
0.27760687470436096,
-0.4076046049594879,
-0.36372891068458557,
0.12870071828365326,
0.18487896025180817,
0.14097614586353302,
-0.243404820561409,
-0.32251349091529846,
0.4782726466655731,
-0.198135644197464,
-0.4881242513656616,
1.0803738832473755,
0.15201231837272644,
0.08732249587774277,
0.020140651613473892,
0.37192797660827637,
0.345549076795578,
0.46296629309654236,
-0.2492518573999405,
0.5265591144561768,
-0.34270358085632324,
-0.1290411800146103,
-0.5240223407745361,
0.12464229017496109,
-0.22804245352745056,
-0.08675481379032135,
-0.1268252432346344,
-0.5573853850364685,
0.5730747580528259,
0.9856690764427185,
-0.9531692862510681,
0.11466958373785019,
-0.12301768362522125,
-0.6015777587890625,
0.31313472986221313,
0.21051771938800812,
0.20339715480804443,
-0.31836745142936707,
0.22064751386642456,
0.3070110082626343,
0.23701722919940948,
0.09860837459564209,
-0.0017706771614030004,
0.1338619738817215,
-0.22481197118759155,
-0.4858505427837372,
-0.4863443672657013,
0.07475826889276505,
0.28994259238243103,
-0.15521347522735596,
0.32022321224212646,
0.36268186569213867,
0.6129666566848755,
-0.19058413803577423,
0.08448602259159088,
-0.1471138447523117,
-0.16537652909755707,
0.15050894021987915,
0.8421270251274109,
-0.35684582591056824,
-0.6625727415084839,
0.379367858171463,
-0.26921260356903076,
0.33984482288360596,
-0.05170249938964844,
1.2765367031097412,
-0.16898506879806519,
-0.534506618976593,
-0.1911633014678955,
-0.5088197588920593,
0.2745972275733948,
0.2819162607192993,
-0.41247332096099854,
-0.4037403166294098,
-0.45705312490463257,
0.11632836610078812,
0.42077428102493286,
-0.080128513276577,
0.3199597895145416,
-0.3481138050556183,
-0.36378583312034607,
0.5526221394538879,
0.39412063360214233,
-1.1791129112243652,
-0.24054089188575745,
0.09252438694238663,
-0.16811539232730865,
-0.28314128518104553,
0.2980650067329407,
-0.4448210597038269,
0.4283317029476166,
0.8324906229972839,
-0.6699046492576599,
0.026463912799954414,
-0.4907399117946625,
0.2047412097454071,
-0.1753324419260025,
0.10634270310401917,
0.14081621170043945,
-0.32090166211128235,
-0.296456515789032,
-0.013058251701295376,
-1.192483901977539,
-0.4880613386631012,
0.1957874894142151,
-0.06197371706366539,
-0.3718937039375305,
-0.2875760793685913,
0.43073952198028564,
-0.5650932788848877,
-0.41456153988838196,
-0.17689885199069977,
-0.5650518536567688,
0.5000280141830444,
0.07057426124811172,
-0.6001258492469788,
-0.4793979227542877,
0.03023919090628624,
-0.16491079330444336,
0.1341184824705124,
-0.3005271852016449,
0.1611875593662262,
0.06778602302074432,
-0.3583121597766876,
0.14049379527568817,
0.20618021488189697,
-0.6572574377059937,
0.23276685178279877,
0.5672202706336975,
-0.8828774094581604,
0.2624761462211609,
-0.6819440722465515,
-0.5442783832550049,
-0.46446168422698975,
0.301314115524292,
-0.3959774374961853,
-0.3997457027435303,
-0.11889966577291489,
-0.2658819854259491,
-0.20878957211971283,
-0.023838868364691734,
0.6192254424095154,
0.32109108567237854,
-0.3335374593734741,
-0.34674975275993347,
-0.22397758066654205,
-0.5524978041648865,
0.5304271578788757,
-0.8289973139762878,
0.6004747152328491,
-0.11669237911701202,
-0.1374310404062271,
0.1485992819070816,
0.22925716638565063,
0.36444520950317383,
-0.19530415534973145,
0.04979341849684715,
-0.8485668897628784,
0.5555184483528137,
0.3709934651851654,
-0.3536863327026367,
-0.07657898962497711,
0.653622567653656,
0.20517489314079285,
-0.23438557982444763,
-0.0595443993806839,
0.5208683013916016,
0.3117004632949829,
-0.40415236353874207,
-0.578926146030426,
0.1896573305130005,
0.40013387799263,
-0.4878517687320709,
-0.4278310239315033,
-0.2864413261413574,
0.4946523904800415,
-0.04543640464544296,
0.07600614428520203,
-0.2626015841960907,
0.5079761743545532,
0.4833987057209015,
-0.16090966761112213,
-0.5807071328163147,
-0.2647020220756531,
-0.06226915866136551,
0.24601632356643677,
-0.14998705685138702,
0.1736731380224228,
0.3160913586616516,
0.3135035037994385,
-0.42212215065956116,
0.3969869017601013,
-0.6310840845108032,
0.4235198199748993,
0.14864762127399445,
0.6852313876152039,
-0.7253419160842896,
-0.06531064212322235,
-0.2635985016822815,
0.1391029953956604,
-0.28122761845588684,
0.6202829480171204,
0.031533416360616684,
0.41542425751686096,
-0.18543019890785217,
0.01731099560856819,
-0.18654406070709229,
0.6218397617340088,
0.2713852822780609,
-0.6856982707977295,
0.17756551504135132,
-0.36643147468566895,
-0.25956034660339355,
-0.5726155042648315,
0.5271860361099243,
-0.036984529346227646,
0.4596925675868988,
-0.04296479374170303,
0.03097281977534294,
0.020024681463837624,
0.08222208172082901,
0.1362638622522354,
0.7999672293663025,
0.18774431943893433,
-0.6103501319885254,
0.10723518580198288,
0.26170822978019714,
0.1844714730978012,
-0.4574974775314331,
0.29940685629844666,
-0.2339177280664444,
-0.08791597187519073,
0.1814720183610916,
0.4660206139087677,
0.4671943783760071,
-0.06604746729135513,
-0.2076515108346939,
0.46680277585983276,
-0.3375680446624756,
0.7828320860862732,
0.553928792476654,
-0.18336006999015808,
-0.3840272128582001,
1.191675066947937,
-0.1955038607120514,
-0.29557716846466064,
0.19284546375274658,
0.0642947182059288,
-0.4026339650154114,
0.32236436009407043,
0.21125219762325287,
0.5094890594482422,
0.22823777794837952,
0.19369804859161377,
0.31763169169425964,
-0.4020751118659973,
-0.26869675517082214,
-0.05496431887149811,
-0.5077515244483948,
0.14189620316028595,
0.6681707501411438,
0.8474505543708801,
-0.07638449221849442,
0.37251797318458557,
0.3265092372894287,
-0.24155737459659576,
0.4119131863117218,
-0.06738442927598953,
0.8284491300582886,
-0.537814736366272,
-0.18291819095611572,
-0.30269843339920044,
0.03848448395729065,
0.5248508453369141,
-0.03584839403629303,
0.3627711534500122,
-0.5614836812019348,
0.7444806098937988,
0.2526600956916809,
-0.1792529821395874,
-0.8958635330200195,
-0.5776037573814392,
-0.1672557145357132,
0.2958334982395172,
-0.3709125518798828,
0.26927250623703003,
0.24157167971134186,
0.6979280114173889,
-0.2187480330467224,
-0.2559860646724701,
0.6886516213417053,
-0.06789755076169968,
0.06951895356178284,
0.22822561860084534,
0.24264897406101227,
0.07131225615739822,
-0.11272880434989929,
-0.10386279225349426,
-0.16799545288085938,
0.5401998162269592,
0.027831513434648514,
0.4992428719997406,
-0.12420165538787842,
-0.2037133425474167,
-0.6308520436286926,
-0.024367423728108406,
0.022209767252206802,
-0.06796374917030334,
0.5570279359817505,
-0.8978549838066101,
0.16728109121322632,
-0.48480936884880066,
-0.2045602798461914,
0.43376272916793823,
-0.169675812125206,
-0.8085665702819824,
0.24459324777126312,
-0.06622404605150223,
0.7076740860939026,
0.423174649477005,
-0.42378416657447815,
-0.26867613196372986,
-0.016219330951571465,
0.22283510863780975,
-0.317911297082901,
-1.0918875932693481,
0.21066227555274963,
0.02619202248752117,
0.41402873396873474,
-0.4239593744277954,
0.2512865364551544,
0.5206456780433655,
-0.5595342516899109,
0.03674529492855072,
0.35712313652038574,
0.17983560264110565,
0.34800007939338684,
0.3817901611328125,
-0.19907747209072113,
-0.1734098196029663,
0.1140676736831665,
-0.06138470768928528,
-0.27078086137771606,
0.366028368473053,
0.35678839683532715,
-0.3913012146949768,
0.11053911596536636,
-0.1428498774766922,
0.1509731411933899,
0.03277041018009186,
0.29941990971565247,
-0.4766698479652405,
0.1574348658323288,
-0.204035684466362,
0.3681647479534149,
-0.15223924815654755,
-0.03328485041856766,
0.2546014189720154,
0.3619286119937897,
0.23565886914730072,
-0.1542537659406662,
-0.5270484685897827,
-0.1831091046333313,
0.2085372656583786,
0.03776698186993599,
-2.443995952606201,
0.3986985683441162,
-0.1878756731748581,
0.1644512116909027,
0.049445852637290955,
0.02858448028564453,
0.008033452555537224,
-0.13502071797847748,
0.30682915449142456,
-0.09814956784248352,
-0.03548354282975197,
-0.2979509234428406,
-0.1538015455007553,
-0.3881324231624603,
0.0024227953981608152,
0.8169544339179993
] |
247807 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation | Assimilation | Assimilation may refer to:
Culture
Cultural assimilation, the process whereby a minority group gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture and customs
Language shift, also known as language assimilation, the progressive process whereby a speech community of a language shifts to speaking another language
Cultural assimilation of Native Americans in the United States
Jewish assimilation refers to the gradual cultural assimilation and social integration of Jews in their surrounding culture
Assimilation effect, a frequently observed bias in social cognition
Religious assimilation
Assimilation (French colonial), an ideological basis of French colonial policy in the 19th and 20th centuries
Science
Assimilation (biology) the conversion of nutrient into the fluid or solid substance of the body, by the processes of digestion and absorption
Assimilation (phonology), a linguistic process by which a sound becomes similar to an adjacent sound
Assimilation (meteorology), the process of objectively adapting the model state (of a numerical weather prediction model) to observations in a statistical optimal way taking into account model and observation errors
Assimilation (psychology), incorporation of new concepts into existing schemes
Media
Assimilation (album), a 2001 album by Deliverance
Assimilation (Star Trek), process used by the fictional Borg in Star Trek
Assimilate: A Critical History of Industrial Music, a 2013 non-fiction book
Assimilate, a 2018 film starring Joel Courtney | [
0.15790963172912598,
0.33820641040802,
-0.8407745361328125,
0.014375024475157261,
0.28259310126304626,
0.6367837190628052,
0.9295830130577087,
0.47404831647872925,
0.08182774484157562,
-1.0010629892349243,
-0.4783467650413513,
0.1305740922689438,
-0.09449870139360428,
0.27452051639556885,
-0.3680984377861023,
0.02962413616478443,
0.4534431993961334,
0.18046197295188904,
-0.4310873746871948,
0.39781931042671204,
-0.5592673420906067,
0.23230603337287903,
0.17117032408714294,
0.3594297468662262,
0.08948244899511337,
-0.07114215940237045,
0.26567375659942627,
-0.7497206330299377,
-0.34919649362564087,
0.2931201159954071,
-0.10410770773887634,
0.28919532895088196,
-0.09494864195585251,
-0.3182671368122101,
-0.620262086391449,
0.028339320793747902,
-0.37300169467926025,
-0.2508680820465088,
0.19767247140407562,
-0.3089638352394104,
-0.1552952378988266,
0.2082102745771408,
0.1023697704076767,
0.46606576442718506,
-0.5414650440216064,
-0.42205527424812317,
-1.8792355060577393,
0.6837668418884277,
-0.705610990524292,
-0.0678025335073471,
0.0013000048929825425,
-0.37834256887435913,
0.1888413429260254,
0.21194559335708618,
-0.2646124064922333,
0.10237910598516464,
-0.8480113744735718,
-0.1645342856645584,
0.3606182038784027,
-0.6622952222824097,
0.3048674464225769,
0.6495229005813599,
-0.21605710685253143,
-0.45688366889953613,
0.12708085775375366,
0.020647281780838966,
-0.013902634382247925,
0.20605219900608063,
-0.22146230936050415,
-0.9298480749130249,
-0.2537449598312378,
-0.15980219841003418,
-0.150611013174057,
0.4172018766403198,
-0.1227034255862236,
-0.2984775900840759,
-0.10645369440317154,
0.04171028733253479,
-0.17329174280166626,
-0.2732108235359192,
-0.4081020653247833,
0.10475420951843262,
0.18384824693202972,
-0.3697814643383026,
0.3477732837200165,
-0.5152438879013062,
-0.09312122315168381,
0.5987589955329895,
-0.5875394940376282,
-0.2407475709915161,
0.05567903816699982,
-0.38473138213157654,
0.4612322151660919,
0.2948203980922699,
0.2737258970737457,
0.2503809332847595,
0.8418960571289062,
-0.3255041539669037,
0.2627565264701843,
-0.16335463523864746,
-0.5882754921913147,
-0.19134408235549927,
0.6198893189430237,
-0.06826455146074295,
-0.18671217560768127,
-0.28090065717697144,
-0.06328865140676498,
-0.0977887436747551,
0.13084816932678223,
-0.4271909296512604,
-0.11529666930437088,
0.33333760499954224,
-0.08896421641111374,
0.21737858653068542,
-0.5578107833862305,
-0.29023289680480957,
-0.005271987523883581,
-0.08889876306056976,
-0.43835633993148804,
0.11400764435529709,
0.24709990620613098,
0.5097824335098267,
-0.00856797955930233,
-0.14134404063224792,
-0.17091470956802368,
-0.022535158321261406,
0.6700724363327026,
0.1725512146949768,
-0.9608727097511292,
-0.04383822903037071,
0.3406936824321747,
0.3758276104927063,
0.0920695960521698,
0.7704501748085022,
0.14791668951511383,
-0.30271685123443604,
0.7456563711166382,
-0.14182689785957336,
-0.03499908000230789,
-0.05596517398953438,
-0.7978736758232117,
-0.34508639574050903,
-0.4938185513019562,
-0.02926970273256302,
0.4970194101333618,
-0.4031274914741516,
-0.1698911041021347,
0.23008468747138977,
-0.004830101039260626,
-0.12805499136447906,
0.3243460953235626,
-0.17894774675369263,
-0.15544693171977997,
-0.17344242334365845,
-0.3555663228034973,
0.27481263875961304,
-0.04976607486605644,
-0.37711575627326965,
-0.1010708287358284,
0.16759838163852692,
0.11045567691326141,
0.1849096268415451,
-0.266999751329422,
-0.4800906777381897,
0.5076805949211121,
0.02057107351720333,
-0.16585150361061096,
0.6410178542137146,
-0.21575623750686646,
0.17420189082622528,
0.3192718029022217,
0.3176058828830719,
0.2273046225309372,
-0.14674890041351318,
-0.35247695446014404,
0.15426579117774963,
-0.007849139161407948,
0.5628318786621094,
0.3046572208404541,
0.33550453186035156,
-0.6294838190078735,
0.14915631711483002,
-0.05459960922598839,
-0.2974620461463928,
-0.5109531879425049,
-0.4424026608467102,
0.06582669168710709,
-0.10494235903024673,
-0.147389218211174,
0.2923007607460022,
-0.3307691514492035,
-0.16633853316307068,
-0.3083285987377167,
-0.9927555918693542,
1.05842125415802,
-0.32928934693336487,
-0.31761273741722107,
1.2080026865005493,
0.03797425702214241,
-0.4249393939971924,
-0.17528297007083893,
-0.32916322350502014,
0.18603754043579102,
0.1796920895576477,
0.007436566520482302,
0.4370551109313965,
0.19567596912384033,
0.10661996901035309,
0.6417273283004761,
0.17933586239814758,
0.41578686237335205,
0.013066374696791172,
0.1011391282081604,
0.26672297716140747,
0.1302460879087448,
0.20600469410419464,
-0.8512728214263916,
-0.1044849157333374,
-0.06513258814811707,
-0.25792962312698364,
0.3342653512954712,
-0.659167468547821,
0.3010965883731842,
-0.312980592250824,
0.11665333807468414,
0.283236026763916,
0.5556055307388306,
0.15816925466060638,
0.9047029614448547,
0.24804209172725677,
0.5671456456184387,
-0.012682463973760605,
0.4024653136730194,
-0.39483168721199036,
0.006986844353377819,
0.28502538800239563,
0.26631346344947815,
-0.0700719878077507,
0.08518581837415695,
-0.04920950159430504,
-0.3671417534351349,
-0.1199745237827301,
-0.21847906708717346,
0.005044206045567989,
-0.13761049509048462,
-0.13304223120212555,
0.2076955884695053,
0.022576501592993736,
-0.12654097378253937,
0.03198854625225067,
0.37550532817840576,
1.0375529527664185,
0.3459986448287964,
-0.45043954253196716,
0.19899432361125946,
-0.10633479803800583,
0.1901945173740387,
0.06079313904047012,
0.5293740034103394,
-0.27266135811805725,
-0.04068636894226074,
0.18689945340156555,
0.16784897446632385,
-0.0801895260810852,
0.045554522424936295,
-0.3957511782646179,
-0.33223769068717957,
0.08237283676862717,
0.04108031839132309,
0.3859733045101166,
0.8118327856063843,
0.40286827087402344,
-0.4010481536388397,
0.2876697778701782,
-0.4168447256088257,
-0.38719815015792847,
0.21786195039749146,
0.034687671810388565,
0.04133289307355881,
-0.4955391585826874,
-0.45811232924461365,
0.30577167868614197,
-0.009242610074579716,
-0.3810129463672638,
0.04077286645770073,
-0.6410848498344421,
-0.25633737444877625,
-0.1905515491962433,
-0.07389727234840393,
-0.07918018102645874,
0.07833253592252731,
0.7170270681381226,
-0.15899518132209778,
-0.38059401512145996,
0.4487435221672058,
0.2223501354455948,
0.17262855172157288,
0.5139092206954956,
0.6347166299819946,
-0.1303107738494873,
0.019406957551836967,
0.03927892819046974,
0.03775619715452194,
0.5038304328918457,
-0.1370350420475006,
0.05385952815413475,
0.1581367701292038,
-0.20376233756542206,
-5.909632682800293,
0.1063472181558609,
-0.03909173980355263,
0.1485961377620697,
-0.01051380205899477,
-0.26739031076431274,
1.1147282123565674,
-0.13934695720672607,
-0.2177588939666748,
0.4232127070426941,
-0.08540265262126923,
0.32495930790901184,
-0.2498009204864502,
0.7136842012405396,
-0.2162128984928131,
-0.3339811861515045,
-0.09288233518600464,
-0.02521446906030178,
-0.6600974798202515,
0.6805803179740906,
-0.14021840691566467,
0.3267379701137543,
-0.0005890599568374455,
0.9396157264709473,
-0.048051510006189346,
-0.5464960336685181,
-0.3598376512527466,
0.6062977910041809,
-0.25171583890914917,
0.06803581118583679,
0.019995778799057007,
-0.2297627031803131,
0.7584356069564819,
-0.13323228061199188,
0.0488211028277874,
0.3278723359107971,
0.06816144287586212,
0.1663244515657425,
0.3985758423805237,
-0.4686708450317383,
-0.45075273513793945,
0.5485453009605408,
0.13784554600715637,
-0.6340919137001038,
0.16457758843898773,
0.06851964443922043,
0.2847883403301239,
0.1504925936460495,
0.17593657970428467,
0.698584258556366,
-0.03395388275384903,
0.3258844316005707,
0.30797916650772095,
0.6745292544364929,
0.3928385078907013,
-0.014439855702221394,
0.5403814315795898,
0.0030846893787384033,
-0.11762327700853348,
0.3547961115837097,
0.5191431045532227,
-0.6358106732368469,
-0.34924742579460144,
-0.4251745939254761,
0.18262295424938202,
-0.5068393349647522,
-1.0115309953689575,
-0.3027299642562866,
0.3761676251888275,
0.17076654732227325,
-0.31180480122566223,
0.09190110117197037,
0.35196810960769653,
-0.9074846506118774,
0.12322258204221725,
-0.4301603436470032,
-0.7564358711242676,
-0.20583100616931915,
0.11323205381631851,
0.8168714046478271,
0.01678529754281044,
0.18697616457939148,
0.1339288055896759,
-0.22795550525188446,
0.33813947439193726,
-0.05279078707098961,
-0.3094863295555115,
0.22861133515834808,
-0.7556965351104736,
-0.26458555459976196,
0.6949449181556702,
-0.012277566827833652,
-0.08692959696054459,
-0.26332515478134155,
0.45527127385139465,
0.448261559009552,
-0.09208513051271439,
0.2319439947605133,
0.35532763600349426,
-0.000532783567905426,
0.52044278383255,
-0.4842785596847534,
-0.03970412164926529,
-0.014807143248617649,
0.19729064404964447,
-0.19078560173511505,
-0.47534823417663574,
0.3201296627521515,
0.8399857878684998,
-0.3789307177066803,
-0.29796576499938965,
0.5183167457580566,
-0.4989086091518402,
-0.1644434779882431,
0.17995356023311615,
0.49669426679611206,
-0.4570932686328888,
0.12148413062095642,
1.001599669456482,
-0.05484261363744736,
0.34609848260879517,
0.0984945148229599,
-1.2767832279205322,
0.5880898237228394,
0.17754724621772766,
-0.6359396576881409,
-0.1175762340426445,
0.30095362663269043,
-0.4522625207901001,
-0.06504447758197784,
0.15656720101833344,
0.16325244307518005,
-0.28918537497520447,
0.0674271434545517,
0.5730549097061157,
0.21267886459827423,
0.3225386440753937,
0.3151448965072632,
-0.32302001118659973,
-0.7861129641532898,
0.142843097448349,
-1.0238887071609497,
0.21088019013404846,
-0.19080184400081635,
0.13805541396141052,
0.41848552227020264,
-0.3120759129524231,
-0.6534526348114014,
-0.04627728834748268,
0.05931919440627098,
0.20081408321857452,
0.24779070913791656,
-0.2479943186044693,
0.3402037024497986,
-0.4081864058971405,
-0.05533458665013313,
0.6256853938102722,
0.09612398594617844,
0.3779386579990387,
-0.48367413878440857,
0.2780706286430359,
-0.4258723556995392,
-0.7465642690658569,
-0.10296845436096191,
-0.383813738822937,
-0.18210598826408386,
-0.6654074788093567,
-0.7214521765708923,
-0.207351952791214,
0.3336425721645355,
-0.22645249962806702,
-0.34634602069854736,
-0.5868617296218872,
-0.30189329385757446,
0.23008117079734802,
-0.2934809625148773,
0.1096498966217041,
-0.12732066214084625,
-0.6367592215538025,
-0.2526027262210846,
0.15804779529571533,
-0.3839297294616699,
-0.3678787052631378,
0.36686959862709045,
0.4309140741825104,
-0.8529439568519592,
0.1939546763896942,
0.28394708037376404,
-0.35705745220184326,
-0.9297645688056946,
0.00847584567964077,
0.0751558169722557,
0.10064759850502014,
0.09665221720933914,
0.12382952868938446,
0.05283267796039581,
-0.609966516494751,
0.1023620143532753,
-0.16476421058177948,
-0.053274523466825485,
0.5377628803253174,
0.5402333736419678,
0.22417370975017548,
0.07925353199243546,
0.6781087517738342,
-0.2803659737110138,
-0.21695785224437714,
-0.34786197543144226,
-0.7031506299972534,
0.07831832766532898,
0.19011320173740387,
-0.6346839666366577,
-0.4440516233444214,
0.24960091710090637,
0.12337831407785416,
-0.18151691555976868,
-0.11347728967666626,
-0.27854999899864197,
0.0444079153239727,
0.3266158103942871,
0.46748441457748413,
0.2739200294017792,
-0.17996159195899963,
-0.10073062032461166,
-0.20176012814044952,
0.049026165157556534,
0.047121062874794006,
-0.45746126770973206,
0.18805266916751862,
0.07803433388471603,
0.45690950751304626,
-0.18932904303073883,
-0.3173266649246216,
0.015413805842399597,
-0.1938910037279129,
0.20110727846622467,
-0.06106943264603615,
0.2174426019191742,
0.19646982848644257,
-0.06953568756580353,
0.3272871971130371,
0.21801882982254028,
0.2945432960987091,
-0.31048643589019775,
-0.35750216245651245,
0.8217448592185974,
0.30047541856765747,
-0.15146195888519287,
-0.30299603939056396,
0.09961725026369095,
-0.011717844754457474,
-0.3951251804828644,
0.08064326643943787,
-0.18622900545597076,
0.22349151968955994,
-0.0663459450006485,
-0.4678707420825958,
-0.5874394178390503,
0.18117655813694,
0.6075124144554138,
0.4288257360458374,
-0.24350127577781677,
-0.6956918835639954,
-0.4360736012458801,
-0.031080009415745735,
-0.3839568495750427,
0.08220816403627396,
0.5449766516685486,
-0.049988940358161926,
-0.27592748403549194,
0.11535951495170593,
-0.21202801167964935,
-0.06805700063705444,
0.3472006022930145,
0.24346069991588593,
-0.017424853518605232,
-0.5376794934272766,
0.007114111911505461,
-0.28548189997673035,
-0.3799465298652649,
-0.0332033708691597,
-0.657561182975769,
-0.30378663539886475,
-0.22627495229244232,
0.05869905650615692,
-0.5089434385299683,
0.5234774947166443,
-0.4982805848121643,
-0.4831978976726532,
-0.26832762360572815,
-0.47545355558395386,
-0.06253479421138763,
0.4147573411464691,
0.22031840682029724,
0.1290246993303299,
-0.02183092199265957,
0.006725510582327843,
0.41162505745887756,
-0.10159996896982193,
0.008130459114909172,
-0.26890259981155396,
0.2572735548019409,
0.10148169100284576,
-0.30473291873931885,
0.4230180084705353,
0.3381204605102539,
0.3825875520706177,
-0.22690945863723755,
-0.014502041041851044,
0.05085761845111847,
0.5357345342636108,
-0.1576843559741974,
0.5533391833305359,
0.1537986397743225,
0.22816944122314453,
0.6002666354179382,
0.37119948863983154,
-0.7540406584739685,
0.3236222267150879,
-0.3005582392215729,
0.29531246423721313,
0.19444477558135986,
0.5857372283935547,
-0.22180522978305817,
0.42816153168678284,
0.26399245858192444,
-0.15547272562980652,
0.0422024205327034,
-0.21470020711421967,
0.4827693700790405,
0.5708871483802795,
0.8557395935058594,
0.3337772488594055,
-0.28200653195381165,
-0.07381095737218857,
-0.5709097981452942,
0.05948546156287193,
-0.2578563392162323,
-0.21513453125953674,
0.7273200750350952,
0.3265422582626343,
0.6973204612731934,
-0.40922409296035767,
-0.1250777244567871,
0.35043513774871826,
0.16318216919898987,
0.3170929253101349,
0.26780593395233154,
0.24785469472408295,
0.3575437664985657,
-0.15648554265499115,
-0.6302325129508972,
-0.10416650027036667,
-0.1954546421766281,
0.09667062014341354,
-0.13245585560798645,
0.6236107349395752,
-0.3919733166694641,
-0.19740508496761322,
0.017205873504281044,
0.13516613841056824,
0.3803769052028656,
0.6106424927711487,
-0.44210055470466614,
0.26698175072669983,
-0.5634015798568726,
-0.4004136621952057,
-0.47230714559555054,
0.2134425789117813,
-0.1685362458229065,
0.17256252467632294,
-0.07689165323972702,
-0.18612803518772125,
-0.4572147727012634,
0.9552289843559265,
0.17075590789318085,
0.4105922281742096,
0.44689467549324036,
0.2185308039188385,
0.20426656305789948,
0.03202305734157562,
-0.3127676248550415,
-0.23818929493427277,
-0.8746612668037415,
0.20008064806461334,
0.441841721534729,
0.20539967715740204,
0.3153516948223114,
-0.5756672024726868,
0.3593480885028839,
0.04018818587064743,
-0.751554012298584,
0.18814867734909058,
0.3023238480091095,
-0.29135143756866455,
-0.0656508207321167,
0.1022784486413002,
0.5568738579750061,
-0.22815214097499847,
-0.024895766749978065,
-0.25224965810775757,
0.5017064809799194,
-0.044604696333408356,
0.2542223632335663,
-0.2923163175582886,
0.281313955783844,
-0.7881410121917725,
-0.006115341559052467,
-0.297560453414917,
0.7241733074188232,
0.8845980167388916,
-0.4832729697227478,
0.012531914748251438,
0.11720030754804611,
0.5287502408027649,
0.18898174166679382,
-0.2918083965778351,
0.2387515753507614,
-0.4322686791419983,
-0.32087817788124084,
-0.06727100908756256,
-0.38528525829315186,
0.3928864896297455,
0.11108031868934631,
-0.4712789058685303,
-0.0252817552536726,
0.487488329410553,
0.3914705216884613,
-0.3820916414260864,
0.6857661604881287,
-0.16493767499923706,
0.11387459188699722,
-0.07501676678657532,
0.7059280276298523,
0.16388505697250366,
-0.37991100549697876,
-0.16186317801475525,
0.2995995879173279,
0.03974683955311775,
-0.3017599880695343,
0.07552444189786911,
-0.24122704565525055,
0.23311293125152588,
-0.04987664893269539,
0.04765060916543007,
0.16301794350147247,
0.0474746972322464,
-0.09532196819782257,
-0.7000200152397156,
-0.12178130447864532,
-0.23494575917720795,
-0.30647778511047363,
-0.253628134727478,
0.10825387388467789,
-0.23969119787216187,
-0.3946562111377716,
0.17743685841560364,
-0.3772272765636444,
-0.39204609394073486,
0.16420967876911163
] |
247808 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary%20of%20library%20and%20information%20science | Glossary of library and information science | This page is a glossary of library and information science.
A
abstract – a brief set of statements that summarize, classifies, evaluates, or describes the important points of a text, particularly a journal article. An abstract is typically found on the first page of a scholarly article. Because an abstract summarizes an article, it is very useful for either browsing or keyword searching.
annotation – an explanatory or critical note or commentary. Annotation is also the process of adding an explanatory or critical note or commentary to a text. Reference lists are often annotated with comments about what each resource covered and how useful it was.
appendix – a group of supplementary material appended to a text. It is usually related to the material in the main part of the text but not so closely related to it that it should be put into the main text. Put background information and supporting facts in the appendices. An example of a file that should be put in an appendix is a file of detailed charts and graphs of recent research closely related to the paper's main topic.
archive – a place in which historical documents and other records are preserved. Usually operated by large organizations, they may or may not be open to the public. The University of Toronto, for example has an archive that requires a five-story building and contains several climate controlled vaults. A virtual archive is similar except the documents have no physical presence and seldom have historical value.
arrangement - the organization of entities in a certain order.
author – an originator of a creative work, particularly a writer of a text. Searching by author can be an effective form of information gathering.
authority control – a cataloging process in library management of assigning unique headings to subjects such as author names and book titles to enable greater efficiency in referencing.
B
bibliography – a list of writings related to a specific subject, writings by a specific author, or writings used in producing a specific text.
bibliographic database is a computer based list of library resources. Typically each record contains the call number, author, title, publishing information, and other card catalog information.
Boolean logic – the algebraic system, developed by George Boole that is applied to Boolean expressions that contain Boolean operators such as AND, OR, NOT AND, and XOR (exclusive OR). This binary algebraic system is used primarily in switching circuits and database searches. Boolean operators are not to be confused with proximity operators such as NEAR.
browse – to inspect something casually, particularly to use an internet browser to casually inspect Web pages. This involves following links from page to page (also called surfing) rather than searching directly. The main difference between browsing and searching is that with browsing you have very little advance knowledge of what will be on the next page.
C
call number – an identification marker used in libraries to categorize and locate books and other resources. Each resource is assigned a combination of letters and numbers which correspond with a location in the library. For example, the call number for the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association is BF76.7 .P83 2001.
catalog (or catalogue) – a complete and systematically organized enumeration of items, particularly the complete enumeration of a libraries' resources on a set of paper cards (card catalog) or in an electronic database (bibliographic database).
categorization - grouping together like concepts, entities, objects, resources, etc.
citation – the quoting or mentioning of a source. All works used in preparing a paper should be cited.
citation search – a search, by name, of all references to an individual. Some databases have a specific citation search option, otherwise you use a full-text search. For an example of a database that has a specific citation search option go to the University of Michigan Library Database.
classification - the arrangement of subjects into certain categories.
Community analysis – the analysis of a set of people. Such analyses enable librarians to know the needs of patrons and hopefully provide better services to them. In a city library district, the set of relevant people would be all those who live in the city or those people eligible to use the library. Analysis may also be restricted to a subset of eligible library users.
controlled vocabulary – limiting searches to the exact subject headings contained in the Library of Congress. An example would be "History – Bibliography etc". Some indexes, like Wilson Indexes, have their own system of headings and hence their own controlled vocabulary.
copyright – the legal right granted to a copyright holder for the exclusive sale, distribution or reproduction of a creative work. It is a form of intellectual property that prevents others from using a creative work without consent of the owner. For example, Thomas Mann holds the copyright on the book The Oxford Guide to Library Research.
cross reference database – a collection of records that have one or more fields that reference other related records. These connections (for example between "marketing" and "promotion") make browsing very productive and allow related-items searches.
D
database - is an organized collection of data, generally stored and accessed electronically from a computer system.
descriptor – an index term used to identify a record in a database. It can consist of a word, phrase, or alphanumerical term. It can describe the content of the record or be an arbitrary code. When a descriptor is descriptive, it can be an effective search parameter.
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC) – a hierarchical system for classifying books and other library materials by subject, first published in 1876 by the librarian and educator Melvil Dewey, who divided human knowledge into 10 main classes, each of which is divided into 10 divisions, etc. In Dewey Decimal call numbers, Arabic numerals and decimal fractions are used in the class notation (example: 996.9) and an alphanumeric book number is added to subarrange works of the same classification by author and by title and edition (996.9 B3262h).
dissertation – a written treatise or thesis, usually lengthy, usually authored by a doctoral candidate, usually directed by a faculty advisor, and usually intended to advance the state of the art in a given discipline. There can be an oral component to the process, in which the dissertation must be defended in front of critical judges. Dissertation searches are valuable because of their currency.
document delivery – the transfer of a database record, or other information resource, to the end user. It can involve direct internet or email transfers, CD delivery via mail, paper delivery via mail, or delivery via interlibrary loan.
E
edition – a version of a published text, or all the instances of a published text issued at a given time. An example would be the 2nd edition (2001).
entry – any record, or a field in a record, that has been included, or entered, into a database. An entry word is the headword in a dictionary, encyclopedia, or glossary.
Enumeration – is a complete, ordered listing of all the items in a collection.
F
field – an element of a database record. It contains one type of information and has a unique address. All or most other records in the database have a similar field. An example is the field "name".
finding aid - a description of an archival collection that describes the collection as a whole rather than individual pieces within the collection.
free-text search –
1. is a simple word or character search, usually with very few Boolean, proximity, or scope limiting options. It is simple and fast.
2. a search in which all the entries are freed from their original format of presentation. Text that originated in a journal article looks much the same as text that originated in a glossary or chat room.
3. the deliberate limiting of the scope of the search parameters to include only records that are available free of charge.
full text database – a collection of records containing complete versions of the original source, rather than just bibliographies, abstracts, or abridgements. An example is JSTOR. A related concept is that of a full text search which searches only sources that are complete, and ignores those records that are mere abstracts or descriptors.
I
Information extraction - is the task of automatically extracting structured information from unstructured and/or semi-structured machine-readable documents.
Information literacy - is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning.
Information mapping - is a research-based method for writing clear and user focused information, based on the audience's needs and the purpose of the information.
Information science - is a field primarily concerned with the analysis, collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval, movement, dissemination, and protection of information.
interlibrary loan or interloan – a service whereby a user of one library can borrow books or receive photocopies of documents that are owned by another library. The user makes a request with their local library, which, acting as an intermediary, identifies owners of the desired item, places the request, receives the item, makes it available to the user, and arranges for its return. This resource sharing system is being promoted by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA).
inventory - a tool used to provide a record of what is owned.
J
journal – a periodical publication that presents articles in a specific subject area. These may be academic journals, trade journals, or organizational newsletters.
K
keyword search – a search of a database using some keyword, a significant word from the title, abstract, or descriptor of a record as a point of reference to the article's overall content.
L
literature search – A systematic and thorough search of all material, print or electronic, published on a given topic. This can include books, journals, newspapers, catalogs, encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, bibliographies, handbooks, manuals, indexes, yearbooks, gazetteers, directories, chronologies, almanacs, and guides.
location device - a number or other designation system that is used to physically locate an item.
M
MARC (Machine-Readable Cataloging) - a set standard of prescribed codes that allows a record to be "read" by a machine by identifying specific elements of a catalog record. MARC is used to share bibliographic data between libraries by transmitting the encoded metadata from one system to another, then displayed to the user in an identifiable form.
menu – a list of options from which a computer user can choose. This saves the user from having to memorize a set of commands. It also reduces the decision down to the basic information required (note the etymology from the French word minuet meaning small).
monograph – a written document on a single subject, usually scholarly in nature and of approximately book length. They are valuable information sources because of their depth in a limited subject area.
O
OCLC (Online Computer Library Center) - a comprehensive bibliographic network that provides bibliographic, abstract, and full-text information to users.
operators – symbols that represent operations. In computer science there are binary and unary operators depending on the number of elements or records an operator acts on. In database searching there are Boolean and Proximity operators. Boolean operators are a subclass of logical operators (Logical operators are binary operators that manipulate data at the bit level.). A Boolean operator manipulates the binary "true/false" value.
online catalog or electronic catalog – a record of the holdings of an institution (e.g. library or museum) or group of institutions (a consortium), often searchable, that can be found on the Internet.
open access - a mechanism by which research outputs are distributed online, free of cost or other barriers,[1] and, in its most precise meaning, with the addition of an open license applied to promote reuse.
open source- in production and development a philosophy or methodology promoting free redistribution and access to an end product's design and implementation details.
P
pathfinder - a subject bibliography used to find resources the library has available on a specific topic.
paywall - a method of restricting access to content via a paid subscription.
periodical index – an alphabetized listing of works that are published at regular intervals of more than one day.
plagiarism – the passing off as your own, the work of others'. Original sources are not given credit.
primary source – the originator of a primary record. A primary record is a resource created by the same people that initially experienced or used it. They create the records for their own purposes, records that often remain unpublished. Sometimes they witness an event, sometimes they are involved in an event, and sometimes the record is directly created by the event.
R
record – an individual entry in a database and simultaneously a collection of related data fields. Each field, although related, is of a different type to all the other fields in the record (and this is what differentiates a record from an array).
Reference Service – the personal assistance provided to the library users in finding information. All the functions performed by a trained librarian employed in the reference section of a library to meet the information needs of patrons (in person, by telephone, or electronically), including but not limited to answering substantive questions, instructing users in the selection and use of appropriate tools and techniques for finding information, conducting searches on behalf of the patron, directing users to the location of library resources, assisting in the evaluation of information, referring patrons to resources outside the library when appropriate, etc. are regarded as the services provided under library reference services.
review article – a periodical article that describes, analyses', and criticizes a book, journal article, movie, or other creative or academic work.
S
scholarly article – an article, usually in a scholarly journal, that deals with academic subject matter at an advanced level.
search strategy – a generalized set of technique used in the process of determining what information you currently have, determining what information you need, and determining how to get it. Some possible strategies include; controlled vocabulary searches, specific entry searches, browsing, general scanning, broad to narrow searches, adjacent item browsing, subject tracings searches, keyword searches, citation searches, literature searches, cross reference searches, and chat room questions and other direct people contact searches.
subject heading – the name of the category that a record is included under. For example, the record "natural frequency of vibration" might be found under the subject heading of "Acoustics", and acoustics, in turn, might be found under the subject heading "Physics".
subject directory – an hierarchical grouping of related subject headings. The tree structure shows relationships between subject headings. They can be found either inside a database or separate from a data base.
T
thesaurus – a book of synonyms, often also containing antonyms. An example is Roget's Thesaurus. In database searching, a thesaurus strategy is to use multiple iterations to search for related words and generate results. The database will often suggest synonyms and related words to try.
truncation – the shortening of a search word, field, or record. In the case of truncating a search word, this is a strategy used to search among multiple variants or spellings of a word. The asterisk (*) is generally used as a wildcard to replace a letter or letters. An example is invest* which will pick up instances of invest, investor, investments, investigations, etc. In some databases the asterisk must be accompanied with a number that define the number of characters that can be truncated.
References
Library and information science | [
0.1767628937959671,
0.5218361616134644,
-0.21422696113586426,
0.32822683453559875,
-0.19449636340141296,
-0.26058778166770935,
0.17454542219638824,
0.8373978137969971,
-0.5245785117149353,
-0.8048076033592224,
-0.6278188228607178,
0.33644211292266846,
-0.34537312388420105,
0.3237279951572418,
-0.11881227046251297,
0.3717000186443329,
0.621694803237915,
0.4252966642379761,
-0.15285621583461761,
-0.19844600558280945,
-0.09790598601102829,
0.47932952642440796,
0.18411028385162354,
-0.5828122496604919,
0.46820539236068726,
-0.15892840921878815,
-0.12378674000501633,
-0.09129709005355835,
-0.47159650921821594,
-0.270242840051651,
0.11363466084003448,
0.532598078250885,
-0.07402705401182175,
0.2436572164297104,
0.25351014733314514,
-0.21003060042858124,
-0.12841325998306274,
-0.42590251564979553,
0.40048500895500183,
-0.34523218870162964,
-0.17250846326351166,
0.30416181683540344,
0.06633098423480988,
0.5004310011863708,
-0.07739153504371643,
-0.129194438457489,
-1.7222198247909546,
-0.30547139048576355,
-1.4459896087646484,
0.37611308693885803,
-0.4492418169975281,
-0.04134145751595497,
0.8860412240028381,
0.33240100741386414,
-0.4276953339576721,
0.5592470765113831,
-0.8023693561553955,
-0.1668335646390915,
0.16982798278331757,
0.22969715297222137,
0.614081859588623,
0.07422834634780884,
-0.20965875685214996,
-0.01599593088030815,
0.9295408129692078,
0.05231841653585434,
-0.04846515506505966,
0.33075079321861267,
-0.635887622833252,
-0.2691415250301361,
-0.08610927313566208,
-0.2932281196117401,
-0.07259359955787659,
0.1968570202589035,
-0.43350547552108765,
0.2618050277233124,
0.4322952926158905,
-0.36988168954849243,
-0.4106428623199463,
-0.5774456262588501,
-0.636108934879303,
0.9380708336830139,
0.4127151668071747,
0.030760306864976883,
0.5255791544914246,
0.2508068382740021,
-0.9628978371620178,
-0.2044030725955963,
-0.32617831230163574,
0.7154512405395508,
0.425235778093338,
-0.3673374652862549,
0.44784414768218994,
0.17897988855838776,
0.40353381633758545,
-0.04024018347263336,
0.11022919416427612,
-0.1107591986656189,
-0.12933200597763062,
0.2939348518848419,
0.10608767718076706,
0.611066460609436,
0.5809179544448853,
-0.3707183301448822,
-0.4322483539581299,
0.014994245022535324,
-0.07989642024040222,
-0.5009607076644897,
0.13059750199317932,
-0.21668115258216858,
-0.5038451552391052,
0.1728624403476715,
-0.016067253425717354,
-0.25700750946998596,
-0.12051217257976532,
0.8247209191322327,
0.7639594674110413,
-0.08495371043682098,
-0.37277093529701233,
0.4496805667877197,
-0.22526125609874725,
0.8506320118904114,
0.24190916121006012,
-0.2579377293586731,
-0.44273003935813904,
0.6118450164794922,
0.7123636603355408,
0.40549957752227783,
0.13663561642169952,
0.2815617322921753,
0.34102290868759155,
1.508451223373413,
-0.08374623954296112,
-0.42462611198425293,
-0.49810299277305603,
-0.19625011086463928,
0.4994201362133026,
0.2898223400115967,
-0.0580616258084774,
0.30906203389167786,
-0.21254605054855347,
-0.9022794961929321,
-1.1849596500396729,
-0.6271645426750183,
0.3383706212043762,
-0.5895364284515381,
-0.01371797639876604,
-0.23811975121498108,
0.02370084449648857,
0.04008302092552185,
0.37499746680259705,
-0.19534321129322052,
-0.5290911197662354,
0.4400729238986969,
-0.12322281301021576,
0.9002077579498291,
0.8535050749778748,
-0.09906096011400223,
0.3203786313533783,
0.07652123272418976,
0.2914462685585022,
-0.5241812467575073,
-0.7485541701316833,
0.32846614718437195,
-0.3079737722873688,
-0.36997559666633606,
0.1169402003288269,
0.5545539855957031,
0.5475239753723145,
0.32064467668533325,
-0.3327731788158417,
-0.34556132555007935,
-0.027157552540302277,
-0.13201220333576202,
0.3183611333370209,
0.44179069995880127,
0.5318167805671692,
0.4655502438545227,
0.7017442584037781,
-0.3025696873664856,
-1.0889242887496948,
-0.10798297822475433,
-0.09601804614067078,
-0.30813464522361755,
0.45311951637268066,
-0.0024051216896623373,
0.9303075075149536,
0.26477426290512085,
0.026499910280108452,
-0.3603801429271698,
-0.37851279973983765,
-0.5337315797805786,
0.5792467594146729,
-0.41190069913864136,
1.4514366388320923,
0.09012116491794586,
-0.12062515318393707,
0.9239556789398193,
-0.6583857536315918,
0.45112520456314087,
-0.2516292333602905,
-0.29819944500923157,
0.5993642210960388,
0.24718770384788513,
-0.6596999168395996,
0.3747960925102234,
-0.16127470135688782,
0.05126592889428139,
0.008486758917570114,
0.3322139084339142,
0.6527122855186462,
-0.3047422170639038,
0.2150314450263977,
-0.2938346564769745,
0.42326754331588745,
-0.16451767086982727,
-0.17580504715442657,
0.45641276240348816,
-0.006101616658270359,
-0.14594148099422455,
1.2360626459121704,
-0.17879325151443481,
0.41038641333580017,
0.4195564389228821,
-0.31012874841690063,
0.2927439212799072,
0.3095945715904236,
0.5429245829582214,
0.6562692523002625,
-0.7724190354347229,
0.7107048034667969,
-0.49231836199760437,
0.5237194299697876,
-0.35196447372436523,
-0.6191260814666748,
-0.46409547328948975,
-0.48972025513648987,
0.1668197214603424,
0.011227310635149479,
-0.7134869694709778,
0.08638671785593033,
-0.4991365373134613,
-0.5069025754928589,
0.3533530831336975,
0.5245591402053833,
-0.23477481305599213,
-0.2791646718978882,
-0.30591636896133423,
0.0725543349981308,
-0.40685778856277466,
0.7660548686981201,
0.8043491244316101,
0.5836524963378906,
-0.7718805074691772,
-0.7438162565231323,
0.29584696888923645,
-0.30731290578842163,
-0.06091120094060898,
0.5520460605621338,
0.5059400796890259,
-0.5189417004585266,
0.009854091331362724,
0.2852010130882263,
-0.03387497365474701,
-0.4705258011817932,
-0.07878522574901581,
-0.06444888561964035,
-0.7448685765266418,
-0.11215619742870331,
-0.19756656885147095,
0.3880615830421448,
-0.17221923172473907,
-0.1562696248292923,
-0.2950465977191925,
0.18639540672302246,
-0.7018781304359436,
0.33048099279403687,
-0.07684360444545746,
-0.841513454914093,
-0.38347455859184265,
0.05634896457195282,
0.3595694601535797,
0.60366290807724,
-0.33398017287254333,
-0.5270021557807922,
-0.41780397295951843,
0.44527941942214966,
-0.2196110486984253,
0.09236223250627518,
-0.2188643515110016,
-0.49852046370506287,
0.28139737248420715,
-0.45455196499824524,
-0.13485319912433624,
0.10531163960695267,
0.672378420829773,
-0.45531994104385376,
0.23500856757164001,
-0.25824645161628723,
-0.5573650002479553,
-0.41498926281929016,
0.5199956893920898,
0.06861215829849243,
0.014341376721858978,
0.10626882314682007,
-0.1630585491657257,
-0.27634578943252563,
0.3407518267631531,
-5.027068614959717,
0.21919354796409607,
-0.6053079962730408,
-0.12867678701877594,
-0.21631976962089539,
0.092959463596344,
0.4670916795730591,
-0.2816024124622345,
-0.16416850686073303,
-0.24218012392520905,
-0.175430566072464,
0.14248591661453247,
0.3226017951965332,
1.0571463108062744,
0.7056294083595276,
0.6537425518035889,
0.15825916826725006,
0.07327625900506973,
-0.07642127573490143,
0.1430339515209198,
-0.12074968218803406,
0.16741454601287842,
-0.22075308859348297,
0.46091657876968384,
0.5634199380874634,
0.5990988612174988,
-0.43883293867111206,
0.20639917254447937,
-0.29983729124069214,
0.03918309137225151,
0.500922679901123,
-0.3225577175617218,
-0.42640241980552673,
-0.2688693404197693,
-0.3961349129676819,
-0.13171923160552979,
0.8284996747970581,
0.7398989200592041,
0.28642746806144714,
-0.6460472345352173,
-0.2765328288078308,
0.3266148865222931,
-0.20641906559467316,
0.3135574162006378,
0.3417297303676605,
-0.09568354487419128,
-0.27024874091148376,
-0.3005870580673218,
0.07596749812364578,
0.9540622234344482,
-0.8930040597915649,
-0.030063513666391373,
0.23691195249557495,
0.1066003143787384,
-0.2577386498451233,
-0.5990722179412842,
0.9235817193984985,
0.24053142964839935,
-0.10171151161193848,
-0.2228521704673767,
0.6642343997955322,
-0.6955063939094543,
0.2946784794330597,
-0.9385038614273071,
-0.4933060109615326,
-0.21973098814487457,
-1.0279090404510498,
-0.7901288866996765,
0.12496800720691681,
0.09926354885101318,
-0.33623597025871277,
0.4639541506767273,
-0.37527549266815186,
-0.5076474547386169,
0.46836334466934204,
-0.2994658648967743,
-0.21560947597026825,
0.09213430434465408,
0.4118232727050781,
0.40491846203804016,
0.09827958047389984,
-0.2145303338766098,
-0.8072539567947388,
0.9598714113235474,
-0.24690894782543182,
-0.5949695706367493,
-0.4863831698894501,
-0.40324950218200684,
-0.8549491167068481,
-0.5977522730827332,
0.53807133436203,
-0.31921929121017456,
0.10759485512971878,
0.4672072231769562,
0.2398437112569809,
0.2333061397075653,
0.8945369124412537,
0.505658745765686,
0.7106748223304749,
-0.20436060428619385,
0.7430862188339233,
-0.377445250749588,
0.21349218487739563,
-0.9897522926330566,
-0.2004924863576889,
-0.3986615836620331,
-0.3130455017089844,
0.415279746055603,
0.24813401699066162,
-1.1832826137542725,
-0.16849862039089203,
-0.011477631516754627,
-0.6338246464729309,
-0.33858707547187805,
0.0034520833287388086,
0.1623169183731079,
-0.2221890389919281,
0.40532878041267395,
0.33090201020240784,
-0.14676862955093384,
-0.21780526638031006,
-0.2781004309654236,
0.4760560393333435,
-0.12593156099319458,
-0.38810333609580994,
-0.7169582843780518,
-0.06084961071610451,
0.31316325068473816,
-0.5206817984580994,
-0.13140028715133667,
0.008989348076283932,
0.43133533000946045,
0.43082618713378906,
-0.22721612453460693,
0.10320362448692322,
-0.7171999216079712,
-0.13988231122493744,
0.3788105845451355,
0.38164928555488586,
-0.7875292301177979,
0.38013866543769836,
-0.20183049142360687,
-0.33398061990737915,
-0.11913290619850159,
0.3802710175514221,
0.32426074147224426,
-0.09895022958517075,
-0.05153350904583931,
-0.1553972065448761,
0.7914992570877075,
-0.5397453308105469,
-0.8325760960578918,
0.0019371443195268512,
-0.3035076856613159,
0.43664389848709106,
0.10954906046390533,
0.32364189624786377,
0.39197206497192383,
-0.606020450592041,
-0.5933743715286255,
-0.0556328184902668,
-0.3876349627971649,
-0.8510168194770813,
-0.05569242313504219,
0.2263028919696808,
-0.6326780319213867,
-0.43641427159309387,
0.019047467038035393,
-0.38181552290916443,
0.9088778495788574,
0.4149671792984009,
-0.012597049586474895,
-0.5012586116790771,
-0.140126571059227,
0.25490373373031616,
-0.2817842662334442,
0.38883355259895325,
0.5456767082214355,
-0.3649194538593292,
0.14422748982906342,
0.25791752338409424,
-0.8610067963600159,
0.034459929913282394,
0.7260580658912659,
0.175381138920784,
0.1904481053352356,
0.24440361559391022,
0.017796164378523827,
-0.7129994630813599,
-0.26281553506851196,
0.21314965188503265,
0.1440991461277008,
0.6701967120170593,
-0.053751640021800995,
-0.26201552152633667,
-0.7001668214797974,
0.5577864646911621,
0.19279229640960693,
-0.2413986772298813,
-0.7007542848587036,
0.8698097467422485,
0.9182282090187073,
-0.12977951765060425,
0.3281673491001129,
0.11623159050941467,
-0.47694265842437744,
0.3361453413963318,
0.053596656769514084,
-0.6376599073410034,
0.7196568250656128,
-0.01566944643855095,
-0.047710660845041275,
-0.1637270748615265,
0.2126082181930542,
-0.778145432472229,
-0.3387153446674347,
0.3996013402938843,
0.039640240371227264,
-0.37307974696159363,
-0.046845901757478714,
0.4874877631664276,
0.26709866523742676,
-0.31884053349494934,
-0.12639465928077698,
-0.22428123652935028,
0.3151729702949524,
0.32898208498954773,
-0.11458917707204819,
0.8138691186904907,
-0.3407699167728424,
-0.3890663981437683,
-0.15719915926456451,
0.5869365930557251,
0.4212467074394226,
-0.0006997328018769622,
0.2901286482810974,
-0.8419811725616455,
0.897391140460968,
0.20225201547145844,
-0.09466250985860825,
-0.21941447257995605,
0.18730634450912476,
0.22776761651039124,
-1.0153534412384033,
-0.5376817584037781,
-0.027032630518078804,
0.4457675516605377,
-0.6311169862747192,
-0.9404771327972412,
-0.2990652918815613,
0.40047046542167664,
-1.2227516174316406,
-0.4840112626552582,
-0.689693808555603,
0.9273806214332581,
0.03756357729434967,
-0.40776145458221436,
0.03196001797914505,
0.35288822650909424,
0.32771146297454834,
-0.21767768263816833,
0.00970699917525053,
-0.5324428677558899,
0.9613009095191956,
0.8214442133903503,
0.3568483889102936,
0.08747367560863495,
-0.25221729278564453,
0.4271836280822754,
-0.08616520464420319,
-0.02485310472548008,
-0.33697256445884705,
-0.17799502611160278,
0.09204734116792679,
0.7255293726921082,
-0.6106012463569641,
0.039980195462703705,
-0.875908374786377,
-0.10686737298965454,
-0.5779123306274414,
-0.5596099495887756,
-0.2713416814804077,
0.7678480744361877,
-0.24780118465423584,
0.6096996068954468,
-0.8027952909469604,
-0.21506956219673157,
0.38581880927085876,
-0.26152503490448,
0.03172346577048302,
-0.5118368268013,
0.2657153904438019,
-0.5840486288070679,
0.4414021074771881,
-0.2145693600177765,
0.4900057017803192,
0.04625736549496651,
0.3741215467453003,
-0.0008280748734250665,
-0.2109951227903366,
-0.28546085953712463,
0.5346366167068481,
0.2690321207046509,
-0.39831867814064026,
0.9718412756919861,
0.2536085844039917,
0.10426711291074753,
0.25853821635246277,
-0.48818475008010864,
-0.11284354329109192,
-0.008171068504452705,
0.43623948097229004,
0.6064683794975281,
0.6556367874145508,
-0.37783950567245483,
-0.31090477108955383,
0.13963736593723297,
-0.5919943451881409,
0.6630460619926453,
0.11893723905086517,
-0.38880372047424316,
-0.4704137444496155,
0.7310141921043396,
0.07611905038356781,
-1.4683618545532227,
0.7686439752578735,
-0.018464036285877228,
-0.10947246104478836,
1.0093568563461304,
-0.49015095829963684,
0.8348501920700073,
0.5134173631668091,
-0.5050327777862549,
1.0279637575149536,
-0.1293453574180603,
-0.6429838538169861,
0.14604926109313965,
-0.643750011920929,
-0.11232565343379974,
0.847653329372406,
0.43084949254989624,
0.7828642725944519,
0.02950800023972988,
-0.10653781145811081,
-0.617798924446106,
0.18188588321208954,
-0.13543842732906342,
0.2042953372001648,
0.053292807191610336,
-0.26911866664886475,
-0.1621081531047821,
0.5900124907493591,
0.5074481964111328,
-0.05978323891758919,
0.17661245167255402,
-0.251558780670166,
0.3706297278404236,
-0.2377009391784668,
-0.09021658450365067,
-0.7525447607040405,
0.17482644319534302,
0.4528449475765228,
-0.13385681807994843,
0.09197255969047546,
-0.18168377876281738,
-0.06069764122366905,
0.41039231419563293,
0.10076982527971268,
0.2919158339500427,
0.4068325161933899,
-0.2995266616344452,
0.3692033588886261,
-0.20891539752483368,
0.05112236738204956,
-0.012007087469100952,
0.35934069752693176,
0.23305287957191467,
0.014708612114191055,
0.568461000919342,
-0.21141831576824188,
-0.26769548654556274,
0.5067859292030334,
-0.3015802502632141,
-0.9076387882232666,
0.29851436614990234,
-0.08664491772651672,
-0.2033458948135376,
0.7088435888290405,
0.043712060898542404,
-0.08086822181940079,
-0.2832931578159332,
-0.3724004626274109,
0.3625088632106781,
-0.1786479949951172,
-0.6852278113365173,
0.29520294070243835,
-1.0036379098892212,
1.0604767799377441,
0.28694775700569153,
-0.41760241985321045,
-0.9457126259803772,
0.14746643602848053,
0.12025794386863708,
0.05165479704737663,
-0.4962492287158966,
0.2425556182861328,
-0.32852277159690857,
0.23395808041095734,
-0.34225520491600037,
0.19316786527633667,
0.008494320325553417,
0.23578451573848724,
-0.09309400618076324,
0.31958815455436707,
0.010891101323068142,
0.31330037117004395,
0.4011748433113098,
-0.39947375655174255,
-0.2475244253873825,
-0.3055979907512665,
-0.22024166584014893,
-0.3198098838329315,
0.2773345112800598,
0.3249145746231079,
-0.3090914487838745,
0.16428054869174957,
-0.3025861382484436,
0.5289508104324341,
0.03715196251869202,
0.05594245344400406,
-0.21279539167881012,
-0.4050399959087372,
-0.7201741337776184,
0.0812867060303688,
-0.04129142686724663,
0.30988502502441406,
0.009180789813399315,
0.7155748605728149,
0.4830777645111084,
-0.9016607999801636,
-0.8766689300537109,
0.1863509565591812,
0.32687699794769287,
0.4062640070915222,
-1.3526087999343872,
0.11685477197170258,
-0.1583971083164215,
-0.7938924431800842,
-0.2772179841995239,
0.8433157205581665,
0.33754006028175354,
-0.27667832374572754,
0.206013485789299,
-0.2439333200454712,
-0.010694270953536034,
-0.0616462342441082,
-0.026209227740764618,
-0.7168759703636169,
0.23633800446987152,
0.6150864362716675
] |
247812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Tudor | Edmund Tudor | Edmund Tudor may refer to:
Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, father of Henry VII
Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset, son of Henry VII | [
-0.0768030434846878,
-0.41856661438941956,
0.13799050450325012,
0.015710752457380295,
-0.4950013756752014,
0.917158305644989,
0.16106776893138885,
0.045872222632169724,
-0.46903902292251587,
-0.3860172927379608,
-0.20926491916179657,
0.08099556714296341,
-0.14293652772903442,
0.26353487372398376,
-0.23474380373954773,
0.2824147343635559,
-0.19800692796707153,
0.04230527952313423,
-0.0832248255610466,
-0.4391155540943146,
-0.11747322976589203,
-0.1637585610151291,
0.30376067757606506,
-0.025503922253847122,
0.5163456201553345,
0.0993446633219719,
1.1995810270309448,
-0.6199514865875244,
-0.5151164531707764,
-0.4231986403465271,
0.08887302875518799,
-0.050905920565128326,
0.24048905074596405,
-0.09922966361045837,
-0.5952938795089722,
-0.7543453574180603,
-0.07065260410308838,
-0.19566577672958374,
-0.5579314827919006,
-0.03978443518280983,
-0.28203874826431274,
-0.11675561219453812,
0.21206460893154144,
0.2402896136045456,
-0.02130977250635624,
-0.4503289759159088,
-1.1584898233413696,
0.14251434803009033,
-0.26859670877456665,
-0.13076838850975037,
0.5048729181289673,
0.47956085205078125,
-0.7084928154945374,
0.34060773253440857,
0.7307228446006775,
-0.24937623739242554,
-0.6285043954849243,
-0.18605494499206543,
0.22745634615421295,
0.26203474402427673,
0.6821401715278625,
0.2615615129470825,
0.23197638988494873,
0.5056421756744385,
0.16163818538188934,
-0.36788713932037354,
0.30797475576400757,
0.24496234953403473,
-0.7922597527503967,
-0.14356103539466858,
-0.08742543309926987,
0.24830104410648346,
-0.12830431759357452,
0.422386109828949,
0.09110526740550995,
0.008418247103691101,
0.5049625039100647,
0.20688557624816895,
0.4831623435020447,
-0.39069899916648865,
0.6523809432983398,
-0.9630079865455627,
0.7590727806091309,
0.9332135319709778,
0.24547739326953888,
0.5945000648498535,
0.2523646950721741,
0.37177547812461853,
-0.17504596710205078,
-0.2882361114025116,
-0.4283294081687927,
0.2404482364654541,
-0.1580946445465088,
-0.2827858030796051,
-0.36065495014190674,
0.06256497651338577,
0.22743530571460724,
-0.21482935547828674,
-0.03206755593419075,
-0.7176102995872498,
-0.7783764600753784,
0.616916298866272,
-0.11545196175575256,
-0.20197555422782898,
-1.0751761198043823,
0.1161842867732048,
-0.37476950883865356,
0.34872928261756897,
-0.35261020064353943,
-0.18873807787895203,
-0.28548815846443176,
0.4265233278274536,
-0.10659953206777573,
0.1252845674753189,
0.2642597556114197,
0.22729484736919403,
-0.1618369221687317,
-0.9975292682647705,
-0.5405476093292236,
-0.09047205746173859,
-0.015146799385547638,
0.6052023768424988,
-0.5214551687240601,
0.4806973338127136,
-0.005299244076013565,
-0.12652289867401123,
0.7649847269058228,
0.1454276740550995,
0.21958237886428833,
-0.22116594016551971,
0.07425340265035629,
0.8296236395835876,
-0.32490116357803345,
-0.3507683575153351,
0.7164468765258789,
-0.36513856053352356,
-0.2789350748062134,
0.16596576571464539,
0.5380966663360596,
0.2844168245792389,
-0.9096487164497375,
-0.38710060715675354,
-0.07162271440029144,
0.4362827241420746,
0.42822420597076416,
0.24221426248550415,
0.15326644480228424,
0.13779033720493317,
-0.32956036925315857,
0.5934950709342957,
-0.3036295473575592,
0.7473517060279846,
-0.38930898904800415,
-0.750968337059021,
-0.26430758833885193,
0.7027187347412109,
1.1220622062683105,
-0.2785813808441162,
0.45856156945228577,
0.7990843057632446,
-0.2528701424598694,
0.5177209973335266,
-0.3321361839771271,
-0.045540135353803635,
0.7360177636146545,
0.376822292804718,
0.169222891330719,
0.0030858393292874098,
-0.8946848511695862,
-0.19185632467269897,
-0.8940303325653076,
0.34450089931488037,
0.010164213366806507,
-0.5456811785697937,
-0.11330372095108032,
0.7263559103012085,
1.3245000839233398,
-0.42873263359069824,
0.6311007142066956,
-0.10634006559848785,
-0.460549533367157,
0.22420452535152435,
0.1311291754245758,
-0.3084160387516022,
0.06560011953115463,
0.4680274724960327,
0.05793162062764168,
-0.546410083770752,
0.10789573937654495,
-0.09446065127849579,
-0.025444382801651955,
-0.09513362497091293,
-0.26194870471954346,
-0.6943222880363464,
0.3202683925628662,
-0.5003570318222046,
-0.47765621542930603,
0.5606554746627808,
0.08488783240318298,
1.0898659229278564,
0.16019964218139648,
-0.23530222475528717,
0.22843588888645172,
0.23009611666202545,
0.14683450758457184,
-0.5350009202957153,
-0.09790290147066116,
0.21595965325832367,
1.3279662132263184,
0.7173748016357422,
0.6752623319625854,
0.1138797476887703,
-0.0548752062022686,
0.37297865748405457,
-0.5615748763084412,
-0.2850363552570343,
-0.22405454516410828,
-0.09479150921106339,
0.2903737425804138,
-0.6049293875694275,
0.5518949627876282,
-0.31639716029167175,
0.021137850359082222,
0.3099333941936493,
0.11792314797639847,
0.6766714453697205,
-0.791366457939148,
-0.0951947420835495,
-0.6061493158340454,
-0.5350054502487183,
-0.29395076632499695,
0.31916776299476624,
-0.3352878987789154,
-0.1503726989030838,
0.43318167328834534,
-0.12729425728321075,
0.10210040956735611,
-0.1232619658112526,
-0.2518705129623413,
0.005332376807928085,
-0.3521609306335449,
0.5037294626235962,
-0.2385709434747696,
0.6285531520843506,
-0.44249752163887024,
-0.19516126811504364,
-0.026437930762767792,
-0.05925880745053291,
-0.29880160093307495,
-0.3046719431877136,
0.3897859454154968,
-0.1764252781867981,
-0.30881741642951965,
-0.05811037868261337,
0.18723928928375244,
-0.47505253553390503,
-0.07201401144266129,
0.07685300707817078,
-0.6893776655197144,
0.8453540802001953,
-0.15091170370578766,
0.5813025236129761,
-0.1884600669145584,
0.4557039141654968,
0.8807857632637024,
-0.32255473732948303,
-0.020511368289589882,
-0.8085025548934937,
0.06546647101640701,
0.09550495445728302,
0.2806597948074341,
-0.2158728688955307,
-0.8998603820800781,
-0.4676341414451599,
0.5637547373771667,
0.08994226157665253,
-0.2752992808818817,
0.9244031310081482,
0.07943342626094818,
-0.5406573414802551,
0.12030075490474701,
0.22874587774276733,
-0.49652478098869324,
-0.08885318785905838,
-0.22516094148159027,
-0.20046383142471313,
-0.20031704008579254,
-0.4038551151752472,
0.020727436989545822,
0.25090742111206055,
0.043593212962150574,
0.3429340422153473,
-0.15125274658203125,
-0.2597667872905731,
0.08791284263134003,
1.0489022731781006,
-0.19743476808071136,
0.11838223040103912,
-0.5553911924362183,
-0.4484572112560272,
-0.6741035580635071,
-0.021449508145451546,
-0.06894349306821823,
0.3020112216472626,
1.0634007453918457,
0.008543206378817558,
-0.2713048756122589,
-0.4357699453830719,
-5.404383659362793,
0.3326088488101959,
0.08052971214056015,
0.09882687777280807,
0.7934226989746094,
0.003908285405486822,
0.36267951130867004,
-0.4245070219039917,
0.29073694348335266,
-0.18834230303764343,
0.7760598063468933,
0.14281120896339417,
-0.0118263503536582,
0.20803110301494598,
0.6848623752593994,
0.20211362838745117,
0.8830726742744446,
-0.4859868288040161,
0.5708726644515991,
8.302883429678332e-7,
-0.3949333727359772,
0.13935865461826324,
-0.2755592167377472,
0.31192660331726074,
0.5348231196403503,
0.20138542354106903,
0.11087588220834732,
-0.42156168818473816,
-0.7770718336105347,
-0.4989043176174164,
-0.031465623527765274,
0.07726721465587616,
0.7606605291366577,
-0.09896919876337051,
-0.702299952507019,
-0.11636810004711151,
-0.20659483969211578,
0.7968881130218506,
-0.022320175543427467,
-0.043108437210321426,
0.258003830909729,
-0.028972694650292397,
-0.8627597093582153,
0.2807879149913788,
-0.2833555340766907,
-0.0965120792388916,
-0.7442873120307922,
0.626576840877533,
-0.24210809171199799,
0.23351526260375977,
-0.3539251685142517,
0.34094342589378357,
0.4048798978328705,
-0.10881462693214417,
0.07816541939973831,
0.3890725076198578,
-0.36652231216430664,
-0.24829310178756714,
-0.4919268786907196,
-0.05028607323765755,
0.3404025733470917,
-0.34247320890426636,
0.059476546943187714,
0.5096486806869507,
0.11803152412176132,
-0.6739572882652283,
-0.5298601388931274,
0.22704851627349854,
0.32522401213645935,
0.1512002795934677,
-0.2789386212825775,
0.07743261754512787,
0.1296561360359192,
-0.776417076587677,
-0.09639354050159454,
-0.15450380742549896,
-0.18793630599975586,
0.3994702398777008,
0.6277153491973877,
-0.6955708861351013,
-0.4959847033023834,
-0.08181779831647873,
-0.42460697889328003,
0.22417566180229187,
-0.0632171630859375,
0.1126682385802269,
0.0358038954436779,
-0.16236472129821777,
-0.2738461196422577,
-0.11604016274213791,
0.48971790075302124,
-0.49686405062675476,
-0.05558411404490471,
0.4290781617164612,
0.23888923227787018,
-0.13913357257843018,
-0.09694787114858627,
0.23560044169425964,
0.8775523900985718,
0.15298402309417725,
-0.6504539251327515,
0.05435953289270401,
-0.6747859120368958,
-0.4477323889732361,
0.17256984114646912,
0.16599932312965393,
0.08941074460744858,
0.009155702777206898,
0.05367884039878845,
-0.3759816586971283,
0.5575498938560486,
-0.26106277108192444,
-0.3406498432159424,
-1.0749702453613281,
-0.0032964551355689764,
-0.5610579252243042,
-0.28254422545433044,
-0.0788658857345581,
0.5323430299758911,
-0.30313369631767273,
-0.2480810284614563,
0.7538818120956421,
-0.7452280521392822,
0.32801613211631775,
0.40025728940963745,
0.12945722043514252,
0.3807376027107239,
0.0060516539961099625,
-0.24191901087760925,
0.11011643707752228,
0.46414706110954285,
-0.024569883942604065,
-0.042620699852705,
0.18337072432041168,
-0.1557358056306839,
-0.46524688601493835,
-0.10454852133989334,
-0.5955182909965515,
-0.10051777958869934,
-0.08070807158946991,
-0.6040163636207581,
0.044039517641067505,
0.445589542388916,
0.01600424386560917,
0.14644168317317963,
-0.09851908683776855,
-0.1495009958744049,
0.3264610171318054,
0.18739286065101624,
0.47978025674819946,
0.11143327504396439,
-0.14070738852024078,
0.8297023177146912,
-0.03889170661568642,
-0.5308022499084473,
-0.556973397731781,
-0.16044224798679352,
0.19419601559638977,
-0.7416537404060364,
-0.3433901369571686,
-0.18189983069896698,
-0.0027261339128017426,
-0.2744944095611572,
0.24954591691493988,
0.18655535578727722,
-0.039534974843263626,
-0.35628601908683777,
-0.31880876421928406,
-0.6894566416740417,
0.682296097278595,
0.3254939913749695,
-0.49453866481781006,
0.04380856081843376,
-0.6152036190032959,
0.4800911247730255,
-0.31962665915489197,
0.08239246159791946,
0.3749679625034332,
-0.005009254906326532,
-0.14031973481178284,
0.13140125572681427,
0.32485514879226685,
-0.6409031748771667,
-0.11638879776000977,
0.903083860874176,
-0.43537789583206177,
-0.2011558562517166,
-0.718916118144989,
-0.09547854214906693,
-0.24599933624267578,
-0.735581636428833,
-0.04159101843833923,
0.36772558093070984,
0.29858627915382385,
-0.39551329612731934,
0.06389764696359634,
0.3759230971336365,
0.19803234934806824,
-0.015300452709197998,
0.14699974656105042,
-0.3718086779117584,
0.6459689736366272,
-0.48826953768730164,
-0.27272140979766846,
0.28416791558265686,
-0.6919126510620117,
0.08548475801944733,
-0.2781800329685211,
-0.3624558746814728,
0.32343757152557373,
0.08887746185064316,
-0.8925660848617554,
0.14759407937526703,
0.569717526435852,
0.05729181319475174,
-0.017341118305921555,
-0.11335982382297516,
0.06134770065546036,
0.23087260127067566,
-0.4967877268791199,
0.34579789638519287,
-0.2722272574901581,
-0.0999617874622345,
0.2992621958255768,
-0.3468102514743805,
0.27848386764526367,
0.8364608287811279,
-0.5429404973983765,
0.9801627397537231,
-0.48507267236709595,
0.009311176836490631,
0.1658075451850891,
-0.08272717893123627,
0.8528570532798767,
0.0925469771027565,
-0.2877025306224823,
0.6083005666732788,
-0.22576826810836792,
0.03976944833993912,
0.2318597435951233,
0.5710299015045166,
1.2702521085739136,
-0.011663669720292091,
-0.39453041553497314,
0.3474036455154419,
-0.3073132038116455,
-0.5436047315597534,
-0.36360570788383484,
0.15979662537574768,
0.6652586460113525,
0.1401032954454422,
-0.5108912587165833,
-0.07229387760162354,
0.37941932678222656,
0.557343602180481,
-0.8683410286903381,
0.11534257978200912,
0.05345001444220543,
0.04331894963979721,
0.05316396430134773,
-0.5458424687385559,
-0.1305185854434967,
-0.20525918900966644,
0.5293310880661011,
0.027949919924139977,
0.10392491519451141,
-0.04944536089897156,
0.08828185498714447,
-0.33894258737564087,
-0.14919772744178772,
-0.7918738126754761,
-0.3300991654396057,
-0.2935529947280884,
0.1005757749080658,
0.11021052300930023,
-0.26083672046661377,
0.21340104937553406,
-0.34419170022010803,
0.5658279061317444,
0.246684730052948,
-1.102257490158081,
-0.2386924922466278,
0.3241904079914093,
-0.6158723831176758,
-0.10432620346546173,
-0.21302245557308197,
0.7397819757461548,
0.0563061498105526,
0.12508611381053925,
0.153164803981781,
-0.23054012656211853,
-0.09469916671514511,
0.5202758312225342,
-0.5406190156936646,
-0.01244896650314331,
0.3898344039916992,
-0.2515133023262024,
0.05670304223895073,
0.2396647036075592,
-0.2653566002845764,
-0.4151580333709717,
0.3548593819141388,
0.3693172037601471,
0.4740086495876312,
0.3580830693244934,
-0.12140160799026489,
-0.09587591886520386,
-1.2138022184371948,
-0.45461228489875793,
0.6525598764419556,
0.44541236758232117,
-0.444079726934433,
0.4629332721233368,
-0.005185398738831282,
-0.49903053045272827,
-0.3317683935165405,
0.13430853188037872,
-0.4364534914493561,
-0.3433021605014801,
-0.4381198287010193,
-0.21448248624801636,
-0.11646641790866852,
0.266593337059021,
-0.2081318199634552,
0.3990822732448578,
0.5035635828971863,
-0.48609280586242676,
-0.17103523015975952,
-0.23712339997291565,
-0.1021452248096466,
0.5866756439208984,
0.13569028675556183,
-0.8849123120307922,
1.1783866882324219,
0.02958516590297222,
-0.6425244212150574,
0.08359391987323761,
-0.7731502056121826,
0.5566805005073547,
0.42322030663490295,
0.24986346065998077,
0.40109533071517944,
-0.6201602816581726,
-0.27573490142822266,
-0.04620227962732315,
0.592943012714386,
-0.4274161458015442,
-0.1412811577320099,
0.16184428334236145,
0.21241427958011627,
0.7568339109420776,
-0.20178182423114777,
0.09887202084064484,
-0.723131000995636,
0.33397677540779114,
0.4239187240600586,
0.8852216601371765,
0.2518365681171417,
-0.24384582042694092,
-0.737183690071106,
-0.10068721324205399,
-0.29791462421417236,
0.5693605542182922,
-0.3101998269557953,
-0.041282787919044495,
-0.18030138313770294,
0.21482747793197632,
0.3274094760417938,
0.3720114827156067,
-0.2458219826221466,
0.7590794563293457,
-0.08455175906419754,
-0.21088868379592896,
-0.47860974073410034,
-0.1868627816438675,
0.37564271688461304,
0.4217933416366577,
-0.4771224558353424,
0.5564769506454468,
-0.9265424609184265,
-0.7165337800979614,
-0.36895492672920227,
0.4853982925415039,
-0.750436007976532,
-0.12696363031864166,
0.1616644561290741,
0.029041744768619537,
0.42356279492378235,
-0.7516148090362549,
-0.4185986816883087,
-0.3037445843219757,
-0.22161662578582764,
0.3840707540512085,
0.3937819302082062,
-1.025479793548584,
-0.25777667760849,
0.05852055549621582,
0.38202252984046936,
0.6450206637382507,
0.273677259683609,
-0.0027277569752186537,
0.5707864761352539,
-0.3439217209815979,
0.5388692617416382,
-0.036997318267822266,
0.6534518599510193,
-0.2702914774417877,
-0.5653390884399414,
-0.8321658968925476,
1.0519990921020508,
0.23434457182884216,
-0.5306047797203064,
-0.3506377935409546,
0.5052496194839478,
-0.15690657496452332,
0.11115246266126633,
0.12107058614492416,
0.011974025517702103,
-0.37353238463401794,
-0.022258587181568146,
0.1301073133945465,
0.34326839447021484,
0.30574968457221985,
-0.21943871676921844,
-0.19455377757549286,
0.141448512673378,
0.7485916614532471,
0.06851102411746979,
-0.8021599650382996,
0.39167943596839905,
-0.1356375813484192,
0.20927992463111877,
-0.46596238017082214,
-0.19268633425235748,
0.4871729016304016,
0.1614399403333664,
1.1181224584579468,
0.7309399247169495,
-0.45501184463500977,
-0.5940643548965454,
-0.21876738965511322,
0.27916646003723145,
0.6660019755363464,
-0.3258582055568695,
0.48471298813819885,
-0.8966118693351746,
0.5553930401802063,
-0.21418672800064087,
-0.4957134425640106,
0.997718870639801,
0.13757923245429993,
0.5349998474121094,
0.3071529269218445,
-0.11630415171384811,
0.5481147766113281,
-0.31970861554145813,
-0.25058549642562866,
-0.16217637062072754,
0.12088645994663239,
0.32723328471183777
] |
247817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welfare | Welfare | Welfare (or commonly, social welfare) is a type of government support intended to ensure that members of a society can meet basic human needs such as food and shelter. Social security may either be synonymous with welfare, or refer specifically to social insurance programs which provide support only to those who have previously contributed (e.g. most pension systems), as opposed to social assistance programs which provide support on the basis of need alone (e.g. most disability benefits). The International Labour Organization defines social security as covering support for those in old age, support for the maintenance of children, medical treatment, parental and sick leave, unemployment and disability benefits, and support for sufferers of occupational injury.
More broadly, welfare may also encompass efforts to provide a basic level of well-being through free or subsidized social services such as healthcare, education, vocational training and public housing. In a welfare state, the State assumes responsibility for the health, education, and welfare of society, providing a range of social services such as those described.
The first codified universal government welfare was instituted in the 7th century (634 CE) in the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar. The first welfare state was Imperial Germany (1871–1918), where the Bismarck government introduced social security in 1889. In the early 20th century, the United Kingdom introduced social security around 1913, and adopted the welfare state with the National Insurance Act 1946, during the Attlee government (1945–51). In the countries of western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand, social welfare is mainly provided by the government out of the national tax revenues, and to a lesser extent by non-government organizations (NGOs), and charities (social and religious). A right to social security and an adequate standard of living is asserted in Articles 22 and 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
History
In the Roman Empire, the first emperor Augustus provided the Cura Annonae or grain dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food every month. Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan. Trajan's program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger. The Song dynasty government (960 CE) supported multiple programs which could be classified as social welfare, including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers' graveyards. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, "The medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching and comprehensive welfare system for the poor..." From the 14th century onward the governments of the Italian city-states began to partner with the church to provide welfare and education to the lower classes. In later Protestant European nations such as the Dutch Republic welfare was managed by local guilds until the abolition of the guild system in the early 19th century. In the free imperial cities of the Holy Roman Empire the city governments in cities like Nuremberg could take control of the collection and distribution of public welfare.
The emergence of Zakat (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam as alms collected by the government, was the world's first instance of a codified universal social security tax, in the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century (634 CE), and used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. According to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali (Algazel, 1058–111), the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. (See Bayt al-mal for further information.)
Likewise, in Jewish tradition, charity (represented by tzedakah) is a matter of religious obligation rather than benevolence. Contemporary charity is regarded as a continuation of the Biblical Maaser Ani, or poor-tithe, as well as Biblical practices, such as permitting the poor to glean the corners of a field and harvest during the Shmita (Sabbatical year).
There is relatively little statistical data on transfer payments before the High Middle Ages. In the medieval period and until the Industrial Revolution, the function of welfare payments in Europe was achieved through private giving or charity, through numerous confraternities and activities of different religious orders. Early welfare programs in Europe included the English Poor Law of 1601, which gave parishes the responsibility for providing welfare payments to the poor. This system was substantially modified by the 19th-century Poor Law Amendment Act, which introduced the system of workhouses.
It was predominantly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that an organized system of state welfare provision was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of the first welfare systems for the working classes. In Great Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911, a system later expanded by Clement Attlee.
Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands, as well as the Nordic countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and Finland which employ a system known as the Nordic model. Esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories; Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal.
A report published by the ILO in 2014 estimated that only 27% of the world's population has access to comprehensive social security. The World Bank's 2019 World Development Report argues that the traditional payroll-based model of many kinds of social insurance are "increasingly challenged by working arrangements outside standard employment contracts".
Forms
Welfare can take a variety of forms, such as monetary payments, subsidies and vouchers, or housing assistance. Welfare systems differ from country to country, but welfare is commonly provided to individuals who are unemployed, those with illness or disability, the elderly, those with dependent children, and veterans. Programs may have a variety of conditions for a person to receive welfare:
Social insurance, state-sponsored programs based partly on individual contributions towards benefits such as healthcare, unemployment payments, and old-age pensions.
Means-tested benefits, financial assistance provided for those who are unable to cover basic needs, such as food, clothing and housing, due to poverty or lack of income because of unemployment, sickness, disability, or caring for children. While assistance is often in the form of financial payments, those eligible for social welfare can usually access health and educational services free of charge. The amount of support is enough to cover basic needs and eligibility is often subject to a comprehensive and complex assessment of an applicant's social and financial situation. See also Income Support.
Non-contributory benefits. Several countries have special schemes, administered with no requirement for contributions and no means test, for people in certain categories of need: for example, veterans of armed forces, people with disabilities and very old people.
Discretionary benefits. Some schemes are based on the decision of an official, such as a social worker.
Universal or categorical benefits, also known as demogrants. These are non-contributory benefits given for whole sections of the population without a means test, such as family allowances or the public pension in New Zealand (known as New Zealand Superannuation). See also the Alaska Permanent Fund Dividend.
Social protection
In developing countries, formal social security arrangements are often absent for the vast majority of the working population, in part due to reliance on the informal economy. Additionally, the state's capacity to reach people may be limited because of its limited infrastructure and resources. In this context, social protection is often referred to instead of social security, encompassing a broader set of means, such as labour market intervention and local community-based programs, to alleviate poverty and provide security against things like unemployment.
By country
Australia
Prior to 1900 in Australia, charitable assistance from benevolent societies, sometimes with financial contributions from the authorities, was the primary means of relief for people not able to support themselves. The 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform.
In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65 and over. Queensland legislated a similar system in 1907 before the Australian labor Commonwealth government led by Andrew Fisher introduced a national aged pension under the Invalid and Old-Aged Pensions Act 1908. A national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912.
During the Second World War, Australia under a labor government created a welfare state by enacting national schemes for: child endowment in 1941 (superseding the 1927 New South Wales scheme); a widows’ pension in 1942 (superseding the New South Wales 1926 scheme); a wife's allowance in 1943; additional allowances for the children of pensioners in 1943; and unemployment, sickness, and special benefits in 1945 (superseding the Queensland 1923 scheme).
Canada
Canada has a welfare state in the European tradition; however, it is not referred to as "welfare", but rather as "social programs". In Canada, "welfare" usually refers specifically to direct payments to poor individuals (as in the American usage) and not to healthcare and education spending (as in the European usage).
The Canadian social safety net covers a broad spectrum of programs, and because Canada is a federation, many are run by the provinces. Canada has a wide range of government transfer payments to individuals, which totaled $145billion in 2006. Only social programs that direct funds to individuals are included in that cost; programs such as medicare and public education are additional costs.
Generally speaking, before the Great Depression, most social services were provided by religious charities and other private groups. Changing government policy between the 1930s and 1960s saw the emergence of a welfare state, similar to many Western European countries. Most programs from that era are still in use, although many were scaled back during the 1990s as government priorities shifted towards reducing debt and deficits.
Denmark
Danish welfare is handled by the state through a series of policies (and the like) that seeks to provide welfare services to citizens, hence the term welfare state. This refers not only to social benefits, but also tax-funded education, public child care, medical care, etc. A number of these services are not provided by the state directly, but administered by municipalities, regions or private providers through outsourcing. This sometimes gives a source of tension between the state and municipalities, as there is not always consistency between the promises of welfare provided by the state (i.e. parliament) and local perception of what it would cost to fulfill these promises.
Finland
India
The Central Government of India's social programmes and welfare expenditures are a substantial portion of the official budget, and state and local governments play roles in developing and implementing social security policies. Additional welfare measure systems are also uniquely operated by various state governments. The government uses the unique identity number (Aadhar) that every Indian possesses to distribute welfare measures in India. As of 2020, the government's expenditure on social programme and welfare (direct cash transfers, financial inclusion, benefits, health and other insurances, subsidies, free school meals, rural employment guarantee), was approximately fourteen lakh crore rupees ($192billion), which was 7.3% of gross domestic product (GDP).
France
Solidarity is a strong value of the French Social Protection system. The first article of the French Code of Social Security describes the principle of solidarity. Solidarity is commonly comprehended in relations of similar work, shared responsibility and common risks. Existing solidarities in France caused the expansion of health and social security.
Germany
The welfare state has a long tradition in Germany dating back to the industrial revolution. Due to the pressure of the workers' movement in the late 19th century, Reichskanzler Otto von Bismarck introduced the first rudimentary state social insurance scheme. Under Adolf Hitler, the National Socialist Program stated "We demand an expansion on a large scale of old age welfare." Today, the social protection of all its citizens is considered a central pillar of German national policy. 27.6 percent of Germany's GDP is channeled into an all-embracing system of health, pension, accident, longterm care and unemployment insurance, compared to 16.2 percent in the US. In addition, there are tax-financed services such as child benefits (Kindergeld, beginning at €192 per month for the first and second child, €198 for the third and €223 for each child thereafter, until they attain 25 years or receive their first professional qualification), and basic provisions for those unable to work or anyone with an income below the poverty line.
Since 2005, reception of full unemployment pay (60–67% of the previous net salary) has been restricted to 12 months in general and 18 months for those over 55. This is now followed by (usually much lower) Arbeitslosengeld II (ALG II) or Sozialhilfe, which is independent of previous employment (Hartz IV concept).
, under ALG II, single adults receive up to €432 per month plus the cost of 'adequate' housing. ALG II can also be paid partially to employed persons to supplement a low work income.
Italy
The Italian welfare state's foundations were laid along the lines of the corporatist-conservative model, or of its Mediterranean variant. Later, in the 1960s and 1970s, increases in public spending and a major focus on universality brought it on the same path as social-democratic systems. In 1978, a universalistic welfare model was introduced in Italy, offering a number of universal and free services such as a National Health Fund.
Japan
Social welfare, assistance for the ill or otherwise disabled and for the old, has long been provided in Japan by both the government and private companies. Beginning in the 1920s, the government enacted a series of welfare programs, based mainly on European models, to provide medical care and financial support. During the postwar period, a comprehensive system of social security was gradually established.
Latin America
History
The 1980s, marked a change in the structure of Latin American social protection programs. Social protection embraces three major areas: social insurance, financed by workers and employers; social assistance to the population's poorest, financed by the state; and labor market regulations to protect worker rights. Although diverse, recent Latin American social policy has tended to concentrate on social assistance.
The 1980s, had a significant effect on social protection policies. Prior to the 1980s, most Latin American countries focused on social insurance policies involving formal sector workers, assuming that the informal sector would disappear with economic development. The economic crisis of the 1980s and the liberalization of the labor market led to a growing informal sector and a rapid increase in poverty and inequality. Latin American countries did not have the institutions and funds to properly handle such a crisis, both due to the structure of the social security system, and to the previously implemented structural adjustment policies (SAPs) that had decreased the size of the state.
New Welfare programs have integrated the multidimensional, social risk management, and capabilities approaches into poverty alleviation. They focus on income transfers and service provisions while aiming to alleviate both long- and short-term poverty through, among other things, education, health, security, and housing. Unlike previous programs that targeted the working class, new programs have successfully focused on locating and targeting the very poorest.
The impacts of social assistance programs vary between countries, and many programs have yet to be fully evaluated. According to Barrientos and Santibanez, the programs have been more successful in increasing investment in human capital than in bringing households above the poverty line. Challenges still exist, including the extreme inequality levels and the mass scale of poverty; locating a financial basis for programs; and deciding on exit strategies or on the long-term establishment of programs.
1980s impacts
The economic crisis of the 1980s led to a shift in social policies, as understandings of poverty and social programs evolved (24). New, mostly short-term programs emerged. These include:
Argentina: Jefes y Jefas de Hogar, Asignación Universal por Hijo
Bolivia: Bonosol
Brazil: Bolsa Escola and Bolsa Familia
Chile: Chile Solidario
Colombia: Solidaridad por Colombia
Ecuador: Bono de Desarrollo Humano
Honduras: Red Solidaria
Mexico: Prospera (earlier known as Oportunidades)
Panama: Red de Oportunidades
Peru: Juntos
Major aspects of current social assistance programs
Conditional cash transfer (CCT) combined with service provisions. Transfer cash directly to households, most often through the women of the household, if certain conditions are met (e.g. children's school attendance or doctor visits) (10). Providing free schooling or healthcare is often not sufficient, because there is an opportunity cost for the parents in, for example, sending children to school (lost labor power), or in paying for the transportation costs of getting to a health clinic.
Household. The household has been the focal point of social assistance programs.
Target the poorest. Recent programs have been more successful than past ones in targeting the poorest. Previous programs often targeted the working class.
Multidimensional. Programs have attempted to address many dimensions of poverty at once. Chile Solidario is the best example.
New Zealand
New Zealand is often regarded as having one of the first comprehensive welfare systems in the world. During the 1890s a Liberal government adopted many social programmes to help the poor who had suffered from a long economic depression in the 1880s. One of the most far reaching was the passing of tax legislation that made it difficult for wealthy sheep farmers to hold onto their large land holdings. This and the invention of refrigeration led to a farming revolution where many sheep farms were broken up and sold to become smaller dairy farms. This enabled thousands of new farmers to buy land and develop a new and vigorous industry that has become the backbone of New Zealand's economy to this day. This liberal tradition flourished with increased enfranchisement for indigenous Maori in the 1880s and women. Pensions for the elderly, the poor and war casualties followed, with State-run schools, hospitals and subsidized medical and dental care. By 1960, New Zealand was able to afford one of the best-developed and most comprehensive welfare systems in the world, supported by a well-developed and stable economy.
Philippines
In Philippines, social welfare is divided into two. The first one is called Social Security System (SSS) and the other one is called Government Service Insurance System (GSIS). Social Security System or SSS is a social insurance program for workers in private sector. Individuals who are self-employed or not working can also apply to be protected under SSS programme. SSS provide benefits for unemployment, death, funeral, maternity leave, disabilities and many more. Members of SSS who experienced accident or death due to work activity, can also claim for double compensation under the Employees' Compensation (EC) programme. SSS also allows its members to apply for salary loans, based on their monthly salary and calamity loan, if their place is declared as "state of calamity" by the government. SSS also have two voluntary saving programs, PESO Fund and Flexi Fund to help prepare their members with a stable income for retirement. Government servants are protected under the Government Service Insurance System or GSIS. Just like SSS, GSIS also provide their members with retirement benefits, life insurance and employee compensation.
Poland
South Africa
Spain
Sub-Saharan Africa
Sweden
Social welfare in Sweden is made up of several organizations and systems dealing with welfare. It is mostly funded by taxes, and executed by the public sector on all levels of government as well as private organizations. It can be separated into three parts falling under three different ministries; social welfare, falling under the responsibility of Ministry of Health and Social Affairs; education, under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education and Research and labor market, under the responsibility of Ministry of Employment.
Government pension payments are financed through an 18.5% pension tax on all taxed incomes in the country, which comes partly from a tax category called a public pension fee (7% on gross income), and 30% of a tax category called employer fees on salaries (which is 33% on a netted income). Since January 2001, the 18.5% is divided in two parts: 16% goes to current payments, and 2.5% goes into individual retirement accounts, which were introduced in 2001. Money saved and invested in government funds, and IRAs for future pension costs, are roughly five times annual government pension expenses (725/150).
Viewing Swedish welfare more broadly, it emerges as highly rated in many standard international comparisons of welfare or well-being (e.g. World Economic Forum 2020). However, some Nordic-based welfare and gender researchers have argued that such assessments, based on conventional welfare/well-being criteria, may to some extent over-privilege Sweden (and other Nordic countries) in terms of, for instance, gender and racial equality. For example, they suggest that if one takes a broader perspective on well-being incorporating issues associated with bodily integrity or bodily citizenship (Pringle 2011), then some major forms of men's domination and/or white privilege can be seen to still stubbornly persist in the Nordic countries, e.g. business, violence to women, sexual violence to children, the military, academia and religion (Hearn and Pringle 2006; Hearn et al. 2018; Pringle 2016).
United Kingdom
UK Government welfare expenditure 2011–12
State pension (46.32%)
Housing Benefit (10.55%)
Disability Living Allowance (7.87%)
Pension Credit (5.06%)
Income Support (4.31%)
Rent rebates (3.43%)
Attendance Allowance (3.31%)
Jobseeker's Allowance (3.06%)
Incapacity Benefit (3.06%)
Council Tax Benefit (3%)
Other (10.03%)
The United Kingdom has a long history of welfare, notably including the English Poor laws which date back to 1536. After various reforms to the program, which involved workhouses, it was eventually abolished and replaced with a modern system by laws such as the National Assistance Act 1948.
In more recent times, comparing the Cameron–Clegg coalition's austerity measures with the Opposition's, the Financial Times commentator Martin Wolf commented that the "big shift from Labour... is the cuts in welfare benefits." The government's austerity programme, which involves reduction in government policy, has been linked to a rise in food banks. A study published in the British Medical Journal in 2015 found that each one percentage point increase in the rate of Jobseeker's Allowance claimants sanctioned was associated with a 0.09 percentage point rise in food bank use. The austerity programme has faced opposition from disability rights groups for disproportionately affecting disabled people. The "bedroom tax" is an austerity measure that has attracted particular criticism, with activists arguing that two-thirds of council houses affected by the policy are occupied with a person with a disability.
United States
In the United States, depending on the context, the term "welfare" can be used to refer to means-tested cash benefits, especially the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) program and its successor, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families Block Grant, or it can be used to refer to all means-tested programs that help individuals or families meet basic needs, including, for example, health care through Medicaid, Supplemental Security Income (SSI) benefits and food and nutrition programs (SNAP). It can also include Social Insurance programs such as Unemployment Insurance, Social Security, and Medicare.
AFDC (originally called Aid to Dependent Children) was created during the Great Depression to alleviate the burden of poverty for families with children and allow widowed mothers to maintain their households. The New Deal employment program such as the Works Progress Administration primarily served men. Prior to the New Deal, anti-poverty programs were primarily operated by private charities or state or local governments; however, these programs were overwhelmed by the depth of need during the Depression. The United States has no national program of cash assistance for non-disabled poor individuals who are not raising children.
Until early in the year of 1965, the news media was conveying only whites as living in poverty however that perception had changed to blacks. Some of the influences in this shift could have been the civil rights movement and urban riots from the mid 60s. Welfare had then shifted from being a White issue to a Black issue and during this time frame the war on poverty had already begun. Subsequently, news media portrayed stereotypes of Blacks as lazy, undeserving and welfare queens. These shifts in media don't necessarily establish the population living in poverty decreasing.
In 1996, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act changed the structure of Welfare payments and added new criteria to states that received Welfare funding. After reforms, which President Clinton said would "end Welfare as we know it", amounts from the federal government were given out in a flat rate per state based on population. Each state must meet certain criteria to ensure recipients are being encouraged to work themselves out of Welfare. The new program is called Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). It encourages states to require some sort of employment search in exchange for providing funds to individuals, and imposes a five-year lifetime limit on cash assistance. In FY 2010, 31.8% of TANF families were white, 31.9% were African-American, and 30.0% were Hispanic.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau data released 13 September 2011, the nation's poverty rate rose to 15.1% (46.2 million) in 2010, up from 14.3% (approximately 43.6 million) in 2009 and to its highest level since 1993. In 2008, 13.2% (39.8 million) Americans lived in relative poverty.
In a 2011 op-ed in Forbes, Peter Ferrara stated that, "The best estimate of the cost of the 185 federal means tested Welfare programs for 2010 for the federal government alone is nearly $700billion, up a third since 2008, according to the Heritage Foundation. Counting state spending, total Welfare spending for 2010 reached nearly $900billion, up nearly one-fourth since 2008 (24.3%)." California, with 12% of the U.S. population, has one-third of the nation's welfare recipients.
In FY 2011, federal spending on means-tested welfare, plus state contributions to federal programs, reached $927billion per year. Roughly half went to families with children, most of which are headed by a single parent.
The United States has also typically relied on charitable giving through non-profit agencies and fundraising instead of direct monetary assistance from the government itself. According to Giving USA, Americans gave $358.38billion to charity in 2014. This is rewarded by the United States government through tax incentives for individuals and companies that are not typically seen in other countries.
Effects
The welfare-to-work intervention programme is unlikely to have any impacts on the mental and physical health of lone parents and children. Even when the employment and income rates were higher in this group of people, the poverty rate was high which could lead to persistently high rates of depression whether they were in the programme or not.
Income transfers can be either conditional or unconditional.
Conditionalities are sometimes criticized as being paternalistic and unnecessary, and research in different contexts shows enforcing conditionalities can result in additional burdens for recipients and social service providers.
A 2008 study by welfare economist and Brown University Professor Allan M. Feldman suggests that welfare can achieve both competitive equilibrium and Pareto efficiency in the market. Though, different points of Pareto efficiency are more fair to some than others.
Some opponents of welfare argue that it affects work incentives.
Perception
According to a 2012 review study, whether a welfare program generates public support depends on:
whether the program is universal or targeted towards certain groups
the size of the social program benefits (larger benefits incentivize greater mobilization to defend a social program)
the visibility and traceability of the benefits (whether recipients know where the benefits come from)
the proximity and concentration of the beneficiaries (this affects the ease by which beneficiaries can organize to protect a social program)
the duration of the benefits (longer benefits incentivize greater mobilization to defend a social program)
the manner in which a program is administered (e.g. is the program inclusive, does it follow principles?)
See also
Basic income
Contingencies fund
Economic, social and cultural rights
Financing and benefit structure
Human Poverty Index
Human security
List of countries by Social Progress Index
List of countries by social welfare spending
Poverty reduction
Social democracy
Social liberalism
Social policy
Social safety net
The Four Pillars
Welfare economics
Welfare reform
Welfare rights
Welfare trap
Workfare
Notes
References
Other sources
Sheldon Danziger, Robert Haveman, and Robert Plotnick (1981). "How Income Transfer Programs Affect Work, Savings, and the Income Distribution: A Critical Review", Journal of Economic Literature 19(3), pp.975–1028.
Steven N. Durlauf et al., ed. (2008) The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition:
"social insurance" by Stefania Albanesi. Abstract.
"social insurance and public policy" by Jonathan Gruber Abstract.
"Welfare state" by Assar Lindbeck. Abstract.
Nadasen, Premilla, Jennifer Mittelstadt, and Marisa Chappell, Welfare in the United States: A History with Documents, 1935–1996. (New York: Routledge, 2009). 241 pp.
Samuel Lézé, "Welfare", in : Andrew Scull, J. (ed.), Cultural Sociology of Mental Illness, Sage, 2014, pp.958–60
Alfred de Grazia, with Ted Gurr: American Welfare, New York University Press, New York (1962)
Review by Barrett Lyons in Social Work Vol.7 Issue2, p.112
Alfred de Grazia, ed. Grass roots private welfare: winning essays of the 1956 national competition of the Foundation for voluntary Welfare, New York University Press, New York 1957.
External links
International Social Security Review
OECD Social Expenditure database (SOCX) Website
Public economics
Government aid programs
Welfare economics
Social systems | [
0.4238770008087158,
-0.04100358858704567,
-0.37006014585494995,
0.3009359538555145,
0.028912212699651718,
0.6431766152381897,
0.294379323720932,
0.12831050157546997,
-0.469307541847229,
-0.6631695628166199,
-0.5016604661941528,
0.4951667785644531,
-0.2808453142642975,
0.04793313518166542,
-0.6316658854484558,
0.31290629506111145,
0.7651695609092712,
0.8267281651496887,
-0.1528814285993576,
-0.18752481043338776,
-0.7990488409996033,
-0.0317884162068367,
-0.13167685270309448,
0.08695300668478012,
0.2906251549720764,
-0.15388502180576324,
0.4792718291282654,
-0.2870723307132721,
-0.13556450605392456,
0.16490213572978973,
0.07910119742155075,
0.028726182878017426,
0.1949578821659088,
0.07995334267616272,
-0.2300206422805786,
-0.18124383687973022,
-0.3085511326789856,
-0.27006253600120544,
-0.4803740978240967,
-0.6532973647117615,
0.16284923255443573,
-0.25405094027519226,
0.01306274812668562,
0.42421644926071167,
-0.38200703263282776,
-0.5605140924453735,
-1.2830191850662231,
0.4859544634819031,
-0.8847805857658386,
-0.07503926008939743,
-0.5883224010467529,
0.09369482845067978,
0.01992879994213581,
0.14946404099464417,
0.2803837060928345,
0.6034132242202759,
-0.12314873933792114,
0.12896710634231567,
-0.15360036492347717,
-0.4335358738899231,
0.3549376428127289,
-0.2597866952419281,
0.6783369779586792,
-0.06137038767337799,
0.3691278100013733,
-0.3319172263145447,
-0.043807994574308395,
-0.0425088107585907,
0.10869445651769638,
-0.7052016854286194,
-0.5339939594268799,
-0.6255345344543457,
-0.4597909450531006,
0.05589113011956215,
-0.7068851590156555,
-0.28164833784103394,
-0.024272330105304718,
-0.5477868914604187,
-0.11479304730892181,
0.006929525639861822,
-0.2481277734041214,
0.5460701584815979,
-0.21392479538917542,
-0.05834302678704262,
0.5312538146972656,
0.18353021144866943,
0.4322073459625244,
0.5344552397727966,
-0.07086047530174255,
0.5178923606872559,
0.5226462483406067,
0.2226519137620926,
0.418130099773407,
-0.08279331028461456,
0.11392329633235931,
-0.12175136059522629,
0.40362057089805603,
-0.4566977620124817,
0.2766735553741455,
0.13694548606872559,
-0.16590338945388794,
-0.33861133456230164,
0.1603778600692749,
-0.28018292784690857,
-0.17327795922756195,
-0.16157980263233185,
0.5938994288444519,
-0.534081757068634,
-0.2313259094953537,
-0.17183800041675568,
-0.08464904129505157,
0.37208667397499084,
-0.48431268334388733,
0.1388815939426422,
-0.44631215929985046,
0.35271674394607544,
-0.17698992788791656,
0.18428649008274078,
-0.7743792533874512,
0.22582119703292847,
0.14741910994052887,
-0.3757968246936798,
0.145402729511261,
0.013503682799637318,
0.01773774065077305,
-0.11663350462913513,
0.13490307331085205,
0.5983248949050903,
-0.34571006894111633,
0.09106672555208206,
0.35859453678131104,
0.33961284160614014,
-0.574044406414032,
-0.04335205629467964,
-0.045688528567552567,
-0.14410459995269775,
0.3294951021671295,
0.07294823974370956,
0.1540140062570572,
-0.1942794919013977,
-0.709068238735199,
-0.3836956322193146,
-0.09075374156236649,
-0.12306134402751923,
0.3944436013698578,
-0.3809891939163208,
0.22030320763587952,
-0.2064947485923767,
-0.2612435817718506,
-0.07234352827072144,
0.009700841270387173,
0.2507860064506531,
0.06322073191404343,
0.16050909459590912,
-0.06825283169746399,
-0.0006418494158424437,
0.7980725765228271,
-0.3900481164455414,
-0.19877652823925018,
0.12416113168001175,
0.40783271193504333,
0.4838574230670929,
-0.23334693908691406,
-0.20649853348731995,
-0.03335275128483772,
-0.3561388850212097,
-0.34591537714004517,
0.8024523258209229,
0.4875175356864929,
0.35413017868995667,
-0.3259381949901581,
0.6030629277229309,
-0.006360004656016827,
-0.14507247507572174,
-0.12572425603866577,
-0.22080910205841064,
0.10349944978952408,
0.2204020917415619,
0.23566290736198425,
0.12572379410266876,
-0.5692212581634521,
0.1710837334394455,
0.6695854663848877,
0.1483488827943802,
-0.17330095171928406,
-0.3978956639766693,
0.48279470205307007,
-0.1391787827014923,
0.12450851500034332,
-0.3022894263267517,
-0.4664517045021057,
-0.3577471971511841,
0.10123244673013687,
-0.667532742023468,
0.806296169757843,
-0.12109372764825821,
-0.5002358555793762,
1.5198804140090942,
-0.0012527423677965999,
-0.4089459776878357,
-0.129072368144989,
-0.3795158267021179,
0.012426385655999184,
-0.3496652841567993,
-0.8292573690414429,
0.3634481132030487,
0.3005102276802063,
0.38735049962997437,
-0.23732253909111023,
0.05605972185730934,
0.23283228278160095,
-0.09075017273426056,
0.5065417885780334,
-0.5401731133460999,
0.04038073495030403,
-0.07323136925697327,
-0.543996274471283,
0.49796971678733826,
-0.21405242383480072,
0.13978439569473267,
0.5314845442771912,
-0.4013867974281311,
0.10906776040792465,
0.9413106441497803,
0.1473385989665985,
0.2707916796207428,
0.5277665853500366,
0.003438676008954644,
0.50520259141922,
-0.10703177750110626,
0.16671083867549896,
0.0450761653482914,
0.33445969223976135,
-0.16931013762950897,
-0.3677695691585541,
0.4834340512752533,
-0.22809909284114838,
0.11289768666028976,
-0.30007389187812805,
-0.24996541440486908,
-0.40089181065559387,
0.06208288297057152,
-0.07708866894245148,
-0.07455701380968094,
-0.161720409989357,
-0.34563949704170227,
-0.38054659962654114,
0.2829885184764862,
-0.20555797219276428,
0.41543376445770264,
-0.29804155230522156,
0.1285056173801422,
0.5165504813194275,
-0.1485808789730072,
-0.1764625608921051,
-0.06441549956798553,
-0.331581175327301,
0.186964750289917,
0.1879846304655075,
-0.14718510210514069,
-0.33229875564575195,
0.24309244751930237,
0.04277842864394188,
-0.07681296020746231,
-0.11297012120485306,
-0.47713521122932434,
-0.07736459374427795,
-0.20014941692352295,
-0.3593794107437134,
0.721346914768219,
0.7935125231742859,
-0.10130529850721359,
-0.6962871551513672,
0.03931994363665581,
0.13067130744457245,
-0.5397692322731018,
0.6655926704406738,
0.31879374384880066,
-0.5976784825325012,
-0.5812432765960693,
0.1424895077943802,
0.5623356103897095,
0.4851923882961273,
-0.8346829414367676,
0.009369876235723495,
-0.6262028813362122,
0.25787004828453064,
-0.3295654356479645,
0.04098980873823166,
0.09042475372552872,
-0.26822608709335327,
0.3320358097553253,
0.04078112542629242,
-0.5937734246253967,
0.8550244569778442,
0.5783632397651672,
-0.23243193328380585,
0.5718390941619873,
0.26358914375305176,
-0.4698059856891632,
0.022673849016427994,
-0.39279505610466003,
0.018452070653438568,
0.07958630472421646,
0.1488276720046997,
0.04802509397268295,
0.11884317547082901,
-0.3068038821220398,
-6.086869239807129,
0.23043057322502136,
-0.0519111268222332,
-0.259876549243927,
0.30991291999816895,
0.16955365240573883,
0.8965728878974915,
0.0018679786007851362,
-0.09080206602811813,
-0.08833007514476776,
-0.21466392278671265,
-0.21378062665462494,
0.38639742136001587,
0.5667849183082581,
0.5522481799125671,
-0.07871045917272568,
0.6817721724510193,
0.10238778591156006,
0.19510643184185028,
0.23952336609363556,
-0.04462882876396179,
0.1559920310974121,
-0.36338138580322266,
0.8493116497993469,
0.036312710493803024,
-0.4066202938556671,
-0.13536134362220764,
-0.11973651498556137,
-0.6390862464904785,
-0.20707541704177856,
0.042248789221048355,
-0.25507569313049316,
0.2699463665485382,
-0.48251140117645264,
0.43417271971702576,
0.13399489223957062,
0.5256334543228149,
0.6316566467285156,
-0.06646900624036789,
-0.6110092997550964,
-0.10992348194122314,
0.18564248085021973,
0.12450361251831055,
0.017279423773288727,
0.08765500038862228,
0.1001887395977974,
-0.20222744345664978,
-0.2576974928379059,
-0.2450774610042572,
0.37655144929885864,
0.1748041957616806,
0.3799265921115875,
0.2402149885892868,
-0.40638402104377747,
-0.07705970108509064,
0.18184664845466614,
0.48665618896484375,
0.37874293327331543,
-0.25220245122909546,
0.2863076329231262,
0.018945850431919098,
-0.06360984593629837,
0.1732853204011917,
-0.06756219267845154,
-0.35457712411880493,
0.2242937684059143,
-0.530059814453125,
-0.967515766620636,
0.43217477202415466,
0.04630586504936218,
-0.2761210799217224,
-0.3091496229171753,
0.342277467250824,
-0.751676082611084,
-0.13610441982746124,
-1.1257359981536865,
-0.0899808332324028,
-0.1168707087635994,
0.21770966053009033,
-0.10592353343963623,
-0.12929219007492065,
-0.30620521306991577,
0.001780848833732307,
0.11545759439468384,
0.14304476976394653,
0.09257666766643524,
0.06708056479692459,
0.15536221861839294,
-0.42535972595214844,
-0.09918063879013062,
0.48782968521118164,
-0.08237531036138535,
0.2933601438999176,
0.2256941944360733,
0.39239823818206787,
0.3235359191894531,
-0.2335226684808731,
-0.3836193084716797,
0.15719276666641235,
-0.34072232246398926,
0.06639502942562103,
-0.039359331130981445,
-0.3267810642719269,
-0.19530919194221497,
0.05053450167179108,
-0.1034114882349968,
-0.3170165717601776,
0.13149788975715637,
0.8452627062797546,
-0.4526745080947876,
0.3153485953807831,
0.3498304784297943,
-0.42987874150276184,
-0.6159735918045044,
0.14528872072696686,
0.5547810196876526,
-0.5307239890098572,
0.11981779336929321,
0.4182264506816864,
0.08972100168466568,
0.3803423345088959,
0.13586150109767914,
0.013132612220942974,
-0.36098137497901917,
-0.31102821230888367,
-0.36902573704719543,
0.15133807063102722,
0.03200604021549225,
0.04697675630450249,
0.013503653928637505,
0.7940457463264465,
0.5315322279930115,
-0.3291655480861664,
-0.07653971016407013,
0.17312076687812805,
0.28100836277008057,
0.323836088180542,
0.31508466601371765,
-0.4229767918586731,
-0.5126497149467468,
0.018299521878361702,
0.05047376826405525,
-0.27487102150917053,
0.10898514837026596,
0.2954544723033905,
-0.19246630370616913,
-0.2891257703304291,
0.09895271062850952,
0.1975027173757553,
0.22468538582324982,
-0.08881761133670807,
0.03479134291410446,
-0.02603469043970108,
-0.09033774584531784,
-0.17756320536136627,
-0.6199151277542114,
0.6246989965438843,
-0.36339884996414185,
-0.03560582920908928,
-0.7363353967666626,
-0.2367759495973587,
-0.6932387351989746,
-1.1746662855148315,
0.01965963840484619,
-0.0879523977637291,
0.4567858576774597,
-0.48659420013427734,
-0.5986720323562622,
-0.022670341655611992,
0.40225329995155334,
0.28549647331237793,
0.09852804988622665,
0.14825594425201416,
-0.21979843080043793,
0.13493035733699799,
-0.48023688793182373,
-0.014066724106669426,
0.3016258776187897,
-0.3265702724456787,
-0.16672462224960327,
0.03882018104195595,
-0.26847270131111145,
-0.13064299523830414,
-0.33454248309135437,
0.03898138180375099,
0.02856427989900112,
0.09337864071130753,
0.29064080119132996,
-0.4007810354232788,
-0.34217530488967896,
0.16508550941944122,
-0.2163766771554947,
0.6003328561782837,
0.41673675179481506,
0.16167040169239044,
-0.043875597417354584,
-0.25797322392463684,
0.4545215964317322,
0.03153999522328377,
0.17614156007766724,
-0.1119670644402504,
0.4307146668434143,
-0.7414553165435791,
-0.1314534991979599,
-0.15595091879367828,
-0.4152138829231262,
-0.284782350063324,
-0.0017031625611707568,
-0.012993724085390568,
0.5620972514152527,
-0.931416928768158,
-0.11394154280424118,
-0.2851938009262085,
0.2982085049152374,
-0.2754357159137726,
-0.29439035058021545,
0.19748245179653168,
-0.24839523434638977,
-0.029764920473098755,
-0.5113093852996826,
0.43838992714881897,
0.042473115026950836,
-0.10928700864315033,
-0.00924388226121664,
0.005995140410959721,
-0.2945517897605896,
0.29825088381767273,
-0.569957435131073,
-0.029042867943644524,
-0.06313952803611755,
-0.3156968653202057,
0.15538667142391205,
0.19309557974338531,
-0.2313074767589569,
-0.15028823912143707,
-0.07694867253303528,
0.15191075205802917,
0.37513676285743713,
0.1328340470790863,
-0.41616424918174744,
-0.22590647637844086,
0.7356832027435303,
0.22980819642543793,
-0.8988726735115051,
0.16875867545604706,
0.10529361665248871,
0.4741883873939514,
-0.20915590226650238,
-0.09178752452135086,
0.18430282175540924,
0.37104323506355286,
-0.3549342751502991,
-0.49016666412353516,
0.17734912037849426,
-0.033299464732408524,
-0.3539203107357025,
-0.21533487737178802,
-0.3614112436771393,
0.7771605849266052,
0.6099880337715149,
0.28142908215522766,
-0.2071445882320404,
-0.24281248450279236,
-0.214053675532341,
0.6435751914978027,
0.021174101158976555,
-0.14394378662109375,
0.11551283299922943,
0.13324974477291107,
-0.7226214408874512,
0.30832481384277344,
0.225022092461586,
0.03957422450184822,
-0.08497601747512817,
0.8320004940032959,
-0.1748717874288559,
0.1614479124546051,
-0.03305863216519356,
-0.3334622085094452,
-0.05000520870089531,
0.12621088325977325,
-0.20692448318004608,
0.047041285783052444,
-0.7513701915740967,
0.21445709466934204,
-0.8375660181045532,
0.5066590905189514,
0.0016687996685504913,
-0.5763264298439026,
-0.17181047797203064,
-0.3433474004268646,
-0.1025804728269577,
-0.32579267024993896,
0.2091168612241745,
-0.4059005081653595,
-0.19898724555969238,
0.07958835363388062,
0.1499050110578537,
0.00120549404527992,
0.021207869052886963,
0.045329418033361435,
-0.162980318069458,
-0.3130612075328827,
-0.20120906829833984,
0.4420931935310364,
0.12326548248529434,
0.19998005032539368,
-0.28169959783554077,
-0.16916613280773163,
0.2588374614715576,
-0.12095768749713898,
-0.24011722207069397,
0.9206776022911072,
0.2538911700248718,
-0.609221339225769,
0.17817595601081848,
-0.048552006483078,
-0.6811836361885071,
0.4766054153442383,
0.32594600319862366,
0.10469689965248108,
-0.2697887718677521,
0.27471208572387695,
0.06675086170434952,
0.30277156829833984,
0.16339796781539917,
0.00045657475129701197,
0.3529258072376251,
0.1825244426727295,
0.33885425329208374,
0.5295769572257996,
0.6962929964065552,
0.026158113032579422,
-0.14070084691047668,
-0.29525041580200195,
-0.14546778798103333,
0.14453253149986267,
-0.17276950180530548,
-0.33410653471946716,
0.8055081963539124,
0.6215993165969849,
-0.4015788435935974,
0.3477855622768402,
0.24681632220745087,
0.24403749406337738,
0.47395220398902893,
0.24056661128997803,
0.382203072309494,
-0.12315354496240616,
0.6110965013504028,
0.7429629564285278,
-0.3449913561344147,
0.308192640542984,
0.08070893585681915,
-0.0017742684576660395,
-0.7157493829727173,
0.8273143768310547,
-0.28230738639831543,
0.10268158465623856,
-0.07616496831178665,
0.28390517830848694,
0.4944918155670166,
0.18587014079093933,
-0.06171957403421402,
0.7296682596206665,
-0.3911561667919159,
0.5718680024147034,
-0.5763713121414185,
0.09959108382463455,
-0.0026707446668297052,
0.041281651705503464,
0.18030790984630585,
-0.21945984661579132,
0.7848471403121948,
0.16833755373954773,
0.0853661298751831,
0.3335443139076233,
0.2990415096282959,
-0.05308249592781067,
-0.31519654393196106,
0.1010628268122673,
-0.0093678655102849,
-0.1250859797000885,
-0.516325831413269,
-0.1960965245962143,
0.11206662654876709,
-0.3310878276824951,
0.24377989768981934,
-0.24351327121257782,
0.0420813113451004,
0.1386437714099884,
-0.0496104434132576,
0.11436299979686737,
0.30490803718566895,
-0.21275688707828522,
0.34407806396484375,
-0.11932782083749771,
0.6541178226470947,
0.4706215560436249,
-0.18685099482536316,
-0.3396533131599426,
0.4332182705402374,
-0.17217259109020233,
0.01846161298453808,
0.044971685856580734,
-0.34341999888420105,
-0.25734400749206543,
-0.38687118887901306,
-0.33174464106559753,
0.11297135800123215,
0.5090212225914001,
0.10648320615291595,
0.1622692197561264,
0.2618553340435028,
0.7372207045555115,
0.3466355502605438,
0.5639758110046387,
-0.2541863024234772,
-0.05873911827802658,
-0.15775805711746216,
0.6029691100120544,
-0.003995860461145639,
0.015900634229183197,
-0.23365238308906555,
-0.11101881414651871,
0.1426778882741928,
-0.32716187834739685,
0.14163781702518463,
-0.5718673467636108,
0.4075797200202942,
-0.6049097180366516,
0.24100881814956665,
-0.3808801472187042,
0.40678781270980835,
-0.34495145082473755,
0.049094393849372864,
0.07918238639831543,
-0.07629821449518204,
0.37216731905937195,
-0.3587355613708496,
-0.46859556436538696,
-0.24798031151294708,
0.74488365650177,
0.1704798936843872,
0.0005291567649692297,
0.3416379988193512,
0.058882974088191986,
0.26495370268821716,
-0.6540152430534363,
0.07289187610149384,
-0.07996194064617157,
-0.3299229145050049,
0.30887991189956665,
-0.05905875936150551,
-0.40382856130599976,
-0.1887798011302948,
-0.08138095587491989,
-0.3713483214378357,
-0.6606112122535706,
0.6116519570350647
] |
247824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schnapps | Schnapps | Schnapps ( or ) or schnaps is a type of alcoholic beverage that may take several forms, including distilled fruit brandies, herbal liqueurs, infusions, and "flavored liqueurs" made by adding fruit syrups, spices, or artificial flavorings to neutral grain spirits.
The English loanword "schnapps" is derived from the colloquial German word Schnaps (plural: Schnäpse), which is used in reference to spirit drinks.
The word Schnaps stems from Low German and is related to the German term "schnappen", meaning "snap", which refers to the spirit usually being consumed in a quick slug from a small glass (i.e., a shot glass).
European
The German term Schnaps refers to any kind of strong alcoholic drink, similar to how eau de vie (water of life) is used in French, aguardiente (burning water) in Spanish, or aguardente Portuguese.
Obstler
Obstler, or Obstbrand (from the German Obst, fruit), are a traditional type of schnaps made by fermenting macerated fruit and distilling to produce a clear, unsweetened fruit brandy. Obstler is traditionally produced in Austria, Switzerland, southern Germany, and the culturally German regions of Alsace and Lorraine in modern-day France. Obstler are mainly associated with the southern part of the German-language area; in northern Germany, almost all traditional distilled beverages are grain-based.
The main kinds of fruit used for Obstler are apples, apricots, cherries, pears, plums (both mirabelle and purple plums), and quinces. Fruits other than these are rarely used. Apples together with pears produce Obstwasser (fruit water); pears are used to produce Birnenbrand; when made from the Williams pear, it is known as Poire Williams or Williamsbrand. Several types of plums make ("plum water"); cherries make kirschwasser ("cherry water"); and apricots are used to make Austrian Marillenschnaps (apricot brandy).
The different kinds of Obstler are similar to the varieties of Rakija found in the Balkans and Eastern Europe. Slivovitz is a popular schnapps made from Damson plums found throughout the region; pálinka is a traditional distilled beverage made of any fruits grown in Hungary.
Geist
A Geist (meaning "spirit" in German) is a type of schnaps, similar to fruit brandy, that is created by infusing macerated fresh berries in neutral spirits and steeping for some time before distillation. Neutral alcohol is necessary because many berries have a sugar content that is too low to economically ferment and distill; raspberries for instance contain between 4.5 and 6 percent sugar.
The most common Geist is Himbeergeist, made from raspberries. Other common fruits are blueberries, blackberries, strawberries, currants, rowanberries, apricots, peaches, and sloes. Other flavorings are also possible, such as nuts, herbs, or rose petals.
Liqueur
Many liqueurs referred to as schnapps, but distinct from fruit brandies, are created by the addition of herbal or fruit flavors to a neutral spirit by various methods. The neutral spirit used can vary by location and tradition.
The most popular schnapps in the UK is peach schnapps. It can be enjoyed in many ways, most prefer it on the rocks or mixed with other drinks to form a variety of cocktails. It is made by adding peach flavouring to a neutral grain spirit. It is typically clear and has a strong sweet taste. It became popular in the UK in the 1970s and 1980s. The leading brand is Archers, but some large supermarkets do have their own branded peach schnapps, which is sold at a reduced price. Archers peach schnapps is more similar to the American style of schnapps.
Kräuterlikör (herbal liqueur) is similar to Italian Amaro (liqueur). Well known brands include Jägermeister, Underberg, Kuemmerling, Killepitsch and Wurzelpeter.
American
An inexpensive heavily sweetened form of liqueur is made in America by mixing neutral grain spirit with fruit syrup, spices, or other flavors. Referred to as "schnapps", these are bottled with an alcohol content typically between 15% and 20% ABV (30–40 proof), though some may be much higher. Schnapps, specifically peach schnapps, exploded in popularity in America in the 1980s.
See also
References
External links
German distilled drinks | [
0.029806502163410187,
0.6554476022720337,
-0.2543603777885437,
0.08150571584701538,
-0.08569648861885071,
0.21290844678878784,
0.7165637612342834,
0.609611451625824,
-0.17408882081508636,
-0.05444670096039772,
-0.6536596417427063,
0.004960760939866304,
0.10184989124536514,
0.3449448347091675,
-0.11283108592033386,
0.07446963340044022,
0.9988538026809692,
0.9327042102813721,
0.05661880597472191,
-0.3165995180606842,
-0.2401764839887619,
-0.3121119439601898,
0.43851757049560547,
-0.21486634016036987,
0.50278639793396,
0.017935702577233315,
-0.05773637071251869,
-0.5466535091400146,
-0.3674849569797516,
-0.08016323298215866,
-0.08698978275060654,
0.8650251030921936,
0.3299270272254944,
-0.8066195249557495,
0.29694753885269165,
0.36432409286499023,
-0.18652044236660004,
0.04167811945080757,
0.2617952823638916,
-0.3506283164024353,
-0.34639719128608704,
0.0216953307390213,
0.935584306716919,
0.15377187728881836,
-0.1980503797531128,
-0.744697630405426,
-1.5321134328842163,
0.5860434174537659,
-1.009385585784912,
0.2491728961467743,
-0.13327811658382416,
0.13819031417369843,
0.2353515774011612,
-0.12175662815570831,
0.11678116023540497,
0.4511089622974396,
-0.8606659770011902,
0.3424728810787201,
0.5145413875579834,
-0.22561399638652802,
-0.25961363315582275,
-0.03505224734544754,
-0.10635043680667877,
-0.33329492807388306,
-0.05198105052113533,
0.05917811766266823,
-0.30749958753585815,
0.27033039927482605,
-0.49702778458595276,
-0.35023033618927,
0.00667579798027873,
-0.7308930158615112,
-0.3256228268146515,
0.04802997410297394,
0.37437450885772705,
-0.1891925036907196,
-0.17183110117912292,
-0.02463625743985176,
-0.37925300002098083,
0.09718579053878784,
-0.4989229142665863,
0.631191611289978,
0.6434249877929688,
0.3167213797569275,
0.5084184408187866,
0.4473359286785126,
-0.35246193408966064,
0.33466416597366333,
-0.2818514108657837,
-0.24465440213680267,
-0.2459791898727417,
0.31992611289024353,
0.8032127618789673,
-0.10025902837514877,
-0.3290333151817322,
-0.41612526774406433,
0.06749707460403442,
-0.08793353289365768,
0.21674400568008423,
0.5360269546508789,
0.18107669055461884,
-0.12110573053359985,
0.5607579350471497,
0.17264363169670105,
-0.45289722084999084,
0.46873924136161804,
-0.3949606120586395,
-0.3939884305000305,
0.17586302757263184,
-0.041272424161434174,
-0.4315575659275055,
0.26217928528785706,
0.29150572419166565,
0.540695071220398,
-0.09241067618131638,
-0.29972904920578003,
0.29068735241889954,
-0.04694274067878723,
-0.34222275018692017,
-0.0837104320526123,
0.3165077567100525,
0.4954999089241028,
0.15469762682914734,
-0.2719331681728363,
0.06334740668535233,
-0.20832403004169464,
0.32196417450904846,
0.9389222860336304,
-0.36623257398605347,
-0.02327929623425007,
0.4617367088794708,
0.5118598937988281,
0.3709219992160797,
-0.22302298247814178,
-0.46071889996528625,
-0.24181698262691498,
0.4001997411251068,
-0.13789287209510803,
0.47555842995643616,
0.01420829351991415,
-0.9527453184127808,
-0.18405616283416748,
-0.3293823003768921,
-0.4160424470901489,
-0.09845459461212158,
-0.25510042905807495,
0.013670524582266808,
-0.614237368106842,
-0.19775734841823578,
-0.5206173062324524,
0.32526418566703796,
-0.2380327731370926,
0.1325218826532364,
0.10424967855215073,
-0.11421191692352295,
0.8575141429901123,
-0.42859822511672974,
-0.17844939231872559,
-0.09170868247747421,
-0.5401903390884399,
-0.12533529102802277,
0.27765360474586487,
-0.18697936832904816,
-0.059034328907728195,
0.5840467214584351,
-0.20077253878116608,
-0.29754242300987244,
0.5928125381469727,
-0.29898637533187866,
0.6919542551040649,
0.3379773199558258,
0.2415473312139511,
0.1956099271774292,
-0.4256680905818939,
0.013170258142054081,
0.35176336765289307,
0.054246917366981506,
0.3564773499965668,
0.5973073244094849,
0.10819830000400543,
-0.6179517507553101,
0.9244751334190369,
0.04141182079911232,
-0.5185300707817078,
-0.5444117188453674,
0.3161574602127075,
0.12379349023103714,
-0.3020505905151367,
0.059925470501184464,
-0.050229933112859726,
-0.7487137317657471,
-0.4769669771194458,
-0.06510043144226074,
0.01822662353515625,
0.7799179553985596,
0.0797601267695427,
-0.8731162548065186,
0.5567343235015869,
-0.3748910129070282,
-0.47140976786613464,
0.34020498394966125,
0.10839219391345978,
0.03725748881697655,
-0.46284908056259155,
-0.9664102792739868,
0.3352814018726349,
0.30961549282073975,
0.015373967587947845,
0.3790041506290436,
-0.06516134738922119,
0.32611024379730225,
-0.5798870921134949,
0.3574255704879761,
-0.4839397966861725,
0.10213032364845276,
0.6055654287338257,
-0.16362951695919037,
0.5141471028327942,
0.24934732913970947,
-0.07491428405046463,
0.25710609555244446,
-0.4450889229774475,
-0.3987461030483246,
0.23344847559928894,
-0.02272132597863674,
0.4277200698852539,
0.20242363214492798,
0.03751067817211151,
0.4080064296722412,
-0.48432251811027527,
0.8455387353897095,
-0.4293697774410248,
0.31443676352500916,
-0.4366544783115387,
-0.31984689831733704,
-0.2250995934009552,
0.22289103269577026,
0.39352676272392273,
0.10462144017219543,
-0.8617252111434937,
0.4758048355579376,
-0.07739262282848358,
-0.28297245502471924,
-0.1351182907819748,
0.4517998993396759,
-0.02175828628242016,
-0.24922873079776764,
0.4805116355419159,
-0.2806641757488251,
-0.2938051223754883,
0.24363164603710175,
0.7786976099014282,
0.07644616067409515,
-0.3728027641773224,
0.33620351552963257,
-0.28117311000823975,
-0.031875453889369965,
0.43683311343193054,
0.1695501208305359,
0.5140165090560913,
-0.37073153257369995,
0.018982023000717163,
0.2941705584526062,
-0.26508381962776184,
-0.18805034458637238,
-0.3503815829753876,
-0.507523775100708,
-0.506155252456665,
0.18783129751682281,
0.3446738123893738,
0.14461758732795715,
-0.15337353944778442,
-1.0252784490585327,
0.3487735688686371,
-0.3092140555381775,
-0.750873327255249,
0.22179292142391205,
-0.1606840193271637,
-0.7276882529258728,
-0.2487247735261917,
-0.12508316338062286,
0.2320987582206726,
0.5337870717048645,
0.11807312816381454,
-0.6806843280792236,
-0.8482750654220581,
0.1724727898836136,
0.16719011962413788,
0.09499009698629379,
0.15378506481647491,
0.13023902475833893,
0.7051223516464233,
-0.10659642517566681,
-0.27851399779319763,
0.7007513642311096,
0.4269043207168579,
-0.1415734589099884,
0.620755136013031,
0.2800524830818176,
-0.13333551585674286,
0.1430475413799286,
0.12236840277910233,
-0.38869521021842957,
0.3041517734527588,
-0.28627610206604004,
0.18021850287914276,
-0.14570726454257965,
-0.2398013323545456,
-5.6770172119140625,
0.007744938135147095,
-0.6589959263801575,
-0.2305823266506195,
0.06979484856128693,
0.4515817165374756,
0.3144679367542267,
-0.7644765973091125,
-0.0207417793571949,
0.354369193315506,
-0.22148361802101135,
0.3293426036834717,
0.3070595860481262,
0.5368839502334595,
0.5180177688598633,
0.1643194854259491,
-0.08403836935758591,
-0.23720569908618927,
-0.10845507681369781,
0.23735745251178741,
0.06589576601982117,
0.029858481138944626,
0.0086534908041358,
1.1090489625930786,
-0.30446091294288635,
-0.12174209952354431,
0.013949870131909847,
-0.037725239992141724,
-0.42773547768592834,
-0.16190923750400543,
-0.15827281773090363,
-0.13986819982528687,
0.14448092877864838,
-0.36580848693847656,
0.1261008381843567,
0.09223667532205582,
-0.09067367017269135,
-0.3878225088119507,
0.4265858232975006,
-0.03827065974473953,
-0.3248005509376526,
0.5523964762687683,
0.2870391309261322,
-0.15538519620895386,
0.8200145959854126,
-0.15461291372776031,
-0.13428999483585358,
-0.5953276753425598,
-0.7592700123786926,
0.502983808517456,
0.19446146488189697,
-0.35997718572616577,
0.20546051859855652,
0.04609483480453491,
0.1119382455945015,
0.3223784863948822,
0.35158637166023254,
0.25200608372688293,
0.1460961103439331,
-0.3352888226509094,
0.46706315875053406,
0.18760356307029724,
-0.23154768347740173,
0.3560290038585663,
-0.544101893901825,
-0.34335562586784363,
-0.5987640619277954,
-0.12801381945610046,
0.6867576837539673,
-0.009928819723427296,
-0.19984012842178345,
-0.0219770148396492,
0.24718528985977173,
-0.6761985421180725,
0.24544240534305573,
-0.6481940746307373,
-0.6075479388237,
-0.3796370029449463,
-0.11610741913318634,
1.1757420301437378,
0.1317952275276184,
0.20784005522727966,
0.011964972130954266,
-0.04608996957540512,
0.7845298647880554,
-0.05192384123802185,
-0.8341622948646545,
-0.04089025780558586,
-0.3265363276004791,
0.043476417660713196,
0.374580442905426,
-0.12349870800971985,
0.4077579081058502,
-0.06504881381988525,
-0.29069292545318604,
1.0491865873336792,
0.0037081942427903414,
0.2433117777109146,
0.3362596929073334,
-0.14444014430046082,
0.40112343430519104,
-0.12434856593608856,
0.18018195033073425,
-0.19995000958442688,
0.10783747583627701,
0.15271338820457458,
-0.4790687561035156,
0.06448158621788025,
0.9509892463684082,
-0.2244890183210373,
-0.11772093921899796,
0.3821756839752197,
-0.1527763158082962,
-0.7110818028450012,
0.3926343321800232,
-0.047844238579273224,
-0.23537755012512207,
0.5731339454650879,
0.10430730879306793,
-0.11700213700532913,
0.34223291277885437,
0.3578178584575653,
0.14293326437473297,
-0.7210643887519836,
-0.3402967154979706,
-0.7857759594917297,
-0.009803970344364643,
-0.052644066512584686,
0.18109123408794403,
0.4414340555667877,
-0.09772031754255295,
-0.36823272705078125,
0.13565224409103394,
0.21200957894325256,
0.32266321778297424,
0.055508993566036224,
-0.09311379492282867,
-0.23421521484851837,
-0.6993973851203918,
-0.7650319337844849,
0.2691325843334198,
-0.7130844593048096,
-0.013644440099596977,
0.18397487699985504,
0.4392707347869873,
0.4623625874519348,
-0.26714038848876953,
-0.1327410787343979,
-0.5228205919265747,
0.49386629462242126,
-0.3645874559879303,
0.7737421989440918,
0.03854953870177269,
-0.04294408857822418,
-0.383381724357605,
-0.6682103872299194,
0.5079217553138733,
0.3426608741283417,
0.6455144882202148,
-0.332244336605072,
0.21092478930950165,
-0.648181140422821,
-1.248793125152588,
0.0057243905030190945,
-0.4292621910572052,
0.11401639133691788,
-0.47845757007598877,
-0.1668647676706314,
-0.38084888458251953,
0.7389040589332581,
-0.6019567251205444,
-0.2139877825975418,
-0.552314043045044,
0.3160710632801056,
0.4073493182659149,
0.0895565003156662,
0.0459614023566246,
-0.0021737024653702974,
-0.26167207956314087,
-0.4669681787490845,
-0.37543538212776184,
-0.25578731298446655,
-0.3547707498073578,
-0.09426043182611465,
0.3767194151878357,
-0.3058457374572754,
-0.32662150263786316,
0.12235613167285919,
-0.5565989017486572,
-0.010356104001402855,
-0.012745906598865986,
-0.16079680621623993,
0.41406774520874023,
0.5052995085716248,
-0.12524288892745972,
-0.38110846281051636,
-0.694749653339386,
0.3319903016090393,
0.30847111344337463,
-0.16114263236522675,
0.5091847777366638,
-0.10013125836849213,
-0.7071826457977295,
0.2454931139945984,
0.5622039437294006,
-0.5700922608375549,
-0.1467442661523819,
-0.1780375838279724,
-0.1980169713497162,
0.3638775050640106,
-0.03059786558151245,
-0.61103755235672,
0.27997735142707825,
0.7337515950202942,
-0.19919095933437347,
0.5249947309494019,
0.3704396188259125,
-0.33382222056388855,
-0.14018945395946503,
0.03365302458405495,
0.48818179965019226,
-0.3228173553943634,
-0.35417115688323975,
-0.1351657658815384,
-0.2924759089946747,
0.6055044531822205,
0.2121027261018753,
-0.015550282783806324,
0.7746880650520325,
0.2874681353569031,
0.11032374948263168,
-0.32339411973953247,
0.04414411261677742,
0.25582996010780334,
0.23274502158164978,
0.37975960969924927,
-0.3189525604248047,
0.3977874219417572,
0.2585940659046173,
0.43094003200531006,
-0.12063457071781158,
0.5909004211425781,
0.2987079918384552,
-0.17114724218845367,
-0.48725518584251404,
0.19250424206256866,
0.3477016091346741,
-0.509772002696991,
-0.3038981556892395,
0.21199627220630646,
0.2282126396894455,
-0.10300644487142563,
-0.03253687545657158,
-0.3832170367240906,
0.526781439781189,
0.04675152152776718,
0.18428952991962433,
0.40661951899528503,
-0.11747828871011734,
0.3383357524871826,
-0.13353975117206573,
-0.05202488973736763,
-0.06710769236087799,
0.6754119992256165,
0.11668327450752258,
-0.5942044258117676,
-0.5903213620185852,
-0.5568512678146362,
0.03174014762043953,
-0.36020684242248535,
0.3055097758769989,
0.5112042427062988,
0.627837061882019,
0.7224786281585693,
0.4364810883998871,
0.9104891419410706,
-0.71656334400177,
-1.121400237083435,
-0.5324626564979553,
-0.026461055502295494,
-0.8113707304000854,
-0.3651619553565979,
-0.5034887194633484,
0.07259077578783035,
0.04559316486120224,
-0.4508574604988098,
-0.2516493797302246,
-0.31848451495170593,
-0.8739234209060669,
-0.05522503703832626,
-0.40609946846961975,
0.6638646721839905,
-0.30412524938583374,
0.6615979671478271,
0.030829526484012604,
-0.17888061702251434,
0.1437288373708725,
-0.15621472895145416,
-0.28347691893577576,
0.11121822893619537,
-0.47624319791793823,
-0.2030325084924698,
0.368853896856308,
-0.5077317357063293,
0.13092753291130066,
0.49392011761665344,
-0.36157259345054626,
-0.6548385620117188,
-0.3035784065723419,
-0.3268454968929291,
0.16942912340164185,
-0.46614542603492737,
-0.2491091787815094,
0.0903586596250534,
0.34150511026382446,
0.27003008127212524,
0.48489952087402344,
-0.0018068226054310799,
0.178730309009552,
0.987303614616394,
0.8121838569641113,
-0.34260237216949463,
0.7415726780891418,
-0.35539454221725464,
-0.042976491153240204,
0.6603421568870544,
0.3341783285140991,
-0.24914221465587616,
-0.25493913888931274,
0.009492258541285992,
0.6791431903839111,
0.26301512122154236,
-0.05657929554581642,
0.28360262513160706,
-0.007570385932922363,
-0.29511404037475586,
0.008043997921049595,
-0.10400687903165817,
-0.6942695379257202,
0.5282146334648132,
0.32746657729148865,
0.286836177110672,
-0.10948298871517181,
-0.1656140834093094,
0.29822683334350586,
0.37039437890052795,
0.01749075949192047,
-0.22220966219902039,
0.18534691631793976,
0.007599846925586462,
0.07124968618154526,
0.2706548869609833,
0.13578395545482635,
-0.2319660633802414,
0.3103603720664978,
0.11768297851085663,
0.008764688856899738,
-0.37031179666519165,
-0.7566608190536499,
0.39333149790763855,
-0.30370768904685974,
0.13882063329219818,
0.4738203287124634,
-0.3752398192882538,
-0.1381911039352417,
0.02153751067817211,
-0.46432292461395264,
-0.546019971370697,
-0.5824324488639832,
0.07336650043725967,
-0.056994300335645676,
-0.13719172775745392,
-0.5361095666885376,
0.5494926571846008,
0.4333951771259308,
-0.16164031624794006,
0.7055681347846985,
0.6949679851531982,
0.31362542510032654,
0.6155795454978943,
-0.2491583228111267,
0.019994540140032768,
-0.42264336347579956,
-0.14192427694797516,
-0.0424974262714386,
-0.16139090061187744,
-0.4462844431400299,
-0.1493942141532898,
-0.12002861499786377,
0.012385590001940727,
-0.03436911851167679,
-0.06537139415740967,
0.24445566534996033,
0.08018841594457626,
0.5169961452484131,
0.039937134832143784,
-0.04256221652030945,
1.2834887504577637,
-0.0666104108095169,
-0.677869975566864,
-0.08645208925008774,
0.11142339557409286,
-0.10224728286266327,
0.3121812641620636,
-0.7119100093841553,
0.33607596158981323,
-0.580633819103241,
0.17010223865509033,
-0.11023569852113724,
0.8691018223762512,
0.1877172440290451,
-0.6486008763313293,
-0.2768077850341797,
0.01836475543677807,
-0.08294667303562164,
-0.1239178329706192,
0.6573123931884766,
-0.10797042399644852,
0.2628989517688751,
-1.0074793100357056,
0.4687034487724304,
0.07611045241355896,
0.4005964398384094,
-0.027485253289341927,
-0.05590754374861717,
0.1329191029071808,
-0.11330954730510712,
-0.138495072722435,
-0.5122945308685303,
0.021559104323387146,
-0.16818322241306305,
0.3149491548538208,
-0.09561420232057571,
0.8823762536048889,
-0.5169344544410706,
-0.13726243376731873,
0.3933972418308258,
0.3308138847351074,
-0.19446498155593872,
-0.18801426887512207,
-0.15178978443145752,
-0.13152062892913818,
0.12012971937656403,
-0.5688249468803406,
0.37995073199272156,
0.40958234667778015,
0.027193019166588783,
-0.11563174426555634,
-0.6379798054695129,
0.1570335477590561,
-0.47516557574272156,
-1.0447081327438354,
-0.195825457572937,
0.294310599565506,
-0.09612280875444412,
0.0548439621925354,
-0.2459592968225479,
-0.5165929794311523,
0.009322872385382652,
-0.49956458806991577
] |
247827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gar | Gar | Gars are members of the family Lepisosteidae, which are the only surviving members of the Ginglymodi, an ancient holosteian group of ray-finned fish, which first appeared during the Triassic, over 240 million years ago. Gars comprise seven living species of fish in two genera that inhabit fresh, brackish, and occasionally marine waters of eastern North America, Central America and Cuba in the Caribbean, though extinct members of the family were more widespread. Gars have elongated bodies that are heavily armored with ganoid scales, and fronted by similarly elongated jaws filled with long, sharp teeth. Gars are sometimes referred to as "garpike", but are not closely related to pike, which are in the fish family Esocidae. All of the gars are relatively large fish, but the alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula) is the largest; the alligator gar often grows to a length over and a weight over , and specimens of up to in length have been reported. Unusually, their vascularised swim bladders can function as lungs, and most gars surface periodically to take a gulp of air. Gar flesh is edible and the hard skin and scales of gars are used by humans, but gar eggs are highly toxic.
Etymology
The name "gar" was originally used for a species of needlefish (Belone belone) found in the North Atlantic and likely took its name from the Old English word for "spear". Belone belone is now more commonly referred to as the "garfish" or "gar fish" to avoid confusion with the North American gars of the family Lepisosteidae. Confusingly, the name "garfish" is also commonly used for a number of other species of the related genera Strongylura, Tylosurus, and Xenentodon of the family Belonidae.
The generic name Lepisosteus comes from the Greek lepis meaning "scale" and osteon meaning "bone". Atractosteus is similarly derived from Greek, in this case from atraktos, meaning arrow.
Evolutionary history
Gars are considered to be the only surivivng members of the Ginglymodi, a group of bony fish that flourished in the Mesozoic. The oldest known ginglymodians appeared during the Middle Triassic, over 240 million years ago. The closest living relative of gars is the bowfin, with the gars and bowfin together forming the clade Holostei. The oldest known fossils of anatomically modern gars are from the Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) of Mexico, around 157 million years old.
Distribution
Fossils indicate that gars formerly had a wider distribution, having been found on every continent except Australia and Antarctica. Living gars are confined to North America. The distribution of the gars in North America lies mainly in the shallow, brackish waters off of Texas, Louisiana, and the eastern coast of Mexico, as well as in some of the rivers and lakes that flow into them. A few populations are also present in the Great Lakes region of the United States, living in similar shallow waters.
Anatomy
Scales
Gar bodies are elongated, heavily armored with ganoid scales, and fronted by similarly elongated jaws filled with long, sharp teeth. Their tails are heterocercal, and the dorsal fins are close to the tail.
Swim bladder
As their vascularised swim bladders can function as lungs, most gars surface periodically to take a gulp of air, doing so more frequently in stagnant or warm water when the concentration of oxygen in the water is low. Experiments on the swim bladder has shown that the temperature of the water affects which respiration method the gar will use - aerial or aquatic. They increase the aerial breathing rate (breathing air) as the temperature of the water is increased. Gars can live completely submerged in oxygenated water without access to air and remain healthy while also being able to survive in deoxygenated water if allowed access to air. This adaptation can be the result of environmental pressures and behavioral factors. As a result of this organ, they are extremely resilient and able to tolerate conditions that most other fish could not survive.
Pectoral girdle
The gar has paired pectoral fins and pelvic fins, as well as an anal fin, a caudal fin, and a dorsal fin. The bone structures within the fins are important to study as they can show homology throughout the fossil record. Specifically, the pelvic girdle resembles that of other actinopterygians while still having some of its own characteristics. Gars have a postcleithrun - which is a bone that is lateral to the scapula, but do not have postpectorals. Proximally to the postcleithrum, the supracleithrum is important as it plays a critical role in opening the gar's jaws. This structure has a unique internal coracoid lamina only present in the gar species. Near the supracleithrum is the posttemporal bone, which is significantly smaller than other actinopterygians. Gars also have no clavicle bone, although elongated plates have been observed within the area.
Morphology
All the gars are relatively large fish, but the alligator gar Atractosteus spatula is the largest. The largest alligator gar ever caught and officially recorded was long, weighed , and was around the girth. Even the smaller species, such as Lepisosteus oculatus, are large, commonly reaching lengths of over , and sometimes much longer.
Ecology
Gars tend to be slow-moving fish except when striking at their prey. They prefer the shallow and weedy areas of rivers, lakes, and bayous, often congregating in small groups. They are voracious predators, catching their prey in their needle-like teeth with a sideways strike of the head. They feed extensively on smaller fish and invertebrates such as crabs. Gars are found across much of the eastern portion of North America. Although gars are found primarily in freshwater habitats, several species enter brackish waters and a few, most notably Atractosteus tristoechus, are sometimes found in the sea. Some gars travel from lakes and rivers through sewers to get to ponds.
Species and Identification
The gar family contains seven extant species, in two genera:
Family Lepisosteidae
Genus Atractosteus Rafinesque, 1820
†Atractosteus africanus (Arambourg & Joleaud, 1943)
Atractosteus spatula (Lacépède, 1803) (alligator gar)
Atractosteus tristoechus (Bloch & J. G. Schneider, 1801) (Cuban gar)
Atractosteus tropicus Gill, 1863 (tropical gar)
Genus Lepisosteus Linnaeus, 1758
†Lepisosteus bemisi Grande, 2010
†Lepisosteus cominatoi Santos, 1984
†Lepisosteus fimbriatus (Wood 1846)
†Lepisosteus indicus (Woodward, 1908)
Lepisosteus oculatus Winchell, 1864 (Spotted gar)
†Lepisosteus opertus Estes, 1964
Lepisosteus osseus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Longnose gar)
Lepisosteus platostomus Rafinesque, 1820 (Shortnose gar)
Lepisosteus platyrhincus DeKay, 1842 (Florida gar)
Alligator gar
The largest member of the gar family, the alligator gar (Atractosteus spatula), can measure up to 10 feet long and weigh over 300 pounds. Its body and snout are wide and stocky, and it was named "alligator gar" because locals often mistook it for an alligator. The species can be found in Texas, Oklahoma, Louisiana, the Mississippi River, Ohio, the Missouri river, and the southern drainages into Mexico. Its habitat consists of lakes and bays with slow currents. The gars grow rapidly when young and continue to grow at a slower rate after reaching adulthood. They are deep green or yellow in color. Recreational fishing of the alligator gar became popular due to its massive size and its meat is sold for food. Over five decades of overfishing have brought it close to extinction, and man-made dams have contributed to this loss by restricting the gar's access to the flood plain areas in which it spawns. Some U.S. states have enacted laws to combat overfishing, and reintroduction programs are being carried out in some states, such as Illinois, where human activity has driven the gar to extinction. Before being released, each gar must meet a length requirement to ensure that it has the best chance of survival in the wild. Some states, such as Texas, restrict the number of gar that may be caught in a day, the season in which they may be caught, and the equipment anglers may use to catch them. Some states also impose a minimum length requirement to prevent gar from being caught at too early an age. Scientists have found that the alligator gar can help maintain ecosystem balance by eating invasive species such as the Asian carp, and their success in a particular area can show scientists that area may also make a suitable habitat for other migratory species.
Florida gar
The Florida gar (Lepisosteus platyrhincus) can be found in the Ocklockonee river, Florida, and Georgia, and prefers muddy or sandy bottoms with bountiful vegetation. It is commonly confused with its cousin, the spotted gar. Uneven black spots cover its head, body, and fins. Green-brown scales run along the back of its body, and the scales on its underbelly are white or yellow. This coloration, which blends well with the gar's surroundings, allows it to ambush its prey. The Florida gar has no ganoid scales on its throat. Female Florida gars grow to lengths between 13 and 34 inches, bigger than their male counterparts.
Spotted gar
The spotted gar (Lepisosteus oculatus) is a smaller species of gar, measuring just under four feet long and weighing 15 pounds on average. Like Florida gars, female spotted gars are typically larger than male spotted gars. This gar has dark spots covering its head, body, and fins. Its body is compact, and it has a shorter snout. It prefers to live in clearer shallow water with a depth of 3–5 meters, and to surround itself in foliage. Its habitat ranges from the waters of Lake Michigan, the Lake Erie Basin, the Mississippi River System, and river drainages along the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico from the Nueces River in Texas east to the lower Apalachicola River in Florida. It shares its habitat with the alligator gar, its main predator. These smaller gar live an average of 18 years.
Shortnose gar
The shortnose gar (Lepisosteus platostomus) is found in the Mississippi River Basin, Indiana, Wisconsin, Montana, Alabama, and Louisiana. It prefers to live in lakes, swamps, and calm pools. The shortnose gar takes its name from its snout, which is shorter and broader than that of other gar species. Like the longnose gar, it has one row of teeth. The upper jaw is longer than the rest of its head. The shortnose gar is deep green or brown in color, similar to the alligator gar. Depending on the clarity of water, spots can be present on the caudal, dorsal, and anal fins. The shortnose gar has a lifespan of 20 years, reaches up to 5 pounds in weight, and grows to lengths of 24-35 inches. It consumes more invertebrates than any other gar, and their stomachs have been found to contain higher Asian carp content than any other native North American fish.
Longnose gar
The Longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus) has a longer, narrower, more cylindrical body, and can be distinguished from other species of gar by its snout, which is more than twice the length of the rest of its head. It can reach up to 6 feet and 8 inches in length and weigh up to 35-80 pounds. Like the shortnose gar, it has only a single row of teeth. Unlike its relatives, it enters brackish water from time to time. Females are larger and live longer than the male longnose gar. Females living 22 years, and males about half as long. There are spots on the head, dorsal, anal, and caudal fins. Depending on the water clarity, the longnose gar comes in two colors. In clear water, they're a dark deep green color. In muddy waters, it's more brown in color. Edges of the ganoid scales and in between are black. These types of gar are occasionally fished by locals, and blamed for eating other fish in the rivers. The longnose gar has a large range of territory in North America, into the Gulf of Mexico. Located in Florida, Quebec, all Great Lakes except Lake Superior, Missouri, Mississippi, Texas, and northern Mexico.
Roe
The flesh of gar is edible, but its eggs contain an ichthyotoxin, a type of protein toxin which is highly toxic to humans. The protein can be denatured when brought to a temperature of 120 degrees Celsius, but as the roe's temperature does not typically reach that level when it is cooked, even cooked roe causes severe symptoms. It was once thought that the production of the toxin in gar roe was an evolutionary adaptation to provide protection for the eggs, but bluegills and channel catfish fed gar eggs in experiments remained healthy, even though they are the natural predators of the gar eggs. Crayfish fed the roe were not immune to the toxin, and most died. The roe's toxicities to humans and crayfish may be coincidences, however, and not the result of explicit natural selection.
Significance to humans
Several species are traded as aquarium fish. The hard ganoid scales of gars are sometimes used to make jewelry whereas the tough skin is used to make such items as lamp shades. Historically, Native Americans used gar scales as arrowheads, native Caribbeans used the skin for breastplates, and early American pioneers covered the blades of their plows with gar skin. Not much is known about the precise function of the gar in Native American religion and culture other than the ritual "garfish dances" that have been performed by Creek and Chickasaw tribes.
References
External links
Family Lepisosteidae
Lepisosteidae
Fish of Central America
Fish of North America
Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Georges Cuvier | [
-0.031975869089365005,
0.4581642150878906,
0.007877863943576813,
-0.3814285099506378,
-0.3089927136898041,
0.435800701379776,
0.3641190528869629,
0.310519278049469,
-0.345252126455307,
-0.23890507221221924,
-0.17397662997245789,
0.6925973892211914,
-0.37810102105140686,
0.27667689323425293,
0.04118981212377548,
0.3698714077472687,
0.13514716923236847,
0.09005772322416306,
-0.2076389640569687,
-0.2680683135986328,
-0.10952545702457428,
-0.39805054664611816,
0.5116676092147827,
0.045147743076086044,
0.49178603291511536,
0.2615300714969635,
0.4243106245994568,
0.7754822969436646,
0.48113229870796204,
-0.24579797685146332,
0.3206537961959839,
0.49527302384376526,
-0.0017253714613616467,
-0.09521869570016861,
-0.34256625175476074,
-0.05442168563604355,
-0.6715584397315979,
-0.24428626894950867,
-0.5182729363441467,
-0.18344303965568542,
0.430270254611969,
0.1503584235906601,
-0.2963021695613861,
0.6932545304298401,
-0.5117951035499573,
0.1673542708158493,
-1.0013923645019531,
0.9203608632087708,
-0.09376197308301926,
-0.08251655101776123,
-0.6629794836044312,
0.18870759010314941,
-0.10963849723339081,
-0.1595393717288971,
-0.28753989934921265,
0.5636406540870667,
-0.4481830596923828,
0.02258354239165783,
-0.12732893228530884,
-0.4989098906517029,
0.09772041440010071,
-0.18762657046318054,
-0.4015277326107025,
0.24012064933776855,
-0.6884962320327759,
0.5440517067909241,
0.21670904755592346,
0.373894065618515,
0.5127770900726318,
-0.12463413178920746,
-0.0291436780244112,
-0.22286102175712585,
-0.08101479709148407,
0.07358839362859726,
-0.7953119277954102,
-0.10759786516427994,
-0.1525513231754303,
-0.2296733856201172,
0.4941190183162689,
-0.40009763836860657,
0.5235586166381836,
-0.2707256078720093,
0.7878780364990234,
-0.2557942569255829,
-0.14036421477794647,
0.0008080681436695158,
-0.10124917328357697,
-0.03242695704102516,
-0.25110235810279846,
1.1539500951766968,
-0.5456480383872986,
-0.5763620138168335,
0.6442579030990601,
0.06568301469087601,
-0.27127429842948914,
-0.02956848405301571,
-0.04829007014632225,
0.17393825948238373,
0.6456085443496704,
-0.09140733629465103,
-0.7203770279884338,
-0.15783067047595978,
-0.26964929699897766,
-0.005303976591676474,
-0.4434244632720947,
0.3711727559566498,
-0.36567533016204834,
-0.2845529019832611,
-0.5613654255867004,
-0.11178922653198242,
-0.13800540566444397,
0.26319289207458496,
0.1848406046628952,
0.16958196461200714,
0.3105657696723938,
0.01711178384721279,
0.27158814668655396,
-0.2196144014596939,
-0.052555494010448456,
-0.0002735771413426846,
0.5208092331886292,
0.7160912752151489,
-0.1478416472673416,
0.0897059440612793,
0.0952291414141655,
0.018947241827845573,
0.03885585814714432,
-0.25960788130760193,
-0.882113516330719,
-0.09699461609125137,
0.4097462594509125,
0.30521485209465027,
-0.13243554532527924,
0.5205590128898621,
-0.09105461835861206,
-0.2531774044036865,
-0.15376238524913788,
-0.858129620552063,
-0.1505112648010254,
0.523675262928009,
-0.42334163188934326,
0.126853808760643,
-0.8586705327033997,
0.5134878754615784,
0.08263277262449265,
0.22661198675632477,
0.5530598163604736,
-0.12057563662528992,
-0.0070439549162983894,
0.22922556102275848,
-0.3226299583911896,
-0.635547935962677,
0.2412298172712326,
0.07131750136613846,
-0.23849385976791382,
0.22576776146888733,
-0.6057469844818115,
0.3054705560207367,
0.4197441339492798,
-0.26570290327072144,
0.0720263347029686,
0.3919075131416321,
-0.5834485292434692,
0.2197742611169815,
0.21572528779506683,
-0.5024305582046509,
0.0698171928524971,
0.3511987030506134,
-0.4018397331237793,
-0.11120487004518509,
-0.09331978112459183,
-0.2146056592464447,
0.595653235912323,
0.10017333924770355,
-0.4102509617805481,
-0.4862883985042572,
-0.08121336251497269,
0.32389533519744873,
0.38982754945755005,
-0.14396576583385468,
-0.48857253789901733,
-0.10055282711982727,
-0.08709141612052917,
0.6229190230369568,
0.5333897471427917,
-0.2219035029411316,
0.24717728793621063,
-0.39629927277565,
0.4548631012439728,
-0.03879611939191818,
-0.24045926332473755,
-0.27058207988739014,
0.02915872447192669,
-0.1312161535024643,
0.5668167471885681,
-0.16186434030532837,
-0.166728213429451,
0.5546725988388062,
0.4476551115512848,
0.3462800979614258,
-0.2578392028808594,
-0.12828011810779572,
0.44123977422714233,
-0.38809552788734436,
-0.8680415749549866,
0.5774710178375244,
-0.242267444729805,
0.2887642979621887,
0.26017284393310547,
0.053599972277879715,
-0.11670573055744171,
0.03698291629552841,
0.14454184472560883,
-0.1694423258304596,
0.26970118284225464,
0.46222299337387085,
0.09410306066274643,
0.1618836522102356,
0.25545358657836914,
-0.26650866866111755,
0.8934536576271057,
-0.17123912274837494,
0.1805391162633896,
0.3576200008392334,
-0.07422901690006256,
1.0010638236999512,
0.985085666179657,
0.13544142246246338,
0.6026602387428284,
-0.5247918963432312,
0.45294660329818726,
-0.2441064715385437,
0.38460591435432434,
-0.35733839869499207,
0.23555561900138855,
0.3302602469921112,
0.008236797526478767,
-0.18813593685626984,
0.260824978351593,
0.2064584642648697,
0.42474842071533203,
-0.16637256741523743,
-0.10013323277235031,
0.11241897195577621,
0.5614952445030212,
-0.18715165555477142,
-0.08641952276229858,
0.3224495053291321,
-0.8001848459243774,
-0.08604484796524048,
-0.08071818202733994,
0.2667089104652405,
0.4005663990974426,
0.2465118169784546,
0.07232145220041275,
0.06675935536623001,
-0.2425159364938736,
-0.25999394059181213,
0.5473268628120422,
0.06722725182771683,
-0.3911667466163635,
0.12183059751987457,
0.2679845094680786,
0.26514890789985657,
-0.11853501200675964,
-0.5444897413253784,
-0.3205563724040985,
-0.4964679181575775,
0.2476995438337326,
0.25965672731399536,
0.12102974951267242,
0.563250720500946,
0.05827281251549721,
0.06852699816226959,
0.11601179093122482,
-0.07007904350757599,
0.43761125206947327,
-0.2866050601005554,
-0.12655211985111237,
-0.5983508229255676,
-0.18266816437244415,
0.4999631345272064,
-0.09659299999475479,
0.010213249363005161,
-0.24212177097797394,
-0.49819937348365784,
-0.24456682801246643,
0.04732988029718399,
-0.19212064146995544,
0.1543503701686859,
0.0797475203871727,
-0.13013549149036407,
-0.4321085512638092,
-0.24085590243339539,
-0.6271202564239502,
0.00974695011973381,
-0.4147539436817169,
0.3926677107810974,
0.333268940448761,
-0.18539325892925262,
-0.17241226136684418,
0.7427334785461426,
-0.22352953255176544,
0.5484402775764465,
0.050688114017248154,
-0.45177510380744934,
-0.12170683592557907,
0.4907369613647461,
-6.025874614715576,
-0.06292595714330673,
0.03266434371471405,
-0.006678418722003698,
0.09875320643186569,
0.4297831952571869,
0.3156794011592865,
-0.2998220920562744,
0.3803712725639343,
-0.06801541149616241,
0.10579849034547806,
0.15105131268501282,
-0.29606983065605164,
0.4965938627719879,
0.18526792526245117,
0.5060778856277466,
-0.1778460144996643,
0.37604427337646484,
-0.5029699206352234,
-0.2968672215938568,
0.29099079966545105,
-0.16777510941028595,
-0.6499059200286865,
0.5129231810569763,
-0.49660196900367737,
-0.2720903754234314,
-0.15229164063930511,
-0.3151923716068268,
-0.07974157482385635,
-0.10334558039903641,
-0.3363043963909149,
-0.08793138712644577,
-0.2528977394104004,
0.38422250747680664,
0.16966642439365387,
-0.09435514360666275,
0.5031782388687134,
-0.06093258783221245,
0.32054924964904785,
-0.9327113032341003,
-0.041595179587602615,
0.308227002620697,
-0.31218257546424866,
0.11071791499853134,
0.26915258169174194,
-0.28845536708831787,
-0.23334363102912903,
0.16654756665229797,
-0.31441330909729004,
0.4201045632362366,
-0.10678903758525848,
-0.4268176853656769,
0.6327883005142212,
0.7001011967658997,
0.377250999212265,
0.29432937502861023,
-0.11749396473169327,
0.04004206135869026,
0.33928608894348145,
0.5248959064483643,
0.3256908059120178,
-0.011066063307225704,
-0.24144403636455536,
-0.8894779086112976,
-0.2427750676870346,
0.4211841821670532,
-0.5356140732765198,
-0.37566015124320984,
0.4791826903820038,
0.012388459406793118,
-0.6942040920257568,
0.2732040286064148,
-0.9133203029632568,
-0.7775372266769409,
-0.023866526782512665,
-0.1303124576807022,
0.14488929510116577,
0.35888683795928955,
0.3707880973815918,
0.012380796484649181,
-0.2144712507724762,
-0.4381813704967499,
0.5308494567871094,
0.3153146505355835,
-0.17002271115779877,
-0.8332369923591614,
-0.23950257897377014,
-0.3352013826370239,
0.06994111090898514,
-0.26029953360557556,
0.8604334592819214,
-0.40761661529541016,
0.19591937959194183,
0.3353799283504486,
0.5500173568725586,
0.6820951104164124,
0.27690139412879944,
-0.08064017444849014,
0.7847330570220947,
-0.22388485074043274,
1.0353533029556274,
0.09170546382665634,
-0.14072294533252716,
-0.06721962988376617,
-0.6002501249313354,
0.17831118404865265,
-0.17166768014431,
0.3663824498653412,
0.8603090643882751,
-0.17614372074604034,
0.045780498534440994,
-0.1017480120062828,
-0.054089970886707306,
0.20775742828845978,
0.5520864725112915,
-0.5196413993835449,
-0.1357095092535019,
-0.19017019867897034,
0.9557929039001465,
-0.02124449796974659,
-0.0010628984309732914,
0.58017498254776,
-0.5265054106712341,
0.16302885115146637,
-0.17223329842090607,
-0.5022165179252625,
0.4721905291080475,
0.003947858233004808,
-0.6413629651069641,
-0.08465342968702316,
0.017552193254232407,
-0.29329192638397217,
0.3995250463485718,
-0.5258978605270386,
0.14698831737041473,
-0.27532750368118286,
-0.29064086079597473,
-0.29043859243392944,
-0.2932024896144867,
-0.3972553014755249,
-0.4849418103694916,
-0.5076727271080017,
-0.05044863373041153,
-0.06411360204219818,
-0.32929736375808716,
0.25386765599250793,
0.1359677016735077,
-0.050053682178258896,
-0.23402169346809387,
0.1844133883714676,
0.37253230810165405,
-0.27034103870391846,
0.5244008898735046,
0.46298834681510925,
0.02168065682053566,
-0.11862752586603165,
0.3031207323074341,
0.17315106093883514,
0.2723267674446106,
-0.09345877915620804,
0.2596331536769867,
-0.24790959060192108,
-0.9578023552894592,
0.1175755187869072,
0.2902567386627197,
0.1601548194885254,
-0.049302756786346436,
-0.4257049262523651,
0.6626818776130676,
0.31668806076049805,
0.07882647961378098,
-0.07319451868534088,
-0.36725714802742004,
-0.3078128695487976,
-0.15869887173175812,
-0.36269646883010864,
-0.38477540016174316,
0.22359853982925415,
-0.4381195604801178,
0.08990649878978729,
0.34059229493141174,
0.398785799741745,
0.2134329229593277,
0.2291252762079239,
0.038828518241643906,
-0.2882730960845947,
-0.2964984178543091,
-0.31183481216430664,
-0.32344692945480347,
0.2100444883108139,
0.1901988834142685,
-0.028192751109600067,
0.8325316309928894,
0.2805997431278229,
-0.3260367810726166,
-0.1957898586988449,
-0.10127493739128113,
0.3239279091358185,
-0.44044986367225647,
-0.4203146696090698,
0.012331158854067326,
0.19000189006328583,
-0.6124066114425659,
-0.29366129636764526,
0.2600628137588501,
-0.2874235212802887,
0.3573256731033325,
0.03635624423623085,
-0.0031287292949855328,
0.0907290130853653,
-0.3950972259044647,
-0.43358567357063293,
-0.06774123758077621,
0.6093005537986755,
-0.29152825474739075,
0.159976065158844,
-0.15911515057086945,
0.07708889245986938,
-0.09293760359287262,
-0.04734593257308006,
-0.365622341632843,
-0.39112699031829834,
0.09647388756275177,
-0.23358605802059174,
-0.10481678694486618,
0.30040812492370605,
0.23139342665672302,
0.03480421379208565,
-0.0036612749099731445,
-0.18446536362171173,
-0.4607618451118469,
-0.25070327520370483,
0.055497873574495316,
-0.07627910375595093,
-0.15383315086364746,
-0.008079500868916512,
0.37105241417884827,
0.3522927761077881,
0.19353938102722168,
-0.08863329142332077,
0.4789564311504364,
0.8348937630653381,
-0.03550206497311592,
0.2954035997390747,
-0.1586807370185852,
0.24084144830703735,
-0.5366798043251038,
0.12069886922836304,
-0.30415189266204834,
0.020658079534769058,
0.21355628967285156,
0.34001341462135315,
-0.09766389429569244,
-0.16209900379180908,
0.4863707423210144,
-0.5110318660736084,
0.1845313012599945,
0.04576842859387398,
0.08327167481184006,
0.27944764494895935,
0.11859367787837982,
0.02196749486029148,
-0.4838322401046753,
-0.44484081864356995,
-0.20482315123081207,
-0.0954388901591301,
-0.47245365381240845,
-0.4545153081417084,
0.7292609810829163,
0.31975048780441284,
0.695205807685852,
-0.4749997854232788,
-0.07259344309568405,
0.7238088250160217,
0.4327443242073059,
-0.002017314312979579,
-0.36837634444236755,
-0.4008570611476898,
-0.016716934740543365,
0.03836338222026825,
-0.8425437808036804,
0.3208053410053253,
0.19652482867240906,
-0.05819132551550865,
0.034714579582214355,
-0.7841781377792358,
-0.08734562247991562,
-0.4438014626502991,
-0.11038106679916382,
-0.5378495454788208,
0.151201531291008,
-0.041208066046237946,
-0.7150612473487854,
-0.042320411652326584,
0.010855942033231258,
-0.03494241088628769,
0.09800756722688675,
0.8320523500442505,
-0.5660005807876587,
0.4639649987220764,
-0.6003325581550598,
0.15542615950107574,
0.7261322140693665,
-0.45767906308174133,
0.00802510604262352,
-0.06211114302277565,
-0.1880379021167755,
0.13364726305007935,
-0.1321711242198944,
-0.447291761636734,
0.10565925389528275,
-0.21820826828479767,
0.0672127977013588,
0.6155715584754944,
-0.6473008990287781,
0.07202741503715515,
0.30276915431022644,
-0.6731767058372498,
0.3548128306865692,
0.19448921084403992,
0.5843759179115295,
0.6153619885444641,
-0.12131277471780777,
0.2501305043697357,
0.12063104659318924,
0.25921282172203064,
-0.7863397002220154,
0.35313528776168823,
0.496959388256073,
0.39104917645454407,
0.04776351526379585,
-0.5247249603271484,
0.2310733199119568,
-0.11009237915277481,
0.014566895551979542,
-0.09726449102163315,
0.23809607326984406,
-0.6430560350418091,
-0.060411013662815094,
0.7654141187667847,
0.6591997146606445,
0.2040913701057434,
0.05865620821714401,
-0.1752782166004181,
0.14728906750679016,
0.0519186295568943,
-0.07131579518318176,
0.085341677069664,
-0.1697544902563095,
-0.23157671093940735,
0.29196861386299133,
-0.15152741968631744,
0.36929312348365784,
-0.20797103643417358,
-0.21732279658317566,
0.5562202334403992,
-0.5186107158660889,
-0.07121308147907257,
-0.3778751790523529,
-0.040455162525177,
0.2668270468711853,
-0.32434263825416565,
0.34151819348335266,
-0.41076236963272095,
-0.6885629892349243,
0.01422111876308918,
-0.5312122106552124,
-0.780626654624939,
0.3293524384498596,
0.37125855684280396,
0.06199341639876366,
0.40304410457611084,
-0.25485047698020935,
0.2658051550388336,
-0.18615780770778656,
0.2031634896993637,
0.09689800441265106,
0.4182671010494232,
0.05775357782840729,
0.18066050112247467,
-0.4444989264011383,
0.14038249850273132,
0.02279231883585453,
-0.6727202534675598,
-0.3297748267650604,
-0.43158891797065735,
0.26463088393211365,
0.353261262178421,
-0.2696411609649658,
-0.1825937032699585,
0.10057619959115982,
-0.20910386741161346,
0.06546960771083832,
-0.06323534995317459,
0.11456863582134247,
-0.3290904462337494,
-0.09831476211547852,
0.35314351320266724,
0.12460075318813324,
0.2722264230251312,
0.26320984959602356,
0.013145810924470425,
-0.150090754032135,
-0.03291640058159828,
0.18371567130088806,
-0.2666601240634918,
-0.3683619499206543,
-0.010883908718824387,
0.22998982667922974,
0.48142266273498535,
0.8246601819992065,
0.12727180123329163,
-0.4277985990047455,
-0.0384310819208622,
0.13769438862800598,
0.014825924299657345,
0.48599475622177124,
-0.1389714926481247,
0.028698815032839775,
-0.36796125769615173,
-0.20023809373378754,
-0.3734501600265503,
-0.024634413421154022,
0.44095084071159363,
0.248337522149086,
-0.3894807696342468,
0.25494977831840515,
0.016343260183930397,
-0.6728549599647522,
0.5936993360519409,
0.3116348683834076,
-0.09279849380254745,
-0.8607714772224426,
0.3251810371875763,
-0.5834413170814514,
-1.0602924823760986,
-0.0786992684006691,
0.07284627854824066,
-0.07335177809000015,
0.42438235878944397,
-0.07159832864999771,
-0.6295723915100098,
0.7273550629615784,
0.10777787119150162,
-0.1449340581893921,
-0.2577705681324005,
0.3103412985801697,
-0.5230208039283752,
-0.7832008004188538,
0.20847027003765106,
0.24500595033168793,
-0.7527555823326111,
-0.269565612077713,
0.6863375306129456,
-0.29827627539634705,
0.17162089049816132,
-0.15714117884635925,
-0.8935020565986633,
0.14281339943408966,
0.03951523080468178
] |
247833 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maiden%20England | Maiden England | Maiden England (re-released in 2013 as Maiden England '88) is a live video by the band Iron Maiden during their Seventh Son of a Seventh Son world tour, which was dubbed Seventh Tour of a Seventh Tour.
It was recorded at the National Exhibition Centre in Birmingham, England on 27 and 28 November 1988, released on VHS in November 1989, followed by a limited VHS/CD edition in 1994. The CD in this package does not include two songs that are in the video ("Can I Play with Madness" and "Hallowed Be Thy Name"), due to space limitations. In 2013, the full concert footage, including encores which were not featured in the original VHS, was reissued on DVD, CD and LP under the new title, Maiden England '88.
The video was directed and edited by Steve Harris, Iron Maiden's founder and bassist.
Background
After sitting in on the editing process of their music videos, and having been less involved in their previous concert video, Live After Death, the band's bassist, Steve Harris, decided that he would direct and edit their next film. According to Harris, the band decided to document the Birmingham concerts because he "wanted to film with 10 cameras so we needed to do it in a place where that amount of equipment wouldn't get in the way of the paying punters." This narrowed the band's options down to the NEC and Wembley Arena, but eventually chose the former as they were more "amenable about the idea". According to manager Rod Smallwood, Harris' briefing to the camera crew was to try and film "as the fans saw it", with Harris arguing that this would be a good way to capture the concert's atmosphere.
So that he could edit the video at his own pace, Harris bought all of the necessary equipment himself and installed it at his home in Essex, where he worked on the film for six months. Although they occasionally visited Harris to check on his progress, the rest of the band were largely uninvolved in the project, although, at his insistence, a piece of footage showing guitarist Dave Murray mouthing the lyrics to the opening song was removed.
A DVD re-issue of the concert film was first mentioned by Iron Maiden in September 2007, with a release date set for 2008, but was later delayed. In an interview with German magazine Rock Hard in August 2012, Harris confirmed that Maiden England would be re-released in 2013, with the concert footage expanded to comprise the show's encores which were not included in the original VHS. On 12 February 2013, Iron Maiden announced that Maiden England would be re-released on DVD, CD and picture disc on 25 March 2013 under the title Maiden England '88. Along with the aforementioned encores, the new video also includes the third part of the "History of Iron Maiden" documentary series (continuing from 2004's The History of Iron Maiden – Part 1: The Early Days and 2008's Live After Death re-issue) as well as promo videos and the 1987 documentary 12 Wasted Years.
From 2012 to 2014, Iron Maiden undertook the Maiden England World Tour, which is largely based around the original video in setlist and stage design.
Critical reception
AllMusic gave the original VHS 4 out of 5, deeming it "a strong effort", but also stating that it is "risky... because it doesn't rely on hits" and that it "doesn't have the seminal power of [their] own extraordinary Live After Death from four years earlier". They also gave four marks to the 2013 reissue, arguing that the additional songs "help to turn the live set into a more well-rounded listening experience", concluding that it is "a solid concert that shows one of the most influential bands in heavy metal getting down to business and bringing some epic metal to an enthralled crowd".
Classic Rock gave the 2013 DVD a score of 8 out of 10, remarking that the concert footage is "a succinct encapsulation of how great Maiden are when all the gears mesh together", concluding that "when it comes to creating a fan-pleasing effort, no one does it with quite the same degree of thought as Maiden."
Track listing
1989 VHS track listing
"Moonchild" (Adrian Smith, Bruce Dickinson)
"The Evil That Men Do" (Smith, Dickinson, Steve Harris)
"The Prisoner" (Harris, Smith)
"Still Life" (Dave Murray, Harris)
"Die with Your Boots On" (Smith, Dickinson, Harris)
"Infinite Dreams" (Harris)
"Killers" (Harris, Paul Di'Anno)
"Can I Play with Madness" (Smith, Dickinson, Harris)
"Heaven Can Wait" (Harris)
"Wasted Years" (Smith)
"The Clairvoyant" (Harris)
"Seventh Son of a Seventh Son" (Harris)
"The Number of the Beast" (Harris)
"Hallowed Be Thy Name" (Harris)
"Iron Maiden" (Harris)
1994 CD track listing
2013 DVD track listing
DVD 1
"Moonchild" (Adrian Smith, Bruce Dickinson)
"The Evil That Men Do" (Smith, Dickinson, Steve Harris)
"The Prisoner" (Harris, Smith)
"Still Life" (Dave Murray, Harris)
"Die with Your Boots On" (Smith, Dickinson, Harris)
"Infinite Dreams" (Harris)
"Killers" (Harris, Paul Di'Anno)
"Can I Play with Madness" (Smith, Dickinson, Harris)
"Heaven Can Wait" (Harris)
"Wasted Years" (Smith)
"The Clairvoyant" (Harris)
"Seventh Son of a Seventh Son" (Harris)
"The Number of the Beast" (Harris)
"Hallowed Be Thy Name" (Harris)
"Iron Maiden" (Harris)
"Run to the Hills" (Harris)
"Running Free" (Harris, Di'Anno)
"Sanctuary" (Harris, Murray, Di'Anno)
DVD 2
"The History of Iron Maiden" – Part 3 (40 minutes approximately)
Continuation of "The History of Iron Maiden" documentary series, following 2004's The Early Days and 2008's Live After Death. Band members, crew, friends and associates talk about the period in the band's career which saw the writing, recording and release of the Somewhere in Time (1986) and Seventh Son of a Seventh Son (1988) albums, their respective tours (1986-87's Somewhere on Tour and 1988's Seventh Tour of a Seventh Tour), and the recording of the Maiden England live video.
12 Wasted Years (90 minutes approximately)
1987 film documenting the band's first 12 years with interviews and live footage.
Promotional clips for "Wasted Years", "Stranger in a Strange Land", "Can I Play with Madness", "The Evil That Men Do" and "The Clairvoyant".
2013 CD track listing
Personnel
Production and performance credits are adapted from the VHS cover, reissue DVD and CD, and AllMusic.
Iron Maiden
Bruce Dickinson – lead vocals
Dave Murray – lead & rhythm guitars,
Adrian Smith – lead & rhythm guitars, backing vocals,
Steve Harris – bass guitar, backing vocals, director, editing
Nicko McBrain – drums
Additional musicians
Michael Kenney – keyboards
Production
Martin Birch – producer, engineer, mixing
Derek Riggs – cover illustration
Ross Halfin – photography
Andy Matthews – remastering, editing (2013 reissue), director and producer ("The History of Iron Maiden" documentary)
Kevin Shirley – mixing (2013 reissue)
Ted Jensen – mastering (2013 reissue)
Leon Zervos – mastering (2013 reissue)
Hervé Monjeaud – cover illustration (2013 reissue)
Rod Smallwood – management
Andy Taylor – management
John Jackson – booking agent
Charts
VHS
DVD
Album
Certifications
References
External links
Maiden England at the Internet Movie Database
Iron Maiden video albums
Live video albums
Iron Maiden live albums
1989 video albums
1994 live albums
Live heavy metal albums
Picture Music International video albums | [
-0.00402308814227581,
-0.28130367398262024,
0.08874349296092987,
-0.24855975806713104,
0.15466006100177765,
0.5488001108169556,
0.6016590595245361,
0.07478450983762741,
-0.40737077593803406,
-0.10755401104688644,
0.2790168225765228,
0.27529165148735046,
0.2818966507911682,
0.08575693517923355,
-0.16795051097869873,
0.3993326723575592,
-0.06464578956365585,
0.1435348391532898,
-0.29708194732666016,
-0.5372744798660278,
0.33669260144233704,
-0.4183129668235779,
0.5843963027000427,
-0.19304555654525757,
0.050212860107421875,
-0.44264304637908936,
0.8066168427467346,
-0.12255371361970901,
-0.02185736782848835,
-0.30764180421829224,
-0.3683059513568878,
0.20588059723377228,
0.7739664912223816,
-0.5420230031013489,
0.3926244080066681,
-0.3952524960041046,
-0.11938528716564178,
0.205819770693779,
-0.6377225518226624,
-0.17822900414466858,
-0.030789971351623535,
-0.3609195351600647,
0.6278035044670105,
0.4476751983165741,
0.35003018379211426,
0.3903390169143677,
-0.9167555570602417,
0.38255855441093445,
-0.052384357899427414,
-0.050491005182266235,
-0.19295790791511536,
0.47848275303840637,
0.3952356278896332,
0.4149864614009857,
0.5873013734817505,
-0.06858257949352264,
-0.16704243421554565,
-0.016596700996160507,
-0.21037843823432922,
-0.29508957266807556,
0.47257012128829956,
0.5036723613739014,
0.19888371229171753,
-0.011483314447104931,
0.13038331270217896,
-0.33971312642097473,
-0.04351148009300232,
0.3442167639732361,
-0.18222323060035706,
-1.2897151708602905,
-0.0471210703253746,
-0.5026598572731018,
-0.050231531262397766,
-0.11226536333560944,
0.38023650646209717,
-0.10398043692111969,
-0.007348111364990473,
-0.5109851360321045,
0.4073300361633301,
0.018392888829112053,
0.12370921671390533,
0.21791969239711761,
0.6647435426712036,
0.6871257424354553,
0.13754074275493622,
0.21594610810279846,
-0.04321405664086342,
0.6991432309150696,
-0.614402174949646,
0.353902667760849,
-0.5148818492889404,
-0.6493550539016724,
0.23299650847911835,
0.35811907052993774,
0.04463618993759155,
0.3180259168148041,
-0.3839566707611084,
0.05815700814127922,
0.2711733281612396,
-0.142656609416008,
0.3951708674430847,
0.2901456356048584,
0.12992192804813385,
-0.47373488545417786,
-0.743215024471283,
-0.2886125147342682,
-0.1566702425479889,
-0.061784956604242325,
0.29227736592292786,
-0.10159368813037872,
-0.34507009387016296,
0.4820576012134552,
-0.4027816653251648,
-0.033156976103782654,
0.375584214925766,
0.034658368676900864,
-0.1739071011543274,
-0.3763696551322937,
-0.11680663377046585,
0.17482034862041473,
0.259107768535614,
-0.04601333290338516,
0.23244866728782654,
0.32820361852645874,
0.10292785614728928,
0.49731767177581787,
0.12608881294727325,
0.3730752766132355,
-0.46052873134613037,
0.2305658459663391,
0.12187331169843674,
0.25002968311309814,
-0.2176247090101242,
0.018603451550006866,
-0.3230816423892975,
0.14507244527339935,
0.26563864946365356,
-0.22259153425693512,
0.5235243439674377,
0.6158389449119568,
-0.8302948474884033,
0.2083580642938614,
-0.5339900851249695,
0.10696856677532196,
0.3773927390575409,
-0.2502996623516083,
-0.39437440037727356,
0.22825239598751068,
-0.4976290166378021,
0.019275274127721786,
0.13951803743839264,
-0.35252493619918823,
0.04607929289340973,
-0.4722338020801544,
-0.26891154050827026,
0.07918776571750641,
0.5829421281814575,
-0.5465121865272522,
-0.2766302525997162,
0.15375497937202454,
0.03845587000250816,
0.8184171319007874,
-0.11411968618631363,
0.5878256559371948,
-0.05292263627052307,
-0.06089349091053009,
0.006628370378166437,
-0.01947447657585144,
0.5059581398963928,
-0.35848134756088257,
-0.734386146068573,
0.26229357719421387,
0.25913622975349426,
0.5022844076156616,
-0.24999913573265076,
0.27415159344673157,
0.8336681127548218,
0.6538852453231812,
0.06534240394830704,
-0.10916847735643387,
-0.30542871356010437,
-0.342688649892807,
0.6864407062530518,
-0.029736533761024475,
0.09944910556077957,
0.5724861025810242,
0.2653615176677704,
0.194705992937088,
-0.23391690850257874,
-0.10672752559185028,
-0.6528943181037903,
-0.3721238374710083,
0.5148791670799255,
-0.18127785623073578,
0.5289986729621887,
0.2645731270313263,
-0.03446740284562111,
0.3648653030395508,
-0.08735300600528717,
0.5967305898666382,
0.1986859142780304,
-0.20107217133045197,
0.5260224342346191,
0.32853057980537415,
-0.4226951599121094,
0.06769351661205292,
0.0532657653093338,
-0.24291254580020905,
-0.25956547260284424,
0.7347186207771301,
-0.6328491568565369,
-0.34865760803222656,
0.3470553457736969,
0.8347213268280029,
-0.09105124324560165,
-0.11453431099653244,
-0.03236396238207817,
0.08194294571876526,
0.3582848608493805,
-0.5681946873664856,
0.4436517655849457,
0.5254712700843811,
-0.2809341549873352,
-0.31783735752105713,
0.10184045881032944,
0.5241794586181641,
-1.0374770164489746,
0.3508688807487488,
0.08050648123025894,
-0.3506539463996887,
-0.7526607513427734,
1.2616037130355835,
-0.2985445261001587,
0.443429172039032,
0.7080874443054199,
-0.15266259014606476,
0.17208047211170197,
-0.006010396406054497,
-0.17002762854099274,
-0.1999579817056656,
0.6286743879318237,
0.11442101001739502,
-0.09629090875387192,
0.5938612222671509,
0.002780358772724867,
-0.02025938779115677,
0.49515271186828613,
0.36570242047309875,
-0.1874946653842926,
-0.32035258412361145,
0.37350112199783325,
-0.0846182256937027,
-0.23829972743988037,
0.6788085699081421,
-0.2703281342983246,
0.16885758936405182,
-0.2256549596786499,
-0.5074219107627869,
0.2709926962852478,
0.55708247423172,
0.11102629452943802,
-0.3781921863555908,
0.18482793867588043,
0.5606257915496826,
0.3834952712059021,
-0.6523944139480591,
-0.463462769985199,
-0.27917757630348206,
0.6547930836677551,
0.01659267023205757,
0.12707440555095673,
0.39279842376708984,
-0.8073445558547974,
0.24789990484714508,
-0.11002147197723389,
0.03980964049696922,
-0.34486615657806396,
0.037753693759441376,
-0.0705157220363617,
-0.5636615753173828,
0.39368218183517456,
0.7443487048149109,
0.6725234389305115,
-0.428445041179657,
0.07518140226602554,
0.09903723001480103,
0.0635664165019989,
-0.3143065869808197,
-0.11351758241653442,
-0.3624550700187683,
0.08184941858053207,
0.2167883813381195,
-0.11428458243608475,
-0.5134753584861755,
0.4934329688549042,
0.27592164278030396,
-0.049484118819236755,
-0.2021111696958542,
0.47100597620010376,
0.5699969530105591,
-0.3855503499507904,
-0.03199160471558571,
-0.08721335977315903,
-0.45136788487434387,
0.8116052150726318,
-0.23043808341026306,
0.2590344548225403,
-0.6224724054336548,
-5.820036888122559,
0.27888500690460205,
0.505830705165863,
0.09801296889781952,
0.7360068559646606,
-0.048511188477277756,
0.11496300995349884,
-0.4088461995124817,
-0.12698763608932495,
-0.32542189955711365,
-0.023783091455698013,
0.29370561242103577,
-0.06624785810709,
-0.023686081171035767,
0.4503452181816101,
0.17684775590896606,
0.4552380442619324,
-0.6551865935325623,
0.8692625164985657,
-0.565399706363678,
0.2145252823829651,
-0.221115842461586,
-0.17990770936012268,
0.28025272488594055,
-0.04819626361131668,
0.7028531432151794,
0.02324073202908039,
-0.27561548352241516,
-0.08089344203472137,
0.48104655742645264,
-0.02079290896654129,
-0.5448163747787476,
-0.26625651121139526,
-0.11801447719335556,
-0.23718778789043427,
-0.2940329611301422,
0.6350914239883423,
-0.07372868806123734,
0.44879937171936035,
-0.9871767163276672,
0.11015572398900986,
0.47724395990371704,
-0.18603290617465973,
-0.26480725407600403,
0.2635294497013092,
-0.22248412668704987,
-0.43828263878822327,
-0.4758967161178589,
0.08454927057027817,
0.910904049873352,
0.12893299758434296,
-0.19502274692058563,
0.7333493828773499,
0.3162974715232849,
-0.1717810332775116,
0.05895407125353813,
-0.13613301515579224,
0.48847126960754395,
-0.16826051473617554,
0.053291019052267075,
-0.1140204668045044,
-0.5395767688751221,
-0.15237075090408325,
-0.7521271705627441,
-0.127475768327713,
-0.328673392534256,
-0.04896416515111923,
0.35887494683265686,
0.2833538055419922,
-0.015421818010509014,
0.2279174029827118,
-0.2982602119445801,
-0.2653742730617523,
-0.746829092502594,
0.20174452662467957,
-0.0973343476653099,
-0.5768861770629883,
-0.008952198550105095,
0.03729281201958656,
-0.28233397006988525,
0.04495110735297203,
-0.10622671246528625,
0.440816730260849,
0.03455182537436485,
-0.19426776468753815,
-0.11206202208995819,
-0.15746457874774933,
-0.21119606494903564,
0.3252905607223511,
-0.1516142040491104,
0.12623532116413116,
-0.7193254828453064,
-0.4468887746334076,
0.6969733238220215,
0.7631803750991821,
0.5163838267326355,
0.6279250979423523,
0.34740665555000305,
0.7448667883872986,
0.5548503994941711,
-0.1421411782503128,
-0.13791772723197937,
0.4565011262893677,
-0.2531110644340515,
-0.43164965510368347,
0.05874733626842499,
-0.5640014410018921,
-0.17415283620357513,
1.0956175327301025,
-0.7472224235534668,
0.559462308883667,
-0.3636869192123413,
0.1793612539768219,
-0.13664184510707855,
-0.022576820105314255,
-0.2668435573577881,
-0.01878107152879238,
0.33921170234680176,
0.8890659213066101,
-0.42857253551483154,
-0.21096500754356384,
-0.24549362063407898,
-0.6165704131126404,
-0.19128534197807312,
-0.3804178833961487,
-0.000050070051656803116,
0.4490463137626648,
0.5146985650062561,
-0.568009614944458,
-0.00907963141798973,
-0.08226127922534943,
-0.2545291781425476,
-0.04916628077626228,
0.1246953085064888,
0.45915889739990234,
-0.6640385389328003,
0.24106110632419586,
-0.2043113261461258,
-0.6874531507492065,
-0.028285454958677292,
-0.35045474767684937,
-0.3830921947956085,
-0.21150526404380798,
0.20644612610340118,
0.3727664351463318,
0.29885008931159973,
0.1186259537935257,
-0.127944216132164,
-0.18111513555049896,
0.34932228922843933,
-0.13411018252372742,
0.1592116504907608,
0.7502153515815735,
-0.29670843482017517,
0.40877464413642883,
0.7191693782806396,
-0.2911589443683624,
0.03138072416186333,
-0.6570411324501038,
-0.07089907675981522,
-0.15330980718135834,
0.36703211069107056,
-0.9677141904830933,
0.24198536574840546,
-0.026646215468645096,
-0.4054679870605469,
0.41700074076652527,
-0.7704647183418274,
0.15622062981128693,
0.0743442252278328,
0.5870581269264221,
0.07948523014783859,
0.0886264443397522,
-0.24323026835918427,
0.41362980008125305,
0.5697453618049622,
-0.4046911895275116,
-0.03672404959797859,
0.6961936354637146,
-0.24265334010124207,
-0.29225677251815796,
-0.17839081585407257,
0.15968625247478485,
-0.186753049492836,
-0.23253758251667023,
0.06053641438484192,
-0.8024726510047913,
-0.4492707848548889,
-0.11063957214355469,
0.015645500272512436,
-0.4947502911090851,
0.11901866644620895,
-0.06772360950708389,
0.3505466878414154,
-0.6099908351898193,
-0.11596553772687912,
0.12514403462409973,
-0.5070616006851196,
-0.12105313688516617,
-0.47019317746162415,
0.15442238748073578,
-0.06962057203054428,
-0.42469510436058044,
0.2348266988992691,
-0.09067539870738983,
-0.6206538081169128,
0.4835856556892395,
0.08229278028011322,
-0.3419610857963562,
0.37342727184295654,
-0.46642011404037476,
-0.29685065150260925,
-0.09219322353601456,
0.8908577561378479,
0.2826266884803772,
-0.2901802957057953,
-0.06356720626354218,
-0.28683868050575256,
-0.08871565759181976,
-0.20413753390312195,
-0.17431314289569855,
-0.35103362798690796,
-0.9800649881362915,
0.3788914978504181,
-1.3089821338653564,
-0.03763550519943237,
0.7826994061470032,
-0.837829053401947,
0.13020488619804382,
-0.8783835768699646,
0.0683024525642395,
0.5911338329315186,
0.005173407029360533,
0.5347294211387634,
0.32007211446762085,
0.13908018171787262,
-0.3132334351539612,
-0.27439257502555847,
-0.2313830405473709,
0.33597561717033386,
0.5287609696388245,
0.08050499856472015,
-0.5239084959030151,
-0.46174052357673645,
0.08903658390045166,
-0.0215205829590559,
-0.45058876276016235,
-0.3707418739795685,
-0.13945667445659637,
-0.14866222441196442,
-0.02078661322593689,
-0.07582670450210571,
0.12607012689113617,
-0.6297177076339722,
0.2730345129966736,
-1.4789382219314575,
-0.08010290563106537,
-0.23741811513900757,
-0.22289447486400604,
-0.11843373626470566,
-0.5377023220062256,
-0.18425217270851135,
-0.31889721751213074,
-0.358434796333313,
0.3348487615585327,
-0.2166741043329239,
0.4205467402935028,
-0.08408116549253464,
-0.7707068920135498,
0.10067666321992874,
-0.24980561435222626,
0.42724698781967163,
0.26454490423202515,
0.13319726288318634,
-0.3235681653022766,
-0.5087366104125977,
0.13562756776809692,
-0.575735867023468,
0.6596646904945374,
0.36152106523513794,
-0.6907822489738464,
-0.3177229166030884,
-0.21917085349559784,
-0.44296130537986755,
-0.04639935865998268,
-0.44646990299224854,
0.06251538544893265,
-0.35975706577301025,
0.018417544662952423,
0.07239578664302826,
0.06544073671102524,
-0.062035128474235535,
-0.2854476273059845,
-0.4818131625652313,
0.017969690263271332,
0.038172103464603424,
0.14352670311927795,
0.021904759109020233,
-0.015356306917965412,
0.22618548572063446,
-0.8146095275878906,
0.2046176791191101,
0.09223295003175735,
-0.23741741478443146,
0.13725531101226807,
-0.3455885350704193,
-0.2509770095348358,
-0.3614596426486969,
-0.31913408637046814,
0.8240172266960144,
-0.09990432858467102,
0.30540889501571655,
0.45138025283813477,
0.6603182554244995,
-0.29810622334480286,
-0.3302597403526306,
0.080267533659935,
-0.3291673958301544,
-0.21278724074363708,
0.03232400864362717,
-0.26177793741226196,
0.5249091982841492,
0.565398633480072,
0.7238252758979797,
0.029561886563897133,
-0.11882903426885605,
0.30572137236595154,
-0.2723289728164673,
0.2594049572944641,
0.29804906249046326,
0.4474554657936096,
0.06584668159484863,
0.24781325459480286,
0.7648717761039734,
0.2614051103591919,
-0.17396791279315948,
-0.028855981305241585,
-0.28288763761520386,
0.23821057379245758,
0.8647953271865845,
0.1171397939324379,
-0.1549316793680191,
-0.17886540293693542,
0.22395022213459015,
0.11042598634958267,
0.05468081310391426,
-0.31975415349006653,
0.14222285151481628,
-0.0070142196491360664,
-0.2009294480085373,
-0.12461742758750916,
0.02120317704975605,
0.0687350332736969,
-0.63872230052948,
0.3385676145553589,
-0.000941506412345916,
0.5395565032958984,
-0.027601977810263634,
-0.5584967136383057,
0.39873117208480835,
-0.28042900562286377,
0.19062751531600952,
-0.11069080233573914,
-0.15030796825885773,
-0.43631815910339355,
-0.18731357157230377,
-0.056531280279159546,
-0.024054644629359245,
-0.1748628169298172,
0.24215100705623627,
0.6182973384857178,
-0.1696421355009079,
-0.4444575607776642,
-0.43303462862968445,
-0.17827393114566803,
0.2583969831466675,
0.11365144699811935,
-0.20628346502780914,
-0.1526169329881668,
0.09649553149938583,
-0.4684283435344696,
-0.02127970941364765,
0.27699214220046997,
-0.16962756216526031,
-0.4295359253883362,
-0.3503190875053406,
0.3810010850429535,
0.16917379200458527,
-0.22305557131767273,
-0.055734120309352875,
0.09951969981193542,
-0.7437055706977844,
0.22225770354270935,
-0.015248416922986507,
-0.7047743201255798,
-0.4993714690208435,
0.12144407629966736,
0.5697299242019653,
-0.10703373700380325,
0.7409334778785706,
0.2960853576660156,
0.3647489547729492,
0.017438029870390892,
0.5295960903167725,
-0.39880505204200745,
0.4455372989177704,
-0.524610698223114,
-0.11207646131515503,
-1.229148268699646,
0.2106468230485916,
0.5086899399757385,
0.05130743980407715,
-0.014344247989356518,
-0.2565488815307617,
-0.9018579125404358,
-0.1955478936433792,
0.5876524448394775,
0.0776124820113182,
-0.04351349547505379,
-0.3705325126647949,
-0.17446182668209076,
-0.2555132806301117,
0.21483170986175537,
0.9464462995529175,
-0.396928995847702,
0.1830451637506485,
0.6003151535987854,
0.006752890534698963,
-0.11453048139810562,
0.4471402168273926,
0.08178652822971344,
-0.3120242655277252,
-0.2931394875049591,
-0.12277299910783768,
-0.30355244874954224,
-0.0542987696826458,
0.28724756836891174,
0.1833733469247818,
0.41772758960723877,
-0.6787012815475464,
0.06283359974622726,
-0.1796078234910965,
0.4212549924850464,
0.22702372074127197,
-0.49854564666748047,
-0.46473950147628784,
0.1589614301919937,
-0.22624793648719788,
-0.7537881135940552,
0.775499701499939,
0.35638734698295593,
-0.06317064166069031,
0.45253247022628784,
-0.25111040472984314,
0.06065618246793747,
-0.22593094408512115,
0.3962429165840149,
-0.3420642018318176,
-0.4182749092578888,
0.03751176968216896
] |
247836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20mass%20hysteria%20cases | List of mass hysteria cases | In sociology and psychology, mass hysteria is a phenomenon that transmits collective illusions of threats, whether real or imaginary, through a population and society as a result of rumors and fear. In medicine, the term is used to describe the spontaneous manifestation—or production of chemicals in the body—of the same or similar hysterical physical symptoms by more than one person.
A common type of mass hysteria occurs when a group of people believes that it is suffering from a similar disease or ailment, sometimes referred to as mass sociogenic illness or epidemic hysteria.
Middle Ages
According to an account which was written by an author in 1784, a nun who lived in a German convent in the 1400s began to bite her companions, the behavior soon spread through other convents in Germany, Holland and Italy.
According to J. F. Hecker's 1844 book, The Epidemics of the Middle Ages, citing an unnamed medical textbook, a nun who lived in a French convent during an unspecified time in the Middle Ages inexplicably began to meow like a cat, shortly leading the other nuns in the convent to meow as well. Eventually, all of the nuns in the convent would meow together for a certain period, leaving the surrounding community astonished. This did not stop until the police threatened to whip the nuns.
1500–1800
Witch trials in the early modern period from 1450 to 1750 and especially from 1580 to 1630.
Dancing plague of 1518 – a case of dancing mania that occurred in Strasbourg, Alsace (then part of the Holy Roman Empire) in July 1518 wherein numerous people took to dancing for days.
Irish Fright (1688) – In England and parts of Wales in December 1688 during the Glorious Revolution, false reports that Irish soldiers were burning and massacring English towns prompted a mass panic in at least 19 counties, with thousands of people arming themselves and preparing to resist non-existent groups of marauding Irishmen.
Salem witch trials (1692−1693) – In colonial Massachusetts, adolescent girls Abigail Williams, Betty Parris, Ann Putnam Jr., and Elizabeth Hubbard began to have fits that were described by a minister as "beyond the power of epileptic fits or natural disease to effect." The events resulted in the Salem witch trials, a series of hearings which resulted in the execution of 20 citizens and the death of five other citizens of Salem Village, Massachusetts (present day Danvers, Massachusetts) and nearby towns who were accused of practicing witchcraft. The episode is one of America's most notorious cases of mass hysteria, and it has been used in political rhetoric and popular literature as a vivid cautionary tale about the dangers of isolationism, religious extremism, false accusations and lapses in due process.
Würzburg, Germany (1749) – an outbreak of screaming, squirming, and trance in a nunnery led to the execution of a suspected witch.
Great Fear (1789) – a general panic that took place between 17 July and 3 August 1789, at the start of the French Revolution.
1800–1950
Hammersmith Ghost hysteria (1803) – In November 1803, stories of ghost sightings in the Hammersmith neighbourhood of west London began to circulate. Many people assumed the ghost to be that of a recent suicide victim buried in Hammersmith's churchyard, which was in accordance with a popular notion at the time that suicides should not be buried in sacred grounds because their souls would be unable to find rest there. All witnesses reported the ghost as being very tall and clothed entirely in white, with some adding horns and glass eyes to the mix. As more individuals came forward to claim that they had not only seen the Hammersmith ghost, but had also been assaulted by it, alarm rapidly turned to widespread panic, and finally mass hysteria. Fearful residents responded by taking up guns and monitoring the area. This reaction resulted in one member of the public, Francis Smith, shooting and killing bricklayer Thomas Millwood by mistake, thinking he was the ghost.
Spring-heeled Jack sightings (1837-1904) – The earliest known sightings of Spring-heeled Jack, a legendary figure in English folklore, are claimed to have occurred in London in 1837, and the final confirmed sighting is said to have taken place in Liverpool in 1904.
"Writing Tremor Epidemic" (1892, 1904) – The right hand of a 10-year-old girl in Groß Tinz began trembling, which developed into full-body seizures that spread to 19 other students. A similar epidemic affected 20 in Basel, Switzerland. Twelve years later, the Basel school experienced another outbreak that affected 27 students. Legend of the first outbreak was said to have played a role.
Montreal (1894) – 60 students at a ladies' seminary suffered an outbreak of fits and seizures, some for as long as 2 months.
"Trembling Disease" (1905–06) – An estimated 237 children were afflicted between October 1905 and May 1906 in Meissen, Germany.
Miracle of the Sun (1917) – Occurring in Fátima, Portugal, on the 13 October 1917, witnesses describe the strange actions of the sun according to the prophecy that claimed the Virgin Mary would appear on that date to perform miracles. After a period of rain, the dark clouds parted and the Sun emerged as an opaque, spinning disc in the sky, according to numerous witnesses. It was claimed to be noticeably dimmer than usual, casting colourful lights across the landscape, people, and surrounding clouds. Afterwards, the Sun was said to have careened towards the Earth before "zig-zagging" back to its original position.
Halifax Slasher (1938) – The "Halifax Slasher" was the name given to a supposed attacker of residents, mostly women, of the town of Halifax, England, in November 1938. The week-long scare began after two women claimed to have been attacked by a mysterious man with a mallet and "bright buckles" on his shoes. Further reports of attacks by a man wielding a knife or a razor followed. The situation became so serious that Scotland Yard was called in to assist the Halifax police. On November 29 one of the alleged victims admitted that he had inflicted the damage upon himself for attention. Others soon had similar admissions, and the Yard investigation concluded that none of the attacks had been real. Five local people were subsequently charged with public mischief offenses, and four were sent to prison.
"War of the Worlds" radio broadcast (1938) – Newspaper headlines reported that thousands of Americans were plunged into panic over an Orson Welles radio play, convinced that America was under a deadly Martian attack.
Bellevue, Louisiana (1939) – A girl developed a leg twitch at the annual homecoming high school dance. Attacks worsened and spread to friends over the next several weeks.
Mad Gasser of Mattoon (1940s) – Mattoon, Illinois
Ghost rockets (1946) – German, British and Scandinavian intelligence officials concluded that the Ghost rockets which were reported over Scandinavia are a case of mass hysteria (among other conclusions).
1950−2000
Seattle windshield pitting epidemic (1954)
Tanganyika laughter epidemic (1962) – began on January 30, 1962, at a mission-run boarding school for girls in Kashasha, Tanzania. The laughter started with three girls and spread haphazardly throughout the school, affecting 95 of the 159 pupils, aged 12–18. Symptoms lasted from a few hours to 16 days in those affected. The teaching staff were not affected but reported that students were unable to concentrate on their lessons. The school was forced to close down on March 18, 1962. After the school was closed and the students were sent home, the epidemic spread to Nshamba, a village that was home to several of the girls. In April and May, 217 people had laughing attacks in the village, most of them school children and young adults. The Kashasha school was reopened on May 21, only to be closed again at the end of June. In June, the laughing epidemic spread to Ramashenye girls' middle school, near Bukoba, affecting 48 girls. Another outbreak occurred in Kanyangereka and two nearby boys schools were closed.
June bug epidemic (1962) – A mysterious disease broke out in a dressmaking department of an American textile factory. The symptoms included numbness, nausea, dizziness, and vomiting. Word of a bug in the factory that would bite its victims and cause them to develop the above symptoms quickly spread. Soon 62 employees developed this mysterious illness, some of whom were hospitalized. The news media reported on the case. After research by company physicians and experts from the US Public Health Service Communicable Disease Center, it was concluded that the case was one of mass hysteria. While the researchers believed some workers were bitten by the bug, anxiety was probably the cause of the symptoms. No evidence was ever found for a bug which could cause the above flu-like symptoms, nor did all workers demonstrate bites.
Welsh, Louisiana (1962) – With students' sexual activity under close scrutiny by school officials, and following rumors of mandatory pregnancy tests, 21 girls and one boy in grades six to eleven were affected by seizures and other symptoms over six months.
Blackburn faintings (1965) – In October 1965, several girls at a girls' school complained of dizziness in Blackburn, England. Some fainted. Within a couple of hours, 85 girls from the school were rushed by ambulance to a nearby hospital after fainting. Symptoms included swooning, moaning, chattering of teeth, hyperpnea, and tetany. A medical analysis of the event about one year later found that outbreaks began among the 14-year-olds, but that the heaviest incidence moved to the youngest age groups. There was no evidence of pollution of food or air. The younger girls proved more susceptible, but disturbance was more severe and lasted longer in the older girls. Using the Eysenck Personality Inventory, those affected had higher scores for extroversion and neuroticism. It was considered that the epidemic was hysterical, that a previous polio epidemic had rendered the population emotionally vulnerable, and that a three-hour parade, producing 20 faints on the day before the first outbreak, had been the specific trigger.
Mount Pleasant, Mississippi (1976) – School officials suspected drug use after 15 students fell to the ground writhing, but no drugs were found and hysteria is assumed to be the culprit. At one point, one third of the school's 900 students stayed home for fear of being "hexed".
Malaysia (1970s–1980s) – Mass hysteria in Malaysia affected school-age girls and young women working in factories. The locals have explained this outbreak as "spirits" having possessed the girls and young women.
Hollinwell incident (1980) – Around 300 people, mostly children, but including adults and babies, suddenly suffered fainting attacks, nausea and other symptoms. The incident remains one of the prime examples of mass hysteria.
West Bank fainting epidemic (1983) – a series of incidents in March 1983 wherein 943 Palestinian teenage girls, mostly schoolgirls, and a small number of IDF women soldiers fainted or complained of feeling nauseous in the West Bank. Israel was accused of using chemical warfare to sterilize West Bank women while IDF sources speculated that a toxic substance had been employed by Palestinian militants to stir up unrest, but investigators concluded that even if some environmental irritant had originally been present, the wave of complaints was ultimately a product of mass hysteria. This conclusion was supported by a Palestinian health official, who said that while 20% of the early cases may have been caused by the inhalation of some kind of gas, the remaining 80% were psychosomatic.
Day-care sex-abuse hysteria – a moral panic that occurred primarily in the 1980s and early 1990s featuring charges against day-care providers of several forms of child abuse, including Satanic ritual abuse.
San Diego (1988) – The U.S. Navy evacuated 600 men from barracks; 119 were sent to San Diego hospitals with complaints of breathing difficulty. No evidence of toxins, food poisoning, or any other cause was found.
Kosovo student poisoning (1990) – alleged poisoning of thousands of Kosovan young people by toxic gases, was concluded by professor of medicine Zoran Radovanović to be a product of mass hysteria.
Ganesha drinking milk miracle (1995)
Pokémon panic (1997) – an incident in which thousands of Japanese children seemingly suffered seizures while watching "Dennō Senshi Porygon", an episode of Pokémon.
Belgium (June 1999) – Coca-Cola withdrew 30 million units of its soft-drink product from sale after more than a hundred people in Belgium and northern France complained of cramps, nausea and other problems after consuming the soft drinks. Testing found no evidence of tainted product and the incident was reported to be a panic, perhaps fueled by the discovery of dioxins in Belgian meat, which had brought down the national government earlier that year.
2000–present
Monkey-man of Delhi (2001) – Random rumors about a hairy monkey-looking monster roaming the streets of Delhi in India led to the deaths of two or three panicked people who fell from roofs or stairwells while fleeing what they thought was the monster.
North Carolina (2002) – Ten girls developed seizures and other symptoms at a rural North Carolinian high school. Symptoms persisted for five months across various grade levels. Incidents tended to happen outside of class, with half of all incidents estimated to have occurred around lunch hour. Half of the affected were cheerleaders or former cheerleaders.
"Strawberries with Sugar virus" (2006) – In May 2006, an outbreak of the so-dubbed Morangos com Açúcar Virus ('Strawberries with Sugar virus') was reported in Portuguese schools, named after the popular teen girl's show Morangos com Açúcar ('Strawberries With Sugar'). At least 300 students at 14 schools reported similar symptoms to those experienced by the characters in a then recent episode where a life-threatening virus affected the school depicted in the show. Symptoms included rashes, difficulty breathing, and dizziness. The belief that there was a medical outbreak forced some schools to temporarily close. The Portuguese National Institute for Medical Emergency eventually dismissed the illness as mass hysteria.
Mexico City (2006–2007) – Between October 2006 and June 2007, near Chalco, a working-class suburb of Mexico City, mass hysteria resulted in an outbreak of unusual symptoms suffered by more than 500 adolescent female students at Children's Village School (Villa de las Ninas), a Catholic boarding-school. The afflicted students had difficulty walking and were feverish and nauseated, some becoming partially paralyzed.
Vinton, Virginia (2007) – An outbreak of twitching, headaches and dizziness affected at least nine girls and one teacher at William Byrd High School. The episode lasted for months amid other local public health scares.
Tanzania (2008) – In September 2008, 20 girls at a school in Tabora started fainting while taking their final year exams. The mass fainting has been linked to neurosis related to the local practice of witchcraft.
Afghanistan (2009–) – Starting around 2009, a spate of apparent poisonings at girls' schools across Afghanistan began to be reported, with symptoms including dizziness, fainting, and vomiting. The United Nations, World Health Organization and NATO's International Security Assistance Force carried out investigations of the incidents over multiple years, but never found any evidence of toxins or poisoning in the hundreds of blood, urine, and water samples they tested. The conclusion of the investigators was that the girls were suffering from mass psychogenic illness. Despite these findings, Afghan officials often blame the incidents on the Taliban, accusing them of contaminating the school's water supply or using poison gas.
Brunei (2010) – In April and May 2010, incidents of mass hysteria occurred at two all-girls secondary schools in Brunei. The most recent notable event happened on the 24 April 2014 in a public secondary school. The phenomenon caused a wave of panic among many parents, educators, and members of the community. Some of the students affected by the phenomenon claimed to have been possessed by spirits, or jinn, displaying histrionic symptoms such as screaming, shaking, fainting, and crying.
Le Roy, New York (2011–12) – After 12 high school girls developed Tourette-like symptoms in 2011, their school was tested for toxins, and all other factors for their symptoms were ruled out. The case, and some of the girls and their parents, gained national media attention. In January 2012, several more students and a 36-year-old adult female came forward with similar symptoms. They were all diagnosed with conversion disorder.
Sri Lanka (2012) – From November 15–20, 2012, incidents of mass hysteria occurred at 15 schools in Sri Lanka. More than 1,900 school children of 15 schools in Sri Lanka and five teachers were treated for a range of symptoms that included skin rashes, vomiting, vertigo, and cough due to allergic reactions believed to be mass hysteria. It originated at the Jinaraja Balika Vidyalaya in Gampola on November 15, 2012, when 1,100 students were admitted to hospital with a range of symptoms that included skin rashes, vomiting, vertigo and coughing. Later, authorities had to close down the school for 3 days. After that on November 16–19 there were more reports of students from other parts of the country showing similar symptoms.
Charlie Charlie panic (2015) – Four teens in Tunja, Colombia, were hospitalized, and several in the Dominican Republic were considered "possessed by Satan" after playing the Charlie Charlie Challenge viral game.
2016 clown sightings – Sightings of people in evil clown costumes in the United States, Canada, and 18 other countries were dismissed as a case of mass hysteria, stating that a fear of clowns (which is common in children and adults) may be an underlying cause. The website Vox likewise claimed that "The Great Clown Panic of 2016 has been perpetuated by pretty much everyone except actual clowns."
Recurrent epidemic of mass hysteria in Nepal (2016–2018) – A unique phenomenon of “recurrent epidemic of mass hysteria” was reported from a school of Pyuthan district of western Nepal in 2018. After a 9-year-old school girl developed crying and shouting episodes, quickly other children of the same school were also affected resulting in 47 affected students (37 females, 10 males) in the same day. Since 2016 similar episodes of mass psychogenic illness has been occurring in the same school every year. In 2016, twelve students were affected and in 2017, a total of 18 students of the same school were affected showing various symptoms in a single day. Hence it was thought to be a unique case of recurrent mass hysteria.
Emirates Flight 203 (September 2018) – 106 of 521 passengers on a 14-hour flight from Dubai to New York reported symptoms including coughing, sneezing, fever, or vomiting. The pilot notified airport ground staff, and personnel from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention met and quarantined the plane in New York and evaluated passengers, 11 of whom were sent to the hospital. A few passengers on the "flight from hell" turned out to have common colds or flu, with the other passengers coming to the belief that they were also sick after observing those around them.
Ketereh, Malaysia (2019) – In August 2019, the BBC reported that schoolgirls at the Ketereh national secondary school (SMK Ketereh) in Kelantan, started screaming, with some claiming to have seen 'a face of pure evil'. Professor Simon Wessely a former president of the Royal College of Psychiatrists, suggested it was a form of 'collective behaviour'. Robert Bartholomew, a medical sociologist, suggested it was due to the stricter implementation of Islamic law in the school. The school responded to the outbreak by cutting down the trees around the school, believing they were home to supernatural spirits.
Starehe Girls' Centre, Kenya (October 2019) – 52 students were isolated with an unknown disease, showing symptoms of a high-pitched cough, sneezing and low-grade fever, a number that later rose to 68. As the number rose, the school's administration shut the school down and instructed parents to pick up their daughters. Specimens collected from the affected students showed only two cases of rhinovirus, a virus that is the predominant cause of the common cold. After carrying out psychological assessments on the students, a team of mental health specialists dispatched by Kenya's Ministry of Health to the school concluded that the 'mysterious' disease was a case of mass hysteria.
See also
Body-centred countertransference
Conversion disorder
Folie à deux (from the French for "a madness shared by two")
Hysterical contagion
Psychochemical weaponry
References
Further reading
Bartholomew, Robert E. (2001). Little Green Men, Meowing Nuns and Head-hunting Panics: A Study of Mass Psychogenic Illnesses and Social Delusion. McFarland.
Bartholomew, Robert E; Evans, Hilary. (2009). Outbreak! The Encyclopedia of Extraordinary Social Behavior. Anomalist Books.
Craft, Amos Norton. (1881). Epidemic Delusions: Containing an Exposé of the Superstitions and Frauds which Underlie Some Ancient and Modern Delusions, Including Especial Reference to Modern Spiritualism. New York: Phillips & Hunt.
Fleischer, Jeff. (2011). The Latest Craze: A Short History of Mass Hysterias. Fall River Press.
Mackay, Charles. (1856 edition). Memoirs of Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds. London, New York: G. Routledge and Sons.
Verma, S. K; Srivastava, D. K. (2003). A Study on Mass Hysteria (Monkey Men?) Victims In East Delhi. Indian Journal of Medical Sciences 57: 355–360.
External links
Six hundred girls in Mexico suffer from collective hysteria
Sri Lanka Mass Hysteria
Mass hysteria – Skeptic's Dictionary
Mass Delusions and Hysterias: Highlights from the Past Millennium – Skeptical Inquirer
Group processes | [
0.3503943979740143,
0.3515535295009613,
-0.4834524393081665,
0.017974426969885826,
-0.26871800422668457,
0.20863020420074463,
0.8867919445037842,
0.5994711518287659,
-0.5336887240409851,
-0.1674589067697525,
-0.13543176651000977,
-0.07354862242937088,
-0.5093660950660706,
0.7179623246192932,
-0.02432897314429283,
0.24178291857242584,
-0.23116914927959442,
0.35435566306114197,
-0.06346264481544495,
-0.08829774707555771,
-0.30555567145347595,
-0.5046057105064392,
0.20130902528762817,
-0.13569392263889313,
-0.19325928390026093,
-0.17454084753990173,
0.2798292636871338,
-0.1049395501613617,
0.12897056341171265,
-0.06970623880624771,
-0.19289875030517578,
0.9201568961143494,
0.10072610527276993,
0.4789851903915405,
-0.2679133713245392,
0.04580799490213394,
-0.32761701941490173,
-0.5421880483627319,
-0.13284042477607727,
-0.16724763810634613,
-0.10229320824146271,
-0.26524969935417175,
-0.37280410528182983,
0.1884649246931076,
-0.23964229226112366,
-0.6196982264518738,
-1.5775202512741089,
0.3858708143234253,
-0.5312411189079285,
0.022598084062337875,
-0.33284488320350647,
0.2222623974084854,
0.3583821654319763,
0.4652614891529083,
-0.23766584694385529,
0.09663768857717514,
-0.417179673910141,
-0.24560518562793732,
0.296803742647171,
-0.19031333923339844,
0.31999942660331726,
-0.2237231284379959,
0.397543340921402,
-0.2699965536594391,
0.09987174719572067,
0.0020544729195535183,
0.41326746344566345,
0.5975030660629272,
-0.2754153311252594,
-0.8378599286079407,
-0.41465431451797485,
-0.06589137017726898,
0.14445699751377106,
0.03931763023138046,
-0.6160660982131958,
0.4470553696155548,
0.43105584383010864,
-0.3019024431705475,
-0.21748194098472595,
-0.1997632384300232,
-0.5108653903007507,
0.30093565583229065,
0.6727662086486816,
0.05802292376756668,
0.46551287174224854,
-0.23141337931156158,
-0.15931276977062225,
0.5955976843833923,
-0.20908279716968536,
0.7119302749633789,
0.40247395634651184,
0.5066004395484924,
0.640558123588562,
-0.14115633070468903,
0.11949241906404495,
0.9769296646118164,
0.5776998996734619,
-0.24672842025756836,
0.2439706027507782,
-0.03885209560394287,
-0.05606145039200783,
0.3111136555671692,
0.447712242603302,
-0.2557849586009979,
-0.0016795000992715359,
-0.19548048079013824,
0.3114526867866516,
-0.20562388002872467,
-0.18376687169075012,
-0.6700090765953064,
-0.6584440469741821,
0.11625070124864578,
-0.21500861644744873,
-0.06019921228289604,
-0.49787890911102295,
0.37770310044288635,
0.3792210817337036,
-0.08037354052066803,
-0.5557611584663391,
-0.316153883934021,
-0.06854234635829926,
0.053159233182668686,
-0.275336891412735,
-0.018949143588542938,
-0.1832529902458191,
0.5761566758155823,
0.631795346736908,
0.18765966594219208,
-0.40196698904037476,
0.28389135003089905,
-0.1550000160932541,
0.6490132808685303,
-0.14739678800106049,
-0.1156582459807396,
0.3563442826271057,
-0.4275859296321869,
0.14141739904880524,
0.25563186407089233,
0.35393306612968445,
0.002865370362997055,
-0.2797861695289612,
-0.8821542859077454,
-0.8696111440658569,
0.3752881586551666,
0.6678133606910706,
-0.44391998648643494,
-0.1535620391368866,
-0.49017104506492615,
-0.03613258898258209,
0.009034206159412861,
-0.3412201702594757,
0.21264001727104187,
-0.5202780961990356,
-0.02443622425198555,
0.30448052287101746,
0.11952074617147446,
0.6249045133590698,
-0.30518561601638794,
0.4402161240577698,
0.04537903144955635,
0.4209150969982147,
0.43693363666534424,
-0.22333364188671112,
-0.10708983987569809,
-0.2386268526315689,
-0.2362496554851532,
-0.21865223348140717,
0.3754076361656189,
-0.11911625415086746,
-0.012838521040976048,
-0.5619730353355408,
0.4001489579677582,
0.10344815254211426,
-0.2683776617050171,
-0.1654694676399231,
0.2704744338989258,
0.1986914426088333,
0.3662940561771393,
0.4666264057159424,
0.2028246521949768,
-0.40533432364463806,
-0.026523876935243607,
0.20345503091812134,
-0.4849102199077606,
0.24988041818141937,
-0.03632572293281555,
0.20493240654468536,
0.11110847443342209,
0.060371674597263336,
-0.3147673010826111,
0.07216387242078781,
0.060068339109420776,
0.17904992401599884,
-0.15729698538780212,
0.9883782863616943,
-0.12921316921710968,
-0.2496049404144287,
0.8980572819709778,
0.18179237842559814,
-0.609230637550354,
0.18393096327781677,
-0.24337820708751678,
0.32861626148223877,
-0.011247280053794384,
-0.7533329129219055,
0.23543855547904968,
-0.20591560006141663,
0.04620051756501198,
-0.28900250792503357,
0.2717415690422058,
0.6967822909355164,
-0.5015850067138672,
0.052305251359939575,
-0.6010101437568665,
0.277144193649292,
0.6206585168838501,
-0.6076179146766663,
0.6486561298370361,
0.11153292655944824,
-0.22201254963874817,
0.594435453414917,
-0.5741227269172668,
0.10103370249271393,
0.20104184746742249,
0.12233210355043411,
0.5366504192352295,
0.3872409462928772,
0.05678560584783554,
0.6834499835968018,
-1.1935746669769287,
0.5143529772758484,
0.5072465538978577,
0.5120213031768799,
-0.3226371705532074,
-0.6012099385261536,
0.3574601411819458,
0.11582726985216141,
-0.205129474401474,
-0.5993466973304749,
-0.535187840461731,
0.2666994333267212,
0.36430075764656067,
-0.1689528226852417,
0.5452959537506104,
0.11481904983520508,
-0.4137207269668579,
-0.1948007345199585,
-0.3144054114818573,
-0.8410195708274841,
0.11690214276313782,
-0.17705191671848297,
0.6722711324691772,
0.21914777159690857,
-0.25963830947875977,
0.4525878429412842,
-0.1107902079820633,
0.42077669501304626,
-0.21453018486499786,
0.2045462280511856,
0.09643740952014923,
0.1683550775051117,
0.3703174293041229,
-0.10056253522634506,
0.43292877078056335,
-0.32090991735458374,
-0.5457931160926819,
0.05406404659152031,
-0.25862011313438416,
-0.13546468317508698,
0.4512423872947693,
1.030134916305542,
0.08358177542686462,
-0.14696422219276428,
-0.23861636221408844,
0.1530759036540985,
-0.7841793298721313,
0.15605612099170685,
0.5991801023483276,
-0.39478549361228943,
0.06864313781261444,
-0.3331802785396576,
0.18053480982780457,
0.3710973560810089,
-0.4736182391643524,
0.12790891528129578,
-0.7128392457962036,
0.11477135121822357,
-0.2893962860107422,
-0.046806979924440384,
0.22684480249881744,
-0.5873984098434448,
0.07719763368368149,
0.031233832240104675,
-0.3115759491920471,
-0.12986959517002106,
0.32501840591430664,
0.22340615093708038,
0.8007169961929321,
0.18957890570163727,
-0.25855258107185364,
-0.578121542930603,
0.4507521092891693,
-0.5028747320175171,
-0.1585417091846466,
-0.3661903738975525,
0.20394907891750336,
-0.18108248710632324,
0.14419624209403992,
-5.875150203704834,
-0.18509019911289215,
0.16063177585601807,
-0.571767270565033,
-0.3482028543949127,
0.4305354356765747,
0.886605441570282,
-0.1767764687538147,
-0.3972141742706299,
0.027203267440199852,
0.6765226721763611,
0.027950061485171318,
-0.10905620455741882,
0.3130965530872345,
0.15478870272636414,
-0.19193445146083832,
0.15341824293136597,
-0.06161805987358093,
0.280684232711792,
0.15118230879306793,
0.12279562652111053,
0.6554790139198303,
-0.17213396728038788,
0.6089314222335815,
-0.2667398154735565,
0.26631104946136475,
-0.21329180896282196,
0.1522965282201767,
-0.4713090658187866,
0.39874863624572754,
0.19658705592155457,
-0.5300794839859009,
-0.33664825558662415,
0.19394971430301666,
-0.3249441683292389,
0.3927679657936096,
0.4598802328109741,
0.09847795218229294,
-0.3268633484840393,
-0.5509052872657776,
-0.6949855089187622,
0.16165879368782043,
-0.35401448607444763,
0.1297101378440857,
0.7078580260276794,
0.004107118584215641,
-0.2633729577064514,
0.2930089235305786,
-0.6996460556983948,
0.24125263094902039,
-0.20239467918872833,
-0.04818103089928627,
0.41605421900749207,
0.30390220880508423,
0.15361547470092773,
0.15611091256141663,
0.03589000925421715,
0.25621485710144043,
-0.15412549674510956,
0.09716954082250595,
0.40426039695739746,
0.22039605677127838,
0.23069709539413452,
-0.4450344741344452,
-0.03968559950590134,
-0.05287047103047371,
-0.8460123538970947,
-0.6186943054199219,
0.6224766969680786,
-0.3575282394886017,
0.016553906723856926,
0.31397250294685364,
0.19180643558502197,
-0.8102277517318726,
0.2977141737937927,
-0.5561704039573669,
0.12652508914470673,
0.1837557703256607,
0.578971803188324,
0.033817172050476074,
-0.8639299869537354,
0.22481603920459747,
0.017500102519989014,
-0.3108653426170349,
0.17449577152729034,
-0.27509817481040955,
-0.10845408588647842,
0.10994204133749008,
-0.18957014381885529,
-0.2790890038013458,
0.3196560740470886,
0.020501816645264626,
0.37733811140060425,
0.512524425983429,
0.42918625473976135,
0.7830098271369934,
0.3185327649116516,
0.37957048416137695,
0.6379252076148987,
-0.13641922175884247,
0.5274975299835205,
-0.47709688544273376,
-0.3021460473537445,
-0.7342671155929565,
-0.3621876537799835,
-0.20808038115501404,
-0.2183646857738495,
0.42462220788002014,
0.5710949897766113,
-0.7704293131828308,
0.49570322036743164,
0.19572365283966064,
-0.172234445810318,
-0.6360271573066711,
0.6083624362945557,
-0.1564202755689621,
-0.13578373193740845,
1.1021268367767334,
0.494522362947464,
0.07956097275018692,
0.1727094054222107,
0.03781832382082939,
-0.577303946018219,
0.05167362838983536,
0.4920368790626526,
-0.27458280324935913,
-0.2008240520954132,
0.060102321207523346,
-0.3415275514125824,
-0.07763244211673737,
0.2734133303165436,
0.6766038537025452,
0.30094316601753235,
0.026939330622553825,
0.43366706371307373,
-0.21885795891284943,
-0.1823919266462326,
-0.012499741278588772,
-0.05754253640770912,
-0.5765520930290222,
0.46593084931373596,
0.13155916333198547,
-0.260210245847702,
0.3898729085922241,
0.3058030903339386,
-0.12439484894275665,
-0.20612618327140808,
-0.05233948305249214,
0.17441235482692719,
0.29973116517066956,
-0.09903831779956818,
-0.16424109041690826,
0.24829159677028656,
-0.1360217034816742,
-0.4454366862773895,
0.25025543570518494,
0.6224512457847595,
0.07084425538778305,
-0.7877407670021057,
-0.33247554302215576,
0.08681642264127731,
-0.32757753133773804,
-1.0531717538833618,
-0.20706015825271606,
-0.24984964728355408,
-0.11501935124397278,
-0.5526431798934937,
-0.24301128089427948,
0.23018261790275574,
0.5243109464645386,
-0.2098330408334732,
-0.44216087460517883,
-0.4658743739128113,
0.18878193199634552,
0.39855772256851196,
-0.061675574630498886,
-0.38758212327957153,
0.4407176971435547,
-0.31603869795799255,
0.06525024026632309,
-0.1091952994465828,
-0.041667595505714417,
-0.7234657406806946,
0.22025641798973083,
0.23039814829826355,
0.703327476978302,
0.13468430936336517,
0.19081130623817444,
-0.12689335644245148,
-0.061961330473423004,
-0.3263012766838074,
-0.047795359045267105,
0.34876808524131775,
0.0972026139497757,
-0.039666954427957535,
-0.06913121044635773,
-0.2914854884147644,
-0.34321916103363037,
0.050837982445955276,
-0.26853302121162415,
0.6367615461349487,
0.3672303557395935,
-0.7260028123855591,
-0.2772383689880371,
0.42378073930740356,
-0.4542335271835327,
0.21517755091190338,
0.26088741421699524,
-0.1888953447341919,
0.08929091691970825,
-0.628179132938385,
-0.00004294962855055928,
-0.47512903809547424,
0.6942914724349976,
-0.2849104702472687,
-0.32949069142341614,
-0.22325055301189423,
-0.9967756271362305,
-0.1783849596977234,
0.20733879506587982,
0.16788890957832336,
0.31630218029022217,
-0.37175241112709045,
-0.22566914558410645,
-0.5799643397331238,
0.13554994761943817,
0.14062818884849548,
-0.5738264322280884,
0.8116848468780518,
0.07257973402738571,
-0.38377875089645386,
0.2756116986274719,
0.023563342168927193,
-0.11344323307275772,
-0.10989457368850708,
-0.5083661079406738,
0.5263373851776123,
0.15813575685024261,
-0.010380546562373638,
0.01876997947692871,
-0.17402151226997375,
0.40941035747528076,
0.005205055698752403,
-0.5096286535263062,
0.29370826482772827,
0.2794153392314911,
0.5948405861854553,
-0.9209620952606201,
-0.07343969494104385,
0.04890820011496544,
0.08617057651281357,
-0.47060588002204895,
-0.5230398774147034,
-0.11803755909204483,
0.35461705923080444,
0.15703268349170685,
-0.4469228982925415,
-0.5087777972221375,
0.40780016779899597,
-0.263178288936615,
0.12493769824504852,
-0.5034908056259155,
-0.2771790027618408,
-0.2346351444721222,
0.36114439368247986,
-0.025366811081767082,
-0.27909111976623535,
0.4728541672229767,
0.11547784507274628,
-0.2564848065376282,
0.32023653388023376,
-0.1526537835597992,
0.3916715085506439,
0.3664962351322174,
0.09638478606939316,
0.47929489612579346,
-0.463550865650177,
-0.12155252695083618,
-0.5055906176567078,
-0.001184044755063951,
0.16989684104919434,
-0.4469645321369171,
0.38534000515937805,
-0.4980047047138214,
0.5565440654754639,
-0.32156968116760254,
0.1821277141571045,
-0.44094762206077576,
-0.06754110008478165,
-0.2538975477218628,
-0.3651540279388428,
-0.0451330728828907,
-0.29332664608955383,
0.562108039855957,
0.07053963094949722,
0.30008289217948914,
0.5005491375923157,
0.6872313022613525,
0.27285775542259216,
-0.2346678078174591,
-0.15483039617538452,
0.5037993788719177,
-0.22156570851802826,
-1.0005489587783813,
0.4722566604614258,
-0.23211246728897095,
-0.2902241349220276,
-0.6778298616409302,
-0.3055766224861145,
-0.298633337020874,
0.15215396881103516,
-0.19064748287200928,
0.19220708310604095,
0.6536087393760681,
-0.41813018918037415,
0.07036549597978592,
-0.22190462052822113,
-0.6986122727394104,
0.43191131949424744,
0.018144655972719193,
-0.19271504878997803,
0.3648970127105713,
0.6140050888061523,
-0.25162166357040405,
0.1403488963842392,
0.3374415636062622,
0.15220250189304352,
0.32951653003692627,
0.3863959014415741,
0.011973636224865913,
0.6774654984474182,
0.3854885995388031,
-0.2884424030780792,
0.5292684435844421,
-0.1301717907190323,
-0.421330064535141,
0.3800240457057953,
-0.6166306138038635,
-0.41204550862312317,
0.45559507608413696,
0.6972892880439758,
0.009311860427260399,
-0.04871634393930435,
0.3337380886077881,
-0.29028773307800293,
0.43609586358070374,
0.268755704164505,
0.4395539164543152,
0.06343372911214828,
-0.09940586984157562,
0.35695627331733704,
-0.029854556545615196,
0.1784660816192627,
-0.03713945671916008,
0.4510248899459839,
-0.3566392958164215,
0.4095020294189453,
-0.3059089183807373,
-0.5415633916854858,
-0.46592146158218384,
-0.11731203645467758,
0.05980118364095688,
0.2648349702358246,
0.29568159580230713,
0.7791808247566223,
0.23933051526546478,
-0.07060640305280685,
-0.04570034146308899,
-0.22765038907527924,
-0.10311172157526016,
-0.020509900525212288,
-0.08110750466585159,
-0.3771289885044098,
0.5481102466583252,
0.21742495894432068,
-0.13856759667396545,
0.10483361780643463,
0.2945411801338196,
-0.06960882246494293,
-0.3817976713180542,
-0.36973944306373596,
-0.08026502281427383,
0.18003912270069122,
-0.4020092785358429,
0.3486429452896118,
-0.05209258198738098,
-0.06555084884166718,
0.26126646995544434,
0.17466625571250916,
0.20136937499046326,
0.472209095954895,
0.23550792038440704,
0.25397366285324097,
0.1686549335718155,
-0.23853078484535217,
-0.054738011211156845,
0.095316581428051,
0.3342774212360382,
-0.4407117962837219,
0.23383145034313202,
-0.20076324045658112,
0.2064165472984314,
-0.5005613565444946,
0.1725989580154419,
-0.7585552334785461,
0.13938012719154358,
-0.45350271463394165,
-0.2592063546180725,
-0.6344296932220459,
0.865105926990509,
0.032440878450870514,
-0.3216678500175476,
-0.2344321608543396,
-0.06885036826133728,
-0.2765038013458252,
0.2376626431941986,
0.4914621412754059,
-0.26181721687316895,
-0.24455390870571136,
-0.3901914060115814,
0.16181939840316772,
-0.4598468542098999,
0.5005356073379517,
0.22630061209201813,
-0.6092432737350464,
-0.0027781366370618343,
0.3375155031681061,
-0.2960279583930969,
-0.3116418421268463,
0.29170671105384827,
-0.5793342590332031,
0.48425960540771484,
-0.3422428071498871,
0.3603697121143341,
-0.3703799545764923,
-0.16790997982025146,
0.9152436256408691,
0.5823856592178345,
0.5382662415504456,
-0.43804651498794556,
0.028526918962597847,
-0.7920329570770264,
-0.21089571714401245,
0.26694032549858093,
-0.9319301247596741,
0.03576299548149109,
-0.15456093847751617,
-0.3343842029571533,
-0.21068258583545685,
0.03561795502901077,
-0.09592846781015396,
-0.4697072505950928,
-0.2108510583639145,
-0.17411752045154572,
-0.5063085556030273,
0.25738525390625,
0.4442971348762512,
-0.5217599272727966,
-0.13375848531723022,
0.21364301443099976
] |
247837 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomania | Monomania | In 19th-century psychiatry, monomania (from Greek , one, and , meaning "madness" or "frenzy") was a form of partial insanity conceived as single pathological preoccupation in an otherwise sound mind.
Types
Monomania may refer to:
De Clerambault's syndrome (erotomania): Delusion that a particular man or woman is in love with the patient. This can occur without reinforcement or even acquaintanceship with the love object.
Idée fixe: Domination by an overvalued idea, for example, "staying thin" in anorexia nervosa
Kleptomania: Irresistible urge to steal
Pyromania: Impulse to deliberately start fires
Lypemania: Early elaboration later to become modern concept of depression
Narcissism: Pursuit of gratification from one's own attributes
History
Partial insanity, variations of which enjoyed a long pre-history in jurisprudence, was in contrast to the traditional notion of total insanity, exemplified in the diagnosis of mania, as a global condition affecting all aspects of understanding and which reflected the position that the mind or soul was an indivisible entity. Coined by the French psychiatrist Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (1772–1840) around 1810, monomania was a new disease-concept characterised by the presence of an expansive fixed-idea in which the mind was diseased and deranged in some facets but otherwise normal in others. Esquirol and his circle described three broad categories of monomania consistent with their traditional three-part classification of the mind into intellectual, emotional and volitional faculties. Emotional monomania is that in which the patient is obsessed with only one emotion or several related to it; intellectual monomania is that which is related to only one kind of delirious idea or ideas. Although monomania was retained as one of seven recognized categories of mental illness in the 1880 US census, its importance as a psychiatric diagnostic category was in decline from the mid-19th century.
See also
Addictive behaviour
Idée fixe (psychology)
Moral insanity
References
External links
Obsolete terms for mental disorders
Mania | [
0.3830380439758301,
0.13298119604587555,
-0.9191009998321533,
0.28621184825897217,
-0.5084905624389648,
0.19408592581748962,
1.1998956203460693,
0.03606449067592621,
-0.2250453382730484,
0.21907001733779907,
-0.016159115359187126,
0.11998599767684937,
-0.7495599985122681,
0.738368809223175,
-0.1343606412410736,
0.39091965556144714,
0.8401538729667664,
0.2163952887058258,
-0.38338014483451843,
0.18792389333248138,
-0.48139500617980957,
-0.07112021744251251,
0.1714468151330948,
-0.14406903088092804,
-0.2977694869041443,
-0.018567416816949844,
0.5091711282730103,
-0.3380439877510071,
-0.1566454917192459,
0.3292147219181061,
0.06299219280481339,
0.3377724587917328,
0.057676661759614944,
0.033470623195171356,
-0.21720433235168457,
0.5108151435852051,
-0.2887978255748749,
-0.6946951150894165,
-0.2559534013271332,
-0.6943719983100891,
0.12864553928375244,
-0.12522390484809875,
0.19265256822109222,
0.30678391456604004,
-0.23901541531085968,
0.026079365983605385,
-1.7138031721115112,
0.16608360409736633,
-0.5407373905181885,
-0.09499034285545349,
-0.19628958404064178,
0.6953091621398926,
0.17822276055812836,
0.4920375645160675,
-0.5571103692054749,
0.4365365505218506,
-0.5702477693557739,
0.033101893961429596,
0.2854725122451782,
-0.23285441100597382,
0.5560455918312073,
0.15718182921409607,
0.4909990429878235,
0.2448781430721283,
0.12171275168657303,
0.17239375412464142,
-0.07765919715166092,
0.7878710031509399,
-0.5726741552352905,
-0.3210315704345703,
-0.6890878677368164,
-0.09691543132066727,
0.22391901910305023,
0.004410561639815569,
-0.8402591347694397,
0.09846633672714233,
0.2000371664762497,
-0.7569019794464111,
0.4566088914871216,
-0.10129239410161972,
-0.17633220553398132,
0.8959409594535828,
0.4667262136936188,
0.0522833876311779,
0.38597607612609863,
-0.19097088277339935,
-0.04166606068611145,
0.6418157815933228,
0.0020856880582869053,
0.13158541917800903,
0.2884283661842346,
0.44496068358421326,
0.5864068269729614,
-0.04634746164083481,
-0.14251354336738586,
0.4790990948677063,
0.6896461844444275,
-0.27623018622398376,
-0.62847501039505,
-0.37007468938827515,
0.509610116481781,
0.4140012562274933,
0.4095064699649811,
-0.6491124033927917,
0.26448702812194824,
-0.562308132648468,
0.38965922594070435,
-0.35956794023513794,
-0.25368863344192505,
-0.38116806745529175,
-1.3160136938095093,
0.3343227505683899,
0.015447069890797138,
0.1486874222755432,
-1.1404260396957397,
0.01159355416893959,
0.12175405025482178,
0.41596221923828125,
0.22167882323265076,
-0.4589218497276306,
0.21397772431373596,
-0.0681808665394783,
-0.2766093313694,
-0.26622501015663147,
-0.5657433271408081,
-0.008579219691455364,
-0.13211658596992493,
0.3307091295719147,
-0.3842633068561554,
-0.058950845152139664,
0.17567257583141327,
0.4525578022003174,
-0.039503313601017,
-0.22856298089027405,
0.28572773933410645,
0.18562065064907074,
0.4883359372615814,
-0.07175331562757492,
0.019061125814914703,
0.16815508902072906,
-0.2778772711753845,
-0.6155036687850952,
-0.7659479975700378,
-0.12635397911071777,
0.4769677519798279,
-0.5397181510925293,
0.42053133249282837,
0.3288879692554474,
-0.21823056042194366,
-0.5669843554496765,
-0.37981435656547546,
-0.0805114358663559,
0.15092287957668304,
-0.17809323966503143,
0.49372074007987976,
0.010042449459433556,
0.04157829284667969,
-0.734804630279541,
0.6464710831642151,
-0.3523257374763489,
-0.21778996288776398,
-0.3510335683822632,
-0.5176137685775757,
-0.25894248485565186,
-0.04267298802733421,
-0.3699130415916443,
0.22530962526798248,
0.3586077392101288,
-0.2877889573574066,
0.2703123986721039,
-0.03583190590143204,
0.19082339107990265,
0.3284396827220917,
-0.27644357085227966,
-0.2707855701446533,
-0.012552336789667606,
0.5298790335655212,
0.550206184387207,
0.3085257112979889,
-0.2770867645740509,
-0.6497041583061218,
0.1690191924571991,
-0.0740031972527504,
-0.2730638086795807,
0.5189589858055115,
-0.16802889108657837,
0.4863104820251465,
-0.09566943347454071,
-0.4738384187221527,
-0.3619581162929535,
-0.2453399896621704,
-0.41923803091049194,
-0.15130536258220673,
-0.1311713010072708,
1.4393316507339478,
-0.4352254569530487,
-0.9444736242294312,
0.47934645414352417,
0.5214850306510925,
0.31842246651649475,
0.15822339057922363,
-0.10606124252080917,
-0.2161926031112671,
0.15569543838500977,
-0.25466763973236084,
0.25432857871055603,
-0.14367960393428802,
-0.026720913127064705,
0.04402988404035568,
0.23860448598861694,
0.30113643407821655,
-0.9159674048423767,
0.07686023414134979,
-0.45914942026138306,
-0.05174970254302025,
0.08790048211812973,
-0.608195424079895,
0.34332600235939026,
-0.32935839891433716,
-0.4698593020439148,
0.2036036252975464,
-0.8427072763442993,
-0.20828017592430115,
0.37040314078330994,
0.4560304880142212,
0.36889025568962097,
0.21786467730998993,
-0.1617022603750229,
0.6604422330856323,
-0.5492315292358398,
-0.044654492288827896,
0.2225983589887619,
0.2604471743106842,
0.07280494272708893,
-0.2463630884885788,
0.5690857172012329,
-0.002923993393778801,
-0.6698058247566223,
-0.2823241353034973,
-0.8297388553619385,
-0.08557052910327911,
-0.11756160110235214,
0.07014352083206177,
0.4247407615184784,
0.3521047830581665,
-0.16640937328338623,
-0.43852028250694275,
0.19961793720722198,
-0.9846811294555664,
0.6612409949302673,
0.09928502142429352,
0.6380100846290588,
0.30557364225387573,
-0.42774659395217896,
0.42252352833747864,
-0.3696078956127167,
0.36004260182380676,
-0.08130993694067001,
-0.28694820404052734,
-0.41431012749671936,
-0.44744783639907837,
0.35492953658103943,
-0.1360575258731842,
-0.34908631443977356,
0.032764267176389694,
-0.692713737487793,
-0.27356821298599243,
0.4147144854068756,
0.34907102584838867,
-0.18215776979923248,
1.2337372303009033,
-0.3050486147403717,
-0.5457572340965271,
0.0953599363565445,
-0.2700991928577423,
-0.7308570742607117,
0.018500372767448425,
-0.0807967558503151,
-0.31837931275367737,
0.08551260828971863,
0.09315737336874008,
0.7028715014457703,
0.17640475928783417,
-0.22281628847122192,
-0.2564820647239685,
-0.47634023427963257,
-0.063116654753685,
-0.3362818658351898,
0.6185900568962097,
-0.01264138426631689,
-0.24068224430084229,
0.04043350741267204,
-0.045502856373786926,
-0.14182020723819733,
-0.22747240960597992,
0.14642536640167236,
0.12797924876213074,
0.5959312319755554,
-0.13332980871200562,
-0.1646244078874588,
-0.8892638683319092,
0.15935376286506653,
-0.6225239634513855,
-0.297599196434021,
0.1344309002161026,
-0.008562002331018448,
-0.28236377239227295,
0.14982540905475616,
-5.552827835083008,
-0.1782548725605011,
-0.34548231959342957,
-0.4137876033782959,
0.2514340281486511,
0.2995181381702423,
0.23312847316265106,
-0.1777881532907486,
-0.7779667377471924,
0.17159871757030487,
-0.26276686787605286,
-0.008694625459611416,
0.11240921914577484,
0.49363839626312256,
0.14846520125865936,
-0.20002514123916626,
-0.02686081826686859,
-0.07344776391983032,
-0.17750556766986847,
0.43223491311073303,
0.052104827016592026,
0.5050482749938965,
0.00040969636756926775,
0.7039562463760376,
0.008696064352989197,
0.4069022536277771,
-0.003964192233979702,
0.29304784536361694,
-0.6152654886245728,
0.141554594039917,
-0.23200756311416626,
-0.39550530910491943,
-0.23825328052043915,
-0.28218764066696167,
0.03308385983109474,
0.7293043732643127,
0.32039350271224976,
0.1154574304819107,
0.18610601127147675,
-0.2703033685684204,
-0.5625625252723694,
0.07259175181388855,
0.12621532380580902,
-0.10198063403367996,
0.5623628497123718,
0.12417369335889816,
-0.17449337244033813,
-0.0033040582202374935,
-0.8691948652267456,
0.3853468894958496,
-0.06723829358816147,
0.14814311265945435,
0.08417683094739914,
-0.044761817902326584,
0.07069547474384308,
-0.36909034848213196,
0.8498833179473877,
-0.4204510748386383,
-0.33798378705978394,
0.11587033420801163,
0.4147385060787201,
-0.13708950579166412,
-0.48301270604133606,
-0.415404349565506,
0.43391647934913635,
-0.1892225444316864,
-0.2860086262226105,
-0.09450411051511765,
0.8575981259346008,
0.25021207332611084,
0.12159691751003265,
0.33954286575317383,
0.25804126262664795,
-0.7827179431915283,
0.14948707818984985,
0.13377271592617035,
-0.2873450815677643,
-0.07430865615606308,
0.36559802293777466,
0.39277809858322144,
-0.5369595885276794,
0.054447241127491,
-0.5764647126197815,
0.09692344069480896,
0.4332282245159149,
-0.14840732514858246,
-0.2693396508693695,
0.7626519799232483,
-0.621655285358429,
0.3673257827758789,
-0.1197327971458435,
0.13810494542121887,
0.35995617508888245,
0.4551655948162079,
0.05671580135822296,
0.7997832894325256,
-0.16828006505966187,
0.48421162366867065,
0.8054772019386292,
-0.3761066794395447,
0.06165457144379616,
-0.5772398114204407,
0.21769145131111145,
-0.4321941137313843,
0.042380981147289276,
-0.16397623717784882,
-0.6007858514785767,
0.34300464391708374,
0.40213125944137573,
-0.35078299045562744,
-0.10198042541742325,
0.32212167978286743,
0.27136003971099854,
-0.3017560541629791,
1.126988172531128,
0.1802113652229309,
-0.46635860204696655,
0.8322913646697998,
0.2431270182132721,
-0.14327093958854675,
-0.061627961695194244,
0.3297274708747864,
-0.7201188802719116,
0.19706390798091888,
0.13744182884693146,
0.034561753273010254,
-0.08792666345834732,
0.2946842610836029,
-0.3714164197444916,
-0.16399134695529938,
0.49449777603149414,
0.4389555752277374,
0.26248663663864136,
0.3432195782661438,
-0.3248775005340576,
-0.4206920564174652,
0.020462244749069214,
0.2720707952976227,
-0.5229141712188721,
-0.5554317235946655,
-0.04178285971283913,
0.23272761702537537,
-0.05146017670631409,
0.35744509100914,
0.3882301151752472,
-0.2048059105873108,
-0.09863989800214767,
-0.3827831745147705,
-0.020023642107844353,
0.42407312989234924,
0.1373106688261032,
-0.3916921615600586,
-0.053819503635168076,
-0.30867645144462585,
-0.29159975051879883,
0.10651411861181259,
0.1750013381242752,
-0.11408603191375732,
0.0748952180147171,
-0.5245844721794128,
-0.5770882368087769,
-0.4951513707637787,
-1.030668020248413,
-0.5806087851524353,
-0.05202297493815422,
0.1983930915594101,
-0.46633267402648926,
-0.6014748215675354,
-0.05966326966881752,
0.3285806179046631,
-0.3674958646297455,
-0.20098550617694855,
-0.3027518093585968,
-0.12361636757850647,
0.7732324600219727,
0.1575702726840973,
-0.5308776497840881,
0.13154728710651398,
-0.16362649202346802,
0.03486041724681854,
0.14632770419120789,
-0.23185336589813232,
-0.6762293577194214,
0.41921547055244446,
0.6148380637168884,
-0.17088943719863892,
-0.02728234976530075,
0.11762654036283493,
-0.39079347252845764,
-0.08892018347978592,
-0.03345920518040657,
0.30107730627059937,
0.15745358169078827,
0.4059476852416992,
-0.2478254735469818,
0.35919103026390076,
-0.32669350504875183,
-0.03873034566640854,
0.16516077518463135,
-0.21115891635417938,
0.36172348260879517,
0.5510621666908264,
0.0412287563085556,
-0.13791872560977936,
1.4569813013076782,
-0.9376034140586853,
0.3317653238773346,
-0.16062559187412262,
-0.5277236700057983,
0.7869271039962769,
-0.3093993067741394,
0.11459454894065857,
-0.8180548548698425,
0.2694249153137207,
-0.3497711420059204,
0.10609475523233414,
0.3474426865577698,
-0.8362656831741333,
-0.6198770403862,
-0.5750346183776855,
0.3000786006450653,
0.14028283953666687,
-0.1266486793756485,
-0.2836083471775055,
-0.7591996192932129,
-0.939744234085083,
0.3181661069393158,
0.03857424855232239,
0.9162243008613586,
0.047873999923467636,
-0.14477232098579407,
0.32126492261886597,
-0.17106878757476807,
-0.18659669160842896,
0.08296097069978714,
-0.9659174680709839,
0.5334059000015259,
0.4188360273838043,
0.032501861453056335,
-0.5805103778839111,
0.24473901093006134,
1.162764549255371,
0.336895227432251,
-0.2021491676568985,
-0.31315261125564575,
-0.03460409492254257,
0.5463075041770935,
-0.8173435926437378,
0.05615594610571861,
-0.1296376734972,
0.1898222416639328,
-0.4394112229347229,
-0.7011763453483582,
-0.06465078890323639,
0.6029883027076721,
0.02175723761320114,
0.43278953433036804,
-0.5939238667488098,
0.3407791554927826,
0.07070130854845047,
0.2245393544435501,
0.09343428164720535,
0.07632244378328323,
0.28747814893722534,
-0.04035395756363869,
0.1003650426864624,
-0.0050003002397716045,
0.4949463903903961,
0.4808771312236786,
-0.9173696041107178,
0.6205081343650818,
-0.11216922104358673,
-0.11412891745567322,
-0.07655090093612671,
0.24286985397338867,
0.2713935971260071,
0.15894165635108948,
-0.6497755646705627,
0.2248760610818863,
0.1482536494731903,
0.6609051823616028,
-0.046976085752248764,
0.2978942394256592,
-0.5942921042442322,
0.03503350168466568,
-0.7466040849685669,
0.4305422902107239,
-0.6704321503639221,
-0.36023738980293274,
-0.27744972705841064,
-0.5556384921073914,
0.007258358411490917,
0.660521388053894,
0.3940550684928894,
-0.4622865915298462,
-0.08671871572732925,
-0.12018948793411255,
0.3421995937824249,
0.0659710243344307,
-0.15618090331554413,
-0.5500957369804382,
0.2121923863887787,
-0.042352911084890366,
-0.12848474085330963,
-0.22928555309772491,
-0.006937043741345406,
0.20038612186908722,
-0.5462280511856079,
-0.30204981565475464,
-0.02014627866446972,
0.27972841262817383,
0.019650941714644432,
0.4200197756290436,
0.6721661686897278,
-0.5172976851463318,
-0.027301082387566566,
0.5731090903282166,
-0.17376941442489624,
0.21463824808597565,
0.5170513391494751,
0.33375388383865356,
0.12362197041511536,
0.6200209856033325,
-0.8210373520851135,
0.07860761880874634,
0.16137219965457916,
-0.0124973701313138,
0.37842652201652527,
0.16479946672916412,
0.6079357266426086,
0.9826104640960693,
0.3212888240814209,
-0.2845759987831116,
0.8011560440063477,
0.0029014016035944223,
-0.6376245617866516,
0.53327876329422,
-0.1265033632516861,
-0.7110881805419922,
0.3628152310848236,
0.5522772669792175,
0.10443303734064102,
0.4144233465194702,
0.3384230434894562,
-0.07905581593513489,
0.8888828158378601,
0.4498113989830017,
0.32360684871673584,
-0.12102245539426804,
-0.20868876576423645,
0.865576446056366,
-0.07633156329393387,
0.777913510799408,
-0.06504026055335999,
0.5885403752326965,
-0.4561007618904114,
0.7540064454078674,
-0.2648828625679016,
-0.5480158925056458,
-0.14625613391399384,
-0.3463175892829895,
0.44842061400413513,
0.3784452974796295,
0.06913281232118607,
0.609437882900238,
0.003453248180449009,
0.37961453199386597,
-0.3040471374988556,
-0.17841362953186035,
0.24628326296806335,
0.22519785165786743,
-0.16504977643489838,
-0.11562033742666245,
0.6330579519271851,
0.31884515285491943,
-0.6073930263519287,
0.7891907095909119,
0.19577258825302124,
0.3036636710166931,
-0.6275814771652222,
0.17905043065547943,
0.009451910853385925,
-0.17517584562301636,
-0.4776402413845062,
0.5001116394996643,
-0.03313970938324928,
0.3432246148586273,
0.21493075788021088,
-0.00020858021161984652,
0.3832276165485382,
0.026619888842105865,
0.2523868978023529,
-0.2072678506374359,
0.21158912777900696,
0.00577290216460824,
-0.043650757521390915,
-0.24413609504699707,
0.14144933223724365,
0.017730070278048515,
-0.2814040184020996,
0.09167635440826416,
0.31444668769836426,
-0.40386274456977844,
0.37542665004730225,
-1.0301246643066406,
0.06750364601612091,
-0.3041495084762573,
-0.33885496854782104,
-0.7881688475608826,
0.3923195004463196,
0.07156068086624146,
0.07658444344997406,
-0.011027399450540543,
0.9498055577278137,
-0.06891348958015442,
0.4554416537284851,
0.5826066136360168,
-0.2818599343299866,
-0.43759986758232117,
-0.21336758136749268,
0.5433030724525452,
0.05017176643013954,
0.30898740887641907,
0.06337383389472961,
-0.9833207130432129,
0.048023857176303864,
0.4781533479690552,
-0.6102811098098755,
-0.43373987078666687,
0.17548705637454987,
-0.9691178798675537,
0.46931663155555725,
0.13167054951190948,
0.1531323790550232,
-0.38366612792015076,
-0.7695041298866272,
0.7094100713729858,
0.1329466849565506,
-0.06148568540811539,
-0.38271859288215637,
0.014587817713618279,
-0.18087869882583618,
-0.220797598361969,
0.26691126823425293,
-0.3798779249191284,
-0.3223778307437897,
-0.34834617376327515,
-0.3577454090118408,
0.27206581830978394,
-0.3746086061000824,
-0.10281697660684586,
-0.07107451558113098,
-0.27114009857177734,
-0.24716180562973022,
0.010399740189313889,
0.4651435315608978,
0.0713246762752533,
-0.483456015586853,
0.1995842307806015,
0.3635203242301941
] |
247839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diadem%20%28disambiguation%29 | Diadem (disambiguation) | A diadem is a type of crown.
Diadem may also refer to:
Maritime
, several vessels of the Royal Navy
Diadem (ship), several merchant vessels
Arts and entertainment
Diadem (series), a series of books by John Peel
Diadem (board game), a 1981 science fiction game
The Diadem Saga, a science fiction series by Jo Clayton
"Diadems", a song by Megadeth on the soundtrack for the film Demon Knight
"Diadem", a tune used for the hymn "All Hail the Power of Jesus' Name"
Animals
Diademed monkey
Diadem roundleaf bat
Mograbin diadem snake
Diadem spider
Diadems, the butterfly genus Hypolimnas
Diadem (horse), a 20th-century Thoroughbred racehorse
Other uses
Diadem (star), a star in the constellation Coma Berenices
Operation Diadem, a military operation in World War II's Italian Campaign
Diadem Peak, a mountain in Alberta, Canada
DIAdem, a technical software for managing, analyzing, and reporting technical data from National Instruments
See also
Diadema (disambiguation) | [
0.15443752706050873,
0.6254187822341919,
-0.040428221225738525,
0.002779810456559062,
-0.3958793878555298,
-0.47966548800468445,
0.44141826033592224,
0.18312658369541168,
-0.22589454054832458,
-0.12446840107440948,
-0.5434163808822632,
0.23846136033535004,
0.16111162304878235,
0.8474342226982117,
0.09573432803153992,
0.646975576877594,
0.36407899856567383,
0.6091961860656738,
-0.36975765228271484,
-0.3328116834163666,
-0.45726725459098816,
-0.05152168497443199,
0.016227778047323227,
-0.494859904050827,
0.6881701350212097,
0.05047563090920448,
0.19690266251564026,
-0.06321534514427185,
0.09332362562417984,
0.02252807468175888,
-0.1067107617855072,
0.7485100030899048,
0.17724329233169556,
-0.09598671644926071,
0.4882429540157318,
-0.2380998581647873,
0.06710463017225266,
-0.8546687364578247,
-0.559567391872406,
-0.9604551792144775,
0.02410157211124897,
-0.47051140666007996,
-0.27831795811653137,
-0.10575097054243088,
-0.6741818785667419,
-0.10872416198253632,
-1.5132077932357788,
0.09755506366491318,
-0.9858734011650085,
-0.024428855627775192,
-0.40440988540649414,
-0.2794010043144226,
0.12367112934589386,
0.3470441997051239,
-0.038775574415922165,
0.1659172624349594,
-1.0093047618865967,
0.23756077885627747,
0.8043723702430725,
-0.07391668856143951,
0.15260231494903564,
0.15664997696876526,
-0.4112586975097656,
0.07515573501586914,
0.3106066882610321,
-0.11436469852924347,
-0.0983349084854126,
0.3348909914493561,
-1.1418559551239014,
-0.31725814938545227,
-0.4189738631248474,
-0.4730204641819,
0.2953141927719116,
0.07725514471530914,
-0.47509774565696716,
0.1906040757894516,
0.01675315387547016,
-0.5156837105751038,
0.4982544779777527,
-0.6204818487167358,
-0.5550662875175476,
0.424752414226532,
0.4654162526130676,
-0.5327423214912415,
0.03456727787852287,
-0.021144937723875046,
-0.6587963700294495,
0.14615902304649353,
-0.30266711115837097,
0.7386757731437683,
0.08908990025520325,
0.17337235808372498,
0.24873268604278564,
0.2444499433040619,
-0.1372707039117813,
-0.10972849279642105,
0.34257662296295166,
-0.23770587146282196,
0.03530377894639969,
0.1618632823228836,
0.07436079531908035,
-0.2102849930524826,
0.7750717401504517,
-0.27213677763938904,
-0.015547127462923527,
-0.4174615144729614,
-0.1946031153202057,
0.11902053654193878,
-0.06482968479394913,
-0.4419867992401123,
-0.40653491020202637,
0.2110484540462494,
0.08766212314367294,
0.33123353123664856,
-0.1380993127822876,
-0.12199639528989792,
0.30718040466308594,
0.9303191900253296,
0.0022613222245126963,
-0.16831611096858978,
0.17687474191188812,
-0.0713861808180809,
0.1289142370223999,
-0.11625660210847855,
0.16556020081043243,
0.15869061648845673,
-0.19905473291873932,
0.4464108347892761,
-0.6986521482467651,
0.024563441053032875,
0.02229050174355507,
0.35479113459587097,
0.017687471583485603,
0.34002426266670227,
-0.029784511774778366,
-0.39172905683517456,
0.29273489117622375,
-0.029880046844482422,
1.1224607229232788,
-0.08988264203071594,
-0.7259917855262756,
0.2841903269290924,
-1.2406150102615356,
0.3044741153717041,
0.5089958906173706,
-0.03927713632583618,
0.15772008895874023,
0.05093381926417351,
-0.0928075984120369,
0.38480839133262634,
-0.004161092918366194,
0.1311682015657425,
0.0600188709795475,
0.15644559264183044,
0.07041739672422409,
0.39751070737838745,
0.28448835015296936,
-0.044035956263542175,
-0.035924069583415985,
0.4415134787559509,
-0.14528784155845642,
-0.03610439971089363,
0.20451846718788147,
0.19075259566307068,
0.2881481945514679,
-0.18957987427711487,
-0.16285741329193115,
0.2944708466529846,
-0.25044330954551697,
0.3069024980068207,
-0.413705438375473,
-0.1400306075811386,
-0.18954166769981384,
-0.03980730473995209,
-0.26410797238349915,
0.06616555154323578,
-0.04086970537900925,
0.02981962077319622,
0.641979455947876,
-0.04831940308213234,
-0.5603309869766235,
0.5834877490997314,
0.227181538939476,
-0.11142275482416153,
0.20621119439601898,
0.4772147834300995,
0.45479804277420044,
0.10843805968761444,
0.18097436428070068,
-0.572212278842926,
-0.04194975644350052,
-0.0466519370675087,
-0.1241096705198288,
-0.7186957597732544,
0.5624719262123108,
0.17038947343826294,
-0.7431429028511047,
0.09170178323984146,
0.05263726785778999,
0.28797033429145813,
0.04227844998240471,
0.2699102759361267,
0.06996288895606995,
-0.13967236876487732,
-0.08320366591215134,
1.273749589920044,
0.09685546904802322,
-0.0723014771938324,
0.1884063184261322,
0.09590356051921844,
0.26175209879875183,
-0.5423403382301331,
0.21428759396076202,
-0.4501665234565735,
0.20855356752872467,
-0.03508610650897026,
-0.36858171224594116,
-0.04177195206284523,
0.08187489956617355,
-0.29704877734184265,
0.23802784085273743,
-0.3082263469696045,
-0.20822854340076447,
0.25077009201049805,
-0.3244629204273224,
0.8112958073616028,
-0.2705535292625427,
0.1432533860206604,
0.31083253026008606,
-0.7416400909423828,
-0.28681015968322754,
0.30615758895874023,
0.5421737432479858,
-0.07650813460350037,
0.02058667503297329,
-0.22057870030403137,
0.04127515107393265,
-0.13186730444431305,
0.28081512451171875,
-0.22978174686431885,
-0.06473734974861145,
-0.5505049228668213,
-0.09302271902561188,
-0.21770459413528442,
0.8366196155548096,
0.21290652453899384,
-0.3702281713485718,
0.15608319640159607,
-0.2963051497936249,
0.358366459608078,
0.18210873007774353,
0.09309474378824234,
0.07906336337327957,
-0.4132736325263977,
0.18368183076381683,
0.562583863735199,
-0.038901977241039276,
-0.12806545197963715,
-0.10184692591428757,
-0.06958658993244171,
-0.3913218379020691,
0.5750871300697327,
0.08649538457393646,
-0.488069087266922,
-0.03319956362247467,
-0.22537702322006226,
-0.1815604418516159,
0.46629199385643005,
0.6071112155914307,
-0.025091005489230156,
0.06570277363061905,
-0.5724331140518188,
-0.6458062529563904,
-0.763249933719635,
-0.4035106599330902,
-0.4206370413303375,
0.4802377223968506,
0.025567682459950447,
-0.2776237726211548,
-0.5070958733558655,
0.0642423927783966,
0.21215663850307465,
0.0015731200110167265,
-0.42349502444267273,
-0.1340266764163971,
-0.36031872034072876,
0.24414411187171936,
-0.6757646203041077,
0.18641188740730286,
-0.47914090752601624,
-0.23385144770145416,
0.294416218996048,
-0.05229715630412102,
-0.2272796481847763,
-0.02325678989291191,
0.14286848902702332,
-0.152376189827919,
-0.09171001613140106,
0.07478220760822296,
-0.3971724212169647,
-0.49106550216674805,
-0.0058039166033267975,
-0.3326873183250427,
0.018566923215985298,
0.10497978329658508,
0.28831496834754944,
-0.065651074051857,
0.3060712218284607,
-5.793156623840332,
-0.13441427052021027,
-0.15124529600143433,
-0.004322602413594723,
0.20665201544761658,
0.1026984304189682,
0.4987144470214844,
0.16879549622535706,
-0.23920147120952606,
-0.13439059257507324,
0.3132270574569702,
-0.47149503231048584,
0.312973290681839,
0.396480530500412,
1.095017433166504,
-0.08872884511947632,
0.39222511649131775,
-0.21403375267982483,
0.18941181898117065,
0.15799592435359955,
0.06303371489048004,
0.2154960185289383,
-0.0037123176734894514,
0.0596638023853302,
-0.28679758310317993,
-0.0646308958530426,
-0.00416579470038414,
0.29561251401901245,
-0.8478135466575623,
-0.3342406451702118,
0.06738527864217758,
0.1776810884475708,
-0.0057486677542328835,
-0.3534057140350342,
-0.2717477083206177,
0.20104040205478668,
0.4838867783546448,
-0.005816762801259756,
-0.07897251099348068,
0.007193481549620628,
-0.2947220206260681,
0.04876700043678284,
0.4562884271144867,
0.5244988203048706,
0.22068829834461212,
-0.009146098978817463,
-0.4326939880847931,
-0.49506354331970215,
-0.35901108384132385,
0.8592212200164795,
-0.21752238273620605,
0.10657963901758194,
0.4594687819480896,
-0.13319242000579834,
0.17362911999225616,
0.11517445743083954,
0.5717971324920654,
-0.2025182992219925,
-1.004274606704712,
0.3423317074775696,
1.0165866613388062,
-0.3688843846321106,
0.4063323438167572,
-0.565487802028656,
0.13893789052963257,
-0.16955256462097168,
-1.0270307064056396,
-0.002528877230361104,
1.1884196996688843,
0.13398507237434387,
-0.5269005298614502,
0.08186543732881546,
0.05684967711567879,
-0.41343551874160767,
0.03286385536193848,
-0.2169772833585739,
0.06731251627206802,
-0.13309088349342346,
0.6089746356010437,
-0.12202867865562439,
0.12011226266622543,
0.10166753083467484,
-0.10705734044313431,
-0.0217658169567585,
-0.07123945653438568,
-0.2126629501581192,
-0.5380358099937439,
0.4174615442752838,
-0.43960925936698914,
-0.028153618797659874,
0.5767305493354797,
0.44505956768989563,
-0.3633938133716583,
0.3948827385902405,
-0.24397297203540802,
0.6341955661773682,
0.2702576220035553,
-0.13912715017795563,
0.5722567439079285,
-0.48127177357673645,
0.24306772649288177,
-0.5103098154067993,
0.39890241622924805,
0.23105323314666748,
-0.17655940353870392,
-0.4758352041244507,
-0.48661062121391296,
0.4105885326862335,
0.1209208220243454,
-0.22416317462921143,
0.3921372592449188,
0.6161835193634033,
0.1367872804403305,
-0.2447112798690796,
0.2740877866744995,
-0.1750030368566513,
-0.31920841336250305,
0.6214743852615356,
0.36731815338134766,
-0.3588080406188965,
0.14128577709197998,
0.4232988655567169,
0.20318372547626495,
-0.293144166469574,
-0.5444262623786926,
-0.21282413601875305,
0.16391107439994812,
0.07257433235645294,
-0.1360265463590622,
-0.26013630628585815,
0.22923120856285095,
-0.03161408007144928,
0.34470242261886597,
-0.4167047142982483,
-0.10568656772375107,
-0.5528299808502197,
-0.21777667105197906,
0.5142339468002319,
-0.4913289546966553,
-0.5859902501106262,
0.620585024356842,
-0.6829028725624084,
-0.08615810424089432,
0.28083255887031555,
0.8227083683013916,
-0.1350163370370865,
-0.3171407878398895,
-0.3001038134098053,
0.15289618074893951,
1.0606094598770142,
0.004238634370267391,
0.09405258297920227,
0.6478468775749207,
-0.9964755773544312,
-0.42267587780952454,
-0.19552557170391083,
0.2931716740131378,
0.014107275754213333,
-0.05143630877137184,
-0.7718693017959595,
-0.2943271994590759,
-0.35199689865112305,
-0.9788705110549927,
0.12309025973081589,
0.2735111713409424,
-0.07201087474822998,
-0.9131101369857788,
0.2087477296590805,
0.07989685237407684,
0.7421663403511047,
-0.14425703883171082,
-0.1154307872056961,
-0.7740911841392517,
-0.027439212426543236,
0.2132052183151245,
0.4198613166809082,
0.3895450830459595,
0.5923548340797424,
0.16516193747520447,
-0.28371429443359375,
-0.06519260257482529,
-0.0481889545917511,
-0.20858438313007355,
0.24671682715415955,
0.5925942659378052,
0.08779603987932205,
-0.2288632094860077,
0.07000536471605301,
-0.7066014409065247,
-0.2036200761795044,
-0.04673974588513374,
-0.34090232849121094,
0.14097796380519867,
-0.15667244791984558,
-0.3230971693992615,
0.01985042355954647,
0.17199642956256866,
-0.18634705245494843,
-0.32282257080078125,
-0.10075230896472931,
0.14075590670108795,
0.31651571393013,
0.03726089373230934,
0.2967383563518524,
0.49273553490638733,
-0.8778516054153442,
0.7374477386474609,
-0.15341515839099884,
-0.6406641602516174,
0.3589320778846741,
0.052485253661870956,
-0.3796902596950531,
-0.5293653607368469,
0.38881024718284607,
0.5281450152397156,
-0.4476504325866699,
0.4207157790660858,
-0.246015727519989,
-0.17974747717380524,
-0.6573279500007629,
1.0347278118133545,
-0.16281037032604218,
0.24031996726989746,
0.28912490606307983,
-0.2924472987651825,
0.28114983439445496,
0.3774544894695282,
-0.17783544957637787,
1.0312108993530273,
0.2487853318452835,
-0.1192731261253357,
0.3165380358695984,
-0.4730413258075714,
0.10400660336017609,
-0.2927151024341583,
-0.11878621578216553,
-0.012381987646222115,
0.14351555705070496,
-0.2536032795906067,
0.05234561860561371,
0.7017961740493774,
1.023676872253418,
0.4157164394855499,
-0.2275909036397934,
0.09788326174020767,
-0.14249007403850555,
0.18735933303833008,
-0.8075202703475952,
-0.18300245702266693,
0.5444661378860474,
0.32579505443573,
-0.22994014620780945,
-0.40346211194992065,
-0.10208795219659805,
0.7415910363197327,
0.08966957032680511,
-0.17317308485507965,
-0.15188372135162354,
0.27906012535095215,
0.48525458574295044,
0.17305198311805725,
-0.17219096422195435,
0.16362378001213074,
-0.3625486195087433,
0.21089109778404236,
-0.216299906373024,
-0.7894925475120544,
0.7356197237968445,
0.8880395889282227,
-0.4646991789340973,
0.2759849727153778,
-0.25253406167030334,
-0.09153051674365997,
0.42543506622314453,
0.7482988834381104,
0.07832906395196915,
-0.24381376802921295,
-0.6986986994743347,
0.2975623905658722,
-0.19221735000610352,
-0.49000659584999084,
-0.40401580929756165,
-0.06246127560734749,
-0.012892787344753742,
-0.1560344099998474,
-0.10800652951002121,
-0.20437407493591309,
0.04278668388724327,
-0.13359300792217255,
-0.5347098112106323,
-0.7015513777732849,
0.3963404893875122,
0.25788018107414246,
0.19645413756370544,
-0.1488843560218811,
-0.13981902599334717,
0.36236923933029175,
0.8358803391456604,
0.2729351818561554,
-0.06069326773285866,
-0.22528867423534393,
0.32201772928237915,
0.2392956167459488,
-0.8698059916496277,
0.2658873200416565,
0.4131569266319275,
-0.05564383417367935,
-0.6440556645393372,
0.3458358347415924,
-0.5705209374427795,
0.31992071866989136,
0.2824338972568512,
0.016607975587248802,
0.32536160945892334,
0.14605362713336945,
0.04049321264028549,
0.3423362374305725,
0.16768673062324524,
0.015724627301096916,
0.40899646282196045,
0.28320443630218506,
-0.06108143553137779,
0.2629826068878174,
-0.3119257986545563,
-0.07466243207454681,
0.27463987469673157,
-0.23420125246047974,
-0.1324792057275772,
-0.021079985424876213,
-0.20281897485256195,
0.6782001852989197,
0.5131527185440063,
-0.3504513204097748,
0.47900551557540894,
-0.26459506154060364,
-0.682924747467041,
0.08845386654138565,
-0.27005133032798767,
-0.09616557508707047,
0.5469487905502319,
0.8901413679122925,
-0.2619421184062958,
0.042155176401138306,
0.251455694437027,
-0.21394823491573334,
-0.16325116157531738,
0.21245189011096954,
-0.06752045452594757,
0.0635005533695221,
0.3820624351501465,
0.226383775472641,
-0.04343375191092491,
0.943673312664032,
-0.5278805494308472,
0.1712268739938736,
0.12583376467227936,
0.3063296675682068,
0.12108949571847916,
-0.04394148290157318,
-0.5670669674873352,
-0.5638818144798279,
0.1701589673757553,
-0.4791300296783447,
0.5576211214065552,
0.18524235486984253,
-0.08227156102657318,
0.26268309354782104,
0.0654294416308403,
-0.42191991209983826,
0.08304338902235031,
0.298249214887619,
-0.35379502177238464,
-0.19373685121536255,
0.6550238728523254,
0.2230018526315689,
-0.23649641871452332,
0.15335184335708618,
0.1858087182044983,
0.13765200972557068,
-0.2622489631175995,
-0.4165577292442322,
-0.07665736228227615,
-0.18316860496997833,
0.08427830785512924,
-0.2401912659406662,
0.05880513787269592,
0.23738150298595428,
0.4462793171405792,
0.00045419950038194656,
0.6751244068145752,
0.27816614508628845,
0.5020714998245239,
0.03236006200313568,
-0.1752886176109314,
-0.3211534917354584,
0.7874084115028381,
-0.43216198682785034,
0.6207844614982605,
-0.2713005542755127,
-0.4642047584056854,
-0.16119471192359924,
0.4271809160709381,
0.08086878806352615,
-0.4529547393321991,
-0.22039741277694702,
-0.15068157017230988,
0.24604228138923645,
0.1346094012260437,
-0.6154406666755676,
-0.04485507309436798,
0.13565394282341003,
-0.7046123743057251,
-0.5869954228401184,
0.23545797169208527,
-0.07167479395866394,
-0.2840005159378052,
0.34413906931877136,
0.2671820819377899,
-0.03862852230668068,
-0.16093498468399048,
-0.15524666011333466,
0.06026175245642662,
0.005110949277877808,
0.12574927508831024,
-0.04717366769909859,
-0.21931888163089752,
0.4630969166755676,
0.4948561489582062,
-0.7541124820709229,
0.42917707562446594,
-0.19019994139671326,
0.05060592666268349,
-0.4576483964920044,
0.2221386432647705,
-0.23290735483169556,
-0.21002472937107086,
0.30683860182762146,
0.5614597797393799,
-0.02785683609545231,
-0.3315757215023041,
-0.37425073981285095,
-0.3014514148235321,
-0.2581286132335663,
-0.2944779694080353,
-1.9183002710342407,
-0.20799767971038818,
-0.08421337604522705,
-0.14903225004673004,
-0.14890721440315247,
-0.06837743520736694,
0.7528550028800964,
-0.5399285554885864,
-0.1846807301044464,
-0.06282751262187958,
-0.06030474975705147,
-0.06674850732088089,
0.14740855991840363,
-0.3260636627674103,
-0.013424020260572433,
0.7767391204833984
] |
247840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%20%28myth%29 | Ma (myth) | Ma is a Sumerian word meaning "land" that in Sumerian mythology was also used to regard Primordial Land.
There seems to be some loss in records as to the transition, but the same name Ma appears again later, also tied to the Earth, in Ma being referred to as "Mother of the mountain" - in this case, Kur (Mountain) the first dragon god.
The underworld Kur is the void space between the primeval sea (Abzu) and the earth (Ma).
Ma was a local goddess at Comana (Cappadocia) and a Phrygian alternative name for Cybele.
References
Pagans and Christians (1988) by Robin Lane Fox, page 536
this source below is not related, taken out of context:Ma (goddess) – entry in Encyclopædia Britannica
History of Art in Phrygia, Lydia, Caria and Lycia (2007) by George Perrot, page 30
Locations in Mesopotamian mythology
Sumer
Mesopotamian gods
Creator goddesses
Sumerian words and phrases | [
0.4119665026664734,
0.43682441115379333,
-0.7884649038314819,
-0.17055019736289978,
-0.48361095786094666,
0.7906292676925659,
0.4927959740161896,
0.29729872941970825,
-0.4688267707824707,
0.12758295238018036,
-0.6939480900764465,
0.11190776526927948,
-0.18852795660495758,
0.618243932723999,
0.0025615065824240446,
0.14776919782161713,
0.13409623503684998,
0.6168635487556458,
-0.027121862396597862,
0.022642014548182487,
-0.046986330300569534,
0.03829462453722954,
0.8021035194396973,
-0.12771236896514893,
-0.1662169247865677,
-0.006566324271261692,
0.9760845899581909,
0.42585518956184387,
0.19483236968517303,
-0.30974236130714417,
-0.8280381560325623,
-0.004234532825648785,
-0.19074541330337524,
-0.4069335460662842,
0.557790219783783,
-0.17106792330741882,
-0.28505387902259827,
0.513526439666748,
-0.4606275260448456,
-0.11626113951206207,
0.1582268625497818,
-0.27580660581588745,
0.17086966335773468,
0.18423378467559814,
-0.6553179621696472,
-0.46440449357032776,
-1.4716300964355469,
0.09196797758340836,
-1.3197146654129028,
-0.09106963127851486,
-0.6035570502281189,
0.18847158551216125,
-0.4778595566749573,
0.21787399053573608,
1.0771194696426392,
0.9219028949737549,
-0.8857300281524658,
-0.16003704071044922,
0.00708375358954072,
0.328540176153183,
0.5392650365829468,
-0.03203650563955307,
-0.38342180848121643,
-0.04298631474375725,
-0.1504935771226883,
0.31774866580963135,
0.05947435647249222,
0.009498300030827522,
-0.3507951498031616,
-0.7226508855819702,
-0.16607801616191864,
0.0735548883676529,
-0.502090573310852,
0.5980775952339172,
-0.7134116888046265,
-0.23079858720302582,
0.44669273495674133,
-0.4551727771759033,
0.4957443177700043,
-0.300222247838974,
-0.5619493126869202,
0.17751812934875488,
0.9729204773902893,
0.20969843864440918,
0.01384695153683424,
-0.23995594680309296,
-0.21775729954242706,
-0.1242307722568512,
-0.055214427411556244,
0.7055457830429077,
0.016349105164408684,
-0.5339816808700562,
0.7418406009674072,
0.08677750825881958,
-0.26967188715934753,
-0.014218675903975964,
-0.29642418026924133,
0.4953966736793518,
0.1077665165066719,
-0.010847831144928932,
-0.35778385400772095,
0.2935916483402252,
0.2748212218284607,
-0.20465952157974243,
-0.10119473189115524,
-0.295884370803833,
0.010207963176071644,
-0.24613571166992188,
-0.7532382011413574,
-0.5802784562110901,
-0.1745222508907318,
0.4499409794807434,
0.35550203919410706,
0.2271929383277893,
0.12340738624334335,
0.05882943421602249,
-0.0180356465280056,
-0.4542539417743683,
-0.1970486044883728,
0.2833356261253357,
0.9643983840942383,
0.12767621874809265,
0.3902038335800171,
-0.03197648748755455,
0.25922060012817383,
0.04583701491355896,
0.20706087350845337,
0.4036736786365509,
-0.7614125609397888,
0.4410493075847626,
0.3498252332210541,
0.5565950274467468,
-0.16980962455272675,
-0.010838749818503857,
0.27883636951446533,
-0.3846230208873749,
0.6226193308830261,
-0.014894578605890274,
0.5305690169334412,
0.05341481789946556,
-1.0705615282058716,
-0.11654186993837357,
-0.9866927266120911,
0.3750500977039337,
0.12489114701747894,
-0.06763128936290741,
0.30597546696662903,
-0.10935596376657486,
-0.4251854717731476,
-0.017632348462939262,
0.0005791853182017803,
0.05130678042769432,
0.5430379509925842,
-0.14480891823768616,
0.15141479671001434,
0.5003268718719482,
0.44947129487991333,
1.0993021726608276,
-0.1934913694858551,
0.0884268656373024,
-0.14926569163799286,
0.3218344748020172,
-0.21495003998279572,
-0.2413880079984665,
0.10473854094743729,
-0.06814950704574585,
0.659760594367981,
-0.020395128056406975,
0.3264152407646179,
0.1909233182668686,
-0.5238733291625977,
-0.42472943663597107,
0.2870066463947296,
0.3285259008407593,
-0.19305145740509033,
-0.7265762686729431,
0.858589768409729,
0.24051108956336975,
-0.22182101011276245,
0.08278326690196991,
-0.8323963284492493,
0.23555190861225128,
-0.33747532963752747,
-0.4549795985221863,
0.5764222741127014,
-0.5321354269981384,
0.4565342962741852,
0.20107609033584595,
-0.11877747625112534,
-0.14395497739315033,
-0.45828357338905334,
-0.13238580524921417,
0.49602434039115906,
-0.28965362906455994,
0.16072991490364075,
0.171542689204216,
-0.44199755787849426,
0.8655991554260254,
0.15267959237098694,
0.7735483050346375,
-0.006880069617182016,
-0.3030802309513092,
-0.0010628689778968692,
-0.5146636366844177,
-0.3227425515651703,
0.7381037473678589,
-0.5482836961746216,
0.6027699708938599,
0.6523452997207642,
0.26415637135505676,
0.2686779797077179,
-0.32162386178970337,
0.11260104179382324,
-0.2732272744178772,
-0.1207994744181633,
0.17115788161754608,
-0.10464176535606384,
-0.15626566112041473,
0.12980571389198303,
-0.18119531869888306,
1.0370832681655884,
-0.5136942863464355,
0.09859325736761093,
0.052060771733522415,
0.14880506694316864,
0.7241800427436829,
0.2678469717502594,
-0.08086287975311279,
0.3832013010978699,
-0.5424551367759705,
0.00576398428529501,
0.16915877163410187,
0.017938164994120598,
-0.28259962797164917,
0.09378750622272491,
-0.265447199344635,
0.11933183670043945,
-0.4808730185031891,
0.18141551315784454,
-0.06154158338904381,
0.11608901619911194,
0.09183477610349655,
-0.33076560497283936,
-0.6241518259048462,
0.5223363041877747,
-0.1318734884262085,
-0.386026531457901,
-0.7092758417129517,
-0.6052904725074768,
0.46001166105270386,
-0.07842448353767395,
-0.15430375933647156,
-0.16984061896800995,
0.10816588252782822,
-0.01792163960635662,
-0.0011399888899177313,
-0.9312568306922913,
-0.1165764108300209,
0.74881911277771,
-0.35733526945114136,
-0.3594530522823334,
0.29949167370796204,
0.406020849943161,
-0.6278187036514282,
0.3264092206954956,
-0.5972586870193481,
-0.434039831161499,
0.15507352352142334,
-0.03265358507633209,
0.43198829889297485,
0.4298872947692871,
-0.39765483140945435,
-0.3786260783672333,
-0.21688471734523773,
0.27209213376045227,
-0.6159123778343201,
0.2921161353588104,
-0.21544022858142853,
-0.38219887018203735,
-0.45706507563591003,
0.4497658908367157,
0.37950554490089417,
-0.02928904816508293,
-0.4787497818470001,
-0.16124753654003143,
-0.1734822690486908,
0.35281047224998474,
-0.05213667079806328,
0.3845761716365814,
-0.02685410901904106,
0.11489054560661316,
-0.14545704424381256,
-0.40439164638519287,
-0.6433265209197998,
0.9041727781295776,
0.13527147471904755,
-0.03043968230485916,
0.05296185240149498,
0.40812215209007263,
-0.3062271177768707,
-0.2507433593273163,
0.315003901720047,
-0.5531260967254639,
0.2547607421875,
0.13370350003242493,
0.09251024574041367,
-0.41692450642585754,
0.44783151149749756,
-5.588561058044434,
-0.11981641501188278,
-0.05259060114622116,
-0.6628210544586182,
0.36934319138526917,
0.6953118443489075,
0.4995512068271637,
0.302646666765213,
0.3336729109287262,
-0.30027061700820923,
0.2562404274940491,
-0.5498678088188171,
0.14583703875541687,
0.48622122406959534,
0.4705120027065277,
-0.020454466342926025,
0.5874789953231812,
0.38108476996421814,
-0.21282373368740082,
-0.1590563952922821,
0.3595453202724457,
-0.24212191998958588,
-0.58880615234375,
0.6901881694793701,
-0.34531596302986145,
0.1258254200220108,
-0.16265390813350677,
-0.1116146519780159,
-0.28043970465660095,
-0.08858780562877655,
-0.09431087970733643,
-0.4429917335510254,
-0.13299334049224854,
-0.6391372680664062,
0.20099180936813354,
0.19646872580051422,
0.7271474003791809,
-0.05437755584716797,
0.5967543125152588,
-0.4696771502494812,
-0.2500956058502197,
-0.5019088387489319,
0.18865866959095,
-0.18271438777446747,
0.25495460629463196,
-0.3457810878753662,
-0.9968623518943787,
0.06727184355258942,
-0.45858025550842285,
0.6460695266723633,
0.1765158325433731,
-0.24490571022033691,
0.5250461101531982,
0.20589236915111542,
0.059035319834947586,
0.44649991393089294,
-0.1327686458826065,
0.08471071720123291,
-0.5981961488723755,
0.12003570050001144,
0.6085644960403442,
-0.3620772957801819,
0.20389147102832794,
-0.9389256238937378,
0.08830681443214417,
-0.0910530760884285,
-0.7750807404518127,
-0.4508364200592041,
0.4151346981525421,
0.556673526763916,
-0.5010610818862915,
-0.02240414172410965,
-0.5113880634307861,
-0.7157391905784607,
0.032229937613010406,
-0.32885390520095825,
-0.2735190689563751,
0.11846926063299179,
-0.2492552101612091,
0.029720397666096687,
-0.09228116273880005,
-0.5809381008148193,
0.05977243930101395,
0.0485234372317791,
0.14765530824661255,
-0.0038542798720300198,
0.2357071340084076,
-0.24168795347213745,
-0.45062491297721863,
0.15770548582077026,
0.9194644093513489,
-0.12700599431991577,
-0.039008382707834244,
0.540047287940979,
0.6900109648704529,
0.34555181860923767,
0.007725873030722141,
-0.3237217664718628,
1.2790547609329224,
-0.19580979645252228,
0.3599269688129425,
-0.7652031779289246,
0.036907266825437546,
-0.06699297577142715,
-0.5827846527099609,
0.18905627727508545,
-0.7443804144859314,
-0.01750900037586689,
0.3655153214931488,
-0.3885376453399658,
0.4194091856479645,
-0.020022153854370117,
0.33516040444374084,
0.34827345609664917,
0.985225260257721,
0.32584723830223083,
0.20518268644809723,
1.1461588144302368,
1.067367434501648,
0.22744053602218628,
-0.24986034631729126,
0.343585729598999,
0.17002418637275696,
-0.7412774562835693,
0.6016588807106018,
-0.2532239556312561,
0.35441333055496216,
0.38235875964164734,
-0.1687687486410141,
0.25023919343948364,
0.34583941102027893,
-0.297145277261734,
0.17411603033542633,
-0.07917506247758865,
-0.16811740398406982,
-0.24759401381015778,
-0.2218261957168579,
-0.2796766757965088,
-0.32541054487228394,
-0.2301056832075119,
0.17104314267635345,
-0.44948622584342957,
0.2866041362285614,
0.3088805079460144,
0.23543812334537506,
0.12656275928020477,
-0.10971055179834366,
-0.018321817740797997,
-0.02353866770863533,
0.23021914064884186,
0.05003764480352402,
-0.08317425101995468,
0.9845946431159973,
-0.886742115020752,
-0.49960410594940186,
0.09548714011907578,
-0.23906365036964417,
0.2994926869869232,
-0.053473882377147675,
-0.6284028887748718,
-0.3847302496433258,
-0.7380666136741638,
-1.276044487953186,
0.3391691744327545,
-0.31194180250167847,
0.017196139320731163,
-0.12915034592151642,
-0.23529742658138275,
0.7320433259010315,
0.5472161173820496,
0.6630851626396179,
-0.3988231122493744,
-0.17237919569015503,
-0.03465024754405022,
0.42517319321632385,
0.046001363545656204,
-0.07249898463487625,
0.04784185811877251,
-0.13658908009529114,
-0.42332038283348083,
-0.48150885105133057,
0.17175135016441345,
0.34502917528152466,
-0.13456694781780243,
0.27604201436042786,
-0.11315508931875229,
-0.14559407532215118,
-0.3921452462673187,
-1.3942421674728394,
0.06644925475120544,
-0.2023160606622696,
0.6326821446418762,
0.16141940653324127,
0.1756901741027832,
-0.3197474479675293,
-0.12543824315071106,
0.16902169585227966,
0.2929679751396179,
0.49906694889068604,
-0.3077905774116516,
0.45015016198158264,
0.42978182435035706,
-0.4378630220890045,
0.31248942017555237,
0.24241434037685394,
-1.223471999168396,
0.439881294965744,
0.18709899485111237,
-0.06228920444846153,
0.016712097451090813,
-0.5593277215957642,
0.0650305524468422,
-0.454192191362381,
0.10106693208217621,
-0.46816518902778625,
-0.32797688245773315,
0.18264441192150116,
-0.04711980000138283,
0.27146363258361816,
-0.5884042382240295,
0.6256807446479797,
-0.3967871069908142,
-0.13190177083015442,
-0.025143630802631378,
-0.2197868525981903,
0.17576327919960022,
0.323515921831131,
-0.8221349716186523,
0.2800168991088867,
-0.20188456773757935,
-0.0033305108081549406,
0.10288818180561066,
-0.060081593692302704,
-0.30206480622291565,
-0.30128926038742065,
-0.3610617518424988,
0.19507266581058502,
0.0937451496720314,
0.102142333984375,
0.7467746138572693,
0.21423493325710297,
0.07555463910102844,
-0.06799948960542679,
-0.10954394936561584,
-0.34259092807769775,
0.5762171149253845,
-0.1832907497882843,
-0.9847747683525085,
-0.19406548142433167,
0.3887713849544525,
0.16038697957992554,
-0.3275880217552185,
-0.36529722809791565,
-0.5487031936645508,
1.2277154922485352,
-0.44196629524230957,
0.1460098922252655,
-0.13888521492481232,
0.33654940128326416,
-0.4191056489944458,
0.4136850833892822,
-0.8785107731819153,
-0.5268016457557678,
-0.24391070008277893,
0.15200762450695038,
0.25108852982521057,
-0.14399667084217072,
0.4315817058086395,
0.6403926610946655,
-0.14075583219528198,
-0.4132070541381836,
-0.508165717124939,
0.08986855298280716,
0.2884398400783539,
0.2971309721469879,
-0.13185031712055206,
-0.31219351291656494,
-0.6894002556800842,
0.4588281810283661,
-0.4851396977901459,
-0.5216040015220642,
0.02429771237075329,
0.167271688580513,
0.5283508896827698,
0.4343133270740509,
-0.4788610339164734,
0.08176542073488235,
-0.14980226755142212,
-0.28186914324760437,
0.037839267402887344,
-0.30246901512145996,
0.39289823174476624,
0.2591290771961212,
0.2010377198457718,
-0.347281277179718,
0.3725948929786682,
0.40111398696899414,
0.6122798919677734,
0.22895564138889313,
-0.1928206980228424,
-0.30015814304351807,
-0.1235349029302597,
0.025510327890515327,
-0.16626450419425964,
-0.21534088253974915,
-0.3194599449634552,
-0.05739850550889969,
-0.11936067044734955,
0.07789149880409241,
-0.17667219042778015,
0.11034253984689713,
0.2911075949668884,
0.5257924199104309,
0.520378053188324,
-0.32939615845680237,
-0.2167811393737793,
0.3557237386703491,
-0.7437127828598022,
0.10230453312397003,
0.49453622102737427,
0.3799724280834198,
-0.16038046777248383,
0.49507880210876465,
0.1469409465789795,
0.537132978439331,
0.3382130265235901,
-0.30529358983039856,
-0.13318179547786713,
0.7898172736167908,
-0.15906386077404022,
0.6716229319572449,
-0.41449424624443054,
-0.29024115204811096,
0.20358723402023315,
0.10667961090803146,
-0.2663065791130066,
-0.016932185739278793,
-0.7445672154426575,
-0.5112351179122925,
0.5111314654350281,
0.43783512711524963,
0.39366820454597473,
0.15761969983577728,
-0.28716540336608887,
0.4021388590335846,
0.12590451538562775,
0.11169622838497162,
-0.11727989464998245,
0.29991888999938965,
-0.0006275512860156596,
-0.01484305877238512,
-0.13174118101596832,
0.282025545835495,
-0.7595606446266174,
0.20335868000984192,
-0.2331707924604416,
-0.053777821362018585,
-0.10283193737268448,
0.21086160838603973,
0.314823180437088,
-0.1239580437541008,
0.288540780544281,
0.11210057884454727,
0.0768393948674202,
-0.13651344180107117,
-0.13374972343444824,
-0.06970314681529999,
-0.3929005563259125,
-0.20918700098991394,
-0.27347567677497864,
0.5081374049186707,
0.5507305264472961,
-0.639809787273407,
0.546849250793457,
0.30394116044044495,
0.5081269145011902,
0.4534399211406708,
-0.34332066774368286,
-0.5893139839172363,
-0.46713241934776306,
0.04968865588307381,
0.10501831769943237,
0.2651505172252655,
-0.6992881894111633,
-0.07249859720468521,
0.15697646141052246,
0.8268427848815918,
0.1286812424659729,
-0.580582857131958,
0.69097900390625,
0.0715709924697876,
0.42549750208854675,
-0.20010851323604584,
0.17836610972881317,
-0.13714149594306946,
0.11110588163137436,
-0.9038254022598267,
0.221317857503891,
-0.09100956469774246,
0.26187625527381897,
0.7077875733375549,
0.33920231461524963,
0.394574373960495,
0.32157331705093384,
-0.2738359272480011,
-0.0277898870408535,
-0.12242510169744492,
-0.274922639131546,
-0.8441062569618225,
0.402084082365036,
0.5922070741653442,
0.29378262162208557,
0.11025053262710571,
-0.3228473961353302,
0.020936839282512665,
-0.2750028669834137,
0.7284108400344849,
-0.5487523078918457,
0.07880088686943054,
-0.29913464188575745,
-0.12667794525623322,
-0.760772168636322,
-0.17678950726985931,
0.7981241345405579,
-0.019416924566030502,
-0.9275012612342834,
0.4537564814090729,
0.13411682844161987,
-0.4622094929218292,
0.14349377155303955,
0.05228607356548309,
-0.0399547815322876,
-0.5256346464157104,
0.43089044094085693,
-0.16605080664157867,
-0.2799864113330841,
-0.026882808655500412,
0.5878957509994507,
0.06291122734546661,
-0.9438164830207825,
0.014124480076134205,
-0.5593110918998718,
-0.14235997200012207,
0.06827039271593094,
-0.40542590618133545,
0.003259093500673771,
-0.00436745211482048,
-0.389359712600708,
-0.5988247990608215,
0.44694241881370544,
0.14779354631900787,
-0.33673515915870667,
0.3704175353050232,
0.15055237710475922,
-0.46963629126548767,
0.40793377161026,
0.5660935044288635,
-0.651482343673706,
0.12557758390903473,
0.41440925002098083
] |
247843 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celcom | Celcom | Celcom Axiata Berhad, DBA Celcom, is the oldest mobile telecommunications provider in Malaysia. Celcom is a member of the Axiata group of companies.
Being one of the very few companies in Malaysia to originally obtain a cellular phone license, it successfully introduced mobile telephony in Malaysia through its ART-900 (Automatic Radio Telephone) service, using first-generation (analogue) ETACS (Extended Total Access Communication System) specifications of the United Kingdom, a derivative of the US-AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) technology. The ETACS ART-900 was started using the prefix "010".
Celcom now uses the dialling prefix identifier of "013" and "019" and offer digital GSM (Groupe Speciale Mobile), an originally European standard, now largely a world standard for mobile communications. The original frequency band for GSM is 900 MHz and was soon extended to 1800 MHz to cater for much wider bandwidth requirements. The 2100 MHz band is used for their dual-channel HSPA+ network. Celcom is also licensed and has been operating FDD-LTE on 1800 MHz and 2600 MHz.
Through the Mobile Number Portability by the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission, Celcom also provides Virtual Mobile Operator services. The company also provides rural communications services using CDMA Technology and Satellite Phone.
History
Celcom started its operation as STM Cellular Communications in 1988 with Fleet Group (then-parent company of TV3, NSTP, and Bank of Commerce Berhad/BCB) and Telekom Malaysia as shareholders. Subsequently, Telekom Malaysia sold its 51% shareholding to the TRI group, which was controlled by Tajudin Ramli. Fleet Group's share was transferred to the which was later sold to TRI. In the initial years, Celcom experienced tremendous growth in subscriber base and network coverage under the stewardship of Rosli Man, the President of the company. It was during his tenure that Celcom turned into the leading cellular company in Malaysia. Rosli Man left Celcom in 1996.
When the cellular phone market was opened up in 1995, Celcom upgraded to the GSM900 service and quickly grew to become the largest mobile phone company in Malaysia. Competition soon set in, and several digital mobile carriers competed for market dominance of the cellular phone industry.
During the 1997 Asian financial crisis, Celcom's owner, Tan Sri Tajudin Ramli suffered a debt crunch, and his shareholding in Celcom was seized by Danaharta, the national asset restructuring company. Failure to resolve his debts resulted in the controlling stake in Celcom being sold to Telekom Malaysia, the government-owned incumbent fixed-line operator in 2003. Telekom Malaysia proceeded to merge Celcom with its own mobile-operator subsidiary TMTouch through a reverse takeover of TMTouch.
Celcom was originally listed on the Bursa Malaysia, but after the merger with Telekom Malaysia Berhad, it has since remained private.
Owing to the inferior management of its former management, Celcom was found liable by an arbitration panel in Switzerland for infringing an agreement signed with Deutsche Telekom AG's unit, DeTeAsia in 2002. The tribunal ruled that Celcom was liable to pay DeTeAsia US$177.2 million in principal plus US$16.2 million in interest as well as other legal and arbitration costs. The total sum was about RM740 million, leaving Telekom Malaysia to intensify its efforts at recovering monies from Celcom's previous owners.
On 21 June 2021, Axiata, Telenor and Digi agree to a potential merger of Celcom and Digi to create a stronger telco in Malaysia, coming after advanced discussions that took place two months earlier. If approved, the merger will be completed by the second quarter of 2022.
Coverage, Products, and Services
Celcom operates 2G EDGE, 4G LTE and 4G LTE-A networks.
Celcom has broader and more extensive coverage nationwide in Malaysia, compared to other cellular operators. In 2006, Celcom claimed its dual-band GSM (900/1800 MHz) coverage had reached over 98% of Malaysia's populated area, and 100% through satellite coverage.
In 2006, Celcom launched the first 3G service in Malaysia, covering most major towns where there is a Telekom Malaysia telephone exchange and either HSDPA or EDGE services within radius (GSM UMTS maximum allowed range) with GPRS as basic data coverage.
In 2013, the 4th generation standard of FDD-LTE was deployed gradually nationwide. The initial license is only on the 2,600 MHz band. In the second quarter, its 1,800 MHz band has been redeployed to cater for both 2G and 4G.
In 2015, Celcom offers 2G, 3G, 4G LTE services on its postpaid and Xpax prepaid brands.
In April 2016, the Celcom CEO told MalaysianWireless that both Ericsson and Huawei would build the Celcom 4G network in Klang Valley from 2016 till 2020. As for other states, Ericsson would build the 4G network in Sabah & Sarawak, Kelantan, Terengganu, and Pahang. Huawei would focus on Penang, Perlis, Perak, and Johor.
In 2017, Celcom had a 90% nationwide mobile service coverage with 3G availability expanding from Klang Valley, Johor Bahru, Melaka, Kulim, and Penang.
As of March 2018, Celcom improved its network experience considerably, especially with the expansion of its 4G and 4G LTE-A population coverage to 88% and 76%.
Back in 2015, Celcom has 3500 4G LTE sites in the country. The Telco aims to offer up to 80% human population coverage by the end of 2016, and 95% of 4G LTE coverage by 2020. Celcom 4G LTE network coverage stood at 94% nationwide while 4G LTE-A coverage is at 90%, as of quarter 3 of 2021.
Celcom Broadband
Celcom Broadband is Malaysia's most popular mobile broadband provider, with 1.534 million subscribers as of the first quarter of 2015. The broadband network covers 86% of Malaysia's populated areas.
Celcom Broadband was awarded the prestigious Frost & Sullivan's Mobile Broadband Provider for two years.
Kolony
Kolony, launched by Celcom on 8 April 2011 was the first-ever SMS-based social networking service in Malaysia. Kolony targeted Malaysian youths and those that wanted to be connected to their family and friends frequently by using their mobile phone. It ran on the regular SMS-based platform, allowing users to participate in social networking activities using the most basic mobile phones with or without a 3G connection. It is a service consisting of a multi-user environment, including software and websites. After only a few weeks of its launch, Kolony recorded a total of 1.5 million subscribers.
Magic SIM
On 4 June 2015, Celcom launched its latest Xpax limited edition simcard package, the Magic SIM. A RM5 Xpax Magic SIM starter pack comes with free basic internet, free 200 MB of high-speed internet, and 20 free minutes free calls and SMS or SMS to Celcom numbers.
Xpax #NoKelentong
On 19 December 2016, Celcom revamped its prepaid plan with the more simplified XPAX #NoKelentong. It removes data restrictions on application usage, 4G only weekend data and off-peak only data.
Celcom Home Wireless
On 15 March 2018, Celcom launched postpaid home wireless broadband.
Yoodo
On 30 January 2018, Celcom launched Yoodo, a brand marketed as a hybrid of conventional prepaid mobile plans.
Current developments
Celcom is the Malaysian partner of the Vodafone mobile community. Celcom's past CEO, Dato’ Seri Mohammed Shazalli Ramly, had been with Celcom since 2005. Ramly left on 31 August 2016 to become the CEO of Telekom Malaysia on 1 May 2017. Michael Kuehner was appointed as the current CEO of Celcom with effective on 1 September 2016.
Demerger from Telekom Malaysia
On 28 September 2007, Telekom Malaysia announced a revamp of its mobile communication units which include Celcom. The revamp plan was to group Celcom under TM International, which houses other TM regional mobile units and defines it as a separate business entity. The restructuring exercise was completed by Q1 2008 and the new business unit listed on the Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange by Q2 2008.
TM International was renamed as Axiata Group as part of a telecom consortium in Southeast Asia. Its stock exchange code is AXIATA.
Merger Possibility with Telekom Malaysia
In January 2018, Celcom Axiata Bhd CEO Michael Kuehner said the proposed merger between Telekom Malaysia and Axiata Group 'made sense', but it is still up to the shareholders to make the final decision.
Subscribers
As of the first quarter of 2018, Celcom has 9.6 million subscribers in Malaysia. Celcom subscribers dropped from 10.25 million in Q12017.
In that quarter, Celcom's ARPU for postpaid was RM87, and prepaid ARPU stood at RM34.
Axiata and Telenor in Talks to Merge Asian Operations
In 2019, The Edge reported that Axiata Group Bhd and Norwegian Telenor Group are in talks to merge their operations in Asia. It is learnt that post-merger, Axiata will be a shareholder of the merged entity, which is expected to be an investment holding company that owns the enlarged regional mobile service operation.
References
External links
Speed test
1988 establishments in Malaysia
Axiata
Mobile phone companies of Malaysia
Telecommunications companies established in 1988
Internet service providers of Malaysia
Companies based in Kuala Lumpur
Malaysian brands
Privately held companies of Malaysia
Malaysian companies established in 1988 | [
0.5087506175041199,
0.5908130407333374,
0.46156755089759827,
-0.16556712985038757,
0.028874631971120834,
0.4336564540863037,
-0.40343937277793884,
0.37023454904556274,
-0.030764484778046608,
0.1548471301794052,
-0.2279234230518341,
0.07262112945318222,
0.16362744569778442,
0.47466474771499634,
-0.11671175062656403,
0.05069278925657272,
0.02368023805320263,
0.6488072276115417,
-0.7467156648635864,
-0.5095607042312622,
-0.5322645902633667,
0.009531114250421524,
0.5604682564735413,
-0.06236829236149788,
0.34293830394744873,
0.011580683290958405,
0.2836221158504486,
0.4798915386199951,
-0.27893128991127014,
0.11288358271121979,
0.5415011644363403,
0.13545456528663635,
-0.03322046250104904,
0.21998010575771332,
-0.138457253575325,
-0.07078643143177032,
-0.2024002969264984,
-0.20475859940052032,
-0.7074153423309326,
-1.0138236284255981,
-0.0438409261405468,
-0.17081455886363983,
-0.07354847341775894,
0.617131233215332,
0.19765952229499817,
-0.3405064642429352,
-1.1693986654281616,
-0.182351216673851,
-1.3092710971832275,
-0.2101936638355255,
-0.377875417470932,
-0.011337150819599628,
-0.15208162367343903,
0.21389275789260864,
0.5389026403427124,
0.6195523142814636,
-0.7914799451828003,
-0.4009054899215698,
-0.17922185361385345,
-0.07481922209262848,
0.8185747861862183,
0.07715703547000885,
-0.011682160198688507,
-0.12777870893478394,
0.5421109795570374,
0.054971836507320404,
0.11342477798461914,
0.11647850275039673,
-0.007618709001690149,
0.29038727283477783,
0.33106228709220886,
-0.040662981569767,
-0.25812453031539917,
0.29778727889060974,
-0.4948340654373169,
-0.2796452045440674,
-0.330142080783844,
-0.08554606139659882,
0.4130702316761017,
0.30130884051322937,
0.13993892073631287,
0.37854939699172974,
0.8866784572601318,
-0.22679820656776428,
0.3430916666984558,
0.774556040763855,
-0.11499498039484024,
-0.4420105218887329,
-0.39195531606674194,
0.6535257697105408,
-0.4326743483543396,
0.20858518779277802,
0.20531518757343292,
0.32536351680755615,
-0.6298456192016602,
-0.28843575716018677,
-0.3374311029911041,
0.5122731328010559,
0.26523464918136597,
0.5211743116378784,
-0.07219082862138748,
-0.11167177557945251,
-0.38593173027038574,
-0.16127851605415344,
-0.049879040569067,
-0.12109923362731934,
-0.4189908504486084,
0.11693251132965088,
0.03473232686519623,
-0.31370803713798523,
-0.36794570088386536,
-0.3572791516780853,
0.15626926720142365,
0.30502134561538696,
0.2751021683216095,
0.2931858003139496,
0.31379976868629456,
-0.29459670186042786,
0.0074632903560996056,
-0.3824108839035034,
0.17429786920547485,
0.6751207709312439,
-0.2019341140985489,
0.17077358067035675,
0.4048948585987091,
0.3320854604244232,
0.06723657250404358,
0.3699086308479309,
-0.7245950102806091,
0.4261101484298706,
0.5977715849876404,
0.39815688133239746,
0.12712222337722778,
-0.08177044242620468,
-0.05613788217306137,
0.04643716290593147,
0.5470032691955566,
0.1689298152923584,
0.10213776677846909,
-0.1204620748758316,
-0.6769140958786011,
0.09195508807897568,
-0.8306463956832886,
0.026642750948667526,
0.15420010685920715,
-0.17697595059871674,
-0.0667807087302208,
-0.06848624348640442,
-0.32597601413726807,
0.241703063249588,
-0.31078463792800903,
-0.061504095792770386,
-0.3032934069633484,
-0.11449236422777176,
-0.2529900074005127,
0.4556296169757843,
0.40816226601600647,
-0.17920739948749542,
0.3177884519100189,
0.10185683518648148,
-0.19285856187343597,
-0.2191336452960968,
-0.20290672779083252,
0.04833914339542389,
-0.05544639006257057,
-0.21028518676757812,
0.33805957436561584,
0.3074219524860382,
0.30054405331611633,
0.4302067458629608,
-0.31580695509910583,
-0.5066432356834412,
-0.5919384360313416,
-0.43697458505630493,
-0.587539792060852,
-0.469752699136734,
0.27308955788612366,
0.5240165591239929,
-0.29052260518074036,
-0.20582056045532227,
-0.6858012080192566,
0.5827398896217346,
0.0493355356156826,
-0.17541161179542542,
-0.0771486908197403,
-0.10952454060316086,
0.7549391388893127,
0.1332470029592514,
-0.17039063572883606,
-0.07006930559873581,
-0.01898551546037197,
-0.5243002772331238,
0.2590765953063965,
-0.24935247004032135,
0.4414263665676117,
-0.13790369033813477,
-0.5759125351905823,
0.7249407768249512,
-0.46038830280303955,
0.4383459687232971,
-0.10931966453790665,
0.7187175750732422,
0.14605508744716644,
-0.8506144285202026,
-0.45771652460098267,
0.2509143352508545,
0.4345896244049072,
0.6013774275779724,
0.12571221590042114,
0.41612210869789124,
0.39341333508491516,
-0.3981820046901703,
-0.10251937061548233,
-0.1971949338912964,
0.16485075652599335,
-0.8730109333992004,
-0.16460102796554565,
0.05906291678547859,
0.3107115626335144,
-0.17233796417713165,
1.0310643911361694,
-0.17836302518844604,
-0.32261893153190613,
0.8927678465843201,
0.003379356348887086,
0.4587482511997223,
-0.29095420241355896,
0.09750588983297348,
0.8319767713546753,
0.5263542532920837,
0.30907851457595825,
-0.08279899507761002,
0.23070187866687775,
0.028678087517619133,
0.21714118123054504,
-0.046557363122701645,
-0.8831319808959961,
-0.474662721157074,
0.15723975002765656,
0.40398740768432617,
0.2651277780532837,
0.014567801728844643,
-0.5229573249816895,
0.0668603852391243,
0.5684772729873657,
-0.4641566872596741,
-0.8647355437278748,
-0.043721653521060944,
-0.5247927904129028,
-0.1579771786928177,
-0.004661244805902243,
-0.19834603369235992,
0.003074655309319496,
-0.15421593189239502,
0.12217339873313904,
-0.4045950174331665,
-0.23901371657848358,
-0.20052635669708252,
-0.2480311393737793,
-0.13381265103816986,
0.06938629597425461,
-0.2136736959218979,
0.18159806728363037,
0.47699663043022156,
-0.15559998154640198,
-0.6618683338165283,
-0.16392065584659576,
-0.33209073543548584,
-0.026747483760118484,
-0.046683210879564285,
0.8925712704658508,
-0.29856202006340027,
0.08863561600446701,
-0.15250055491924286,
0.22448156774044037,
-0.29010656476020813,
0.14068950712680817,
-0.07747378200292587,
-0.5779417753219604,
-0.22528932988643646,
0.5790994763374329,
0.2031506896018982,
0.13691461086273193,
-0.6967571973800659,
-0.1678064465522766,
0.34248483180999756,
-0.34669747948646545,
-0.4604233503341675,
-0.378073513507843,
0.03536878898739815,
0.2718556225299835,
-0.03839340806007385,
-0.4222823679447174,
0.08562324196100235,
0.43406379222869873,
0.05081602931022644,
-0.15932650864124298,
-0.09048348665237427,
0.7111845016479492,
-0.3797203600406647,
-0.22691158950328827,
0.15571746230125427,
-0.4111037850379944,
-0.09301170706748962,
0.09804566204547882,
-0.5399362444877625,
0.20448285341262817,
-0.35344842076301575,
-5.88205623626709,
-0.10131855309009552,
0.04155780002474785,
-0.44034329056739807,
0.8136599659919739,
-0.3040839433670044,
0.565062403678894,
-0.20175766944885254,
0.11255206912755966,
0.27657365798950195,
-0.07020794600248337,
0.12595662474632263,
0.4137316942214966,
-0.16334806382656097,
-0.12410172820091248,
0.6498606204986572,
0.3085998296737671,
0.5726363062858582,
0.7031816840171814,
-0.1983117312192917,
0.4562070965766907,
-0.7126001119613647,
0.004650161135941744,
0.47164592146873474,
-0.13450229167938232,
-0.34918591380119324,
-0.6720951199531555,
0.32870450615882874,
-0.6947130560874939,
-0.29002395272254944,
-0.37460166215896606,
-0.3726552128791809,
-0.24422761797904968,
-0.008272296749055386,
0.09191890060901642,
0.009696871973574162,
0.6665714383125305,
0.41104185581207275,
-0.3368614912033081,
-0.6150324940681458,
0.5592786073684692,
0.03553159534931183,
0.2574741542339325,
-0.3425890803337097,
0.6299688816070557,
-0.6438149809837341,
-0.3401287794113159,
0.20669151842594147,
-0.6681287884712219,
0.8023520708084106,
0.23032061755657196,
0.037085406482219696,
0.3137820065021515,
0.07460086792707443,
-0.29073354601860046,
-0.21352997422218323,
0.029690636321902275,
-0.5193307995796204,
-0.03128828480839729,
0.7425823211669922,
0.20093809068202972,
0.1559520661830902,
-0.06649156659841537,
-1.0416167974472046,
-0.03332718461751938,
0.1232386976480484,
-0.15400564670562744,
-0.12985162436962128,
0.3773413896560669,
-0.06971335411071777,
-0.4767909348011017,
0.22565755248069763,
0.030995359644293785,
-0.4661353826522827,
0.4539124667644501,
-0.9356644153594971,
0.3190370202064514,
0.493709921836853,
-0.22988906502723694,
0.25805994868278503,
0.3183998465538025,
0.10357583314180374,
0.14969392120838165,
0.14578214287757874,
0.04805145412683487,
-0.26963010430336,
-0.42222484946250916,
-0.21756218373775482,
0.13274259865283966,
-0.12963172793388367,
0.5639764070510864,
-0.16402886807918549,
0.14551392197608948,
0.6952788829803467,
-0.14775075018405914,
-0.07911910861730576,
0.06295701116323471,
0.5944398641586304,
0.3428514897823334,
-1.0366580486297607,
0.43117308616638184,
0.3693233132362366,
-0.5029734969139099,
-0.221904456615448,
-0.053055696189403534,
-0.913459837436676,
0.10386598855257034,
-0.3681689202785492,
0.15182875096797943,
-0.04454422369599342,
0.01894438825547695,
0.3042886257171631,
-0.6355287432670593,
-0.32168111205101013,
0.1269679069519043,
0.12387159466743469,
-0.48325324058532715,
-0.06874896585941315,
0.08038651198148727,
-0.1661311835050583,
0.19167080521583557,
0.12632359564304352,
0.23156282305717468,
-0.16124260425567627,
-0.17346763610839844,
-0.4131172299385071,
-0.22553399205207825,
0.7651357054710388,
-0.16718578338623047,
-0.5898894667625427,
-0.150917187333107,
0.3359099328517914,
0.38652417063713074,
0.06975904107093811,
-0.13228833675384521,
-0.1836438924074173,
-0.24468380212783813,
-0.13155806064605713,
0.31870996952056885,
-0.15007321536540985,
0.09453389048576355,
0.016064943745732307,
0.05639445036649704,
0.4062206447124481,
0.7519930005073547,
-0.00296596297994256,
-0.24519263207912445,
0.1282126009464264,
-0.6453752517700195,
0.3617699146270752,
0.07166336476802826,
-0.7918545007705688,
0.6712371110916138,
-0.1847134381532669,
-0.0853533148765564,
-0.4578240215778351,
0.41777488589286804,
0.7907093167304993,
-0.2563164234161377,
-0.36657825112342834,
0.5256687998771667,
-0.3622134029865265,
-0.7505058646202087,
0.2462247610092163,
0.21423213183879852,
0.15515564382076263,
-0.46400195360183716,
0.4187341332435608,
0.1552010327577591,
0.5291391611099243,
0.3319147527217865,
0.1944442242383957,
-0.8912900686264038,
-0.37047961354255676,
0.6148200631141663,
-0.003219678532332182,
-0.2525508403778076,
0.17884649336338043,
0.07587660104036331,
0.21730883419513702,
0.04283006861805916,
0.22816675901412964,
-0.06372087448835373,
0.37213873863220215,
0.6807855367660522,
0.006163578946143389,
-0.18963925540447235,
-0.42075496912002563,
-0.07795821875333786,
-0.4920245409011841,
0.5773441791534424,
-0.21322590112686157,
0.676024317741394,
0.3229922652244568,
0.6657086610794067,
-0.6213575005531311,
0.11299104243516922,
0.7063165903091431,
0.008557810448110104,
-0.6232550740242004,
-0.28910890221595764,
0.6924374103546143,
0.11875735223293304,
0.14082105457782745,
0.6515283584594727,
-0.5812699794769287,
0.18135406076908112,
-0.28285351395606995,
-0.3426673710346222,
0.04682205617427826,
-0.6474733948707581,
-0.7411699891090393,
0.43718618154525757,
0.4386868178844452,
-0.7634398341178894,
-0.02916950173676014,
0.5255453586578369,
-0.26414525508880615,
-0.2877536118030548,
-0.4499896466732025,
-0.1286349594593048,
0.1616428792476654,
-0.21368294954299927,
-0.15510401129722595,
-0.4886806607246399,
0.8808550238609314,
0.5971870422363281,
0.2526155412197113,
0.14178678393363953,
-0.43789052963256836,
-0.12236300855875015,
-0.18813523650169373,
0.14254142343997955,
0.27835649251937866,
0.07775872200727463,
0.39620527625083923,
0.00008149800123646855,
0.11725693941116333,
-0.08353965729475021,
0.3811502158641815,
-0.629145622253418,
-0.14020578563213348,
0.18305881321430206,
-0.7669484615325928,
0.18156111240386963,
0.3264637887477875,
0.600115180015564,
0.11541829258203506,
-0.7108555436134338,
0.16017846763134003,
0.1578199863433838,
-0.33829471468925476,
-0.3917275369167328,
-0.0422312393784523,
0.6677207350730896,
-0.6464198231697083,
-0.09056473523378372,
-0.0605013445019722,
0.1255923956632614,
-0.3610992729663849,
-0.4146137237548828,
0.16435353457927704,
-0.5688709020614624,
0.07605841755867004,
-0.14687082171440125,
0.35025593638420105,
-0.7754532694816589,
-0.3623778820037842,
0.17385083436965942,
0.08328808099031448,
0.12277616560459137,
-0.7016296982765198,
0.6489061117172241,
0.45719069242477417,
0.5639707446098328,
-0.3423234820365906,
0.3093186914920807,
-0.5159202218055725,
-0.05942293629050255,
0.28072479367256165,
-0.18462757766246796,
-0.08126913756132126,
0.20441457629203796,
-0.1549699455499649,
0.49485111236572266,
-0.9818041324615479,
-0.6666354537010193,
-0.004420025739818811,
-0.3545816242694855,
0.1897449940443039,
-0.08655087649822235,
0.5028465390205383,
-0.3287908434867859,
0.13089491426944733,
-0.7079709768295288,
0.11323796212673187,
0.5266426801681519,
0.23393303155899048,
0.23418022692203522,
-0.10455067455768585,
-0.3034973740577698,
0.5857932567596436,
0.3553265631198883,
0.000602580199483782,
0.003357255831360817,
0.20773468911647797,
0.1893240213394165,
-0.3285650908946991,
-0.009113531559705734,
-0.13895076513290405,
0.30413806438446045,
-0.475831538438797,
0.1321679949760437,
0.36183854937553406,
-0.39247122406959534,
-0.18741562962532043,
0.7548783421516418,
-0.39119645953178406,
0.24315300583839417,
0.20191937685012817,
0.2286730855703354,
-0.12411028146743774,
0.40805503726005554,
0.16870515048503876,
-0.055737681686878204,
0.7481568455696106,
-0.15395444631576538,
-0.18439163267612457,
0.16880743205547333,
0.13978704810142517,
0.3190709352493286,
-0.14668641984462738,
-0.29284152388572693,
-0.02486375905573368,
0.11602476984262466,
-0.06994263082742691,
-0.1321696788072586,
0.13504329323768616,
-0.4398428797721863,
0.66899573802948,
0.7727516293525696,
0.07709530740976334,
-0.4586605727672577,
0.14836326241493225,
-0.02644547075033188,
0.90484619140625,
0.0069177476689219475,
0.41850998997688293,
0.2230091542005539,
0.2912465035915375,
0.17808493971824646,
-0.0384594202041626,
0.012756007723510265,
-0.2782211899757385,
-0.4143005609512329,
0.14852699637413025,
-0.20597010850906372,
0.1802125722169876,
0.3117726445198059,
0.3404388427734375,
-0.09381972253322601,
0.09392625093460083,
0.8063933253288269,
0.01918063312768936,
-0.3582876920700073,
-0.21322327852249146,
-0.07163841277360916,
-0.7061644792556763,
0.2198157012462616,
0.6621604561805725,
-0.36290907859802246,
0.21534109115600586,
-0.4695766568183899,
0.49808835983276367,
-0.3601371645927429,
-0.08418690413236618,
-0.18500886857509613,
0.6503933668136597,
0.01048313919454813,
0.56545090675354,
-0.35293370485305786,
-0.1634606420993805,
-0.11263290792703629,
-0.48769140243530273,
0.019990285858511925,
-0.12466128170490265,
-0.512442409992218,
0.4245215356349945,
-0.08239918202161789,
0.30253538489341736,
-0.10252539068460464,
-0.6705414652824402,
-0.00736829312518239,
0.009241025894880295,
-0.22678084671497345,
-0.008786571212112904,
-0.18143171072006226,
-0.03389926999807358,
0.009084342047572136,
-0.7091125249862671,
0.07585013657808304,
0.4127240777015686,
0.2925770580768585,
-0.13276784121990204,
0.043554116040468216,
-0.16402973234653473,
-0.6278893947601318,
0.6117877960205078,
-0.29267996549606323,
0.22061990201473236,
-0.12253419309854507,
0.4738227427005768,
-0.11384186893701553,
-0.0027496861293911934,
-0.28753554821014404,
0.6134677529335022,
0.24102570116519928,
-0.011208386160433292,
-0.27244704961776733,
0.005133898928761482,
-0.14143207669258118,
-0.43335869908332825,
0.3584374189376831,
-0.1260109543800354,
0.5155144929885864,
0.05222943797707558,
0.6724022030830383,
0.5896731615066528,
-0.8332934975624084,
0.8294842839241028,
0.24966314435005188,
-0.09277568012475967,
-0.3512246012687683,
-0.06557071208953857,
-0.6826007962226868,
-0.2230319082736969,
-0.14754097163677216,
-0.01523096114397049,
0.12026433646678925,
-0.12587788701057434,
-0.1381453573703766,
0.06971528381109238,
0.3206295967102051,
-0.23475711047649384,
-0.19738411903381348,
-0.3290925621986389,
-0.04613383486866951,
-0.14053243398666382,
-1.1461220979690552,
0.41277632117271423,
0.2254420667886734,
-0.6917858719825745,
0.4338555932044983,
-0.0509524904191494,
0.3625307083129883,
-0.12550988793373108,
-0.07661718130111694,
-0.5993910431861877,
0.517256498336792,
-0.34540724754333496
] |
247844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midnight | Midnight | Midnight is the transition time from one day to the next – the moment when the date changes, on the local official clock time for any particular jurisdiction. By clock time, midnight is the opposite of noon, differing from it by 12 hours.
Solar midnight is the time opposite to solar noon, when the Sun is closest to the nadir, and the night is equidistant from dusk and dawn. Due to the advent of time zones, which regularize time across a range of meridians, and daylight saving time, solar midnight rarely coincides with 12 midnight on the clock. Solar midnight depends on longitude and time of the year rather than on time zone. In ancient Roman timekeeping, midnight was halfway between sunset and sunrise (i.e., solar midnight), varying according to the seasons.
In some Slavic languages, "midnight" has an additional geographic association with "north" (as "noon" does with "south"). Modern Polish, Belarusian, Ukrainian, and Serbian languages preserve this association with their words for "midnight" or "half-night" (północ, поўнач, північ, пoнoħ) also meaning "north."
Start and end of day
Midnight marks the beginning and ending of each day in civil time throughout the world. As the dividing point between one day and another, midnight defies easy classification as either part of the preceding day or of the following day. Though there is no global unanimity on the issue, most often midnight is considered the start of a new day and is associated with the hour 00:00. Even in locales with this technical resolution, however, vernacular references to midnight as the end of any given day may be common.
Strictly speaking, it is incorrect to use "a.m." and "p.m." when referring to noon or midnight. The abbreviation a.m. stands for ante meridiem or before noon, and p.m. stands for post meridiem or after noon. Since noon is neither before nor after noon, and midnight is exactly twelve hours before and after noon, neither abbreviation is correct. However, many digital representations of time are configured to require an "a.m." or "p.m." designation, preventing the correct absence of such designators at midnight. In such cases, there is no international standard defining which arbitrary selection is best.
In the United States and Canada, digital clocks and computers commonly display 12 a.m at midnight. The 30th edition of the U.S. Government Style Manual (2008), in sections 9.54 and 12.9b, recommended the use of "12 a.m." for midnight and "12 p.m." for noon. However, the previous 29th edition of the U.S. Government Printing Office Style Manual (2000), in section 12.9, recommended the opposite. There is no further record documenting this change. The US National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recommends avoiding confusion altogether by using "11:59 pm" or "12:01 am" and the intended date instead of "midnight" or "12:00 am".
There are several common approaches to identifying and distinguishing the precise start and end of any given day.
Use of a 24-hour clock can remove ambiguity. The "midnight" term can be avoided altogether if the end of day is noted as 24:00 and the beginning of day as 00:00. While both notations refer to the same moment in time, the choice of notation allows its association with the previous night or with the following morning.
"Midnight" can be augmented with additional disambiguating information. A day and time of day may be explicitly identified together, for example "midnight Saturday night." Alternatively, midnight as the division between days may be highlighted by identifying the pair of days so divided: "midnight Saturday/Sunday" or "midnight December 14/15."
The approach recommended by the NIST ("12:01 a.m." or "11:59 p.m." instead of midnight) can be particularly helpful when any ambiguity can have serious consequences, such as with contracts and other legal instruments.
A clear convention may be legally defined or culturally promulgated. For example, notable religious calendars, such as the Hebrew calendar and the Islamic calendar, associate midnight with 00:00 and the start of day. As noted above, however, such conventions or definitions may not be uniformly observed.
The International Standards Organization (ISO) in specification ISO 8601states: "midnight may only be referred to as '00:00', corresponding to the beginning of a calendar day."
The AP Stylebook assigns "midnight" to the day that is ending, not the day beginning.
Notes
References
External links
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Parts of a day
Night | [
0.3314431607723236,
-0.08441352099180222,
0.7605219483375549,
0.23398630321025848,
0.3195004165172577,
-0.3373447060585022,
0.48107314109802246,
0.4212598204612732,
-0.04269107058644295,
-0.4171910285949707,
-0.37559470534324646,
0.3730618953704834,
-0.0385039746761322,
0.4663577377796173,
-0.1998821347951889,
0.29912814497947693,
0.49249669909477234,
0.12801961600780487,
-0.23922190070152283,
-0.3733483850955963,
0.18047860264778137,
-0.16529014706611633,
0.24783408641815186,
-0.36970284581184387,
-0.03857618570327759,
-0.3255364000797272,
-0.48259237408638,
0.25413355231285095,
-0.28462910652160645,
0.5163611173629761,
-0.392930269241333,
0.08149861544370651,
-0.008161415345966816,
0.30322185158729553,
0.23520077764987946,
-0.0167032890021801,
0.6489099264144897,
-0.4096585214138031,
0.08378426730632782,
-0.5057002305984497,
0.1405840516090393,
-0.12920042872428894,
0.03863305225968361,
-0.29695871472358704,
-0.45395201444625854,
-0.24338048696517944,
-0.9066544771194458,
-0.19016380608081818,
-0.19946138560771942,
-0.38404059410095215,
0.09255124628543854,
0.3007885813713074,
0.2954483926296234,
0.1826019138097763,
0.03168173506855965,
0.16889016330242157,
-0.774917483329773,
-0.026923906058073044,
-0.03655198961496353,
0.05441387742757797,
0.9016473293304443,
-0.36561670899391174,
-0.17792309820652008,
0.002878754399716854,
0.06397957354784012,
0.3518885672092438,
-0.29548904299736023,
0.10237288475036621,
0.25694146752357483,
-0.2703438699245453,
-0.22236700356006622,
-0.16571496427059174,
-0.16637970507144928,
0.3051314353942871,
-0.5467710494995117,
0.18371117115020752,
0.01982400193810463,
0.017824215814471245,
0.19709593057632446,
0.24510453641414642,
-0.1993441879749298,
0.25099748373031616,
0.7588132619857788,
-0.06941928714513779,
0.4284878969192505,
-0.15018078684806824,
-0.3330867290496826,
-0.15579120814800262,
0.1357155293226242,
0.5214047431945801,
-0.17213979363441467,
-0.054491132497787476,
0.2792535722255707,
0.10485564917325974,
-0.7260174751281738,
-0.3459281623363495,
0.05208638682961464,
0.09972906112670898,
-0.18455109000205994,
0.2192167341709137,
0.09483075141906738,
-0.2515178918838501,
0.6074466109275818,
0.1441364884376526,
0.28368327021598816,
-0.356458842754364,
-0.39595139026641846,
-0.33874228596687317,
0.4697017967700958,
-0.08398421108722687,
-0.6084497570991516,
0.03615279495716095,
0.30778783559799194,
0.23964743316173553,
0.010490595363080502,
-0.6214404702186584,
0.2531793415546417,
-0.5120251774787903,
0.2615216076374054,
-0.31307297945022583,
-0.15493419766426086,
-0.14764854311943054,
0.18919895589351654,
-0.1293114274740219,
0.03756771981716156,
0.33135542273521423,
0.413523405790329,
0.3129931688308716,
-0.12997743487358093,
-0.2082124948501587,
0.3269243538379669,
0.7348586320877075,
0.12091381102800369,
-0.4373748302459717,
0.09512180835008621,
-0.3807482421398163,
-0.06204395741224289,
0.19475649297237396,
0.3086407482624054,
0.36310797929763794,
-0.19659826159477234,
-0.2778102457523346,
-0.47621288895606995,
-0.48940354585647583,
0.02850855514407158,
-0.12808318436145782,
-0.17085814476013184,
-0.30939769744873047,
-0.20177385210990906,
0.549658477306366,
0.07875626534223557,
0.29441162943840027,
-0.48463305830955505,
0.14186064898967743,
-0.24368640780448914,
-0.6393091678619385,
0.083524689078331,
-0.08203195035457611,
-0.34158003330230713,
-0.027836987748742104,
-0.19928160309791565,
0.05538104474544525,
0.043200138956308365,
-0.006863181944936514,
-0.04902711883187294,
-0.18900246918201447,
0.026681242510676384,
0.2325262576341629,
-0.005658413749188185,
0.21194641292095184,
0.06412453949451447,
0.3826969265937805,
0.2088659256696701,
0.04323039948940277,
-0.2866751253604889,
-0.005192093551158905,
0.21337677538394928,
0.12558436393737793,
0.3319278657436371,
0.02471999078989029,
-0.28696706891059875,
-0.15602953732013702,
0.21428319811820984,
0.11450324207544327,
-0.20246176421642303,
-0.4957720637321472,
0.07034029811620712,
0.300954669713974,
-0.17595575749874115,
-0.1885673552751541,
-0.03445175662636757,
0.06886417418718338,
-0.1458764672279358,
-0.4612472653388977,
0.12671853601932526,
-0.45591047406196594,
-0.2743133008480072,
0.7892702221870422,
-0.051571205258369446,
0.41367629170417786,
0.07502713054418564,
-0.0497596375644207,
0.517977237701416,
-0.20090600848197937,
-0.47514456510543823,
0.38622644543647766,
0.05214923247694969,
0.4401947557926178,
-0.004188281949609518,
0.2399533987045288,
0.01440965011715889,
-0.6159571409225464,
-0.16527779400348663,
0.4321228563785553,
-0.03289614990353584,
0.030895831063389778,
-0.2356947958469391,
-0.2131149172782898,
0.11722072213888168,
-0.08962193876504898,
0.33592739701271057,
0.02425825037062168,
0.01486944779753685,
0.09625764191150665,
-0.39233729243278503,
0.12723426520824432,
-0.023488318547606468,
0.1714484542608261,
0.3820347189903259,
-0.8216583728790283,
-0.012576214037835598,
-0.26929935812950134,
-0.05985114350914955,
-0.012439394369721413,
0.045785702764987946,
0.07852307707071304,
-0.05282452329993248,
-0.5282441973686218,
0.31426048278808594,
-0.7156057357788086,
0.25464051961898804,
-0.1296931654214859,
0.2652571201324463,
0.3683432638645172,
0.3108205795288086,
0.41646435856819153,
-0.20099560916423798,
0.32893839478492737,
-0.6074649095535278,
0.20291529595851898,
0.041235823184251785,
0.1163199171423912,
0.251647025346756,
-0.43737056851387024,
0.13745760917663574,
-0.331883043050766,
-0.15708760917186737,
0.14189434051513672,
-0.03584571182727814,
0.16956132650375366,
0.05193925276398659,
0.14521542191505432,
0.5736651420593262,
-0.29327112436294556,
-0.1521434187889099,
-0.37868162989616394,
-0.8078504800796509,
-0.5568194389343262,
-0.029053905978798866,
0.42886313796043396,
0.505537748336792,
0.1888328343629837,
-0.09367719292640686,
0.11363320797681808,
-0.42770570516586304,
-0.6149064302444458,
0.38455647230148315,
0.295383095741272,
-0.18636493384838104,
-0.09154538810253143,
-0.08251780271530151,
-0.03334367275238037,
0.4186766743659973,
0.02571953274309635,
-0.4375545382499695,
-0.5542992949485779,
0.2610849440097809,
-0.3026594817638397,
-0.4241790175437927,
-0.30432555079460144,
-0.4322959780693054,
0.2664169371128082,
0.22106145322322845,
0.11810006201267242,
-0.00627152668312192,
0.02054087445139885,
-0.3546288013458252,
-0.10784445703029633,
0.08451589196920395,
-0.22896626591682434,
-0.01173433568328619,
0.13919708132743835,
-0.11829818040132523,
-0.4823524057865143,
0.13060881197452545,
-0.44798389077186584,
-0.24067965149879456,
0.10727635771036148,
-6.378324031829834,
0.3078923225402832,
-0.3616271913051605,
-0.3723371624946594,
-0.22761113941669464,
-0.14211015403270721,
1.0532222986221313,
0.05974063277244568,
-0.24199697375297546,
-0.022276224568486214,
0.32757923007011414,
-0.23744356632232666,
0.03138626366853714,
0.29715046286582947,
0.2302490621805191,
-0.27919310331344604,
0.09398194402456284,
-0.21936075389385223,
-0.13038279116153717,
0.6066322326660156,
0.08867748081684113,
0.05638524889945984,
0.5164769291877747,
0.24288997054100037,
0.40820738673210144,
0.09887171536684036,
-0.14169129729270935,
0.1653771996498108,
-0.4520169496536255,
0.06637546420097351,
0.20004262030124664,
0.019439134746789932,
-0.10976161062717438,
-0.02126217633485794,
0.57220059633255,
0.2342393398284912,
0.2427443265914917,
-0.14957265555858612,
0.10700352489948273,
0.17671209573745728,
-0.20271913707256317,
0.1486104428768158,
0.02261819876730442,
-0.051045674830675125,
0.39028459787368774,
0.3652254343032837,
0.11785068362951279,
-0.19094687700271606,
-0.3956476151943207,
0.07318305969238281,
-0.04438424110412598,
0.4481660723686218,
0.1577853262424469,
-0.2335653305053711,
-0.3336189389228821,
0.12609726190567017,
0.024392178282141685,
-0.49992984533309937,
-0.009605773724615574,
-0.03415362164378166,
0.3852512240409851,
-0.33929482102394104,
0.28047460317611694,
-0.20113547146320343,
-0.12919074296951294,
-0.32838886976242065,
-0.7161346077919006,
-0.0457046777009964,
0.5224483013153076,
0.6168139576911926,
-0.299106240272522,
-0.6298812627792358,
-0.039959490299224854,
-1.028615117073059,
0.04588967561721802,
-0.13129067420959473,
-0.2544088363647461,
0.1865786761045456,
0.0016235893126577139,
-0.3171168267726898,
-0.052543412894010544,
0.04645196720957756,
-0.3816452622413635,
0.3924967050552368,
0.40050265192985535,
-0.3375263214111328,
-0.28874021768569946,
0.39786773920059204,
0.11371556669473648,
-0.17875774204730988,
0.41711747646331787,
-0.09709183126688004,
0.503663957118988,
-0.5693905353546143,
-0.2244519591331482,
0.32903656363487244,
0.07913743704557419,
0.06848092377185822,
0.31041219830513,
-0.26347970962524414,
0.39675214886665344,
-0.33433976769447327,
0.19154557585716248,
-0.4530266523361206,
-0.05950593575835228,
-0.42686063051223755,
-0.0540347658097744,
0.5937541723251343,
0.4297669529914856,
-0.14864636957645416,
-0.43532341718673706,
0.01759316399693489,
-0.44442135095596313,
-0.5550960898399353,
-0.1917443424463272,
-0.4379230737686157,
-0.2940577268600464,
0.25712981820106506,
0.09670206159353256,
0.03029634803533554,
-0.4040491580963135,
0.23060347139835358,
0.015551535412669182,
-0.14057931303977966,
-0.3043610751628876,
-0.31825149059295654,
-0.27528002858161926,
0.06924533098936081,
0.7553222179412842,
0.40331992506980896,
0.028513344004750252,
0.9273926019668579,
0.27385807037353516,
0.2192952185869217,
-0.5499664545059204,
-0.08098917454481125,
0.18777918815612793,
-0.2007291615009308,
0.1657058149576187,
-0.3436415493488312,
0.2874870002269745,
0.4507589340209961,
-0.016585826873779297,
0.2771853804588318,
0.5643606781959534,
0.4726894497871399,
0.3436477780342102,
-0.6034972667694092,
-0.7106295228004456,
0.5936679840087891,
0.4515058398246765,
-0.22376812994480133,
0.433674156665802,
-0.08676093816757202,
-0.22692596912384033,
0.14980755746364594,
0.35158300399780273,
0.18783846497535706,
-0.07956312596797943,
-0.010626392439007759,
-0.13512130081653595,
-0.5286123156547546,
-0.6864151358604431,
-0.18064478039741516,
0.288727730512619,
-0.21952101588249207,
-0.6628700494766235,
0.027162723243236542,
-0.12734819948673248,
0.5776525735855103,
-0.0778263583779335,
-0.27611395716667175,
-0.2543351352214813,
0.20730029046535492,
0.2827402949333191,
-0.12013682723045349,
-0.08473891764879227,
-0.006547743454575539,
-0.16029545664787292,
-0.422696977853775,
0.3602862060070038,
-0.2973434627056122,
-0.45046910643577576,
0.20667225122451782,
0.18708498775959015,
-0.08662814646959305,
0.01717972941696644,
-0.20781902968883514,
0.21685755252838135,
-0.009256896562874317,
0.5205821394920349,
0.14906243979930878,
0.15799695253372192,
-0.03830074518918991,
0.4524122476577759,
-0.3424889147281647,
0.1206691786646843,
0.7646381258964539,
-0.40229883790016174,
-0.11614888161420822,
0.26111695170402527,
0.5790029764175415,
-0.26626941561698914,
0.2722949981689453,
0.17053258419036865,
-0.43291041254997253,
0.014942875131964684,
-0.13700275123119354,
-0.28312909603118896,
0.01034161914139986,
-0.3593118190765381,
-0.18880723416805267,
0.036081910133361816,
0.0019874684512615204,
0.0013089997228235006,
0.20932269096374512,
-0.13681666553020477,
-0.21238835155963898,
0.21931524574756622,
-0.508633553981781,
0.6296504139900208,
0.5762556195259094,
-0.26351815462112427,
-0.09052783995866776,
0.026490870863199234,
0.06629907339811325,
0.3994341790676117,
-0.4456883668899536,
0.5029123425483704,
0.21277251839637756,
-0.005538990255445242,
0.04785747081041336,
0.16656675934791565,
0.19146937131881714,
-0.484136700630188,
-0.2123119831085205,
-0.48391491174697876,
-0.2160416841506958,
-0.4078772962093353,
0.5698645114898682,
-0.1424308568239212,
0.5479079484939575,
0.29824453592300415,
-0.465393990278244,
-0.6098962426185608,
0.3614807724952698,
0.47316914796829224,
-0.3218676447868347,
-0.43720173835754395,
0.5563172101974487,
0.19985567033290863,
-0.2030099630355835,
-0.10403461754322052,
0.009552378207445145,
0.28822702169418335,
-0.2968076467514038,
0.07564461976289749,
0.12257492542266846,
0.527048647403717,
0.15206767618656158,
-0.054465312510728836,
-0.6175654530525208,
-0.23243683576583862,
-0.10096878558397293,
-0.1524367332458496,
0.6639275550842285,
-0.2912367284297943,
0.20564696192741394,
0.24350470304489136,
-0.2744467258453369,
0.19020184874534607,
-0.3675316274166107,
0.3034815192222595,
0.03954080492258072,
0.692186176776886,
0.11797405034303665,
-0.12209396809339523,
-0.03692202642560005,
0.029984841123223305,
0.07858967036008835,
-0.00995610561221838,
-0.02428555116057396,
0.13091151416301727,
-0.49667292833328247,
0.05929530784487724,
-0.6257470846176147,
0.3370201885700226,
0.2682552635669708,
-0.6977744698524475,
-0.09445146471261978,
-0.3010020852088928,
-0.05439084395766258,
0.15371447801589966,
0.4929908812046051,
-0.1132306382060051,
0.6793319582939148,
0.12394224852323532,
0.8196362257003784,
-0.008335117250680923,
-0.22293271124362946,
-0.2786640226840973,
0.5841277837753296,
0.05362697318196297,
-0.566374659538269,
0.0983157753944397,
-0.424334853887558,
0.29651114344596863,
-0.2609509825706482,
0.1764524132013321,
-0.3173852860927582,
0.3074863851070404,
0.33422788977622986,
0.433826744556427,
0.7759713530540466,
-0.17073774337768555,
-0.051083605736494064,
0.3851863145828247,
0.15348315238952637,
-0.3706286549568176,
0.4421914517879486,
0.22054257988929749,
0.14497192203998566,
0.7199167013168335,
-0.03729920834302902,
-0.18471966683864594,
0.3395516872406006,
0.15220871567726135,
0.29486265778541565,
0.1640215367078781,
0.0032216773834079504,
0.41780710220336914,
0.1703411191701889,
-0.48399120569229126,
0.26447001099586487,
-0.4364311099052429,
-0.18214255571365356,
-0.16405092179775238,
-0.6375553607940674,
-0.7396021485328674,
0.11750488728284836,
1.0377695560455322,
0.7595088481903076,
-0.14153936505317688,
0.11105704307556152,
0.3250068724155426,
0.08165067434310913,
0.15648165345191956,
-0.05899729207158089,
0.10415833443403244,
0.17213250696659088,
0.2308773249387741,
-0.20951104164123535,
0.099835105240345,
-0.4108125567436218,
0.3605116903781891,
0.06105007976293564,
0.19623678922653198,
-0.31260615587234497,
-0.2688620090484619,
-0.6315129399299622,
-0.3198567032814026,
0.1862383782863617,
0.5241978168487549,
-0.103962741792202,
-0.10064578056335449,
-0.10109654814004898,
0.2551821768283844,
-0.1321425884962082,
-0.22140856087207794,
0.33671167492866516,
0.12774425745010376,
0.4414096772670746,
-0.21244508028030396,
0.2257324457168579,
0.4202896058559418,
-0.3013705909252167,
0.3339231312274933,
0.42073071002960205,
0.1913018375635147,
-0.5487232804298401,
-0.05453244224190712,
-0.4140847623348236,
-0.10760771483182907,
-0.6366060972213745,
0.06775116920471191,
0.18267922103405,
0.09222988039255142,
-0.12481857091188431,
-0.6254540085792542,
0.22816456854343414,
0.40072453022003174,
-0.017456624656915665,
-0.14350128173828125,
-0.8397185802459717,
-0.2988892197608948,
-0.10289665311574936,
-0.13305090367794037,
0.47963717579841614,
-0.33194226026535034,
-0.07994095981121063,
0.26469603180885315,
-0.41931548714637756,
0.19138860702514648,
-0.32044631242752075,
-0.10112354159355164,
0.19717858731746674,
0.17820417881011963,
-0.07353802770376205,
-0.3388618528842926,
0.909494936466217,
0.9582832455635071,
-0.3501502275466919,
-0.08936738967895508,
0.2097407728433609,
-0.3665820360183716,
-0.2708512246608734,
0.19864977896213531,
-0.6166774034500122,
0.10065732896327972,
-0.5846202373504639,
-0.10132697224617004,
-0.1708144247531891,
0.22823332250118256,
0.35173147916793823,
-0.20887701213359833,
-0.42744481563568115,
0.6059343218803406,
0.18357449769973755,
-0.41277146339416504,
0.13278472423553467,
-0.40206724405288696,
-0.24052362143993378,
-0.10288393497467041,
0.38498926162719727,
-0.34243449568748474,
-0.125241219997406,
0.130845844745636,
0.4866979420185089,
0.6695714592933655,
-0.23114487528800964,
0.43755343556404114,
-0.026584982872009277,
-0.25167253613471985,
0.011805602349340916,
0.22152066230773926,
-0.4783152937889099,
-0.38845863938331604,
-0.41508135199546814,
-0.6682949662208557,
0.12964847683906555,
-0.3348677158355713,
0.11769279092550278,
0.03786921128630638,
0.04143274948000908,
0.06761762499809265,
0.032906387001276016,
0.4233807325363159,
-0.4128882884979248,
0.29652872681617737,
0.25079652667045593
] |
247845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keretapi%20Tanah%20Melayu | Keretapi Tanah Melayu | Keretapi Tanah Melayu Berhad (KTMB) (Jawi: كريتاڤي تانه ملايو برحد) or Malayan Railways Limited is the main rail operator in Peninsular Malaysia. The railway system dates back to the British colonial era, when it was first built to transport tin. Previously known as the Federated Malay States Railways (FMSR) and the Malayan Railway Administration (MRA), Keretapi Tanah Melayu acquired its current name in 1962. The organisation was corporatised in 1992, but remains wholly owned by the Malaysian government.
History
In 1948, the FMSR was renamed the Malayan Railways. The railways had been devastated by the Japanese invasion of Malaya, and efforts were taken to rebuild the two main lines, but many branch lines were abandoned in the process.
The MR began to modernize the equipment with the ordering of diesel locomotives and railcars to replace steam hauled services, and the first diesel locomotive entered service in 1957. The railcars entered service in 1960, initially on short haul services. Rapid services were introduced later, cutting travel times from Singapore to Kuala Lumpur down to six hours, which was competitive at the time. MR and later KTM continued ordering more diesel locomotives through the decades, rendering the old steam locomotives redundant. The last steam locomotive was withdrawn from service in 1974.
Malayan Railways also operated an air service from 1954 to 1958, known as Federation Air Service. The service was transferred to Malayan Airways in March 1958.
The 1970s saw the closure of many branch lines, such as the Batu Arang branch in 1971 and the historic Taiping to Port Weld branch in 1972. The Port Dickson branch was converted to freight only operation in 1972, although seasonal passenger service did continue for a short while. However, construction did continue for a new line to Subang Airport used to transport fuel, which opened in 1980.
Railbuses were introduced in the 1980s for short haul commuter services. They were deployed in the Klang Valley, Kuala Lumpur to Ipoh, Ipoh to Butterworth, Gemas to Mentakab and Kulai to Singapore services. On certain routes such as Kulai to Singapore, the railbuses were faster than conventional trains, and in this instance saved travel time of 15 minutes. They lasted until the introduction of KTM Komuter in 1995, which took over commuter services in the Klang Valley.
KTM was corporatised in 1992, with all assets now under the ownership and management of the Railway Assets Corporation (RAC). The company runs as a private enterprise although owned and subsidized by the Malaysian government. There were attempts by private companies to take over the operations since then, but such proposals were rejected by the Malaysian government.
The 1990s saw the start of another modernization programme. Proposals were made to electrify the West Coast line, which started with the Klang Valley area. Electric trains made their debut on 3 August 1995 with KTM Komuter, with services from Port Klang to Sentul and Rawang to Seremban. Under this programme, existing stations were renovated or rebuilt and new stations were built.
The programme was faced with delays throughout the 2000s, with the government postponing many electrification projects. However, from 2007 onwards there was a renewed effort to electrify the west coast line. The completion of such electrification projects from Padang Besar to Gemas to date has allowed the commencement of electrified intercity services in the form of ETS. As the projects were completed in stages, the KTM Komuter and ETS services were expanded over the years to take advantage of the upgraded lines. The East Coast line, which had not seen upgrades for many years, will see upgrades in the form of rehabilitated track, new DMUs and rebuilt stations by 2021.
Railway network
The 1000mm gauge network consists of two main lines and several branch lines.
West Coast Line
The West Coast Line runs from the Malaysia-Thailand Border, where it connects with the State Railway of Thailand, to Woodlands Train Checkpoint in Singapore, serving the West Coast states of Peninsular Malaysia. The line runs through most of the major stations in Peninsular Malaysia, such as Gemas, KL Sentral, Ipoh, Butterworth and Padang Besar railway station.
East Coast Line
The East Coast Line branches off from the West Coast line at Gemas, running to Tumpat in Kelantan, serving two of Peninsular Malaysia's East Coast states, namely Pahang and Kelantan. Despite its name, it only meets the coast when it reaches Tumpat railway station. It runs through the interior, often through deep jungle, thus earning the nickname Jungle Railway.
Branch lines
There are several branch lines running from the two main lines. Some are mixed traffic, catering to passenger and freight traffic while others only cater to freight trains.
Subang Jaya - Terminal Skypark (Passenger)
Putra - Batu Caves (Passenger)
Butterworth - Bukit Mertajam (Mixed Traffic)
Port Klang - Pulau Indah (Freight)
Butterworth - North Butterworth Container Terminal (Freight)
Kempas Baru - Tanjung Pelepas (Freight)
Kempas Baru - Pasir Gudang (Freight)
Infrastructure
The total network spans . The total length of the network was , however due to the closure and subsequent removal of the section of tracks between Tanjong Pagar railway station and Woodlands Train Checkpoint, the network is now shorter.
The West Coast line is double tracked and electrified between Padang Besar and Gemas, along with all branch lines used for passenger service along this stretch. As part of the upgrades, all level crossings have been removed and modern signaling installed.
The stations along these line are a combination of heritage stations from the colonial era, such as Ipoh Station and Kuala Lumpur Station, and modern stations that were built when the line was double tracked, such as Taiping, Butterworth, Arau station.
The remainder of the West Coast main line from Gemas Station to Johor Bahru Sentral Station is still being in the process of being double tracked and electrified under the Gemas - Johor Bahru Electrified Double Track Project.
The East Coast line is single tracked. Having not seen much upgrades over the years, the line is considerably less modern than the upgraded sections of the West Coast line. Level crossings are still prevalent and the traditional token signaling system is still used. The stations along this line are older and smaller. Although the line will remain single tracked, rehabilitation works are underway to replace the worn track and many stations are also being upgraded.
Most of the lines use concrete sleepers, which had replaced wooden sleepers from 1982 for the Kerdau-Jerantut and Sungai Yu-Tumpat lines and became more widespread after upgrading works in recent years.
When the East Coast Line rehabilitation work and West Coast line double tracking is complete, the network will exclusively use concrete sleepers.
Rolling stock
Depots
Northern Depot
Padang Besar Depot
Bukit Tengah Depot
Batu Gajah Depot
ETS Batu Gajah Depot
Central Workshop Batu Gajah
Central Depot
KL Sentral Depot
Port Klang Depot
Sentul Depot
Southern Depot
SCS Seremban Depot
Gemas Depot
Kempas Baru Depot
East Coast Depot
Tumpat Depot
Kuala Lipis Depot
Services
As a national railway company, KTMB is involved in the business of providing rail based transportation. This can be divided into four major services:
KTM Intercity
KTM Intercity (Malay: KTM Antarabandar) is the brand name for long-haul passenger train that connect cities and major town served by KTMB rail network.
The service is provided using conventional locomotives hauled coaches. Service span the length of the network, except branch-lines. Daily service convey passengers from Johor Bahru, Johor, to Tumpat, Kelantan, Johor Bahru, Johor, to Gemas, Negeri Sembilan and Johor Bahru, Johor to Woodlands, Singapore.
KTM Intercity has also introduce innovative services aimed at making its train not merely a means of transportation. It is possible for customers to rent specialized coaches for event management, conference and even wedding.
It has also been involved in various type of collaborations, joint-promotions, and cross-promotions with all state-level tourism bodies, travel agencies and travel-related industry players in developing rail package for group travelers.
ETS (Electric Train Service)
KTM ETS, which stands for Electric Train Service, is a rapid intercity train service by KTM utilizing electric train-sets. The service started in 2010 using metre-gauge.
It currently operates between the cities from Gemas, Negeri Sembilan to Padang Besar, Perlis, Kuala Lumpur to Ipoh, Perak, and Kuala Lumpur to Butterworth, Penang.
The trains travel up to on electrified lines. the ETS offers its passengers a comfortable and safe travel to their destination at very competitive travel time compared to other modes of transport.
For example, the travel time between KL Sentral and Ipoh is about 2 hours and 20 minutes, which compared favorably with the previous intercity train travel time of 3 hours and 30 minutes while buses can take up to 3 hours.
Each train sets is capable of carrying up to 350 passengers. The passengers are waited upon by a team of dedicated on-board steward and stewardess.
KTM Komuter
KTM Komuter is a commuter rail service serving the Klang Valley and Northern part of Malaysia.
The central sector consists of the Batu Caves Line, Seremban/Pulau Sebang Line, Port Klang Line and Tanjung Malim Line. Since 2018, KTM Komuter also operates an airport train service - the linking KL Sentral to the Subang Airport. The fleet presently consists of Class 83 (three cars) and Class 92 (six cars).
The Northern Sector consists of two routes, namely the Butterworth/Bukit Mertajam-Padang Rengas route as well as the Butterworth-Padang Besar route.
KTM Komuter is a heavily utilised mode of transportation by commuters working in Kuala Lumpur as the service is an alternative for road travel, which is occasionally hampered by congestion. Virtually all KTM Komuter stops offer "Park & Ride" parking lots for those who drive to and from the station or halt.
KTM Kargo
KTM Kargo provides cargo conveyance services, with a network that spans almost the whole of the KTMB rail network. It is therefore highly accessible from seaports and Inland Container Terminal (ICT) as well as industrial centers.
Cargo services is a major contributor to KTM's overall revenue. It is set to further enhance its role with the rapidly growing demand for transportation of goods.
Currently, there are 45 cargo train services daily with 23 routes daily, of which about 70% are concentrated in the Northern sector. KTMB runs 37 freight train services daily of which about 80% were concentrated in the Northern sector.
The services include
Bukit Ketri - Kuang (Cement)
Padang Rengas - Batu Caves (Cement)
Padang Rengas - Gelang Patah (Cement)
Kanthan - Padang Jawa (Cement)
Tasek - Gelang Patah (Cement)
Prai - Padang Besar (South Thai Cargo)
Pelabuhan Klang - Prai (Landfeeder)
Pelabuhan Klang - Padang Besar (Landfeeder)
Pelabuhan Klang - Ipoh (Landfeeder)
Pelabuhan Klang - Pasir Gudang (Landfeeder)
North Port - West Port (Inter Terminal Transfer)
West Port - North Port (Inter Terminal Transfer)
PTP - Pasir Gudang (Inter Terminal Transfer)
Prai - Thungsong (Landbridge)
Prai - Surathani (Landbridge)
Prai - Padang Besa (Thai) - (Landbridge)
Pelabuhan Klang - Hatyai (Landbridge)
Sungai Way - Bangkok (Landbridge)
Prai - Sungai Buloh (Sugar)
Gurun - Butterworth (Urea)
Main commodities carried by rail comprise the following:
Maritime containers
Landbridge cargos
Cement
Sugar
Gypsum
Chemicals
There is a variety of wagons from a fleet of almost 3,000 to choose from, to cater to almost all types of cargo imaginable to be moved. Is it managed, by a group of customer-focused professionals who are in position to help with the customer's needs and requirements.
Generally, cargo is moved either in open or covered wagons. In the future, all covered wagons will be replaced with containers to allow for flexibility i.e. goods can be dismounted from the train and delivered directly to customers premises thus, living up to the concept of door-to-door delivery.
Non-rail subsidiaries
KTM operates several non-rail subsidiaries. Though considered as non-core businesses, KTMB has benefited from these two operations which is:
Multimodal Freight (MMF)
Multimodal Freight Sdn. Bhd., incorporated in 1988, was licensed as a Government approved Container Haulier in 1991, and went on to obtain the Government approved Multimodal Transport Operator (MTO) status in 1999. The company operates a fleet of 225 Prime Movers and 1,300 trailer of both 20-feet and 40-feet configurations. The fleet is deployed at all major seaports and the inland ports of Ipoh and Nilai.
KTM Distribution (KTMD)
Its core business is in the provision of express parcel distribution services to the commercial, industrial and administrative sectors and it operates within Malaysia and Singapore. Parcel distribution is carried out through its door-to-door service or from point to point through its station-to-station service. The company is also licensed by the Malaysian Communications & Multimedia Commission as a courier service provider, which enables it to carry letters and documents up to . This service has so far been monopoly of the Postal Department. The company owns an . freehold property in Sri Damansara, from which it earns warehouse rental income.
Modernisation
Since the corporatisation of KTMB, a programme of modernization has been underway. In 1989, it embarked on the double-tracking and electrification of the trunk line between Rawang and Seremban, the branch lines between Batu Junction and Sentul and between Kuala Lumpur and Port Klang, allowing KTM Komuter services to start running in 1995. Successive double tracking projects has allowed for expansion of electric traction to intercity services in the form of ETS. The entire West Coast line is scheduled to be fully electrified by 2022.
Completed projects
Rehabilitation of long meter gauge tracks from Paloh to Singapore and from Slim River to the main Seremban line in Malaysia (1988–1994) (US$70 million)
Electrification and double tracking of the Rawang-Seremban route (1990–1994) (US$62 million)
Electrification and double tracking of the Kuala Lumpur-Port Klang railway route, including spur lines to Subang Jaya and Sentul (1991–1994) (US$66 million)
Construction of railway bridges, road over bridges and underpasses along the Rawang-Kajang route (1991–1994) (US$6 million)
Construction of railway bridges, road over bridges and underpasses along the Kajang-Seremban route (1991–1994) (US$16 million)
Widening of railway tunnels near Seremban (1994–1995) (US$4 million)
Construction of railway culverts and box pushing along the Nilai-Seremban route (1994–1995) (US$4 million)
Track linking Port Klang to Pulau Indah (1997–1999) (US$4 million)
Construction of the Port of Tanjung Pelepas, a rail link in Johor (1999–2002) (US$121 million)
Track works at Kuala Lumpur Sentral station (1999–2001) (RM14.3 million)
Electrification and double tracking of the Rawang-Ipoh route (2000-2008) (RM2.57 billion)
Electrification and double tracking of the Sentul-Batu Caves route (2006-2010) (RM515 million)
Electrification and double tracking of the Seremban-Gemas route (2008-2013) (RM3.45 billion)
Electrification and double tracking of the Ipoh-Padang Besar route (2008-2014) (RM12.5 billion)
Electrification and double tracking of Subang Jaya-Subang Airport route (2013-2018) (RM521 million)
Current projects
Electrification and double tracking of Gemas-JB route (2018-2022)
Rehabilitation of tracks in the Klang Valley(KVDT), Phase 1 (2016-2021)
Rehabilitation of tracks in the Klang Valley (KVDT), Phase 2 (2019 - 2027)
Rehabilitation of tracks Gemas - Mentakab (Package A) (2016 - 2020)
Rehabilitation of tracks Jerantut - Gua Musang (Package B) (2016 - 2020)
Rehabilitation of tracks Gua Musang - Tumpat (Package C) (2016 -2020)
Proposed projects
Outer Ring Railway Service to connect all suburbs in the Klang Valley without going through the city center.
Construction of the Subang Jaya - Sungai Buloh Link which will act as a freight bypass to avoid freight trains from having to enter the Kuala Lumpur Komuter network. Works are divided into two phases; Phase 1 is from Subang Jaya - Subang Airport, Phase 2 is from Subang Airport - Sungai Buloh. As of now, Phase 1 had already been completed.
A new integrated station named Penang Sentral will be built which will connect KTM Railway, monorail, bus and ferry service in one building at Butterworth.
Extension of the ETS service to Hat Yai by 2021
Board of directors
Chairman: YBhg. Datuk Musa Hj Sheikh Fadzir
Chief Executive Officer (CEO): YBrs. Encik Mohd Rani Hisham Samsudin
Non-Independent, Non-Executive Director: YBrs. Encik Iszad Jeffri Ismail
Independent Non-Executive Director: YBrs. Encik Md Silmi Abd Rahman, YBhg.Datuk Seri Yew Teong Look
Heads of Strategic Business Units;
KTM Intercity: Puan Nurul Azha Mokmin
KTM Komuter: Encik Roshidi Yahaya
KTM Kargo: Encik Mohd Din Mohamad
Previous and current logos
See also
Rail transport in Malaysia
Prasarana Malaysia
MRT Corp
Sabah State Railway
Transport in Malaysia
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Keretapi Tanah Melayu Official Website
1885 establishments in British Malaya
Railway companies of Malaysia
Metre gauge railways in Malaysia
Malaysian brands
Government-owned companies of Malaysia
Minister of Finance (Incorporated) (Malaysia)
Privately held companies of Malaysia | [
0.07463186979293823,
0.5100297927856445,
-0.343500018119812,
-0.0451163612306118,
0.480356901884079,
0.412794291973114,
0.13345138728618622,
-0.019908977672457695,
-0.27553415298461914,
0.43602555990219116,
-0.3038625419139862,
0.4981291592121124,
-0.1608869880437851,
0.6102260947227478,
-0.31039178371429443,
0.535487949848175,
0.433271586894989,
-0.01829361356794834,
-0.14362049102783203,
-0.19833162426948547,
-0.08395320177078247,
0.052156757563352585,
1.168903112411499,
-0.06968261301517487,
0.34533146023750305,
-0.3227274417877197,
0.3078375458717346,
0.8192850947380066,
-0.5463969111442566,
0.025484178215265274,
-0.0035920555237680674,
-0.04599687084555626,
-0.2141849845647812,
0.6895650625228882,
0.22909344732761383,
-0.1518154740333557,
0.2630960941314697,
-0.45483583211898804,
-0.10555855929851532,
-0.3811061680316925,
-0.1758744716644287,
0.013791964389383793,
-0.18108747899532318,
0.3947419226169586,
0.507006049156189,
-0.6996890306472778,
-0.7575792074203491,
-0.4125734269618988,
-0.8207685947418213,
-0.1315496861934662,
-0.3442019820213318,
0.6332430839538574,
0.004514953587204218,
0.19633269309997559,
0.8095255494117737,
0.6481266021728516,
-0.6858403086662292,
-0.15251263976097107,
-0.20315037667751312,
-0.44704756140708923,
0.9598963856697083,
0.010301905684173107,
0.2581285834312439,
0.33005291223526,
1.0133020877838135,
0.1416337937116623,
-0.11934182792901993,
0.32631635665893555,
-0.4275851845741272,
0.2380567342042923,
-0.023828106001019478,
0.5087623596191406,
-0.14866039156913757,
0.3892105221748352,
-0.12406906485557556,
-0.248620867729187,
-0.39635705947875977,
-0.42485857009887695,
-0.16679255664348602,
0.19316959381103516,
-0.11763680726289749,
0.5317064523696899,
0.6100500226020813,
0.032247111201286316,
0.36680829524993896,
0.1814485639333725,
-0.1561901718378067,
-0.6282634139060974,
-0.267751008272171,
0.4810613989830017,
-0.3717564344406128,
0.34915244579315186,
0.16885466873645782,
-0.15372425317764282,
-0.833260715007782,
-0.7920618057250977,
-0.3938157260417938,
0.4298757314682007,
0.27207526564598083,
0.4760681390762329,
-0.046580612659454346,
-0.08477368205785751,
-0.059480078518390656,
0.1433185189962387,
-0.7131242156028748,
-0.48993825912475586,
-0.7463183999061584,
0.5037966966629028,
-0.05060780048370361,
-0.06111118942499161,
-0.7165704965591431,
-0.027832021936774254,
0.14314265549182892,
0.2914011478424072,
0.15442544221878052,
-0.20624776184558868,
0.12255281955003738,
-0.7958265542984009,
-0.18551704287528992,
-0.4769030213356018,
0.09110626578330994,
0.26504507660865784,
0.04105488955974579,
0.0628519281744957,
0.7318601012229919,
0.23682865500450134,
0.2689085900783539,
0.05907340347766876,
-0.31753280758857727,
0.6758534908294678,
1.1863898038864136,
0.6220911145210266,
-0.25761011242866516,
-0.2164846658706665,
-0.5847498774528503,
-0.08402593433856964,
0.34646958112716675,
0.8748846650123596,
0.5348973870277405,
0.10224317014217377,
-1.112445592880249,
0.08659454435110092,
-0.3361107409000397,
0.1590091735124588,
-0.036855150014162064,
-0.20148871839046478,
-0.31690895557403564,
0.2390364110469818,
-0.9843744039535522,
0.09667367488145828,
0.21361681818962097,
-0.14412903785705566,
-0.1341644823551178,
0.2987281084060669,
-0.6215828657150269,
0.25461459159851074,
0.9216665625572205,
-0.3810412287712097,
0.3258671164512634,
0.40289506316185,
-0.38918009400367737,
-0.2295953333377838,
-0.19918791949748993,
0.15230536460876465,
-0.08314289152622223,
0.25232815742492676,
0.22141478955745697,
0.3051052689552307,
1.029618501663208,
-0.00550075015053153,
0.017286349087953568,
-0.5951793193817139,
-0.05597914755344391,
-0.13674646615982056,
-0.45612332224845886,
-0.6724978685379028,
0.1773795485496521,
0.32416585087776184,
-0.08037135004997253,
-0.4494408965110779,
-0.7079034447669983,
0.8603996634483337,
0.02441907860338688,
0.0791105255484581,
-0.2627336084842682,
-0.4121779799461365,
0.14446419477462769,
-0.162262961268425,
-0.5361130237579346,
-0.47610777616500854,
-0.3985644280910492,
-0.7794871926307678,
0.24176953732967377,
-0.5032789707183838,
0.642928957939148,
0.2966594994068146,
-0.45979276299476624,
1.2026686668395996,
-0.4488339424133301,
0.36292001605033875,
0.5114404559135437,
0.2977096438407898,
0.018016552552580833,
-0.5590936541557312,
-0.7504007816314697,
0.5041399002075195,
0.6544104814529419,
0.7297109961509705,
0.3578287661075592,
0.701716423034668,
0.16591478884220123,
-0.7779780626296997,
-0.6018754243850708,
-0.5113351345062256,
0.47127607464790344,
-0.9230147004127502,
-0.051925502717494965,
-0.10292980819940567,
0.24378685653209686,
0.1014331504702568,
0.8741930723190308,
0.07589822262525558,
-0.734515905380249,
0.6640011072158813,
-0.030828259885311127,
0.49230384826660156,
-0.41090115904808044,
0.14597271382808685,
0.08822200447320938,
0.20901760458946228,
0.38662874698638916,
-0.3277513086795807,
-0.03080451488494873,
0.04263797402381897,
-0.15025605261325836,
-0.008334874175488949,
-0.801972508430481,
-0.5298290848731995,
0.3913663923740387,
-0.256137877702713,
0.2724209427833557,
-0.07332606613636017,
-0.7528257369995117,
0.12966611981391907,
0.6882128119468689,
-0.050520673394203186,
-0.9146432280540466,
-0.6585594415664673,
-0.4499584436416626,
-0.053186532109975815,
0.17426544427871704,
0.5384742617607117,
0.22341282665729523,
-0.09673535823822021,
0.21528811752796173,
-0.12975537776947021,
-0.6268113851547241,
-0.5528409481048584,
-0.13875670731067657,
-0.08643480390310287,
-0.28185921907424927,
-0.016360880807042122,
0.45262596011161804,
0.44616737961769104,
-0.18734405934810638,
-0.25930696725845337,
-0.039951588958501816,
-0.04885812848806381,
-0.006242888048291206,
0.5753713250160217,
0.662524402141571,
-0.057550814002752304,
-0.7221478223800659,
0.0947176143527031,
0.28931084275245667,
-0.12738929688930511,
-0.2780700623989105,
0.4331245422363281,
-0.8360886573791504,
-0.2891741394996643,
0.2924851179122925,
0.4806290566921234,
0.6982234716415405,
-0.7563662528991699,
0.6197137236595154,
0.3316703140735626,
-0.17650777101516724,
-0.026618443429470062,
-0.045934632420539856,
0.09583067148923874,
-0.3731059730052948,
-0.3426949977874756,
-0.6662420034408569,
-0.04866299778223038,
0.246930792927742,
-0.287761390209198,
-0.28536471724510193,
0.07353143393993378,
0.5979949831962585,
-0.5918224453926086,
-0.44819292426109314,
-0.20839093625545502,
-0.29893729090690613,
0.08548431098461151,
0.29217615723609924,
0.20819883048534393,
-0.27949708700180054,
-0.19385826587677002,
-5.420431613922119,
0.08318385481834412,
-0.1503651887178421,
-0.4845893979072571,
0.8973455429077148,
0.14972138404846191,
0.28610071539878845,
-0.24584180116653442,
0.2654469311237335,
-0.08883024007081985,
0.25329428911209106,
-0.21629349887371063,
0.12881019711494446,
-0.1956477016210556,
-0.35022127628326416,
0.3684192895889282,
0.5291070938110352,
0.4883890151977539,
0.748087465763092,
-0.3065956234931946,
0.33330902457237244,
-0.2037355899810791,
0.10290748625993729,
0.5386088490486145,
0.3631442189216614,
0.13347257673740387,
-0.23053263127803802,
0.0062215388752520084,
-0.85077965259552,
0.0716412365436554,
0.019221307709813118,
-0.5315579771995544,
0.08951941877603531,
-0.08442004770040512,
0.1712770164012909,
-0.7619109749794006,
0.6539864540100098,
0.1726958304643631,
0.4599408805370331,
-0.6609596610069275,
-0.45657458901405334,
0.14437469840049744,
0.06494647264480591,
-0.710700511932373,
0.2450774908065796,
-0.42366406321525574,
-0.49618664383888245,
0.1995212733745575,
-0.22725613415241241,
1.1557496786117554,
0.22113214433193207,
0.3954432010650635,
0.651472806930542,
-0.07914020121097565,
0.15116086602210999,
-0.16097520291805267,
-0.3992607593536377,
-0.6702298521995544,
-0.037715181708335876,
0.5694175958633423,
0.7685834765434265,
0.15309599041938782,
-0.34786248207092285,
-0.6627911329269409,
-0.18550993502140045,
-0.3624420464038849,
-0.33693134784698486,
-0.3928416073322296,
0.6535710692405701,
-0.12000580877065659,
-1.134620189666748,
-0.16926677525043488,
-0.01027659885585308,
-0.6660492420196533,
0.2712315022945404,
-0.5138766765594482,
-0.4891565442085266,
0.7030062079429626,
0.23543128371238708,
-0.04967304691672325,
-0.1418556123971939,
-0.3224727511405945,
-0.14402034878730774,
0.13560201227664948,
0.2658567726612091,
-1.0749595165252686,
-0.42925548553466797,
0.28613319993019104,
0.16737185418605804,
-0.480256587266922,
0.168544739484787,
-0.602482795715332,
0.2742646038532257,
0.20848485827445984,
-0.10529036819934845,
0.3013467490673065,
0.05031490698456764,
0.6295556426048279,
0.29743683338165283,
-0.8309852480888367,
0.1263687163591385,
-0.043268345296382904,
-0.5919942855834961,
0.12424083054065704,
0.06219622120261192,
-0.8826550841331482,
-0.16579148173332214,
-0.22876602411270142,
0.1503211259841919,
-0.1887574940919876,
-0.2608995735645294,
-0.2689032554626465,
-0.2984458804130554,
0.00016783797764219344,
0.19628570973873138,
0.1245741993188858,
-0.4063020348548889,
0.5298760533332825,
0.2634750306606293,
-0.0427732914686203,
0.1667420119047165,
0.21839597821235657,
0.3114926218986511,
-0.12210133671760559,
0.3541587293148041,
-0.13161204755306244,
-0.1834416687488556,
0.8304161429405212,
0.16110895574092865,
-0.2501298189163208,
0.3095322549343109,
0.13200758397579193,
0.40765613317489624,
-0.15160486102104187,
-0.5039695501327515,
-0.5048283338546753,
-0.24034176766872406,
-0.11343559622764587,
-0.346790611743927,
0.09703079611063004,
-0.3646294176578522,
-0.3671676218509674,
-0.12661154568195343,
-0.12027464061975479,
0.5910286903381348,
0.07174940407276154,
0.0949971079826355,
-0.24454879760742188,
-0.8389625549316406,
-0.11226018518209457,
-0.18265146017074585,
-0.7733504772186279,
0.6527326703071594,
-0.5567249655723572,
0.01077198050916195,
-0.4818802773952484,
0.08403347432613373,
0.6844935417175293,
0.09963606297969818,
-0.3253636360168457,
0.3171451687812805,
-0.4623855650424957,
-0.28112849593162537,
-0.006478733383119106,
0.022733410820364952,
-0.20938178896903992,
-0.04830062389373779,
-0.012538250535726547,
0.036335039883852005,
0.676136314868927,
0.21669331192970276,
-0.11334377527236938,
-0.6747795343399048,
0.10185123980045319,
0.3917951285839081,
-0.05962551385164261,
-0.672726035118103,
0.11604487895965576,
-0.032301757484674454,
0.28055429458618164,
-0.37411171197891235,
0.029479892924427986,
0.11901912838220596,
0.5589878559112549,
0.2846131920814514,
-0.1869281530380249,
-0.1293393224477768,
-0.25795796513557434,
-0.2071370631456375,
-0.40001174807548523,
0.9484902620315552,
0.11809363216161728,
0.477461576461792,
0.003159184940159321,
0.35487475991249084,
-0.5589599609375,
-0.30337056517601013,
1.5318539142608643,
0.2996540069580078,
-0.3825225532054901,
0.25746580958366394,
0.3814462721347809,
0.04071424528956413,
0.08666706830263138,
0.7660115957260132,
-0.46450939774513245,
0.3431457579135895,
-0.30400004982948303,
-0.4599694311618805,
0.1420830339193344,
-0.5851234793663025,
-0.3754185438156128,
0.3626878559589386,
0.5060633420944214,
-0.8557075262069702,
-0.5005558729171753,
0.6230712532997131,
-0.2946009039878845,
0.08383270353078842,
-0.48736923933029175,
-0.06739213317632675,
-0.04491841793060303,
-0.4122185707092285,
0.004807166289538145,
-1.015999674797058,
0.34201812744140625,
0.23668165504932404,
-0.3838634788990021,
-0.1701877862215042,
-0.7475401163101196,
0.0008577857515774667,
-0.9530874490737915,
0.4288433790206909,
0.8136402368545532,
0.22639472782611847,
0.6843067407608032,
0.022253451868891716,
0.042732737958431244,
0.22456234693527222,
0.3201175034046173,
-0.032392729073762894,
0.6614717841148376,
0.03501804172992706,
-1.2391326427459717,
-0.5049753189086914,
0.5088995099067688,
0.3320457339286804,
-0.5168222188949585,
-0.6260191202163696,
0.4057033360004425,
0.6000562906265259,
0.15058855712413788,
-0.9964586496353149,
-0.14001180231571198,
0.7503356337547302,
-0.27470123767852783,
-0.3089000880718231,
0.12891806662082672,
0.13274498283863068,
-0.20622490346431732,
-0.3314599096775055,
-0.16107718646526337,
-0.3874579966068268,
-0.07962986081838608,
0.18084849417209625,
-0.11197351664304733,
-0.5894114375114441,
-0.5081807971000671,
0.5399167537689209,
-0.47686275839805603,
-0.5022720694541931,
-0.7253466248512268,
0.4539977014064789,
-0.43669790029525757,
0.06340369582176208,
-0.44260433316230774,
0.45340195298194885,
-0.7910258769989014,
0.08709291368722916,
0.18308845162391663,
-0.26526179909706116,
-0.220469132065773,
-0.2919195294380188,
0.06543944776058197,
0.14468024671077728,
-1.14181649684906,
-0.10803018510341644,
0.08025463670492172,
-0.6103453040122986,
0.21594879031181335,
0.17655424773693085,
0.17899255454540253,
-0.4190523028373718,
0.3352399468421936,
-0.3838645815849304,
0.15777014195919037,
0.19628271460533142,
0.8106842637062073,
0.33607110381126404,
0.3767818510532379,
-0.23170460760593414,
0.5740199089050293,
0.17575836181640625,
0.4968410134315491,
0.07393244653940201,
0.43734025955200195,
0.047919146716594696,
-0.19699862599372864,
0.6946031451225281,
0.32001516222953796,
0.41772839426994324,
0.13697966933250427,
0.006797343026846647,
0.7951930165290833,
0.09253767132759094,
-0.6236698627471924,
0.7643097043037415,
-0.6828584671020508,
0.1239844411611557,
0.7645735144615173,
0.02520996332168579,
-0.3041498064994812,
0.35177290439605713,
0.41650521755218506,
-0.38651466369628906,
0.4965924024581909,
-0.29168376326560974,
-0.6702390313148499,
0.37851542234420776,
0.49864473938941956,
0.7621917128562927,
0.20230604708194733,
-0.6099410653114319,
-0.2530948221683502,
-0.020332908257842064,
-0.14128445088863373,
-0.3140139877796173,
0.2689395546913147,
0.06397496908903122,
0.8092007040977478,
0.35869500041007996,
0.03734423592686653,
-0.49134859442710876,
-0.515043318271637,
0.5985754728317261,
0.9848043322563171,
0.08647885918617249,
0.10228870809078217,
0.2786070704460144,
0.6654431819915771,
0.30210790038108826,
0.41511523723602295,
-0.3214324414730072,
-0.29436883330345154,
0.10478143393993378,
0.006196984089910984,
-0.05485748499631882,
0.03478188067674637,
0.3700754940509796,
0.355297327041626,
0.6163041591644287,
0.23517560958862305,
0.2464432269334793,
0.013081119395792484,
-0.2379854917526245,
-0.7417125105857849,
-0.1301591545343399,
-0.6131864190101624,
0.39737725257873535,
0.36402642726898193,
0.19012926518917084,
0.31842556595802307,
-0.6249951720237732,
0.2096673846244812,
0.12123224884271622,
0.4801216423511505,
-0.10759038478136063,
0.24536475539207458,
0.11850925534963608,
0.10088831186294556,
-0.460504412651062,
-0.14282767474651337,
0.09555903822183609,
-0.29293593764305115,
-0.04439205303788185,
0.3502695560455322,
-0.022550446912646294,
0.42906031012535095,
-0.7364006638526917,
0.17911992967128754,
0.07277155667543411,
-0.1470392644405365,
-0.12702958285808563,
0.15967345237731934,
-0.6511900424957275,
-0.1293330043554306,
-0.4025299847126007,
0.2860710918903351,
0.10668294131755829,
-0.6344423294067383,
-0.07506877928972244,
0.7862598299980164,
0.44600817561149597,
0.577050507068634,
0.061044156551361084,
0.3937937617301941,
-0.605351984500885,
0.7193651795387268,
-0.47498780488967896,
-0.23066817224025726,
-0.058549124747514725,
0.7938469052314758,
-0.11047196388244629,
0.07701791077852249,
-0.2905213236808777,
0.5096909403800964,
0.19508096575737,
-0.34457600116729736,
0.07577256113290787,
-0.037815600633621216,
0.2265443205833435,
-0.6417953968048096,
0.18557506799697876,
0.29783517122268677,
-0.013613281771540642,
-0.42586636543273926,
0.36703625321388245,
0.36292150616645813,
-0.633130669593811,
0.23963047564029694,
0.12711162865161896,
-0.16202931106090546,
-0.1344269961118698,
-0.27019450068473816,
-0.9172816276550293,
0.07820732891559601,
-0.14547137916088104,
0.05714594945311546,
0.08723901212215424,
-0.12337236851453781,
0.10966895520687103,
-0.044571079313755035,
1.0551310777664185,
0.15437334775924683,
0.14521853625774384,
-0.7172257304191589,
-0.05973402038216591,
0.19470945000648499,
-1.3512725830078125,
0.5729953646659851,
0.2821477949619293,
-0.4252515733242035,
0.5521242022514343,
-0.003792871255427599,
0.46898168325424194,
-0.2722984552383423,
-0.028642922639846802,
-0.13428953289985657,
0.1943853497505188,
-0.35651546716690063
] |
247849 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylon%20of%20Athens | Cylon of Athens | Cylon (Greek: Κύλων Kylon) was an Athenian associated with the first reliably dated event in Athenian history, the Cylonian Affair, an attempted seizure of power in the city.
Cylon, one of the Athenian nobles and a previous victor of the Olympic Games, attempted a coup in 632 BC with support from Megara, where his father-in-law, Theagenes, was tyrant. The oracle at Delphi had advised him to seize Athens during a festival of Zeus, which Cylon understood to mean the Olympics. However, the coup was opposed, and Cylon and his supporters took refuge in Athena's temple on the Acropolis. Cylon and his brother escaped, but his followers were cornered by Athens' nine archons. According to Plutarch and Thucydides (1.126), they were persuaded by the archons to leave the temple and stand trial after being assured that their lives would be spared.
In an effort to ensure their safety, the accused tied a rope to the temple's statue and went to the trial. On the way, the rope (again, according to Plutarch) broke of its own accord. The Athenian archons, led by Megacles, took this as the goddess's repudiation of her suppliants and proceeded to stone them to death (on the other hand, Herodotus, 5.71, and Thucydides, 1.126, do not mention this aspect of the story, stating that Cylon's followers were simply killed after being convinced that they would not be harmed). Most likely, the story found in Plutarch is a later invention.
Cylonian curse
Megacles and his genos, the Alcmaeonidae, were exiled from the city for violating the laws against killing suppliants. The Alcmaeonidae were cursed with a miasma ("stain" or "pollution"), which was inherited by later generations, even after the genos retook control of Athens. Thucydides cited that aside from the nine archons and their descendants, one unidentified family was also included in the curse. Athens was purified from it by Epimenides of Phaestus. This Cretan seer was known as a close associate of Solon and a hermit who lived in a cave of Zeus.
What would later be referred to as the Cylonian curse () was used by the Spartans as a political tool to expel the families who opposed their ally Isagoras. These families, led by Cleisthenes, were descended from the families accursed for slaying the followers of Cylon.
In April 2016, two mass graves containing 80 bodies, some shackled, were found in Palaio Faliro, a suburb of Athens. The skeletons date from the third quarter of the seventh century BC, and it has been suggested that they were the supporters of Cylon killed in the aftermath of his attempted coup.
References
632 BC deaths
7th-century BC Athenians
Ancient Olympic competitors
Government of ancient Athens
Archaic Athens
Year of birth unknown | [
-0.14481443166732788,
-0.24982991814613342,
-0.7884172797203064,
0.5595322847366333,
-0.2124948799610138,
0.556926965713501,
-0.297750860452652,
0.17454324662685394,
-0.6796648502349854,
-0.06587629020214081,
-0.27838972210884094,
0.25065916776657104,
-0.40758994221687317,
0.2665535509586334,
-0.5065526962280273,
0.16452844440937042,
0.443565309047699,
0.21291150152683258,
0.24446003139019012,
-0.14293761551380157,
0.11218861490488052,
0.38579821586608887,
0.1653585582971573,
-0.15018582344055176,
-0.19076019525527954,
-0.21590730547904968,
-0.06876539438962936,
-0.10186196863651276,
0.1498865932226181,
-0.17321261763572693,
0.13625043630599976,
0.3295372724533081,
-0.14026354253292084,
-0.48188847303390503,
-0.30130091309547424,
0.0908384695649147,
0.0017038530204445124,
0.004432040266692638,
-0.15823623538017273,
-0.34673967957496643,
0.08491824567317963,
-0.03238997235894203,
0.5339229106903076,
0.04451986402273178,
-0.5237864851951599,
-0.2045372575521469,
-1.5923107862472534,
0.3051866292953491,
-0.37374114990234375,
-0.10520032793283463,
-0.7607251405715942,
0.18577414751052856,
-0.556108832359314,
0.3749607503414154,
0.010934805497527122,
0.648274302482605,
-0.9054940342903137,
-0.06838952004909515,
0.6106824278831482,
-0.07119044661521912,
0.5559192299842834,
0.2653350532054901,
0.25876837968826294,
0.15880730748176575,
0.3851318061351776,
0.20451882481575012,
0.34552863240242004,
0.7727706432342529,
-0.12806382775306702,
-0.016762953251600266,
-0.3897806704044342,
0.4864162504673004,
-0.49267062544822693,
0.3648657500743866,
-0.29641926288604736,
-0.2884752154350281,
0.18457625806331635,
-0.4254413843154907,
0.3007095754146576,
0.2683016061782837,
-0.28968381881713867,
0.14267772436141968,
0.30402499437332153,
0.2038247436285019,
-0.13353288173675537,
-0.2813248634338379,
-0.7187108397483826,
0.1947977989912033,
-0.6490290760993958,
0.0004664967709686607,
0.18083781003952026,
-0.07425715774297714,
1.1556963920593262,
-0.1835889369249344,
-0.7779833078384399,
0.3668992817401886,
-0.3209186792373657,
0.20812945067882538,
-0.03368484601378441,
0.1130426675081253,
-0.19863836467266083,
0.2515558898448944,
-0.8061063289642334,
-0.1413707137107849,
-0.35859647393226624,
0.0609363429248333,
0.1410110741853714,
-0.21855854988098145,
-0.11914678663015366,
-0.011098234914243221,
-0.42510688304901123,
0.24129021167755127,
-0.3748793303966522,
-0.07796649634838104,
-0.5458905100822449,
-0.1853160262107849,
-0.196566641330719,
0.08806911110877991,
-0.15337687730789185,
-0.35470858216285706,
-0.0405280739068985,
0.6768488883972168,
-0.3340595066547394,
0.04075264558196068,
-0.04768503084778786,
-0.3327527642250061,
0.5748283863067627,
0.5662431120872498,
-0.20054051280021667,
0.22195950150489807,
-0.19238126277923584,
0.7130323648452759,
-0.6480487585067749,
-0.17518126964569092,
0.30333513021469116,
0.04935690760612488,
-0.08748219162225723,
0.3843253254890442,
0.03851975128054619,
0.3484653830528259,
-0.3469596803188324,
-0.36781176924705505,
-0.418235182762146,
0.8100330233573914,
-0.4141016900539398,
-0.44101768732070923,
0.5731827020645142,
0.242680624127388,
0.10015033930540085,
-0.054563794285058975,
0.12360062450170517,
0.2578599750995636,
-0.05974448844790459,
0.4747943580150604,
-0.13318605720996857,
0.0508393757045269,
0.5085620880126953,
-0.13701097667217255,
0.2209557741880417,
0.5894095301628113,
0.15233232080936432,
-0.4286304712295532,
-0.08844832330942154,
-0.04367034137248993,
0.3201107680797577,
0.06578101962804794,
0.5981875061988831,
-0.19875770807266235,
0.16570360958576202,
-0.24389390647411346,
-0.18768979609012604,
-0.1595468372106552,
0.03314342349767685,
0.46626928448677063,
-0.2354886531829834,
0.3677766025066376,
0.6317129731178284,
0.23281747102737427,
-0.0819440707564354,
-0.6201246380805969,
-0.8545709252357483,
-0.3881314694881439,
-0.31397056579589844,
-0.25289303064346313,
0.5472045540809631,
0.4406745433807373,
-0.025324475020170212,
-0.22729262709617615,
-0.11210601776838303,
-0.6875637769699097,
0.0013319934951141477,
-0.3428303897380829,
0.05703088268637657,
-0.4983430802822113,
1.44837486743927,
0.11916341632604599,
-0.8322983980178833,
-0.03362336382269859,
0.04466884955763817,
0.3469041585922241,
-0.011723088100552559,
-0.3412664234638214,
0.04706321656703949,
0.10042192786931992,
0.07097607851028442,
-0.16190901398658752,
-0.25437116622924805,
0.46533772349357605,
0.36629465222358704,
0.6254091262817383,
-0.037809014320373535,
-0.5654950737953186,
0.30162209272384644,
-0.32725977897644043,
0.17608970403671265,
0.009523974731564522,
-0.5281946063041687,
0.3455458879470825,
-0.2013935148715973,
0.003231197129935026,
0.4228331744670868,
-0.7652221322059631,
-0.23212812840938568,
0.19558140635490417,
0.088224858045578,
0.39131614565849304,
0.08361708372831345,
0.0002706168161239475,
-0.6020179390907288,
-0.3566376566886902,
-0.5886715054512024,
-0.05039610341191292,
0.22366541624069214,
-0.6352405548095703,
0.23201121389865875,
-0.22459375858306885,
-0.23621322214603424,
-0.3893149495124817,
0.3769136667251587,
-0.45072564482688904,
0.20980824530124664,
-0.08522402495145798,
-0.33598592877388,
0.8184391856193542,
0.4579688012599945,
0.48430827260017395,
-0.09317006915807724,
-0.5141909122467041,
-0.030028387904167175,
-0.2914940118789673,
-0.4668545126914978,
0.21724332869052887,
0.3300017714500427,
-0.5299211740493774,
0.5297558903694153,
-0.6380344033241272,
0.4782165288925171,
-0.25698283314704895,
-0.1308484673500061,
-0.49634331464767456,
-0.45449328422546387,
-0.05122523754835129,
-0.10922003537416458,
0.18130172789096832,
0.7411814332008362,
0.03265485540032387,
0.15792225301265717,
-0.22028934955596924,
0.07994268089532852,
0.003580582793802023,
0.5794992446899414,
-0.3265429437160492,
-0.3833816647529602,
0.2952284514904022,
0.01909436471760273,
-0.26751306653022766,
-0.6716008186340332,
0.004274946171790361,
-0.1402086317539215,
-0.7647767066955566,
0.07282556593418121,
0.5114883780479431,
-0.7059342861175537,
-0.30101943016052246,
0.14480429887771606,
0.28077805042266846,
-0.016141749918460846,
-0.17084696888923645,
0.4111592173576355,
-0.6170324087142944,
0.071587473154068,
-0.6645072102546692,
-0.08024375885725021,
0.16530054807662964,
0.5260052680969238,
0.5940713286399841,
-0.6259305477142334,
0.17603400349617004,
0.06356841325759888,
-0.3738413155078888,
-0.7120838165283203,
0.6338141560554504,
-0.42760229110717773,
0.09918851405382156,
0.8597272634506226,
-0.4525831639766693,
0.12166284769773483,
0.6112345457077026,
-5.812479019165039,
0.1497969627380371,
-0.010313955135643482,
0.03539544716477394,
-0.05767902359366417,
0.15018205344676971,
-0.051861297339200974,
0.10707269608974457,
0.45860517024993896,
-0.03441641479730606,
0.18363939225673676,
-0.2695707380771637,
-0.31338468194007874,
0.8283405900001526,
0.5069348216056824,
0.4004458785057068,
0.2053450495004654,
-0.027495672926306725,
-0.19550758600234985,
-0.21822726726531982,
0.40424808859825134,
0.36631420254707336,
-0.2785830497741699,
0.7793151140213013,
-0.07967837154865265,
-0.033124133944511414,
0.2031017243862152,
-0.20187920331954956,
-0.7879981398582458,
-0.2984144687652588,
-0.20171616971492767,
-0.04271101579070091,
0.4499136507511139,
-0.10983987897634506,
0.09557046741247177,
-0.16672079265117645,
0.4989297091960907,
0.10753804445266724,
-0.682389497756958,
-0.22254833579063416,
-0.48621249198913574,
0.17205959558486938,
-0.34766116738319397,
0.41244107484817505,
0.5256963968276978,
-0.404802531003952,
-0.11724428087472916,
0.15105274319648743,
-0.5107245445251465,
0.42607131600379944,
0.006816660054028034,
0.12782594561576843,
0.3370407223701477,
0.12148556858301163,
-0.21194392442703247,
0.49827301502227783,
0.37982916831970215,
0.2082703411579132,
-0.23037198185920715,
0.4483380913734436,
0.5342669486999512,
-0.07388794422149658,
-0.046010587364435196,
-0.5334583520889282,
0.3860940933227539,
-0.7165968418121338,
-0.036129146814346313,
0.05038779228925705,
-0.2737414538860321,
0.6656054258346558,
-0.1027061864733696,
0.7818788886070251,
0.21734502911567688,
-1.004206657409668,
0.22393403947353363,
0.15659624338150024,
-0.5625417232513428,
0.09944738447666168,
0.26889568567276,
-0.07006455957889557,
-0.6800000071525574,
-0.2893081307411194,
0.3089984655380249,
0.44366011023521423,
0.00591704249382019,
-0.11741279065608978,
0.13199293613433838,
0.31877651810646057,
0.22347627580165863,
0.08820568770170212,
0.6969627141952515,
-0.49125388264656067,
0.05750297009944916,
0.8270906209945679,
-0.16544024646282196,
0.733859121799469,
-0.7324639558792114,
0.09670455753803253,
1.0791126489639282,
0.38766077160835266,
-0.2710345685482025,
0.12450166791677475,
-0.6356553435325623,
0.14646029472351074,
-0.06816387176513672,
-0.4915129244327545,
-0.46485498547554016,
-0.4119431972503662,
0.2863400876522064,
-0.5289456844329834,
0.417925626039505,
0.22647735476493835,
-0.34082385897636414,
-0.28107333183288574,
0.6559571623802185,
-0.5037952661514282,
0.3724845349788666,
0.8217288851737976,
0.5771099925041199,
0.1060800701379776,
-0.2072882354259491,
0.7258342504501343,
0.38062146306037903,
-0.2037879228591919,
-1.1644113063812256,
-0.2568773329257965,
-0.012164510786533356,
0.24500881135463715,
-0.06585779041051865,
0.19701187312602997,
0.17890861630439758,
-0.2059383988380432,
-0.015904074534773827,
0.34259968996047974,
0.0030922729056328535,
-0.5078089237213135,
0.12613104283809662,
-0.33543068170547485,
-0.4857434034347534,
-0.04755014926195145,
-0.4100707173347473,
-0.30191370844841003,
-0.2558632791042328,
0.21499361097812653,
0.263687402009964,
-0.028494270518422127,
-0.022334156557917595,
0.5016162991523743,
-0.22943241894245148,
0.614763081073761,
-0.28797420859336853,
-0.45109763741493225,
0.8589563369750977,
-0.2653975486755371,
-0.28336265683174133,
0.025445060804486275,
0.21900159120559692,
0.14362861216068268,
-0.2760525643825531,
0.1130996122956276,
-0.23553191125392914,
-0.565847635269165,
-0.8206380009651184,
-0.34548160433769226,
0.5100837349891663,
-0.059182193130254745,
-0.9680544137954712,
-0.5799946188926697,
0.3446640372276306,
0.41602566838264465,
0.19740243256092072,
-0.14965224266052246,
-0.4859502613544464,
0.04258143901824951,
0.22140951454639435,
-0.3531612455844879,
-0.038299571722745895,
0.21264521777629852,
-0.4472062885761261,
-0.0023954242933541536,
0.16114133596420288,
-0.0704164132475853,
-0.28645962476730347,
-0.1660686880350113,
0.6700058579444885,
-0.11196500062942505,
-0.5590029358863831,
-0.4411976933479309,
-0.3272278606891632,
-0.33105921745300293,
0.14760097861289978,
0.17026874423027039,
-0.6002172827720642,
0.12288155406713486,
0.47491714358329773,
-0.42232662439346313,
-0.03404269367456436,
0.21013180911540985,
0.0003209116985090077,
-0.2561529576778412,
-0.353629469871521,
0.17873916029930115,
-0.15011857450008392,
0.059217922389507294,
-0.1447097212076187,
-0.7403861880302429,
1.2965039014816284,
0.13991090655326843,
-0.1706702560186386,
0.31868842244148254,
-0.8955287337303162,
-0.5644745230674744,
-0.42911019921302795,
0.07628681510686874,
-0.4789388179779053,
-0.048162318766117096,
-0.0708954781293869,
-0.04153582826256752,
-0.3509548306465149,
-0.6320909857749939,
-0.02636384777724743,
-0.20009276270866394,
-0.06435446441173553,
-0.33636727929115295,
-0.3019532859325409,
0.3460767865180969,
0.39883747696876526,
-0.12529507279396057,
0.5721149444580078,
-0.30351021885871887,
0.2004556804895401,
0.5526425242424011,
0.13533389568328857,
-0.036737389862537384,
-0.44896817207336426,
-0.49196165800094604,
0.5027936697006226,
-0.1943741738796234,
-0.45116791129112244,
0.4340810179710388,
0.42363807559013367,
0.7187559008598328,
-0.210226908326149,
0.44872593879699707,
0.17652557790279388,
0.20790548622608185,
0.8492925763130188,
0.5469550490379333,
-0.07685813307762146,
-0.09958671033382416,
0.19792601466178894,
-0.05166810750961304,
-0.41545042395591736,
-0.7896649837493896,
0.6839720010757446,
-0.7348175644874573,
0.4328089654445648,
0.05090152472257614,
0.3320794105529785,
-0.24349381029605865,
-0.23558497428894043,
-0.1313670128583908,
-0.2944281995296478,
0.16034579277038574,
-0.25592052936553955,
0.6783280968666077,
0.007570881396532059,
-0.38063958287239075,
0.4483538568019867,
-0.6035995483398438,
-0.196524977684021,
-0.7500582933425903,
0.4003697335720062,
0.3597510755062103,
0.02876860648393631,
-0.032769542187452316,
-0.03625493124127388,
-0.2550947666168213,
0.19783943891525269,
0.12559518218040466,
-0.7253382205963135,
-0.03989611938595772,
0.13640731573104858,
0.008630041033029556,
0.2153734415769577,
-0.6833143830299377,
-0.48251062631607056,
0.15374664962291718,
0.30578210949897766,
0.039008744060993195,
-0.0062004150822758675,
0.16860578954219818,
0.27832597494125366,
0.06544241309165955,
-0.2309371680021286,
-0.12361765652894974,
-0.516638457775116,
-0.1299375295639038,
0.00015014104428701103,
0.3249596655368805,
-1.0186091661453247,
-0.03190217539668083,
0.03822193294763565,
-0.14267458021640778,
0.11900955438613892,
0.47963592410087585,
0.032481949776411057,
0.01935793273150921,
-0.3335215747356415,
0.41248971223831177,
0.004795153625309467,
-0.5025633573532104,
0.3359777331352234,
-0.1425066888332367,
-0.8479800224304199,
-0.17001017928123474,
0.9790180921554565,
-0.2067391276359558,
0.2490697056055069,
0.16412129998207092,
0.24035204946994781,
-0.03610506281256676,
0.17531853914260864,
0.39743226766586304,
0.36904144287109375,
0.157664492726326,
-0.12099809944629669,
0.5268570780754089,
0.23330625891685486,
0.4238586127758026,
0.6407430171966553,
0.033986788243055344,
-1.0132343769073486,
0.5529375672340393,
-0.15626531839370728,
-0.26207807660102844,
-0.02439081482589245,
-0.6385554075241089,
-0.04734402149915695,
0.616818904876709,
0.5769959688186646,
0.43247896432876587,
-0.07136248052120209,
-0.11024466902017593,
-0.2908956706523895,
0.8982028365135193,
-0.09450910240411758,
-0.12795695662498474,
-0.11880238354206085,
-0.0641281008720398,
0.5961050987243652,
0.11853119730949402,
0.03499513864517212,
-0.8431941866874695,
-0.027868522331118584,
0.3426018953323364,
-0.09814104437828064,
0.2803328037261963,
0.00046132333227433264,
0.23156629502773285,
0.2735438942909241,
-0.0943678542971611,
0.7971537709236145,
0.03126781806349754,
-0.5317882895469666,
0.5270951986312866,
0.053762197494506836,
-0.3805173933506012,
-0.29676371812820435,
-0.10213382542133331,
0.39687755703926086,
0.009360435418784618,
-0.09556877613067627,
-0.3738768696784973,
-0.2487184852361679,
0.29927101731300354,
0.44243207573890686,
0.3673205077648163,
0.21689535677433014,
-0.2267795354127884,
-0.010516325943171978,
0.3378344178199768,
-0.5790122747421265,
-0.15287667512893677,
-0.053696565330028534,
0.43795812129974365,
0.7599886655807495,
0.17654193937778473,
-0.7083957195281982,
0.032703328877687454,
-0.25056934356689453,
-0.3908141851425171,
0.08379322290420532,
0.39880698919296265,
-0.5207920074462891,
0.18710628151893616,
-0.19680044054985046,
0.5364914536476135,
0.01714427024126053,
-0.02433760091662407,
0.4324308931827545,
-0.6008051037788391,
-0.14422689378261566,
0.25101515650749207,
0.2396523505449295,
0.5835803747177124,
-0.4195708632469177,
-0.2998683750629425,
-0.9144023060798645,
0.1257297843694687,
0.18099536001682281,
0.5442834496498108,
0.2928970754146576,
0.5942090153694153,
-0.04425544664263725,
0.155653178691864,
0.4922913610935211,
-0.047672394663095474,
-0.14099222421646118,
-0.10671217739582062,
-0.2962380647659302,
0.2320810854434967,
0.48108989000320435,
-0.07617400586605072,
-0.08304645866155624,
-0.05293984338641167,
0.37573927640914917,
0.1283605545759201,
-0.10280166566371918,
0.5383518934249878,
-0.1704370379447937,
-0.18519951403141022,
-0.5214976668357849,
-0.5614739060401917,
-0.2276620864868164,
0.08683959394693375,
0.365030974149704,
0.06966973841190338,
0.06481696665287018,
-0.3036262094974518,
0.387475848197937,
0.3011789917945862,
0.5141834020614624,
0.09968770295381546,
0.46088266372680664,
0.06798161566257477,
-0.7795141935348511,
-0.28372079133987427,
-0.027708644047379494,
0.4542272090911865,
0.4940975606441498,
0.049253132194280624,
0.6653555631637573,
-0.18601660430431366,
0.3929687440395355,
-0.3751141428947449,
0.4282221794128418,
-0.5439252853393555,
0.2867925465106964,
0.2547632157802582
] |
247855 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CPC | CPC | CPC may refer to:
Organizations
Companies
Canada Post Corporation, the primary postal operator in Canada
Caspian Pipeline Consortium, consortium and a pipeline to transport Caspian oil to Russia's Black Sea coast
Consolidated Pastoral Company, an agrifood business in Australia
Corn Products Company, later CPC International, acquired by Unilever
CPC (company), British electrical products distribution company
CPC Corporation, Taiwanese petrochemicals company
Education
California Preparatory College, Redlands, California, U.S.
Cascade Pacific Council, in Scouting in Oregon, U.S.
Children's Psychiatric Center, in the High Point Schools, U.S.
College Preparatory Center, by the Saudi Arabian Oil Company, Saudi Aramco
Politics
Communist Party of Canada
Communist Party of Canada (Marxist–Leninist)
Communist Party of China, the ruling party of the People's Republic of China
Communist Party of Cuba, the ruling party of Cuba
Communist Party of Cyprus, former name of the Progressive Party of Working People
Congress for Progressive Change, a dissolved conservative party in Nigeria
Congressional Progressive Caucus, group affiliated with the Democratic Party in the US
Conservative Party of Canada, a conservative party in Canada
Religion
Covenant Presbyterian Church, US Presbyterian church denomination
Cumberland Presbyterian Church, Presbyterian church denomination
Montenegrin Orthodox Church (Montenegrin: Crnogorska pravoslavna crkva/Црногорска православна црква)
Other organizations
Canadian Parachute Centre, former name of the Canadian Army Advanced Warfare Centre
Canadian Paralympic Committee, which represents Canadian Paralympic athletes in the International Paralympic Committee and the Parapan American Games
California Policy Center, a conservative think tank operating in California
Center for Plant Conservation, a non-profit research organization operating in Canada and the United States
Charles Perkins Centre, an Australian medical research institute at the University of Sydney
Climate Prediction Center, a U.S. federal agency that is part of the National Centers for Environmental Prediction
Coalition of Patriots for Change, coalition of armed groups in the Central African Republic
Commission for the Prevention of Corruption of the Republic of Slovenia
Connected Places Catapult, British government agency
Consumer Protection Committee, Republic of China government agency, Taiwan
Cost Per Click, internet advertising model used to drive traffic to websites
Crisis pregnancy center, type of pregnancy counseling center affiliated with anti-abortion movement
Science and technology
Calcined petroleum coke
Cape Photographic Catalogue, a star catalogue
Centrifugal partition chromatography
Cephalosporin C, an antibiotic
Cetylpyridinium chloride
Choroid plexus cyst
Circuit protective conductor, see earthing system
Compound parabolic concentrator
Condensation particle counter
Computer Physics Communications
Chromosomal passenger complex, a protein complex that plays a role in cytokinesis
Computing
Amstrad CPC, a home computer of the 1980s
Cartesian Perceptual Compression
Cost per click, a type of online advertising
Custom PC, a magazine
Transport
Clapham Common tube station, London, by London Underground station code
CP Air, by ICAO code
Other uses
Central Product Classification, a product classification for goods and services by the United Nations Statistical Commission
Certificate of Professional Competence, qualifications for the UK transport and haulage industry
Community Patent Convention
Cooperative Patent Classification, a patent classification jointly developed by the European Patent Office and the United States Patent and Trademark Office
Country of Particular Concern, to the U.S. State Department
Certified Professional Coder (CPC®), in healthcare administration
Piano Concerto No. 1 (Chopin) or Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin) | [
0.38690486550331116,
0.08584223687648773,
0.15183411538600922,
0.505330502986908,
0.005187622737139463,
0.18343453109264374,
-0.7307359576225281,
0.529287576675415,
-0.14205987751483917,
0.46252280473709106,
-0.31061220169067383,
-0.26782599091529846,
0.22214387357234955,
0.2999541759490967,
0.11076895147562027,
0.3880407214164734,
0.09358322620391846,
0.6823190450668335,
-0.35777756571769714,
-0.3969382643699646,
-0.4975544810295105,
-0.1330512911081314,
0.6308349370956421,
0.2224999964237213,
0.0768839418888092,
0.15571124851703644,
0.3794967532157898,
-0.14028893411159515,
-0.3683006763458252,
0.05961859971284866,
-0.019945019856095314,
0.11549217998981476,
0.5642060041427612,
-0.08955223113298416,
0.1710236668586731,
-0.3883134126663208,
-0.40144267678260803,
-0.02944592759013176,
-0.29496315121650696,
-0.9014513492584229,
-0.0557955764234066,
-0.30554884672164917,
-0.13787540793418884,
0.6053586006164551,
0.32959285378456116,
-0.33931028842926025,
-1.4280099868774414,
0.6223700642585754,
-0.4779789447784424,
0.3038804233074188,
-0.1082606092095375,
0.014650460332632065,
0.10484413057565689,
-0.462020605802536,
0.1452544778585434,
0.45891669392585754,
-0.4935939908027649,
-0.09118898212909698,
0.12205135077238083,
-0.6184427738189697,
0.12607495486736298,
0.2918991148471832,
0.1660379022359848,
0.7647401094436646,
0.7905445694923401,
0.36831802129745483,
-0.16661228239536285,
0.04363473504781723,
-0.6934641003608704,
-0.3927626311779022,
-0.014549218118190765,
0.11558615416288376,
0.04643232375383377,
0.5105754733085632,
0.07068216800689697,
-0.20967569947242737,
-0.4121552109718323,
0.02104233391582966,
0.31211161613464355,
0.43497514724731445,
0.13760226964950562,
0.16384543478488922,
0.01321853045374155,
-0.307484894990921,
0.4391680955886841,
-0.22342483699321747,
-0.3995226323604584,
-0.07055597752332687,
-0.02810552343726158,
0.17342114448547363,
-0.33823296427726746,
0.38743603229522705,
0.44320595264434814,
0.321617990732193,
-0.4240969121456146,
-0.28904658555984497,
-0.056314583867788315,
0.008885362185537815,
0.09129976481199265,
0.19399692118167877,
-0.6456587314605713,
0.32596465945243835,
-0.24959316849708557,
0.015213511884212494,
-0.632382869720459,
0.07390128076076508,
-0.4545332193374634,
-0.020288581028580666,
-0.17384442687034607,
-0.04316549748182297,
-0.34201884269714355,
-0.16988472640514374,
0.2372663915157318,
0.11017793416976929,
0.09665753692388535,
-0.008642243221402168,
0.22371207177639008,
-0.4857166111469269,
0.36614343523979187,
-0.38893768191337585,
0.08768068999052048,
0.6587802767753601,
-0.30377548933029175,
-0.2197730988264084,
0.2052738070487976,
0.20516027510166168,
0.28837406635284424,
0.15242518484592438,
-0.5004069805145264,
-0.12202112376689911,
0.0401882529258728,
0.4404095411300659,
-0.08316794782876968,
0.07978348433971405,
-0.39502787590026855,
0.08467870205640793,
-0.11611596494913101,
-0.018897656351327896,
0.34043800830841064,
0.04736427962779999,
-0.9958130717277527,
-0.3296608626842499,
0.08489886671304703,
-0.27169400453567505,
-0.3651569187641144,
0.08141014724969864,
-0.5222266316413879,
-0.14491647481918335,
-0.7499880790710449,
-0.171294704079628,
0.2576162815093994,
-0.353835791349411,
-0.38198122382164,
-0.11788182705640793,
-0.12348658591508865,
0.20519594848155975,
0.8454975485801697,
-0.10201521217823029,
0.23038320243358612,
0.14451941847801208,
-0.04137485846877098,
0.2251286804676056,
-0.0836770310997963,
-0.005155384074896574,
-0.07211890071630478,
0.20736347138881683,
0.21951401233673096,
-0.15322329103946686,
-0.2813638150691986,
0.11777635663747787,
-0.3724555969238281,
0.04994341358542442,
0.32497134804725647,
-0.13232184946537018,
-0.17930743098258972,
-0.4427237808704376,
-0.07076844573020935,
0.3640373945236206,
0.008559205569326878,
-0.0002809010911732912,
-0.5591754913330078,
0.5908675789833069,
-0.2654150426387787,
-0.3708726167678833,
-0.1637728363275528,
0.1001807302236557,
0.09477999806404114,
-0.33628880977630615,
0.07719719409942627,
0.40041330456733704,
-0.23506642878055573,
-0.49723702669143677,
-0.17342829704284668,
-0.6886853575706482,
0.8192836046218872,
-0.5203125476837158,
-0.29731565713882446,
0.937232255935669,
-0.09827854484319687,
0.29409870505332947,
-0.4822617471218109,
0.19941338896751404,
0.25859829783439636,
-0.06832446902990341,
-0.5096312165260315,
0.3675355017185211,
0.5283205509185791,
0.5386437773704529,
0.1600821614265442,
0.1583375632762909,
0.3142037093639374,
-0.19376353919506073,
0.2342313975095749,
-0.14942896366119385,
0.22010262310504913,
-0.6853402256965637,
-0.4501395523548126,
0.03915774077177048,
-0.008105249144136906,
0.36169931292533875,
0.8760830760002136,
-0.5440666079521179,
0.5018982291221619,
0.8533865809440613,
-0.45881152153015137,
0.6790006756782532,
0.25660571455955505,
0.3810315728187561,
0.2136695683002472,
-0.1435628980398178,
0.3669143319129944,
0.10011426359415054,
0.3017931282520294,
-0.5876120924949646,
-0.07277533411979675,
-0.2689260244369507,
-0.26660436391830444,
-0.4500938355922699,
0.3761138617992401,
0.444986492395401,
-0.13354288041591644,
-0.14580820500850677,
-0.36323127150535583,
0.11210741102695465,
0.5531871318817139,
-0.2941955327987671,
-0.5672497749328613,
0.23548680543899536,
0.4008703827857971,
-0.11096608638763428,
0.38349002599716187,
0.20263709127902985,
0.25908732414245605,
-0.04856136068701744,
0.36094778776168823,
0.046602725982666016,
0.10957466065883636,
-0.11325979232788086,
0.032287001609802246,
-0.046970076858997345,
-0.40522390604019165,
0.13837574422359467,
-0.3714090883731842,
0.14007939398288727,
0.36662253737449646,
-0.07700829207897186,
-0.41885507106781006,
-0.25497329235076904,
0.47471073269844055,
0.3329817056655884,
0.20161661505699158,
-0.1327446699142456,
-0.24656690657138824,
-0.11514855176210403,
-0.1386234611272812,
-0.3427651524543762,
-0.17265582084655762,
0.17805789411067963,
-0.2519463300704956,
-0.6639641523361206,
-0.3150423765182495,
-0.32909947633743286,
-0.31545647978782654,
-0.5293260216712952,
0.12425471842288971,
0.2977500259876251,
-0.792011559009552,
-0.057655129581689835,
-0.11480686068534851,
-0.7302529811859131,
0.07032780349254608,
-0.004001768771559,
0.024739518761634827,
0.3385349214076996,
0.5538175702095032,
0.37819167971611023,
-0.10544467717409134,
-0.05809120088815689,
0.24768035113811493,
-0.2575311064720154,
-0.1688549518585205,
0.17928150296211243,
-0.3706112205982208,
-0.37649327516555786,
0.29373928904533386,
-0.1018306091427803,
0.3064459264278412,
-0.36531874537467957,
-6.0216288566589355,
0.12412232905626297,
-0.9898756146430969,
-0.18357202410697937,
0.38825657963752747,
-0.5923324227333069,
0.4811338782310486,
-0.41732603311538696,
0.052172090858221054,
-0.009082121774554253,
-0.3814084231853485,
0.3282600939273834,
-0.09619739651679993,
0.07849704474210739,
0.36504194140434265,
0.6908047795295715,
0.3871374726295471,
0.2732808291912079,
0.4710419476032257,
-0.08092892169952393,
0.13983355462551117,
0.13652105629444122,
0.10005409270524979,
0.16397732496261597,
0.39400702714920044,
0.19276803731918335,
-0.12551969289779663,
-0.05223040655255318,
-0.3004302978515625,
-0.10746415704488754,
-0.2136707454919815,
-0.18258951604366302,
0.2769187390804291,
0.30109068751335144,
-0.33585643768310547,
-0.49846431612968445,
0.6714369654655457,
0.24178853631019592,
0.1726905107498169,
-0.07161537557840347,
0.11772066354751587,
0.10834971070289612,
0.2527117431163788,
0.14498744904994965,
0.061833687126636505,
-0.5359199643135071,
-0.40617096424102783,
-0.12909847497940063,
-0.6405085921287537,
0.8405547142028809,
0.3500332832336426,
-0.15257996320724487,
0.8107140064239502,
0.32468289136886597,
-0.32716304063796997,
-0.3768346905708313,
0.34240299463272095,
-0.569854199886322,
-0.7863160967826843,
0.27427729964256287,
0.1987507939338684,
-0.21974211931228638,
-0.05272699519991875,
-0.7684494853019714,
-0.39800819754600525,
-0.1709895133972168,
-0.3536665737628937,
-0.5498889684677124,
0.30276501178741455,
0.2639427185058594,
-0.6169071197509766,
-0.08058130741119385,
-0.3663429021835327,
-0.8779732584953308,
-0.15599946677684784,
-0.5448784828186035,
0.2709098756313324,
0.5170524716377258,
-0.016848614439368248,
0.3700430989265442,
-0.26041799783706665,
0.44314777851104736,
0.12623567879199982,
0.32999008893966675,
-0.16176985204219818,
-0.24719566106796265,
0.1958237886428833,
0.6101424694061279,
-0.11747875809669495,
0.10456892102956772,
0.6016151309013367,
-0.17905138432979584,
0.755578875541687,
0.01619119569659233,
0.3384324610233307,
-0.02804882824420929,
0.3787447214126587,
0.08248337358236313,
0.18446119129657745,
-0.9003840088844299,
-0.07189736515283585,
0.024930870160460472,
-0.5960812568664551,
-0.8638225793838501,
-0.33274802565574646,
-0.505890965461731,
-0.21015705168247223,
0.12074010074138641,
0.4105415344238281,
0.1410006284713745,
0.4967176020145416,
0.40457940101623535,
-0.42933300137519836,
-0.5931762456893921,
0.4711964428424835,
0.410658061504364,
-0.16157591342926025,
0.31001630425453186,
0.27122658491134644,
0.0721990168094635,
0.11693516373634338,
0.23263882100582123,
-0.38510966300964355,
0.4957616925239563,
-0.3680451214313507,
-0.3450912833213806,
0.2093096822500229,
-0.023579828441143036,
0.17054599523544312,
-0.03479679673910141,
0.19925644993782043,
-0.11235981434583664,
0.49732092022895813,
-0.07482850551605225,
-0.0069037810899317265,
0.10868502408266068,
-0.3694167733192444,
-0.3490033447742462,
-0.0023827047552913427,
-0.13914534449577332,
-0.027414584532380104,
0.42039141058921814,
-0.15014037489891052,
0.323050320148468,
0.40083006024360657,
0.05391119047999382,
-0.5151315927505493,
0.7520557641983032,
-0.3047246038913727,
0.027582703158259392,
-0.03702632710337639,
-0.5954223275184631,
0.8020549416542053,
0.6767147183418274,
-0.3502935469150543,
-0.40984517335891724,
-0.042485348880290985,
0.2543294131755829,
0.39644330739974976,
-0.08638075739145279,
0.464709997177124,
-0.15146751701831818,
-0.5950599908828735,
-0.1185285896062851,
0.8311163187026978,
-0.21496127545833588,
-0.117320716381073,
-0.14857806265354156,
-0.11612568795681,
0.8775466084480286,
0.35535144805908203,
0.4712044894695282,
-0.6775556802749634,
-0.12454637885093689,
0.6772676110267639,
0.3499397039413452,
0.44787105917930603,
-0.4984588921070099,
0.2907576560974121,
0.03878060728311539,
0.11641369014978409,
-0.21078434586524963,
0.024716131389141083,
0.6675966382026672,
0.6517913937568665,
0.0822342112660408,
-0.30914106965065,
-0.2533155083656311,
-0.3455268442630768,
0.27430832386016846,
0.41129958629608154,
-0.04204322397708893,
0.36849430203437805,
0.13252156972885132,
0.0017594177043065429,
-0.019305776804685593,
-0.10246631503105164,
0.38597413897514343,
-0.35462430119514465,
-0.16937778890132904,
0.026724841445684433,
0.5380133986473083,
-0.13514277338981628,
-0.17758101224899292,
-0.02319939248263836,
-0.11570413410663605,
0.4887683093547821,
-0.708253800868988,
-0.24052928388118744,
0.15785112977027893,
0.3611109256744385,
-0.40042275190353394,
0.06298037618398666,
-0.032010070979595184,
-0.33311572670936584,
-0.12666885554790497,
0.21795688569545746,
-0.07881923019886017,
-0.7203875184059143,
-0.3123427927494049,
-0.25515979528427124,
0.05321737378835678,
-0.2636985778808594,
-0.3454604148864746,
-0.30432888865470886,
0.46503308415412903,
0.17900533974170685,
-0.8619544506072998,
0.2330320030450821,
0.040075525641441345,
-0.4917061924934387,
-0.2775477468967438,
0.10343164205551147,
-0.21948422491550446,
0.05227397009730339,
-0.19087444245815277,
-0.046833619475364685,
0.4447924494743347,
0.06816711276769638,
0.08016787469387054,
-0.21636813879013062,
0.0354619026184082,
0.5344564914703369,
-0.7886767983436584,
-0.03621518984436989,
0.4368400275707245,
0.6787358522415161,
-0.28725385665893555,
-0.5775643587112427,
0.42102840542793274,
0.5601797103881836,
-0.3079574406147003,
-0.6012811660766602,
-0.12220685929059982,
0.6393842697143555,
-0.04860354959964752,
-0.5103536248207092,
-0.0871632769703865,
-0.21531058847904205,
0.2536270022392273,
-0.16891296207904816,
-0.3868091404438019,
-0.6656231880187988,
0.1386183798313141,
-0.08052533119916916,
0.5034414529800415,
-0.30059757828712463,
-0.11727207899093628,
-0.23837438225746155,
-0.6568931937217712,
-0.4744681715965271,
0.06123951077461243,
1.0250879526138306,
0.5507844090461731,
0.0900699645280838,
-0.23765574395656586,
0.13297522068023682,
-0.039770498871803284,
-0.15443290770053864,
-0.1380215734243393,
-0.45690521597862244,
0.08944322913885117,
0.3956198990345001,
-0.1359260231256485,
0.28728222846984863,
-0.437467098236084,
-0.1259068250656128,
0.1530389040708542,
-0.2276456654071808,
0.3032984733581543,
-0.19280916452407837,
0.01925300806760788,
-0.3858526647090912,
-0.20421648025512695,
-0.7667533159255981,
-0.47801128029823303,
0.7282598614692688,
0.10229054093360901,
0.004190065898001194,
0.5042619109153748,
-1.0197935104370117,
0.6658884286880493,
0.6526618003845215,
-0.760280191898346,
0.044411372393369675,
0.0698411837220192,
0.001110369456000626,
-0.5433186292648315,
-0.12936611473560333,
0.17794230580329895,
0.586620032787323,
-0.3059260845184326,
0.42710229754447937,
-0.08527641743421555,
0.06775499135255814,
-0.050334952771663666,
0.34271401166915894,
-0.7294142842292786,
0.020774049684405327,
-0.131695955991745,
0.5938705801963806,
0.7862499952316284,
0.14767618477344513,
-0.23192277550697327,
-0.18910475075244904,
0.3934139311313629,
-0.41709670424461365,
-0.0608251579105854,
0.44022080302238464,
0.010165964253246784,
0.20187395811080933,
0.23189114034175873,
-0.12094904482364655,
0.2465212494134903,
-0.5481880903244019,
-0.2988232672214508,
-0.231516495347023,
-0.5907785892486572,
-0.2793826460838318,
0.5944796204566956,
0.31276968121528625,
0.8188623785972595,
-0.21849317848682404,
-0.029413459822535515,
-0.15367506444454193,
0.5580047965049744,
0.25724998116493225,
0.014888645149767399,
-0.18574945628643036,
0.8199928998947144,
0.4048474431037903,
-0.5087311863899231,
-0.12824808061122894,
-0.222269207239151,
-0.20541447401046753,
-0.15462267398834229,
-0.13617244362831116,
-0.1616721749305725,
0.6224462389945984,
-0.10631004720926285,
-0.4690912961959839,
0.7473873496055603,
0.2428918033838272,
-0.06451846659183502,
-0.014546805061399937,
-0.00420707743614912,
0.7701948285102844,
-0.7741872668266296,
0.04446394369006157,
0.35841700434684753,
-0.15944446623325348,
0.1364075392484665,
-0.5056982040405273,
0.038934554904699326,
-0.16350576281547546,
-0.2142282873392105,
0.4055655300617218,
0.30957987904548645,
-0.05894693359732628,
0.7601111531257629,
-0.2930266559123993,
-0.043366800993680954,
-0.012916323728859425,
-0.27785682678222656,
0.2752259373664856,
-0.09369917958974838,
-0.20693670213222504,
0.4316750764846802,
-0.5087568759918213,
0.09033595025539398,
-0.25464797019958496,
-0.6311572790145874,
0.3476533591747284,
0.2574421763420105,
0.19334100186824799,
0.16576577723026276,
-0.5142189264297485,
-0.07799222320318222,
0.5563982725143433,
0.5586533546447754,
-0.21976062655448914,
0.11164425313472748,
0.42314812541007996,
0.07656224817037582,
-0.24482746422290802,
0.15319615602493286,
-0.560812771320343,
0.271786630153656,
-0.6341550350189209,
0.03822236508131027,
0.21855182945728302,
0.3110833764076233,
-0.30813539028167725,
0.5316129922866821,
-0.2635665237903595,
0.30671775341033936,
0.7349926233291626,
-0.313258558511734,
0.02609601803123951,
0.05982287600636482,
-0.5415419340133667,
-0.4246978163719177,
0.6917133927345276,
0.5171745419502258,
-0.12255135923624039,
-0.34513556957244873,
0.47225406765937805,
0.2507127821445465,
-0.8569470643997192,
0.4216768443584442,
0.1027403250336647,
-0.5492786765098572,
-0.26092591881752014,
0.9391261339187622,
-0.4784817397594452,
0.11549285799264908,
-0.1509964019060135,
0.35313695669174194,
0.41080188751220703,
-0.19074483215808868,
0.24826855957508087,
-0.08350804448127747,
0.2552993893623352,
-0.49096325039863586,
0.2900969088077545,
0.31720927357673645,
-0.4702773988246918,
-0.09606683999300003,
-0.8594644069671631,
0.30055880546569824,
-0.07935981452465057,
-0.7373360991477966,
0.10177235305309296,
0.1711980700492859,
0.30685168504714966,
-0.4198719263076782,
0.01617017388343811,
0.017824558541178703,
0.2887204885482788,
0.14681464433670044
] |
247859 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staffordshire%20Bull%20Terrier | Staffordshire Bull Terrier | The Staffordshire Bull Terrier, commonly called Stafford, is a shorthaired, purebred dog breed of medium size that originated in the Black Country of Staffordshire in the English Midlands. Their earliest beginnings date back centuries when the Mastiff and Bulldog were closely linked, and the sport of bull and bear baiting required large dogs in the 100–120 lb range. In the 1830s, bull-baiting became illegal, and dog fighting became a clandestine sport. Breeders migrated away from the heavier bulldogs once used for bull-baiting, and introduced terrier blood into the cross for its gameness and agility. The ancestral hybrid cross of bulldogs and terriers were sometimes referred to as half-and-halfs and half-breds but became more commonly known as the bull and terrier, which was not a standardised breed but the beginning of several breeds.
After the banning of blood sports and pit fighting in 1835, dog breeders made changes that, over the course of centuries, resulted in breed refinement over many generations. By the mid-1860s, a new breed was being developed by James Hinks which came to be known as the 'Bull Terrier'. However, the Stafford's association as a fighting dog in the early 19th century made it difficult to gain acceptance as a standardized purebred. It wasn't until 1935 that The Kennel Club accepted Staffordshire Bull Terriers into their stud book with established breed standards. The American Kennel Club (AKC) admitted Staffordshire Bull Terriers as a purebred on 1 October 1974 as their 121st registered breed.
Little is known about the actual pedigrees of the Stafford's ancestral origins, beyond individual types and styles of dogs that varied by geographic region. The progeny from one area may have a higher percentage of terrier than bulldog, whereas other reports claim that bulldog to terrier was preferred over bull and terrier to bull terrier. DNA studies have brought some clarity to the hybridization mystery of bull and terrier hybrids, suggestive of a New World dog within some modern breeds. The study states that "all of the bull and terrier crosses map to the terriers of Ireland and date to 1860-1870." The historical descriptions confirm the popularity of such crosses in Ireland, but they do not positively identify all the breeds that were involved. As supported by the DNA study, as well as the AKC and KC, references to bull and terrier were not as a bona fide breed; rather, the term describes a heterogeneous group of dogs that may include purebreds of different breeds, or crosses of those breeds. Bull and terrier hybrids, or pit bull types are considered the forerunner of several modern standardised breeds.
History
The progeny of the hybrid crosses between bulldogs and terriers were sometimes referred to as half-and-halfs and half-breds but became more commonly known as the bull and terrier, which was not a bona fide breed but the beginning of several breeds,some of which are known today as pit bulls. Of the six distinct breeds that descended from the bull and terrier hybrids, five are recognized by the American Kennel Club (AKC) in the following order: Bull Terrier, Boston Terrier, American Staffordshire Terrier (AmStaff), Staffordshire Bull Terrier, and Miniature Bull Terrier. The same five breeds are also recognized by the Canadian Kennel Club (CKC), and Fédération cynologique internationale (FCI). The American Pit Bull Terrier (APBT) is recognized by the United Kennel Club (UKC). The English Kennel Club recognizes only four of the breeds and does not accept the AmStaff or APBT.
Early history
In the mid–19th century, James Hinks wanted to develop a socially acceptable "gentleman's companion" with refinement, cleaner lines, and courage without the aggressive tendencies. Two different types of bull and terriers resulted, including Hink's cross of bull and terrier hybrids with the English White Terrier to achieve a more refined appearance with better legs and a more appealing head. A later outcrossing included Dalmatians and Collies, which led to the development of an athletic dog known as Hink's "white cavalier", the forerunner to the modern Bull Terrier.
By 1874, in Britain the first Kennel Club Stud Book was published, which included Bull Terriers and Bulldogs.
Devotees preferred the original bull and terrier type over Hink's Bull Terrier, and remained loyal to their preferred type, which became the modern Staffordshire Bull Terrier of the same ancestry as the Bull Terrier. According to The Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club of America, the Manchester Terrier as well as the now-extinct English White Terrier were used in the bull and terrier crosses, as were varieties of the old working terriers. The Stafford was considered the other bull and terrier but was not as readily accepted by either the KC or AKC because of its fighting ancestry. In 1935, a group of Stafford enthusiasts met in England in 1935 and formed the parent club for the Staffordshire Bull Terrier to create the breed standard. The first Staffordshire Bull Terrier show was held in August 1935 at Cradley Heath in West Midlands. There were 60 dogs and bitches entered in the show.
The Kennel Club describes the Bull Terrier as "the direct descendant of the original bull-and-terrier cross made in England, specifically to bait bulls and, later to fight in pits". Their description of the Staffordshire Bull Terrier states that the breed shares "the same ancestry as the Bull Terrier, i.e. Bulldog crossed with the Black and Tan terrier, and was developed as a fighting dog." Other descendants from the hybrid bull and terrier cross include the American Staffordshire Terrier and American Pit Bull Terrier.
Theories of origin
Staffordshire is considered one of the main origins of the Bull Terrier breed of dogs. The Staffordshire Bull Terrier developed in what was then called the Black Country of Staffordshire and parts of Warwickshire. Bulldog and terrier crosses produced courageous dogs with agility and endurance. In the beginning, such crosses were referred to as "Bull & Terrier", but a new breed developed over time that became known as bull terrier. These dogs were originally developed as fighting dogs, and share the same ancestry as the Bull Terrier.
The late A.W.A Cairns, former editor of the online Stafford Magazine published by Southern Counties Staffordshire Bull Terrier Society, wrote, "Kennel Club recognition of the breed is shrouded in mystery. Recognition was announced in the April 1935 Kennel Gazette in the name of Staffordshire Bull Terrier. There was no explanation as to how this came about. No Breed Club or Breed Standard existed."
There are unsupported theories or opinions that the Staffordshire Bull Terrier is the original bull and terrier rather than one of several descendants that have been standardized as modern purebreds without taking into consideration important evolutionary factors considered to be "very often misquoted and misunderstood." The standard for the modern Stafford aligns with the breed's transformation from its bull and terrier ancestry as a fighting dog to a modern conformation show dog. Some book authors have compared 19th century drawings or paintings to depict similarities in visual appearances of the modern Staffords. Author and Stafford enthusiast, James Beaufoy, wrote that there is "interesting evidence" in some of the early 19th-century paintings that depict conformation and coat color similarities of modern Staffords when compared to the Old English Bulldog. One such painting is by artist Abraham Cooper (1817), titled Crib and Rosa.
To some extent, Cairns aligns with Beaufoy "in the context of Kennel Club recognition the Staffordshire Bull Terrier is a relatively 'new breed'". Cairns believed a "Stafford-like animal existed at the turn of the 19th Century" and admitted, with the "possibility for slight prejudice", that "the only modern dog of this type is the Staffordshire Bull Terrier". However, Cairns further clarified that the pedigree inscribed on the plaque of the Crib and Rosa painting, specifically the words "the famous Staffordshire bitch", is not suggesting that it was a Staffordshire Bull Terrier, but that "it could be concluded that animals of that type, existed in that county before 1816." Had that theory been proven true, then the modern Staffordshire Bull Terrier would be considered a descendant of purebred bulldogs with no crossbreeding to terriers.
The second theory is that two different types of bull terriers were developed between 1860–1870 by using different types of bull and terrier crosses. The foundation crosses in the Hinks' strain were primarily Bulldogs crossed with the (now extinct) English White Terrier, but it was later confirmed in an article by James Hinks II in the journal Dogdom, that his father also outcrossed with Dalmatians, as well as Greyhounds and Whippets. Borzoi may also have been used as an outcross to make the stop less pronounced and the head longer. The new Bull Terrier was also called the White Cavalier. It was not long afterward that some colour was bred into the white Bull Terrier. During that time, The Kennel Club was registering "Bull Terriers" with the sire, dam and whelping dates unknown.
The second type of bull terrier that evolved from the split suggests a breed that originated by crossing the thickly muscled Old English Bulldog, known for its stamina, strength and courage, with the smaller Black and Tan Terrier, known to be feisty, agile, and lithe. Like their bulldog ancestors, some were heavy dogs that weighed as much as 50 lbs, whereas others were smaller, more like terriers and weighed between 10 and 20 lbs. The Kennel Club recognized this strain of bull terriers as the Staffordshire Bull Terrier in 1935, the same year the Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club was formed and the original breed standard written. The first standard described the ideal Stafford as "15 to 18 inches tall. Dogs were to weigh 28-38 pounds with bitches 24-34 pounds."
DNA analysis
In 2017, a genome-wide study suggested that all of the bull and terrier–type dogs, including the Staffordshire Bull Terrier and five other distinct breeds, map back to the terriers of Ireland and to origins which date to the period 1860–1870. The timing coincides with historical descriptions of dog fighting contests in Ireland, a lack of accurate stud book documentation, and subsequently, the undocumented crosses of dogs during the time when these breeds were first created.
Early protection
The Cruelty to Animals Act 1835 made blood sports illegal, and effectively stopped bull- and bear-baiting in the UK. Baiting required large arenas which made it easier for authorities to police, whereas illegal dog fighting was much harder to terminate because fight sponsors kept their venues hidden and closely guarded in private basements and similar locations. As a result, dog fighting continued long after bull- and bear-baiting had ceased. It was not until the passage of the Protection of Animals Act 1911 that organised dog fighting in Britain largely came to an end.
Recognition
One of the main origins of the Bull Terrier was Staffordshire where the Staffordshire Bull Terrier "in its various guises has emerged". "The early proto-staffords provided the ancestral foundation stock for the Staffordshire Bull Terrier, the American Pit Bull Terrier and the American Staffordshire Terrier. In 1930, the name "Staffordshire Bull Terrier" first appeared in advertisements for dogs of the type. Throughout 1932 and 1933, attempts to achieve Kennel Club recognition for the breed were made by dog-show judge and breeder, Joseph Dunn, but the Stafford's early origins as a fighting dog made it difficult to gain acceptance.
In 1935, a group of men drafted a breed standard for how their own particular strains of dogs should be judged at shows. Those strains were "bulldoggy" types in the Cradley Heath district. Phil Drabble reported that among the various types of bull and terrier, the type from Cradley Heath was recognised as a separate breed to be named the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. In May 1935, the KC approved the name "Staffordshire Bull Terrier"; the first name requested, "Original Bull Terrier", had been rejected. In June 1935, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club was formed during a meeting at the Old Cross Guns pub in Cradley Heath; a breed standard was approved the same day, and further shows were held that year. Other pivotal breeders involved in acquiring breed recognition were Joe Mallen and actor Tom Walls. The first champions recognised in England were the bitch Lady Eve and the stud Gentleman Jim in 1939.
The breed was fully accepted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale in 1954.
American Kennel Club
Staffordshires, as the English bull and terrier crosses have been traditionally called, first arrived in North America in the middle to late 19th century. Neither the AKC nor UKC would endorse, recognise, or register fighting dogs or pit-bull types, as they did not want to be associated with dog fighting. It was not until 1936, long after blood sports were banned and legislation was enacted, that AKC recognised the Staffordshire Terrier, and in 1972 changed the name to American Staffordshire Terrier. The English–bred Staffordshire Bull Terrier (Stafford) was recognised two years later.
In an effort to achieve AKC recognition of the Stafford, Steve Stone organised the US Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club, 14 January 1967. There were few Staffords in the country at that time, most being imports from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and other parts of the world. The first attempts to encourage club membership and gain AKC recognition began with a rally held in the summer of 1967 which resulted in 14 memberships and 8 Staffords registered by the club. By year's end, the count had increased to 39 registered dogs. Dog imports continued, and the number of memberships and registered dogs increased exponentially but it would take nearly a decade of hosting sanctioned shows and demonstrating consistency in the breed standard by maintaining responsible breeding practices that the club would acquire official AKC recognition.
In 1974, the AKC officially recognised the Staffordshire Bull Terrier Club, giving it recognition as the official AKC Parent Club representing the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. On 5 March 1974, the Staffordshire Bull Terrier was the 120th breed recognised by the AKC.
Characteristics
The Stafford is a stocky, muscular and unusually strong dog of small to medium size. It usually stands at the withers. Dogs weigh some bitches approximately 2 kg less. It has a broad chest, strong shoulders, well-boned wide-set legs, a medium length tail carried low, and a broad head with a short muzzle; the ears fold over at the tips and are not cropped. The coat is short, stiff and close. It may be white; black, blue, fawn or red, all with or without white; or any variety of brindle, with or without white.
It is a healthy and robust dog with a life expectancy of 12–14 years. Neurological disorders identified in the breed include cerebellar abiotrophy, Chiari-like malformation, myotonia congenita and L-2-hydroxyglutaric aciduria; hereditary cataract has also been identified.
The Stafford has a reputation for pugnacity; when challenged by another dog it does not back away.
Use
Even in the days of blood sports, the Stafford was always a family pet and companion dog, and is even more so today. It is considered loyal, courageous and affectionate, and is among the breeds recommended by the Kennel Club for families.
In the decade 2011–2020, annual registrations with the Kennel Club fell from about 7000 to about 5000; in 2019 and 2020 it had the highest number of registrations in the Terrier group. It is among the most frequently registered breeds in Australia, France, and New Zealand. In the United States, it was in 81st place on an American Kennel Club list of registrations by number in 2020.
In 2013, the breed accounted for more than a third of the dogs passing through British shelters such as Battersea Dogs & Cats Home. The breed has been associated with chav culture, which tends to attract the negativity associated with it.
Breed-specific legislation
In the United States, the Stafford is commonly classified as a pit-bull-type dog along with the American Pit Bull Terrier and the American Staffordshire Terrier. In other countries including the United Kingdom the term pit bull is used as an abbreviation for the American Pit Bull Terrier and does not encompass the Stafford. A number of federal and municipal governments have placed restrictions on the ownership of the pit-bull-type dogs, including the Staffordshire Bull Terrier. In the UK, Australia, and New Zealand, Staffords are not restricted by any breed-specific legislation.
The Staffordshire Bull Terrier has been involved in a number of fatalities in the United Kingdom. In 2018, People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) lobbied the British Parliament to have the Staffordshire Bull Terrier added to the list of restricted dog breeds in the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the Kennel Club, Dogs Trust, Blue Cross, and the Battersea Dogs & Cats Home all objected to the proposal, which was rejected by Parliament.
Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier fiction
In the UK, American Pit Bull Terriers are sometimes advertised as "Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier" in an attempt to circumvent the Dangerous Dogs Act 1991. The Irish Staffordshire Bull Terrier is not recognised as a breed by the Irish Kennel Club or any other kennel club, and is attributed by the RSPCA to be contributing "to a rise in incidents of dog fighting".
Notable dogs
Jock – a Staffordshire Bull Terrier cross, subject of Sir Percy FitzPatrick’s book Jock of the Bushveld (1907).
Cooper – a Staffordshire Bull Terrier adopted in March 2018 by the Staffordshire Police for training as a police dog, the first of this breed in Staffordshire.
Watchman – military mascot of the Staffordshire Regiment
Gallery
Images depicting standard colours and body shapes of Staffords.
References
Explanatory notes
Citations
External Links
Staffordshire Bull Terrier 1935 - Staffordshire Bull Terrier history, statistics, links etc.
Staffordshire Bull Terrier UK Club - Staffordshire Bull Terrier UK Club
SBTpedigree - Staffordshire Bull Terrier Pedigree Search Engine
Dog breeds originating in England
Dog fighting breeds
FCI breeds
Terriers | [
0.10736706852912903,
-0.002593341749161482,
0.0009307636064477265,
-0.6841999888420105,
0.2026868462562561,
0.7912982106208801,
0.21813027560710907,
-0.06536616384983063,
-0.17990194261074066,
0.40081727504730225,
-0.5790280103683472,
0.5066785216331482,
-0.380473792552948,
0.3135252296924591,
-0.09868063777685165,
0.4986128807067871,
0.28420788049697876,
0.36650264263153076,
0.24119357764720917,
-0.2964337468147278,
-0.008579986169934273,
-0.8718103170394897,
-0.3205389380455017,
-0.07396285235881805,
0.3643268048763275,
-0.033047620207071304,
0.8757007122039795,
0.15780411660671234,
-0.06536103785037994,
-0.09107338637113571,
0.32963234186172485,
0.6140087246894836,
-0.00022231331968214363,
-0.2760019898414612,
0.3651200532913208,
0.7322890758514404,
0.3595468997955322,
-0.21595928072929382,
-0.41667187213897705,
-0.662321150302887,
0.33676454424858093,
0.05346672236919403,
-0.09849727898836136,
0.17445899546146393,
-0.38043370842933655,
-0.07437478005886078,
-1.209922194480896,
0.029929036274552345,
-0.09051387012004852,
0.055321209132671356,
-0.6404713988304138,
0.7978526949882507,
-0.24026738107204437,
0.4152916669845581,
0.7788246870040894,
0.5811355113983154,
-0.37468162178993225,
-0.5028024911880493,
0.19286398589611053,
-0.05756223574280739,
-0.12180761992931366,
0.29925858974456787,
-0.04224417731165886,
-0.19671747088432312,
-0.9555647373199463,
0.45856934785842896,
0.15876330435276031,
0.566913366317749,
-0.592631459236145,
0.2626000642776489,
-0.4966779351234436,
-0.35352590680122375,
-0.11105534434318542,
0.39447689056396484,
-0.36813095211982727,
-0.21111707389354706,
0.05722016096115112,
-0.438656210899353,
0.34060558676719666,
0.7499717473983765,
0.4995071291923523,
0.26034173369407654,
0.1781551092863083,
0.14009545743465424,
0.1671239584684372,
1.0270308256149292,
-0.0313781313598156,
-0.2874297797679901,
-0.3882966935634613,
0.9004604816436768,
-0.10943468660116196,
-0.17829181253910065,
0.1307648867368698,
0.47005751729011536,
0.06029875576496124,
-0.18005602061748505,
0.8748315572738647,
-0.04698861017823219,
0.3022153973579407,
0.02643509767949581,
0.19560272991657257,
0.9711624383926392,
-0.04808433726429939,
0.17622900009155273,
-1.3229097127914429,
-0.06556867063045502,
-0.3404639661312103,
-0.6911091208457947,
-0.20420128107070923,
0.18200461566448212,
-0.6213301420211792,
-0.09015177935361862,
0.3772203028202057,
-0.23740753531455994,
-0.0032121071126312017,
0.1784437596797943,
-0.08325839042663574,
-0.034635331481695175,
0.03963286802172661,
0.8086285591125488,
0.28312185406684875,
0.736773669719696,
-0.7315559387207031,
0.12789958715438843,
0.3174387514591217,
0.2291036695241928,
-0.08749017864465714,
0.306930810213089,
0.06176239997148514,
0.15962770581245422,
-0.03045245073735714,
0.693060040473938,
0.2632790803909302,
-0.503478467464447,
-0.3006560504436493,
0.16593700647354126,
0.938622772693634,
-0.08558566123247147,
0.07584713399410248,
0.7502659559249878,
-0.9878210425376892,
0.0949469804763794,
-0.3720405697822571,
-0.6306774020195007,
0.1877230554819107,
-0.3252827525138855,
-0.0012529746163636446,
-0.23500138521194458,
0.3080425262451172,
-0.2959560453891754,
-0.2513778805732727,
0.4504639208316803,
-0.012642890214920044,
-0.3535911440849304,
-0.6338053941726685,
0.41245564818382263,
-0.6647211313247681,
-0.8450313210487366,
0.5507171750068665,
-0.3402121663093567,
-0.28302574157714844,
0.25690793991088867,
-0.043500036001205444,
-0.05614860728383064,
0.2807929217815399,
0.049144722521305084,
0.7385620474815369,
-0.09719885885715485,
-0.6791577935218811,
-0.14568118751049042,
-0.23003150522708893,
0.03350084275007248,
1.1279518604278564,
-0.504384458065033,
-0.571751594543457,
-0.039316028356552124,
0.5897579789161682,
0.5240586996078491,
0.5846509337425232,
-0.543792188167572,
-0.8714945912361145,
0.20623502135276794,
0.6041198372840881,
-0.2764562964439392,
0.3323536217212677,
-0.31872549653053284,
0.5040732026100159,
-0.3800655007362366,
-0.4456798732280731,
-0.07972221076488495,
-0.48027437925338745,
-0.06666349619626999,
0.7451715469360352,
-0.6269451975822449,
1.6738297939300537,
-0.33830058574676514,
-0.9876319766044617,
0.06229133531451225,
-0.4753856062889099,
1.2464134693145752,
0.034197065979242325,
-0.6247563362121582,
0.8890289664268494,
-0.063975490629673,
-0.4849099814891815,
-0.23538869619369507,
0.0013002528576180339,
0.302348792552948,
0.5895475745201111,
0.675688624382019,
0.3582192361354828,
-0.19600719213485718,
0.29297536611557007,
-0.07040512561798096,
-0.4834538698196411,
0.0019619623199105263,
0.23245769739151,
-0.25172924995422363,
-0.1877289116382599,
-1.1878273487091064,
1.129834771156311,
0.12700456380844116,
-0.7075399160385132,
0.6401115655899048,
-0.26799657940864563,
0.23159928619861603,
-0.1614309549331665,
-0.43544328212738037,
0.41303902864456177,
-0.25958767533302307,
-0.030172748491168022,
0.517807126045227,
-0.38272368907928467,
-0.6931100487709045,
-0.3908419609069824,
-0.5758624076843262,
0.3723401725292206,
-0.2887311279773712,
0.19374196231365204,
0.01873687095940113,
0.08685693144798279,
0.8484348058700562,
-0.36129701137542725,
-0.05310475453734398,
-0.5623207688331604,
-0.030521180480718613,
0.07486296445131302,
1.3102039098739624,
-0.6979867219924927,
-0.8142385482788086,
0.20546971261501312,
0.5855079889297485,
0.4724667966365814,
0.1922788769006729,
0.52520751953125,
0.18210159242153168,
-0.09304239600896835,
-0.11320923268795013,
0.06546742469072342,
0.20497286319732666,
0.3728594481945038,
0.34798410534858704,
-0.1441381275653839,
0.03190460801124573,
-0.045838188380002975,
-0.10438850522041321,
0.01337259728461504,
-0.3244265913963318,
-0.30021145939826965,
0.26446405053138733,
0.5800277590751648,
0.26868534088134766,
-0.41438862681388855,
0.029352013021707535,
0.6284010410308838,
0.4070112109184265,
0.19234418869018555,
-0.5030612349510193,
-0.410311758518219,
-0.2755770981311798,
-0.051751598715782166,
0.5324270725250244,
0.4356940686702728,
-0.6900665760040283,
-0.3191348910331726,
-0.48312991857528687,
0.17846086621284485,
-1.1319783926010132,
0.18238399922847748,
0.4466342031955719,
-0.5955696105957031,
0.0938948541879654,
-0.45365092158317566,
0.2359006702899933,
-0.8295468091964722,
-0.12205351889133453,
0.14310985803604126,
0.5047966837882996,
0.2875686585903168,
0.22488410770893097,
-0.3632625937461853,
0.32734212279319763,
-0.6205456852912903,
0.26705825328826904,
0.31857848167419434,
-0.03823858126997948,
-0.5830346345901489,
-0.29359960556030273,
-4.901340484619141,
0.0604013167321682,
-0.5960706472396851,
-0.5239969491958618,
0.5189837217330933,
0.37305983901023865,
-0.43917375802993774,
-0.2250966727733612,
-1.033022165298462,
0.15141917765140533,
0.3696421980857849,
0.31952163577079773,
-0.4395236074924469,
-0.17934000492095947,
0.28073421120643616,
-0.7266137599945068,
0.15217246115207672,
0.17316603660583496,
0.4614831805229187,
0.004471420310437679,
-0.026480119675397873,
-0.052438367158174515,
-0.25959184765815735,
0.14366117119789124,
-0.38726404309272766,
1.1536074876785278,
-1.006177544593811,
-0.7484219670295715,
-0.48928314447402954,
0.07630505412817001,
-0.06775874644517899,
-0.09152518957853317,
-0.1361980438232422,
-0.40809863805770874,
0.047233160585165024,
0.25414586067199707,
0.5514923334121704,
0.3858921229839325,
0.41805750131607056,
-0.28476932644844055,
0.289987176656723,
-0.1501675397157669,
-0.24896113574504852,
0.08674361556768417,
0.49316665530204773,
-0.1959303617477417,
0.15404942631721497,
-0.22639040648937225,
-0.5163689851760864,
0.5204838514328003,
-0.5275356769561768,
0.22017671167850494,
0.13325579464435577,
0.5385069847106934,
0.7677090167999268,
0.27392125129699707,
-0.17662157118320465,
-0.4063868820667267,
-0.4918166399002075,
0.07750708609819412,
0.22453410923480988,
-0.6681239008903503,
-0.4058644473552704,
-0.1709892600774765,
-0.18981453776359558,
-0.25598788261413574,
-0.35136377811431885,
-0.20770138502120972,
0.46908798813819885,
-0.17239005863666534,
-0.2396468073129654,
0.2056536227464676,
0.157542422413826,
-0.8765744566917419,
0.48377496004104614,
0.007877184078097343,
-0.3073759377002716,
-0.022453876212239265,
-0.3050871193408966,
-0.12563183903694153,
-0.17601139843463898,
-0.7006258964538574,
-0.10123896598815918,
0.11174415796995163,
-0.5071155428886414,
-1.5655497312545776,
-0.7234523892402649,
0.15202613174915314,
0.10333719104528427,
-0.7681140303611755,
0.6380541920661926,
-0.9539787769317627,
-0.09210604429244995,
-0.09799755364656448,
0.3482516407966614,
0.05254307761788368,
0.06518660485744476,
0.5361800193786621,
-0.36032605171203613,
-0.5503534078598022,
0.7867769598960876,
-0.6121679544448853,
0.004021250642836094,
-0.47261133790016174,
-0.2853166460990906,
-0.40586110949516296,
-0.4359196126461029,
0.31131836771965027,
1.2624342441558838,
-0.44077640771865845,
0.09879028052091599,
-0.564121663570404,
-1.0371342897415161,
-0.5266644358634949,
-0.1877570003271103,
-0.25027167797088623,
-0.15116044878959656,
-0.08935371041297913,
0.35048940777778625,
0.18559139966964722,
0.12991344928741455,
0.2817593514919281,
0.18394975364208221,
-0.2527327835559845,
0.45833295583724976,
-0.004789821337908506,
0.3907712697982788,
0.1716488003730774,
-0.11665841192007065,
-0.05167483910918236,
-0.21937590837478638,
0.10616210103034973,
-0.8664008378982544,
0.41824468970298767,
-0.8625494837760925,
0.14691737294197083,
-0.7495409250259399,
0.04268853738903999,
0.22019480168819427,
0.057224247604608536,
0.20313233137130737,
0.18192794919013977,
0.1725970208644867,
0.3078387677669525,
0.2587602734565735,
0.09814415872097015,
-0.3361724019050598,
0.37042516469955444,
-0.46426472067832947,
0.17965981364250183,
0.48836809396743774,
0.023533420637249947,
-0.07704084366559982,
-0.8696644306182861,
-0.4942508637905121,
-0.4244382679462433,
0.06017559766769409,
1.2403515577316284,
-0.4544517397880554,
-0.5282723307609558,
0.30088597536087036,
0.01989278942346573,
-0.8333739638328552,
0.07287802547216415,
0.2020469754934311,
-0.1028202697634697,
0.20141153037548065,
-0.3993004262447357,
-0.11087074875831604,
0.7100022435188293,
0.04061047360301018,
-0.5701932311058044,
-0.5217170715332031,
-0.42666247487068176,
-0.17980675399303436,
-0.05915432050824165,
-0.45982691645622253,
-0.054567281156778336,
0.15654484927654266,
0.5962458252906799,
0.19587402045726776,
0.26357269287109375,
0.4013461768627167,
0.25362735986709595,
0.6571914553642273,
-0.6950738430023193,
-0.035792089998722076,
-0.20520883798599243,
0.13121050596237183,
-0.12158515304327011,
0.2897752523422241,
0.18564929068088531,
0.804251492023468,
0.42550939321517944,
-1.0529311895370483,
-0.15837454795837402,
-0.21388055384159088,
0.9221475124359131,
0.13380120694637299,
-0.8889287114143372,
0.13365818560123444,
0.8251999020576477,
-0.2882184684276581,
0.1894056648015976,
0.8515499830245972,
-0.5241883993148804,
-0.069676473736763,
-0.15260794758796692,
-0.40443649888038635,
1.027535319328308,
-0.11541388183832169,
-0.9045103192329407,
0.20038877427577972,
0.7293378114700317,
-0.6094949245452881,
-0.03305661678314209,
-0.0333690345287323,
-0.051865339279174805,
0.14790508151054382,
-0.20691117644309998,
-1.1328189373016357,
-0.7396306395530701,
-0.37216225266456604,
0.34886249899864197,
-0.02559669129550457,
-0.15506157279014587,
0.3430391848087311,
-0.13568612933158875,
0.3873828649520874,
-0.5723262429237366,
0.11939416080713272,
0.4934721887111664,
0.20467790961265564,
0.12890107929706573,
0.15822529792785645,
0.059929654002189636,
0.5151392221450806,
0.11340098083019257,
0.7616265416145325,
0.8596649765968323,
1.340894341468811,
1.1530957221984863,
0.23201076686382294,
-0.5368443131446838,
-0.05001634731888771,
0.7144907712936401,
0.3740442097187042,
-0.9891535043716431,
-0.733340859413147,
0.054836876690387726,
0.0917043462395668,
-0.0956437736749649,
-0.16989128291606903,
-0.151945561170578,
0.08648619055747986,
-1.1070032119750977,
0.44116055965423584,
0.2869572341442108,
0.38601598143577576,
0.040062181651592255,
0.34121692180633545,
0.8823146820068359,
-0.4527704119682312,
0.6820031404495239,
0.08648911863565445,
-0.13956542313098907,
-0.6365241408348083,
-0.6256886720657349,
0.4543379843235016,
-0.24634656310081482,
0.14270922541618347,
0.005931766703724861,
1.3890589475631714,
0.6311454772949219,
0.3370096683502197,
0.018761301413178444,
0.45860981941223145,
-0.8588167428970337,
0.3375605046749115,
-0.06609191000461578,
0.1830933690071106,
0.3284218907356262,
0.07657617330551147,
-0.5006788372993469,
0.359247624874115,
-0.8229662179946899,
0.3402681052684784,
-0.6642462611198425,
0.07835511863231659,
0.11417541652917862,
0.41213932633399963,
0.12019912153482437,
0.631071150302887,
-0.4859117567539215,
-0.37394869327545166,
0.11089185625314713,
-0.13030661642551422,
0.07321065664291382,
-0.11771602928638458,
0.5320121645927429,
-0.0730845108628273,
1.0684058666229248,
-0.3003937304019928,
-0.6835244297981262,
0.5567306876182556,
0.09718859195709229,
0.40683308243751526,
0.17707975208759308,
0.2358846813440323,
-0.23586836457252502,
-0.08809462189674377,
0.10831838846206665,
-0.1196107491850853,
0.6806999444961548,
0.1872967779636383,
-0.2416868954896927,
0.1551455855369568,
-0.7622441053390503,
0.47021231055259705,
0.9155627489089966,
0.12638629972934723,
0.434167742729187,
0.6003999710083008,
-0.0449354462325573,
-0.4079805612564087,
1.2369835376739502,
-0.7766602039337158,
0.29123321175575256,
0.38602444529533386,
0.39942190051078796,
-0.0933605432510376,
-0.593917727470398,
-0.6992864608764648,
-0.2881099581718445,
0.6468296647071838,
-0.36555206775665283,
0.1648065149784088,
0.11907660216093063,
-0.20227846503257751,
1.1277142763137817,
-0.3457680344581604,
-0.14858494699001312,
-0.22905731201171875,
-0.3231275677680969,
0.32411617040634155,
0.27494701743125916,
-0.419010192155838,
-0.17613080143928528,
0.5095276236534119,
-0.15651081502437592,
1.0276188850402832,
0.03001352585852146,
0.7560528516769409,
0.4366598427295685,
-0.22867260873317719,
-0.060181230306625366,
-0.10678176581859589,
-0.160770982503891,
-0.933729887008667,
0.2960296869277954,
0.0669640526175499,
-0.3290598690509796,
0.004625942558050156,
-0.004446050152182579,
0.019120369106531143,
0.26732462644577026,
-0.35055628418922424,
-0.697864830493927,
-0.06513567268848419,
0.4761902987957001,
0.057130999863147736,
0.40244489908218384,
0.11312330514192581,
0.11670093983411789,
0.0012123497435823083,
0.27897945046424866,
0.329479455947876,
0.3171617090702057,
-0.3335968255996704,
0.1624017059803009,
-0.8149621486663818,
0.18937496840953827,
-0.2477225810289383,
-0.24108555912971497,
0.318643718957901,
-0.3231099545955658,
-0.8722060918807983,
-0.39291203022003174,
-0.8892155885696411,
-0.19716082513332367,
-0.13668324053287506,
-0.5287644863128662,
-0.3196863830089569,
-0.7770566344261169,
-0.5227539539337158,
-0.592440664768219,
0.5368430018424988,
0.35757485032081604,
0.061895325779914856,
-0.16188667714595795,
0.33244818449020386,
0.7381051778793335,
0.13259464502334595,
0.3518093228340149,
-0.4744168221950531,
-0.04024815931916237,
-0.13983942568302155,
0.31663408875465393,
-0.7701914310455322,
0.20305094122886658,
0.09471816569566727,
-0.4706191122531891,
0.023717891424894333,
0.13219189643859863,
-0.6134997606277466,
0.6306161284446716,
0.481629341840744,
-0.3835032880306244,
-0.7899281978607178,
-1.0965291261672974,
0.9504365921020508,
0.08360555022954941,
-0.002791175851598382,
0.09652391076087952,
0.23621127009391785,
-0.3263227641582489,
1.0622882843017578,
-0.07605181634426117,
-0.829823911190033,
0.5423046350479126,
-0.6265333890914917,
0.5585351586341858,
-0.4746329188346863,
-0.3405725359916687,
-0.6162446141242981,
-0.9832260012626648,
0.7248365879058838,
0.5524244904518127,
-0.6150376200675964,
-0.062475308775901794,
0.14814293384552002,
-0.4035535454750061,
0.45687997341156006,
-0.2546005845069885,
0.4073251485824585,
0.081077441573143,
0.38131165504455566,
-0.4369269013404846,
-0.2589704990386963,
0.5765249729156494,
0.3481241464614868,
0.10115364193916321,
-0.3763464391231537,
-0.7477830648422241,
0.5174490213394165,
0.09853340685367584,
-0.16109460592269897,
-1.0509804487228394,
0.19571012258529663,
-0.019324667751789093
] |
247861 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forktail | Forktail | The forktails are small insectivorous birds in the genus Enicurus. They were formerly in the thrush family, Turdidae, but are more often now treated as part of the Old World flycatcher family, Muscicapidae. Their name derives from their long forked tail.
These are southeast Asian forest species principally associated with mountain forests and streams. Most nest in rock crevices, laying 2–4 eggs.
Species
The genus contains the following seven species:
Little forktail, Enicurus scouleri
Sunda forktail, Enicurus velatus
Chestnut-naped forktail, Enicurus ruficapillus
Black-backed forktail, Enicurus immaculatus
Slaty-backed forktail, Enicurus schistaceus
White-crowned forktail, Enicurus leschenaulti
Spotted forktail, Enicurus maculatus
References | [
-0.0006052389508113265,
0.2201595902442932,
-0.7824345231056213,
0.1706210821866989,
-0.09124346822500229,
0.695425808429718,
0.36474043130874634,
0.5436927676200867,
-0.43795064091682434,
-0.4899108111858368,
0.2658688724040985,
0.544539213180542,
-0.2611687183380127,
0.3213421106338501,
-0.3994966149330139,
0.5214866399765015,
0.46161049604415894,
0.39113637804985046,
0.2804071605205536,
-0.5540300011634827,
-0.4763253927230835,
-0.567219614982605,
0.289515882730484,
-0.2471427172422409,
0.6405282616615295,
0.6947358846664429,
0.16247381269931793,
0.6363435983657837,
0.6105316281318665,
-0.015973422676324844,
0.188406303524971,
0.7169501781463623,
0.641040027141571,
0.07377003878355026,
-0.247270405292511,
-0.3348270058631897,
-0.4601919651031494,
-0.49101999402046204,
-0.10807652771472931,
-0.6207305192947388,
-0.1919516623020172,
-0.3580198585987091,
-0.03523505851626396,
0.12598489224910736,
-0.30791544914245605,
-0.3142147660255432,
-1.655045747756958,
0.21145543456077576,
-0.5178712010383606,
0.1959221363067627,
-0.07650833576917648,
0.48689594864845276,
-0.21629689633846283,
0.532486081123352,
0.40701356530189514,
0.5081871747970581,
-0.7138038873672485,
0.2455921769142151,
-0.18379634618759155,
-0.5665947794914246,
-0.46390500664711,
0.10715232789516449,
-0.3154270052909851,
0.520632803440094,
-0.24902059137821198,
0.30997616052627563,
0.3715875446796417,
0.5950364470481873,
-0.3877156972885132,
0.4245195686817169,
-0.010025588795542717,
-0.17945748567581177,
-0.16841614246368408,
0.4066608250141144,
-0.27391529083251953,
-0.17944170534610748,
-0.5443115234375,
-0.21046601235866547,
0.7808508276939392,
0.07776708155870438,
0.29001882672309875,
0.7496371269226074,
0.8173243999481201,
-0.1618511825799942,
-0.348075807094574,
0.06914205849170685,
-0.40028536319732666,
0.32972100377082825,
-0.3554110825061798,
0.3657686114311218,
-0.5067188143730164,
0.03098788857460022,
0.05671944096684456,
0.3267529010772705,
-0.45749059319496155,
-0.6174994111061096,
-0.4057566523551941,
0.23470768332481384,
0.800240159034729,
0.13994453847408295,
-0.36438679695129395,
-0.39383187890052795,
0.6791799664497375,
0.40687671303749084,
-0.4341997802257538,
-0.13530771434307098,
-0.4820355474948883,
-0.3474476635456085,
-0.24269498884677887,
-0.5493281483650208,
-0.9294173717498779,
0.5359498858451843,
0.1462641805410385,
-0.19068706035614014,
0.23551088571548462,
1.0865899324417114,
0.4332974851131439,
0.07042722404003143,
-0.24977383017539978,
-0.35639721155166626,
0.6350736021995544,
0.6256449222564697,
-0.6157177686691284,
0.11295194923877716,
0.17155849933624268,
0.6000123620033264,
0.17457672953605652,
0.28661781549453735,
-0.39716866612434387,
-0.3667943775653839,
0.6014196276664734,
1.00982666015625,
-0.3230392336845398,
0.1969270259141922,
-0.11182143539190292,
-0.3852554261684418,
-0.041768793016672134,
-0.21510611474514008,
0.2389579713344574,
0.8120667338371277,
-1.062011480331421,
-0.1523822546005249,
-1.58220636844635,
-0.31707194447517395,
0.3773328363895416,
0.42453861236572266,
-0.2982775866985321,
-0.2691243290901184,
-0.45500266551971436,
-0.23084843158721924,
-0.3268815875053406,
0.09420917928218842,
0.15286684036254883,
0.4398578703403473,
-0.2013547271490097,
-0.40999215841293335,
1.0685863494873047,
-0.6683951616287231,
0.8053749203681946,
0.22209766507148743,
-0.061959221959114075,
0.021454527974128723,
-0.8507981300354004,
-0.24654123187065125,
0.37359192967414856,
-0.10650455206632614,
0.06013273820281029,
0.15255631506443024,
-0.32659533619880676,
0.4940255880355835,
-0.2660486698150635,
0.5314024686813354,
0.48475462198257446,
0.4395780563354492,
0.14337003231048584,
-1.053694725036621,
-0.43117856979370117,
0.20098914206027985,
0.7303221821784973,
0.0033481165301054716,
-0.7300928831100464,
-0.05663163959980011,
0.24920989573001862,
-0.414394736289978,
-0.4025146961212158,
0.1794297844171524,
-0.11225579679012299,
0.22958607971668243,
0.6124768257141113,
-0.36108288168907166,
-0.5893298983573914,
-0.6498814821243286,
-0.18461787700653076,
-0.018783897161483765,
0.7688227295875549,
-0.10591211915016174,
-0.3276340365409851,
0.596019983291626,
0.10321300476789474,
0.2575281262397766,
-0.6181275844573975,
0.03786131367087364,
0.5148924589157104,
-0.19469450414180756,
-1.1721748113632202,
1.246101975440979,
-0.010868063196539879,
0.42074209451675415,
0.3483537435531616,
0.17968697845935822,
-0.07068932801485062,
-0.21584099531173706,
-0.12841185927391052,
-0.06271479278802872,
0.18844935297966003,
-0.2511269450187683,
-0.017315803095698357,
0.06499659270048141,
0.12041361629962921,
-0.41478291153907776,
0.8872044086456299,
-0.3723866939544678,
-0.06813456863164902,
0.5266188979148865,
0.04808300733566284,
0.8788120150566101,
0.7859964966773987,
-0.17077648639678955,
0.08447232842445374,
-0.3847377896308899,
-0.3919731676578522,
0.08685851842164993,
0.25913920998573303,
-0.38398477435112,
-0.2485620379447937,
0.35649222135543823,
-0.3919690251350403,
-0.751646876335144,
0.2613726854324341,
-0.06732475757598877,
0.204644575715065,
-0.19104111194610596,
-0.1283327043056488,
0.322799414396286,
0.5701058506965637,
-0.5728785395622253,
0.2709047496318817,
0.7173176407814026,
-0.05553557351231575,
0.4866412580013275,
0.1085040420293808,
0.8322928547859192,
0.5994019508361816,
-0.6908493041992188,
-0.06535159051418304,
0.4151163399219513,
0.4407145380973816,
0.21331071853637695,
-0.030253440141677856,
-0.04606994614005089,
-0.18553006649017334,
0.7296899557113647,
-0.2623854875564575,
-0.18746317923069,
0.011540813371539116,
0.060255855321884155,
0.01288606971502304,
0.33825916051864624,
0.7086503505706787,
0.2890861928462982,
0.6046727895736694,
-0.1323220133781433,
-0.4887925088405609,
-0.8717159032821655,
-0.44379737973213196,
-0.7368707060813904,
-0.23483143746852875,
-0.5594255924224854,
-0.44689151644706726,
-0.581092119216919,
-0.22847121953964233,
0.6262597441673279,
0.5007079839706421,
0.030566882342100143,
-0.18060553073883057,
-0.30162179470062256,
0.5774179100990295,
-0.36244428157806396,
-0.31636083126068115,
-1.0090422630310059,
-0.4573303759098053,
-0.25243285298347473,
-0.017588235437870026,
0.31987935304641724,
-1.1597493886947632,
-0.361555814743042,
-0.01874961331486702,
0.6700147390365601,
0.668430507183075,
-0.934001624584198,
-0.018702851608395576,
-0.01945650205016136,
0.5182101130485535,
-0.15640901029109955,
0.5483108758926392,
-0.47825857996940613,
0.6885731220245361,
0.463829904794693,
-5.169548511505127,
0.14360079169273376,
0.0712972953915596,
-0.39992353320121765,
0.5907252430915833,
0.747736930847168,
0.3143311142921448,
-0.6685929894447327,
-0.03527650237083435,
-0.022176461294293404,
0.4231307804584503,
0.4316636323928833,
-0.33700987696647644,
-0.48894715309143066,
0.3017108738422394,
-0.19065947830677032,
-0.3687867224216461,
-0.4178985357284546,
0.3625635504722595,
-0.18753936886787415,
0.2742471396923065,
0.6832913160324097,
-0.17004767060279846,
0.24603451788425446,
-0.07022204250097275,
-0.33340299129486084,
-0.532669186592102,
-0.523665189743042,
-0.3361049294471741,
-0.32273662090301514,
-0.2082122266292572,
0.31387457251548767,
-0.39863044023513794,
-0.11109982430934906,
-0.23827172815799713,
-0.4478737413883209,
0.44019806385040283,
0.36236539483070374,
-0.08015010505914688,
-0.30536970496177673,
-0.6221598386764526,
-0.037707600742578506,
0.1255546361207962,
-0.094082772731781,
0.7089481949806213,
-0.028293071314692497,
0.05979624018073082,
-0.5153439044952393,
-0.18576480448246002,
0.6350851655006409,
-0.08245528489351273,
-0.2344253808259964,
0.7784387469291687,
1.0189263820648193,
0.43916088342666626,
-0.40722763538360596,
-0.10489203035831451,
-0.05076081305742264,
-0.554021954536438,
0.6180933117866516,
0.7842724323272705,
-0.5087890028953552,
0.42771005630493164,
-0.6585797667503357,
0.1954408437013626,
-0.23403513431549072,
-0.5244962573051453,
0.5126702785491943,
0.6597943305969238,
-0.175126314163208,
-0.20004664361476898,
0.48560789227485657,
-0.32926657795906067,
-0.9844042658805847,
1.098262906074524,
-0.3350711166858673,
-0.20298689603805542,
0.023706398904323578,
-0.4636779725551605,
0.25668084621429443,
0.22292616963386536,
-0.5804113745689392,
-0.22246913611888885,
0.10585308074951172,
-0.12684611976146698,
-0.9193211197853088,
-0.7665556073188782,
-0.19922371208667755,
-0.02204701118171215,
-0.1810392141342163,
0.16027496755123138,
0.07542949914932251,
0.22724081575870514,
-0.045343268662691116,
0.6394945979118347,
0.19234144687652588,
0.01211098488420248,
0.14461944997310638,
0.1612631231546402,
-0.4568521976470947,
0.3695676326751709,
0.10340069979429245,
-0.32103392481803894,
-0.0672873854637146,
-0.045671314001083374,
-0.9509182572364807,
0.5511595010757446,
0.6476762890815735,
0.6708989143371582,
-0.2292216420173645,
0.4553934335708618,
-0.32725295424461365,
-0.695205807685852,
0.024999471381306648,
0.3096580505371094,
0.2882327735424042,
-0.06187835708260536,
-0.3266771733760834,
0.4136902391910553,
0.14643511176109314,
-0.29724711179733276,
-0.13242267072200775,
-0.4211615025997162,
0.23073624074459076,
0.23972417414188385,
-0.7552022933959961,
-0.15269941091537476,
-0.1813463717699051,
-0.6052612066268921,
-0.643962025642395,
0.28709596395492554,
-0.16902923583984375,
-0.34697332978248596,
-0.25486838817596436,
-0.17522332072257996,
0.016456812620162964,
-0.11494394391775131,
0.4109363555908203,
0.2628098130226135,
-0.10907427966594696,
-0.35888367891311646,
0.19641968607902527,
-0.47905394434928894,
-0.08593222498893738,
0.4461519420146942,
0.6892547011375427,
-0.6685811877250671,
-0.02318369224667549,
-0.46499529480934143,
1.2547225952148438,
0.25939396023750305,
-0.5034961104393005,
0.3986777663230896,
-0.696042001247406,
0.5009782314300537,
0.4503840506076813,
0.41980084776878357,
0.6151763200759888,
-0.2233305126428604,
-0.2243407815694809,
0.09883815795183182,
-0.02304726094007492,
-0.6817525029182434,
0.1177014634013176,
-0.06931235641241074,
0.20450308918952942,
-0.5937806963920593,
-0.46175700426101685,
0.32411789894104004,
0.0202048197388649,
0.7110977172851562,
-0.3338758647441864,
-0.5394929647445679,
0.2761914134025574,
0.2789370119571686,
-0.3058835566043854,
-0.6158362627029419,
0.4814963638782501,
-0.2805135250091553,
-0.16831174492835999,
-0.07107646018266678,
0.7107604742050171,
0.3785594403743744,
-0.015839576721191406,
0.6137622594833374,
-0.6438322067260742,
0.25577470660209656,
-0.41183942556381226,
-0.14566338062286377,
0.40790536999702454,
-0.02547629363834858,
0.3112741708755493,
0.6581727266311646,
-0.2255786657333374,
-0.04609542712569237,
0.2555236518383026,
-0.28432440757751465,
0.37756186723709106,
-0.021004965528845787,
-0.9145993590354919,
-0.045527439564466476,
0.2494584321975708,
-0.036554574966430664,
0.17203642427921295,
-0.353660523891449,
-0.1511649340391159,
0.8367606997489929,
-0.30256420373916626,
-0.48130524158477783,
0.25286659598350525,
-0.12221626937389374,
-0.20777183771133423,
-0.3191756308078766,
0.8172959685325623,
-0.18462230265140533,
0.3523108959197998,
0.3429243564605713,
0.12577153742313385,
-0.316733717918396,
0.13365167379379272,
-0.15173198282718658,
-0.30437085032463074,
-0.030817518010735512,
-0.1364954710006714,
-0.5679494738578796,
0.011422459036111832,
0.021898718550801277,
-0.06873328983783722,
1.2995237112045288,
-0.6123988628387451,
-0.1762460470199585,
-0.3575054109096527,
0.0018193251453340054,
0.08202455937862396,
0.005443190224468708,
-0.03199265897274017,
-0.006655680015683174,
-0.07630009949207306,
0.32402217388153076,
0.1951403021812439,
0.46766942739486694,
1.3458856344223022,
0.1977332979440689,
0.12765254080295563,
0.10394086688756943,
-0.01680494099855423,
-0.3985549211502075,
-0.3754436671733856,
-0.7654345631599426,
-0.17151965200901031,
0.863207995891571,
-0.3205350637435913,
-0.07351567596197128,
0.03938131034374237,
0.43538644909858704,
-0.42586517333984375,
0.03395655006170273,
0.4493522644042969,
0.10917262732982635,
0.16119225323200226,
0.4475574195384979,
0.19517512619495392,
-0.5653828978538513,
0.30426025390625,
-0.27856284379959106,
-0.22933782637119293,
-1.093741536140442,
0.02329437807202339,
0.09070246666669846,
-0.06277202814817429,
0.4850653409957886,
0.11776618659496307,
-0.21772389113903046,
0.2645598351955414,
0.4084841012954712,
0.47259271144866943,
-0.2001989483833313,
-0.6409267783164978,
-0.07840032130479813,
-0.014986017718911171,
0.3462621867656708,
-0.23720420897006989,
0.27656352519989014,
-0.26810187101364136,
-0.3063240051269531,
-0.05254019424319267,
-0.21703146398067474,
-0.2737252712249756,
0.2834359407424927,
-0.380275696516037,
-0.4769480228424072,
-0.08406666666269302,
-0.006174860987812281,
-0.09679322689771652,
0.044906605035066605,
0.3061351478099823,
0.45407363772392273,
0.37784454226493835,
-0.2422659546136856,
0.8137041926383972,
-0.6443985104560852,
0.23952855169773102,
0.016468537971377373,
-0.30916404724121094,
0.1279691904783249,
-0.1158529669046402,
-0.17429494857788086,
-0.010334881953895092,
-0.24406570196151733,
0.22046791017055511,
0.3782300651073456,
-0.2544812560081482,
-0.05858101695775986,
0.34464314579963684,
0.13147863745689392,
0.6651752591133118,
-0.23799395561218262,
-0.28085488080978394,
0.22224530577659607,
0.6013010740280151,
0.2136288434267044,
0.10585782676935196,
0.45828181505203247,
0.7198941111564636,
-0.42379236221313477,
0.041714925318956375,
-0.7252316474914551,
-0.5625439882278442,
0.3909894824028015,
0.5534753203392029,
0.09496033936738968,
0.1358216255903244,
-0.3872010409832001,
-0.06235136091709137,
-0.18373675644397736,
-0.08013758808374405,
-0.11995871365070343,
-0.4627903401851654,
0.035996656864881516,
1.105341911315918,
0.9239898920059204,
0.21467222273349762,
0.3405382037162781,
0.11431670933961868,
0.07057085633277893,
0.1672629714012146,
-0.3684283196926117,
0.07885757833719254,
-0.07458607107400894,
-0.07684246450662613,
0.3809691369533539,
-0.24269038438796997,
0.2567988634109497,
-0.5856226682662964,
0.4368099570274353,
0.38864344358444214,
0.00493643619120121,
-0.41697072982788086,
0.3357059061527252,
-0.5650318264961243,
-0.03818034380674362,
0.09296346455812454,
-0.26541611552238464,
-0.1608206331729889,
-0.9016798734664917,
0.4212038516998291,
-0.23055192828178406,
-0.523090660572052,
-0.5104831457138062,
0.06358300149440765,
-0.061453927308321,
0.5482364296913147,
-0.15460021793842316,
-0.2912888824939728,
0.016669917851686478,
0.8814668655395508,
-0.43405818939208984,
0.7328758835792542,
0.09832774102687836,
-0.5048992037773132,
-0.6230257749557495,
-0.587161660194397,
-0.08989835530519485,
-0.2225418984889984,
0.48514339327812195,
-0.2148575633764267,
-0.14264735579490662,
-0.10497155040502548,
-0.4358440041542053,
-0.19789983332157135,
-0.2343481183052063,
-0.8621477484703064,
0.1473284214735031,
-0.2603960931301117,
0.07075081765651703,
-0.46553775668144226,
0.09289119392633438,
1.1882174015045166,
0.36810359358787537,
0.19085027277469635,
-0.2541055977344513,
-0.002408366184681654,
0.015053370036184788,
0.4179927408695221,
0.1664157509803772,
0.0888521671295166,
-0.17197364568710327,
0.36299338936805725,
-0.7372153997421265,
0.4802016317844391,
0.4740089178085327,
0.492208868265152,
-0.21257606148719788,
0.3764081299304962,
0.14383293688297272,
0.06578651070594788,
1.0346004962921143,
-0.4547976851463318,
-0.3633519411087036,
-0.06376504898071289,
-0.270149827003479,
-0.5540364384651184,
0.39068999886512756,
0.3338310420513153,
-0.08678686618804932,
0.002574222395196557,
0.3029820919036865,
0.12533996999263763,
-0.9466490149497986,
0.6608957648277283,
-0.8754411339759827,
0.2914286255836487,
-0.8798489570617676,
-0.07878487557172775,
-0.0523982010781765,
-0.9949035048484802,
0.6067838668823242,
0.8551499247550964,
0.6287744641304016,
-0.17584899067878723,
0.16226181387901306,
0.09611660987138748,
0.061678554862737656,
-0.3180558383464813,
-1.771671175956726,
0.4677606523036957,
0.133219912648201,
-1.0098739862442017,
-0.5486200451850891,
-0.28628286719322205,
0.06669798493385315,
-0.5154047608375549,
-0.008723017759621143,
-0.3128502666950226,
-0.354663223028183,
0.6751717925071716,
0.24191631376743317,
-0.4015202224254608,
0.09073537588119507,
-0.34857648611068726
] |
247862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Record%20Company | American Record Company | The American Record Company was an American record label that was in business from 1904 to 1906.
History
The American Record Company (commonly abbreviated as "ARCo") was founded by Ellsworth A. Hawthorne and Horace Sheble, formerly designers of accessories for Edison Records machines at their Philadelphia-based bicycle shop; in a previous venture, they had issued a small run of brown-wax cylinders in the mid-1890s. Hawthorne and Sheble partnered with John O. Prescott, whose brother Frederick worked with International Talking Machine in Berlin, which marketed Odeon Records. The new company was based in Springfield, Massachusetts, though they maintained factories in Bridgeport, CT and Philadelphia; recordings were made in a studio in New York City. American principally produced single-sided, lateral-cut disc records on blue wax, although two-sided issues and standard, black shellac appeared towards the end of the company's run.
Logo
The label of the discs featured artwork depicting a Native American with a smoking pipe listening to a front-mount disc phonograph of undetermined manufacture; American Record Company advertising commonly marketed them as "Indian Records". Several variations of the "Indian" label exist, differing only in minor details. Most ARCo records are single sided; with their double-sided records, apparently the combination of sides were randomly chosen. The company would press any two sides paired, if the buyer met the minimum-order qualification. These records are notable for being blue in color, rather than the usual black, pressed from a shellac compound called Empedite which reputedly delivered better sound quality than standard black shellac. The records appear to have been numbered using a sequence which began at 030000; the highest number known is 031435. The records exist in 7-inch, 10-inch and 10.75-inch sizes, with the latter size being derived from its connection with Odeon, which also used that size. The seven-inch discs used a different numbering sequence and seem to have only been produced for a short time. Some export pressings for Britain carried the "American Odeon Record" logo.
Legacy
Unlike most American producers of discs apart from Victor and Columbia in the first decade of the twentieth century, American Record Company made their own recordings in direct contravention to existing patents. The most important contribution made by ARCo to the history of recorded sound is that they made the earliest surviving records of Hawaiian music in several discs credited to the Royal Hawaiian Troubadours; this was a group led by July Paka. The house band was called the Regimental Band of the Republic and was responsible for most of the remaining instrumental selections on the label, in addition to providing accompaniments to singers. Other performers were mainly drawn from the ranks of singers that worked for Victor, Columbia and the cylinder companies, recording many of the same songs that they did elsewhere. Many ARCos are anonymous, though just as many if not more do carry an accurate credit as to the performer. Collectors of early records do value ARCOs; while not as common as early Columbias or Victors, they survive in decent numbers, especially when compared to discs on labels that they provided masters to, such as Busy Bee, Kalamazoo and Peerless. In Europe, their releases appeared on Pelican, Leader, American Odeon and Odeon.
Roster
A listing of some of the artists that appeared on American Record Company.
Henry Burr
Arthur Collins (singer)
Collins and Harlan
Billy Golden
Byron G. Harlan
Billy Heins
Anna Held
Invincible Quartette
Ada Jones
Giuseppe Li Puma
Charles P. Lowe
Billy Murray (singer)
J.W. Myers
Vess L. Ossman
Steve Porter (singer)
Dan W. Quinn
Regimental Band of the Republic
Royal Hawaiian Troubadours
Len Spencer
Frank C. Stanley
Harry Tally
George P. Watson
Print references
American Record Label Book, Brian Rust, Da Capo, 1984.
References
External links
American Record Company on Shellac.org
American record labels
Record labels established in 1904
Record labels disestablished in 1906
Defunct record labels of the United States
Defunct companies based in Massachusetts
1904 establishments in Massachusetts
1906 disestablishments in Massachusetts
Entertainment companies of the United States | [
0.05123661458492279,
0.3814374506473541,
-0.6164022088050842,
0.1305500864982605,
0.005962487310171127,
-0.2745766341686249,
-0.11162116378545761,
0.14398212730884552,
-0.3531478941440582,
0.1459088921546936,
0.19349831342697144,
0.5933444499969482,
-0.1767478734254837,
0.8396243453025818,
-0.2915460765361786,
-0.07581941783428192,
-0.07656638324260712,
0.39678144454956055,
-0.13702121376991272,
-0.6458813548088074,
-0.7654803395271301,
0.02951429970562458,
0.4940114915370941,
-0.40051010251045227,
-0.4902976155281067,
-0.31344422698020935,
-0.3160640597343445,
-0.40528666973114014,
-0.5716419219970703,
0.14411908388137817,
0.3989385962486267,
0.46508684754371643,
-0.20448574423789978,
-0.0377817377448082,
-0.7403791546821594,
-0.21081127226352692,
-0.17699077725410461,
-0.4633125066757202,
-0.4649488925933838,
-0.9256466627120972,
-0.3251950442790985,
-0.15035173296928406,
0.2690708041191101,
0.7089611291885376,
-0.411979615688324,
-0.04529223591089249,
-1.472402811050415,
0.24443291127681732,
-0.6910258531570435,
-0.11480998247861862,
-0.06139291077852249,
0.6229354739189148,
-0.11603539437055588,
0.42086899280548096,
0.10555688291788101,
0.31855475902557373,
0.04354184865951538,
0.12184444069862366,
-0.39448273181915283,
-0.574650228023529,
0.14117340743541718,
-0.19262844324111938,
0.7142202854156494,
-0.03597771376371384,
0.46274885535240173,
0.24624134600162506,
0.11949795484542847,
0.39149487018585205,
-0.12994126975536346,
0.1813872754573822,
-0.33218544721603394,
-0.28683674335479736,
0.11080402135848999,
-0.8236945867538452,
0.41860252618789673,
-0.3614267408847809,
0.11031965166330338,
-0.5493819713592529,
0.27687573432922363,
0.4447774887084961,
0.158718079328537,
-0.04089149087667465,
0.8406579494476318,
-0.2279907912015915,
-0.2852648198604584,
-0.07334981113672256,
-0.6872724294662476,
-0.08731795847415924,
-0.19351494312286377,
-0.16416898369789124,
0.04884318634867668,
0.0659065842628479,
0.5908876657485962,
0.11207796633243561,
-0.6490253210067749,
-0.4981473386287689,
0.060369085520505905,
-0.1314883530139923,
0.07702650874853134,
0.48296669125556946,
-0.16188214719295502,
-0.20153410732746124,
0.11051876842975616,
-0.1310640573501587,
-0.09414439648389816,
0.35586655139923096,
0.2910251021385193,
0.1595650315284729,
0.1559949815273285,
-0.006900441832840443,
-0.2101062387228012,
-0.0685967355966568,
0.04568679630756378,
-0.02375452034175396,
-0.3667371869087219,
0.4214926064014435,
0.29215115308761597,
0.024071259424090385,
-0.4489372968673706,
0.25190097093582153,
0.3233441710472107,
1.0393785238265991,
-0.16923926770687103,
0.3763936460018158,
-0.2871163487434387,
0.40376541018486023,
0.11588247120380402,
0.312185674905777,
0.12016209214925766,
-0.3733906149864197,
-0.54338538646698,
0.2641746997833252,
-0.03509656339883804,
0.06618700921535492,
0.15396201610565186,
-0.066010020673275,
0.33757609128952026,
0.060905821621418,
-0.0767769068479538,
-0.06834637373685837,
-0.4709234833717346,
-0.14094576239585876,
-1.0052155256271362,
-0.406935453414917,
0.21135194599628448,
-0.24759511649608612,
-0.026471121236681938,
0.03203415125608444,
-0.5469853281974792,
-0.25880852341651917,
0.6656347513198853,
-0.20167095959186554,
-0.09855055809020996,
0.3281981348991394,
-0.30648449063301086,
-0.34595683217048645,
0.603827714920044,
0.014898650348186493,
0.31841230392456055,
0.08805278688669205,
-0.29007846117019653,
0.27474555373191833,
-0.07364215701818466,
0.4456281065940857,
0.12742918729782104,
-0.0715983659029007,
-0.18841417133808136,
0.20689158141613007,
-0.3435787558555603,
0.007148436736315489,
-0.04789367690682411,
0.04856861010193825,
-0.0663379579782486,
0.15160545706748962,
-0.3403991758823395,
-0.10309112071990967,
0.4632316827774048,
0.24008914828300476,
0.019827237352728844,
-0.28876379132270813,
-0.4788820147514343,
0.7825133204460144,
0.5185403823852539,
-0.3063017725944519,
0.22469885647296906,
0.48190879821777344,
0.3244861662387848,
-0.4584423005580902,
-0.07552342116832733,
-0.4948990046977997,
0.10729005932807922,
-0.5815190672874451,
-0.2588871121406555,
-0.6004067659378052,
0.8618922829627991,
0.3498688042163849,
-0.7239599823951721,
0.5364218354225159,
-0.4879215657711029,
-0.001486711436882615,
-0.05638976767659187,
0.302073210477829,
-0.19331243634223938,
-0.2357330471277237,
-0.05595416575670242,
0.22674208879470825,
0.38789862394332886,
0.08193110674619675,
0.7482625842094421,
0.40059980750083923,
0.10355910658836365,
-0.28114476799964905,
0.6649449467658997,
0.26701492071151733,
0.17702694237232208,
-0.22351768612861633,
-0.7719612717628479,
0.3521174490451813,
0.3339892327785492,
-0.43122154474258423,
0.6701452136039734,
0.012191013433039188,
0.09080998599529266,
0.6529722213745117,
0.15973490476608276,
0.7076350450515747,
-0.019518017768859863,
-0.4567168951034546,
-0.13905106484889984,
0.07649179548025131,
0.5959686040878296,
0.40592095255851746,
0.5736267566680908,
-0.7961210012435913,
0.41501519083976746,
0.28887879848480225,
-0.5880020260810852,
-0.37198305130004883,
0.10087325423955917,
0.1814395636320114,
0.23037569224834442,
-0.21916402876377106,
-0.2741818130016327,
0.3890887498855591,
0.21904101967811584,
-0.03557058423757553,
-0.25459641218185425,
-0.09968609362840652,
0.3624677360057831,
-0.13014072179794312,
0.5489940643310547,
0.2269076257944107,
0.20530197024345398,
0.12273450940847397,
0.19031581282615662,
0.06775186955928802,
0.057233043015003204,
-0.35203227400779724,
0.2023109495639801,
0.29992714524269104,
0.14084340631961823,
0.11371142417192459,
0.065766841173172,
-0.028299326077103615,
0.4390322268009186,
-0.31665560603141785,
-0.45915305614471436,
0.10209500789642334,
0.30346056818962097,
-0.32259124517440796,
0.041297148913145065,
0.6723400950431824,
-0.12171333283185959,
0.017502250149846077,
0.21381866931915283,
0.21471869945526123,
-0.6129288077354431,
-0.10270706564188004,
-0.2738998532295227,
-0.28878897428512573,
0.22781136631965637,
0.27019211649894714,
0.10273867845535278,
-0.7804670929908752,
-0.46147844195365906,
-0.005359141621738672,
0.1145772710442543,
-0.7414904236793518,
0.15244720876216888,
-0.06422959268093109,
-0.07077904045581818,
0.36387452483177185,
-0.6961085796356201,
0.36998024582862854,
-0.08250265568494797,
0.3029107451438904,
0.13646140694618225,
0.1629144549369812,
0.006809884682297707,
-0.8015230894088745,
-0.641459047794342,
-0.08162232488393784,
-0.19932246208190918,
-0.6058921217918396,
0.41139650344848633,
-0.2890832722187042,
0.12918971478939056,
-0.6495165228843689,
-5.957239151000977,
-0.17532475292682648,
-0.08040392398834229,
-0.6877787709236145,
0.34330636262893677,
-0.10023950040340424,
0.3221791386604309,
-0.7074353098869324,
-0.005307069048285484,
0.07391884922981262,
-0.08267366141080856,
0.3201741576194763,
-0.30585357546806335,
0.2954246997833252,
0.2775489389896393,
0.3614627718925476,
-0.0005092438077554107,
0.23303291201591492,
-0.37585240602493286,
-0.09397605061531067,
0.17519840598106384,
-0.8024243712425232,
0.4316413402557373,
0.19149358570575714,
0.18232838809490204,
0.34608960151672363,
0.14722228050231934,
0.28080570697784424,
-0.06838953495025635,
0.09098794311285019,
0.13024453818798065,
-0.13576571643352509,
0.18278126418590546,
-0.7895269989967346,
0.11130812019109726,
-0.11812194436788559,
0.23236000537872314,
0.3062460422515869,
-0.17055773735046387,
0.10118646919727325,
0.027376454323530197,
0.09006533026695251,
-0.017180483788251877,
-0.1996728628873825,
-0.24809405207633972,
0.10642897337675095,
-0.37527331709861755,
-0.060745857656002045,
-0.4973859488964081,
1.0512303113937378,
0.5087548494338989,
0.5241307616233826,
-0.03750864416360855,
0.01953558810055256,
-0.10184280574321747,
-0.21154825389385223,
0.345331072807312,
-0.29810667037963867,
0.11243388801813126,
0.17931999266147614,
0.980057418346405,
-0.3215373158454895,
0.021881673485040665,
-0.2707134783267975,
-0.2992002069950104,
-0.6189026236534119,
-0.5571173429489136,
0.15204283595085144,
0.7863812446594238,
0.3783794045448303,
0.3266434967517853,
-0.15062102675437927,
0.13677577674388885,
-0.9432944059371948,
0.0839482769370079,
-0.01430419459939003,
0.692393958568573,
-0.33738332986831665,
-0.23380349576473236,
1.0672671794891357,
0.008101630955934525,
0.18742556869983673,
-0.003720739856362343,
0.5067645311355591,
0.26455241441726685,
-0.06036143749952316,
-0.3457379639148712,
0.46910664439201355,
-1.0867280960083008,
-0.016447778791189194,
0.3976450264453888,
-0.02388361096382141,
0.46491140127182007,
0.15414775907993317,
0.08065972477197647,
0.198560893535614,
0.16947196424007416,
0.45816880464553833,
0.6169637441635132,
-0.3865377902984619,
-0.3971003293991089,
0.22010596096515656,
0.05703968182206154,
-0.8537802696228027,
-0.2802308201789856,
-0.5466246604919434,
-0.23625895380973816,
-0.35563236474990845,
0.31174346804618835,
-0.16669756174087524,
0.04190117493271828,
-0.5852909088134766,
-0.36212190985679626,
-0.6646348237991333,
0.5189342498779297,
-0.15603864192962646,
0.10320626944303513,
0.31973424553871155,
0.23843730986118317,
-0.5490055084228516,
0.5574276447296143,
0.22117601335048676,
0.14314667880535126,
-0.1393890231847763,
-0.6653128862380981,
0.03076397068798542,
-0.027502767741680145,
0.044286295771598816,
0.07317782193422318,
0.1021609678864479,
-0.0848764181137085,
-0.1625962108373642,
-0.02880755625665188,
0.6401872038841248,
0.10584572702646255,
0.08008410781621933,
-0.5717747807502747,
0.22175638377666473,
-0.16535764932632446,
-0.5300365686416626,
0.19042067229747772,
-0.24970334768295288,
-0.1290242075920105,
0.7321708798408508,
0.7980453968048096,
0.3635292649269104,
0.1435592919588089,
-0.6099917888641357,
0.09899735450744629,
-0.22666822373867035,
-0.45234450697898865,
-0.44758522510528564,
0.7086636424064636,
-0.24013060331344604,
-0.21278530359268188,
-0.28230711817741394,
-0.038964588195085526,
-0.3942694664001465,
-0.41740870475769043,
-0.25248411297798157,
0.04450686275959015,
-0.3696381747722626,
-0.4984433352947235,
-0.2289985865354538,
0.3878006041049957,
0.078315868973732,
-0.4939519762992859,
-0.1839347630739212,
0.23709619045257568,
0.5131179094314575,
0.2743307948112488,
0.04807872697710991,
0.31985270977020264,
-0.7445686459541321,
0.22151809930801392,
0.7434713244438171,
0.4293457567691803,
-0.013616136275231838,
-0.15037281811237335,
-0.2391568124294281,
0.3755837380886078,
-0.1219099685549736,
-1.1351486444473267,
-0.03713146969676018,
-0.026939542964100838,
-0.8474084138870239,
-0.3138371407985687,
-0.22353120148181915,
-0.5918005108833313,
-0.3246656060218811,
-0.24685509502887726,
-0.22471433877944946,
0.3867177367210388,
0.20835085213184357,
-0.4024592339992523,
-0.1903868317604065,
-0.4014698266983032,
0.2614481449127197,
-0.06590297818183899,
-0.18837574124336243,
-0.05319920927286148,
-0.11422830075025558,
0.2597016394138336,
0.13063061237335205,
-0.5254771709442139,
-0.8756153583526611,
0.5647652745246887,
0.17315666377544403,
-0.968049168586731,
0.5450010299682617,
-0.23407892882823944,
-0.7222253680229187,
0.029722785577178,
0.3199307918548584,
-0.06867150962352753,
-0.13059130311012268,
0.36667564511299133,
0.1309499442577362,
0.181704580783844,
-0.07435780763626099,
-0.1688796728849411,
0.29831692576408386,
-0.5562841892242432,
0.01367226243019104,
-0.2880828082561493,
0.6574579477310181,
0.31299275159835815,
-0.0789298564195633,
0.012668069452047348,
-0.18933436274528503,
-0.040099695324897766,
-0.1597062647342682,
-0.46708568930625916,
-0.24019725620746613,
-0.1995878964662552,
0.00868762657046318,
0.05345894396305084,
-0.15037892758846283,
0.13642428815364838,
0.036466680467128754,
0.02524620294570923,
0.3179128170013428,
-0.10977969318628311,
-0.006487819831818342,
0.1065186858177185,
0.30096369981765747,
0.3355617821216583,
-0.050959646701812744,
-0.1299942135810852,
0.5263354182243347,
0.3770204186439514,
-0.40481293201446533,
-1.076500654220581,
0.13262899219989777,
0.565855860710144,
0.12710630893707275,
-0.4147666096687317,
0.9828022718429565,
-0.447307288646698,
-0.03686370328068733,
-0.19005891680717468,
0.143337219953537,
-0.41076892614364624,
-0.01127579528838396,
-0.08003409951925278,
0.4201434254646301,
-0.27114200592041016,
-0.17526130378246307,
-0.013725697062909603,
-0.09010259807109833,
0.03464244678616524,
0.33905619382858276,
0.08901307731866837,
0.5971620678901672,
0.37794750928878784,
-0.20807215571403503,
-0.013218200765550137,
-0.6282685995101929,
-0.3955199122428894,
0.2963154911994934,
-0.18343792855739594,
-0.25184667110443115,
-0.04237201437354088,
0.11758436262607574,
-0.19070211052894592,
-0.4225427806377411,
-0.3213770389556885,
-0.23766085505485535,
-0.24863193929195404,
-0.44387590885162354,
-0.008320651017129421,
0.06121743097901344,
0.5433793067932129,
-0.02797725796699524,
-0.6679392457008362,
0.27543818950653076,
0.3259549140930176,
0.11069349199533463,
0.18025995790958405,
-0.06777656823396683,
-0.19187438488006592,
0.530335009098053,
-0.042672619223594666,
-0.04355297237634659,
-0.014988918788731098,
0.15831150114536285,
0.03509131446480751,
-0.11077313870191574,
-0.638645350933075,
-0.10521480441093445,
0.04655629023909569,
-0.5181175470352173,
0.08464246988296509,
0.4477842152118683,
-0.6173800826072693,
0.29704609513282776,
0.9539129734039307,
-0.3682189881801605,
0.17304737865924835,
0.0025751888751983643,
0.23390349745750427,
0.1255219578742981,
0.11362889409065247,
0.006505019497126341,
-0.18680442869663239,
0.08804357051849365,
-0.23177558183670044,
0.3837440013885498,
0.5113320350646973,
0.1414882093667984,
1.0166137218475342,
-0.17569607496261597,
0.08646346628665924,
0.2704474925994873,
-0.48839569091796875,
-0.6258123517036438,
-0.2434874325990677,
-0.6413163542747498,
-0.5522081255912781,
0.6204836368560791,
-0.10020271688699722,
-0.24791942536830902,
0.3894200026988983,
-0.02988317795097828,
0.22593747079372406,
-0.16494575142860413,
0.11560384184122086,
-0.13257405161857605,
0.14016935229301453,
-0.33491650223731995,
0.3467080593109131,
0.12760473787784576,
0.20806588232517242,
0.04362010583281517,
0.5324895977973938,
0.3097520172595978,
0.6958320140838623,
0.43261972069740295,
0.8707883358001709,
0.10189676284790039,
-0.3301904797554016,
0.469524621963501,
0.9966001510620117,
-0.06375011056661606,
-0.029559029266238213,
0.3594900667667389,
0.1460326761007309,
-0.05011914297938347,
-0.3546254634857178,
-0.04567832499742508,
0.1242053434252739,
-0.5060399174690247,
0.14815260469913483,
0.33396196365356445,
-0.2082669734954834,
0.5009603500366211,
0.2787618339061737,
0.43421828746795654,
0.2986446022987366,
0.3160948157310486,
-0.11180013418197632,
0.3571062386035919,
-0.2509916126728058,
-0.4131240248680115,
0.07969886064529419,
-0.31692683696746826,
-0.5461840629577637,
0.3965173065662384,
0.22949329018592834,
-0.4408278167247772,
-0.35838910937309265,
-0.8233538269996643,
0.16829928755760193,
-0.12013278901576996,
-0.12390388548374176,
-0.0525607131421566,
-0.0382247231900692,
0.28234291076660156,
0.08118361234664917,
0.14005699753761292,
0.00892005767673254,
0.06972427666187286,
0.5110006928443909,
0.2308206856250763,
0.05351271107792854,
0.49153420329093933,
-0.30423328280448914,
0.22225616872310638,
-0.2647193670272827,
0.8884351849555969,
-0.5092362761497498,
0.1465337723493576,
-0.18943266570568085,
0.6456378102302551,
0.18835300207138062,
-0.25644123554229736,
0.7183624505996704,
0.08318891376256943,
-0.4660327136516571,
-0.20837201178073883,
0.38551145792007446,
-0.27265581488609314,
-0.16202935576438904,
-0.05511186271905899,
0.004953460767865181,
0.14944234490394592,
0.28534165024757385,
-0.1693425178527832,
-0.3630877435207367,
0.8190434575080872,
0.27036476135253906,
-0.3711208403110504,
-0.0922505185008049,
-0.31054890155792236,
-0.7674409747123718,
-0.28283435106277466,
-0.2896307706832886,
0.4529363214969635,
0.5433947443962097,
-0.2005767822265625,
0.41708502173423767,
0.531785786151886,
0.22646582126617432,
-0.31021973490715027,
0.6287215352058411,
-0.22689270973205566,
0.0955253392457962,
-0.3415931165218353,
-0.5821621417999268,
0.8778749704360962,
-0.2644493579864502,
-0.46222367882728577,
0.49889594316482544,
-0.11966734379529953,
0.18681789934635162,
-0.33735430240631104,
0.4085518419742584,
0.2608458399772644,
0.6864968538284302,
-0.40166738629341125
] |
247866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernakulam%20district | Ernakulam district | Ernakulam, ; IAST: Eṟaṇākuḷaṁ, in Malayalam: എറണാകുളം) is a district of Kerala, India, that takes its name from the eponymous city division in Kochi. It is situated in the central part of the state, spans an area of about , and is home to over 9% of Kerala's population. Its headquarters are located at Kakkanad. The district includes Kochi, also known as the commercial capital of Kerala, which is famous for its ancient Hindu temples, churches, synagogues and mosques. The district includes the largest metropolitan region of the state: Greater Cochin. Ernakulam is the district that yields the most revenue and the largest number of industries in the state. Ernakulam is the third most populous district in Kerala, after Malappuram and Thiruvananthapuram (out of 14 districts). The district also hosts the highest number of international and domestic tourists in Kerala state.
The most commonly spoken language in Ernakulam is Malayalam. English is widely used, mostly in business circles. Ernakulam became India's first district to have 100 percent banking or full "meaningful financial inclusion" in 2012.
Ernakulam has a high Human Development Index of 0.801 (UNHDP report 2005), which is one of the highest in India.
Etymology
The name Ernakulam is derived from Erayanarkulam (Tamil/Malayalam) which means 'the abode of Lord Shiva'. Ernakulam was also known as Rishinagakulam in ancient times.
History
Ernakulam has played a part in the political history of south India since ancient times. The Jews, Syrians, Arabs, Chinese, Dutch, British, and Portuguese seafarers followed the sea route to the Kingdom of Cochin and left their impressions on the town. The port at Kozhikode held superior economic and political position in medieval Kerala coast, while Kannur, Kollam, and Kochi, were commercially important secondary ports, where the traders from various parts of the world would gather. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century. In 1896, the Maharaja of Cochin initiated local administration by forming a town council in Ernakulam. Initially, The district's headquarters were located in the portion of the city known as Ernakulam, which gave the district its name; the headquarters was relocated afterwards to Kakkanad.
In the year 1998, Kuttampuzha village was added to the district from Idukki district following which the district got a political boundary with neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu. There is no interstate road that connects the district with the neighbouring state through this border.
Geography
The Ernakulam district covers an area of on the Western Coastal Plains of India. It is surrounded by the Thrissur District to the north, the Idukki District to the east, Alappuzha and Kottayam districts to the south, the Coimbatore District of Tamil Nadu to the north-east and the Laccadive Sea to the west. The Anamalais occupy a large part of the district, consisting of the forest areas around Pooyamkutty and the Idamalayar Dam. The range also extends into Thrissur, Palakkad, and Idukki districts, as well as Coimbatore and Tiruppur districts of Tamil Nadu. The state border between Ernakulam district and Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu is not accessible by road, and is located in the entirely in forest. The district is divided geographically into highland, midland, and coastal area. The altitude of the highlands is about . The Periyar River, Kerala's longest, flows through all the taluks except Muvattupuzha. The Muvattupuzha River and a branch of the Chalakkudy River also flow through the district. The average yearly rainfall in the district is . The district has a moderate climate and mostly falls within the Malabar Coast moist forests ecoregion, while the highlands are part of the South Western Ghats moist deciduous forests ecoregion. The Anamudi is the tallest peak in South India, on the border of Ernakulam and Idukki districts. Some parts of the Idamalayar Reserve Forest and Mankulam Forest Division have Sholas but these parts are inaccessible by road. Parts of Ernakulam district bordering Tamil Nadu are often incorrectly considered part of the neighbouring Idukki district, including parts of the Idamalayar Reserve Forest, and Edamalakkudy. Many types of sands, soil, and rocks are abundant here. Cochin International Airport is located in the northern part of the district at Nedumbassery, Kochi.
The district houses two Urban Agglomerations, Kochi and Kothamangalam. Kochi is the largest city in the state, and 17th most populous in the country according to the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs rankings based on the 2011 Census, with an area of over 843km2 and 2.12 million population.
Topography
The district is divided into three parts: lowland, midland, and the highland that consist of seaboard, plains, and hills and forests respectively. 20 percent of the total area are lowlands. The forests in the eastern part of the district are mostly remote, forming a part of the Anamalais. The highest peak is the Anamudi. The midland consists mainly of plain land and a group of islands that naturally drain water via backwaters and canals. The hilly or eastern portion is formed by a section of the Western Ghats. Muvattupuzha and Kothamangalam taluks, which were initially parts of the Kottayam district and constitute the highlands. Muvattupuzhayar and Periyar are the main rivers, of which the latter flows through Muvattupuzha, Aluva, Kunnathunad and Parur taluks. During the rainy season these rivers are full and heavy floods affect the low-lying areas on the banks, but in the summer season, they generally go dry and narrow. The Periyar is stretched over a length of .
Forest and wildlife
The flora of this district is tropical. The heavy rainfall combined with moderate temperatures and fertile soil support abundant vegetation. Many of the common plants are found in the coastal area, which forms the lowland region. The midland region is occupied by coconut palms, paddy, tapioca, pepper, pineapple and pulses. The lower slopes of the highland region have teak and rubber.
Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary
Mangalavanam Bird Sanctuary is located at the centre of Kochi. It covers , supports many species of mangroves and is a nesting ground for a variety of migratory birds. The Managalavanam is called the "green lung of Kochi", considering its role in controlling the city's air pollution.
Thattekad Bird Sanctuary
Thattekad Bird Sanctuary lies on the northern bank of the Periyar River and covers about . It was founded by ornithologist Salim Ali. The sanctuary is from Kochi. Birds found here include falcons, jungle fowl, water hens, and hornbills. The flora of this area consists mainly of plantations of teak, rosewood, and mahogany. Further on the road, Pooyamkutty forest of the Anamalais is reached.
Climate
Economy
Ernakulam district is the richest district in Kerala and is the biggest commercial centre in the state of Kerala. It contributes the most to the state exchequer in terms of GSVA and tax revenues. It has the highest literacy rate as well as the highest per capita income in the state, along with having the most number of commercialised banks, startups and large scale industries & MSMEs in the state.
Its M.G. Road is the location of some of the biggest businesses in Kerala. Kochi is also the headquarters of some large companies like Federal Bank, Geojit, BC to AD, V-Guard, and Muthoot.
The sea along the entire coast of the district and its backwaters are the habitat of various kinds of fish that supply both marine and inland fisheries.
Agriculture
The eastern part of Ernakulam is primarily agrarian in nature. Rice is the principal crop cultivated in the wetlands. The district is the largest producer of nutmeg and pineapple in the state: more than 55% of pineapples produced in the state is cultivated in the district. Rubber is the most cultivated plantation crop in the district and the district is the second-largest producer of rubber in the state behind Kottayam. Other important crops cultivated in the district are tapioca, black pepper, areca nut, coconut, turmeric, banana, and plantain.
Education
Ernakulam is the first district in India to have 100 percent literacy by 1990. In fact Kochi has the highest literacy rate for any city in the country with over 20 lakhs population. Pothanikkad is the first village in India that achieved 100 percent literacy according to state literacy programme is in this district.
There are three prominent universities in Ernakulam: Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit in Kalady, Cochin University of Science and Technology in Kalamassery, and Kerala University of Fisheries and Ocean Studies in Kochi. The district has the most number of educational institutions in the state; as of 2019, there are 476 fully high-tech schools in Ernakulam.
In 2017, Ernakulam district administration launched the Roshni project, which aims to provide Malayalam education to migrant children. It supported 1,265 migrant workers’ children from lower primary to high school.
Divisions
There are two revenue divisions: Fort Kochi and Muvattupuzha. The municipal corporation is in Kochi.
Taluks
The district has the most taluks in the state. The district is divided by two revenue divisions with seven taluks.
Paravur
Aluva
Kunnathunad
Muvattupuzha
Kochi
Kanayannur
Kothamangalam
Municipalities
Interestingly, Ernakulam district has the most number of municipalities in the state.
North Paravur
Piravom
Muvattupuzha
Koothattukulam
Perumbavoor
Aluva
Angamaly
Thripunithura
Kalamassery
Kothamangalam
Eloor
Maradu
Thrikkakara
A criticism that has been centered around this fact is that despite municipalities like Aluva, Kalamassery, Thrikkakara, Maradu, Tripunithura and Eloor becoming assimilated into Kochi city, they still exist as individual municipalities instead of being under Kochi Corporation. Surprisingly the corporation has not amended its limits for over half a century, since 1967 to be precise. The corporation was the largest in area and population when it was formed, and all these regions were panchayaths back then. Instead of adding them to the corporation when these regions started developing due to the urban expansion of Kochi city, they were made into separate municipalities thus largely handicapping the corporation. Now the call to expand these outdated limits for a better unified administration for the entire city of Kochi is a strong public demand.
Parliamentary Constituencies
Ernakulam Parliamentary Constituency
Chalakudy Parliamentary Constituency (partially)
Idukki Parliamentary Constituency (parts of Muvattupuzha taluk and Kothamangalam taluk)
Kottayam Parliamentary Constituency (parts of Muvattupuzha taluk and Kanayannur taluk)
Assembly Constituencies
Piravom
Angamaly
Aluva
Kalamassery
North Paravur
Vypeen
Kochi
Ernakulam
Thrikkakara
Thripunithura
Perumbavoor
Kunnathunad
Moovattupuzha
Kothamangalam
Demographics
According to the 2018 Statistics Report, Ernakulam has a population of 3,427,659. The 2011 Census of India reports that the district is ranked 104th most populous in India out of 640. The district has a population density of . Its population growth rate in 2001–2011 was 5.69%. Ernakulam has a sex ratio of 1027 females for every 1000 males, and a literacy rate of 95.89%.
This district is listed as the "most advanced" district in Kerala. It had a resident population of 3,105,798 as of 2001, excluding the commuters from neighbouring districts. The urban population is 68%.
According to the 2011 Census of India, Ernakulam District also houses the largest city (UA) in the state (17th largest in the country) - Kochi Urban Agglomeration. Kochi UA spans across 843km2 with a population of 2,119,724 (2.12 million), thereby housing approximately two thirds of the population of Ernakulam District. Government of Kerala have also marked Kochi UA as the only "first order UA" in the state, which has its influence spread across the entire state unlike the other smaller cities.
The district also houses another smaller urban agglomeration - Kothamangalam, which has an area of 81.42 km2 housing over 1,14, 639 people. The towns of Kothamangalam and Muvattupuzha form a major chunk of the Kothamangalam UA.
Religion
Hindus (46%) accounts for the largest community, followed by Christians (38%) (Latin Catholic, Syro-Malabar, Jacobites, and Malankara Orthodox) and Muslims (15.7%). A small population of Jains, Jews, and Sikhs reside in Kochi. Ernakulam once had a vibrant jewish population, with several synagogues, known as the Malabar Jews who used to dominate the trade and commercial activities in the district. After the state of Israel was formed in 1945, the entire community made aliyah to Israel in the 1950's. Today they number 8000 in Israel but very few jews remain in the district. After a direct flight service was established between Kochi and Tel Aviv they have retained ties with the state with annual visits and gatherings.
Ernakulam also has a significant Konkani Hindu population who escaped from Goa during the Goa Inquisition. There is a small Jain community in Ernakulam district, concentrated mainly in the Kochi city. The Sikh community in Ernakulam is also concentrated mainly in Kochi. There are more than 25 Sikh families in Kochi and there is one gurdwara.
Culture
Festivals and traditions
The Aluva Sivarathri festival at the Aluva Mahadeva Temple (situated on the banks of river Periyar) in Aluva attracts people from around the country.
St. Mary's Orthodox Syrian Cathedral, Piravom is believed to be founded in 405 A.D. and was the headquarters of Archdeacon and St Thomas until the 18th century.
Adi Shankaracharya was born in Kalady, which is considered to be a major pilgrimage centre for Hindus around the world.
Kallil Kshethram is a famous Jain temple near Perumbavoor.
Puthencruz is the regional seat of Syriac Orthodox Church in India, and is where Saint Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor is located.
The eight-day lent (Ettunombu) festival at St Mary's Jacobite Syrian Valiyapally, Thamarachal attracts many people from all over the state. St. George Orthodox Syrian Church at Kadamattam near Muvattupuzha is very old and was founded by Mar Abo Syrian Metropolitan in the 5th century A.D. He brought a cross from Persia, which is preserved in the church. The festival at the Latin church of Vallarpadam on 24 September attracts people belonging to all religions. The icon of Virgin Mary in this church is credited with many miracles. St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Edappally was founded in 593 A.D.
Important pilgrimage sites in Ernakulam are Koonan Kurish St George Orthodox Pilgrim church, Mattancherry; Vadakken Paravoor St Thomas Catholic Church, Malayattoor Pally; and Mor Thoman Jacobite Church, Kothamangalam; and Thrikkunnathu St Mary's Seminary Church, Aluva. The relics of Gregorios Abdul Jaleel are preserved at the St. Thomas Jacobite church North Paravur. Thousands of pilgrims from Kerala culminate on 27 April for the Dhukrono of the Saint. The Feast of Eldho Mor Baselios is celebrated in the tomb church Mor Thoman Church at Kothamangalam every year on 2 and 3 October. The Feast of Paulose Mar Athanasius on 26 January at Thrikkunnathu St Mary's Seminary Church, Aluva, where he is entombed, also attracts thousands.
Gheevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala, also known as Parumala Thirumeni, the first saint of Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church from India was born and brought up in Mulanthuruthy.
Places of interest
Marine Drive, Kochi
Kadavumbhagam Mattancherry Synagogue
Kadavumbhagam Ernakulam Synagogue
Paradesi Synagogue: Constructed in 1567, only active synagogue in the Kochi.
Chinese Fishing Nets (Cheena Vala)
Hill Palace, Tripunithura
Bolgatty Island
Willingdon Island
Dutch Palace: Made in 1568 by the Portuguese. Later re-structured by the Dutch.
St. Francis Church, Kochi: Originally built in 1503, the oldest European church in India
Kodanad: Elephant training centre is located here.
Pareekshit Thampuran Museum
Kerala Historical Museum: Located at Edappally
Chendamangalam, a village
Palium Palace
Vypeenakotta Seminary
Bhoothathankettu, a scenic dam site
St. Thomas Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Malayattoor: The only international shrine in Asia. Believed to have been visited by St. Thomas, the apostle.
Wonder La, Kakkanad: Amusement park
Cherai Beach.
Kuzhippilly Beach
Fort Kochi Beach
Paniyeli Poru
Ezhattumugham
Transport
Road connectivity
The three major national highways passing through Ernakulam are the Cochin-Mumbai Highway (NH 66), Salem-Kanyakumari (NH 47 part of NSEW corridor), and Cochin-Dhanushkodi highway (NH 49).
Railway station
Ernakulam has 17 railway stations. The Ernakulam Junction, Ernakulam Town and Aluva are the major stations. The other stations are Angamaly, Thripunithura, Edapally, Mulamthuruthy, Cochin Harbour Terminus, Karakutty, Chowara, Kalamassery, Nettoor, Kumbalam, Mattancherry H., Chottanikkara road, and Piravom road. The rail routes travel via Thrissur, Kottayam, Cochin H.T., Alappuzha, and Vallarpadam. The Angamaly-Erumely Sabarimala route passes through the district. Kochi Metro runs in Kochi.
Airport
Ernakulam district has two airports: Naval airport in W.island (Old Cochin airport) and Cochin International Airport (CIAL). CIAL is the fourth largest airport in the country after Mumbai, Delhi, and Chennai, and serves International passengers.
Water transport
Ernakulam lies in the flat delta region of the Periyar and Moovattupuzha rivers. Water transport is prominent in the district via rivers and lagoons.
Notable people
Adi Sankaracharya (Saint Advaita)
Abraham Barak Salem (Jewish Gandhi))
Ajay Kudua (cricketer)
Swami Chinmayananda (Indian spiritual leader and geetacharya )
Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala (Syrian Orthodox Saint)
Paulose Mar Athanasius (Syrian Orthodox Saint)
Shadkala Govinda Marar (Carnatic musician)
Sahodaran Ayyappan (social reformer and former minister of Kochi State)
K J Yesudas (singer)
Changampuzha (poet)
Malayattoor ramakrishnan (novelist)
NS Madhavan (writer)
Sebastian Paul (politician)
Simon Britto (politician)
Feroze V Rasheed (cricketer)
K Jayaraman (cricketer)
G. Sankara Kurup (poet)
P K Vasudevan Nair (former chief minister)
Balachandran Chullikad (poet and actor)
Sreesanth (cricketer)
K. V. Thomas (politician)
Asin Thottumkal (actress)
Jayasurya (actor)
Cochin Haneefa (actor)
Sreejesh Ravindran (hockey player)
Sankaradi (actor)
Salim Kumar (actor)
T. K. Narayana Pillai (former chief minister of Kerala)
Jayaram (actor)
Lalu Alex (actor)
Hibi Eden (politician)
K. M. George (politician)
Francis George (politician)
Johnny Nellore (politician)
T. M. Jacob (politician)
Anoop Jacob (politician)
Jose Thettayil (politician)
Nivin Pauly (actor)
Lal (actor)
Rajeev Ravi (director and cinematographer)
Gallery
See also
Arayankavu
Edathala
Kizhakkambalam
Kizhakkumbhagom
Malayattoor
Perumpalloor
Thuthiyoor
References
Further reading
External links
1958 establishments in Kerala
Districts of Kerala | [
0.1057710349559784,
-0.2540379762649536,
-0.23329804837703705,
-0.3051328957080841,
0.2611616849899292,
0.4809396266937256,
0.15478509664535522,
0.03563571721315384,
-0.4905308485031128,
-0.6603705286979675,
-0.42751356959342957,
0.3823840618133545,
-0.43137264251708984,
0.5666918754577637,
-0.19520507752895355,
1.2410792112350464,
0.6835517287254333,
0.21309415996074677,
-0.05151372775435448,
0.016954319551587105,
-0.07293297350406647,
0.1834089308977127,
0.28152692317962646,
0.5321322083473206,
0.04522867128252983,
0.2163567692041397,
0.5620509386062622,
0.13807635009288788,
0.04923846200108528,
-0.27679935097694397,
0.1019512340426445,
0.19878065586090088,
-0.503602147102356,
0.04081901162862778,
0.018218951299786568,
-0.2566360533237457,
-0.40606650710105896,
-0.41165271401405334,
-0.06467846781015396,
-0.8357994556427002,
-0.11153765022754669,
-0.3262345492839813,
0.12836074829101562,
0.2426569163799286,
-0.2646613121032715,
-0.6845582127571106,
-1.1917352676391602,
0.46575433015823364,
-0.3564910590648651,
0.5920889377593994,
-0.07862632721662521,
0.4519194960594177,
-0.3960113823413849,
-0.45300474762916565,
0.19515715539455414,
0.20350855588912964,
-0.8611757755279541,
0.16101352870464325,
0.3550010025501251,
0.21274349093437195,
0.3945889174938202,
0.05441897734999657,
0.01610996015369892,
0.5534057021141052,
0.10814248025417328,
0.7226746678352356,
0.2511419355869293,
0.23065507411956787,
-0.28791049122810364,
0.26468849182128906,
-0.3419131934642792,
0.09913674741983414,
-0.11243191361427307,
0.35728129744529724,
-0.3927512466907501,
0.049079783260822296,
-0.49752503633499146,
-0.3547023832798004,
0.03738383948802948,
0.3625948131084442,
0.05354219302535057,
0.08672340959310532,
0.7199009656906128,
-0.34859025478363037,
0.9598628878593445,
-0.06796321272850037,
-0.612669825553894,
-0.14083263278007507,
-0.4081355333328247,
0.5117173194885254,
0.5240854024887085,
0.09245572984218597,
0.5517811179161072,
0.39089295268058777,
-0.8118916749954224,
-0.7222644686698914,
-0.10802941769361496,
-0.30561384558677673,
0.2768193185329437,
0.303508460521698,
-0.03710649907588959,
0.4098690152168274,
-0.19314920902252197,
0.016800029203295708,
-0.7439040541648865,
-0.17622946202754974,
-0.1925019770860672,
-0.1650286167860031,
-0.6429478526115417,
-0.01510601956397295,
-0.7902151942253113,
0.4318350553512573,
-0.13812105357646942,
-0.3241158425807953,
0.04979454725980759,
-0.33993273973464966,
0.22255706787109375,
-0.24106022715568542,
-0.662254273891449,
-0.642369270324707,
0.48173800110816956,
0.6183858513832092,
0.7734186053276062,
0.6351093649864197,
0.0900740996003151,
0.08164484053850174,
0.37825101613998413,
-0.057740312069654465,
0.02556743286550045,
0.3212549090385437,
0.10195215791463852,
0.8147460222244263,
-0.684873640537262,
-0.001568677369505167,
0.05911297723650932,
-0.3274318277835846,
-0.09276142716407776,
0.40220728516578674,
0.720360517501831,
-0.4530602991580963,
-0.5964962244033813,
0.11081383377313614,
-0.804973840713501,
0.022362884134054184,
0.0851295068860054,
-0.5906199216842651,
0.4759971797466278,
-0.4189640283584595,
-0.30760857462882996,
-0.8966547846794128,
0.4181827902793884,
0.8468277454376221,
-0.6757378578186035,
-0.0972929298877716,
-0.7874227166175842,
-0.05309440195560455,
0.32265955209732056,
-0.46007850766181946,
0.7728254199028015,
0.30405479669570923,
0.08129377663135529,
-0.3663910925388336,
-0.13646170496940613,
-0.009716370142996311,
-0.21321913599967957,
-0.1789485514163971,
0.017290033400058746,
-0.29759418964385986,
0.725845992565155,
0.37376219034194946,
-0.6890314221382141,
-0.23957084119319916,
0.27407556772232056,
-0.4180487394332886,
0.04057393968105316,
-0.10477688163518906,
0.015666309744119644,
0.6488796472549438,
0.22958096861839294,
-0.26687532663345337,
-0.7835175395011902,
0.21069489419460297,
0.20913387835025787,
0.4843152165412903,
-0.106970876455307,
0.048279691487550735,
0.09236498177051544,
0.5591844916343689,
0.14427143335342407,
0.028979908674955368,
0.07002928853034973,
-0.2916950583457947,
-0.2855284512042999,
-0.19508790969848633,
0.8497337698936462,
0.7601562738418579,
-0.10928959399461746,
0.867066502571106,
0.321591854095459,
0.8785598278045654,
-0.6013354659080505,
-0.042121730744838715,
0.2672371566295624,
0.18607355654239655,
-0.6542328596115112,
0.14063633978366852,
-0.340212345123291,
0.02256740815937519,
0.2942161560058594,
0.8097325563430786,
0.1855906993150711,
-0.36558133363723755,
-0.045204486697912216,
-0.6104691028594971,
0.38208121061325073,
0.12744246423244476,
-0.3162905275821686,
0.006424775347113609,
-0.10957038402557373,
-0.1567194014787674,
0.1715124547481537,
-0.06415364891290665,
-0.10572122782468796,
0.6326361894607544,
-0.12234051525592804,
0.5538291335105896,
-0.043993156403303146,
0.2663572132587433,
0.5477080345153809,
-0.8730911612510681,
-0.011527393944561481,
-0.5866720080375671,
0.19121532142162323,
-0.3682298958301544,
-0.0007912314031273127,
-0.25085699558258057,
-0.08581164479255676,
-0.3715362250804901,
0.42247113585472107,
-0.6648190021514893,
0.22336868941783905,
-0.15488380193710327,
-0.3485157787799835,
0.23128649592399597,
0.5379940867424011,
0.3484507203102112,
-0.3597049415111542,
-0.05120261758565903,
-0.5322946906089783,
0.18871080875396729,
0.23245945572853088,
0.1476154327392578,
0.061896681785583496,
-0.06992889195680618,
0.25049275159835815,
-0.3499222695827484,
0.0680772140622139,
-0.002886741189286113,
0.40389183163642883,
0.04703323915600777,
-0.9249218106269836,
-0.13738799095153809,
0.26458683609962463,
0.3556636571884155,
-0.7131504416465759,
0.03737521171569824,
0.3154435455799103,
-0.6324295997619629,
0.28826794028282166,
0.33975884318351746,
0.1156018078327179,
0.18709562718868256,
-0.523027777671814,
0.3762257397174835,
-0.02055075205862522,
-0.4017418622970581,
-0.24819590151309967,
0.6138343811035156,
-0.40288615226745605,
0.030176552012562752,
0.24201492965221405,
0.4388108551502228,
-0.02138165384531021,
-1.2983386516571045,
-0.5516812205314636,
-0.21440871059894562,
0.15394306182861328,
-0.2141876071691513,
-0.5436280965805054,
-0.036951031535863876,
0.19759666919708252,
-0.015434949658811092,
0.018709957599639893,
0.3461572527885437,
-0.44701331853866577,
-0.16966049373149872,
0.0440329946577549,
-0.09849601238965988,
0.2912011444568634,
-1.138465166091919,
-0.18801140785217285,
0.38761791586875916,
-0.587326169013977,
-0.17963682115077972,
-0.390666127204895,
-0.29811742901802063,
-0.10588710010051727,
0.08076211810112,
-5.261291980743408,
-0.09355493634939194,
-0.4170624613761902,
-0.026760129258036613,
0.4541076421737671,
0.06603913754224777,
0.7350696325302124,
-0.2487659901380539,
0.25420212745666504,
-0.17510013282299042,
-0.034000955522060394,
0.3107931613922119,
0.5603210926055908,
0.38957181572914124,
0.49470120668411255,
0.03235995024442673,
0.5564231872558594,
0.5558643937110901,
0.07116712629795074,
0.4692690968513489,
-0.4198172986507416,
0.17176081240177155,
-0.06257612258195877,
0.5205661058425903,
0.6975112557411194,
0.316913902759552,
-0.004588831681758165,
-0.7774915099143982,
-0.9823989272117615,
-0.517173707485199,
-0.5332044959068298,
-0.07485996186733246,
0.466124027967453,
0.34269630908966064,
-0.0393228717148304,
0.12523137032985687,
0.836097002029419,
-0.1311531960964203,
-0.18561743199825287,
-0.5901803970336914,
-0.40010151267051697,
0.5394590497016907,
0.10748178511857986,
-0.6636024117469788,
0.10383445769548416,
-0.8059099912643433,
-0.44224971532821655,
-0.11350683122873306,
0.1524418443441391,
0.5238747000694275,
-0.25383734703063965,
-0.32604989409446716,
0.265704870223999,
0.4992566406726837,
0.06565816700458527,
-0.45618873834609985,
0.17854586243629456,
-0.09139992296695709,
0.18135817348957062,
0.6601559519767761,
1.0101635456085205,
-0.3604688048362732,
-0.5256936550140381,
-0.43021103739738464,
0.334066241979599,
0.12617413699626923,
0.09905105829238892,
-0.6595407724380493,
0.04319338873028755,
0.2833273708820343,
-0.7131507992744446,
-0.42657801508903503,
-0.2735946774482727,
-1.1870601177215576,
-0.46392545104026794,
-0.2660028636455536,
-0.4963511824607849,
-0.05718294531106949,
-0.3531210124492645,
0.4000037908554077,
-0.3903341591358185,
-0.1994384080171585,
-0.3270917236804962,
0.8491027355194092,
-0.3419289290904999,
-0.4274420440196991,
0.16384536027908325,
0.15908478200435638,
0.14624331891536713,
-0.5165470838546753,
0.2125655859708786,
-0.004807419143617153,
0.4720590114593506,
0.3618575632572174,
-0.4344772696495056,
0.3045596778392792,
0.062195949256420135,
0.6409350633621216,
0.22492417693138123,
-0.5246524810791016,
1.27362060546875,
0.3255842924118042,
0.02777903899550438,
0.646548330783844,
0.07357919961214066,
-0.16805657744407654,
0.4923301041126251,
-0.027942737564444542,
0.7305285334587097,
-0.8387975096702576,
-0.42262595891952515,
-0.634613037109375,
-0.2205386608839035,
-0.33054590225219727,
0.8684061169624329,
-0.5526028275489807,
-0.1670665740966797,
0.8957833051681519,
0.08693654090166092,
0.7133515477180481,
-0.1701873242855072,
0.325247198343277,
-0.30357444286346436,
0.7600737810134888,
-0.20545142889022827,
-0.42052289843559265,
-0.18785357475280762,
0.0269889235496521,
0.09913846850395203,
0.11823160201311111,
0.600074827671051,
0.40537288784980774,
0.5986770987510681,
-0.6130084991455078,
-0.38553255796432495,
0.28340283036231995,
0.23020516335964203,
-0.4076782763004303,
-0.10624302178621292,
0.17031338810920715,
0.3484616279602051,
0.13349251449108124,
-0.07415693253278732,
0.72884202003479,
0.5320254564285278,
-0.05459117516875267,
0.1625623255968094,
-0.6077397465705872,
-0.565146803855896,
0.2898482382297516,
-0.5909514427185059,
-0.5682475566864014,
0.16535043716430664,
-0.3504981994628906,
-0.30360475182533264,
-0.44182947278022766,
-0.23770423233509064,
-0.35899993777275085,
0.6339393854141235,
0.28969278931617737,
0.17392727732658386,
-0.6049917340278625,
-0.3310607373714447,
0.035768795758485794,
0.6977419853210449,
-0.24900874495506287,
-0.23288802802562714,
-0.9030994176864624,
0.5006291270256042,
0.4937251806259155,
0.16865195333957672,
0.45665135979652405,
-0.3734720051288605,
0.20822323858737946,
-0.4296720325946808,
0.11088861525058746,
-0.009860621765255928,
0.5715023279190063,
-0.24504509568214417,
-0.08126147091388702,
0.36677315831184387,
-0.042257726192474365,
-0.09049049764871597,
0.9849010705947876,
0.5575988292694092,
-0.49356430768966675,
-0.43482455611228943,
-0.636906623840332,
-0.4682212471961975,
0.3448818624019623,
0.25407788157463074,
-0.05369330570101738,
0.2324390858411789,
0.18262676894664764,
0.25811678171157837,
-0.831949770450592,
-0.13274075090885162,
0.08377750962972641,
-0.35259097814559937,
-0.7062341570854187,
0.09567367285490036,
0.517406702041626,
-0.22244134545326233,
0.4701119363307953,
0.4784742593765259,
-0.5099078416824341,
0.6146439909934998,
0.6841265559196472,
-0.44986146688461304,
0.20755667984485626,
-0.4837392270565033,
-0.17251235246658325,
-0.19935517013072968,
0.09815018624067307,
-0.18015773594379425,
0.13813947141170502,
0.10197912156581879,
-0.858672022819519,
0.08447261899709702,
-0.4764522612094879,
-0.5990484952926636,
-0.04175881668925285,
0.49306896328926086,
-0.2811245024204254,
-0.6954013109207153,
0.00010505806130822748,
0.4331004023551941,
-1.0862013101577759,
-0.19774289429187775,
0.14584878087043762,
-0.15652614831924438,
-0.12491047382354736,
0.8785598874092102,
0.16487722098827362,
-0.37641289830207825,
-0.1541948765516281,
0.053057607263326645,
-0.12670713663101196,
0.22644302248954773,
0.8126394152641296,
-0.7504014372825623,
0.46291136741638184,
-0.40811648964881897,
-0.3186289966106415,
-0.22248433530330658,
-0.42780351638793945,
0.4628576934337616,
-0.24331782758235931,
-1.1952409744262695,
0.7410153150558472,
0.29433390498161316,
-0.3501649796962738,
-0.16798610985279083,
-0.6585983633995056,
0.9442232251167297,
-0.6862452030181885,
0.35352450609207153,
0.43790403008461,
0.38867202401161194,
0.26951706409454346,
-0.689026415348053,
-0.20042896270751953,
0.3606191873550415,
0.315120130777359,
0.24938246607780457,
-0.7589399814605713,
-0.573714554309845,
-0.6566633582115173,
0.4150700867176056,
-0.4804968535900116,
-0.36779454350471497,
-0.21664145588874817,
0.9990556836128235,
-0.4316522181034088,
0.7332719564437866,
-0.045145682990550995,
-0.1683741956949234,
-0.5132326483726501,
0.17394322156906128,
-0.5952414870262146,
0.01269697304815054,
0.2827308177947998,
-0.1621350198984146,
-0.5654457211494446,
-0.12936285138130188,
-1.200628638267517,
-0.014424643479287624,
-0.004257966298609972,
-0.21746256947517395,
0.01298712007701397,
0.11407023668289185,
-0.5176060795783997,
0.1019464060664177,
0.4224659502506256,
-0.4958786070346832,
0.09224530309438705,
-0.16318409144878387,
1.0945825576782227,
-0.5039219856262207,
-0.20062173902988434,
-0.3546600341796875,
0.6269922852516174,
-0.24810898303985596,
-0.08569317311048508,
-0.04445735737681389,
0.5495469570159912,
0.31080782413482666,
-0.2170906513929367,
0.35231566429138184,
0.12194449454545975,
0.4592086374759674,
0.33618876338005066,
0.446698933839798,
0.7126964926719666,
-0.5744029879570007,
0.43029680848121643,
1.1146999597549438,
-0.5879882574081421,
0.297107458114624,
0.48234766721725464,
0.23167206346988678,
-0.21603313088417053,
0.352375864982605,
0.7685930132865906,
-0.15523970127105713,
0.9651434421539307,
-0.4343232810497284,
0.09831608831882477,
0.8050695061683655,
0.8731404542922974,
0.6043170094490051,
-0.4185784161090851,
-0.9366164207458496,
0.1318615823984146,
-0.05150285363197327,
-0.7510249018669128,
0.06626536697149277,
-0.13568751513957977,
-0.2666233479976654,
0.2060323804616928,
1.0800215005874634,
0.7298647165298462,
-0.13910354673862457,
0.24603208899497986,
0.08761131763458252,
0.3107503056526184,
0.854907751083374,
0.22012381255626678,
-0.47893765568733215,
-0.263485848903656,
-0.13258390128612518,
-0.338976114988327,
-0.058083683252334595,
-0.18543915450572968,
0.25919201970100403,
0.11199901252985,
0.11365673691034317,
-0.5714813470840454,
0.023382315412163734,
0.03752218931913376,
-0.25131598114967346,
-0.26632723212242126,
0.23418650031089783,
0.3671881854534149,
-0.49851277470588684,
-0.42333555221557617,
0.30146515369415283,
-0.3765321373939514,
-0.2755439281463623,
-0.028649689629673958,
0.18761785328388214,
-0.05565629154443741,
-0.5398985743522644,
-0.39673590660095215,
0.49764779210090637,
0.5125741362571716,
0.1159733384847641,
0.3004794120788574,
-0.33139321208000183,
0.8736488223075867,
-0.24515220522880554,
0.032721806317567825,
0.04538778215646744,
-0.48808783292770386,
0.6896320581436157,
0.5712119936943054,
-0.2655197083950043,
0.42906653881073,
-0.1177922785282135,
-0.2015133500099182,
-0.402671754360199,
0.0376109816133976,
-0.32430675625801086,
0.6360808610916138,
-0.6193283200263977,
0.030837707221508026,
-0.6406053900718689,
0.7790977954864502,
0.5223337411880493,
0.15597645938396454,
0.6794484853744507,
0.17893879115581512,
0.11145249009132385,
0.23398832976818085,
-0.17536376416683197,
0.4497556686401367,
-0.3469599783420563,
0.12273897230625153,
-0.5622652769088745,
0.3340189456939697,
-0.05914667621254921,
0.23450824618339539,
0.3146272599697113,
0.11291823536157608,
-0.9631957411766052,
-0.14826194941997528,
0.6217060685157776,
-0.8540903925895691,
0.0873313695192337,
-0.6332349181175232,
0.6068010330200195,
-0.014300819486379623,
-0.23129166662693024,
0.3234633207321167,
-0.24539802968502045,
-0.6593716740608215,
0.18920700252056122,
0.6266248226165771,
-0.651128351688385,
-0.03845660760998726,
0.0557268001139164,
-0.08657962083816528,
-0.7942178249359131,
0.5101357102394104,
-0.746358335018158,
0.17905783653259277,
-0.22166641056537628,
0.3519851267337799,
0.6202000975608826,
-0.3016190826892853,
0.08329996466636658,
-0.26493850350379944,
0.16000594198703766,
-0.0015762228285893798,
-0.09216475486755371,
-0.015419209375977516,
-0.9528958201408386,
-0.27457234263420105,
-0.15284106135368347,
0.8917601108551025,
0.166300967335701,
-0.46179458498954773,
0.6056245565414429,
0.02412235736846924,
-0.24750173091888428,
-0.11942024528980255,
-0.10103118419647217,
-0.6951464414596558,
0.6166750192642212,
0.38578683137893677
] |
247868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Changanassery | Changanassery | Changanassery, , (also known by its former name Changanacherry) is a municipal town in Kottayam district in the state of Kerala, India. Changanassery is the gateway to the Western Ghats and Kuttanad. It is one of the major educational and religious centres of Kerala, with nearly 100% literacy. There are five colleges, eight higher secondary schools, one vocational higher secondary school and ten high schools within a four-kilometre radius of the town.
Changanacherry Pin Code is 686101. Pin Code is also known as Zip Code or Postal Code. Changanacherry is located in district Kottayam, Kerala, INDIA.
Geography
Changanassery is located 18 km south of Kottayam on the Main Central road. With a population of 127,987 as of 2011, its population was already 36,000 as early as the 1951 census. The town is situated near the tripoint of Kottayam, Alappuzha and Pathanamthitta districts. It had one of the leading markets in Kerala connecting the main three districts. It is located in between the low level paddy fields of Kuttanad and the sloppy midlands of the eastern parts of the Kottayam and Pathanamthitta districts.
History
The first recorded history on the origin of Changanacherry is obtained from Sangam period literature. According to Sangam era documents, Uthiyan Cheralathan (Perum Chorru Udiyan Cheralathan, Athan I, or Udiyanjeral - AD c. 130) is the first recorded Kera (Chera) dynasty ruler of the Sangam period in ancient South India. He had his capital at a place called "Kuzhumur" in Kuttanad and expanded the kingdom northward and eastward from his original homeland (izham or illam in Tamil). His lifetime is broadly determined to be between the first and third century AD. His queen was Veliyan Nalini, the daughter of Veliyan Venman.
Present-day Changanacherry and Kuttanad was the capital of the Kera (Chera) dynasty at that time until it was burnt down by Karikala Chola, changing the name of Kuzhumur to Chutta-nadu ("burnt-land"), which became Kuttanad. Similarly, "Keralathan" is the Malayalam pronunciation of Tamil "Cheralathan" and the world "Keralam" may be a derivative version of "Chera-izham" or "Kera-illam", meaning "Chera-homeland" in Tamil. Keralathan's descendant was Senguttavan Cheran (Chenguttavan means "brave-hearted" in Malayalam); the towns of Chenganacherri and Chengana are named after him). Sengana-cherri means "Sengan's town" in old Tamil. After the Chera dynasty defeat, the word cherri took on the concurrent meaning of "the land of the defeated" and eventually was equated to mean a slum in Chola kingdom.
Governance
The city is governed by the Changanacherry Municipal Council.Ms Sandhya Manoj is the chairperson of the municipality and the vice chairperson Mr Binu.
It heads the taluk Kachery (office). It also heads the Munsiff's court and the judicial first class magistrate's court.
Changanacherry assembly constituency was a part of Kottayam (Lok Sabha constituency). However, after the Delimitation Commission's Report in 2005, in order to retain Mavelikkara Lok Sabha Constituency, Changanacherry segment in Kottayam and the neighbouring constituencies in Alappuzha and Kollam districts were put together under Mavelikkara constituency. Sri. Kodikunnil Suresh represents Mavelikkara constituency in Parliament and Sri. C. F. Thomas has been representing Changanacherry Constituency in the Kerala Legislative Assembly for almost the last four decades.
Demographics
As of the 2011 India census Changanassery municipality has a population of 47,485; the total population of Changanassery UA/Metropolitan region is 127,987. The male population was 61,807, while the female population was 66,180.
The literacy rate of Changanassery Agglomeration is 97.56%, which is higher than the national urban average of 85%. The literacy rates for male and female for Changanassery stood at 98.19% and 96.98% respectively. Total literates in Changanassery UA were 113,597, of which males were 54,901 and the remaining 58,696 were females.
The child population (age 0–6) of Changanassery UA is around 9.02% of the total Changanassery UA population, which is lower than the national urban average of 10.93%. The total number of children in Changanassery urban region was 11,550, of which 5,895 were males while the remaining 5,655 children were females.
Education
There was a Vedic school at Vazhappally Salagramam (Vazhappally Shala) in ancient times during the rule of the Thekkumkur. It was run exclusively for Brahmins. It is the oldest educational institution in Changanassery on record. The Vazhappally Sala was destroyed by army of Ramayyan Dalawa during the Battle of Changanassery between Thekkumkur and Travancore in 1790.
L.P. School, Perunna (1880); started by Kainikara Govinda Pillai
St. Joseph's School, Changanassery (January 16, 1888) : It had been the long cherished dream of Blessed Chavara to open a school for the education of girls at Changanassery. St Joseph’s Girls Higher Secondary School, a realization of this blessed priest’s dream, is situated at the heart of Changanassery town known for its religious tolerance, and rich cultural heritage
St. Mary's L.P. School, Changanassery (October 15, 1888)
Government English High School, Puzhavathu (1889); Later this school become Government High School - Changanassery
St. Berchman's High School, Changanassery (February 3, 1891); Poet Ulloor S. Parameshwara Iyer, Kainikkara brothers, Mar Antony Padiyara and Mar Joseph Powathil studied in this school.
St. Berchmans College, Changanassery (June 19, 1922); The college was initially started in a building (now it is a museum) near to St. Mary's Parel Church. It was a junior college affiliated to Madras University. In 1927, graduate courses were started. Travencore University was founded on November 1, 1937 to which the college was then affiliated. Postgraduate courses were started in 1957. St. Berchmans College situated in Changanacherry , Kottayam District, Kerala, is an independent instructive organization associated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. This establishment was established in 1922 and is perceived under the UGC Act, 1956. In the fourth pattern of accreditation in 2017-2022, the school was evaluated at A by the NAAC. It was positioned 79 in All India Ranking by National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2020 in the class of College.
NSS Hindu College, Changanassery (June 1949); The college was started in the rooms provided at the N.S.S. High School and it was shifted to a new building subsequently in 1955. NSS Hindu College, Changanassery, one of the biggest and most seasoned establishments of advanced education in Kerala. Set up in 1947, it is licensed from UGC, NAAC and it is associated to Mahatma Gandhi University. NSS, Changanassery offers 30 courses across 5 streams specifically Vocational, Arts, Hotel Management, Science, Commerce and Banking and across 8 degrees like BA, BSc, B.Com, MA, MSc. Hostel office isn't accessible for its understudies.
Assumption College, Changanasserry (1950); This college dedicated for Women. Assumption College, affiliated to University of Kerala in 1949, is at present affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam. Included under section 2(f) and 12 B of the UGC Act, the College was accredited by the NAAC in the year 2000.
NSS Training College, Changanacherry
NSS Homeo College, Kurichy
St. Joseph College of Communication, Kurisummood ----St. Joseph College of Communication, Kurisummoodu Changanacherry - 686104 (SJCC) located at - Kottayam Kerala is one of the popular colleges in India. The College has been rated by 7 people on CBSE. The St. Joseph College of Communication, Kurisummoodu Changanacherry - 686104 has been viewed 21 times by the visitors on CBSE. This College is counted among the top-rated Colleges in Kerala with an excellent academic track record.
Kristu Jyothi College, Chethipuzha
Biswas, Institute of management studies, Thegana, Changanacherry
Transport
The state-run Kerala State Road Transport Corporation (KSRTC) runs bus services to nearby towns. Separate private bus terminals are available for those traveling to Eastern High Range areas. Also, a combined bus station facility for both private and state buses travelling to Western Changanassery (Kuttanad), Southern Changanassery (Mavelikara) and Northern Changanassery (Kottayam) is available. There is a dedicated KSRTC bus station in the heart of the town. Govt Water Transport facilities are available to remote places and major towns nearby. Changanacherry railway station serves Western Changanassery (Kuttanad) and Eastern Changanassery (Karukachal). Cochin International Airport is the nearest airport, which is 106 km away from Changanacherry.
Centres of worship
Notable worship centres in Changanacherry are Perunnai Sree Subramaniya Swamy Temple, Anandasramam, St. Mary's church (Parel palli), Valiapally (Metropolitan Church), India Pentecostal Church of God [IPC], Assemblies of God Church [Pentecostal church], Kavil Bhagavathi Temple, The Holy Trinity Church, Puthoorpalli Muslim Juma-ath and Syro-Malabar Catholic Archdiocese of Changanassery
Mary's Church, Parel (Changanacherry) Established in 1981, this is a designated pilgrim centre which attracts multitudes disregarding social divisions on religion and caste.
Marth Mariyam Metropolitan Cathedral, also known as Valiyapally, is the cathedral of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Archeparchy of Changanassery and also a Marian pilgrimage centre in Kerala,
Notable people
See also
Thottackad
References
External links
About Changanacherry
Archdiocese of Changanacherry
NSS HINDU COLLEGE CHANGANACHERRY
St Joseph College of Communication
St. Berchmans College
Changanassery Municipality
Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2001
All articles containing potentially dated statements
Cities and towns in Kottayam district
Tourist attractions in Kottayam district
History of Changanassery
Kingdom of Thekkumkur
Culture of Kerala
Former capital cities in India
Historical Indian regions | [
0.26360103487968445,
0.24850855767726898,
0.07344990968704224,
-0.056650906801223755,
0.6637619137763977,
-0.05362260341644287,
0.028532370924949646,
0.45193955302238464,
-0.3308755159378052,
-0.02169479988515377,
-0.23240698873996735,
-0.177910715341568,
-0.4709475040435791,
0.9321715235710144,
-0.04626356437802315,
0.7486168742179871,
0.8111363053321838,
0.26228928565979004,
-0.12205683439970016,
-0.7563963532447815,
-0.23276065289974213,
-0.5130971670150757,
0.36860182881355286,
0.3997172713279724,
-0.5074812769889832,
0.7657358050346375,
0.4911849796772003,
0.3123796880245209,
0.1569918394088745,
-0.40632274746894836,
0.2886229455471039,
0.24265629053115845,
-0.35316261649131775,
0.1605631411075592,
0.30183595418930054,
0.12562839686870575,
0.011040532030165195,
0.16479752957820892,
0.20226025581359863,
-0.7927055954933167,
-0.22627054154872894,
0.12567020952701569,
0.3267483711242676,
0.56837397813797,
-0.09447518736124039,
-0.3582978844642639,
-0.7922543883323669,
0.3862118422985077,
-0.9444953203201294,
-0.021034635603427887,
-0.1977953314781189,
0.5734179019927979,
0.006357723381370306,
-0.35918572545051575,
0.4510633945465088,
0.5700122117996216,
-0.9669284820556641,
0.35372766852378845,
0.17270813882350922,
-0.12339215725660324,
-0.21324144303798676,
0.06772352010011673,
0.30626168847084045,
-0.09219975024461746,
0.30593404173851013,
0.18651877343654633,
0.2563418745994568,
-0.17160534858703613,
-0.004802917130291462,
-0.07636849582195282,
-0.08395523577928543,
0.2692704200744629,
-0.05049963295459747,
0.9948335289955139,
0.09135722368955612,
0.4225315749645233,
-0.6179468631744385,
-0.7392644286155701,
0.2710554599761963,
-0.14066016674041748,
-0.12219240516424179,
0.3719899356365204,
0.8025071620941162,
0.030423875898122787,
0.9831092357635498,
-0.10196293145418167,
-0.4395427703857422,
0.44924062490463257,
-0.28731343150138855,
0.316191166639328,
-0.010735305026173592,
0.42194807529449463,
0.10984670370817184,
-0.032966017723083496,
-0.5487036108970642,
-0.2528131306171417,
0.1326114535331726,
-0.12408030033111572,
0.4447230100631714,
0.3348447382450104,
0.5392093062400818,
0.4155445098876953,
-0.2481115311384201,
-0.10547201335430145,
-0.92093825340271,
0.12182699143886566,
-0.6149647235870361,
-0.1003420501947403,
-0.4166805148124695,
-0.20253171026706696,
-0.7375210523605347,
0.4919026494026184,
-0.5203428864479065,
-0.14530432224273682,
-0.03832956403493881,
-0.2519185543060303,
0.36988404393196106,
-0.2161143571138382,
-0.710769772529602,
-0.3105517327785492,
-0.018034355714917183,
0.6523297429084778,
0.32826948165893555,
0.40782588720321655,
-0.16929076611995697,
0.523244321346283,
0.5388116240501404,
0.14265359938144684,
0.06567683815956116,
0.32581380009651184,
0.10366342961788177,
0.931059718132019,
-0.40666595101356506,
-0.2184041291475296,
0.37173792719841003,
-0.71535724401474,
0.08368244022130966,
0.22912319004535675,
0.4869318902492523,
-0.47510525584220886,
-0.6672296524047852,
0.01554837916046381,
-0.6810556054115295,
-0.4421112537384033,
0.5038514137268066,
-0.3014221489429474,
0.4827086329460144,
-1.3172756433486938,
0.4642125070095062,
-0.4050152599811554,
0.544675350189209,
0.7932708859443665,
-0.2651265859603882,
0.04655984044075012,
-0.6296371221542358,
-0.5323650240898132,
0.30948734283447266,
-0.24496719241142273,
0.3985939025878906,
0.14179399609565735,
0.43734148144721985,
-0.3570347726345062,
-0.20166505873203278,
-0.11047253012657166,
-0.12815125286579132,
0.21426397562026978,
-0.21466916799545288,
-0.47226661443710327,
0.8616870641708374,
0.35730814933776855,
-0.4464932084083557,
-0.4972741901874542,
-0.2595163583755493,
-0.6634464859962463,
0.010396444238722324,
-0.37670600414276123,
0.28153079748153687,
0.7733584046363831,
0.021401939913630486,
-0.2711120545864105,
-1.0023945569992065,
0.34605690836906433,
-0.057439398020505905,
0.11027955263853073,
-0.09533822536468506,
-0.1360783576965332,
0.2007582187652588,
0.4512537717819214,
0.06698255240917206,
-0.06759989261627197,
0.10574393719434738,
-0.4453296959400177,
-0.053014326840639114,
-0.1067085862159729,
1.5896822214126587,
0.7998475432395935,
-0.5187900066375732,
0.6323580145835876,
0.4506058990955353,
0.5697834491729736,
-0.5599747896194458,
0.4009217321872711,
0.5547206401824951,
-0.23717638850212097,
-1.3523201942443848,
0.17754852771759033,
0.2643646001815796,
-0.36154934763908386,
0.22094549238681793,
1.1977463960647583,
0.3886425495147705,
-0.33192747831344604,
-0.16208764910697937,
0.11625868827104568,
-0.3149833381175995,
-0.5703977942466736,
-1.049390435218811,
0.24565385282039642,
-0.014981156215071678,
-0.37469667196273804,
-0.16738799214363098,
-0.11774106323719025,
0.0017656699055805802,
0.7541543841362,
-0.4667357802391052,
1.1665676832199097,
-0.09138955920934677,
0.37931907176971436,
0.12845726311206818,
-0.4864799678325653,
0.3085133135318756,
-0.13120484352111816,
0.2060810774564743,
0.14502914249897003,
-0.10311007499694824,
-0.125422403216362,
0.2126660794019699,
-0.8252637982368469,
-0.033213887363672256,
-0.5645139813423157,
0.24512453377246857,
-0.22469964623451233,
-0.663923442363739,
0.3075604736804962,
0.5289410352706909,
0.5462021231651306,
-0.21301719546318054,
-0.4649551808834076,
-0.20861205458641052,
-0.27365782856941223,
0.5750678777694702,
0.21825720369815826,
0.30531102418899536,
-0.212537944316864,
0.09953152388334274,
-0.45185765624046326,
-0.34578952193260193,
-0.45461344718933105,
-0.19483378529548645,
-0.009642775170505047,
-0.641808271408081,
-0.5391049385070801,
0.3839670419692993,
0.6399745345115662,
-0.7208312153816223,
-0.4897439479827881,
0.565554141998291,
-0.5399100184440613,
0.3869185149669647,
-0.004552078898996115,
-0.016802141442894936,
-0.47645092010498047,
-0.43862447142601013,
0.41747692227363586,
-0.07014729827642441,
-0.19348329305648804,
-0.5311793088912964,
0.2765801250934601,
-0.624872088432312,
0.3914830684661865,
0.6049827337265015,
0.4762546718120575,
-0.23698493838310242,
-0.7576433420181274,
-0.34469300508499146,
-0.2908393144607544,
-0.4100673794746399,
-0.8312700986862183,
-0.29142245650291443,
-0.291474312543869,
0.09639373421669006,
0.12084084004163742,
-0.07843498140573502,
0.2849794328212738,
-0.06862031668424606,
-0.15164178609848022,
0.21319912374019623,
0.08278312534093857,
0.745725691318512,
-0.9998757243156433,
0.045654185116291046,
0.6586079001426697,
-0.7169123291969299,
0.08533730357885361,
-0.38040053844451904,
-0.16096296906471252,
0.33099886775016785,
-1.022039532661438,
-4.827708721160889,
0.6952033638954163,
-0.4873941242694855,
-0.6816104054450989,
0.46989625692367554,
0.07266458123922348,
0.7049188613891602,
-0.6701717376708984,
0.42678940296173096,
-0.3287801444530487,
-0.8292157053947449,
0.3441464304924011,
0.1461765468120575,
0.3850862681865692,
0.30322936177253723,
0.7416979670524597,
0.4101729989051819,
-0.21882696449756622,
0.15802350640296936,
0.3372618854045868,
-0.3357775807380676,
0.8809419870376587,
0.02505538798868656,
0.5598973035812378,
0.5547323226928711,
0.3802524209022522,
-0.1966933161020279,
-0.7736333608627319,
-1.0574426651000977,
-0.05403152108192444,
-0.7451451420783997,
0.07457132637500763,
0.3636685013771057,
0.41489824652671814,
-0.568975031375885,
0.1443573385477066,
0.4438246488571167,
0.11178141087293625,
-0.06941498070955276,
-0.7794665694236755,
-0.23764736950397491,
0.462890625,
0.3116646111011505,
-0.7052658200263977,
0.9547902345657349,
-0.9936543703079224,
-0.6386576890945435,
-0.15879929065704346,
-0.1634903997182846,
0.760377049446106,
-0.22539275884628296,
-0.23592187464237213,
0.7866127490997314,
0.419248104095459,
-0.7044519186019897,
-0.471865713596344,
0.37700197100639343,
-0.11727429926395416,
-0.39077603816986084,
0.7882859706878662,
0.8065020442008972,
-0.42577487230300903,
-0.21634793281555176,
-0.24805885553359985,
-0.08200821280479431,
0.2274584025144577,
0.29220616817474365,
-0.5205233097076416,
-0.095706045627594,
0.1017238199710846,
-0.3148331642150879,
0.1405308097600937,
-0.20021499693393707,
-0.8761445879936218,
0.14590361714363098,
-0.29776066541671753,
-0.8501694798469543,
0.33612993359565735,
-0.32776203751564026,
0.71568763256073,
0.24359503388404846,
-0.12827996909618378,
0.34974196553230286,
1.0128837823867798,
-0.5947124361991882,
-0.4498676359653473,
-0.10131862014532089,
0.030565081164240837,
-0.10843175649642944,
-0.23508767783641815,
0.38787952065467834,
-0.11911854892969131,
0.6411939263343811,
-0.04908045753836632,
-0.22359339892864227,
0.3549387454986572,
0.5735378861427307,
0.8979412913322449,
-0.12036143243312836,
-0.45752573013305664,
1.3611348867416382,
0.2979384958744049,
-0.3353824019432068,
0.48562246561050415,
-0.16014789044857025,
-0.695831835269928,
0.6018266081809998,
0.11994566023349762,
0.3945711553096771,
-0.6109282374382019,
-0.5307050943374634,
-0.9358090758323669,
0.07523608952760696,
0.013844690285623074,
0.7429749965667725,
-0.6911947131156921,
-0.10813383013010025,
1.1016780138015747,
-0.03600046783685684,
0.25602099299430847,
-0.3533804416656494,
0.14123857021331787,
-0.02512592449784279,
0.5812488794326782,
-0.4465630054473877,
-0.21257105469703674,
0.1364014893770218,
0.44867420196533203,
-0.3455043435096741,
0.23629312217235565,
-0.39863696694374084,
1.2462584972381592,
0.5209757685661316,
-1.0453308820724487,
-0.39066243171691895,
-0.33783265948295593,
-0.6729480028152466,
-0.7962728142738342,
0.3727489411830902,
0.727420449256897,
0.8665300607681274,
0.22770367562770844,
-0.3806760013103485,
0.5946357250213623,
0.511735737323761,
0.05519014224410057,
-0.14817355573177338,
-0.3024345934391022,
-0.46809402108192444,
0.3628615438938141,
-1.2353858947753906,
-0.6836719512939453,
0.15460728108882904,
-0.19967152178287506,
0.07210031896829605,
-0.644478976726532,
0.027127649635076523,
0.17155632376670837,
0.6680957674980164,
0.43156880140304565,
0.2568679749965668,
-0.6796132922172546,
-0.65249103307724,
0.027971895411610603,
-0.07867895066738129,
-0.17481952905654907,
-0.0878082811832428,
-0.526698648929596,
0.07987523823976517,
0.8532068729400635,
0.5340160727500916,
0.7726566791534424,
-0.2799433469772339,
0.026684962213039398,
-0.14232861995697021,
-0.15695032477378845,
0.390272855758667,
0.9010621309280396,
0.023150915279984474,
-0.11913605034351349,
-0.10963363200426102,
-0.8804855346679688,
-0.22539104521274567,
0.53922438621521,
0.23637400567531586,
-0.9500138759613037,
-0.2833159565925598,
-0.7853512167930603,
0.28017163276672363,
0.6712596416473389,
0.29446443915367126,
0.006423271726816893,
-0.6908015012741089,
-0.24476906657218933,
0.1789301484823227,
-0.9082196950912476,
0.03372381627559662,
-0.37143898010253906,
-0.17223596572875977,
-0.9890784025192261,
-0.056836072355508804,
0.9905012249946594,
-0.1702902764081955,
0.6736249923706055,
0.47656986117362976,
-0.3673788011074066,
0.43644073605537415,
0.8594043254852295,
-0.3851366937160492,
0.05983857437968254,
-0.37406182289123535,
0.038603950291872025,
0.5002049803733826,
-0.164248988032341,
-0.15399809181690216,
0.5680155158042908,
-0.011856903322041035,
0.07211659103631973,
-0.17257598042488098,
-0.03423209860920906,
-0.4987717270851135,
0.35409897565841675,
0.3181399703025818,
-0.5267970561981201,
-0.8694369792938232,
0.07440563291311264,
0.745800256729126,
-0.5594416856765747,
-0.16795030236244202,
-0.060071270912885666,
-0.6010243892669678,
0.15628549456596375,
0.5743586421012878,
0.46691110730171204,
0.5561153888702393,
-0.010631786659359932,
-0.7924115061759949,
0.16311030089855194,
0.7178361415863037,
0.23392343521118164,
-0.5744854211807251,
0.37854549288749695,
-0.364291787147522,
-0.2703043222427368,
-0.44691795110702515,
-0.31015491485595703,
0.2611680030822754,
0.2100420892238617,
-1.085860013961792,
0.4306577742099762,
0.2214841991662979,
-0.5455639958381653,
0.07516435533761978,
-0.6065739393234253,
1.084058165550232,
-0.4681127667427063,
-0.010376174934208393,
1.0186285972595215,
0.9166110754013062,
-0.16339781880378723,
-0.8516321778297424,
0.11351711302995682,
0.4999184012413025,
0.4981744885444641,
0.18126842379570007,
-0.5103687047958374,
-0.2841061055660248,
-0.6392719745635986,
0.6695210337638855,
-0.5311429500579834,
0.0028542724903672934,
-0.5495747923851013,
1.2112616300582886,
-0.7464410066604614,
0.1701265275478363,
-0.16283664107322693,
-0.35739320516586304,
-0.532932698726654,
0.19461601972579956,
-0.2611941695213318,
0.027767416089773178,
0.322607159614563,
0.14854788780212402,
-0.33028241991996765,
0.09886482357978821,
-1.339292049407959,
0.4403223693370819,
0.22808438539505005,
-0.03496123477816582,
-0.19923707842826843,
-0.05167362093925476,
-0.07079675048589706,
0.605833113193512,
0.4613986015319824,
-0.2683822810649872,
-0.1308523267507553,
0.2923543453216553,
1.2869231700897217,
-0.3525550961494446,
-0.40353822708129883,
-0.4022773802280426,
0.039522141218185425,
0.37268590927124023,
-0.9352186918258667,
-0.3329050838947296,
0.571822464466095,
0.4974764287471771,
-0.3105566203594208,
-0.2935618460178375,
0.25948306918144226,
0.15655605494976044,
0.5700978636741638,
0.03986098989844322,
0.47328895330429077,
-0.8051207065582275,
-0.31449905037879944,
0.6280771493911743,
-0.7414993047714233,
0.38045305013656616,
0.6497232913970947,
-0.036088280379772186,
-0.7226235866546631,
0.5820693373680115,
0.5369641780853271,
-0.13670973479747772,
0.4397122859954834,
-0.31141147017478943,
0.28169265389442444,
0.33367979526519775,
0.6867446899414062,
0.15867649018764496,
-0.6202418208122253,
-0.40249180793762207,
0.1746424436569214,
-0.3012590706348419,
-0.43306881189346313,
-0.03126746416091919,
-0.41683369874954224,
-0.1828799843788147,
0.4169321656227112,
0.6490100622177124,
0.5306952595710754,
0.19209598004817963,
0.10001660883426666,
0.07859127968549728,
0.5648292899131775,
0.4414513111114502,
0.3726540505886078,
-0.335095077753067,
-0.28627774119377136,
0.07505203783512115,
-0.2615264654159546,
-0.21926972270011902,
-0.25687798857688904,
-0.13500425219535828,
-0.05426322668790817,
-0.04746043309569359,
-0.3367805480957031,
0.09022282063961029,
0.009054448455572128,
-0.15005944669246674,
-0.2085988074541092,
0.2483804076910019,
0.1687413901090622,
-0.39773449301719666,
-0.6894016861915588,
0.10111139714717865,
-0.22661380469799042,
0.05666530877351761,
0.5699399709701538,
-0.36766213178634644,
-0.3002781271934509,
-0.29171958565711975,
-0.37154269218444824,
0.29165250062942505,
0.004345294088125229,
-0.1482207477092743,
0.5364880561828613,
0.2449539303779602,
0.9165919423103333,
-0.3650253713130951,
0.2708355784416199,
-0.2514204680919647,
-0.32992860674858093,
0.528569221496582,
-0.015302637591958046,
-0.7009469270706177,
0.5939812064170837,
-0.022465838119387627,
-0.2553766369819641,
0.32952436804771423,
0.20923560857772827,
-0.35567229986190796,
0.00022922700736671686,
-0.31286486983299255,
-0.022266365587711334,
-0.650731086730957,
0.6593473553657532,
0.6067558526992798,
-0.05144780874252319,
-0.08791819214820862,
0.037851449102163315,
-0.07371283322572708,
-0.025206727907061577,
0.12669852375984192,
0.3323604166507721,
-0.3874441981315613,
0.5738740563392639,
-0.7603422403335571,
0.1756809651851654,
-0.6503068804740906,
0.5354140400886536,
-0.21703515946865082,
0.29537442326545715,
-0.45671382546424866,
0.24926689267158508,
0.5908418297767639,
-0.07815754413604736,
-0.529961884021759,
-0.8460628390312195,
0.6387547850608826,
-0.17926856875419617,
0.12397818267345428,
-0.028480468317866325,
-0.012177910655736923,
-0.39346766471862793,
-0.08001432567834854,
0.6834311485290527,
-0.31975120306015015,
0.16719140112400055,
-0.21141564846038818,
0.12521959841251373,
-0.21791969239711761,
0.28548234701156616,
-0.32083266973495483,
-0.040185440331697464,
-0.12705738842487335,
0.5870922803878784,
0.7738290429115295,
-0.17751610279083252,
-0.43890833854675293,
-0.4997478127479553,
-0.28459930419921875,
-0.403890997171402,
-0.15381604433059692,
-0.24201884865760803,
-0.35639840364456177,
-0.32229024171829224,
-0.27933210134506226,
0.6387920379638672,
0.3284946382045746,
-0.647303581237793,
0.7336627244949341,
-0.3195836842060089,
-0.4319748282432556,
-0.14212022721767426,
-0.4551681578159332,
-1.2088261842727661,
0.9343363046646118,
-0.029966453090310097
] |
247869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-flashing | Pre-flashing | In cinematography and photography, pre-flashing is the exposure of the film or other photosensor to uniform light prior to exposing it to the scene to be imaged. This adds a bias to the overall light input recorded by the sensor.
It is sometimes used for artistic effects, as it can be used to add a colour cast to shadows without significantly affecting highlights.
It is also used in fields such as astronomy to bias CCD image sensors into a linear region, improving their low-light sensitivity.
See also
Photographic hypersensitization
Pre-flash metering
Photographic techniques | [
0.6046562790870667,
0.3138810098171234,
0.02664860337972641,
0.2043420374393463,
-0.1812281608581543,
-0.04484207555651665,
0.22085070610046387,
-0.016043199226260185,
-0.3940175473690033,
-0.1950039565563202,
-0.5030304193496704,
0.6428969502449036,
-0.6271641850471497,
0.09479366987943649,
-0.17029480636119843,
0.26688024401664734,
0.32791152596473694,
0.5277965068817139,
-0.009552591480314732,
-0.2302006334066391,
-0.21018169820308685,
-0.09426606446504593,
-0.1999523937702179,
-0.6295717358589172,
-0.10745768249034882,
-0.40364572405815125,
0.1782391220331192,
0.25071242451667786,
0.22327105700969696,
0.01834459975361824,
0.10571864992380142,
0.21273764967918396,
-0.34389203786849976,
0.16319352388381958,
0.18381550908088684,
-0.03507992625236511,
0.30525922775268555,
-0.2444596141576767,
-0.1954643279314041,
-0.051783449947834015,
-0.5837154984474182,
-0.08906958997249603,
0.30372560024261475,
-0.30666741728782654,
0.32693377137184143,
-0.47926461696624756,
-0.9537966251373291,
0.12164139747619629,
-0.5960540771484375,
-0.024658484384417534,
-0.9061609506607056,
0.06346631050109863,
0.13513731956481934,
0.8702146410942078,
0.08157294988632202,
0.7921849489212036,
-0.4972262978553772,
0.38150396943092346,
-0.35824400186538696,
-0.17719903588294983,
0.10420471429824829,
-0.370272159576416,
-0.18844524025917053,
0.2926132082939148,
0.7930077314376831,
-0.0020607574842870235,
-0.1105913519859314,
0.40143993496894836,
0.5850197076797485,
-0.7359541058540344,
-0.34254440665245056,
-0.1454816609621048,
0.06340879946947098,
0.1646149903535843,
-0.4450128674507141,
0.2132212221622467,
0.27634352445602417,
-0.1435007005929947,
-0.3270106911659241,
-0.40463724732398987,
0.14172984659671783,
0.4715753197669983,
0.5619822144508362,
0.5785049796104431,
0.22232425212860107,
0.11575436592102051,
-0.5427322387695312,
0.29259562492370605,
-0.0467195026576519,
0.2552938759326935,
0.04703713580965996,
-0.14737600088119507,
0.5730403065681458,
-0.09384695440530777,
-0.0864000990986824,
0.1509268432855606,
-0.28995823860168457,
0.36942633986473083,
0.5187200903892517,
0.09599800407886505,
-0.20635436475276947,
-0.4594269394874573,
0.627647340297699,
-0.3486509621143341,
-0.0815439447760582,
-0.054764147847890854,
-0.3925420343875885,
-0.14910727739334106,
0.0691327303647995,
-0.029635842889547348,
-0.2912244498729706,
0.21878460049629211,
0.07695363461971283,
-0.03289082273840904,
-0.5943558812141418,
0.07396576553583145,
-0.07963646203279495,
0.2209145724773407,
-0.2820970416069031,
-0.2510717213153839,
0.4855431914329529,
0.390018105506897,
0.2316117286682129,
-0.1402503252029419,
-0.6927976608276367,
0.560651957988739,
0.6447197198867798,
1.0793240070343018,
-0.5669309496879578,
0.028722047805786133,
-0.002090305555611849,
0.79376220703125,
-0.23035521805286407,
-0.20193257927894592,
-0.16436493396759033,
-0.3617696762084961,
0.11591987311840057,
-0.017602059990167618,
0.4898318946361542,
-0.10481415688991547,
-0.44871121644973755,
-0.5050040483474731,
-0.26771309971809387,
-0.16883133351802826,
0.5871909856796265,
-0.22977767884731293,
0.6593273282051086,
-0.4808635413646698,
-0.4622543752193451,
0.2273147702217102,
0.009629463776946068,
-0.4832655191421509,
0.373055100440979,
0.047520510852336884,
-0.5117525458335876,
0.47912663221359253,
0.645483136177063,
-0.264727920293808,
-0.17598235607147217,
0.08924077451229095,
0.3855076730251312,
-0.1383150964975357,
-0.4192049205303192,
0.6638343334197998,
0.5031307935714722,
-0.055644258856773376,
0.16965855658054352,
0.5497968792915344,
0.6945043802261353,
0.44253653287887573,
-0.20600256323814392,
0.04139593616127968,
-0.298941433429718,
-0.2960323095321655,
-0.027167366817593575,
0.7495620250701904,
0.45020562410354614,
0.7506408095359802,
0.26293495297431946,
-0.16964544355869293,
-0.8637569546699524,
0.19945864379405975,
0.5706959962844849,
0.06662435084581375,
-0.26581624150276184,
-0.5614850521087646,
0.09181304275989532,
-0.14185269176959991,
0.066238172352314,
-0.32498541474342346,
-0.7518353462219238,
0.18435709178447723,
-0.2973392903804779,
-0.9903317093849182,
0.8599429130554199,
-0.5112054347991943,
-0.3836281895637512,
0.8912525177001953,
0.04275144264101982,
0.8008438944816589,
0.03398607298731804,
0.10664689540863037,
-0.16170941293239594,
0.02482016012072563,
-0.7538874745368958,
0.5401106476783752,
0.24121129512786865,
0.6036824584007263,
0.03604968264698982,
0.26958078145980835,
0.559897780418396,
0.1312246322631836,
0.10677679628133774,
0.2754330039024353,
0.3620419502258301,
0.22229987382888794,
-0.6767910122871399,
0.2848333418369293,
0.04404629394412041,
-0.19238461554050446,
-0.3221931457519531,
-0.1184270903468132,
-0.36775603890419006,
0.15050648152828217,
0.07220504432916641,
0.5846583247184753,
0.33968284726142883,
0.06269707530736923,
0.5513349771499634,
-0.8750063180923462,
0.8723649978637695,
0.16291195154190063,
0.06411249190568924,
-0.20420940220355988,
-0.6145470142364502,
-0.34186986088752747,
0.41317564249038696,
-0.027225153520703316,
-0.05306049808859825,
-0.8939210772514343,
0.40686026215553284,
0.016067586839199066,
0.3351316750049591,
0.094622403383255,
0.28719043731689453,
-0.07619182020425797,
0.14550940692424774,
0.5216454267501831,
0.20186260342597961,
-0.18700259923934937,
0.6757381558418274,
0.07243281602859497,
-0.012537647970020771,
-0.8877589106559753,
0.05226568505167961,
-0.3357618749141693,
-0.3341682553291321,
-0.6347237229347229,
0.7305997014045715,
-0.376389741897583,
0.5081198811531067,
0.1037321537733078,
0.44932109117507935,
0.4247414767742157,
-0.7223682999610901,
-0.42204558849334717,
-0.5151633024215698,
0.24971191585063934,
-0.06394675374031067,
0.681826651096344,
0.5638329982757568,
0.15384215116500854,
-0.8091921806335449,
-0.2898256182670593,
-0.20208947360515594,
-0.8410320281982422,
0.8588261604309082,
0.532031774520874,
-0.09967277199029922,
0.3645702600479126,
0.19393464922904968,
0.14470426738262177,
-0.1778663545846939,
-0.3586905002593994,
-0.9595702290534973,
-0.7286798357963562,
0.08666054904460907,
0.0501081682741642,
-0.29766103625297546,
-0.028733165934681892,
-0.044232022017240524,
0.5857834815979004,
0.3618362545967102,
0.4630398154258728,
0.3972095549106598,
0.2255273014307022,
-1.01141357421875,
0.4195716977119446,
0.33651918172836304,
-0.39395901560783386,
-0.23496504127979279,
-0.311340868473053,
0.11882989853620529,
-0.492178350687027,
-0.3934856057167053,
0.019444366917014122,
0.22024670243263245,
-0.610356867313385,
-5.379629611968994,
0.40021228790283203,
0.11789877712726593,
-0.13709698617458344,
-0.44695720076560974,
-0.2938269376754761,
1.0694652795791626,
0.15990939736366272,
0.10863372683525085,
0.15782292187213898,
-0.4855119287967682,
-0.2998337745666504,
-0.02192513458430767,
0.7905429601669312,
0.2654624879360199,
0.5535326600074768,
0.7134273648262024,
-0.1045556366443634,
0.5277854204177856,
0.3966861665248871,
-0.6478793025016785,
0.1353904902935028,
-0.1891298145055771,
0.6151751279830933,
-0.00004955938129569404,
-0.3753283619880676,
-0.4175119996070862,
0.1952921450138092,
-0.3683171272277832,
0.11552657932043076,
0.7656233310699463,
-0.3078949749469757,
0.19610647857189178,
0.025561725720763206,
-0.30124714970588684,
0.5917477011680603,
0.6031562685966492,
-0.2915779650211334,
-0.649503767490387,
-0.7789063453674316,
0.16236615180969238,
0.8256443738937378,
-0.03266314044594765,
0.9560136198997498,
0.8046570420265198,
-0.19024917483329773,
-0.2614692747592926,
-0.511852502822876,
-0.08684221655130386,
0.5906487107276917,
0.18017081916332245,
0.19158756732940674,
0.24519816040992737,
-0.15677113831043243,
-0.240498349070549,
0.37758782505989075,
0.4348928928375244,
-0.34923067688941956,
0.2117721438407898,
-0.3372729420661926,
0.10621084272861481,
-0.5604217648506165,
-0.3500792384147644,
-0.25209692120552063,
0.6354564428329468,
-0.4817172586917877,
-0.6973980069160461,
-0.5066312551498413,
0.07634218782186508,
0.35766053199768066,
-0.23640409111976624,
0.7367232441902161,
-0.3159695267677307,
-1.0398656129837036,
-0.16946642100811005,
-0.46234387159347534,
0.48962295055389404,
-0.13082098960876465,
0.25378552079200745,
0.07935278117656708,
-0.12447180598974228,
-0.03753778710961342,
-0.3198518455028534,
0.20766235888004303,
0.4570063054561615,
0.09392954409122467,
-0.017576098442077637,
0.09385529160499573,
0.25580376386642456,
-0.32262352108955383,
1.8130404949188232,
0.2234666347503662,
-0.22282087802886963,
-0.06753572076559067,
-0.3789583742618561,
0.6748291850090027,
0.4963429868221283,
-0.038013849407434464,
0.5042445659637451,
-0.2529408633708954,
-0.2299104630947113,
0.08201223611831665,
-0.2577522397041321,
-0.7505248785018921,
-0.26334646344184875,
0.1022048369050026,
-0.35703766345977783,
0.28740736842155457,
0.46212413907051086,
-0.44495388865470886,
-0.2575860321521759,
0.3350051939487457,
0.14761774241924286,
0.1101095974445343,
0.34724339842796326,
0.13875341415405273,
0.18858924508094788,
0.049418460577726364,
0.02712317183613777,
-0.27200067043304443,
-0.34104230999946594,
-0.11601871997117996,
-0.797200620174408,
0.022717805579304695,
-0.47099900245666504,
-0.44547659158706665,
-0.20326964557170868,
0.1730388104915619,
-0.20260202884674072,
0.1387406438589096,
0.3437412679195404,
0.6406847834587097,
-0.08048464357852936,
-0.06291484832763672,
0.5881080627441406,
-1.1837544441223145,
-0.1017504408955574,
-0.09085602313280106,
0.4311152398586273,
-0.2122778445482254,
-0.42214906215667725,
-0.019956111907958984,
-0.2550423741340637,
0.07278205454349518,
0.9653819799423218,
0.3095603287220001,
-0.0815739557147026,
-0.2824319303035736,
-0.6149724721908569,
0.64142906665802,
-0.06584080308675766,
-0.7506168484687805,
-0.470413476228714,
-1.0006641149520874,
0.049165189266204834,
-0.3618628680706024,
-0.11634102463722229,
-0.16338908672332764,
0.04840974137187004,
-0.8457373976707458,
0.44489383697509766,
0.16495731472969055,
-1.0772234201431274,
-0.44179683923721313,
-0.1852118968963623,
-0.6851407885551453,
-0.24970439076423645,
-0.3418501019477844,
-0.09702962636947632,
0.44356733560562134,
-0.5507326126098633,
-0.413242906332016,
-0.3239876329898834,
-0.47079917788505554,
0.5656025409698486,
-0.18898406624794006,
-0.44127994775772095,
0.23821210861206055,
-0.48652470111846924,
-0.7304685115814209,
0.009295343421399593,
-0.13317304849624634,
-1.0137284994125366,
-0.2249647080898285,
0.3821597695350647,
-0.3503124713897705,
-0.4221518039703369,
-0.00022287742467597127,
-0.7688499093055725,
-0.3077682554721832,
0.13394135236740112,
0.6123151779174805,
0.3531589210033417,
-0.29219698905944824,
-0.6909142136573792,
-1.187376856803894,
-0.6051726341247559,
0.5019819736480713,
0.0953119769692421,
-1.0531154870986938,
0.17706574499607086,
0.2282153218984604,
-0.8549836874008179,
0.056389763951301575,
0.25134095549583435,
-0.33172371983528137,
0.6193850040435791,
0.5904207229614258,
-0.6956859827041626,
0.29389819502830505,
0.0007545888074673712,
-0.8984123468399048,
-0.8061928749084473,
0.20648594200611115,
-0.36191630363464355,
0.6939845085144043,
-0.25876501202583313,
-0.44631195068359375,
0.0664915069937706,
-0.26554518938064575,
0.6403459906578064,
0.0004321207816246897,
-0.3230041563510895,
0.4254108667373657,
-0.17424163222312927,
-0.01742810197174549,
0.572114884853363,
-0.21979355812072754,
0.9090555310249329,
-0.027322392910718918,
-0.33232757449150085,
-0.02880973555147648,
0.29094719886779785,
0.1261104792356491,
-0.21654412150382996,
0.437105268239975,
-0.7944520711898804,
0.46611014008522034,
0.26308566331863403,
0.3550603687763214,
-0.03755708411335945,
0.8164647221565247,
-0.15842953324317932,
-0.17301435768604279,
-0.32142749428749084,
0.31816139817237854,
0.1614367812871933,
-0.6142606735229492,
-0.8541412353515625,
0.2997520864009857,
0.16351395845413208,
-0.178599551320076,
-0.5489082336425781,
-0.12868593633174896,
-0.2346193790435791,
0.10325903445482254,
-0.19664013385772705,
0.2352619171142578,
-0.04762428626418114,
0.6325212717056274,
0.156607523560524,
-0.5362691283226013,
-0.3344217538833618,
-0.2537824809551239,
0.5872488617897034,
0.32537946105003357,
0.0691051259636879,
0.2001086324453354,
0.05068977177143097,
0.37452808022499084,
0.10901042819023132,
-0.3017256259918213,
0.6759288311004639,
-0.17210538685321808,
0.27089452743530273,
0.39264997839927673,
0.04491813853383064,
-0.13457660377025604,
-0.21371491253376007,
-0.519596517086029,
-0.11705394089221954,
-0.05511733517050743,
0.5797555446624756,
-0.3603135943412781,
-0.3460635542869568,
-0.7363345623016357,
0.6490104794502258,
-0.33071374893188477,
-1.0502843856811523,
-0.06812645494937897,
-0.3868572413921356,
0.5676674246788025,
-0.07568620145320892,
0.42149409651756287,
0.17983253300189972,
0.2777717411518097,
0.1467454433441162,
0.3048032224178314,
-0.24090343713760376,
-0.13261398673057556,
0.1002187579870224,
0.4071187973022461,
0.20136840641498566,
-0.658088743686676,
0.2827704846858978,
-0.46064940094947815,
0.2948771119117737,
-1.258115291595459,
-0.2669121325016022,
0.4482012987136841,
-0.2606879770755768,
0.22417345643043518,
0.5097134113311768,
0.3909966051578522,
-0.47112613916397095,
0.1916685551404953,
0.8211525082588196,
-0.1397981345653534,
0.07518982887268066,
0.1255658119916916,
-0.14921687543392181,
-0.25612303614616394,
0.520512044429779,
-0.40081849694252014,
-0.6077487468719482,
0.4797797203063965,
0.23628218472003937,
0.6522068977355957,
0.4698287546634674,
0.024554269388318062,
0.8239490985870361,
0.017567787319421768,
0.027892693877220154,
0.9277195930480957,
-0.6843798756599426,
-0.15778598189353943,
0.25779715180397034,
-0.8166284561157227,
-0.5965782403945923,
0.012684853747487068,
1.0282026529312134,
1.0453720092773438,
0.28125742077827454,
-0.3951072692871094,
-0.2614263594150543,
0.5010918378829956,
0.32020270824432373,
0.45033377408981323,
-0.12043377012014389,
0.45222628116607666,
0.366813600063324,
-0.31756535172462463,
0.2776935398578644,
0.10871079564094543,
0.32878562808036804,
-0.14479121565818787,
0.5604454278945923,
-0.3546672761440277,
-0.18506842851638794,
-0.2577782869338989,
0.08601301163434982,
-0.04260721802711487,
0.2880370318889618,
-0.34277158975601196,
-0.38717663288116455,
-0.3084205090999603,
0.4478261172771454,
0.042954668402671814,
0.20637087523937225,
0.16627630591392517,
0.44330573081970215,
0.7313017845153809,
-0.0003034136607311666,
0.15437966585159302,
0.36300429701805115,
-0.09445773810148239,
0.7292793989181519,
0.0054771993309259415,
0.2274666577577591,
0.05524049699306488,
-0.6761652827262878,
0.2539447247982025,
-0.31307685375213623,
-0.7403663992881775,
-0.21501930058002472,
-0.4690883159637451,
-0.07101687788963318,
0.0921345055103302,
-0.3713130056858063,
-0.22704483568668365,
-0.5164104700088501,
0.17050905525684357,
0.3109501898288727,
-0.22597499191761017,
-0.23967227339744568,
0.21800316870212555,
0.2216445803642273,
0.6085686087608337,
0.43420442938804626,
-0.07003190368413925,
-0.1964258849620819,
0.7771285772323608,
0.191767156124115,
-0.048119835555553436,
0.15670223534107208,
0.4875594973564148,
-0.5767521262168884,
0.5232225060462952,
-0.13854868710041046,
0.3742445707321167,
0.5499700307846069,
-0.8912376165390015,
0.47125139832496643,
0.3357079029083252,
-0.2596360146999359,
0.6287804245948792,
0.4414863586425781,
-0.4328734278678894,
0.28079482913017273,
-0.7681021094322205,
-0.3621179759502411,
-0.6528193354606628,
0.13017520308494568,
0.08023529499769211,
-0.6636853814125061,
0.14909647405147552,
0.3855847418308258,
0.2999021112918854,
0.2687986493110657,
0.4066307544708252,
-0.28982412815093994,
0.1363009810447693,
-0.6816949844360352,
0.3213999569416046,
-0.05245450884103775,
-0.7632536292076111,
-0.15799389779567719,
0.7020466327667236,
0.7258387804031372,
-0.5304319262504578,
0.09078878909349442,
0.014507822692394257,
0.17332936823368073,
0.0020119473338127136,
-0.005355468951165676,
-0.0975920781493187,
-0.9178518652915955,
0.09888938069343567,
-0.46831873059272766,
-0.07372669875621796,
-0.04653242602944374,
-1.1880079507827759,
0.10393422096967697,
-0.25904741883277893,
-0.5027504563331604,
0.4592173099517822,
0.3674015402793884,
-0.5453369617462158,
-0.5012531876564026,
0.27380988001823425
] |
247874 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra%20nullius | Terra nullius | Terra nullius (, plural terrae nullius) is a Latin expression meaning "nobody's land". It was a principle sometimes used in international law to justify claims that territory may be acquired by a state's occupation of it.
History
Many scholars have noted the similarity between the terra nullius principle and the Roman law term res nullius, meaning nobody's thing. In Roman law, res nullius, or things without owners, such as wild animals (ferae bestiae), lost slaves and abandoned buildings could be taken as property by anyone by seizure. Therefore, some scholars have argued that terra nullius stems from res nullius, but others disagree and claim that the derivation is "by analogy" only.
A part of the debate over the history of terra nullius is when the term itself was first used. According to historian of ideas Andrew Fitzmaurice, territorium nullius and terra nullius were two different, albeit related, legal terms. He claims that territorium nullius was first used in a meeting of the Institut de Droit International in 1888 where the legal principles of the Berlin conference were discussed and that terra nullius was introduced twenty years later during legal disputes over the polar regions. Historian M. Connor on the other hand, argues that territorium nullius and terra nullius are the same thing. Both scholars are active in the Australian "history wars" debate.
There is considerable debate among historians about how and when the terra nullius concepts were used. The debate has been especially prevalent in Australia where it was ignited by the history wars caused by the Mabo case in 1992, a landmark decision which decided in favour of native title in Australia and was a pivotal moment in the history of indigenous land rights in Australia. The history wars caused Australian historians to reevaluate the country's history, the dispossession of Aboriginal Australians and whether the land should best be characterised as having been "settled" or "conquered". A part of this debate was over whether terra nullius was ever used by England and other European powers to justify territorial conquest.
Sociologist Robert van Krieken wrote:
As such, the 'rejection of terra nullius' is arguably more about Australian history and moral community than Australian jurisprudence. It also had the rather perverse effect, in the subsequent public debate around the decision, of diverting our attention from the fact that there were strong reasons of law to recognise native title, and made the High Court far more vulnerable to the criticism of 'excessive judicial activism' than the substance of the case itself demanded.
On one side of the debate are historians such as Alan Frost and Henry Reynolds who claim that in the 15th and 16th century, European writers adopted the res nullius concept for territorial conquest. Frost writes:
By the mid–eighteenth century, the theoretical basis of a new convention of acquiring empire had emerged. If a European state (a Christian Prince) had already established an effective possession of a region, another might acquire title to it only by formal cession (which might or might not involve outright purchase). If the region was not already possessed by a rival, then a state might acquire it in one of three ways, viz.:
– by persuading the indigenous inhabitants to submit themselves to its overlordship;
– by purchasing from those inhabitants the right to settle part or parts of it;
– by unilateral possession, on the basis of first discovery and effective occupation.
Historians debate whether "first discovery and effective occupation" was applied to territory inhabited by indigenous peoples that European colonial powers sought to acquire or not. According to Frost:
However, if the indigenes had advanced beyond the state of nature only so far as to have developed language and the community of the family, but no further; if they had not yet mixed their labour with the earth in any permanent way; or if the region were literally uninhabited, then Europeans considered it to be terra nullius (i.e., belonging to no one), to which they might gain permanent title by first discovery and effective occupation.
On the other side of the debate are historians which claim that terra nullius is a much younger concept, which did not become formalized before the end of the 19th century. Historian M. Borch writes:
When the wealth of material relevant to this issue is surveyed it seems much more likely that there was no legal doctrine maintaining that inhabited land could be regarded as ownerless, nor was this the basis of official policy, in the eighteenth century or before. Rather it seems to have developed as a legal theory in the nineteenth century.
These historians claim instead that territorial conquest was justified from natural law – that which has no owner can be taken by the first taker. Michael Connor in his book The Invention of Terra Nullius takes an even more extreme view and argues that no one in the 19th century thought of Australia as being terra nullius. He calls the concept a legal fiction, a straw man developed in the late 20th century:
By the time of Mabo in 1992, terra nullius was the only explanation for the British settlement of Australia. Historians, more interested in politics than archives, misled the legal profession into believing that a phrase no one had heard of a few years before was the very basis of our statehood, and Reynolds' version of our history, especially The Law of the Land, underpinned the Mabo judges' decision-making.
Current claims of terra nullius
Antarctica
While several countries have made claims to parts of Antarctica in the first half of the 20th century, the remainder, including most of Marie Byrd Land (the portion east from 150°W to 90°W), has not been claimed by any sovereign state. Signatories to the Antarctic Treaty of 1959 agreed not to make such claims, except the Soviet Union and the United States, who reserved the right to make a claim.
Bir Tawil
Bir Tawil is an example of a territory often claimed to be terra nullius. Between Egypt and Sudan is the landlocked territory of Bir Tawil, which was created by a discrepancy between borders drawn in 1899 and 1902. One border placed Bir Tawil under the Sudan's control and the Halaib Triangle under Egypt's; the other border did the reverse. Each country asserts the border that would give it the much larger Hala'ib Triangle, to the east, which is adjacent to the Red Sea, with the side effect that Bir Tawil is unclaimed by either country (each claims the other owns it). Bir Tawil has no settled population, but the land is used by Bedouins who roam the area.
Gornja Siga and other pockets
Serbia and Croatia dispute several small areas on the east bank of the Danube. However, some pockets on the west bank, of which Gornja Siga is the largest, are not claimed by either country. Croatia states the pockets are Serbian, while Serbia makes no claims on the land.
On 13 April 2015, Vít Jedlička from the Czech Party of Free Citizens proclaimed the right-libertarian micronation of Liberland on Gornja Siga.
The Croatian Ministry of Foreign and European Affairs has rejected these claims, stating that the differing border claims between Serbia and Croatia do not involve terra nullius, and are not subject to occupation by a third party. The Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated on 24 April 2015 that while Serbia considers "Liberland" to be a frivolous matter, it does not impinge upon the Serbian border, which is delineated by the Danube River.
Historical claims of terra nullius
Several territories have been claimed to be terra nullius. In a minority of those claims, international and domestic courts have ruled on whether the territory is or was terra nullius or not.
Africa
Burkina Faso and Niger
A narrow strip of land adjacent to two territorial markers along the Burkina Faso–Niger border was claimed by neither country until the International Court of Justice settled a more extensive territorial dispute in 2013. The former unclaimed territory was awarded to Niger.
Western Sahara
At the request of Morocco, the International Court of Justice in 1975 addressed whether Western Sahara was terra nullius at the time of Spanish colonization in 1885. The court found in its advisory opinion that Western Sahara was not terra nullius at that time.
Asia
Pinnacle Islands (Diaoyu Islands/Senkaku Islands)
A disputed archipelago in the East China Sea, the uninhabited Pinnacle Islands, were claimed by Japan to have become part of its territory as terra nullius in January 1895, following the Japanese victory in the First Sino-Japanese War. However, this interpretation is not accepted by the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (Taiwan), both of whom claim sovereignty over the islands.
Scarborough Shoal (South China Sea)
The People's Republic of China and the Philippines both claim the Scarborough Shoal or Panatag Shoal or Huangyan Island (), nearest to the island of Luzon, located in the South China Sea. The Philippines claims it under the principles of terra nullius and EEZ (exclusive economic zone). China's claim refers to its discovery in the 13th century by Chinese fishermen (the former Nationalist government on the Chinese mainland had also claimed this territory after the founding of the Republic of China in 1911). However, despite China's position of non-participation in an UNCLOS case, in 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) denied the lawfulness of China's "nine-dash line" claim.
Despite this, China continues to build artificial islands in the South China Sea, and Scarborough Shoal is a prime location for another one. Chinese ships have been seen in the vicinity of the shoal. Analysis of photos has concluded that the ships lack dredging equipment and therefore represent no imminent threat of reclamation work.
Europe
Rockall
According to Ian Mitchell, Rockall was terra nullius until it was claimed by the United Kingdom in 1955.
It was formally annexed in 1972.
Sealand
One of the few micronations to control a physical location, the Principality of Sealand has existed de facto since 1967 on an abandoned British anti-aircraft gun tower in the North Sea. At the point when it was taken over, the tower had been abandoned by the Royal Navy and was outside British territorial waters. Paddy Roy Bates, who styled himself Prince, claimed that it was terra nullius. Despite rejecting this claim on the basis that the tower is an artificial structure, the British government has never attempted to evict the Sealanders, and a court in 1968 confirmed that at that point, the tower was outside British jurisdiction.
In 1987, Britain extended its territorial waters from , meaning that Sealand is now within them.
Svalbard
Denmark–Norway, the Dutch Republic, the Kingdom of Great Britain, and the Kingdom of Scotland all claimed sovereignty over the archipelago of Svalbard in the seventeenth century, but none permanently occupied it. Expeditions from each of these polities visited Svalbard principally during the summer for whaling, with the first two sending a few wintering parties in the 1620s and 1630s.
During the 19th century, both Norway and Russia made strong claims to the archipelago. In 1909, Italian jurist Camille Piccioni described Spitzbergen, as it was then known, as terra nullius:
The issue would have been simpler if Spitzbergen, until now terra nullius, could have been attributed to a single state, for reasons of neighbouring or earlier occupation. But this is not the case and several powers can, for different reasons, make their claims to this territory which still has no master.
The territorial dispute was eventually resolved by the Svalbard Treaty of 9 February 1920 which recognized Norwegian sovereignty over the islands.
North America
Canada
Joseph Trutch, the first Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia, insisted that First Nations had never owned land, and thus their land claims could safely be ignored. It is for this reason that most of British Columbia remains unceded land.
In Guerin v. The Queen, a Canadian Supreme Court decision of 1984 on aboriginal rights, the Court stated that the government has a fiduciary duty toward the First Nations of Canada and established aboriginal title to be a sui generis right. Since then there has been a more complicated debate and a general narrowing of the definition of "fiduciary duty".
Eastern Greenland
Norway occupied and claimed parts of (then uninhabited) eastern Greenland in 1931, claiming that it constituted terra nullius and calling the territory Erik the Red's Land.
The Permanent Court of International Justice ruled against the Norwegian claim. The Norwegians accepted the ruling and withdrew their claim.
United States
A similar concept of "uncultivated land" was employed by John Quincy Adams to identify supposedly unclaimed wilderness.
Guano Islands
The Guano Islands Act of 18 August 1856 enabled citizens of the U.S. to take possession of islands containing guano deposits. The islands can be located anywhere, so long as they are not occupied and not within the jurisdiction of other governments. It also empowers the President of the United States to use the military to protect such interests, and establishes the criminal jurisdiction of the United States.
Oceania
Australia
Aboriginal peoples inhabited Australia for over 50,000 years before European settlement, which commenced in 1788, but Indigenous customs, rituals and laws were unwritten. It was formally claimed by the settlers that Australia was terra nullius at the time of settlement. This is also described as a "doctrine of discovery".
In 1971, in the controversial Northern Territory Supreme Court case of Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd, popularly known as the Gove land rights case, Justice Richard Blackburn ruled that Australia had been considered "desert and uncultivated" (a term which included territory in which resided "uncivilised inhabitants in a primitive state of society") before European settlement, and therefore, by the law that applied at the time, open to be claimed by right of occupancy, and that there was no such thing as native title in Australian law. The concept of terra nullius was not considered in this case, however. Court cases in 1977, 1979, and 1982, brought by or on behalf of Aboriginal activists, challenged Australian sovereignty on the grounds that terra nullius had been improperly applied, therefore Aboriginal sovereignty should still be regarded as being intact. The courts rejected these cases, but the Australian High Court left the door open for a reassessment of whether the continent should be considered "settled" or "conquered".
In 1982, Eddie Mabo and four other Torres Strait Islander people from Mer (Murray Island) started legal proceedings to establish their traditional land ownership. This led to Mabo v Queensland (No 1). In 1992, after ten years of hearings before the Queensland Supreme Court and the High Court of Australia, the latter court found in Mabo v Queensland (No 2) ("the Mabo case") that the Mer people had owned their land prior to annexation by the colony of Queensland (1872–1879). The ruling thus had far-reaching significance for the land claims of all Indigenous Australians (both Torres Strait Islanders and Aboriginal Australians).
The controversy over Australian land ownership erupted into the "history wars". The 1992 Mabo decision overturned the doctrine of terra nullius in Australia.
Clipperton Island
The sovereignty of Clipperton Island was settled by arbitration between France and Mexico. King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy rendered a decision in 1931 that the sovereignty of Clipperton Island belongs to France from the date of November 17, 1858.' The Mexican claim was rejected for lack of proof of prior Spanish discovery and, in any event, no effective occupation by Mexico before 1858, when the island was therefore territorium nullius, and the French occupation then was sufficient and legally continuing."
South Island of New Zealand
In 1840, the newly appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand, Captain William Hobson of the Royal Navy, following instructions from the British government, declared the Middle Island of New Zealand (later known as the "South Island") as terra nullius, and therefore fit for occupation by European settlers. Hobson's decision was also influenced by a small party of French settlers heading towards Akaroa on the Banks Peninsula to settle in 1840.
South America
Patagonia
Patagonia was according to some considerations regarded a terra nullius in the 19th century. This notion ignored the Spanish Crown's recognition of indigenous Mapuche sovereignty and is considered by scholars Nahuelpán and Antimil to have set the stage for an era of Chilean "republican colonialism".
Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty
View the following chart as if it was a "cross-section" of the earth, stretching from underground to outer space.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" cellpadding="5"
|+Limits of national jurisdiction and sovereignty
|-
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:3px dashed red;"colspan="8"| Outer space (including earth orbits; the moon and other celestial bodies, and their orbits)
|-
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="2"| national airspace
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| territorial waters airspace
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| contiguous zone airspace
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="4"| international airspace
|-
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| territorial land surface
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| internal waters' surface
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| territorial waters' surface
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| contiguous zone surface waters
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| exclusive economic zone waters' surface
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="3"| international waters' surface
|- style="color:black;"
|style="background:#90ff90;border:2px solid black;"colspan="2"| internal waters
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| territorial waters
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="2"| exclusive economic zone
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="3"| international waters
|-
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black; border:2px solid black;"colspan="2" rowspan="2"| under ground surface in land territory
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black; border:2px solid black;"| surface waters overlying continental shelf
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="2"| surface waters overlying continental shelf
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| surface waters overlying extended continental shelf
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| international waters seabed surface
|-
|style="background:#90ff90;color:black;border:2px solid black;"colspan="3"| beneath continental shelf seabed
|style="background:yellow;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| beneath extended continental shelf seabed
|style="background:#ff9090;color:black;border:2px solid black;"| international waters beneath seabed
|}
See also
Appropriation concepts
Footnotes
References
Sources
External links
— Governor Burke's 1835 proclamation of terra nullius.
— analysis of Michael Conner's denial of terra nullius (The Invention of Terra Nullius).
.
.
.
Common law
Constitutional state types
International law
Legal fictions
Latin legal terminology
Aboriginal title
Legal doctrines and principles
Colonialism
Space law | [
0.11268673092126846,
-0.3629017770290375,
-0.6834522485733032,
0.021325694397091866,
0.06536252051591873,
0.40901103615760803,
0.4681962728500366,
0.6005744338035583,
-0.13647300004959106,
-0.4691571891307831,
-0.32448700070381165,
-0.2535412907600403,
-0.24882736802101135,
0.8751724362373352,
-0.21271048486232758,
0.5013461112976074,
0.21481448411941528,
0.6402283906936646,
-0.2880314290523529,
0.353659451007843,
0.5580431222915649,
0.44182223081588745,
0.002508667530491948,
-0.48392581939697266,
0.09074752032756805,
-0.0678458958864212,
0.0781434178352356,
-0.009090349078178406,
-0.41383448243141174,
0.006227526348084211,
-0.05527137219905853,
0.04912086948752403,
-0.18407858908176422,
0.23854009807109833,
-0.29773297905921936,
0.07203458994626999,
-0.04590858519077301,
0.0469258576631546,
-0.247826486825943,
-0.5849061608314514,
0.34745243191719055,
-0.36679819226264954,
-0.13815893232822418,
0.014565028250217438,
-1.2240670919418335,
0.0014503073180094361,
-1.0912280082702637,
0.34328675270080566,
-0.8686396479606628,
0.21659091114997864,
-0.2990648150444031,
0.09009411931037903,
-0.655718207359314,
0.7940643429756165,
-0.09982059895992279,
-0.0039039684925228357,
-0.9918426275253296,
-0.3651973307132721,
1.0532944202423096,
-0.2692136764526367,
0.6680793166160583,
0.014457286335527897,
-0.12200799584388733,
0.543824315071106,
0.06006654351949692,
0.36470797657966614,
-0.20869208872318268,
0.8628875017166138,
-0.2385120540857315,
-0.8184295296669006,
-0.8800737261772156,
-0.14182236790657043,
-0.14836537837982178,
0.529961109161377,
-0.21450498700141907,
-0.5788632035255432,
-0.06372896581888199,
-0.1810985803604126,
-0.1313134729862213,
0.43268445134162903,
0.011310086585581303,
0.17290820181369781,
0.5501100420951843,
-0.8405691385269165,
0.2546635568141937,
0.11210741847753525,
-0.1805296242237091,
0.04365244507789612,
-0.27216076850891113,
0.3640802800655365,
0.8542084097862244,
0.2791900336742401,
0.52413010597229,
-0.017719943076372147,
-0.36277711391448975,
-0.046286776661872864,
0.40025466680526733,
-0.348087340593338,
-0.018990498036146164,
-0.38898536562919617,
-0.46216335892677307,
-0.051234349608421326,
0.7739273309707642,
-0.183741956949234,
-0.27791890501976013,
-0.2986893653869629,
0.13004547357559204,
-0.4224400222301483,
0.3974810540676117,
0.31449824571609497,
0.502733051776886,
0.5032433271408081,
0.34683194756507874,
0.14085939526557922,
-0.879462718963623,
0.29406046867370605,
0.29093435406684875,
-0.03204205259680748,
-0.06910490989685059,
-0.09384825825691223,
0.4088578224182129,
0.19295938313007355,
0.6797639727592468,
-0.0930994525551796,
-0.29591840505599976,
0.07715333253145218,
0.03809104859828949,
0.5079699158668518,
-0.6136931777000427,
0.8071553707122803,
0.2563965916633606,
0.39983507990837097,
0.3078784644603729,
0.7599772214889526,
-0.16704320907592773,
-0.2567189037799835,
0.5014182925224304,
-0.11947833746671677,
0.1629282832145691,
0.05152602866292,
-1.2982712984085083,
-0.011170536279678345,
-0.5871391892433167,
0.3948594927787781,
0.5153651833534241,
0.06454765051603317,
0.37717196345329285,
-0.2293633073568344,
0.1666538268327713,
0.03339501470327377,
-0.09781818836927414,
-0.025528956204652786,
0.6801152229309082,
-0.062004003673791885,
-0.55123370885849,
0.23791122436523438,
0.22300507128238678,
0.3918243944644928,
-0.45564427971839905,
0.5703691840171814,
-0.03510497882962227,
0.4155302047729492,
-0.03535005450248718,
-0.2381604164838791,
-0.14304351806640625,
-0.26572996377944946,
-0.005244522821158171,
0.34492793679237366,
0.20566865801811218,
0.6100388765335083,
-0.21122680604457855,
-0.3020150661468506,
0.20189613103866577,
-0.08464478701353073,
-0.665597677230835,
0.44863227009773254,
-0.03234824910759926,
0.20228436589241028,
0.5998895764350891,
-0.2071821391582489,
-0.4253096282482147,
0.4175529181957245,
0.29497283697128296,
0.35266757011413574,
-0.07534372806549072,
-0.35249394178390503,
0.544050931930542,
0.01547769270837307,
-0.2713152766227722,
-0.4396153390407562,
-1.3511909246444702,
-0.15182536840438843,
0.03919459506869316,
-0.35140955448150635,
0.3282383978366852,
-0.22385399043560028,
-0.7679113149642944,
0.8311163783073425,
0.0943378359079361,
0.6573312878608704,
-0.7589343786239624,
-0.31923916935920715,
-0.050389278680086136,
0.16972477734088898,
-0.18240363895893097,
1.3804051876068115,
0.037741661071777344,
-0.24915406107902527,
0.21245305240154266,
0.22091123461723328,
0.10479454696178436,
-0.42643964290618896,
0.9425568580627441,
-0.36575785279273987,
-0.0900442823767662,
0.07320235669612885,
-0.27880340814590454,
-0.4751025438308716,
0.21725936233997345,
-0.49568971991539,
0.6597716212272644,
-0.4195611774921417,
0.5131440758705139,
-0.04256763309240341,
-0.6436095237731934,
-0.004184744320809841,
0.01302409265190363,
0.08616744726896286,
0.6440795660018921,
-0.636132001876831,
0.03023303672671318,
0.04776071757078171,
0.19313643872737885,
-0.2060224562883377,
-0.02958333119750023,
-0.2031913548707962,
0.5513977408409119,
-0.3378051817417145,
0.3780558705329895,
0.15188227593898773,
-0.11244034022092819,
0.38260725140571594,
0.0858464390039444,
0.12927596271038055,
-0.15291059017181396,
0.5306035876274109,
0.3462460935115814,
0.41572386026382446,
0.09970242530107498,
0.3238072395324707,
0.4052695333957672,
0.061261244118213654,
-0.5661274790763855,
-0.14169451594352722,
-0.1975567787885666,
0.09066582471132278,
0.10632229596376419,
0.17881254851818085,
0.751851499080658,
-0.23313984274864197,
-0.6588894724845886,
0.23747777938842773,
0.5315244197845459,
-0.507024347782135,
0.27611243724823,
-0.6664977073669434,
-0.6510108113288879,
0.018092401325702667,
-0.00016553705791011453,
0.26089122891426086,
0.5698204636573792,
0.2705005705356598,
-0.38893529772758484,
0.23436544835567474,
-0.06649096310138702,
-0.2552206516265869,
0.49736228585243225,
0.3446228802204132,
-0.8702365756034851,
-0.1198103129863739,
0.41865527629852295,
0.004108788911253214,
0.09171130508184433,
-1.141530156135559,
0.22354410588741302,
-0.42955896258354187,
0.6354182362556458,
-0.2552151083946228,
0.06402693688869476,
0.006369353737682104,
-0.05726137012243271,
0.5119562745094299,
-0.40722739696502686,
0.2713623046875,
0.20660005509853363,
0.43867605924606323,
0.22698888182640076,
-0.9078279137611389,
0.9572845101356506,
-0.3384174704551697,
-0.2996445298194885,
-0.29133301973342896,
-0.6971054673194885,
-0.09112860262393951,
-0.03340372070670128,
-0.026197748258709908,
0.06560076773166656,
0.15167558193206787,
-5.379480838775635,
0.4556817412376404,
-0.17971645295619965,
0.1485660970211029,
0.2428828626871109,
0.3711010217666626,
0.790283739566803,
0.7634323835372925,
-0.4571397602558136,
-0.2620653212070465,
0.01699608378112316,
-0.16572201251983643,
0.0330885648727417,
0.5199530124664307,
0.7816553711891174,
-0.24110399186611176,
0.638042688369751,
0.3907702565193176,
0.01446474902331829,
0.521861732006073,
-0.4466809034347534,
0.19695807993412018,
0.43504798412323,
0.1204177662730217,
0.09624617546796799,
0.695263683795929,
-0.5512130260467529,
0.755913496017456,
-0.251749724149704,
-0.4181077778339386,
0.0576862208545208,
-0.5417326092720032,
0.036443889141082764,
-1.0877858400344849,
-0.5421335101127625,
0.261900395154953,
0.18369236588478088,
0.24602389335632324,
0.23076197504997253,
0.04487547278404236,
-0.5040609836578369,
0.13139168918132782,
0.25875312089920044,
-0.18932396173477173,
-0.3116355836391449,
-0.09452062845230103,
-0.0012385353911668062,
0.3313819169998169,
0.10594705492258072,
0.7090611457824707,
-0.3405601680278778,
0.3447963297367096,
0.24677422642707825,
-0.009579397737979889,
-0.36494922637939453,
-0.0506824254989624,
0.4035909175872803,
0.21798229217529297,
-1.0674738883972168,
0.1954549103975296,
0.9828470945358276,
-0.9304200410842896,
-0.09703227877616882,
-0.31494712829589844,
0.7029067277908325,
-0.4440368711948395,
-0.4741140305995941,
0.20113800466060638,
0.6074137091636658,
0.37790387868881226,
0.128720223903656,
0.28646785020828247,
0.7516078352928162,
-0.8089938759803772,
-0.5169978141784668,
-0.6979093551635742,
-0.46521690487861633,
-0.44320937991142273,
-0.0588051974773407,
0.39481619000434875,
0.11222879588603973,
-0.4658167064189911,
-0.27187108993530273,
0.2200211137533188,
0.6815918684005737,
-0.01732829213142395,
-0.07945949584245682,
0.4197596609592438,
-0.5279392004013062,
-0.2576327919960022,
0.19120651483535767,
-0.5483858585357666,
0.19237388670444489,
-0.08689921349287033,
0.005957885645329952,
0.6123223304748535,
-0.5430694222450256,
-0.4942750930786133,
0.4844978153705597,
0.39800700545310974,
0.21078582108020782,
-0.4325450658798218,
0.9018963575363159,
-0.12887398898601532,
-0.5502134561538696,
-0.5763162970542908,
-0.630813717842102,
0.7968204617500305,
-0.07586727291345596,
0.23199598491191864,
0.365988552570343,
0.541036069393158,
-0.07139552384614944,
-0.041749268770217896,
0.03754136711359024,
0.6055229306221008,
-0.657497763633728,
0.7153822779655457,
0.252146452665329,
-0.19776150584220886,
0.7312135696411133,
0.07146977633237839,
0.102967269718647,
-0.6682997345924377,
-0.8885306715965271,
-0.07521741092205048,
-0.0951617956161499,
0.07330595701932907,
0.3880826532840729,
-0.04236730933189392,
-0.18010260164737701,
0.19534358382225037,
0.034538496285676956,
-0.39057689905166626,
0.30547836422920227,
-0.49471789598464966,
-0.09896321594715118,
0.43961215019226074,
0.04395562782883644,
-0.22919370234012604,
-0.0752008855342865,
-0.7569012641906738,
-0.32604262232780457,
-0.0026203482411801815,
0.18859004974365234,
-0.007529015652835369,
-0.20415137708187103,
-1.1108932495117188,
-0.3098407983779907,
0.4240790605545044,
0.9755448698997498,
-0.506462574005127,
0.2629939019680023,
-0.9315363168716431,
-0.22087912261486053,
-0.4732809066772461,
0.4946279525756836,
-0.04724963754415512,
0.16528408229351044,
-0.5340399146080017,
-0.5701428651809692,
-0.4537334442138672,
-0.9641998410224915,
-0.17659308016300201,
0.17174682021141052,
-0.40196576714515686,
0.07711763679981232,
-0.45987945795059204,
-0.48850932717323303,
0.5786474347114563,
-0.3449454605579376,
-0.1629757285118103,
-0.2808140814304352,
0.13291984796524048,
-0.1660882979631424,
0.13220541179180145,
-0.01062482874840498,
-0.08215680718421936,
0.4224091172218323,
0.5494367480278015,
-0.14095522463321686,
0.3738449513912201,
-0.1779731959104538,
0.16371440887451172,
0.1596844494342804,
-1.0559542179107666,
0.20789699256420135,
0.22357529401779175,
-0.629042387008667,
-0.5954759120941162,
-0.045730601996183395,
0.09612742811441422,
0.2925828695297241,
0.3310147523880005,
-0.5015325546264648,
-0.17825724184513092,
-0.10536463558673859,
0.49211910367012024,
-0.29870057106018066,
0.23317945003509521,
-0.2939970791339874,
0.32466641068458557,
-0.36220940947532654,
-0.0980442464351654,
0.004950536880642176,
-0.9848094582557678,
0.1867605447769165,
-0.03442957624793053,
-0.9255557656288147,
0.47556763887405396,
-0.9348775148391724,
-0.6401255130767822,
-0.47726455330848694,
0.7097391486167908,
-0.25291985273361206,
-0.30806198716163635,
0.201334148645401,
-0.2686566710472107,
-0.2908456325531006,
-0.4820692837238312,
-0.04319080337882042,
-0.15036949515342712,
0.02230721525847912,
-0.24793776869773865,
0.062362752854824066,
0.3026217222213745,
-0.078060582280159,
-0.3327536880970001,
0.7844566106796265,
-0.1384819895029068,
0.07271815836429596,
-0.13426686823368073,
0.23429858684539795,
-0.10481399297714233,
-0.698947548866272,
0.16033685207366943,
0.0795757845044136,
-0.13590627908706665,
-0.5720336437225342,
0.2114982306957245,
0.9053179025650024,
0.26618683338165283,
0.3913995921611786,
-0.48285427689552307,
0.11548453569412231,
0.5211458802223206,
-0.0953514575958252,
-0.27960893511772156,
-0.2118912935256958,
0.2027396708726883,
-0.5543206930160522,
-0.3649810552597046,
-1.0363123416900635,
0.14587746560573578,
0.9485859274864197,
-0.4153671860694885,
0.7711316347122192,
-0.4099269509315491,
0.23159445822238922,
-0.2296278327703476,
0.3296840786933899,
-0.2451592981815338,
0.5949546098709106,
0.2824283838272095,
-0.7848258018493652,
-0.14504212141036987,
0.3163464665412903,
0.35902315378189087,
0.7918445467948914,
-0.9582381248474121,
0.16076453030109406,
-0.9586910605430603,
-0.12058503180742264,
0.1049560010433197,
0.21926555037498474,
-0.03449191898107529,
0.09176132082939148,
-0.11013230681419373,
0.02440987341105938,
-0.3102715313434601,
-0.987214982509613,
0.03138301149010658,
-0.3828586935997009,
-0.1615118682384491,
-0.20097297430038452,
-0.2617131769657135,
0.2834433317184448,
0.2736566960811615,
-0.5337518453598022,
-0.0686582401394844,
-0.8093793392181396,
-0.23089337348937988,
0.41870301961898804,
0.0453784242272377,
-0.36771056056022644,
0.2323087900876999,
-0.49871984124183655,
0.16750545799732208,
0.20358164608478546,
-0.5465289950370789,
-1.002739429473877,
0.5719047784805298,
-0.12958897650241852,
-0.8217951059341431,
-0.23895160853862762,
0.11043842881917953,
0.5909699201583862,
0.28112074732780457,
0.2010660320520401,
-0.5053091049194336,
0.1360483020544052,
0.13777655363082886,
0.35536515712738037,
0.9433522820472717,
0.021873963996767998,
-0.5065484642982483,
0.5114173293113708,
-0.38763973116874695,
-0.16702184081077576,
0.36664173007011414,
-0.05840433016419411,
-0.7438887357711792,
0.2854497730731964,
0.02408980205655098,
-0.19950038194656372,
1.1160889863967896,
-0.5358657836914062,
-0.3221234083175659,
-0.0838884487748146,
0.43719568848609924,
0.22974644601345062,
0.20674452185630798,
-1.1619521379470825,
0.04516151174902916,
-0.2339646816253662,
-0.34388166666030884,
0.698476254940033,
-0.6897217631340027,
0.12311539053916931,
0.12261103093624115,
-0.09607400745153427,
0.3247661888599396,
0.26980409026145935,
-0.15625333786010742,
-0.6473562717437744,
0.09410200268030167,
-0.5226470828056335,
-0.34260687232017517,
0.3393167555332184,
0.028482798486948013,
0.39502307772636414,
0.16036802530288696,
0.6268448829650879,
0.4046705961227417,
0.5429856777191162,
-0.20334874093532562,
0.2562878727912903,
-0.12675055861473083,
-0.40161120891571045,
-0.3508914113044739,
0.026001930236816406,
-0.08088942617177963,
0.2971644103527069,
0.09859935194253922,
-0.50692218542099,
-0.43575620651245117,
0.396915465593338,
-0.3240950107574463,
-0.6034178137779236,
-0.5409113764762878,
0.5424343347549438,
0.025986187160015106,
0.07732760906219482,
0.56350177526474,
0.8059291243553162,
0.3381980061531067,
0.6933587193489075,
0.6902652382850647,
0.28145772218704224,
-0.47962459921836853,
-0.10833124816417694,
0.06775173544883728,
0.16956165432929993,
-0.2697871923446655,
-0.15887992084026337,
-0.573615550994873,
0.21232803165912628,
-0.21916349232196808,
0.03267424926161766,
0.5489418506622314,
0.22161126136779785,
-0.3051246702671051,
-0.4595099091529846,
-0.031276602298021317,
-0.026658877730369568,
0.5203174352645874,
-0.43987715244293213,
0.7579677104949951,
-0.01490314956754446,
-0.6267785429954529,
0.6598109006881714,
0.3737031817436218,
-0.005384938791394234,
0.23509055376052856,
-0.01710892654955387,
0.3061651289463043,
-0.10717236995697021,
0.683911919593811,
-0.6745662093162537,
0.2616085112094879,
0.4838281273841858,
-0.6063715815544128,
0.24484488368034363,
0.40061190724372864,
-0.1359681338071823,
-0.37363556027412415,
0.276289165019989,
0.07752963900566101,
0.3648863434791565,
0.14666472375392914,
0.16803106665611267,
0.5609080195426941,
-0.4988943636417389,
0.14343291521072388,
0.07400189340114594,
-0.34889358282089233,
0.23435091972351074,
0.21874724328517914,
-0.5811679363250732,
0.773615837097168,
-0.15482094883918762,
0.35299909114837646,
0.05938863754272461,
-0.13281886279582977,
-0.20291532576084137,
-0.2608014941215515,
-0.24090176820755005,
-0.2146133929491043,
-0.6375739574432373,
-0.8593919277191162,
0.22860118746757507,
0.2494879812002182,
-0.46526122093200684,
-0.36473140120506287,
-0.06327401101589203,
0.5714596509933472,
-0.5595389604568481,
-0.0167478509247303,
-0.22591593861579895,
0.6395653486251831,
0.4436486065387726,
0.11304626613855362,
0.6241140961647034,
-0.11259127408266068,
-0.007633617147803307,
0.04918646812438965,
0.5775755047798157,
-0.19510972499847412,
0.27507704496383667,
1.1189364194869995
] |
247877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Boat%20Race | The Boat Race | The Boat Race is an annual set of rowing races between the Cambridge University Boat Club and the Oxford University Boat Club, traditionally rowed between open-weight eights on the River Thames in London, England. There are separate men's and women's races, as well as races for reserve crews. It is also known as the University Boat Race and the Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race. The men's race was first held in 1829 and has been held annually since 1856, except during the First and Second World Wars (although unofficial races were conducted) and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. The first women's event was in 1927 and the race has been held annually since 1964. Since 2015, the women's race has taken place on the same day and course, and since 2018 the combined event of the two races has been referred to as "The Boat Race".
The Championship Course has hosted the vast majority of the races. It covers a stretch of the Thames in West London, from Putney to Mortlake. Other locations have been used, including a stretch of the River Great Ouse which was the venue for the 2021 race. Members of both crews are traditionally known as blues and each boat as a "Blue Boat", with Cambridge in light blue and Oxford in dark blue. As of 2021, Cambridge has won the men's race 85 times and Oxford 80 times, with one dead heat, and has led Oxford in cumulative wins since 1930. In the women's race, Cambridge have won the race 45 times and Oxford 30 times, and has led Oxford in cumulative wins since 1966. A reserve boat race has been held since 1965 for the men and since 1966 for the women.
In most years over 250,000 people watch the race from the banks of the river. In 2009, a record 270,000 people watched the race live. A further 15 million or more watch it on television.
History of the men's race
Origin
The tradition was started in 1829 by Charles Merivale, a student at St John's College, Cambridge, and his Old Harrovian school friend Charles Wordsworth who was studying at Christ Church, Oxford. The University of Cambridge challenged the University of Oxford to a race at Henley-on-Thames but lost easily. Oxford raced in dark blue because five members of the crew, including the stroke, were from Christ Church, then Head of the River, whose colours were dark blue.
The second race was in 1836, with the venue moved to a course from Westminster to Putney. Over the next two years, there was disagreement over where the race should be held, with Oxford preferring Henley and Cambridge preferring London. Following the official formation of the Oxford University Boat Club, racing between the two universities resumed in 1839 on the Tideway and the tradition continues to the present day, with the loser challenging the winner to a rematch annually.
Since 1856, the race has been held every year, except for the years 1915 to 1919 due to World War I, 1940 to 1945, due to World War II, and in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
1877 dead heat
The race in 1877 was declared a dead heat. Both crews finished in a time of 24minutes and 8seconds in bad weather. The verdict of the race judge, John Phelps, is considered suspect because he was reportedly over 70 and blind in one eye. Rowing historian Tim Koch, writing in the official 2014 Boat Race Programme, notes that there is "a very big and very entrenched lie" about the race, including the claim that Phelps had announced "Dead heat... to Oxford by six feet" (the distance supposedly mentioned by Phelps varies according to the telling).
Phelps's nickname "Honest John" was not an ironic one, and he was not (as is sometimes claimed) drunk under a bush at the time of the finish. He did have to judge who had won without the assistance of finish posts (which were installed in time for the next year's race). Some newspapers had believed Oxford won a narrow victory but their viewpoint was from downstream; Phelps considered that the boats were essentially level with each surging forward during the stroke cycle. With no clear way to determine who had surged forward at the exact finish line, Phelps could only pronounce it a dead heat. Koch believes that the press and Oxford supporters made up the stories about Phelps later, which Phelps had no chance to refute.
Cancellations during World Wars
Because of World War I and II, the race was not held in 1915–1919 and 1940–1945. On 12 January 1915, The Daily Telegraph announced that the annual race was cancelled due to men leaving for war, "for every available oarsman, either Fresher or Blue, has joined the colours."
1959 Oxford mutiny
In 1959 some of the existing Oxford blues attempted to oust president Ronnie Howard and coach Jumbo Edwards. However, their attempt failed when Cambridge supported the president. Three of the dissidents returned and Oxford went on to win by six lengths.
1987 Oxford mutiny
Following defeat in the previous year's race, Oxford's first in eleven years, American Chris Clark was determined to gain revenge: "Next year we're gonna kick ass ... Cambridge's ass. Even if I have to go home and bring the whole US squad with me." He recruited another four American post-graduates: three international-class rowers (Dan Lyons, Chris Huntington and Chris Penny) and a cox (Jonathan Fish), in an attempt to put together the fastest Boat Race crew in the history of the contest.
Disagreements over the training regime of Dan Topolski, the Oxford coach ("He wanted us to spend more time training on land than water!", lamented Lyons), led to the crew walking out on at least one occasion, and resulted in the coach revising his approach. A fitness test between Clark and club president Donald Macdonald (in which Clark triumphed) resulted in a call for Macdonald's removal; it was accompanied with a threat that the Americans would refuse to row should Macdonald remain in the crew. As boat club president, Macdonald "had absolute power over selection", and when he announced that Clark would row on starboard, his weaker side, Macdonald would row on the port side and Tony Ward was to be dropped from the crew entirely, the American contingent mutinied. After considerable negotiation and debate, much of it conducted in the public eye, Clark, Penny, Huntington, Lyons and Fish were dropped and replaced by members of Oxford's reserve crew, Isis.
The race was won by Oxford by fourlengths, despite Cambridge being favourites.
In 1989 Topolski and author Patrick Robinson's book about the events, True Blue: The Oxford Boat Race Mutiny, was published. Seven years later, a film based on the book was released. Alison Gill, the then-president of the Oxford University Women's Boat Club, wrote The Yanks at Oxford, in which she defended the Americans and claimed Topolski wrote True Blue in order to justify his own actions. River and Rowing Museum founder Chris Dodd described True Blue as "particularly offensive" yet also wrote "[Oxford] lacked the power, the finesse—basically everything the pre-mutiny line-up had going for it."
2012 disruption
In the 2012 race, after almost three-quarters of the course had been rowed, the race was halted for over 30 minutes when a lone protester, Australian Trenton Oldfield, entered the water from Chiswick Eyot and deliberately swam between the boats near Chiswick Pier with the intention of protesting against spending cuts, and what he saw as the erosion of civil liberties and a growing culture of elitism within British society. Once he was spotted by assistant umpire Sir Matthew Pinsent, both boats were required to stop for safety reasons. Once restarted, the boats clashed and the oar of Oxford crewman Hanno Wienhausen was broken. The race umpire John Garrett judged the clash to be Oxford's fault and allowed the race to continue. Cambridge quickly took the lead and went on to win the race. The Oxford crew entered a final appeal to the umpire which was quickly rejected; and Cambridge were confirmed as winners in the first race since 1849 that a crew had won the boat race without an official recorded winning time. After the end of the race Oxford's bow man, Alex Woods, received emergency treatment after collapsing in the boat from exhaustion. Because of the circumstances, the post-race celebrations by the winning Cambridge crew were unusually muted and the planned award ceremony was cancelled.
2020 cancellation
Like other major sports events, the 2020 boat race was cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic.
2021 relocation
The 2021 races were held on the Great Ouse at Ely in Cambridgeshire, over a shorter straight course of . This was due to the safety issues of Hammersmith Bridge, as well as restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic still being in force.
Plans are underway to hold the 2022 Boat Race on the Thames. Due to restrictions under Hammersmith Bridge, the course would start in Westminster and finish at Putney Bridge, making for a 5.4 mile long course.
Sinkings
In the 1912 race, run in extremely poor weather and high winds, both crews sank. Oxford rowed into a significant early lead, but began taking on water, and made for the bank shortly after passing Hammersmith Bridge to empty the boat out: although they attempted to restart, the race was abandoned at this point because Cambridge had also sunk while passing the Harrods Depository.
Cambridge also sank in 1859 and in 1978, while Oxford did so in 1925, and again in 1951; the 1951 race was re-rowed on the following Monday. In 1984 the Cambridge boat sank after colliding with a barge before the start of the race, which was then rescheduled for the next day. In 2016, at Barnes Bridge, Cambridge women began to sink but gradually recovered to complete the race.
History of the women's race
From the first women's event in 1927, the Women's Boat Race was run separately from the men's event until 2015. There was significant inequality between the two events. Changes in recent years, arising significantly from the sponsorship of Newton Investment Management, have made the two races more equal: both events have been held together on The Tideway since 2015, and there are new training facilities for the women, comparable to those of the men, since 2016.
Courses
The 1st Boat Race took place at Henley-on-Thames in 1829 but the event was subsequently officially held along the Thames, mostly the Championship Course, until the 2021 race which was moved to the River Great Ouse both due the COVID-19 pandemic and safety concerns under Hammersmith Bridge. Unofficial races were held during the Second World War at various locations.
The Championship Course
The Championship Course is 4 miles and 374 yards (6.779 km) from Putney to Mortlake, passing Hammersmith and Barnes; it is sometimes referred to as the Championship Course, and follows an S shape, east to west. The start and finish are marked by the University Boat Race Stones on the south bank. The clubs' presidents toss a coin (the 1829 sovereign) before the race for the right to choose which side of the river (station) they will row on: their decision is based on the day's weather conditions and how the various bends in the course might favour their crew's pace. The north station ('Middlesex') has the advantage of the first and last bends, and the south ('Surrey') station the longer middle bend.
During the race the coxes compete for the fastest current, which lies at the deepest part of the river, frequently leading to clashes of blades and warnings from the umpire. A crew that gets a lead of more than a boat's length can cut in front of their opponent, making it extremely difficult for the trailing crew to gain the lead. For this reason the tactics of the race are generally to go fast early on, and few races have a change of the lead after halfway (though this happened in 2003, 2007 and 2010).
The race is rowed upstream, but is timed to start on the incoming flood tide so that the crews are rowing with the fastest possible current. At the conclusion of the race, the boats come ashore at Mortlake Anglian & Alpha Boat Club, directly upriver of Chiswick Bridge. Here, shortly after the race, the Boat Race trophy is presented to the winning crew. It is traditional for the winning side to throw their cox into the Thames to celebrate their achievement.
Unofficial courses
In addition, there were four unofficial boat races held during the Second World War away from London. As none of those competing were awarded blues, these races are not included in the official list:
1940, 1945 – At Henley-on-Thames
1943 – Sandford-on-Thames
1944 – River Great Ouse, Ely, Littleport to Queen Adelaide
Women's Boat Race courses
During its early years (1927 to 1976 with several gaps) the Women's Boat Race alternated between The Isis in Oxford and the River Cam in Cambridge over a distance of about 1,000 yards. On two occasions, in 1929 and 1935, the race was held on the Tideway in London. Unlike the men's race, the official women's race continued in most years through the Second World War.
From 1977 to 2014, the Women's Boat Race was held on a 2000-metre course as part of the Henley Boat Races. In 2013 the entire Henley Boat Races was moved to Dorney Lake due to rough water at Henley. In 2021, the race was held on the River Great Ouse from Ely, Cambridgeshire along with the men's race.
Media coverage
The race first appeared in a short film of the 1895 race entitled "The Oxford and Cambridge University Boat Race", directed and produced by Birt Acres. Consisting of a single shot of around a minute, it was the first film to be commercially screened in the UK outside London. The event is now a British national institution, and is televised live each year. The women's race has received television coverage and grown in popularity since 2015, attracting a television audience of 4.8 million viewers that year. BBC Television first covered the men's race in 1938, the BBC having covered it on radio since 1927. For the 2005 to 2009 races, the BBC lost the television rights to ITV, after 66 years, but it returned to the corporation in 2010. Ethnographer Mark de Rond described the training, selection, and victory of the 2007 Cambridge crew in The Last Amateurs: To Hell and Back with the Cambridge Boat Race Crew.
Competitors
Men's race
Many notable individuals have participated in the Boat Race, including those of an Olympic standard. Four-time Olympic gold medallist Sir Matthew Pinsent, rowed for Oxford in 1990, 1991, and 1993. Olympic gold medallists from 2000 – James Cracknell (Cambridge 2019), Tim Foster (Oxford 1997), Luka Grubor (Oxford 1997), Andrew Lindsay (Oxford 1997, 1998, 1999) and Kieran West (Cambridge 1999, 2001, 2006, 2007), 2004 – Ed Coode (Oxford 1998), and 2008 – Jake Wetzel (Oxford 2006) and Malcolm Howard (Oxford 2013, 2014) have also rowed for their university.
Other famous participants include Andrew Irvine (Oxford 1922, 1923), Lord Snowdon (Cambridge 1950), Colin Moynihan (Oxford 1977), actor Hugh Laurie (Cambridge 1980), TV presenter Dan Snow (Oxford 1999, 2000, 2001) and Conspicuous Gallantry Cross recipient Robin Bourne-Taylor (Oxford 2001, 2002, 2003, 2005).
Academic status
Oxford University does not offer sport scholarships at entry; student-athletes are not admitted differently to any other students and must meet the academic requirements of the university, with sport having a neutral effect on any application. Likewise, bursaries and scholarship opportunities for athletes at the University of Cambridge are only open to those students who have already been admitted to the University on academic merit.
In order to protect the status of the race as a competition between genuine students, the Cambridge University Blues Committee in July 2007 refused to award a blue to 2006 and 2007 Cambridge oarsman Thorsten Engelmann, as he did not complete his academic course and instead returned to the German national rowing team to prepare for the Beijing Olympics. This has caused a debate about a change of rules, and one suggestion is that only students who are enrolled in courses lasting at least two years should be eligible to race.
Standard of the men's crews
According to British Olympic gold medallist Martin Cross, Boat Race crews of the early 1980s were viewed as "a bit of a joke" by some international-level rowers of the time. However, their standard has improved substantially since then. In 2007 Cambridge were entered in the London Head of the River Race, where they should have been measured directly against the best crews in Britain and beyond. However the event was called off after several crews were sunk or swamped in rough conditions. Cambridge were fastest of the few crews who did complete the course.
Sponsorship
Men's race
The Boat Race has been sponsored since 1976, with the money spent mainly on equipment and travel during the training period. The sponsors do not have their logos on the boats, but do have their logo on kit during the race. They also provide branded training gear and have some naming rights. Boat Race sponsors have included Ladbrokes, Beefeater Gin, Aberdeen Asset Management, and the business process outsourcing company Xchanging, who sponsored the race until 2012. Controversially, in the renewal of the deal with Xchanging, the crews agreed to wear the sponsor's logo on their kit during the race itself, in exchange for increased funding. Prior to this, all sponsorship marks had been scrupulously discarded on boating for the competition, in line with the race's amateur and ‘Corinthian’ spirit. Xchanging also became title sponsor in November 2009 so, from the 156th Race until 2012, the event was known as The Xchanging Boat Race.
In 2013 the sponsor BNY Mellon took over and it became the BNY Mellon Boat Race. From 2016 to 2018, BNY Mellon and Newton Investment management donated the title sponsorship to Cancer Research UK.
Women's race
The Women's Boat Race 2011 was the first to be sponsored by Newton Investment Management, a subsidiary of BNY Mellon. Previously the crews had no sponsorship and were self funded. Newton have remained the sponsor since then and increased the amount of funding significantly.
The Boat Races
In 2021 the Men's and Women's Boat Races came under the same sponsorship for the first time. Gemini, a cryptocurrency exchange founded by 2010 Oxford Blues Cameron and Tyler Winklevoss, took over as title sponsor and it became the Gemini Boat Race.
Other boat races involving Oxford and Cambridge
Although the Boat Race crews are the best-known, the universities both field reserve crews. The reserves race takes place on the same day as the main race. The Oxford men's reserve crew is called Isis (after the Isis, a section of the River Thames which passes through Oxford), and the Cambridge reserve men's crew is called Goldie (the name comes from rower and Boat Club president John Goldie, 1849–1896, after whom the Goldie Boathouse is named). The women's reserve crews are Osiris (Oxford) and Blondie (Cambridge). A veterans' boat race, usually held on a weekday before the main Boat Race, takes place on the Thames between Putney and Hammersmith.
The two universities also field lightweight men's and women's crews. These squads race each other in eights as part of the Lightweight Boat Races. The first men's race took place in 1975, being joined by a women's race in 1984. Both races are currently held on the 4.2-mile (6.8 km) Championship Course from Putney to Mortlake, although they previously formed part of the Henley Boat Races, along with various other rowing races between the two universities including the openweight women's Boat Race until 2015. Competitors in the event have gone on to compete at international and Olympic levels, as well as represent their universities at openweight level. For the men's race the average weight of the crew must be 70 kg (154.3 lb / 11 st 0.3 lb), with no rower weighing over 72.5 kg (159.8 lb / 11 st 5.8 lb). For the women's race no rower can exceed 59 kg (130.0 lb / 9 st 4 lb). At Oxford, both the men's and women's lightweight boats are awarded a full blue. At Cambridge the women's boat is awarded a full blue, whereas the men's boat receives a half-blue.
In popular culture
Boat race became such a popular phrase that it was incorporated into Cockney rhyming slang, for "face".
In the stories of P. G. Wodehouse, several characters allude to Boat Race night as a time of riotous celebration (presumably after the victory of the character's alma mater). This frequently sees the participants in trouble with the authorities. In Piccadilly Jim, it is mentioned that Lord Datchett was thrown out of the Empire Music Hall every year on Boat Race night while he was an undergraduate. Bertie Wooster mentions he is "rather apt to let myself go a bit" on Boat Race night and several times describes being fined five pounds at "Bosher Street" (possibly a reference to Bow Street Magistrates' Court) for stealing a policeman's helmet one year; the beginning of the first episode of the television series Jeeves and Wooster shows his court appearance on this occasion. In the short story Jeeves and the Chump Cyril, he describes having to repeatedly bail out of jail a friend who is arrested every year on Boat Race night.
In Missee Lee by Arthur Ransome (one of the Swallows and Amazons series of children's books) Captain Flint (who had dropped out of Oxford) tells Missee Lee he was in gaol once on Boat-race night. High spirits. A fancy for policemen's helmets. When Missee Lee says Camblidge won and evellybody happy he replies Not that year, ma'am. We were the happy ones that year. In the Jennings books by Anthony Buckeridge the protagonist's teacher Mr Wilkins is a former Cambridge rowing blue.
The 1969 film The Magic Christian features the Boat Race, as Sir Guy makes use of the Oxford crew in one of his elaborate pranks.
Actor and comedian Matt Berry wrote and narrated an irreverent, alternative history of the Boat Race for the BBC in 2015.
Statistics
Men's race
Number of wins: Cambridge, 85; Oxford, 80 (1 dead heat)
Most consecutive victories: Cambridge, 13 (1924–36)
Course record: Cambridge, 1998 – 16 min 19 sec; average speed
Narrowest winning margin, excluding the dead heat: 1 foot (Oxford, 2003)
Largest winning margin: 35 lengths (Cambridge, 1839)
Reserve wins: Cambridge (Goldie), 29; Oxford (Isis), 24
Women's race
Number of wins: Cambridge, 45; Oxford, 30
Course record: Cambridge, 2017 – 18 min 33 sec (faster, in different conditions, than the Cambridge men's Blue Boat in 2016 and the Oxford men's in 2014)
Reserve wins: Cambridge (Blondie), 27; Oxford (Osiris), 20
Results
Men's race
There have been 166 official races in 192 years.
Source:
Women's race
There have been 75 races in 94 years.
See also
Oxford–Cambridge rivalry
The Boat Race of the North – a similar event in Northern England between Durham University and Newcastle University
Harvard–Yale Regatta – A similar event in the United States between Harvard University and Yale University
Scottish Boat Race – a similar event in Scotland between University of Glasgow and University of Edinburgh
Varsity match
The Welsh Boat Race – a similar event in Wales between Swansea University and Cardiff University
York and Lancaster Universities Roses Race - a boat race between University of York and Lancaster University.
Notes
References
External links
Watch the 2007 Boat Race
The Boat Race course visualization on Google Earth/Maps
1829 establishments in England
Annual events in London
Mortlake, London
Putney
Recurring sporting events established in 1829
Rowing on the River Thames
Regattas on the River Thames
University rowing competitions in the United Kingdom | [
-0.10966765880584717,
-0.45891737937927246,
0.42491286993026733,
-0.3948347270488739,
0.1849868893623352,
0.7716461420059204,
-0.11450426280498505,
0.09173326939344406,
-0.7150890827178955,
-0.4790296256542206,
0.051331717520952225,
-0.04157818853855133,
0.3235662877559662,
0.22590576112270355,
0.5592185258865356,
0.16471576690673828,
0.7542325258255005,
-0.35897669196128845,
0.4221571385860443,
-0.2525227963924408,
0.07345861196517944,
0.031129587441682816,
-0.08645530790090561,
0.1686481237411499,
-0.21079197525978088,
0.0323161818087101,
0.19423140585422516,
-0.3200342059135437,
-0.03511574864387512,
-0.3246816098690033,
0.8068102598190308,
0.2284848839044571,
0.20242677628993988,
-0.18541114032268524,
0.4255203902721405,
-0.848379373550415,
0.061083681881427765,
-0.31994014978408813,
0.06806191056966782,
-0.3942267596721649,
-0.34502315521240234,
-0.23066498339176178,
0.48752108216285706,
0.3038291335105896,
-0.30149009823799133,
0.03363476321101189,
-0.4970065951347351,
-0.009886175394058228,
-0.9329186081886292,
0.15096135437488556,
-0.28829625248908997,
0.4528934061527252,
0.3699643313884735,
0.7474194765090942,
0.600081205368042,
0.29715612530708313,
0.3637009263038635,
0.17538268864154816,
0.12240229547023773,
-0.30701181292533875,
0.5454049706459045,
0.6321906447410583,
-0.07877332717180252,
0.46712273359298706,
-0.15958763659000397,
0.4447095990180969,
0.5083889365196228,
-0.4161110818386078,
-0.3955223262310028,
-0.006162810139358044,
0.2712423503398895,
-0.1175231859087944,
-0.6803916096687317,
0.1978297084569931,
-0.037929512560367584,
-0.7789083123207092,
0.04002918303012848,
-0.07731542736291885,
0.6896424293518066,
-0.14555080235004425,
0.6294904947280884,
-0.537541389465332,
0.1120372787117958,
0.9247650504112244,
0.3416517674922943,
0.4134328067302704,
-0.4813084602355957,
-0.3481183350086212,
-0.2672349512577057,
0.8827678561210632,
-0.5553088188171387,
-0.18035903573036194,
0.5725421905517578,
0.33342260122299194,
-0.381858229637146,
0.21440784633159637,
-0.026079723611474037,
0.13851064443588257,
0.6313386559486389,
-0.26520439982414246,
-0.2942739725112915,
-0.1544235199689865,
0.5756014585494995,
0.5852110385894775,
-0.6774455904960632,
0.04478694126009941,
-0.8512251973152161,
-0.8614925146102905,
0.07315865904092789,
0.18101099133491516,
-0.3372652530670166,
-0.14206771552562714,
-0.19997023046016693,
0.1284971535205841,
-0.14274883270263672,
-0.5559841990470886,
-0.18549756705760956,
-0.4435073733329773,
-0.44348156452178955,
-0.36937403678894043,
-1.0260180234909058,
0.2555837631225586,
0.4778505563735962,
0.8453596234321594,
0.1263415813446045,
0.26495590806007385,
0.36092817783355713,
0.7005058526992798,
-0.2911818027496338,
-0.4647430181503296,
0.4358089864253998,
0.6529041528701782,
-0.5068150162696838,
-0.6880990266799927,
-0.15050971508026123,
0.42212486267089844,
0.11136063933372498,
-0.35211607813835144,
0.03548493981361389,
0.9782841801643372,
-0.3272436559200287,
-0.38042303919792175,
0.09297386556863785,
0.12960916757583618,
0.003965162672102451,
-0.2286572903394699,
-0.16342175006866455,
-0.5335883498191833,
0.5006024837493896,
-0.15458154678344727,
0.22503967583179474,
0.4615989923477173,
-0.5570364594459534,
-0.35261672735214233,
0.03904988244175911,
0.4052009582519531,
0.4258635640144348,
-0.11829224228858948,
0.4865960478782654,
0.29736098647117615,
-0.21591316163539886,
0.048623889684677124,
-0.07860182970762253,
0.11683053523302078,
0.2133386880159378,
0.08313155919313431,
0.17943811416625977,
-0.25431522727012634,
-0.4348428547382355,
0.14163938164710999,
-0.24212366342544556,
0.10340903699398041,
0.8832852244377136,
-0.2115328013896942,
-0.15401168167591095,
-0.6114545464515686,
0.5493656992912292,
-0.26245397329330444,
0.7879171967506409,
-0.2901735305786133,
-0.4522513747215271,
0.04146241396665573,
0.229175865650177,
0.06013704836368561,
-0.1599603295326233,
-0.2016104906797409,
-0.29073694348335266,
0.18356682360172272,
-0.4213925004005432,
0.43168801069259644,
0.07212083786725998,
-0.3382226824760437,
0.24234089255332947,
-0.3441219627857208,
1.1822171211242676,
-0.524321436882019,
-0.5591970086097717,
0.6355276107788086,
-0.2957373261451721,
0.2774910032749176,
0.10564824938774109,
0.4066292345523834,
-0.0009904433973133564,
-0.15441597998142242,
-1.0199103355407715,
-0.41607666015625,
-0.06658075004816055,
-0.09335406869649887,
0.018591970205307007,
0.14614669978618622,
-0.38057634234428406,
-0.30794841051101685,
-0.014033764600753784,
0.03535304218530655,
0.46556535363197327,
-0.33393406867980957,
0.026041721925139427,
-0.060332782566547394,
0.14304065704345703,
-0.09839177876710892,
1.389844298362732,
-0.12976154685020447,
0.29661962389945984,
0.4123092293739319,
0.007025514263659716,
0.27863597869873047,
-0.38858017325401306,
0.6612503528594971,
-0.19029726088047028,
-0.5741305351257324,
0.06915006786584854,
0.15033844113349915,
-0.2718764543533325,
-0.4579164385795593,
-0.019211923703551292,
-0.623235821723938,
0.3689616918563843,
-0.2881556749343872,
0.6251940727233887,
-0.025553923100233078,
0.4556572437286377,
-0.024377765133976936,
-1.1602063179016113,
0.7228879332542419,
0.002970369067043066,
-0.09110482782125473,
0.3560970425605774,
0.19777041673660278,
-0.3884522616863251,
-0.5449736714363098,
0.26827552914619446,
-0.08412925153970718,
0.48435744643211365,
0.09590908139944077,
-0.11308929324150085,
-0.007482690270990133,
0.19210316240787506,
-0.1297595202922821,
-0.03571489080786705,
0.23786038160324097,
-0.5532807111740112,
-0.2389567643404007,
0.10196208953857422,
0.25533032417297363,
-0.4631462097167969,
-0.3781964182853699,
-0.38898131251335144,
-0.8702055811882019,
0.36376792192459106,
0.6319157481193542,
0.23300208151340485,
0.5179063677787781,
-0.34746789932250977,
-0.06782763451337814,
-0.3086489737033844,
0.07362862676382065,
0.10679889470338821,
-0.023029617965221405,
-0.7256063222885132,
-0.41145992279052734,
0.14169128239154816,
-0.4671744406223297,
0.11235994845628738,
-0.9913516044616699,
0.692552387714386,
-0.11086321622133255,
-0.5685422420501709,
0.2466205358505249,
-0.2625013589859009,
0.12238296121358871,
-0.1094357967376709,
0.017477773129940033,
-0.021249406039714813,
0.08819902688264847,
0.25308889150619507,
-0.06878510862588882,
-0.2868812680244446,
-0.16965752840042114,
0.14143262803554535,
0.09800509363412857,
0.28379639983177185,
0.535955548286438,
0.0626935362815857,
-0.12585438787937164,
0.18704530596733093,
-0.8564003705978394,
-0.053532470017671585,
0.3329848647117615,
-5.7054972648620605,
0.07199939340353012,
-0.5646935701370239,
0.42034590244293213,
-0.0941566452383995,
-0.3367711007595062,
0.3551245927810669,
-0.09426616877317429,
0.28622138500213623,
-0.6396623253822327,
0.2199283391237259,
0.36780020594596863,
0.022337239235639572,
-0.1305973082780838,
-0.11085561662912369,
0.46938568353652954,
0.4171988368034363,
-0.5615143179893494,
0.3144184350967407,
0.23311717808246613,
-0.30749034881591797,
0.5094689130783081,
-0.05661721155047417,
0.1747639924287796,
-0.19205158948898315,
0.01165941171348095,
-0.653400719165802,
-0.3004709482192993,
-0.638175904750824,
-0.08339355140924454,
-0.34422633051872253,
0.35626572370529175,
0.13489706814289093,
-0.37349727749824524,
0.26541832089424133,
-0.21339167654514313,
0.3487297594547272,
0.05056632682681084,
-0.29035526514053345,
-0.3407321274280548,
-0.4809250831604004,
0.37959960103034973,
-0.26735660433769226,
-0.6881823539733887,
0.5870372653007507,
-0.05511081963777542,
0.0527043379843235,
0.3755561411380768,
0.11811293661594391,
0.5961021184921265,
-0.6389386653900146,
0.5382021069526672,
0.7919583916664124,
0.35369041562080383,
0.042880769819021225,
-0.03334968164563179,
-0.3330495059490204,
-0.34805533289909363,
0.5536640286445618,
-0.141752690076828,
-0.08588485419750214,
-0.9820520281791687,
0.3303396701812744,
-0.6920642256736755,
0.03710154443979263,
-0.6965319514274597,
-0.01111819688230753,
0.4607139825820923,
0.07697008550167084,
0.3399551212787628,
-0.027813589200377464,
0.3264461159706116,
0.1442151814699173,
-0.5061926245689392,
-0.12334457039833069,
-0.12961074709892273,
0.46607646346092224,
-0.28747525811195374,
0.5190821886062622,
-0.15870381891727448,
-0.4411678612232208,
-0.2865077257156372,
-0.690621554851532,
0.1250547170639038,
0.18169167637825012,
-1.357092022895813,
-0.37478968501091003,
-0.06619908660650253,
-0.3684273660182953,
-0.1569620668888092,
0.07551679015159607,
-0.11501115560531616,
-0.3012973964214325,
0.40754106640815735,
0.48466360569000244,
-0.1436428278684616,
-0.23477190732955933,
-0.01983196847140789,
0.3908335566520691,
-0.013804243877530098,
0.2381313294172287,
-0.16334542632102966,
-0.2253175675868988,
-0.3582942485809326,
-0.10340514779090881,
-0.3307769000530243,
-0.04423753172159195,
0.14581409096717834,
0.5736334323883057,
-0.055641546845436096,
-0.07140503823757172,
-0.9059002995491028,
-0.368831604719162,
0.1188075914978981,
-0.029949327930808067,
0.07142283022403717,
-0.05171617865562439,
0.13640232384204865,
0.12047851085662842,
0.04745413362979889,
-0.37354832887649536,
0.7766128778457642,
-0.49423936009407043,
-0.08990470319986343,
-0.18271714448928833,
-0.05766137316823006,
-0.0049894447438418865,
-0.5614649057388306,
-0.30431175231933594,
0.3770945370197296,
-0.1094844713807106,
0.3203071057796478,
0.2332955151796341,
-0.0689384788274765,
0.0716431513428688,
0.8584641218185425,
-0.017333507537841797,
-0.2574187219142914,
-0.07363944500684738,
0.317434698343277,
-0.0384531244635582,
-0.25326007604599,
0.3387530744075775,
-0.3593321740627289,
0.4965156018733978,
0.4373458921909332,
-0.5005568265914917,
0.4843703508377075,
0.20605087280273438,
0.9668123722076416,
-0.2297043651342392,
-0.08087842911481857,
0.13223563134670258,
-0.4097694456577301,
0.18243157863616943,
-0.04360516369342804,
-0.12732776999473572,
0.005653792526572943,
-0.3373110592365265,
0.319642037153244,
0.12075537443161011,
-0.6130901575088501,
-0.6537807583808899,
-0.5455121397972107,
-0.1999560296535492,
0.43484756350517273,
-0.6112651824951172,
-0.21602150797843933,
-0.1409538835287094,
-0.8533487915992737,
-0.22774720191955566,
-0.317179411649704,
-0.4024033844470978,
-0.1909964680671692,
-0.0006277282955124974,
-0.1464073210954666,
-0.9243515729904175,
1.0358725786209106,
-0.2869243919849396,
-0.0036737672053277493,
-0.3213037848472595,
0.40629273653030396,
0.09333793073892593,
0.476350337266922,
0.8982251286506653,
0.01744229532778263,
0.002707776613533497,
-0.24065597355365753,
0.2627754211425781,
0.21597500145435333,
-0.16575048863887787,
0.2269991934299469,
0.6844395399093628,
0.38086166977882385,
-0.6110466718673706,
0.0009246087283827364,
-0.010870583355426788,
0.4709842801094055,
-0.3998383581638336,
-0.7796706557273865,
0.16242657601833344,
0.30448031425476074,
-0.3625504672527313,
0.4621956944465637,
-0.08163470774888992,
-0.1346525251865387,
0.37291860580444336,
-0.3917413651943207,
0.14642538130283356,
0.2480364590883255,
-0.16725602746009827,
-0.8539242148399353,
0.2659829556941986,
0.8606659173965454,
-1.1464265584945679,
0.14153532683849335,
-0.06240728124976158,
-0.6855292320251465,
0.34329816699028015,
0.08406607061624527,
-0.224518820643425,
-0.12096121162176132,
-0.6416497826576233,
-0.33764901757240295,
-0.4105333983898163,
0.6171174645423889,
0.07186587154865265,
-0.41136133670806885,
0.16408102214336395,
0.005680092144757509,
0.3223735988140106,
-0.4432864785194397,
-0.36945226788520813,
-0.05557113140821457,
0.9864318370819092,
-0.1715015321969986,
-0.06692492961883545,
0.2772426903247833,
-0.01771840639412403,
-0.07205507159233093,
0.24337433278560638,
0.5626626014709473,
0.13194115459918976,
-0.4741399586200714,
0.2744148373603821,
0.8644213080406189,
0.4800518751144409,
0.2883114814758301,
-0.26001599431037903,
-0.455919086933136,
0.716463565826416,
0.027305739000439644,
-0.040801823139190674,
-0.04847925901412964,
0.15310585498809814,
0.188393235206604,
0.3633953332901001,
-0.19953808188438416,
-0.08397524058818817,
0.31450727581977844,
0.4054662585258484,
0.31333789229393005,
-0.5765398740768433,
0.03277146816253662,
0.46401792764663696,
0.5874106884002686,
-0.3688257038593292,
-0.19736099243164062,
-0.4577592611312866,
-0.1776909977197647,
0.4684593677520752,
-0.4056112766265869,
-0.4515376389026642,
0.17826086282730103,
0.2982785403728485,
0.6836792230606079,
-0.6398800611495972,
-0.31259259581565857,
0.693982720375061,
0.35239091515541077,
-0.2596052289009094,
0.41506218910217285,
-0.6316302418708801,
-0.052254609763622284,
0.47439509630203247,
0.0642085000872612,
0.13594304025173187,
0.48894426226615906,
0.4906614124774933,
-0.1704254150390625,
-0.03242753446102142,
-0.7416408658027649,
-0.15927700698375702,
0.3294386565685272,
0.30534178018569946,
0.3000122308731079,
0.4405328035354614,
0.47135379910469055,
0.24736736714839935,
0.3807145059108734,
-0.8638527393341064,
0.48567280173301697,
0.3929334282875061,
-0.3352210521697998,
-0.12590394914150238,
0.1611076146364212,
-0.10392311960458755,
-0.4715285897254944,
0.0659242570400238,
0.4933397173881531,
0.39473095536231995,
-0.18744699656963348,
-0.01442037895321846,
0.7011740207672119,
-0.6681216955184937,
0.06465191394090652,
0.3230300545692444,
-0.42263907194137573,
0.34811583161354065,
0.21344994008541107,
-0.18920913338661194,
0.10532654821872711,
0.20287610590457916,
-0.018526026979088783,
-0.005297826603055,
-0.11541943997144699,
-0.1582668423652649,
-0.34678348898887634,
-0.029976077377796173,
1.0269376039505005,
-0.10809122025966644,
-0.1894242912530899,
-0.7158451080322266,
0.3106624186038971,
-0.6983845233917236,
-0.2494141012430191,
-0.5199853181838989,
-0.6039665937423706,
-0.25411638617515564,
0.3406110405921936,
0.601304829120636,
0.2474094033241272,
-0.33086103200912476,
0.02153909020125866,
0.47083067893981934,
-0.00002324652814422734,
-0.12838537991046906,
0.016007626429200172,
-0.07058975845575333,
0.2014947235584259,
0.22376562654972076,
-0.07376956939697266,
0.3828718066215515,
-0.84621262550354,
0.48871877789497375,
0.14121878147125244,
-0.2672390043735504,
-0.17794907093048096,
0.2317548245191574,
0.014620534144341946,
0.3225809931755066,
0.06569729745388031,
-0.17642764747142792,
-0.35167402029037476,
-0.7892090678215027,
0.5133756995201111,
0.3042537271976471,
-0.1119009256362915,
-0.3505370616912842,
-0.12498543411493301,
-0.35465946793556213,
0.41940367221832275,
-0.045730818063020706,
-0.33022022247314453,
-0.7042515277862549,
0.03896814584732056,
-0.22603951394557953,
0.34780293703079224,
0.3139473795890808,
-0.08269243687391281,
-0.3750104010105133,
-0.12159022688865662,
-0.26223182678222656,
-0.14442752301692963,
-0.007223667576909065,
-0.11520176380872726,
-0.5278135538101196,
0.47576001286506653,
-0.8109976649284363,
0.3012387156486511,
-0.06188507750630379,
-0.24664829671382904,
-0.035296112298965454,
0.408202588558197,
-0.8520641922950745,
-1.0508155822753906,
0.2014443278312683,
0.9471654891967773,
0.7921766042709351,
0.6071992516517639,
-0.14558033645153046,
-0.6496829986572266,
-0.08592382818460464,
0.2900528013706207,
-0.07544606924057007,
0.420890212059021,
-0.348686158657074,
0.06082902103662491,
-0.5535444617271423,
0.48045584559440613,
0.5273717641830444,
-0.3953535258769989,
-0.3107517957687378,
0.7789143323898315,
-0.40324312448501587,
0.8325347900390625,
0.1409398466348648,
-0.13413207232952118,
0.03520622104406357,
-0.1497664749622345,
-0.5647107362747192,
0.6297168731689453,
-0.20205211639404297,
0.021707208827137947,
0.1565188616514206,
0.1760656088590622,
-0.07238160073757172,
0.006240681745111942,
-0.30219656229019165,
0.4042910933494568,
-0.24453499913215637,
-0.27427938580513,
-0.854178249835968,
-0.03474947065114975,
-0.14209115505218506,
-0.3956083059310913,
0.5948014259338379,
0.6589532494544983,
0.020623190328478813,
-0.033389072865247726,
0.06543812900781631,
0.10498973727226257,
0.6291573643684387,
0.11860300600528717,
0.802727222442627,
-0.21175621449947357,
-0.03540505841374397,
0.3010149598121643,
-0.505868136882782,
0.5232123732566833,
1.0479466915130615,
-0.23589424788951874,
0.37080028653144836,
-0.14357611536979675,
0.2934857904911041,
-0.015301799401640892,
0.48074376583099365,
-0.791416347026825,
-0.21317508816719055,
-0.09993190318346024
] |
247885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corona%20del%20Mar%2C%20Newport%20Beach | Corona del Mar, Newport Beach | Corona del Mar (Spanish for "Crown of the Sea") is a seaside neighborhood in the city of Newport Beach, California. It generally consists of all the land on the seaward face of the San Joaquin Hills south of Avocado Avenue to the city limits, as well as the development of Irvine Terrace, just north of Avocado. Corona del Mar is known for its beaches, tidepools, cliffside views and village shops. Beaches in the area include Corona del Mar State Beach as well as Crystal Cove State Park south of Corona del Mar, accessible by paths winding down a steep hillside. Corona del Mar has a representative to the Newport Beach City Council. Some residents use a mailing address of Corona del Mar with the 92625 ZIP code.
History
The community was founded in 1904 and grew to establish its own post office on July 16, 1926, with Mrs. Edna L. Stuckey assuming duties as the first postmistress. A development consisting of unsold land in Corona del Mar was established in 1915 and named Balboa Palisades. The older area of Corona del Mar consists mostly of closely spaced, free-standing, detached single-family houses of varying architecture, concentrated along Pacific Coast Highway (also known as "PCH" or State Route 1). Newer developments in Harbor View Hills consist of California ranch-style houses, many with expansive ocean views.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, for Corona del Mar (which consists entirely of the 92625 ZIP code) there were 13,407 people, 6,885 households, and 3,957 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,997.8/km2. The racial makeup of the city was 88.9% White, 0.3% African American, 0.2% Native American, 5.1% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 0.7% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.9% of the population.
There were 6,885 households, out of which 17.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.9% were married couples living together, 5.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.3% were non-families. 34.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.05 and the average family size was 2.63.
In the city the population was spread out, with 15.6% under the age of 18, 3.2% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 23.7% from 45 to 64, and 20.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.7 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $120,080, and the median income for a family was $150,323. Males had a median income of $99,000 versus $52,355 for females. The per capita income for the city was $96,704. About 5.0% of families and 3.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 3.6% of those under age 18 and 5.0% of those age 65 or over.
Corona del Mar High School is located in the neighborhood of Eastbluff.
Points of interest
Sherman Library and Gardens
Fashion Island
Crystal Cove State Park
In popular culture
It is the setting for the Fox series Arrested Development (mentioned by name in Season 2, Episode 14, "The Immaculate Election") as well as residence of Martine and Dustin Rhodes in the Dean Koontz novel False Memory.
The Lost Dogs paid tribute to Corona del Mar on their 2006 album, The Lost Cabin and the Mystery Trees, with the song "Only One Bum In Corona del Mar."
Main Beach in Corona del Mar served as the backdrop for part of the 2017 "Would You Ever" music video featuring Skrillex and Poo Bear.
References
External links
Populated coastal places in California
Neighborhoods in Newport Beach, California | [
0.28399187326431274,
-0.1704309731721878,
0.5760931968688965,
-0.192337304353714,
0.32987478375434875,
-0.3562019169330597,
-0.055542126297950745,
0.5351957082748413,
-0.173291876912117,
-0.4284762442111969,
0.1802099347114563,
0.3024587333202362,
0.5584143400192261,
0.8360407948493958,
-0.8022050261497498,
0.2599513530731201,
0.613067626953125,
1.0781100988388062,
0.6966809630393982,
-0.3077070415019989,
-0.5332992076873779,
-0.5038652420043945,
-0.2100728154182434,
0.13018181920051575,
-0.03796202689409256,
0.2031632661819458,
0.326535701751709,
0.34889617562294006,
0.3734506368637085,
0.6128225922584534,
-0.2789720892906189,
0.4057403802871704,
-0.13499538600444794,
-0.23923443257808685,
0.14971168339252472,
-0.6095530390739441,
-0.0658399760723114,
-0.43874385952949524,
-0.9502612352371216,
-0.0910000205039978,
-0.3434942960739136,
-0.08310047537088394,
0.62328040599823,
0.22166988253593445,
0.19406935572624207,
-0.7531717419624329,
-1.0521317720413208,
0.288450688123703,
-0.5785029530525208,
0.16420826315879822,
-0.6209623217582703,
0.12514425814151764,
-0.9018405079841614,
0.2573087811470032,
0.670287549495697,
0.6290898323059082,
-0.8814917206764221,
0.19968490302562714,
0.3582896590232849,
-0.15659789741039276,
-0.4207589626312256,
0.727053165435791,
0.1565840095281601,
-0.1358673870563507,
0.3767973780632019,
0.38829129934310913,
0.46368956565856934,
-0.11403240263462067,
-0.03308989107608795,
-0.21391969919204712,
-0.07014285773038864,
0.3133297264575958,
0.1414259821176529,
-0.24693602323532104,
-0.47789785265922546,
0.30236685276031494,
-0.7540465593338013,
0.21269305050373077,
-0.072810098528862,
-0.14151541888713837,
0.2880809009075165,
-0.46638786792755127,
0.6697642207145691,
0.29562142491340637,
0.332661509513855,
0.2387332320213318,
-0.12751361727714539,
-0.30848249793052673,
-0.5767681002616882,
0.9727338552474976,
-0.8431065678596497,
0.6592190861701965,
0.8237094879150391,
-0.1673669070005417,
0.06608045101165771,
-0.15549331903457642,
-0.28857606649398804,
0.8004745841026306,
-0.43359285593032837,
0.3784526288509369,
-0.7204852104187012,
0.4613018035888672,
0.40294015407562256,
0.05003117769956589,
-1.0363236665725708,
-0.37010422348976135,
-0.3738518953323364,
0.12547558546066284,
0.29677116870880127,
0.08776441216468811,
-0.1920476257801056,
0.26156288385391235,
0.008400961756706238,
0.4419516623020172,
-0.32419833540916443,
0.5860039591789246,
0.7877596616744995,
0.037785448133945465,
-0.4050446152687073,
-0.7826011180877686,
0.37206804752349854,
0.40898388624191284,
-0.13495559990406036,
-0.5473495125770569,
0.36300379037857056,
0.46274101734161377,
0.16007797420024872,
-0.04453181475400925,
-0.10465650260448456,
-0.01792599819600582,
-0.15269578993320465,
0.5136175751686096,
-0.5105737447738647,
-0.049095213413238525,
0.30049648880958557,
-0.7059531211853027,
-0.15833233296871185,
0.29666101932525635,
0.7718546390533447,
-0.09664765745401382,
-0.9172020554542542,
-0.028195491060614586,
-0.367713987827301,
-0.2873631417751312,
0.5636681914329529,
-0.142351433634758,
0.00063730200054124,
-0.9488440155982971,
-0.6810898780822754,
-0.1133703738451004,
0.6977361440658569,
0.3663008213043213,
0.011214204132556915,
-0.2310279756784439,
0.10466820746660233,
0.23942553997039795,
0.4705774486064911,
0.20505107939243317,
0.16684271395206451,
0.2814890146255493,
0.054927803575992584,
-0.08379504829645157,
0.7297678589820862,
0.7189213633537292,
0.02485710382461548,
0.3257322907447815,
0.5328808426856995,
-0.3581821024417877,
0.4141453504562378,
1.0136666297912598,
-0.5307896137237549,
0.017839837819337845,
0.47169697284698486,
-0.6947116851806641,
0.030915532261133194,
-0.4420599639415741,
0.18251438438892365,
0.4352032542228699,
-0.28832870721817017,
-0.07804825156927109,
-0.6112083196640015,
0.4848494827747345,
0.010437819175422192,
-0.04243279621005058,
-0.12042231112718582,
-0.6336081624031067,
0.1474057137966156,
0.26255014538764954,
-0.2529890835285187,
-0.15671326220035553,
-0.585791826248169,
-0.29703736305236816,
0.5682821869850159,
-0.25424259901046753,
0.49815821647644043,
0.47568973898887634,
-0.6545419692993164,
0.7476930022239685,
-0.3013462722301483,
0.5530467629432678,
-0.7587031722068787,
0.19110900163650513,
0.6659981608390808,
0.11052354425191879,
-1.2776347398757935,
-0.45775118470191956,
0.35476812720298767,
-0.35752758383750916,
0.3742285966873169,
0.5898081660270691,
-0.46214479207992554,
-0.25996261835098267,
-0.08124759048223495,
0.17756210267543793,
-0.02732756920158863,
-0.5924009084701538,
0.2512439787387848,
-0.05915265530347824,
0.022896545007824898,
-0.633040726184845,
0.3259597718715668,
-0.0026764317881315947,
-0.04410796985030174,
0.31407809257507324,
0.1390673965215683,
0.6305812001228333,
-0.07039576768875122,
-0.04235008358955383,
0.3508397340774536,
0.2565946578979492,
0.20408375561237335,
-0.24735471606254578,
0.1459657847881317,
-0.3485703766345978,
0.2272709757089615,
0.47445371747016907,
0.3420449197292328,
-0.6678504347801208,
0.24901899695396423,
-0.2772526443004608,
-0.3414727747440338,
-0.2669157087802887,
-0.9777075052261353,
0.2901418209075928,
0.5582652688026428,
0.3210464417934418,
-0.30607131123542786,
0.12048716098070145,
-0.019820820540189743,
-0.1781519651412964,
-0.114149309694767,
0.4320278465747833,
0.1694670468568802,
0.10588070750236511,
0.2959522306919098,
0.3179542124271393,
-0.4622204899787903,
-0.2216026335954666,
0.0015883487649261951,
-0.15155334770679474,
-0.538963794708252,
0.38079869747161865,
0.1359238624572754,
0.6473647952079773,
-0.440702348947525,
-0.054710377007722855,
0.4172080457210541,
-0.7166006565093994,
0.24736107885837555,
0.32499343156814575,
0.021189304068684578,
-0.24705417454242706,
-0.39065107703208923,
0.022524669766426086,
0.1383495032787323,
0.03566199541091919,
-0.5885944962501526,
-0.34133967757225037,
0.2735830843448639,
-0.12973332405090332,
0.48278459906578064,
0.4692072570323944,
0.06360718607902527,
-0.556007981300354,
-0.15126484632492065,
-0.4815170168876648,
0.057415567338466644,
0.06639134883880615,
-0.6776086688041687,
-0.1849307268857956,
-0.30329418182373047,
-0.27024129033088684,
-0.15940715372562408,
0.9097427129745483,
-0.6734544038772583,
-0.15351684391498566,
0.16811291873455048,
-0.3973921239376068,
0.8857441544532776,
-0.667285680770874,
-0.5556004047393799,
-0.1805202215909958,
-0.4742353558540344,
0.15715554356575012,
0.22811482846736908,
0.2119901478290558,
0.17755596339702606,
0.10661535710096359,
-5.061646461486816,
0.19419650733470917,
-0.46047160029411316,
-0.3214453160762787,
-0.04158385097980499,
-0.6427800059318542,
0.4160934090614319,
-0.5165391564369202,
0.5470166206359863,
-0.2178889513015747,
0.1078597754240036,
-0.15091803669929504,
0.40130358934402466,
1.30296790599823,
0.806229829788208,
0.6742808222770691,
0.8099859356880188,
-0.28789398074150085,
0.4568641185760498,
-0.12079571932554245,
-0.26355066895484924,
-0.1757126748561859,
-0.2737363576889038,
0.4162760376930237,
0.04475389048457146,
0.8320987224578857,
-0.29917559027671814,
-0.729124903678894,
-1.2394381761550903,
-0.3913813531398773,
-0.0823708027601242,
-0.019233353435993195,
0.11208407580852509,
0.017845522612333298,
0.05582491680979729,
0.2915031909942627,
0.37610572576522827,
-0.7787127494812012,
0.2895362377166748,
-0.48937907814979553,
0.04624465852975845,
0.19554081559181213,
0.1439635455608368,
0.2451593428850174,
0.5317618250846863,
0.01525166817009449,
-0.24978430569171906,
0.2901618480682373,
0.30895891785621643,
0.6507459878921509,
0.6385745406150818,
-0.12669190764427185,
0.7867376804351807,
0.2014458328485489,
-0.01657293178141117,
-0.4410947859287262,
0.5304701924324036,
-0.5360111594200134,
-0.9493285417556763,
0.29735875129699707,
0.7189673781394958,
-0.727527916431427,
0.2725915014743805,
-0.05622295290231705,
0.4796927571296692,
-0.6439803838729858,
-0.2593654692173004,
-0.09111209958791733,
0.10390578210353851,
0.028498563915491104,
0.11308516561985016,
-0.15710033476352692,
-0.8273230791091919,
-0.8167979717254639,
0.07432369887828827,
-0.3354242146015167,
-0.7856143712997437,
-0.07975637912750244,
-0.2867759168148041,
-0.4706217050552368,
0.05768787860870361,
0.021163176745176315,
-0.4557199776172638,
0.6334847211837769,
-0.4242306053638458,
-0.6949235200881958,
0.25822117924690247,
0.10542473942041397,
-0.6285160183906555,
-0.5829359889030457,
0.027798522263765335,
-0.03909417986869812,
0.3105263113975525,
-0.16738209128379822,
-0.47718361020088196,
0.5352743268013,
-0.2151765376329422,
0.568145751953125,
0.26194098591804504,
-0.4679998755455017,
0.6499759554862976,
-0.13275445997714996,
0.5296453237533569,
0.11311105638742447,
-0.6178909540176392,
-0.5665446519851685,
0.570344865322113,
0.17266501486301422,
0.20043912529945374,
-0.778534471988678,
0.2630256414413452,
0.19120734930038452,
-0.0457487553358078,
-0.11819779127836227,
0.6129764914512634,
-0.2083427608013153,
-0.6570609211921692,
0.9802843332290649,
0.40968772768974304,
-0.25783905386924744,
0.7219133377075195,
0.32407182455062866,
-0.2624090015888214,
0.29085081815719604,
0.020406462252140045,
-0.6042964458465576,
0.2005215287208557,
0.05487266555428505,
-0.15302124619483948,
0.4894266426563263,
0.36183735728263855,
0.1614685207605362,
0.18257978558540344,
-0.005125850439071655,
-0.03801211714744568,
0.04761834815144539,
-0.9961928129196167,
-1.1915807723999023,
0.5783045291900635,
0.40487632155418396,
0.15768833458423615,
0.27247917652130127,
0.02481658384203911,
0.8803703784942627,
0.2592921257019043,
0.4067050814628601,
-0.34955987334251404,
-0.952815592288971,
-1.018628478050232,
0.4520552456378937,
-0.30267569422721863,
0.4053947925567627,
-0.5881978273391724,
-0.906932532787323,
-0.1994653195142746,
-0.7373160123825073,
-0.2895772457122803,
0.45719268918037415,
-0.2205008864402771,
0.22857671976089478,
0.03788056597113609,
-0.3536258637905121,
-0.8642343878746033,
0.23710191249847412,
0.05180716887116432,
-0.19531476497650146,
-0.7071770429611206,
-0.06771927326917648,
0.17190507054328918,
0.6623725295066833,
0.4692299962043762,
-0.09596475958824158,
-0.5276905298233032,
-0.23966173827648163,
0.020473485812544823,
-0.14997230470180511,
0.11683914065361023,
0.31298118829727173,
-0.06187629699707031,
-0.582700252532959,
0.04094518721103668,
-0.02320244163274765,
0.26934289932250977,
0.13375882804393768,
0.40799254179000854,
-0.469325989484787,
-0.8320041298866272,
-0.3682919144630432,
0.03914288803935051,
0.4566498398780823,
0.04132233187556267,
0.04199303314089775,
0.25780293345451355,
-0.08242353796958923,
-1.0012329816818237,
-0.5944221615791321,
0.2678568661212921,
0.499117374420166,
-0.24245212972164154,
-0.18043005466461182,
-0.4833393692970276,
0.21747344732284546,
-1.2775007486343384,
0.47817477583885193,
-0.09954451024532318,
-0.9191769361495972,
0.7729800939559937,
1.0391184091567993,
-0.858064591884613,
0.9019670486450195,
-0.5236326456069946,
-1.0932347774505615,
0.2607181966304779,
0.5347871780395508,
-0.00035070691956207156,
0.49314817786216736,
-0.11943963170051575,
-0.7887328863143921,
-0.28184640407562256,
-0.06991735100746155,
0.40328556299209595,
-0.19176261126995087,
0.03773639351129532,
-0.391366183757782,
-0.7827697992324829,
0.8972296714782715,
0.18912799656391144,
-0.9684319496154785,
0.7261472940444946,
-0.23646751046180725,
-0.02434828132390976,
-0.04422784969210625,
0.42009031772613525,
0.028817003592848778,
0.24834991991519928,
-0.028906721621751785,
-0.18809157609939575,
0.01340572815388441,
0.48684462904930115,
0.7746902108192444,
0.1722451150417328,
0.3891606330871582,
-0.10904677212238312,
-0.649673342704773,
-0.07304137945175171,
0.19852250814437866,
0.25748372077941895,
-0.11067180335521698,
-0.9881511926651001,
0.7103195190429688,
0.5521114468574524,
-1.0475265979766846,
-0.5825583934783936,
-0.04432627931237221,
0.825962483882904,
-0.6648629903793335,
-0.05304192006587982,
0.32887887954711914,
-0.22856761515140533,
0.11308755725622177,
0.2538333535194397,
-0.18525922298431396,
-0.319680392742157,
0.2711712121963501,
0.7613038420677185,
-0.629625678062439,
0.1530691385269165,
-0.5965065360069275,
0.20883774757385254,
-0.2664366066455841,
0.6407303214073181,
-0.14174292981624603,
0.2957534193992615,
0.7618057727813721,
-0.30163317918777466,
0.39345449209213257,
-0.25061658024787903,
-1.0255019664764404,
0.494915634393692,
-0.7163492441177368,
-0.6488016843795776,
0.22608375549316406,
-0.31890568137168884,
-0.339885413646698,
-0.5872557759284973,
-0.5133426189422607,
-0.36973923444747925,
-0.03510921820998192,
-0.23952706158161163,
0.5592722296714783,
-0.12084140628576279,
-0.41590461134910583,
0.41148102283477783,
-0.2949707806110382,
0.3885979652404785,
-0.0766616016626358,
1.0207663774490356,
0.5985689759254456,
-0.600606381893158,
-0.022701239213347435,
-0.358646422624588,
0.9430915713310242,
-0.48099350929260254,
-0.1671891063451767,
0.09941297769546509,
0.12741117179393768,
0.18224088847637177,
-0.656446099281311,
-0.20061977207660675,
0.08355234563350677,
0.08268554508686066,
0.2819071114063263,
0.3797760009765625,
0.8984975814819336,
-0.664987325668335,
0.7484996914863586,
0.5631710886955261,
-0.227464497089386,
0.058316681534051895,
0.5820788741111755,
-0.4899728000164032,
-0.222476065158844,
0.620785117149353,
0.1521395593881607,
0.5694921612739563,
1.1295086145401,
-0.41350245475769043,
-0.3712933659553528,
0.45261529088020325,
0.5052750706672668,
-0.12673690915107727,
-0.6571975946426392,
-0.45609644055366516,
0.14516600966453552,
-0.3531269133090973,
-0.223990797996521,
-0.13495764136314392,
-0.37521278858184814,
-0.4676523506641388,
0.09442086517810822,
0.7256388664245605,
0.022540496662259102,
0.021528782323002815,
0.1986583024263382,
0.7094162106513977,
-0.36446449160575867,
0.40255221724510193,
0.34150946140289307,
-0.0959840640425682,
-0.4316648244857788,
0.38848865032196045,
-0.5921311974525452,
0.3029157221317291,
-0.5529741048812866,
0.27248239517211914,
0.2988331615924835,
-0.2266981154680252,
-0.39226242899894714,
-0.4412930905818939,
0.47267332673072815,
-0.2139475792646408,
-0.1886369287967682,
0.27313917875289917,
-0.21408653259277344,
-0.6142455339431763,
-0.23059099912643433,
0.5753421187400818,
0.1699967235326767,
-0.14191175997257233,
0.8683164119720459,
0.2891403138637543,
0.8736233711242676,
-0.42142003774642944,
0.06320452690124512,
0.4336499571800232,
0.6362289190292358,
0.28183335065841675,
0.22974491119384766,
0.21005851030349731,
0.2622902989387512,
-0.11441436409950256,
0.37995338439941406,
-0.33849501609802246,
-0.36388540267944336,
0.2460537552833557,
-0.3118756413459778,
-0.22143538296222687,
0.03734048455953598,
-0.5140443444252014,
-0.46577775478363037,
0.20459066331386566,
-0.29835548996925354,
-0.44275227189064026,
0.2932310402393341,
-0.3450911045074463,
-0.017901580780744553,
-0.2555873990058899,
0.763801097869873,
0.36249035596847534,
-0.18745841085910797,
0.1642700731754303,
0.5713900923728943,
0.332856148481369,
-0.21046119928359985,
-0.2232162058353424,
0.598301351070404,
-0.3259114921092987,
-0.23993343114852905,
0.008253081701695919,
0.3125835359096527,
-0.09210577607154846,
0.14726082980632782,
-0.35797053575515747,
0.2756597399711609,
-0.9419434070587158,
0.264213889837265,
0.7958865165710449,
-0.09887996315956116,
-0.1051216721534729,
-0.9097874164581299,
-0.6482651829719543,
-0.3590485155582428,
0.03379371017217636,
0.8846021294593811,
0.6135944128036499,
-0.24187995493412018,
0.16880610585212708,
0.4648469090461731,
-1.0991960763931274,
0.046160805970430374,
0.20162001252174377,
-0.5048949122428894,
-0.4297329783439636,
0.9946698546409607,
-0.5112969875335693,
-0.7399871349334717,
-0.16682296991348267,
0.6886808276176453,
0.6690909266471863,
-0.22720123827457428,
0.12146477401256561,
-0.24569539725780487,
0.3830065429210663,
-0.401678204536438,
0.32080966234207153,
-0.3807530701160431,
-0.6596554517745972,
-0.07492765039205551,
-0.24469399452209473,
-0.13784630596637726,
0.5851367115974426,
-0.3571217954158783,
0.06079454720020294,
-0.24946460127830505,
0.38378822803497314,
-0.35689038038253784,
0.05356930196285248,
-0.7518290877342224,
0.6064275503158569,
0.340078741312027
] |
247886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stand%20and%20Sing%20of%20Zambia%2C%20Proud%20and%20Free | Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free | "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" is the national anthem of Zambia. The tune is taken from the hymn "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" (), which was composed by South African Enoch Sontonga, in 1897. The lyrics were composed after Zambian independence to specifically reflect Zambia, as opposed to Sontonga's lyrics which refer to Africa as a whole.
History
"Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" started to become popular in South Africa in 1923 as a Christian hymn. It became a closing hymn for ANC meetings and later became a symbolic song for black struggle against the Apartheid regime. Its popularity spread across Africa through churches and the tune became associated with African nationalism movements across the continent particularly in East and Southern Africa . Following the passing of the Zambia Independence Act 1964 in the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacting Zambia's independence from the United Kingdom, "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" was adopted as the national anthem of Zambia, replacing "God Save the Queen", the anthem of Northern Rhodesia. In 1973, having used Nkosi Sikeleli Africa for over 9 years, it was decided that new lyrics set to the tune of "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" would be needed for Zambia's national anthem. A national competition was held for the new words. However, none of the entries were deemed good enough to be used in full for the anthem. As a result, six of the entries were merged to create "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" and the entrants selected were awarded prizes. The authors credited for the composition were G. Ellis, E.S. Musonda, J.M.S. Lichilana, I. Lowe, J. Sajiwandani, and R.J. Seal.
In September 1973, the National Assembly passed the National Anthem Act, which legally defined the English lyrics of "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" as the national anthem of Zambia. The Act also made it an offence to "insult or bring into contempt or ridicule" the anthem and granted the President of Zambia the rights to prescribe how the anthem is sung and to restrict its use.
Lyrics
Criticism
In 2005, Zambian women's groups petitioned for a number of the lyrics in "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" to be changed because they felt that they were too male orientated. In response, it was decreed that the current lyrics did include women in context and it was stated that "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" was "composed of historical lyrics that reflect the country's heritage."
In 2012, Professor Michelo Hansungule repeated the concerns that the Zambian national anthem was too masculine. He also argued that because it had the same tune as the national anthem of South Africa, it might have intellectual property implications and suggested that Zambia's sovereignty could be questioned.
See also
"National anthem of South Africa"
References
3. https://www.parliament.gov.zm/sites/default/files/documents/acts/National%20Anthem%20Act.pdf
External links
Zambia: "Stand and Sing of Zambia, Proud and Free" - Audio of the national anthem of Zambia, with information and lyrics
National anthems
National symbols of Zambia
African anthems
Zambian songs
National anthem compositions in G major | [
1.0152623653411865,
0.42399096488952637,
-0.04439639672636986,
-0.8800414800643921,
-0.879421591758728,
0.026889042928814888,
0.6562358736991882,
0.38207799196243286,
-0.5858012437820435,
-0.3269622325897217,
0.07031083852052689,
0.05274747684597969,
-0.5211092233657837,
0.7360243797302246,
0.027604840695858,
0.7681965827941895,
0.42606380581855774,
0.5963972210884094,
0.7991042137145996,
-0.43678751587867737,
0.030986687168478966,
0.10058768093585968,
0.2526629865169525,
0.23754388093948364,
0.16517949104309082,
0.39345675706863403,
1.0923657417297363,
0.08218246698379517,
-0.2839789390563965,
0.17456777393817902,
-0.012518017552793026,
0.5251060128211975,
0.3080957531929016,
0.03537458926439285,
0.5936194658279419,
0.026253776624798775,
0.3112494945526123,
0.4235832393169403,
-0.2819433808326721,
-0.5408803224563599,
-0.3244083821773529,
-0.6203784346580505,
0.6479416489601135,
0.0552598275244236,
0.5657264590263367,
-1.2782410383224487,
-0.6613481044769287,
0.15655817091464996,
-0.7212334275245667,
0.03358819708228111,
-0.6801084280014038,
0.6345415711402893,
0.042895883321762085,
0.5430405139923096,
0.33997541666030884,
0.06363243609666824,
-0.8639419078826904,
0.18816345930099487,
-0.1397566795349121,
-0.6366146206855774,
0.2824808359146118,
0.11352219432592392,
-0.017968062311410904,
0.05760733038187027,
0.6325331330299377,
0.17568612098693848,
-0.09038498997688293,
0.49170729517936707,
-0.28371691703796387,
-0.592784583568573,
-0.8498462438583374,
0.008100132457911968,
-0.38056281208992004,
0.04637216031551361,
0.0942678302526474,
-0.5206818580627441,
0.022569112479686737,
-0.09724050015211105,
-0.09117353707551956,
0.21360787749290466,
-0.025648271664977074,
-0.23496147990226746,
-0.036437902599573135,
1.117669701576233,
-0.04214748740196228,
0.11367202550172806,
-0.009597661904990673,
-0.32845354080200195,
-0.1757853478193283,
1.1002871990203857,
-0.883652925491333,
-0.2818007171154022,
0.42294955253601074,
0.2794238328933716,
-0.6528506875038147,
-0.051518119871616364,
-0.20884762704372406,
0.4429696202278137,
-0.2894059121608734,
0.014340043999254704,
0.5550341606140137,
-0.05029715597629547,
0.7373596429824829,
-0.5611773729324341,
-1.0530728101730347,
-0.5740612745285034,
-0.7311802506446838,
-0.4988943040370941,
0.8358513712882996,
-0.12701238691806793,
-0.23268328607082367,
-0.30801671743392944,
-0.2850894331932068,
-0.23798513412475586,
0.3379640281200409,
0.61250239610672,
0.3242420554161072,
-0.8735034465789795,
-0.06299158930778503,
0.13406552374362946,
-0.3650437295436859,
0.5304661393165588,
-0.032965704798698425,
0.6153985261917114,
-0.364050954580307,
0.6904511451721191,
0.3535081148147583,
0.37718284130096436,
-0.02375774458050728,
0.8591487407684326,
-0.23187559843063354,
0.7687764167785645,
-0.15124903619289398,
-0.10969285666942596,
-0.565652072429657,
-0.42164406180381775,
0.713182270526886,
-0.32280826568603516,
0.5706650018692017,
0.22703813016414642,
-0.6191987991333008,
-0.36549168825149536,
-0.5153993964195251,
-0.045408885926008224,
0.8744181394577026,
-0.08734952658414841,
-1.1822928190231323,
0.2304232120513916,
-0.3574269115924835,
-0.27112269401550293,
0.3169870674610138,
-0.9215394854545593,
0.4528525471687317,
0.3732043206691742,
-1.067899227142334,
0.1569078117609024,
0.429286926984787,
-0.2571181356906891,
0.7126342058181763,
0.7840986847877502,
0.558512806892395,
0.010651330463588238,
0.4196320176124573,
0.6125732660293579,
-0.2814335227012634,
0.14426478743553162,
-0.03887040168046951,
0.3810518980026245,
-0.08121247589588165,
-0.44635966420173645,
-0.6157088875770569,
0.5305918455123901,
0.3807815611362457,
-0.27984872460365295,
-0.38828110694885254,
-0.2530713379383087,
0.1782226711511612,
0.06608036160469055,
0.028279338032007217,
0.0016803916078060865,
-0.6928772330284119,
-0.12157709896564484,
-0.18388526141643524,
0.8850376605987549,
0.5182173848152161,
-0.06560058146715164,
0.37133175134658813,
0.27158576250076294,
-0.050377123057842255,
-0.03734191879630089,
-0.6800806522369385,
-0.30719801783561707,
0.43883731961250305,
-0.10546738654375076,
0.3805953562259674,
0.2776750922203064,
0.03113751858472824,
0.35090014338493347,
-0.22092337906360626,
0.9549919962882996,
0.2796279191970825,
0.2070235162973404,
0.3598323166370392,
0.0461537130177021,
-1.0920785665512085,
0.605426549911499,
-0.35174188017845154,
0.13172413408756256,
0.3852924406528473,
0.24786466360092163,
0.012368514202535152,
-0.29870501160621643,
-0.17195655405521393,
0.39111417531967163,
0.019328927621245384,
-0.5791593194007874,
-0.04252036660909653,
0.023573013022542,
-0.26187625527381897,
-0.3037649989128113,
0.6221927404403687,
-0.01716575212776661,
-0.37114110589027405,
0.3836621940135956,
0.5440151691436768,
0.007100785616785288,
-0.33536604046821594,
-0.008729532361030579,
-0.27754688262939453,
0.21776825189590454,
0.005067697260528803,
-0.14765484631061554,
-0.018197156488895416,
0.16396266222000122,
-0.10029014199972153,
-0.502516508102417,
-0.2788061797618866,
-0.9761598706245422,
0.33334842324256897,
-0.25953739881515503,
0.759811520576477,
-0.016327504068613052,
-0.40404802560806274,
-0.5663785934448242,
-0.06335743516683578,
0.3440813720226288,
-0.10651282966136932,
0.02886500023305416,
-0.15756841003894806,
0.33956366777420044,
1.3119066953659058,
0.06020251289010048,
0.5060915946960449,
-0.5099988579750061,
0.04287265986204147,
0.10889420658349991,
-0.01948804408311844,
-0.22329889237880707,
0.25539007782936096,
-0.004717353265732527,
0.12394508719444275,
-0.706171452999115,
0.6202329397201538,
0.26155605912208557,
-0.19005905091762543,
-1.1647883653640747,
-0.08362726122140884,
0.026515666395425797,
-0.1620873510837555,
-0.24441511929035187,
0.6926133632659912,
-0.7354348301887512,
0.18003205955028534,
-0.01930662803351879,
0.08484851568937302,
0.11685274541378021,
0.3474551737308502,
-0.11396647989749908,
-1.2160053253173828,
-0.6780157089233398,
0.7354872822761536,
0.562150776386261,
-0.051543235778808594,
-0.5707493424415588,
0.0027333791367709637,
-0.04242071136832237,
0.38885098695755005,
0.13491860032081604,
-0.6141574382781982,
-0.05937430262565613,
0.043224506080150604,
0.44865161180496216,
0.10088402777910233,
-0.24883778393268585,
0.04473303630948067,
0.21509183943271637,
0.20578685402870178,
0.1275101900100708,
0.14546959102153778,
-0.25565701723098755,
-0.3460266888141632,
0.08799966424703598,
-0.21448178589344025,
-0.3167163133621216,
0.6562609076499939,
-0.46977177262306213,
-0.7981563210487366,
-0.2038133144378662,
-4.7951273918151855,
0.477674275636673,
-0.2172401398420334,
-0.028344836086034775,
-0.007815473712980747,
-0.19369710981845856,
0.7253967523574829,
-0.6207219958305359,
-0.2016521692276001,
-0.80846107006073,
-0.5940297245979309,
-0.30549997091293335,
0.011468849144876003,
0.6881131529808044,
0.5073207020759583,
0.6306778788566589,
0.955731213092804,
-0.4796859920024872,
1.1001163721084595,
0.2186538130044937,
0.1791514903306961,
-0.3988063931465149,
-0.28769344091415405,
0.05682029947638512,
0.6413294076919556,
1.0477837324142456,
0.20193083584308624,
0.0974852666258812,
-0.31041592359542847,
0.5893262028694153,
0.1076696589589119,
0.1062207743525505,
-0.09095942974090576,
-1.0711623430252075,
-0.5585846304893494,
-0.13759975135326385,
0.3569098114967346,
0.2526272237300873,
0.4730767011642456,
-0.8778983950614929,
0.01072841789573431,
-0.13018576800823212,
-0.07796119898557663,
0.04863886907696724,
0.16486021876335144,
0.34250903129577637,
-0.9208784699440002,
-0.1829175055027008,
-0.7580801844596863,
0.7191710472106934,
-0.38450807332992554,
-0.4341519773006439,
0.5445749163627625,
-0.48089656233787537,
-0.9041122794151306,
-0.23960864543914795,
0.22956004738807678,
0.0650293380022049,
-0.20937718451023102,
-0.027523063123226166,
0.3060356080532074,
-1.2475593090057373,
-0.2011747658252716,
-0.3997949957847595,
0.20144468545913696,
-0.4088989198207855,
0.19784623384475708,
-0.22156482934951782,
0.3970334827899933,
0.7336969971656799,
0.2027597725391388,
0.2784242331981659,
-0.4443303942680359,
-0.7873312830924988,
-0.2619565427303314,
-0.9248358607292175,
-0.8696960806846619,
-0.2537440061569214,
-0.07183652371168137,
0.5988330245018005,
-0.42612823843955994,
-0.4861471354961395,
-0.21231010556221008,
0.8397795557975769,
-0.2535710334777832,
-0.5556043982505798,
-0.06254591792821884,
0.6833661794662476,
-0.1566021591424942,
-0.02644588239490986,
-0.045539986342191696,
-1.0242377519607544,
-0.11381760239601135,
0.6926252245903015,
0.43245017528533936,
0.12742437422275543,
0.2054644674062729,
-0.6125081181526184,
0.2670300602912903,
-0.4929511547088623,
0.015483144670724869,
-0.49524545669555664,
0.05820249393582344,
-0.7801607251167297,
0.3461763262748718,
0.3023635745048523,
-0.19570837914943695,
0.11962977796792984,
0.29010286927223206,
0.16416878998279572,
0.06367148458957672,
-0.8633162379264832,
0.16664628684520721,
-0.19514507055282593,
0.5086787939071655,
-0.7276647686958313,
0.12998788058757782,
0.5819439888000488,
0.4111556112766266,
0.15995801985263824,
0.4739682376384735,
0.2860235869884491,
-0.35270169377326965,
-0.10632787644863129,
-0.7279908657073975,
0.12535962462425232,
0.39091813564300537,
0.037777502089738846,
-0.5417588353157043,
-0.6756988167762756,
0.15122513473033905,
-0.9926487803459167,
0.06934311985969543,
0.23127655684947968,
0.3246748745441437,
-0.0399712435901165,
-0.24574588239192963,
-0.7225967645645142,
0.4537999629974365,
-0.34931111335754395,
-0.35717299580574036,
0.08721468597650528,
0.24653342366218567,
0.049019958823919296,
0.5603792071342468,
1.035451889038086,
-0.05834657698869705,
-0.24495826661586761,
-0.9563031196594238,
0.16904863715171814,
0.7221717834472656,
-0.43125075101852417,
0.1407240778207779,
-0.9521462917327881,
0.002586089540272951,
-0.053213056176900864,
0.23152795433998108,
-0.3301507830619812,
0.6909067630767822,
-0.6357936263084412,
-0.15101391077041626,
-0.33991241455078125,
-1.2196369171142578,
0.008827131241559982,
-0.009343644604086876,
-0.545629620552063,
-0.03935886174440384,
-0.2810988128185272,
0.050423864275217056,
0.6563241481781006,
0.1456201821565628,
-0.5721704363822937,
-0.17799459397792816,
0.4449450373649597,
0.25192180275917053,
-0.3792175054550171,
0.11124937981367111,
0.16527800261974335,
-0.1338559240102768,
0.10994577407836914,
-0.9242516160011292,
0.2697279453277588,
-0.3452357351779938,
0.1914876401424408,
0.23376905918121338,
-0.3891139328479767,
-0.19291901588439941,
-0.008985220454633236,
-0.28477743268013,
0.622061550617218,
0.4828345775604248,
0.6625320315361023,
0.14831724762916565,
-0.32143357396125793,
-0.5284244418144226,
-0.8823978304862976,
-0.4118247330188751,
0.27667248249053955,
-0.08329978585243225,
-0.9506892561912537,
0.6486234664916992,
0.45143038034439087,
-0.19802002608776093,
0.2136656939983368,
-0.26536113023757935,
-0.09290841966867447,
1.0682240724563599,
0.18931634724140167,
-0.9156780242919922,
0.44108495116233826,
-0.22381556034088135,
-0.9273343682289124,
0.0675424188375473,
1.0258780717849731,
-0.7614238858222961,
-0.16134357452392578,
0.009661911055445671,
-0.42334720492362976,
0.2598966956138611,
-0.060504890978336334,
0.12311843037605286,
-0.5053617358207703,
-0.7258865833282471,
0.4588657319545746,
-0.6318506002426147,
1.0971440076828003,
0.3033939301967621,
-0.20307618379592896,
0.22279854118824005,
-0.6693336963653564,
-0.6519838571548462,
0.2503724694252014,
0.6952449083328247,
0.3988993465900421,
-1.3221683502197266,
0.2569456100463867,
-0.7610167264938354,
0.1959114372730255,
0.20630179345607758,
0.6111263036727905,
0.0780949667096138,
0.7281017303466797,
0.26273471117019653,
-1.354151725769043,
-0.41055458784103394,
0.5477058291435242,
0.09561003744602203,
0.35715577006340027,
-0.37416329979896545,
0.023526202887296677,
0.009708189405500889,
0.41993406414985657,
-0.8135197758674622,
-0.7631028890609741,
0.532919704914093,
-0.2610858380794525,
-0.023098789155483246,
0.5925793051719666,
0.1939001977443695,
-0.4248092472553253,
0.5188356041908264,
0.3032541573047638,
-0.3521658182144165,
0.25883355736732483,
0.48415088653564453,
0.09812745451927185,
0.11124744266271591,
-0.20385819673538208,
0.5153369903564453,
0.1509905308485031,
-0.28536930680274963,
-0.3834975063800812,
-0.15356986224651337,
0.29479342699050903,
0.08049324154853821,
-0.11495507508516312,
-0.1644916832447052,
-0.4680219888687134,
-0.16981041431427002,
0.39104077219963074,
-0.19362996518611908,
-0.13050444424152374,
0.25064191222190857,
-0.4072501063346863,
0.39013880491256714,
-1.0670053958892822,
0.003013177076354623,
0.19327059388160706,
-0.31592825055122375,
-0.24951758980751038,
-0.8596586585044861,
-0.031208354979753494,
0.27904772758483887,
-0.10911335796117783,
-0.08709371834993362,
-0.08634373545646667,
0.4109545946121216,
-0.3697649836540222,
-0.4408036768436432,
0.12166158854961395,
-0.842031717300415,
0.4130394458770752,
0.4173363447189331,
0.28398576378822327,
0.18821275234222412,
-0.16761115193367004,
0.2486642748117447,
-0.5907027721405029,
0.3373746871948242,
0.22980476915836334,
0.22873908281326294,
0.06454309076070786,
0.8172414898872375,
0.5880764722824097,
-0.6471302509307861,
0.39111799001693726,
0.7583654522895813,
-0.3882921040058136,
0.19559702277183533,
0.6306493282318115,
0.24586156010627747,
-1.0915684700012207,
1.1681973934173584,
0.505956768989563,
0.1331200748682022,
0.06949090212583542,
-0.28462475538253784,
-1.0346497297286987,
1.1979424953460693,
-0.19890159368515015,
-0.2673112154006958,
0.6280175447463989,
-0.9919671416282654,
0.40837928652763367,
-0.4477356970310211,
-0.11990172415971756,
0.15871253609657288,
-0.4294792711734772,
-0.32162997126579285,
0.784886360168457,
0.3677191734313965,
0.23729786276817322,
-0.05520067736506462,
-0.43987327814102173,
-0.11134549230337143,
-0.46073171496391296,
-0.7961843013763428,
0.7894916534423828,
0.8514264822006226,
-0.002745189471170306,
0.5764558911323547,
0.3811062276363373,
-0.3866226375102997,
0.08217184245586395,
0.8533879518508911,
-0.5989634394645691,
0.4231320023536682,
-0.17170637845993042,
-0.005485379137098789,
0.32590487599372864,
-0.21068689227104187,
0.6980446577072144,
0.034578029066324234,
-0.2231692224740982,
-0.1848413497209549,
0.12291663885116577,
1.0549192428588867,
-0.23982056975364685,
-0.3998337388038635,
0.2845112085342407,
0.33364853262901306,
0.40158796310424805,
0.011699945665895939,
0.06168607249855995,
0.2811104357242584,
0.20085258781909943,
-0.5112687945365906,
-0.27822792530059814,
0.043073464184999466,
0.06854291260242462,
0.17741617560386658,
0.2174159288406372,
-0.33267414569854736,
-0.6525389552116394,
0.5291009545326233,
0.08928338438272476,
-0.7038763761520386,
-0.286502867937088,
0.02021109312772751,
0.22015097737312317,
0.0513642393052578,
-0.3307321071624756,
-0.24417945742607117,
-0.04140223562717438,
0.3043597340583801,
-0.17877472937107086,
-0.3803146481513977,
1.377465009689331,
0.37779557704925537,
-0.492141991853714,
0.6317195892333984,
0.630664587020874,
0.13189344108104706,
0.2475661039352417,
0.09571604430675507,
0.33409902453422546,
-0.7390337586402893,
0.17088080942630768,
-0.537139356136322,
0.7046386003494263,
0.09550657123327255,
-0.030037544667720795,
-0.24101760983467102,
1.1576765775680542,
-0.2580643594264984,
0.9375712871551514,
0.5852009057998657,
-0.6633010506629944,
-0.24005362391471863,
-0.567857027053833,
-0.12096583843231201,
-0.3284858465194702,
0.3209899067878723,
1.1017471551895142,
-0.09944412857294083,
-1.0728914737701416,
0.28662803769111633,
0.041015639901161194,
-0.9761550426483154,
0.3346075713634491,
-0.3634304106235504,
-0.11398318409919739,
0.38439494371414185,
-0.1669429987668991,
-0.9361432194709778,
0.39794546365737915,
0.3823450207710266,
0.8960490226745605,
-0.18348287045955658,
-0.9411457180976868,
0.14251311123371124,
-0.6338706612586975,
1.3114691972732544,
-0.021655384451150894,
0.19323231279850006,
-0.454437792301178,
-0.31028616428375244,
-0.22006550431251526,
-0.6826866865158081,
0.8329917192459106,
0.4145578145980835,
0.13867826759815216,
0.5401362180709839,
-0.3804478645324707,
0.27654609084129333,
-0.2252376526594162,
-0.0848439633846283,
-0.22181029617786407,
0.0139070525765419,
-0.31754279136657715
] |
247888 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFn%20Qu%C3%A2n%20Ca | Tiến Quân Ca | Tiến Quân Ca (lit. "The Marching Song"), known in English as the Marching Song, Song of a Marching Army or Song of Advancing Soldiers, is the national anthem of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), both written and composed by Văn Cao in 1944. The "Army Marching Song" was adopted as the national anthem of North Vietnam in 1954, and was adopted as the national anthem of the new unified Socialist Republic of Vietnam in 1976, following the reunification of both North Vietnam and South Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War. Though it has two verses, the first one is mainly sung.
History
Its lyrics and title were based on Văn Cao's previous works, "Thăng Long" (lit. rising dragon, a former name of Hanoi). Part of the lyrics were also different during its early stages, as it went through numerous changes starting in the early 1940s.
Lyric changes and completion
"Tiến Quân Ca" went through many changes shortly after it was composed. For instance, the first sentence "Đoàn quân Việt Nam đi" was originally "Đoàn quân Việt Minh đi." The sixth part of the lyrics was also originally "Thề phanh thây uống máu quân thù", expressing the brutality of French colonial and pre-famine actions. After many suggestions, Văn Cao changed it to "Đường vinh quang xây xác quân thù". The last sentence "Tiến lên! Cùng tiến lên! Chí trai là nơi đây ước nguyền!" it was changed to "Núi sông Việt Nam ta vững bền", but when it was published it was changed to "Nước non Việt Nam ta vững bền!", which Văn Cao commented, "With a song that requires solemn, 'nước non' seemed too weak while being sung with 'núi sông' would be more reasonable."
After completion of work, Văn Cao met and let Vũ Quý try the song. Vũ Quý was very happy at his work, and "Tiến Quân Ca" was published in papers on November 1944 with lithographs by Văn Cao.
On August 17, 1945, the song was sung for the first time at a rally of civil servants in Hanoi by a Ph.D under the flag of the Việt Minh, and "robbed the loudspeakers". Văn Cao quoted, "That quiet man was an attraction to thousands of people listening that day".
The poet and musician Nguyễn Đình Thi was touched after hearing Văn Cao sing the song and asked each person to write another song for "The Viet Minh Frontline". He posted his own "Diệt Phát Xít", meaning "Killing Fascists". Văn Cao wrote "Chiến Sĩ Việt Nam", meaning "Vietnam Soldiers". Both songs are still popular and sung to the public today.
As a national anthem
On August 17, 1945, Hồ Chí Minh approved Tiến Quân Ca to be officially recognized as the anthem of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.
On September 2, 1945, marching was officially performed on the day of the Proclamation of Independence at Ba Đình Square by the Liberation Army band commanded by Đinh Ngọc Liên. At the day before the performance, musicians Dinh Ngoc Lien, Nguyen Huu Hieu, and Văn Cao discussed for changing the two words in "Tiến Quân Ca" in order to shorten the song by shortening the length of the first E pitches in the word "đoàn" and the F in the middle of the word "xác" to make the song more "snappy".
In 1946, the 1st National Assembly officially recognized "Tiến Quân Ca" as the national anthem. In the first Constitution of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in Article 3, it states directly about the national anthem. In 1955, the 5th session of the first National Assembly decided to invite authors to participate in another editing of the song. Văn Cao had regrets after this because the "heroic spirit" of the song had been lost after being edited.
After 1975, the government of South Vietnam fell, and on July 2, 1976, the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (in most common situation, the phrase "Viet Cong" actually refers to it) and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam agreed to be reunified into the new Socialist Republic of Vietnam. "Tiến Quân Ca" was chosen as the national anthem. In 1981, a contest was opened for a new national anthem but after more a year, it was and has never been mentioned again nor are there any official statement about the results. Thus, "Tiến Quân Ca" remains today as the national anthem of Vietnam.
Copyrighted anthem
Copyright of the lyrics and the music sheet
In 2010, Nghiêm Thúy Băng, the wife of late musician Văn Cao, addressed a letter to the Minister of Culture, Sports and Tourism of Vietnam proposing to donate the work "Tien quan ca" to the public, the Party, the National Assembly and the State. This is also the wish of Văn Cao when he was still alive.
However, in 2015, the family of Văn Cao, registered the song with the Vietnam Center for Protection of Music Copyright, demanding royalties for all public performances except in certain situations like schools and "important state ceremonies". Văn Cao's eldest son Văn Thao said that his family "never reached consensus on 'gifting' the song, so they authorized the center to collect royalties on his father's songs".
The copyright announcement has angered many veteran musicians. Nguyen Quang Long says the "anthem must belong to the public, and people should be allowed to sing it without worrying about royalties". Singer Ánh Tuyết, who is best known for her performance of Cao's songs, agrees that the anthem "long ago became a song of the people, so it should be gifted to the people".
On August 25, 2015, the Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism sent an official letter to the music copyright agency to stop collecting royalties on "Tiến Quân Ca".
On July 8, 2016, Văn Thao confirmed that he and his family were going to donate the song to their country and people as his father's last wish. A letter, signed by all the legal inheritors in the family, stated that the family would donate the song for free use.
On July 15, 2016, The National Assembly Office held a ceremony in Hanoi to receive the national anthem, donated by family members of Văn Cao, and to bestow the composer with the Ho Chi Minh Order. Also at the ceremony, Deputy Prime Minister Vũ Đức Đam presented a certificate of merit from the Prime Minister to Nghiêm Thúy Băng, the composer’s widow, in recognition of her efforts in preserving the composer’s works.
Copyright of different recording versions of the anthem
There are still disputes over the copyrights of each recording versions of the anthem, for example during the broadcasting the soccer match between Laos and Vietnam on 6 Dec 2021, the sound of anthem music was muted using the reason of copyrights. The copyright claims met with huge backlash from the author's family, the government, and other opinions who considered national anthem should be free for all. Opposite opinions claimed that although the lyric and music sheet of the anthem is free, it is legal to claimed the copyright of specific recording versions of the anthem.
The Government then announced a "free" recording version of the national anthem which had been already published on the government website and emphasized that "Vietnamese laws strictly forbid the obstruction of popularizing the national anthem, directly or indirectly, under the regulation of rules and laws." The Department of Sport also issued an instruction called for the use of the "free" version published by the government. The "free" version was then used in subsequent sport events.
See also
Flag of Vietnam
Giải phóng miền Nam, the national anthem of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam
References
External links
Vietnam: Tiến Quân Ca - Audio of the national anthem of Vietnam, with information and lyrics
Tap Chi Xay Dung Dang, 08/1999 - Both a vocal and an instrumental version of the Anthem is available at the website for "Tap Chi Xay Dung Dang", the Constructive Magazine of the Communist Party of Vietnam.
MIDI
National anthems
Vietnamese songs
National symbols of Vietnam
Asian anthems
Military marches | [
0.17653560638427734,
0.3249247670173645,
-0.6340957880020142,
-0.5346189141273499,
-0.7783983945846558,
0.31888049840927124,
0.06419312953948975,
0.7404772043228149,
-0.142874613404274,
-0.07015420496463776,
-0.2801516652107239,
0.5520696043968201,
0.1367304027080536,
-0.054679933935403824,
-0.10922496020793915,
0.3377492129802704,
0.8496050834655762,
0.09831926226615906,
-0.01407353114336729,
-0.38421767950057983,
-0.20392411947250366,
-0.5055428743362427,
-0.11042214184999466,
-0.26026514172554016,
0.035046953707933426,
0.1831369549036026,
0.06904417276382446,
0.9307067394256592,
0.7287232875823975,
-0.552392840385437,
-0.21595826745033264,
0.822839617729187,
0.06570718437433243,
-0.18797078728675842,
0.524073600769043,
0.3121091425418854,
0.3022936284542084,
-0.1455126851797104,
-0.26308655738830566,
0.00126767682377249,
-0.13534045219421387,
0.18270817399024963,
0.4977168142795563,
0.6270541548728943,
-0.27667906880378723,
-0.9916436672210693,
-1.4280622005462646,
-0.2510870397090912,
-1.029659628868103,
-0.24158133566379547,
-0.1207549199461937,
0.33965930342674255,
0.13447609543800354,
0.5040529370307922,
-0.25491777062416077,
0.6972309947013855,
-1.2594916820526123,
-0.3704378604888916,
0.44841545820236206,
0.4274642765522003,
0.27975502610206604,
-0.24641594290733337,
-0.0229802206158638,
0.3479214310646057,
-0.13981792330741882,
0.3430264890193939,
-0.970647394657135,
0.3568010628223419,
-0.17692646384239197,
-0.207913339138031,
-0.3784264922142029,
0.5002394914627075,
0.19769583642482758,
0.17856332659721375,
-0.8364821672439575,
0.5824518203735352,
-0.2547653913497925,
-0.4012713134288788,
-0.8530368804931641,
-0.0790894404053688,
-0.56142657995224,
-0.22164086997509003,
1.0556541681289673,
0.27386319637298584,
0.008246460929512978,
0.6987447738647461,
-0.4399794638156891,
-0.33694034814834595,
0.35227182507514954,
1.0367860794067383,
-0.35868415236473083,
-0.7021523118019104,
0.02527557872235775,
0.21656925976276398,
0.08755122125148773,
0.25016775727272034,
0.6108211874961853,
0.7730962634086609,
0.09779911488294601,
0.149125874042511,
0.1963525265455246,
0.10505060106515884,
0.838955283164978,
0.01403726264834404,
-1.0416368246078491,
-0.4117925465106964,
-0.7081367373466492,
-0.4797709584236145,
0.13949626684188843,
-1.4203975200653076,
-0.19300536811351776,
0.283645898103714,
-0.18187320232391357,
0.2190987467765808,
-0.128767192363739,
0.4817301034927368,
0.46766817569732666,
0.169146329164505,
0.11634285748004913,
-0.463375985622406,
-0.048526301980018616,
0.713053822517395,
-0.26075372099876404,
0.5077062845230103,
0.09180157631635666,
0.3642053008079529,
-0.12234274297952652,
0.5523591041564941,
0.485004186630249,
0.6359937191009521,
0.008074493147432804,
0.5922991633415222,
-0.1976507604122162,
-0.6251316070556641,
-0.5371330380439758,
-0.44670939445495605,
0.6423133611679077,
0.5610394477844238,
0.8313814997673035,
0.0669282004237175,
-1.2440799474716187,
0.3383583128452301,
-1.545258641242981,
0.16115409135818481,
0.3642991781234741,
0.5696356296539307,
-0.7232258915901184,
-0.5055273175239563,
-0.15282385051250458,
0.198398157954216,
-0.3189646899700165,
-0.26932796835899353,
0.9793229103088379,
0.8882983326911926,
-1.1094155311584473,
0.12260238826274872,
0.06920947134494781,
0.42799919843673706,
-0.24431638419628143,
0.4448051154613495,
-0.2113083004951477,
-0.13765539228916168,
-0.14245516061782837,
-0.04618044197559357,
0.13277341425418854,
-0.17748379707336426,
-0.10484249889850616,
0.2968956530094147,
-0.6933035850524902,
0.3739631772041321,
-0.09041575342416763,
0.020301925018429756,
0.11976444721221924,
-1.0861555337905884,
0.3133610486984253,
0.1466929167509079,
0.46543747186660767,
0.31462591886520386,
-0.2725376784801483,
0.28123122453689575,
-0.8485525250434875,
1.1262364387512207,
0.5125099420547485,
-0.3186194896697998,
-0.26192861795425415,
-0.3465465009212494,
0.11893773823976517,
0.41613754630088806,
0.23240037262439728,
0.9016523361206055,
-0.36604174971580505,
0.08569953590631485,
0.8029770255088806,
-0.15433473885059357,
-0.022270916029810905,
-0.15537011623382568,
0.41181817650794983,
0.12969429790973663,
0.39929109811782837,
0.6955150365829468,
-0.3036937117576599,
-0.07530326396226883,
0.6211873292922974,
0.11419844627380371,
-1.441607117652893,
1.8334401845932007,
0.02543703466653824,
0.30566006898880005,
0.40481212735176086,
0.5765919089317322,
0.0688772201538086,
-0.293647825717926,
0.23877547681331635,
-0.4041317105293274,
0.18506036698818207,
-0.5784875750541687,
0.12265857309103012,
-0.0836476981639862,
-0.13338744640350342,
-0.4813903868198395,
0.2398805320262909,
-0.4238344132900238,
-0.2988140285015106,
0.7778964042663574,
0.09005217254161835,
0.878359854221344,
0.19104307889938354,
-0.2738337218761444,
0.1497739553451538,
-0.36145442724227905,
0.31858059763908386,
0.0950113832950592,
-0.1265229731798172,
-0.7359615564346313,
-0.38567736744880676,
-0.28789302706718445,
0.2388729304075241,
-1.169742465019226,
0.5705544948577881,
-0.7956482172012329,
0.42491617798805237,
0.14749859273433685,
-0.41364070773124695,
0.005298278294503689,
0.24027295410633087,
0.13081319630146027,
-0.6168622970581055,
-0.23611319065093994,
0.11236598342657089,
-0.426900714635849,
0.43931201100349426,
0.11004024744033813,
0.5390136241912842,
-0.6504243016242981,
-0.1662236750125885,
-0.296142578125,
-0.5332255363464355,
0.19418677687644958,
-0.11294534802436829,
-0.6066449880599976,
0.2400793433189392,
0.24936573207378387,
1.1458549499511719,
0.2751019597053528,
0.05698861926794052,
-0.7088469862937927,
-0.35032328963279724,
-0.3359365463256836,
-0.24517376720905304,
-0.08642752468585968,
0.05717926099896431,
-0.5043118596076965,
-0.1642749160528183,
-2.2441372871398926,
-0.07929667085409164,
0.22461697459220886,
0.5116342306137085,
0.6054007411003113,
-1.113146185874939,
-0.5096810460090637,
0.4276103377342224,
0.6114101409912109,
0.036641739308834076,
-0.5168876647949219,
0.40716037154197693,
0.01295598316937685,
0.055958524346351624,
0.10873647034168243,
-0.40753692388534546,
0.3555379807949066,
0.01813749596476555,
-0.33544886112213135,
-0.17506901919841766,
0.040835559368133545,
-0.1416734755039215,
-0.6266806721687317,
-0.4268537163734436,
0.019248805940151215,
0.36083728075027466,
-0.7978506088256836,
0.35834020376205444,
-0.2218741476535797,
-0.34584853053092957,
-0.07831630110740662,
0.24159909784793854,
-0.3668535053730011,
-0.496176153421402,
-0.26689717173576355,
-3.9740991592407227,
0.1746327430009842,
-0.030968748033046722,
0.22454392910003662,
-0.6852457523345947,
-0.9053552150726318,
0.7377749085426331,
-0.6897198557853699,
-0.2621309757232666,
0.014127795584499836,
-1.1628152132034302,
-0.2543160319328308,
0.5761080980300903,
0.41643786430358887,
0.8585273027420044,
0.4710405766963959,
0.08341116458177567,
-0.4519558846950531,
0.7241923213005066,
-0.18700672686100006,
-0.17464792728424072,
0.2499205321073532,
-0.18894225358963013,
-0.06319574266672134,
0.22726388275623322,
0.367154985666275,
0.1500062644481659,
0.07087428867816925,
-1.0513725280761719,
-0.0970819815993309,
-0.11291980743408203,
-0.3071984648704529,
-0.029167070984840393,
-0.0615701749920845,
-0.5890174508094788,
-0.5293450355529785,
0.5281985998153687,
-0.35397541522979736,
0.2677423059940338,
-0.11580416560173035,
-0.15758870542049408,
0.2726043462753296,
0.024378936737775803,
0.558671236038208,
0.21586941182613373,
-0.1303674578666687,
-0.9699220061302185,
-1.0340160131454468,
-0.12858642637729645,
0.5300173163414001,
-0.007266242988407612,
0.22959445416927338,
0.6956986784934998,
-0.39646223187446594,
0.20543459057807922,
-0.1901656985282898,
0.7360219359397888,
-0.2554410994052887,
-0.7621747851371765,
0.06700851023197174,
0.88139808177948,
-0.8010774850845337,
-0.2154942899942398,
-0.49553796648979187,
0.6983798742294312,
-0.5778264403343201,
0.07500524818897247,
-0.254462867975235,
0.023219136521220207,
0.6320064663887024,
-0.4051246643066406,
0.4582770764827728,
-0.011640138924121857,
-1.023263931274414,
0.010654295794665813,
-0.14854970574378967,
-0.45895659923553467,
0.397635281085968,
0.3306795656681061,
0.2973630130290985,
0.06390079855918884,
0.058553509414196014,
0.08177316188812256,
0.6478065848350525,
0.2762153148651123,
-0.5199015140533447,
-0.26383906602859497,
0.5612614750862122,
-0.15446627140045166,
0.06789089739322662,
0.47177833318710327,
0.34887954592704773,
0.10865432769060135,
0.24589258432388306,
-0.1254357099533081,
0.30219364166259766,
0.8200385570526123,
-0.5319284200668335,
0.5019434094429016,
-0.7701979279518127,
0.5692811608314514,
-0.022480668500065804,
-0.5022544264793396,
-0.3226034641265869,
-0.13334788382053375,
-0.571300745010376,
-0.17258764803409576,
0.5822403430938721,
0.3308575451374054,
0.21486425399780273,
-0.4324823319911957,
0.05737176537513733,
0.22155289351940155,
-0.3534278869628906,
1.065142035484314,
-0.3014255166053772,
-0.7284693717956543,
0.7041831612586975,
0.028157344087958336,
0.6392621397972107,
0.6016255021095276,
1.2292695045471191,
-0.046616557985544205,
-0.6764742732048035,
0.8138776421546936,
-0.2552071809768677,
0.27029865980148315,
0.33097970485687256,
-0.5308652520179749,
0.18343642354011536,
-0.29639607667922974,
-0.49648621678352356,
0.3398153483867645,
-0.46444934606552124,
-0.30952462553977966,
-0.6662597060203552,
-0.7431120276451111,
-0.6462887525558472,
0.44277846813201904,
0.18272148072719574,
0.4811405539512634,
0.08874692767858505,
-0.1564708799123764,
0.5043417811393738,
0.3484378159046173,
0.18293526768684387,
0.09231124818325043,
-0.6215354204177856,
-0.43590816855430603,
0.41038551926612854,
0.32454219460487366,
-1.2054531574249268,
0.409879595041275,
-0.6426903605461121,
-0.6511203050613403,
-0.42314115166664124,
-0.594017744064331,
0.48489445447921753,
0.15509973466396332,
0.29620814323425293,
0.2769092321395874,
-0.11421695351600647,
-1.2855709791183472,
0.38972607254981995,
-0.29509443044662476,
-0.8590285181999207,
0.3581007719039917,
-0.4180345833301544,
-0.9234594702720642,
0.6934862732887268,
-0.06703142821788788,
-0.47447893023490906,
-0.7320918440818787,
-0.2032090723514557,
0.10507558286190033,
-0.20717400312423706,
0.5140494704246521,
0.5260882377624512,
0.2750079333782196,
-0.09824324399232864,
-0.5557826161384583,
0.2497665137052536,
-0.0020704357884824276,
0.7340145111083984,
0.5868261456489563,
-0.1735972911119461,
0.27000534534454346,
0.13432258367538452,
-0.9922576546669006,
0.7401612997055054,
0.2540566027164459,
0.3901840150356293,
0.17363516986370087,
0.4704665243625641,
-0.7413274049758911,
-0.881839394569397,
0.04220995306968689,
0.40138816833496094,
-0.27911147475242615,
-0.3635072708129883,
0.6894696354866028,
0.876701295375824,
-0.6221519708633423,
0.5092442631721497,
0.5885985493659973,
-0.6811149716377258,
0.936885416507721,
0.4976855516433716,
-0.7803575396537781,
0.1003088429570198,
0.16860686242580414,
-1.2337563037872314,
0.0274423249065876,
0.21364781260490417,
-0.6539806127548218,
-0.20546294748783112,
0.8384295105934143,
-0.26443150639533997,
0.19923514127731323,
-0.6058234572410583,
0.6001937985420227,
-0.5937763452529907,
-0.8693104982376099,
-0.6163852214813232,
-0.7120203971862793,
0.7260634899139404,
0.5592421889305115,
-0.6536205410957336,
0.3790610432624817,
-0.2646953761577606,
-0.7979136109352112,
0.28205907344818115,
0.43926945328712463,
-0.0016032486455515027,
-0.41766631603240967,
-0.010221326723694801,
-0.5472770929336548,
-0.11708396673202515,
0.042504847049713135,
0.6394280791282654,
0.18057473003864288,
1.240282654762268,
0.4828946590423584,
-0.679077684879303,
-0.531042218208313,
0.7151368856430054,
0.36410632729530334,
-0.3840624988079071,
-0.8675709366798401,
0.14577162265777588,
0.11680055409669876,
-0.6868925094604492,
-0.8105389475822449,
-0.7842771410942078,
0.8413779735565186,
0.00140148785430938,
-0.4077149033546448,
1.2427403926849365,
0.07464426010847092,
0.6048327684402466,
-0.4017679989337921,
-0.46067294478416443,
-0.47916504740715027,
-0.3179991543292999,
0.34206604957580566,
0.5205142498016357,
-0.3123154044151306,
0.4722729027271271,
0.1671133190393448,
-0.17667344212532043,
-0.20992475748062134,
-1.049525260925293,
0.4681972861289978,
0.2655221223831177,
0.14563539624214172,
-0.3992389738559723,
-0.2835582494735718,
-0.3289256989955902,
-0.23551501333713531,
-0.7106099128723145,
0.568256139755249,
0.17894503474235535,
0.25299257040023804,
0.5737401843070984,
0.9341261982917786,
-0.43803635239601135,
0.26932311058044434,
0.1443629264831543,
-0.375507652759552,
0.17730635404586792,
-0.062375180423259735,
-0.09818416088819504,
0.2231517881155014,
1.0676206350326538,
0.390184611082077,
0.948091447353363,
0.6358274221420288,
0.4216066896915436,
-0.44383254647254944,
0.5359277129173279,
-0.8042068481445312,
0.24104951322078705,
0.5205780863761902,
-0.26721736788749695,
0.42857295274734497,
-0.05059342086315155,
0.38780495524406433,
-0.9393531680107117,
0.6416377425193787,
0.2536802887916565,
0.07343506813049316,
0.7057938575744629,
-0.34610170125961304,
0.6757814884185791,
0.11934074014425278,
-0.00045030476758256555,
0.6241307258605957,
-0.32206305861473083,
0.043703507632017136,
0.15292249619960785,
0.23257720470428467,
-1.5697258710861206,
0.8588383197784424,
0.8871216773986816,
-0.2990401089191437,
0.8268575668334961,
-0.054876070469617844,
-0.23465241491794586,
0.8074309825897217,
-0.16045722365379333,
0.11113570630550385,
0.3610203266143799,
-0.4020862877368927,
-0.03511441498994827,
-0.6173009872436523,
0.33058127760887146,
-0.13223253190517426,
-0.23088975250720978,
-0.6660926342010498,
-0.012398961931467056,
-0.09834089130163193,
0.3176380395889282,
-0.5392034649848938,
-0.5677504539489746,
0.42654532194137573,
0.08154483884572983,
-0.19094523787498474,
0.02304300107061863,
0.6199179291725159,
-0.0010397869627922773,
0.9058058261871338,
0.4231989085674286,
0.12193950265645981,
-0.41674917936325073,
0.000039247071981662884,
0.1193685382604599,
-1.0247840881347656,
0.1592547446489334,
0.142858624458313,
-1.3727586269378662,
-0.33145657181739807,
0.3252721428871155,
-0.1002904549241066,
-0.15145601332187653,
-0.11607352644205093,
-0.04161762073636055,
0.26467975974082947,
-0.7911978960037231,
-0.5280855894088745,
0.4101015627384186,
0.191140815615654,
0.463650107383728,
0.21049459278583527,
0.30152642726898193,
0.39132705330848694,
-0.057577941566705704,
0.3259652256965637,
0.08657868951559067,
-0.43440520763397217,
0.579710066318512,
-0.4986775815486908,
-0.31114810705184937,
-0.2878374457359314,
-0.29369884729385376,
0.84263014793396,
0.6046897172927856,
-0.45390158891677856,
0.4936542809009552,
-0.2048039734363556,
0.1086658164858818,
0.26325756311416626,
0.6133633852005005,
-0.2879464030265808,
-0.12205789983272552,
-0.16804951429367065,
0.09021978080272675,
-0.5886274576187134,
0.14648574590682983,
0.1326173096895218,
-0.46756112575531006,
-0.028078384697437286,
-0.0553337000310421,
-0.0892588198184967,
0.2623845338821411,
0.6801943778991699,
-0.010525896213948727,
-0.513322114944458,
1.2168992757797241,
-0.654421329498291,
0.7632439732551575,
0.41413840651512146,
-0.22630469501018524,
-0.4299585223197937,
1.4744212627410889,
-0.06811987608671188,
0.46782371401786804,
0.49714452028274536,
0.05544723942875862,
-0.44111213088035583,
-0.30902934074401855,
-0.1466146558523178,
-0.48086366057395935,
0.1953119933605194,
0.48864316940307617,
0.5091783404350281,
-0.639277458190918,
-0.30275958776474,
-0.08413072675466537,
0.10412441194057465,
0.28833597898483276,
-0.3823806047439575,
0.3921279013156891,
-0.26799044013023376,
-0.2437930703163147,
-0.1405448168516159,
-0.17249441146850586,
0.6862710118293762,
0.9746710658073425,
0.045866675674915314,
0.23586954176425934,
0.21293334662914276,
-0.8340192437171936,
0.20849333703517914,
0.7140713334083557,
-3.2009758949279785,
-0.2330596148967743,
-0.15051262080669403,
-0.20156458020210266,
-0.6532068848609924,
-0.18509668111801147,
0.5064432621002197,
-0.6447053551673889,
0.3373759984970093,
-0.09567731618881226,
-0.2942260801792145,
-0.08158498257398605,
0.10072041302919388,
-0.22440475225448608,
0.32326704263687134,
0.3385852575302124
] |
247891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otosclerosis | Otosclerosis | Otosclerosis is a condition of the middle ear where one or more foci of irregularly laid spongy bone replace part of normally dense enchondral layer of bony otic capsule in the bony labyrinth. This condition affects one of the ossicles (the stapes) resulting in hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo or a combination of symptoms. The term otosclerosis is something of a misnomer. Much of the clinical course is characterized by lucent rather than sclerotic bony changes, so the disease is also known as otospongiosis.
Etymology
The word otosclerosis derives from Greek ὠτός (ōtos), genitive of οὖς (oûs) "ear" + σκλήρωσις (sklērōsis), "hardening".
Presentation
The primary form of hearing loss in otosclerosis is conductive hearing loss (CHL) whereby sounds reach the ear drum but are incompletely transferred via the ossicular chain in the middle ear, and thus partly fail to reach the inner ear (cochlea). This can affect one ear or both ears. On audiometry, the hearing loss is characteristically low-frequency, with higher frequencies being affected later.
Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL) has also been noted in patients with otosclerosis; this is usually a high-frequency loss, and usually manifests late in the disease. The causal link between otosclerosis and SNHL remains controversial. Over the past century, leading otologists and neurotologic researchers have argued whether the finding of SNHL late in the course of otosclerosis is due to otosclerosis or simply to typical presbycusis.
Most patients with otosclerosis notice tinnitus (head noise) to some degree. The amount of tinnitus is not necessarily related to the degree or type of hearing impairment. Tinnitus develops due to irritation of the delicate nerve endings in the inner ear. Since the nerve carries sound, this irritation is manifested as ringing, roaring or buzzing. It is usually worse when the patient is fatigued, nervous or in a quiet environment.
Causes
Otosclerosis can be caused by both genetic and environmental factors, such as a viral infection (like measles). Ribonucleic acid of the measles virus has been found in stapes footplate in most patients with otosclerosis. Populations that have been vaccinated against measles had a significant reduction in otosclerosis. While the disease is considered to be hereditary, its penetrance and the degree of expression is so highly variable that it may be difficult to detect an inheritance pattern. Most of the implicated genes are transmitted in an autosomal dominant fashion. One genome-wide analysis associates otosclerosis with variation in RELN gene.
Loci include:
Pathophysiology
The pathophysiology of otosclerosis is complex. The key lesions of otosclerosis are multifocal areas of sclerosis within the endochondral temporal bone. These lesions share some characteristics with Paget's Disease, but they are not thought to be otherwise related. Histopathological studies have all been done on cadaveric temporal bones, so only inferences can be made about progression of the disease histologically. It seems that the lesions go through an active "spongiotic" or hypervascular phase before developing into "sclerotic" phase lesions. There have been many genes and proteins identified that, when mutated, may lead to these lesions. Also there is mounting evidence that measles virus is present within the otosclerotic foci, implicating an infectious etiology (this has also been noted in Paget's Disease).
Conductive hearing loss (CHL) in otosclerosis is caused by two main sites of involvement of the sclerotic (or scar-like) lesions. The best understood mechanism is fixation of the stapes footplate to the oval window of the cochlea. This greatly impairs movement of the stapes and therefore transmission of sound into the inner ear ("ossicular coupling"). Additionally the cochlea's round window can also become sclerotic, and in a similar way impair movement of sound pressure waves through the inner ear ("acoustic coupling").
CHL is usually concomitant with impingement of abnormal bone on the stapes footplate. This involvement of the oval window forms the basis of the name fenestral otosclerosis. The most common location of involvement of otosclerosis is the bone just anterior to the oval window at a small cleft known as the fissula ante fenestram. The fissula is a thin fold of connective tissue extending through the endochondral layer, approximately between the oval window and the cochleariform process, where the tensor tympani tendon turns laterally toward the malleus.
The mechanism of sensorineural hearing loss in otosclerosis is less well understood. It may result
from direct injury to the cochlea and spiral ligament from the lytic process or from release of proteolytic enzymes into the cochlea. There are certainly a few well documented instances of sclerotic lesions directly obliterating sensory structures within the cochlea and spiral ligament, which have been photographed and reported post-mortem. Other supporting data includes a consistent loss of cochlear hair cells in patients with otosclerosis; these cells being the chief sensory organs of sound reception. A suggested mechanism for this is the release of hydrolytic enzymes into the inner ear structures by the spongiotic lesions.
Diagnosis
Otosclerosis is traditionally diagnosed by characteristic clinical findings, which include progressive conductive
hearing loss, a normal tympanic membrane, and no evidence of middle ear inflammation. The cochlear promontory may have a faint pink tinge reflecting the vascularity of the lesion, referred to as the Schwartz sign.
Approximately 0.5% of the population will eventually be diagnosed with otosclerosis. Post-mortem studies show that as many as 10% of people may have otosclerotic lesions of their temporal bone, but apparently never had symptoms warranting a diagnosis. Caucasians are the most affected race, with the prevalence in the Black and Asian populations being much lower. In clinical practice otosclerosis is encountered about twice as frequently in females as in males, but this does not reflect the true sex ratio. When families are investigated it is found that the condition is only slightly more common in women. Usually noticeable hearing loss begins at middle-age, but can start much sooner. The hearing loss was long believed to grow worse during pregnancy, but recent research does not support this belief.
Differential testing
Audiometry
Fixation of the stapes within the oval window causes a conductive hearing loss. In pure-tone audiometry, this manifests as air-bone gaps on the audiogram (i.e. a difference of more than 10 dB between the air-conduction and bone-conduction thresholds at a given test frequency). However, medial fixation of the ossicular chain impairs both the inertial and osseotympanic modes of bone conduction, increasing the bone-conduction thresholds between 500 Hz and 4 kHz, and reducing the size of air-bone gaps. As 2 kHz is the resonant frequency of the ossicular chain, the largest increase in bone-conduction threshold (around 15 dB) occurs at this frequency – the resultant notch is called Carhart's notch and is a useful clinical marker for medial ossicular-chain fixation.
Tympanometry measures the peak pressure (TPP) and peak-compensated static admittance (Ytm) of the middle ear at the eardrum. As the stapes is ankylosed in otosclerosis, the lateral end of the ossicular chain may still be quite mobile. Therefore, otosclerosis may only slightly reduce the admittance, resulting in either a shallow tympanogram (type AS), or a normal tympanogram (type A). Otosclerosis increases in the stiffness of the middle-ear system, raising its resonant frequency. This can be quantified using multi-frequency tympanometry. Thus, a high resonant-frequency pathology such as otosclerosis can be differentiated from low resonant-frequency pathologies such as ossicular discontinuity.
In the absence of a pathology, a loud sound (generally greater than 70 dB above threshold) causes the stapedius muscle to contract, reducing the admittance of the middle ear and softening the perceived loudness of the sound. If the mobility of the stapes is reduced due to otosclerosis, then stapedius muscle contraction does not significantly decrease the admittance. When acoustic reflex testing is conducted, the acoustic reflex thresholds (ART) cannot be determined when attempting to measure on the affected side. Also, a conductive pathology will attenuate the test stimuli, resulting in either elevated reflex thresholds or absent reflexes when the stimulus is presented in the affected ear and measured in the other ear.
CT imaging
Imaging is usually not pursued in those with uncomplicated conductive hearing loss and characteristic clinical findings. Those with only conductive hearing loss are often treated medically or with surgery without imaging. The diagnosis may be unclear clinically in cases of sensorineural or mixed hearing loss and may become apparent only on imaging. Therefore, imaging is often performed when the hearing loss is sensorineural or mixed.
A high-resolution CT shows very subtle bone findings. However, CT is usually not needed prior to surgery.
Otosclerosis on CT can be graded using the grading system suggested by Symons and Fanning.
Grade 1, solely fenestral;
Grade 2, patchy localized cochlear disease (with or without fenestral involvement) to either the basal cochlear turn (grade 2A), or the middle/apical turns (grade 2B), or both the basal turn and the middle/apical turns (grade 2C); and
Grade 3, diffuse confluent cochlear involvement (with or without fenestral involvement).
Treatment
Medical
Earlier workers suggested the use of calcium fluoride; now sodium fluoride is the preferred compound. Fluoride ions inhibit the rapid progression of disease. In the otosclerotic ear, there occurs formation of hydroxylapatite crystals which lead to stapes (or other) fixation. The administration of fluoride replaces the hydroxyl radical with fluoride leading to the formation of fluorapatite crystals. Hence, the progression of disease is considerably slowed down and active disease process is arrested.
This treatment cannot reverse conductive hearing loss, but may slow the progression of both the conductive and sensorineural components of the disease process. Otofluor, containing sodium fluoride, is one treatment. Recently, some success has been claimed with a second such treatment, bisphosphonate medications that inhibit bone destruction. However, these early reports are based on non-randomized case studies that do not meet standards of clinical trials. There are numerous side-effects to both pharmaceutical treatments, including occasional stomach upset, allergic itching, and increased joint pains which can lead to arthritis. In the worst case, bisphosphonates may lead to osteonecrosis of the auditory canal itself. Finally, neither approach has been proven to be beneficial after the commonly preferred method of surgery has been undertaken.
Surgery
There are various methods to treat otosclerosis. However the method of choice is a procedure known as stapedectomy. Early attempts at hearing restoration via the simple freeing of the stapes from its sclerotic attachments to the oval window were met with temporary improvement in hearing, but the conductive hearing loss would almost always recur. A stapedectomy consists of removing a portion of the sclerotic stapes footplate and replacing it with an middle ear implant that is secured to the incus. This procedure restores continuity of ossicular movement and allows transmission of sound waves from the eardrum to the inner ear. A modern variant of this surgery called a stapedotomy, is performed by drilling a small hole in the stapes footplate with a micro-drill or a laser, and the insertion of a piston-like prothesis. The success rate of either surgery depends greatly on the skill and the familiarity with the procedure of the surgeon. However, comparisons have shown stapedotomy to yield results at least as good as stapedectomy, with fewer complications, and thus stapedotomy is preferred in normal circumstances. Recently, Endoscopic stapedotomy has been gaining popularity since its first description by Professor Tarabichi in 1999. The endsocope provides much better view of the stapes footplate without removal of bone to access that structure.
Amplification
Although hearing aids cannot prevent, cure or inhibit the progression of otosclerosis, they can help treat the largest symptom, hearing loss. Hearing aids can be tuned to specific frequency losses. However, due to the progressive nature of this condition, use of a hearing aid is palliative at best. Without eventual surgery, deafness is likely to result.
Society and culture
Notable cases
German composer Ludwig van Beethoven was theorized to suffer from otosclerosis, although this is controversial.
Victorian journalist Harriet Martineau gradually lost her hearing during her young life, and later medical historians have diagnosed her with probably suffering from otosclerosis as well.
Margaret Sullavan, American stage and film actress, suffered from the congenital hearing defect otosclerosis that worsened as she aged, making her more and more hard of hearing.
Howard Hughes the pioneering American aviator, engineer, industrialist, and film producer also suffered from otosclerosis.
Frankie Valli, lead singer of The Four Seasons, suffered from it in the late 1960s and early 1970s, forcing him to "sing from memory" in the latter part of the 70s (surgery restored most of his hearing by 1980).
Pittsburgh Penguins forward Steve Downie suffers from otosclerosis.
The British queen Alexandra of Denmark suffered from it, leading to her social isolation; Queen Alexandra's biographer, Georgina Battiscombe, was able to have "some understanding of Alexandra's predicament" because she too had otosclerosis.
Adam Savage, co-host of MythBusters, uses a hearing aid due to otosclerosis.
Sir John Cornforth, Australian-British Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate
References
External links
NIH/Medline
NIH/NIDCD
Diseases of inner ear | [
0.40721213817596436,
0.9883168339729309,
-0.6173292398452759,
-0.37245336174964905,
0.2955518364906311,
0.4137110710144043,
0.5324587821960449,
0.4163995087146759,
0.20156191289424896,
-1.001153826713562,
-0.6270097494125366,
0.8131439089775085,
0.036686964333057404,
0.48914971947669983,
-0.24624331295490265,
0.38545891642570496,
0.766793429851532,
-0.04435563459992409,
-0.42239275574684143,
0.11893898993730545,
-0.17992179095745087,
-0.5389403700828552,
0.2803363502025604,
-0.04142937436699867,
-0.33084774017333984,
0.029365908354520798,
0.18819935619831085,
-0.11900368332862854,
-0.0458269864320755,
-0.21801108121871948,
-0.42543792724609375,
0.627689778804779,
-0.1503370702266693,
-0.6699559092521667,
-0.11044742166996002,
-0.041194260120391846,
0.11371743679046631,
-0.8311877250671387,
-0.39413371682167053,
-0.20858819782733917,
0.4190590977668762,
0.6520068049430847,
0.3931099474430084,
0.6587052345275879,
-0.5102779865264893,
0.2688992917537689,
-1.7275742292404175,
0.3423694670200348,
-0.7113349437713623,
0.08654823154211044,
0.2407008856534958,
-0.5308690667152405,
0.5728803277015686,
0.20960743725299835,
0.24448077380657196,
0.29467645287513733,
-1.4668374061584473,
-0.263099730014801,
0.8109298944473267,
0.10138800740242004,
0.33164122700691223,
0.49151715636253357,
-0.8730477690696716,
0.0012275574263185263,
0.2882605493068695,
0.3598780930042267,
0.15295499563217163,
0.5481095910072327,
-0.8064149618148804,
0.3334590494632721,
-0.28653040528297424,
-0.26743602752685547,
0.5496174693107605,
0.16312609612941742,
-0.5901883840560913,
0.26703208684921265,
-0.168288454413414,
-0.01769326440989971,
0.3187538683414459,
-0.4677073061466217,
-0.036302413791418076,
0.07070418447256088,
0.6833484768867493,
0.21041661500930786,
0.016115661710500717,
-0.610963761806488,
-1.078645944595337,
1.052200198173523,
-0.9671030640602112,
0.3839910924434662,
-0.05243229120969772,
-0.2679573893547058,
0.5512962341308594,
0.2924937605857849,
-0.25312817096710205,
0.07693301141262054,
0.14185073971748352,
0.593777596950531,
0.35129281878471375,
0.07904128730297089,
-0.06755577027797699,
0.3191623091697693,
0.6462496519088745,
-0.21237565577030182,
0.0029979636892676353,
-0.16562624275684357,
-0.31440502405166626,
0.1009364128112793,
-0.17188215255737305,
-0.2386135309934616,
-0.8859801888465881,
-0.09278282523155212,
-0.2707091271877289,
-0.3104249835014343,
-0.5234776735305786,
-0.09391361474990845,
0.005351562984287739,
0.2185194492340088,
-0.6738337278366089,
-1.2580634355545044,
0.08253743499517441,
0.22538791596889496,
-0.3707672357559204,
0.31604087352752686,
-0.6378241181373596,
0.5118220448493958,
-0.09869851171970367,
0.6371058225631714,
-0.461205393075943,
0.3758658766746521,
0.03881998360157013,
0.8650440573692322,
-0.5542377233505249,
0.02605162002146244,
0.4662643373012543,
-0.06555121392011642,
0.2558632493019104,
-0.05384295806288719,
1.171555519104004,
0.39046964049339294,
-0.20007950067520142,
-0.4758800268173218,
-1.3804980516433716,
0.6374731063842773,
-0.30428770184516907,
-0.7362504005432129,
-0.2772572934627533,
0.6173951625823975,
-0.00491429353132844,
-0.08741841465234756,
0.5629579424858093,
-0.10962199419736862,
-0.7397599220275879,
0.06692058593034744,
0.020951738581061363,
-0.27068257331848145,
0.34782660007476807,
-0.8694949746131897,
0.2620219886302948,
0.26605528593063354,
0.15186189115047455,
-0.14870496094226837,
-0.6208787560462952,
0.1205582395195961,
0.025332236662507057,
-0.1724161058664322,
0.8745088577270508,
-0.003085109870880842,
0.06399329751729965,
0.9299866557121277,
-0.4487079679965973,
0.038650479167699814,
0.6155842542648315,
-0.2182147204875946,
0.5199989080429077,
-0.10111570358276367,
0.755337119102478,
0.28163206577301025,
0.6131947040557861,
-0.18284469842910767,
-1.0247719287872314,
-0.175746887922287,
0.40739157795906067,
-0.056152649223804474,
0.5939405560493469,
-0.2006378322839737,
0.6296249628067017,
0.03814750909805298,
-0.3107893764972687,
-0.30828243494033813,
-0.21665538847446442,
-0.4091714024543762,
0.9687734842300415,
0.0633622407913208,
1.8220313787460327,
0.30818918347358704,
-0.1579851657152176,
0.2098219245672226,
0.4889931380748749,
0.2495480477809906,
0.327834814786911,
0.032714106142520905,
0.5030742883682251,
0.4912942349910736,
-0.04761093854904175,
0.7500092387199402,
0.045050788670778275,
-0.04734446853399277,
0.7956462502479553,
0.022176610305905342,
0.5470007658004761,
-0.9908314943313599,
0.2403886616230011,
-0.16418670117855072,
0.38491925597190857,
-0.4178387224674225,
-0.27707967162132263,
0.17250579595565796,
-0.9574485421180725,
-0.62531977891922,
0.5095550417900085,
-0.6908780336380005,
0.27728569507598877,
0.051843106746673584,
0.2568535804748535,
0.9208481311798096,
-0.060283396393060684,
-0.34344977140426636,
0.7871426939964294,
-0.6046651005744934,
0.276120126247406,
-0.018129318952560425,
0.4537816047668457,
-0.9006694555282593,
0.2751252055168152,
-0.3034489154815674,
0.17837995290756226,
-0.9175929427146912,
0.25716206431388855,
-0.10618887096643448,
-0.4552590548992157,
0.12199018895626068,
-0.7913190126419067,
0.09529487043619156,
0.7792810201644897,
0.0781145989894867,
-0.09877754747867584,
0.37903621792793274,
-0.3912239670753479,
0.08233261853456497,
0.3397147059440613,
0.2370804250240326,
0.014497932977974415,
-1.0180925130844116,
0.12382127344608307,
-0.11211451888084412,
0.46580687165260315,
-0.41651448607444763,
-0.23906704783439636,
-0.9058220386505127,
-0.3805691599845886,
0.277604341506958,
0.11235462874174118,
-0.02682589367032051,
-0.4992692470550537,
-0.3932359218597412,
-0.09952978044748306,
0.15733453631401062,
0.9138119220733643,
-0.34439006447792053,
1.126831293106079,
0.22081999480724335,
-0.9241631031036377,
-0.21335144340991974,
-0.8560498356819153,
-0.5926137566566467,
-0.7939361333847046,
0.27459144592285156,
-0.4382433593273163,
0.13503731787204742,
0.23868204653263092,
0.9009472131729126,
0.213555246591568,
-0.1998501569032669,
-0.6971787214279175,
0.5628194808959961,
0.30413830280303955,
-0.2173914909362793,
-0.46682000160217285,
-0.2242279052734375,
-0.391284704208374,
0.3313150703907013,
-0.35410982370376587,
0.52280193567276,
-0.01234108954668045,
0.0450090616941452,
0.0045904843136668205,
-0.32332322001457214,
0.15433381497859955,
-0.8396905064582825,
-0.0715712383389473,
0.17205233871936798,
-0.05588172748684883,
0.3379386365413666,
-0.20401498675346375,
-0.1045704260468483,
-0.42889419198036194,
-0.23774196207523346,
-4.747844219207764,
0.20565348863601685,
0.1540556252002716,
-0.46639198064804077,
0.6025822162628174,
0.05632141977548599,
0.5314283967018127,
0.11657543480396271,
-0.07643233984708786,
0.2651331126689911,
-0.011263348162174225,
0.5818705558776855,
0.1591184139251709,
0.7676722407341003,
0.012335777282714844,
-0.2679379880428314,
-0.7387775182723999,
-0.07778199017047882,
0.2843516170978546,
0.058543749153614044,
0.5716527700424194,
-0.02515287697315216,
0.13897739350795746,
0.6667086482048035,
-0.4847632646560669,
0.2157657891511917,
-0.32675737142562866,
0.5748316645622253,
-0.5045585632324219,
-0.42025837302207947,
-0.1357061266899109,
-0.7006574273109436,
0.45816680788993835,
0.16493287682533264,
-0.5583623647689819,
0.2693327069282532,
0.08686812222003937,
0.29223135113716125,
-0.2975975573062897,
-0.6295415759086609,
-0.4614635109901428,
-0.041386544704437256,
0.1254364550113678,
0.41077160835266113,
1.0036007165908813,
-0.38604608178138733,
0.5423426628112793,
-0.08770614862442017,
0.09503696113824844,
1.1980652809143066,
0.12127392739057541,
0.07202531397342682,
0.461330771446228,
1.0543558597564697,
0.5010802149772644,
-0.04202520474791527,
0.5351241827011108,
-0.4754584729671478,
-0.3822270631790161,
-0.10079916566610336,
0.23513683676719666,
-0.5647927522659302,
-0.8075811266899109,
-0.6989121437072754,
0.1099146381020546,
-0.35924938321113586,
-0.662116289138794,
-0.11726533621549606,
0.6732615232467651,
0.0014154367381706834,
-0.4334166944026947,
0.7879722118377686,
0.11150266230106354,
-0.83034747838974,
0.8167746663093567,
-0.20759007334709167,
0.1832975596189499,
-0.19411224126815796,
-0.18793389201164246,
-0.07983378320932388,
-0.25775688886642456,
0.08447234332561493,
-0.4633997976779938,
0.29027271270751953,
-0.007591986563056707,
-0.3060450851917267,
-0.3531210720539093,
0.6225363612174988,
-0.4906112253665924,
-0.31670117378234863,
1.0134774446487427,
0.4197334349155426,
-0.1712559461593628,
0.3357662260532379,
0.15222801268100739,
0.9229323863983154,
0.27306443452835083,
0.7008503079414368,
0.946178674697876,
0.47841349244117737,
0.9183167815208435,
-0.9204167127609253,
-0.03173781558871269,
-0.2975221872329712,
-0.34729358553886414,
-0.7374972701072693,
-0.22818751633167267,
0.2891165614128113,
0.5897747874259949,
-0.6393579840660095,
0.08150583505630493,
0.6342622637748718,
-0.5368750691413879,
-0.3535502552986145,
0.32735830545425415,
-0.2428157776594162,
-0.35065123438835144,
0.1286832094192505,
0.5628929138183594,
-0.3767651915550232,
0.3032223880290985,
0.25199177861213684,
-0.40043511986732483,
0.4233391284942627,
0.48703959584236145,
-0.19708505272865295,
0.7236008644104004,
0.22340939939022064,
-0.9433444738388062,
0.060151904821395874,
-0.17315073311328888,
0.17274387180805206,
0.08236772567033768,
0.5423111915588379,
-0.25862306356430054,
-0.9359586834907532,
-0.719606339931488,
0.5617667436599731,
-0.03146800026297569,
-0.2403392195701599,
0.24631991982460022,
-0.4554089903831482,
0.07691290974617004,
0.06400884687900543,
0.5896545052528381,
0.19396282732486725,
-0.5426607728004456,
-0.20292356610298157,
-0.31060412526130676,
0.6539567112922668,
-0.05642244219779968,
-0.43309852480888367,
-0.015399805270135403,
-0.7666739225387573,
0.24362145364284515,
1.195105791091919,
-0.4435485005378723,
0.284031480550766,
-0.011622309684753418,
-0.772107720375061,
-0.2401513010263443,
-0.06402808427810669,
-0.7649222016334534,
0.10933757573366165,
-0.013019382022321224,
-0.7641593217849731,
-1.053861379623413,
-0.8198075890541077,
-0.5358251333236694,
0.23611973226070404,
-0.5865015387535095,
0.2536507248878479,
-0.4092971086502075,
-0.32388177514076233,
0.7483208775520325,
-0.44688093662261963,
-0.5475892424583435,
0.6486504673957825,
-0.1108887642621994,
-0.5679367184638977,
0.14215900003910065,
0.10020735114812851,
0.08944486826658249,
0.3123263418674469,
1.006998062133789,
-0.20178210735321045,
-0.029448749497532845,
-0.28775638341903687,
-0.6407018303871155,
-0.5467979311943054,
-0.22988073527812958,
0.30771714448928833,
-0.07236816734075546,
0.15062011778354645,
-0.1878557950258255,
0.18987293541431427,
-0.1683652251958847,
0.0143453199416399,
-0.43394148349761963,
-0.5272402167320251,
0.13302598893642426,
0.26546505093574524,
-0.44533970952033997,
0.5971797108650208,
1.146887183189392,
-0.5300827622413635,
0.8160886168479919,
-0.174606591463089,
-0.7975884675979614,
0.5669434666633606,
0.0024446179158985615,
-0.6771112680435181,
-0.5030770301818848,
0.4796857237815857,
-0.5665995478630066,
-0.6955800652503967,
0.4614105224609375,
-0.4871939420700073,
-0.5763784646987915,
0.18656156957149506,
0.35218310356140137,
-0.16130748391151428,
-0.08900859951972961,
-0.30690431594848633,
-1.1194466352462769,
0.33156275749206543,
-0.06748310476541519,
-0.525164783000946,
1.1038763523101807,
-0.5426142811775208,
0.12916667759418488,
-0.24544186890125275,
-0.3350372612476349,
-0.3451201319694519,
0.032480720430612564,
-0.19141589105129242,
0.02534465119242668,
0.09437580406665802,
-0.14975111186504364,
0.40251487493515015,
1.2205253839492798,
0.8495277762413025,
0.22706149518489838,
0.20968171954154968,
-0.4892443120479584,
0.23996601998806,
0.2225331962108612,
-0.42290809750556946,
-0.3538876175880432,
0.4493018090724945,
1.0146043300628662,
0.08578959107398987,
-0.6133649945259094,
-0.5414953827857971,
0.5283803343772888,
-0.17405720055103302,
-0.15965861082077026,
-0.46389493346214294,
-0.31564828753471375,
0.20591801404953003,
0.17755769193172455,
-0.12742790579795837,
0.3558850884437561,
-0.10837946087121964,
0.7494569420814514,
-0.01371993962675333,
-0.1782582700252533,
-0.07994592189788818,
0.24639244377613068,
-0.5774815082550049,
-0.07363586127758026,
-0.3401510417461395,
0.8559278845787048,
-0.42223048210144043,
0.008813001215457916,
0.43565303087234497,
-0.03895256295800209,
-1.1433112621307373,
0.03445129841566086,
0.06672312319278717,
0.1939716786146164,
-0.30464184284210205,
0.0558367557823658,
-0.38402846455574036,
-0.011713137850165367,
-0.6443268060684204,
-0.06620719283819199,
-0.32254382967948914,
-0.0877881720662117,
-0.08776035159826279,
-0.3482016324996948,
-0.3584989607334137,
-0.24858762323856354,
0.3076030910015106,
0.577553927898407,
0.1898820847272873,
-0.17141655087471008,
0.6236586570739746,
-0.28435948491096497,
0.38007470965385437,
-0.8104147911071777,
0.7335492968559265,
0.2901126742362976,
-1.1400455236434937,
0.1233513206243515,
0.5275737047195435,
-0.3724299669265747,
-0.5832057595252991,
0.07226633280515671,
0.03890761733055115,
0.25842320919036865,
-0.4274473786354065,
0.16686387360095978,
1.1412686109542847,
-0.04419589415192604,
0.3254343271255493,
0.25234270095825195,
-0.7659743428230286,
-0.01661289855837822,
0.5347208380699158,
-0.006589517928659916,
0.1746770739555359,
0.5705356597900391,
-0.030375083908438683,
-0.07761365920305252,
0.27406635880470276,
-0.41620346903800964,
-0.0746162086725235,
0.5478714108467102,
0.6306326389312744,
0.9567937850952148,
0.3003883361816406,
-0.06288929283618927,
0.6648926734924316,
0.26792141795158386,
-0.34069928526878357,
0.23898884654045105,
-1.3095827102661133,
-0.10128616541624069,
0.41923239827156067,
0.2843836843967438,
0.5657849907875061,
-0.03877617418766022,
0.1985682249069214,
-0.6728037595748901,
0.33328503370285034,
-0.14251302182674408,
0.10363302379846573,
0.16301773488521576,
-0.5180580019950867,
0.5449509024620056,
-0.8446429371833801,
0.26787489652633667,
-0.9114091396331787,
0.13217724859714508,
0.10860055685043335,
0.3069459795951843,
-0.36591586470603943,
0.09587301313877106,
0.21628396213054657,
-0.4091911315917969,
-0.09506551176309586,
-0.2857652008533478,
0.2915906012058258,
-0.17567595839500427,
-0.09137709438800812,
0.31187474727630615,
-0.6068492531776428,
0.5678484439849854,
0.29833438992500305,
0.30993837118148804,
0.08860985934734344,
-0.18420779705047607,
-0.14351271092891693,
-0.02460147999227047,
-0.11574026197195053,
-0.275903582572937,
0.2959798574447632,
0.15428879857063293,
-0.013056209310889244,
-0.6202130317687988,
-0.17663945257663727,
-0.6778422594070435,
-0.21642892062664032,
0.5421885251998901,
-0.34532222151756287,
0.32115980982780457,
0.6318334341049194,
0.495018869638443,
0.18689747154712677,
-0.18823331594467163,
-0.23545469343662262,
0.21726378798484802,
-0.039227504283189774,
-0.04323568567633629,
-0.6205326914787292,
0.11443745344877243,
-0.03954039886593819,
-0.3765731751918793,
0.2566870152950287,
-0.15918388962745667,
0.48694583773612976,
0.23321519792079926,
0.2669188678264618,
-0.7771857380867004,
0.7868612408638,
0.40234628319740295,
0.9942912459373474,
-1.060180425643921,
0.10798250138759613,
0.3999312222003937,
0.786821186542511,
-0.07287456095218658,
0.9667018055915833,
0.18336378037929535,
-0.3847428858280182,
0.5288197994232178,
-0.44904983043670654,
-0.43645134568214417,
-0.3197052776813507,
0.1853652000427246,
-0.7139062881469727,
0.17548765242099762,
0.10399249941110611,
-0.3074180781841278,
-0.5457557439804077,
0.7978010177612305,
-0.20683406293392181,
-0.48034554719924927,
0.20646733045578003,
-0.2360401302576065,
0.5845346450805664,
-0.9149041175842285,
-0.32859504222869873,
-0.10259060561656952,
-0.20151954889297485,
0.31014305353164673,
0.26462653279304504,
-0.010339442640542984,
-0.2817750573158264,
0.17663991451263428,
-0.49667835235595703,
-0.3804017901420593,
0.4865165650844574,
-0.5482730865478516,
-0.08495672047138214,
-0.7237660884857178,
-0.4125365912914276,
-0.34215986728668213,
0.1333359330892563,
0.4671601951122284,
-0.5874130129814148,
0.5008916854858398,
0.1764345020055771,
-0.4210202991962433,
-0.2981959581375122,
-0.6024674773216248,
-0.06586719304323196,
-0.44663649797439575,
0.7286803722381592
] |
247892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria%20al%20Bravo%20Pueblo | Gloria al Bravo Pueblo | "Gloria al Bravo Pueblo" (“Glory to the Brave People”) is the national anthem of Venezuela. Its lyrics were written by physician and journalist Vicente Salias in 1810, set to music later composed by musician Juan José Landaeta. Owing to musical similarities with the French national anthem, beginning in 1840 “Gloria al Bravo Pueblo” was known as “La Marsellesa Venezolana” (“The Venezuelan Marseillaise”). It was declared Venezuela's national anthem by decree of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco on May 25, 1881.
Recent investigations have suggested that the real author of the anthem was Andrés Bello, and not Salias, to whom it was originally credited, and the music was composed by another musician called Lino Gallardo. However, this theory has yet to be proven, and lacks any real recognition among the general Venezuelan population, historians, or otherwise.
History
The Patriotic Society was formed in Caracas as a result of the Revolution of April 19, 1810, One of its meetings, Existed by the Success of Its Patriotic Song, Caraqueños, Otra Época Inicia. Composed by Cayetano Carreño and Lyrics by Andrés Bello, suggested that the proposal for the Society was also launch a Patriotic March that stimulated the mood for the undecided. On April 18, 1868, newspaper El Federalista published the official lyrics written by Salias, which commemorated the 58th Anniversary of Independence the day before in the capital, mentioned that "in the halls of the University and in the presence of large public, before the speeches, a «martial music» performed several pieces, among them the National Anthem ".
Commissioned by President Guzmán Blanco, Dr. Eduardo Calcaño, a valuable composer and musician, adequately fulfilled the task of fixing the musical text of the Anthem, which he did while preserving the martial brilliance of the melody, without attempting to alter it or give it another expression.
On May 25, 1881, the Gloria al Bravo Pueblo was definitively consecrated as the National Anthem of Venezuela, by means of a decree issued by the then President, Antonio Guzmán Blanco. After this decree and the publications of the National Anthem that were made in 1883 , a new official edition was produced in 1911 to commemorate the centenary of independence, which was entrusted to Salvador Llamozas. In 1947 the current structure of the musical and lyricial ambiance was overhauled by composer Juan Bautista Plaza.
Disputed Composition
However, this theory has not been fully proven; although the truth is that both Juan José Landaeta and Lino Gallardo belonged to the "School of Music of Caracas", the central activity of the "Archdiocesan Oratory of Caracas", founded by Pedro Palacios y Sojo.
It was thus that one of the members of the Patriotic Society, poet Vicente Salias, improvised there the first verses of the National Anthem on it was originally written around 1810 as a patriotic hymn. Later official modifications have been written by Eduardo Calcaño (1881), Salvador Llamozas (1911) and Juan Bautista Plaza (1947).
Lyrical content
Regulations and Usage
The Venezuelan national anthem is played every day on all radio stations, national and regional television networks. The broadcast is mandatory at 12:00 am and 6:00 am (sometimes on 12:00 pm during National Holidays) according to the law (either the full version or the chorus, first stanza and chorus).
On radio broadcasts in some of the regional radio stations, the state anthem is played after the national anthem, which is also the case for state TV stations.
In most occasions, only the chorus, first stanza and the chorus are played, or even the chorus itself. Sometimes the chorus is played twice in the beginning, and once in the rest of the anthem. In formal events (if the anthem will be played by either a military band, concert band or orchestra) the format is: chorus (2x), first verse and chorus (2x), with the optional introduction. If played in full the chorus is sung twice, with or without the introductory notes.
References
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html
External links
Efemérides Venezolanas, for detailed information.
Gloria al Bravo Pueblo (1810)
Venezuela: Gloria al Bravo Pueblo - Audio of the national anthem of Venezuela, with information and lyrics
Gloria al Bravo Pueblo (short version 1987) - Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolivar
Gloria al Bravo Pueblo - Presidential Honor Guard Band
Gloria al Bravo Pueblo (ceremony version) by Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolivar
Gloria al Bravo Pueblo by Orquesta Sinfónica Simón Bolivar
vocal
National symbols of Venezuela
South American anthems
Venezuelan songs
Anthems of Venezuela
Spanish-language songs
1810 songs
1881 introductions
National anthems
National anthem compositions in F major | [
0.03860880807042122,
0.6397208571434021,
0.16942757368087769,
0.06252111494541168,
-0.5596292018890381,
0.2665897011756897,
0.8707217574119568,
0.5714837908744812,
-0.3131912648677826,
-0.02687767706811428,
0.07812032103538513,
0.6684975624084473,
0.22673095762729645,
0.653360903263092,
-0.6565852761268616,
1.0820930004119873,
0.4532652795314789,
1.3177505731582642,
0.10134880989789963,
-0.6368162631988525,
-0.489597350358963,
-0.34559759497642517,
0.21545787155628204,
0.38475653529167175,
-0.15308022499084473,
0.2708588242530823,
0.24121922254562378,
0.48665890097618103,
-0.4202152490615845,
0.4521145522594452,
-0.44474363327026367,
0.10421217232942581,
0.7637398838996887,
0.4078114628791809,
0.2601333558559418,
0.5005785226821899,
0.19282519817352295,
-0.7204578518867493,
-0.47804945707321167,
-0.7066687941551208,
0.1270461082458496,
-0.7805898785591125,
0.6336771845817566,
-0.27975013852119446,
0.04795733094215393,
-0.7270182967185974,
-0.2797069549560547,
0.24660037457942963,
-0.4870429039001465,
-0.11744482815265656,
-0.3774951696395874,
1.2397408485412598,
-0.536047101020813,
0.7524047493934631,
-0.2219272404909134,
0.2853008806705475,
-0.9077469706535339,
-0.16652566194534302,
-0.2512955367565155,
-0.6071724891662598,
0.1510671079158783,
0.8067547082901001,
-0.16084878146648407,
-0.2795340418815613,
0.44231003522872925,
0.04872167110443115,
0.3258374333381653,
0.159022256731987,
-0.3961608111858368,
-1.079020619392395,
-0.8607205152511597,
0.3746037781238556,
-0.19637995958328247,
-1.0812034606933594,
-0.807897686958313,
-1.2020870447158813,
-0.14733029901981354,
0.2568119168281555,
-0.25583726167678833,
0.6700313687324524,
0.22820624709129333,
-0.6540870666503906,
0.23976437747478485,
0.25820329785346985,
-0.06526162475347519,
0.35283946990966797,
0.48279067873954773,
-0.4936254620552063,
-0.1877429485321045,
0.5115710496902466,
-0.4872379004955292,
-0.8820003271102905,
0.6284347176551819,
0.10118624567985535,
-0.3641527593135834,
0.1531972438097,
0.1374061554670334,
0.04921448603272438,
-0.7466098666191101,
0.2729432284832001,
0.13227497041225433,
0.1259240061044693,
0.29508402943611145,
-0.3629968464374542,
-0.6818978190422058,
-0.3903420865535736,
-0.7660742402076721,
-0.7976357936859131,
0.29028579592704773,
-0.12386614084243774,
0.11850632727146149,
-0.2548733949661255,
-0.08486617356538773,
-0.12996941804885864,
0.5691562294960022,
-0.19142873585224152,
0.9115667343139648,
-0.16487088799476624,
0.35760921239852905,
0.2008693665266037,
0.2999611496925354,
0.5730876326560974,
-0.019942304119467735,
0.23754717409610748,
0.12831535935401917,
-0.054330553859472275,
0.6388172507286072,
0.45410528779029846,
-0.4505694806575775,
0.5168688297271729,
-0.040999025106430054,
0.2743214964866638,
-0.01548167783766985,
0.5236248970031738,
-0.2999722361564636,
-0.25263744592666626,
-0.30873775482177734,
-0.053198009729385376,
-0.038571275770664215,
0.12106417119503021,
-0.2611049711704254,
-0.21085874736309052,
-0.3583446741104126,
0.06069338694214821,
0.3984507620334625,
-0.480938196182251,
-0.47392281889915466,
-0.3555413782596588,
-0.389880508184433,
-0.1240978017449379,
0.5677025318145752,
-0.26984503865242004,
0.09643668681383133,
0.19163952767848969,
-0.6562772393226624,
0.05896990746259689,
0.06169942393898964,
-0.5284737348556519,
1.0228437185287476,
0.6633567810058594,
-0.001229624031111598,
0.2166173756122589,
0.37694209814071655,
0.1665962040424347,
-0.5304036140441895,
0.035913173109292984,
0.6383649110794067,
1.2672648429870605,
-0.1222410574555397,
-0.3985505700111389,
-0.13906919956207275,
0.11103364825248718,
0.13297609984874725,
-0.22138376533985138,
-0.5588011145591736,
-0.2715708613395691,
0.6289053559303284,
-0.020924782380461693,
-0.3417723774909973,
0.3150157630443573,
-0.677563488483429,
0.2635333836078644,
-0.2091798484325409,
0.08580165356397629,
0.6373559832572937,
0.3781130313873291,
0.16375921666622162,
0.7252889275550842,
0.08130665868520737,
-0.49619486927986145,
-0.682750940322876,
0.2592335343360901,
-0.36065125465393066,
-0.1560126692056656,
0.45486482977867126,
-0.3307570815086365,
-0.2003355771303177,
0.6555145978927612,
0.2632181644439697,
0.29499050974845886,
-0.5487358570098877,
0.8057740330696106,
0.9318076372146606,
0.014596985653042793,
-0.28567251563072205,
0.09318798780441284,
0.28382036089897156,
0.5532382130622864,
0.32391631603240967,
0.9312352538108826,
-0.5159401893615723,
0.20796430110931396,
0.17198482155799866,
0.1788415163755417,
-0.40235376358032227,
-0.21054860949516296,
-0.16400805115699768,
-0.06648752093315125,
0.2069522738456726,
0.13903319835662842,
0.37593966722488403,
-0.40503811836242676,
-0.3070043623447418,
0.43043166399002075,
0.2967950701713562,
0.2584208548069,
-0.08525381982326508,
-0.1188296303153038,
0.12242618948221207,
-0.21449992060661316,
0.11426139622926712,
-0.2354818880558014,
0.3547995388507843,
-0.09775567799806595,
-0.45552948117256165,
-0.0029837170150130987,
-0.12291727215051651,
-0.4948914051055908,
0.048329975455999374,
-0.7218026518821716,
0.3491031527519226,
-0.18123078346252441,
0.1316080391407013,
0.19097945094108582,
0.4179016649723053,
0.33132365345954895,
-0.29604119062423706,
-0.3158910274505615,
0.0899273008108139,
0.223233163356781,
0.27101579308509827,
0.24617929756641388,
0.38415855169296265,
-0.2956627607345581,
0.367566853761673,
-0.38753795623779297,
0.0502212755382061,
-0.4099886119365692,
-0.0980365052819252,
0.16758105158805847,
-0.058406636118888855,
-0.2990446984767914,
0.8346628546714783,
0.1022912934422493,
0.030287811532616615,
-0.4267244040966034,
-0.13335464894771576,
-0.1531362235546112,
-0.5350702404975891,
-0.1278877854347229,
-0.26574966311454773,
0.3944751024246216,
0.2625339925289154,
0.5420781373977661,
0.6041557192802429,
0.2998742461204529,
-0.24388964474201202,
0.2978229522705078,
-0.9510281682014465,
-0.5540900826454163,
-0.06719089299440384,
0.514242947101593,
-0.11842095851898193,
-0.8953806757926941,
-0.3737275004386902,
0.37351804971694946,
0.31179216504096985,
-0.526930034160614,
-0.40240296721458435,
0.15725524723529816,
-0.24206049740314484,
-0.5198183059692383,
0.3575648367404938,
-0.1903458535671234,
-0.3685477077960968,
-0.44679728150367737,
0.6754483580589294,
0.5484060645103455,
0.5606781840324402,
-0.1605663150548935,
0.19644460082054138,
-0.1525944620370865,
-0.012616250663995743,
-0.08934652805328369,
1.0142492055892944,
-0.672372579574585,
-0.0849997028708458,
0.37460875511169434,
-5.1321916580200195,
0.07826955616474152,
-0.22985930740833282,
-0.4244498312473297,
0.09355989098548889,
0.3735481798648834,
0.3143846392631531,
-0.5077008605003357,
-0.012260249815881252,
-0.35141679644584656,
-0.326982319355011,
0.061788178980350494,
0.45076069235801697,
0.3844771981239319,
0.45628637075424194,
0.07156281918287277,
-0.0025440563913434744,
-0.6694067716598511,
0.8949100375175476,
-0.31188225746154785,
0.5016425848007202,
0.04524976760149002,
-0.6580743193626404,
0.7063034176826477,
0.8325974941253662,
-0.07944956421852112,
0.006551671307533979,
-0.29369300603866577,
-0.6248067021369934,
0.4713420867919922,
-0.24754510819911957,
0.033071767538785934,
-0.7282933592796326,
-0.2767274081707001,
0.2674773633480072,
0.44371092319488525,
0.18228207528591156,
-0.4870930016040802,
0.2292013019323349,
-0.6607873439788818,
0.05840041860938072,
-0.2552843391895294,
-0.3297576904296875,
0.07718717306852341,
-0.27282819151878357,
0.3017001748085022,
-0.14868567883968353,
-0.1957777589559555,
-0.5048416256904602,
0.6695651412010193,
-0.11278710514307022,
-0.7418939471244812,
0.6743056178092957,
-0.4882243871688843,
0.19018323719501495,
0.27506089210510254,
0.676845908164978,
-0.34670290350914,
-0.4580778479576111,
0.6010589599609375,
0.7135578989982605,
-0.1672426015138626,
-0.3682256042957306,
-0.7710047364234924,
-0.6290706396102905,
-0.3256457448005676,
0.4511244297027588,
-0.5878314971923828,
0.4769148528575897,
0.40783923864364624,
-0.07870160788297653,
0.5816745162010193,
-0.4101228415966034,
-1.2554819583892822,
-0.03484056890010834,
-0.21737568080425262,
-1.0273466110229492,
-0.12173961848020554,
-0.43457645177841187,
0.2466122806072235,
0.03472365438938141,
-0.4724702835083008,
-0.09185236692428589,
-0.6679595708847046,
-0.476530522108078,
-0.007906678132712841,
0.34711557626724243,
0.45650649070739746,
-0.062397558242082596,
0.3232332766056061,
0.38050544261932373,
-0.5760663747787476,
0.08059827983379364,
0.4678542912006378,
0.14323146641254425,
0.5697605013847351,
-0.25186508893966675,
-0.4855712950229645,
-0.0911731943488121,
-0.15012648701667786,
0.12321653962135315,
0.13581731915473938,
0.43964266777038574,
-0.6874708533287048,
0.22765159606933594,
0.05715448781847954,
-0.06445974856615067,
-0.03439857065677643,
0.217533141374588,
0.09178265929222107,
0.12739010155200958,
-0.32218536734580994,
0.05819917842745781,
-0.32134997844696045,
0.3140103816986084,
-0.46235746145248413,
0.24148140847682953,
0.6312108039855957,
0.700258731842041,
0.3381606638431549,
0.8281501531600952,
0.32523083686828613,
-0.26892539858818054,
-0.3063497841358185,
-0.26579228043556213,
0.3836577534675598,
0.171919047832489,
0.5085629224777222,
-0.17812299728393555,
-0.5791743993759155,
0.6705629825592041,
-0.6202474236488342,
0.6277660131454468,
0.2895655035972595,
0.3487703204154968,
0.2956992983818054,
0.046051930636167526,
-1.0408310890197754,
0.5638515949249268,
-0.5281678438186646,
-0.5293869376182556,
-0.3034513294696808,
-0.36495745182037354,
-0.21711546182632446,
0.6135779023170471,
0.37031248211860657,
-0.13731396198272705,
-0.7134297490119934,
-0.703050434589386,
0.7508311867713928,
0.5061116814613342,
0.12798838317394257,
0.3645295202732086,
-0.7542622685432434,
0.12621371448040009,
0.060275208204984665,
0.061833884567022324,
-0.08859558403491974,
0.1492476612329483,
0.04976451024413109,
-0.11385869234800339,
-0.31300970911979675,
-1.1676881313323975,
-0.15024276077747345,
0.19479455053806305,
-0.1570776104927063,
-0.7602028846740723,
-0.4372115433216095,
0.3839656710624695,
1.0610500574111938,
-0.0058686151169240475,
-0.18788276612758636,
-0.29214945435523987,
-0.12978318333625793,
0.24815596640110016,
-0.3762431740760803,
0.5950207710266113,
0.1860041469335556,
-0.07386208325624466,
0.3780399560928345,
-0.13105817139148712,
0.2945404648780823,
0.41062596440315247,
0.011706998571753502,
-0.1291365921497345,
-0.4867492914199829,
-0.22621946036815643,
-0.31500446796417236,
-0.0793110802769661,
0.546375572681427,
-0.16367574036121368,
0.9243370294570923,
0.3694189190864563,
-0.7325243949890137,
-0.6216155290603638,
-0.35804373025894165,
-0.45000627636909485,
0.0038663886953145266,
0.025141246616840363,
-0.1698158085346222,
-0.0140112629160285,
0.06723883748054504,
-0.34428834915161133,
0.17404818534851074,
-0.41567954421043396,
-0.3284315764904022,
0.9705920815467834,
0.09982744604349136,
-0.6524508595466614,
0.15428918600082397,
-0.156442329287529,
-0.7808767557144165,
-0.798149585723877,
0.7141836285591125,
0.15182359516620636,
-0.6073914170265198,
0.19075356423854828,
-0.8570085763931274,
-0.6568130850791931,
-0.26685547828674316,
-0.41606658697128296,
-0.25507837533950806,
0.06330472975969315,
0.12672144174575806,
-0.08714547008275986,
0.32836106419563293,
-0.41201573610305786,
-1.1295769214630127,
0.8886269927024841,
-0.903130829334259,
-0.3892114758491516,
-0.012747163884341717,
0.04489283263683319,
0.20353537797927856,
-0.9406970143318176,
-0.1662367731332779,
-0.21561025083065033,
-0.0243200846016407,
-0.25311020016670227,
0.5294104218482971,
0.00527630839496851,
0.4081026315689087,
0.06980371475219727,
-0.8588175773620605,
-0.4724510908126831,
0.304197758436203,
-0.011166750453412533,
0.017141304910182953,
-0.35753965377807617,
-0.0734165608882904,
-0.37427592277526855,
-0.1763848215341568,
-0.07871900498867035,
-0.34080755710601807,
0.4094218611717224,
-1.1636136770248413,
-0.3756469488143921,
0.3779221773147583,
0.11605732142925262,
-0.3001062273979187,
0.4412699043750763,
-0.4354475140571594,
-1.0286812782287598,
-0.20192986726760864,
-0.05127858370542526,
0.17249764502048492,
0.2012765109539032,
-0.1839587688446045,
0.27172961831092834,
0.3242703974246979,
0.09830629825592041,
-0.1028362438082695,
0.34530913829803467,
0.7784504890441895,
-0.14195989072322845,
0.4576151669025421,
-0.8865059614181519,
-0.546203076839447,
-0.0955343246459961,
0.24032868444919586,
-0.5919438004493713,
0.6316747665405273,
-0.7506051063537598,
0.00377155770547688,
0.27675434947013855,
-0.8037902116775513,
-0.8298243880271912,
-0.07738516479730606,
-0.06254967302083969,
0.17103126645088196,
-0.2811296582221985,
0.3393242657184601,
-0.07639820128679276,
0.27016422152519226,
0.14964020252227783,
-0.02660713531076908,
-0.18262486159801483,
0.04591743275523186,
-0.3696424663066864,
-0.017038453370332718,
-0.39069443941116333,
0.6423901915550232,
0.34725141525268555,
0.3229260742664337,
-0.07127460837364197,
-0.32711660861968994,
0.3182299733161926,
-0.10645546764135361,
-0.36856645345687866,
0.041928861290216446,
-0.4805464446544647,
0.002756210509687662,
0.10690025985240936,
0.5280627012252808,
-0.23993144929409027,
0.3312355577945709,
0.9980323314666748,
-0.30779096484184265,
0.032163988798856735,
0.7506673336029053,
0.28914085030555725,
-0.8745410442352295,
0.49751245975494385,
0.5334411263465881,
0.1862768679857254,
0.21456897258758545,
-0.8292572498321533,
-0.923140823841095,
0.8676497936248779,
0.13229160010814667,
0.557673990726471,
0.7363216876983643,
-0.9339613318443298,
0.4081660807132721,
-0.7507842779159546,
0.15374895930290222,
0.2708982527256012,
-0.5915622115135193,
-0.6269248723983765,
0.7366366982460022,
0.677237331867218,
0.07138608396053314,
-0.1479860544204712,
0.1632639765739441,
0.36853575706481934,
-0.22436556220054626,
-0.11680706590414047,
0.5058711767196655,
-0.021186014637351036,
-0.4011927843093872,
0.1721622198820114,
0.5408254265785217,
0.16642555594444275,
-0.36655232310295105,
0.6654834747314453,
-0.11687537282705307,
0.43677037954330444,
0.3105766475200653,
-0.03465142846107483,
0.4132823050022125,
-0.09342380613088608,
-0.07368066161870956,
0.3600170910358429,
-0.4529196619987488,
-0.42877641320228577,
0.040742699056863785,
0.7068296670913696,
0.18129581212997437,
-0.6528239250183105,
-0.2872966229915619,
-0.051951274275779724,
0.3196941912174225,
-0.580534815788269,
0.2917328178882599,
0.3732488751411438,
0.4330673813819885,
-0.30977967381477356,
0.4305841326713562,
-0.25042352080345154,
0.16302436590194702,
-0.15390215814113617,
0.5340796113014221,
-0.3371666371822357,
-0.42171865701675415,
-0.3163759708404541,
0.22036023437976837,
0.01504525076597929,
-0.4108406901359558,
-0.05363280698657036,
-0.4077836275100708,
0.6347262263298035,
-0.3091038465499878,
-0.271342933177948,
0.45128002762794495,
0.35947397351264954,
-0.24947422742843628,
0.30581870675086975,
0.921527087688446,
0.45360246300697327,
-0.35924383997917175,
0.8029249906539917,
0.46642372012138367,
0.1482081562280655,
0.40735432505607605,
-0.07977385818958282,
-0.28775855898857117,
-0.27550023794174194,
0.3876880705356598,
-0.6779137849807739,
0.0852375403046608,
0.07834046334028244,
0.18775145709514618,
-0.002017694991081953,
0.8380390405654907,
-0.5443280935287476,
0.0436239019036293,
1.2697150707244873,
-0.8359425067901611,
0.3653166890144348,
-1.070853352546692,
0.05415456369519234,
-0.3441562056541443,
0.3996420204639435,
1.2628263235092163,
0.19732967019081116,
-0.7639164328575134,
0.5941278338432312,
-0.30727875232696533,
-1.0486210584640503,
-0.5478659868240356,
-0.17023681104183197,
-0.18498730659484863,
-0.007118377834558487,
0.43405333161354065,
-0.6682193279266357,
-0.3449207544326782,
0.43858602643013,
0.6909391283988953,
0.4374183118343353,
-0.5361350178718567,
0.4103734791278839,
-0.31611311435699463,
0.7289792895317078,
-0.15777619183063507,
-0.03409510850906372,
-0.020883487537503242,
-0.12818922102451324,
0.20271392166614532,
-0.21436063945293427,
0.22758108377456665,
0.5916686058044434,
0.31355828046798706,
0.5321121215820312,
-0.38925743103027344,
0.46190595626831055,
-0.12362334132194519,
0.22703537344932556,
-0.5740832090377808,
0.2547641098499298,
0.11527073383331299
] |
247893 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna%20Sinisalo | Johanna Sinisalo | Aila Johanna Sinisalo is a Finnish science fiction and fantasy writer. She studied comparative literature and drama, amongst other subjects, at the University of Tampere. Professionally she worked in the advertising business, rising to the level of marketing designer.
An important figure in the Finnish science fiction scene in the late 1980s and early '90s (winning a rare back-to-back collection of Atorox Awards for short fiction in the genre), she was also the first Finnish science fiction writer to make a mainstream breakthrough by breaking genre barriers.
Fiction
Sinisalo was awarded the Finlandia Prize for literature in 2000 for her first novel, Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi (translated as Not Before Sundown in 2003 and again as Troll — A Love Story in 2004 for the American market). The novel has been translated into several languages. Movie rights were acquired by Carter Smith in 2006.
An English translation of Linnunaivot was published in 2010 by Peter Owen Publishers under the title Birdbrain (translated by David Hackston).
She has named the 1967 novel Friday, or, The Other Island by French writer Michel Tournier as a major influence on her career.
Screenwriting
She is also the screenwriter of Energia Productions Iron Sky movie, a sci-fi comedy set in 2018.
Awards
Sinisalo was awarded the Finlandia Prize for literature in 2000 for Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi (Not Before Sundown, also known as Troll — A Love Story). The novel was also awarded The James Tiptree Jr. award in 2004.
She was nominated for a Nebula Award in 2009 for the short story "Baby Doll".
She has won the Atorox Award for best Finnish science fiction short story in 1986, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1997, and 2001
The Core of the Sun won the 2017 Prometheus Award for Best Novel.
Bibliography
Novels
Ennen päivänlaskua ei voi, (Tammi, 2000)
British Edition Not Before Sundown (Peter Owen Publishers, 2003); American edition Troll — A Love Story (Grove Atlantic, 2004)
Sankarit, (Tammi 2003)
Kädettömät kuninkaat ja muita häiritseviä tarinoita, (Teos 2005), short story collection
Lasisilmä, (Teos 2006)
Linnunaivot, (Teos 2008)
In English as Birdbrain (Peter Owen Publishers, 2011)
Möbiuksen maa, (Teos 2010)
Enkelten verta, (Teos 2011).
In English as The Blood of Angels (Peter Owen Publishers 2014; )
Auringon ydin, (Teos 2013)
In English as The Core of the Sun (Grove Atlantic 2016, ).
Vieraat, (Karisto 2020).
Short fiction
She has published over 40 short stories, most of them fantasy and science fiction in various in sci fi magazines, journals and women's magazines. Her work has also appeared in the following anthologies:
Vuosirengas 74 (1974)
short stories Kilometripylväät and Jäinen kaupunki
Jäinen vaeltaja (1986)
short stories Tarina kuolleesta metsästä and Sorsapuisto
Atoroxin perilliset (1988)
short stories Hanna, Yövesi and Suklaalaput
Ensimmäinen yhteys (1988)
short story Transit
Illan tähti yksinäinen (1991) edited by Raija Hämäläinen
short story Illan tähti yksinäinen
Kultainen naamio (1993)
short story Me vakuutamme sinut
Onnellinen kuolema (1996)
mini novel Tango merellä
Linnées boreales (2001)
short story (French) Le Transit
Kärlek på finska (2002)
short story (Swedish) Låset
Intohimosta rikokseen (2002)
short story Baby Doll
Utopiae 2005 (2005)
novelli (French) Baby Doll
Editor
Anthology Verkon silmässä (Tammi, 2005)
Selection of short stories about the internet from several writers.
The Dedalus Book of Finnish Fantasy (Dedalus Books, 2005)
Anthology in English, a selection of Finnish speculative fiction from the 19th century to the present day, translated by David Hackston.
co-edited with Toni Jerrman, Giants at the End of the World: A Showcase of the Finnish Weird (Worldcon-75, 2017)
Anthology in English, a selection of Finnish weird fiction
Television
Toinen todellisuus, TV2, 1991
Maa on litteä, TV2, 1992
Tulevaisuuden kuvia, TV2, 1995
Ainoa elämä, TV2, 1997
Elämän suola, TV 2, 1995
Samaa sukua, eri maata, MTV3, 1997
SunRadio, TV1, 1998
Salatut elämät, MTV3
Kotikatu, TV1
Käenpesä, MTV3
Comics
Tiskivuoro in Uusi Nainen -magazine ', art by Hannu Mänttäri
Scripts for Moomin related comics for Semic and ToTo-tuotanto, several artists
Pikku eläinpuoti in *Oma Ystävä -magazine, art by Hannu Mänttäri
Kimppakämppä in Trendi -magazine, art by Johanna Rojola
Several science fiction and fantasy themed comics from the year 1982 onwards, several artists
References
External links
1958 births
Living people
20th-century Finnish novelists
21st-century Finnish novelists
Finlandia Prize winners
Finnish fantasy writers
Finnish science fiction writers
Finnish women novelists
Finnish women short story writers
Finnish short story writers
People from Sodankylä
People from Tampere
Women science fiction and fantasy writers
21st-century Finnish women writers
20th-century Finnish women writers | [
-0.05902229994535446,
0.4634755253791809,
-0.47602203488349915,
0.037326835095882416,
-0.20496024191379547,
0.48545390367507935,
0.6289265751838684,
-0.03649957478046417,
-0.6457857489585876,
0.027394041419029236,
-0.31862539052963257,
0.16624614596366882,
-0.19125469028949738,
0.1992291361093521,
0.007642028853297234,
0.10559844225645065,
0.08429243415594101,
0.7083322405815125,
-0.5334973931312561,
-0.19714392721652985,
-0.39242255687713623,
-0.1295446902513504,
0.8980190753936768,
0.06864109635353088,
-0.5210967063903809,
-0.3860352337360382,
0.21172018349170685,
0.5309670567512512,
0.41779637336730957,
-0.07195127755403519,
-0.21882010996341705,
0.8107517957687378,
0.15924949944019318,
-0.4770159423351288,
-0.3706904649734497,
0.4522116780281067,
-0.2104673832654953,
-0.08243777602910995,
-0.05333460122346878,
0.1906258463859558,
-0.5971253514289856,
0.2862277328968048,
-0.5875460505485535,
-0.004698669072240591,
0.2726741433143616,
-0.4533114731311798,
-1.414900779724121,
0.5027750134468079,
-0.7818709015846252,
0.023367399349808693,
0.17639027535915375,
-0.08722368627786636,
0.7211359143257141,
0.39715853333473206,
-0.08923886716365814,
0.42165127396583557,
-0.9655690789222717,
-0.05445881187915802,
0.07427135109901428,
0.49376723170280457,
0.6179803609848022,
-0.3381122648715973,
0.10043678432703018,
-0.0767536461353302,
0.6694887280464172,
0.0153895178809762,
0.23455283045768738,
-0.6944081783294678,
-0.018531905487179756,
-0.16966013610363007,
-0.1476878821849823,
0.5678762197494507,
0.08943090587854385,
-0.21783210337162018,
-0.7651576995849609,
-0.20865675806999207,
0.2449606955051422,
-0.22778812050819397,
0.2827126979827881,
-0.051787443459033966,
0.19447261095046997,
0.130086287856102,
1.0897349119186401,
0.3635076880455017,
0.8372577428817749,
-0.2182166576385498,
-0.25794070959091187,
-0.45991548895835876,
-0.4646400809288025,
0.11956679821014404,
-0.41178062558174133,
-0.5318597555160522,
0.10657954961061478,
0.17220263183116913,
0.6058142185211182,
0.39776501059532166,
-0.35038161277770996,
0.7970840334892273,
-0.045449525117874146,
0.5529491901397705,
-0.1939852386713028,
0.2697623670101166,
0.23953355848789215,
-0.02612731233239174,
-0.4097873270511627,
-0.33451759815216064,
-0.13825510442256927,
-0.4818050265312195,
0.17598514258861542,
-0.37140336632728577,
-0.572689950466156,
0.24973782896995544,
-0.1234327182173729,
0.11200805753469467,
-0.37241971492767334,
0.4974689483642578,
0.3177361488342285,
-0.15110620856285095,
-0.1698884218931198,
0.7240498065948486,
-0.3003515601158142,
0.517034649848938,
-0.2380673587322235,
0.16087108850479126,
-0.3278070092201233,
0.8861300945281982,
-0.24946150183677673,
-0.028286511078476906,
-0.500180184841156,
0.11809900403022766,
0.62783282995224,
0.5478089451789856,
-0.9778125882148743,
0.008354591205716133,
0.011034299619495869,
-0.24451705813407898,
0.6023568511009216,
0.1917874664068222,
0.40873482823371887,
0.7761211395263672,
-0.7654092311859131,
-0.21304289996623993,
-0.9381184577941895,
-0.20161746442317963,
0.1987304538488388,
-0.14722159504890442,
-0.37974053621292114,
-0.35920339822769165,
-0.41592198610305786,
-0.28287211060523987,
-0.4914022386074066,
0.011349841952323914,
0.010693470947444439,
-0.12344010919332504,
0.04199443757534027,
0.41196730732917786,
0.29378291964530945,
0.09886761009693146,
0.3198813199996948,
0.4194515347480774,
0.8423657417297363,
0.14849917590618134,
-0.2102617621421814,
-0.04131113365292549,
0.11828532069921494,
0.04843328893184662,
0.8087071776390076,
0.49862584471702576,
0.44568565487861633,
-0.05770553648471832,
-0.28071677684783936,
0.29657942056655884,
0.3680875599384308,
-0.1681405007839203,
0.028785670176148415,
0.153254434466362,
0.2726072669029236,
0.21701066195964813,
-0.6494095325469971,
-0.5479849576950073,
-0.5273731350898743,
-0.00624075997620821,
-0.7116560339927673,
-0.15651275217533112,
0.23047758638858795,
0.189743310213089,
-0.19934286177158356,
-0.10395564138889313,
0.490038126707077,
0.3141062557697296,
-0.5871933698654175,
-0.5139757394790649,
0.7002886533737183,
0.42023956775665283,
0.7444750070571899,
0.09190785884857178,
-0.22241097688674927,
0.5896424055099487,
-0.22690033912658691,
0.5880374908447266,
-0.16991972923278809,
-0.8290250301361084,
0.39011847972869873,
-0.19861435890197754,
-0.10341872274875641,
1.1417959928512573,
0.17964056134223938,
-0.07798565179109573,
0.11715982109308243,
0.5770583748817444,
-0.09144763648509979,
-0.5489138960838318,
0.3810400664806366,
0.6822220683097839,
-0.2208343744277954,
-0.0914621353149414,
-0.3462611436843872,
-0.18982915580272675,
0.6086300015449524,
0.04326659440994263,
0.7190251350402832,
0.03025611862540245,
-0.023151466622948647,
-0.12927265465259552,
-0.12330173701047897,
0.8035395741462708,
0.3964877724647522,
0.2909955084323883,
0.5530598759651184,
-0.6793283224105835,
-0.5884068608283997,
0.36750996112823486,
0.36884522438049316,
-0.17476706206798553,
0.06198330596089363,
-0.17204931378364563,
0.5224083662033081,
0.39314088225364685,
0.4228012263774872,
-0.06527602672576904,
0.1523560732603073,
0.8458724021911621,
-0.505424976348877,
0.583999752998352,
0.4567072093486786,
0.3297431468963623,
-0.5850339531898499,
-0.06548769026994705,
-0.3141310513019562,
-0.227044478058815,
0.19941286742687225,
0.16950848698616028,
-0.1418955773115158,
-0.24247503280639648,
-0.11594909429550171,
0.48291078209877014,
0.04626550152897835,
-0.5446937084197998,
0.38579261302948,
-0.21963317692279816,
-0.1432366669178009,
-0.10989721864461899,
0.15098318457603455,
0.023798882961273193,
0.31900501251220703,
-0.3652006983757019,
0.28998157382011414,
-0.6374937891960144,
0.337199866771698,
0.13668937981128693,
0.12093310803174973,
-0.550144374370575,
-0.2656119763851166,
-0.738237738609314,
-0.02748418226838112,
-0.008884988725185394,
-0.5103973150253296,
-0.006459912750869989,
-0.5372427105903625,
-0.26730528473854065,
0.425965279340744,
1.0134496688842773,
0.3171844482421875,
-0.31950217485427856,
-0.897162914276123,
0.17571131885051727,
0.13363716006278992,
0.1621648520231247,
-0.26840734481811523,
0.14415355026721954,
0.09691929817199707,
0.19612114131450653,
-0.4885270595550537,
0.026809606701135635,
0.5831930041313171,
0.19206997752189636,
-0.33044031262397766,
0.33242911100387573,
0.040164362639188766,
0.220571368932724,
-0.3160145580768585,
0.49238789081573486,
-0.28268834948539734,
0.2378731518983841,
-0.10124928504228592,
0.35441333055496216,
-0.18024489283561707,
-0.14246766269207,
-5.5019683837890625,
-0.1405278444290161,
-0.20266908407211304,
-0.18578872084617615,
-0.0082165552303195,
0.15224112570285797,
0.7482300400733948,
-0.0626680925488472,
0.19315986335277557,
-0.27107706665992737,
0.23190855979919434,
0.44626447558403015,
-0.14089806377887726,
1.2851133346557617,
0.24007892608642578,
1.0454134941101074,
0.09900279343128204,
-0.11894553899765015,
0.08857481181621552,
0.5333186388015747,
-0.27917778491973877,
0.3685159385204315,
-0.7475489974021912,
0.29938626289367676,
0.419324666261673,
0.5851910710334778,
-0.16468298435211182,
-0.04928242042660713,
-0.5106842517852783,
0.16364158689975739,
-0.21706868708133698,
-0.07904559373855591,
-0.5205212235450745,
-0.6144543886184692,
0.26859745383262634,
-0.05260729789733887,
-0.0322333388030529,
0.37377655506134033,
0.7627549767494202,
0.04323473945260048,
-0.32912081480026245,
0.4324929416179657,
-0.13011446595191956,
-0.30919504165649414,
0.1782759130001068,
-0.3339341878890991,
-0.5638079643249512,
0.13567328453063965,
-0.6667664051055908,
0.8171206116676331,
0.26672008633613586,
-0.4287702739238739,
0.25162234902381897,
0.050350677222013474,
0.17993423342704773,
0.3111836314201355,
0.6846359968185425,
-0.18578225374221802,
-0.42418932914733887,
-0.1723034828901291,
-0.2819356620311737,
-0.42554211616516113,
0.4302782118320465,
-1.0197166204452515,
-0.3309755325317383,
-0.1766461282968521,
-0.13131894171237946,
-0.38096654415130615,
-0.02119927853345871,
-0.6051968932151794,
-0.2932051420211792,
0.0756450891494751,
-0.005457922350615263,
-1.7320747375488281,
-0.2505570352077484,
-0.42358124256134033,
-0.6710420846939087,
0.12551169097423553,
-0.7807140350341797,
-0.12833328545093536,
0.08326610177755356,
-0.527789294719696,
-0.5407017469406128,
0.4199066758155823,
0.37670695781707764,
-0.14516189694404602,
0.12009117007255554,
-0.1953430324792862,
-0.39546480774879456,
-0.00489084143191576,
-0.20318834483623505,
-0.22607110440731049,
0.4511743187904358,
0.34333816170692444,
0.49642235040664673,
-0.005867025349289179,
0.3539564907550812,
-0.16026702523231506,
0.6366828083992004,
-0.5046407580375671,
0.08882477134466171,
-0.36521467566490173,
0.5787982940673828,
-0.39334022998809814,
-0.26949620246887207,
-0.2551378905773163,
0.2932022511959076,
-0.0908152237534523,
0.5574922561645508,
-0.5821688175201416,
-0.05038727447390556,
-0.12362149357795715,
-0.1985509842634201,
-0.2713991403579712,
0.667718231678009,
-0.1629253774881363,
0.05742365121841431,
0.7362414598464966,
0.2934601306915283,
0.0830918624997139,
-0.39692795276641846,
0.019278625026345253,
0.44032567739486694,
-0.25542572140693665,
0.335909366607666,
-0.45847123861312866,
0.07278420031070709,
-0.005394177045673132,
-0.04232126846909523,
0.5274197459220886,
-0.6536930203437805,
0.21678364276885986,
-0.037754904478788376,
-0.46047312021255493,
0.14158789813518524,
-0.3169907331466675,
-0.601426362991333,
0.3923402428627014,
0.03889380767941475,
0.0005117791588418186,
0.3866463601589203,
-0.23243199288845062,
-0.11570713669061661,
1.0516215562820435,
-0.04276703670620918,
-0.17125840485095978,
0.16499632596969604,
-0.11222197115421295,
-0.3968276381492615,
-0.5637539625167847,
-0.597821831703186,
-0.25588536262512207,
0.2737944424152374,
-0.5813847780227661,
-0.02391006052494049,
0.5484021902084351,
-0.29343274235725403,
0.36003217101097107,
-0.49372103810310364,
-0.31789982318878174,
0.5411497354507446,
-1.3813413381576538,
-1.1372535228729248,
0.23880110681056976,
0.29162663221359253,
-0.3317060172557831,
-0.8133296370506287,
-0.5368552207946777,
-1.0913552045822144,
0.3930065929889679,
-0.09722390025854111,
-0.3606785535812378,
-0.17665527760982513,
-0.38073959946632385,
-0.024919316172599792,
-0.23500993847846985,
-0.2484859675168991,
0.2960847020149231,
-0.3686295449733734,
0.06492789089679718,
-0.06461860984563828,
0.4236856997013092,
-0.5410588383674622,
0.46226048469543457,
0.08924209326505661,
0.09183421730995178,
0.16628387570381165,
0.014546109363436699,
-0.5581822991371155,
0.21292224526405334,
-0.1763673722743988,
0.4802022874355316,
0.5354602336883545,
0.03235982730984688,
0.06897079199552536,
-0.5210147500038147,
-0.09841948002576828,
0.0304280873388052,
-0.08998415619134903,
-0.2854715883731842,
0.5808201432228088,
0.7427909970283508,
-0.5331034660339355,
0.13464966416358948,
0.9740128517150879,
-0.8476536870002747,
0.2298271507024765,
0.1920998990535736,
0.07660124450922012,
0.5995186567306519,
-0.6926508545875549,
0.16463702917099,
0.158822163939476,
0.4667055904865265,
-0.46961918473243713,
0.06391851603984833,
0.7947336435317993,
0.1439342051744461,
-0.6985498070716858,
-0.2616952955722809,
-0.7508386969566345,
-0.7722697854042053,
-0.1675575226545334,
-0.7615489363670349,
-0.8908048868179321,
-0.276587575674057,
0.8762072324752808,
-0.6517404913902283,
0.6341607570648193,
-0.3417857587337494,
0.034891750663518906,
0.16621670126914978,
0.17128711938858032,
-0.5590651631355286,
-0.716860294342041,
-0.40454989671707153,
0.11017677187919617,
0.39279618859291077,
-0.03549216315150261,
0.3613133132457733,
0.6190390586853027,
-0.18132954835891724,
0.5383314490318298,
0.0014166620094329119,
-0.20140279829502106,
0.3213018476963043,
-0.24135436117649078,
0.014315830543637276,
-1.166388750076294,
-0.14540953934192657,
0.07156304270029068,
-0.3336215317249298,
-0.31246811151504517,
-0.33254343271255493,
1.2373003959655762,
-0.06846240907907486,
0.33078649640083313,
0.24954746663570404,
-0.06355376541614532,
-0.15308760106563568,
0.3117138743400574,
-0.6663790345191956,
-0.266254723072052,
0.07905662059783936,
-0.09089525789022446,
0.5495927929878235,
0.0369335412979126,
-0.6794501543045044,
-0.2164960503578186,
-0.32474109530448914,
-0.2298893928527832,
-0.22234007716178894,
0.5173635482788086,
0.4511089622974396,
-0.11047475039958954,
0.2324649542570114,
-0.2677651047706604,
-0.15289583802223206,
0.1098051443696022,
-0.2936118543148041,
0.720147430896759,
0.3589687645435333,
-0.18226975202560425,
0.2585808038711548,
-0.42995166778564453,
-0.507453203201294,
0.1753324419260025,
-0.21238617599010468,
-0.04181315749883652,
0.2856183350086212,
-0.6174792647361755,
-0.42055025696754456,
0.07356496900320053,
0.16646015644073486,
0.4949778914451599,
0.19537506997585297,
-0.3159918487071991,
0.2546435594558716,
0.04923344776034355,
0.08038260787725449,
-0.18272340297698975,
0.2276698499917984,
0.2912563681602478,
-0.057997360825538635,
0.0681251734495163,
-0.06465018540620804,
-0.4170302450656891,
-0.14410239458084106,
-0.2187705636024475,
0.5904756188392639,
-0.054197948426008224,
-0.10611718147993088,
-0.23273855447769165,
0.8038594126701355,
0.3401346802711487,
-0.5634682774543762,
0.1399627923965454,
-0.6031194925308228,
-0.26396307349205017,
0.2549865245819092,
0.3363277018070221,
-0.05880016088485718,
0.7638875246047974,
0.25416138768196106,
0.15210385620594025,
0.5363265872001648,
-0.07173328101634979,
0.15067295730113983,
-0.32169535756111145,
-0.11445526778697968,
0.14461801946163177,
0.003982333932071924,
-0.3263181746006012,
0.2121623009443283,
-0.04531710967421532,
-0.22043806314468384,
-0.08707837760448456,
-0.19388847053050995,
0.06827830523252487,
0.6505168080329895,
0.5221918225288391,
0.6693081855773926,
-0.3774662911891937,
0.30764639377593994,
0.15277214348316193,
-0.0691334530711174,
-0.14613306522369385,
0.6243512630462646,
-0.45836806297302246,
0.17604011297225952,
0.36524659395217896,
0.20709316432476044,
0.04736709222197533,
-1.2548893690109253,
0.13629697263240814,
-0.29255977272987366,
0.10568957030773163,
-0.5822873711585999,
-0.5104557871818542,
-0.23653791844844818,
-0.3747239112854004,
-0.6411400437355042,
0.25793755054473877,
0.4698980748653412,
0.2274499088525772,
-0.5848375558853149,
0.01125746127218008,
-0.05573249235749245,
0.2530561685562134,
-0.4607902765274048,
-0.04520305246114731,
0.08083855360746384,
-0.30252957344055176,
0.2677888870239258,
0.054863572120666504,
0.3971294164657593,
0.6125547885894775,
0.07386206835508347,
-0.44038304686546326,
-0.14151771366596222,
-0.320888876914978,
0.5792456269264221,
0.1006089448928833,
0.19619271159172058,
0.10555820912122726,
-0.27222204208374023,
0.03919912129640579,
0.10483391582965851,
0.3972491919994354,
0.0843811109662056,
0.44619661569595337,
-0.20691797137260437,
-0.166634663939476,
0.31219282746315,
-0.5439056158065796,
0.3023652732372284,
-0.22818729281425476,
0.49147167801856995,
0.2659905254840851,
0.1864708960056305,
0.10019893199205399,
0.01667986996471882,
0.4923822283744812,
0.7558102011680603,
-0.4998210072517395,
0.6602876782417297,
-0.3456338942050934,
0.5138633847236633,
-0.1951204538345337,
-0.12433172017335892,
0.43084946274757385,
0.2870393991470337,
-0.1681734025478363,
0.44625988602638245,
-0.04721985384821892,
0.3177149295806885,
0.37604081630706787,
0.068540059030056,
0.40236520767211914,
0.14040595293045044,
-0.3434825539588928,
-0.18790706992149353,
0.6970159411430359,
-0.0694267749786377,
-0.14359581470489502,
-0.392090380191803,
-0.481393963098526,
0.21990375220775604,
0.09466710686683655,
-0.8380511999130249,
-0.13715508580207825,
0.00537750031799078,
-0.25465163588523865,
0.32077693939208984,
-0.21559292078018188,
-0.2772819697856903,
0.5962553024291992,
0.0793895572423935,
0.5417829155921936,
-0.5045698881149292,
-0.04135888069868088,
-0.051051728427410126,
-0.4241349995136261,
-0.04336624965071678,
-1.4655566215515137,
0.6843196153640747,
-0.6126153469085693,
-0.03688556328415871,
-0.053943127393722534,
-0.003535156138241291,
-0.015424604527652264,
-0.4298715591430664,
0.36592942476272583,
-0.4918327331542969,
-0.3187006711959839,
0.7643322944641113,
0.16969136893749237,
-0.292520135641098,
0.34376272559165955,
-0.2007911056280136
] |
247895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical%20Anthem | Pontifical Anthem | The "Pontifical Anthem and March" (), also known as the "Papal Anthem", is the anthem played to mark the presence of the Pope or one of his representatives, such as a nuncio, and on other solemn occasions. When the Vatican's flag is ceremonially raised, only the first eight bars are played.
While the Papal Anthem also serves as the national anthem of the Holy See and the Vatican City State, the Vatican stresses that it "is not to be understood as a national anthem"; it is a composition whose words and music "speak to the heart of many throughout the world who see in Rome the See of Peter."
History
The music was composed in 1869 by Charles Gounod, for the celebration on April 11, 1869 of Pope Pius IX's golden jubilee of priestly ordination. The purely instrumental piece in three parts, originally called "Marche pontificale" (French for "Pontifical March"), became extremely popular from its first performance. It was first performed that day at four o'clock in the afternoon with seven pontifical bands and a chorus of over one thousand soldiers.
On October 16, 1949, Pope Pius XII declared it the papal anthem, replacing Viktorin Hallmayer's "Marcia trionfale" (1857), which, being still the papal anthem when the Vatican City State was founded in 1929, had been treated also as the new state's anthem. Gounod's "Marche Pontificale" was first performed in this new role during a ceremony on Christmas Eve of 1949, one day before the opening of the Holy Year 1950. The old state anthem too was played for a last time, almost as a token of respect.
At that time, Antonio Allegra (1905–1969), who was then one of the organists of St. Peter's Basilica, wrote Italian lyrics for Gounod's music. Other lyrics have been composed for the music in various languages and by different authors. In 1991, Raffaello Lavagna of Savona (1918–2015) wrote Latin lyrics for a four-voice choir, on an arrangement by Alberico Vitalini.
Lyrics
Italian lyrics by Allegra (1949)
Latin lyrics by Lavagna (1991)
Alternative Latin lyrics
See also
Index of Vatican City-related articles
Notes
References
Further reading
, info here
External links
Official site of Vatican City State
Streaming audio, lyrics and information about the Pontifical Anthem (archive link)
Royal anthems
Vatican City culture
Compositions by Charles Gounod
1869 compositions
European anthems
National anthems
Latin-language Christian hymns
National anthem compositions in F major | [
0.391336590051651,
0.4034377932548523,
0.5772870182991028,
-0.15323597192764282,
-0.3538914918899536,
-0.10223505645990372,
0.10977769643068314,
0.6510758399963379,
-0.3185790479183197,
-0.7382248044013977,
-0.6299574375152588,
0.48143598437309265,
0.29922160506248474,
0.14187441766262054,
0.14170587062835693,
0.41235098242759705,
0.7002112865447998,
0.5072695016860962,
-0.04862029105424881,
-0.9829663038253784,
-0.16495460271835327,
0.16629831492900848,
0.368151992559433,
-0.14914147555828094,
0.3923414945602417,
-0.011012480594217777,
0.07811030745506287,
0.10927274078130722,
-0.5662945508956909,
0.1464887410402298,
0.20015797019004822,
0.22514225542545319,
-0.046693067997694016,
0.06505221873521805,
-0.08676604181528091,
-0.18925750255584717,
0.774276852607727,
-0.5222596526145935,
-0.14072608947753906,
-0.43312594294548035,
-0.012332980521023273,
-0.8784995079040527,
0.4131775200366974,
-0.18474148213863373,
0.14226339757442474,
-0.23961257934570312,
-0.5721656084060669,
0.25032487511634827,
-0.5250185132026672,
-0.02555885724723339,
-0.2495107352733612,
0.1362249255180359,
-0.04827079921960831,
0.8053942322731018,
-0.0333130918443203,
0.21937842667102814,
-0.7603715062141418,
0.1644185185432434,
-0.12380781769752502,
-0.9778280258178711,
0.018260691314935684,
0.4710526168346405,
0.07552465796470642,
0.2139076292514801,
0.39420899748802185,
-0.40311670303344727,
-0.03690513223409653,
-0.08460532128810883,
-0.768067479133606,
-0.8338350653648376,
-0.5018123388290405,
-0.30562567710876465,
-0.32796743512153625,
-0.014973707497119904,
0.024352729320526123,
-0.5938563346862793,
0.16211558878421783,
0.4640767276287079,
-0.21120193600654602,
-0.21553131937980652,
-0.008713064715266228,
-0.3350737690925598,
0.5075632929801941,
0.7198116183280945,
0.0831434577703476,
0.3316498100757599,
0.004873999394476414,
-0.1320047527551651,
0.02508341334760189,
0.034116122871637344,
-0.05501207336783409,
-0.2627255916595459,
0.5245576500892639,
0.013427700847387314,
-0.18869096040725708,
-0.16678839921951294,
0.43346574902534485,
-0.15068231523036957,
-0.46329355239868164,
0.15947213768959045,
-0.5632109642028809,
0.03482336923480034,
0.3800266981124878,
-0.2026500254869461,
-0.4475129544734955,
-0.40337494015693665,
-0.4369348883628845,
-0.10088188946247101,
0.5056805610656738,
0.28676652908325195,
-0.03671007975935936,
-0.512511134147644,
0.28627416491508484,
0.276263564825058,
0.17713472247123718,
-0.43602660298347473,
0.15678320825099945,
-0.48749613761901855,
-0.576023280620575,
-0.00703416345641017,
0.38062673807144165,
0.11388806253671646,
0.5505920052528381,
-0.5256367325782776,
-0.20526067912578583,
0.0158652663230896,
0.5336064696311951,
0.8381861448287964,
-0.6497556567192078,
0.06850746273994446,
0.07340329140424728,
0.7161614894866943,
0.1543373018503189,
-0.04313620924949646,
-0.35350754857063293,
-0.5155952572822571,
0.07726676762104034,
-0.49401211738586426,
0.4822034537792206,
0.9186449646949768,
-0.6260674595832825,
-0.9224990010261536,
-0.27155551314353943,
-0.5316400527954102,
0.4220035970211029,
-0.7067040801048279,
-0.3950158357620239,
-0.19629307091236115,
-0.046197451651096344,
0.1084948405623436,
0.03968222439289093,
0.036253832280635834,
-0.15678414702415466,
0.1834411919116974,
-0.16648083925247192,
-0.043020617216825485,
1.1411925554275513,
-0.012544984929263592,
0.05840940773487091,
0.4356408715248108,
0.12056944519281387,
0.05336659401655197,
0.0620584674179554,
-0.20041987299919128,
0.2525005638599396,
0.2055889070034027,
0.2550384998321533,
0.8504722714424133,
0.02637992985546589,
-0.13554364442825317,
-0.6493564248085022,
0.31622809171676636,
0.1502978503704071,
-0.06945040076971054,
-0.40690797567367554,
0.3023965060710907,
0.5727431178092957,
-0.3891473710536957,
0.4429400563240051,
0.1805681437253952,
-0.654586911201477,
0.13577227294445038,
0.00000609073185842135,
0.22017782926559448,
0.19792552292346954,
0.04792358726263046,
-0.20847582817077637,
-0.0660402774810791,
-0.041246429085731506,
-0.26207858324050903,
-0.5998893976211548,
-0.4401971995830536,
-0.19802866876125336,
-0.19565144181251526,
0.557364284992218,
-0.21021461486816406,
0.08935622125864029,
0.5003700256347656,
0.016331596300005913,
0.5100060701370239,
-0.054109420627355576,
0.4971369802951813,
0.5639224052429199,
0.11913691461086273,
-0.5798678994178772,
0.2962791919708252,
0.12580446898937225,
-0.08720772713422775,
0.44330915808677673,
0.006122213322669268,
0.009987536817789078,
-0.10463470965623856,
0.27899169921875,
0.035753343254327774,
-0.2766667306423187,
-0.18897278606891632,
-0.7034043073654175,
-0.013704831711947918,
-0.32771068811416626,
-0.25367671251296997,
0.5846937894821167,
0.20034655928611755,
-0.07551218569278717,
0.438043475151062,
-0.5942033529281616,
0.07563911378383636,
-0.6665125489234924,
0.4838251769542694,
-0.08644301444292068,
-0.2618309557437897,
0.17500832676887512,
-0.32593852281570435,
0.047957200556993484,
-0.2710578143596649,
-0.46108660101890564,
-0.08536265045404434,
0.06606777012348175,
-0.48055046796798706,
-0.03884816914796829,
-0.1835726946592331,
0.468394011259079,
0.2357315719127655,
-0.17404015362262726,
0.18816819787025452,
-0.19770373404026031,
0.10053405165672302,
0.18601128458976746,
0.2159963697195053,
0.19684353470802307,
0.2444380521774292,
0.24809695780277252,
-0.2497076839208603,
0.21591009199619293,
-0.03126249462366104,
0.013593368232250214,
-0.1549995243549347,
0.2404104471206665,
0.34806978702545166,
-0.2436710149049759,
-0.02997247315943241,
-0.15070740878582,
-0.01763014867901802,
0.4429393410682678,
-0.26551511883735657,
-0.008848654106259346,
-0.2487131655216217,
-0.32591161131858826,
0.007243784610182047,
-0.2427286058664322,
0.17869073152542114,
-0.39719510078430176,
0.2424830198287964,
-0.6671296954154968,
0.10706602036952972,
-0.45713740587234497,
-0.18610820174217224,
0.003880124306306243,
-0.023964200168848038,
-0.5816047191619873,
-0.9003978371620178,
-0.3466097414493561,
-0.07528776675462723,
-0.16180694103240967,
-0.15660284459590912,
-0.8765228390693665,
-0.30104851722717285,
0.2531850337982178,
-0.933061957359314,
0.046742938458919525,
0.06108110770583153,
-0.07883207499980927,
0.2889446020126343,
0.6129066348075867,
0.134181946516037,
0.045905329287052155,
-0.25560757517814636,
0.4214411973953247,
-0.35141968727111816,
0.1065824031829834,
-0.4373282194137573,
-0.5013794302940369,
0.09148051589727402,
0.46923547983169556,
-0.2899220287799835,
0.7801996469497681,
0.0002245246578240767,
-0.4331192374229431,
0.3286304175853729,
-5.928926944732666,
-0.08991894125938416,
-0.17699706554412842,
-0.11325568705797195,
0.28491339087486267,
0.46886351704597473,
0.643180787563324,
-0.5506066679954529,
0.0012648270931094885,
-0.629169762134552,
-0.14244233071804047,
0.21180276572704315,
0.19862231612205505,
0.5832480788230896,
0.27121636271476746,
0.07492244988679886,
0.21788689494132996,
-0.6396883726119995,
0.3942576050758362,
-0.082396499812603,
0.19449573755264282,
0.08959417045116425,
0.4640052616596222,
0.7478923201560974,
0.3674750328063965,
-0.06028066202998161,
-0.18639540672302246,
0.353270947933197,
-0.0336015485227108,
0.42632532119750977,
0.6942952275276184,
0.28449782729148865,
0.24034483730793,
-0.3229805529117584,
-0.11279750615358353,
-0.1765853762626648,
0.33410683274269104,
0.03363674506545067,
0.25317028164863586,
-0.19723081588745117,
0.21937304735183716,
-0.0496956892311573,
0.12310077250003815,
-0.44033995270729065,
-0.4087112247943878,
-0.18587274849414825,
-0.30699265003204346,
-0.2091754525899887,
-0.25591087341308594,
0.7350742220878601,
-0.45830851793289185,
0.24576567113399506,
-0.06116566061973572,
-0.4564177691936493,
-0.2514010965824127,
0.19681529700756073,
0.6729921102523804,
-0.18846167623996735,
-0.14324365556240082,
-0.3978954255580902,
0.19955532252788544,
-0.6254899501800537,
-0.15864740312099457,
-0.0001538146025268361,
-0.1633269339799881,
0.04534042626619339,
-0.7915265560150146,
0.19385576248168945,
0.3120381236076355,
1.1246585845947266,
-0.33699503540992737,
-0.03355467692017555,
-0.18142899870872498,
-0.9562408328056335,
-0.1155238002538681,
-0.6505535244941711,
-0.20207591354846954,
0.01642528735101223,
0.12448617815971375,
0.27233827114105225,
-0.19507014751434326,
0.3229415714740753,
0.07356901466846466,
0.44864320755004883,
0.37130796909332275,
-0.06634790450334549,
-0.1717166155576706,
0.18026307225227356,
-0.028187386691570282,
-0.24917520582675934,
0.6953760981559753,
-0.7324010133743286,
-0.2114858776330948,
-0.060998011380434036,
-0.13991877436637878,
0.47897589206695557,
-0.10310711711645126,
0.05944089591503143,
0.6227153539657593,
0.02940485253930092,
0.3318604528903961,
-0.044080134481191635,
0.10664647072553635,
0.06565848737955093,
0.13619296252727509,
-0.1938866227865219,
-0.13296671211719513,
0.7041497230529785,
0.36603671312332153,
-0.0062823425978422165,
-0.10082058608531952,
-0.10829552263021469,
0.13086767494678497,
-0.8180133104324341,
-0.13724583387374878,
-0.1988176554441452,
-0.0417441762983799,
0.5119810104370117,
0.3907066881656647,
0.33465781807899475,
0.21492108702659607,
-0.08248510211706161,
-0.3485085666179657,
0.20996885001659393,
-0.5861265659332275,
0.3419472575187683,
0.03575337678194046,
0.031133290380239487,
0.1631401628255844,
-0.4502526819705963,
0.6690202355384827,
0.016357343643903732,
0.291839063167572,
0.02853791043162346,
0.151756152510643,
0.09586068987846375,
0.2848309278488159,
-0.5434556007385254,
0.10333279520273209,
-0.7799431085586548,
-0.12167561799287796,
-0.33303123712539673,
-0.5104315280914307,
0.12741553783416748,
0.8798830509185791,
0.5206618309020996,
-0.526219367980957,
-0.004552662838250399,
-0.43996986746788025,
0.6151535511016846,
0.4147486388683319,
0.19289492070674896,
0.1457781195640564,
-0.5376055240631104,
-0.11095678806304932,
0.08179144561290741,
0.2427758425474167,
0.19481928646564484,
-0.0878765732049942,
-0.2711872458457947,
-0.3336551785469055,
-0.7967052459716797,
-1.0624295473098755,
-0.20585308969020844,
-0.1613299399614334,
-0.27822548151016235,
-0.6303063035011292,
-0.5333461165428162,
-0.13480348885059357,
0.7193141579627991,
0.3725399374961853,
-0.10471972823143005,
-0.38922059535980225,
0.20678381621837616,
0.004242497496306896,
-0.11618342250585556,
0.0324653722345829,
0.06447099149227142,
-0.011217326857149601,
0.21219119429588318,
0.03344277665019035,
-0.2176463007926941,
-0.11101388931274414,
-0.14905206859111786,
0.11625770479440689,
0.07817313075065613,
-0.1438281238079071,
0.15647542476654053,
0.09798601269721985,
0.35515737533569336,
-0.21187949180603027,
0.1288871467113495,
-0.28578174114227295,
-0.5867109894752502,
-0.37809333205223083,
-0.3992340564727783,
-0.17621342837810516,
0.3309774696826935,
-0.18396808207035065,
-0.6080458760261536,
0.6149096488952637,
0.020918305963277817,
-0.6837064027786255,
-0.21121837198734283,
-0.23120957612991333,
-0.012403824366629124,
0.8481069803237915,
-0.1438598334789276,
-0.5238327383995056,
0.25857892632484436,
-0.22171185910701752,
-0.7528840899467468,
0.0816408321261406,
0.7510247826576233,
-0.6793199777603149,
-0.08823613077402115,
-0.2844398319721222,
-0.5252846479415894,
-0.4073334336280823,
-0.2699049711227417,
-0.000311341107590124,
0.4979606866836548,
-0.46864885091781616,
0.6408075094223022,
-0.1301846206188202,
0.1335703432559967,
0.2750721275806427,
-1.2077006101608276,
0.18860547244548798,
-0.13968296349048615,
0.4562092423439026,
0.14738808572292328,
-0.16192452609539032,
0.007626221980899572,
-0.35808107256889343,
-0.23459991812705994,
-0.5740345120429993,
-0.01419517956674099,
-0.32914799451828003,
0.3260762095451355,
0.4131077229976654,
0.75135338306427,
-0.021832497790455818,
-0.5161468386650085,
-0.44931772351264954,
0.3488307595252991,
-0.24808193743228912,
-0.24495822191238403,
-0.11267925053834915,
0.550631046295166,
0.08173640072345734,
0.2244129776954651,
-0.0038849152624607086,
-0.14799955487251282,
0.16946370899677277,
-0.5003255605697632,
-0.2519582509994507,
0.4872053861618042,
0.2088158279657364,
0.3192402422428131,
0.3549785017967224,
-0.47475555539131165,
-0.02563830278813839,
0.09393741935491562,
0.23941157758235931,
-0.07130047678947449,
0.4368111193180084,
-0.13626769185066223,
0.2874778211116791,
0.42100071907043457,
0.04231923073530197,
-0.0813201367855072,
0.34494855999946594,
-0.012796749360859394,
-0.02555273473262787,
-0.075685054063797,
0.0754406675696373,
-0.23460771143436432,
0.6060062050819397,
0.6633430123329163,
-0.3048457205295563,
-0.09214229881763458,
0.07927022129297256,
-0.19653643667697906,
0.21296918392181396,
-1.1442946195602417,
-0.005783282686024904,
0.7764463424682617,
0.10517478734254837,
0.1453755646944046,
-0.3113649785518646,
-0.42086195945739746,
0.19485723972320557,
0.6516783237457275,
-0.18055106699466705,
0.45836418867111206,
0.35888439416885376,
-0.10142049193382263,
-0.11445056647062302,
0.014183323830366135,
0.10718511044979095,
0.4370375871658325,
0.3512386083602905,
-0.7815614342689514,
0.2136991024017334,
-0.011563424952328205,
0.396634042263031,
-0.1558365523815155,
-0.5807185173034668,
-0.24798806011676788,
0.19763995707035065,
-0.07024247944355011,
0.3943466246128082,
0.9779553413391113,
0.05711665377020836,
0.2762545645236969,
0.326972097158432,
0.1732662469148636,
-0.45673710107803345,
0.5196435451507568,
0.26706793904304504,
-0.6312866806983948,
0.1476481854915619,
-0.11131696403026581,
-0.13868454098701477,
-0.03172668069601059,
-0.13186705112457275,
-0.6027917861938477,
0.44542574882507324,
0.11243652552366257,
0.2814916670322418,
0.6025437116622925,
-0.37957489490509033,
0.7462170720100403,
-0.8355215787887573,
-0.6027137637138367,
0.06980285048484802,
-0.6994242668151855,
-0.25103676319122314,
0.6221198439598083,
0.3101527690887451,
0.11480790376663208,
0.1473156064748764,
0.25416815280914307,
-0.16853199899196625,
0.012476528994739056,
-0.6080875992774963,
0.006238756701350212,
0.012138751335442066,
0.4204937815666199,
-0.061424482613801956,
0.41233566403388977,
-0.23004545271396637,
0.17916317284107208,
0.6308402419090271,
-0.5276287198066711,
0.39107435941696167,
-0.10333812236785889,
0.21542303264141083,
-0.3198252022266388,
-0.4084528684616089,
0.5683647990226746,
0.508541464805603,
0.07878004014492035,
-0.12542705237865448,
0.6246330142021179,
0.563392162322998,
-0.09600222110748291,
-0.04285561293363571,
-0.2714332640171051,
-0.0016264321748167276,
0.015754815191030502,
-0.7038938403129578,
-0.15268254280090332,
0.49761849641799927,
-0.43701982498168945,
0.34352779388427734,
0.14462332427501678,
0.3580930531024933,
-0.07176754623651505,
-0.3282574713230133,
-0.18768310546875,
-0.4101388156414032,
-0.8390623927116394,
-0.5390711426734924,
0.2911139726638794,
0.16008131206035614,
-0.085722915828228,
0.010515855625271797,
0.17994114756584167,
0.041100602596998215,
-0.1724061220884323,
0.40481534600257874,
-0.6271807551383972,
-0.376340389251709,
-0.3508535623550415,
0.24652060866355896,
0.8134981393814087,
-0.07296397536993027,
-0.08452711254358292,
0.49567174911499023,
0.0437111034989357,
0.29820942878723145,
-0.3529137969017029,
-0.07881270349025726,
-0.22018589079380035,
0.14524072408676147,
0.055468931794166565,
-0.510342538356781,
0.3600867986679077,
0.3527340590953827,
-0.29154643416404724,
-0.29537567496299744,
0.4022495746612549,
-0.04108084365725517,
0.2405005246400833,
0.6909855604171753,
-0.6925283670425415,
0.46067240834236145,
-0.8169891238212585,
0.24106818437576294,
0.17018720507621765,
0.5253705978393555,
0.8037649393081665,
0.23976042866706848,
0.08340596407651901,
0.8485316634178162,
0.353960245847702,
-0.5121822953224182,
0.3215750455856323,
-0.6935099959373474,
-0.08533798158168793,
-0.2918844521045685,
0.07101882994174957,
-0.07841897755861282,
0.28244927525520325,
0.22181375324726105,
0.3571496605873108,
0.1338483840227127,
-0.8411306738853455,
0.33694392442703247,
0.21106727421283722,
-0.09554564952850342,
0.24687053263187408,
0.24038644134998322,
0.10403428971767426,
0.01427485141903162,
-0.020016731694340706,
-0.672812819480896,
0.17832043766975403,
0.53852379322052,
0.11765807121992111,
1.052173137664795,
-0.03193238377571106,
0.3123277425765991,
-0.5929893255233765,
0.43538713455200195,
0.003651179140433669,
0.1621333509683609,
0.7983908653259277
] |
247896 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yumi%2C%20Yumi%2C%20Yumi | Yumi, Yumi, Yumi | "Yumi, Yumi, Yumi" (Bislama: "We, We, We") is the national anthem of Vanuatu. It was written and composed by François Vincent Ayssav who was born in 1955 and adopted by the citizens of Vanuatu in 1980.
Lyrics
Lyrics in Bislama:
RAMIL:
Yumi, yumi, yumi i glat longi talem se
Yumi, yumi, yumi ol man blong Vanuatu
God i givim ples ia long yumi,
Yumi glat tumas long hem,
Yumi strong mo yumi fri long hem,
Yumi brata evriwan!
RAMIL
Plante fasin blong bifo i stap,
Plante fasin blong tedei,
Be yumi i olsem wan nomo,
Hemia fasin blong yumi!
RAMIL
Yumi save plante wok i stap,
Long ol aelan blong yumi,
God i helpem yumi evriwan,
Hem i papa blong yumi!
English translation:
CHORUS:
We are, we are, we are happy to proclaim
We are, we are, we are the people of Vanuatu
God has given us this land,
We are grateful for this,
We are strong and we are free in this land,
We are all brothers!
CHORUS
Many customs of before we have,
Many customs from today,
But we are all one,
Despite our many ways!
CHORUS
We know there is plenty of work to be done,
On all our many islands,
God helps us in our work,
He is Our Father!
French translation:
REFRAIN :
Nous nous nous sommes fiers de dire que
Nous nous nous sommes des Hommes du Vanuatu
Dieu nous a donné cet endroit,
Nous y sommes très heureux,
Nous y sommes forts et libres,
Nous sommes tous frères !
REFRAIN
Il y a beaucoup de coutumes du passé,
Il y a beaucoup de coutumes d'aujourd'hui,
Mais nous ne sommes qu'un,
Voilà notre coutume !
REFRAIN
Nous savons qu'Il y a beaucoup de travail,
Sur toutes nos îles,
Dieu nous aide tous,
Il est Notre Père !
References
External links
Alternate English translation
Partnersinrhyme
The anthem sung at the 40th anniversary of independence celebrations
National anthems
Vanuatuan music
National symbols of Vanuatu
Oceanian anthems
Year of song missing
National anthem compositions in C major
Bislama words and phrases | [
0.936095118522644,
0.0025667501613497734,
0.3873032033443451,
-0.037105005234479904,
-0.30013155937194824,
0.07332833111286163,
0.4817028045654297,
0.3917989134788513,
-0.321979820728302,
0.08190887421369553,
-0.12269383668899536,
0.5990504026412964,
0.1319708675146103,
0.3708788752555847,
-0.6354749798774719,
0.3835487961769104,
0.11771909147500992,
0.7845300436019897,
0.16338129341602325,
-0.22324497997760773,
-0.5273039937019348,
0.19185316562652588,
1.1077784299850464,
-0.1417759358882904,
0.17467202246189117,
0.46538689732551575,
0.6818436980247498,
0.2060069888830185,
-0.5804349780082703,
-0.0890907570719719,
-0.35740572214126587,
0.38629958033561707,
0.23215721547603607,
-0.0038296873681247234,
0.4095495939254761,
0.31103602051734924,
0.33834657073020935,
0.07914415001869202,
-0.38072243332862854,
-0.36189791560173035,
0.325154572725296,
-1.0174376964569092,
0.6393982172012329,
-0.33743607997894287,
0.4055251479148865,
-0.943213701248169,
-1.290428638458252,
0.5658461451530457,
-0.6156684756278992,
-0.30471956729888916,
-0.39247995615005493,
-0.03253958374261856,
0.3567722737789154,
0.33188170194625854,
0.3183911442756653,
0.4110206663608551,
-0.664717972278595,
-0.4600788354873657,
-0.21301211416721344,
-0.32462769746780396,
0.012337316758930683,
0.11273782700300217,
0.02746027149260044,
0.08119066059589386,
0.936850368976593,
0.1960299164056778,
-0.11565996706485748,
0.11332235485315323,
-0.45238226652145386,
-0.9469518661499023,
-0.4163980185985565,
0.15895923972129822,
-0.7510344982147217,
-0.4050419330596924,
-0.17915603518486023,
-0.29463186860084534,
-0.3040490746498108,
0.36863258481025696,
0.20385831594467163,
0.48573923110961914,
-0.31769418716430664,
-0.22768834233283997,
0.13776959478855133,
0.7843170166015625,
-0.11519681662321091,
-0.20777659118175507,
0.7144740223884583,
1.0321009159088135,
-0.3962841033935547,
0.5317140817642212,
-0.38082176446914673,
-0.7831683158874512,
0.2032431811094284,
-0.2638963758945465,
-0.24353426694869995,
-0.4366912841796875,
-0.34953367710113525,
0.7278728485107422,
0.1478075385093689,
-0.17781135439872742,
0.3438870310783386,
-0.34381404519081116,
0.4442807137966156,
-0.3621402382850647,
-1.2943744659423828,
-0.45466259121894836,
-0.5073466897010803,
-0.32239437103271484,
0.08395341038703918,
-0.04460662230849266,
0.13605810701847076,
-0.10251519083976746,
0.08382165431976318,
-0.020452816039323807,
0.21448729932308197,
0.10757645219564438,
0.7727437019348145,
-0.6384559869766235,
-0.8055803775787354,
0.1075894683599472,
0.19115468859672546,
-0.03526024520397186,
0.14628127217292786,
-0.21353299915790558,
0.4512941837310791,
0.5658507347106934,
0.374213308095932,
0.7436008453369141,
-0.4625016152858734,
0.2893446385860443,
0.3513694107532501,
0.9108577966690063,
-0.23296710848808289,
0.12331964820623398,
0.1279556155204773,
-0.38034844398498535,
0.049650512635707855,
-0.6401821970939636,
0.6138603687286377,
-0.18590691685676575,
-0.6679149270057678,
-0.16456006467342377,
-1.0956385135650635,
-0.007984524592757225,
0.8108739852905273,
0.21043972671031952,
-0.9557382464408875,
0.17693550884723663,
-0.5716657638549805,
-0.38373902440071106,
0.08369376510381699,
-0.06886428594589233,
0.07898446917533875,
0.2705591917037964,
-0.6578966975212097,
-0.5061401128768921,
0.4442574977874756,
0.22869724035263062,
0.3123885691165924,
0.7275572419166565,
-0.4244138300418854,
0.24334029853343964,
0.1685207337141037,
0.5859163999557495,
-0.10628321021795273,
-0.378611296415329,
0.23234130442142487,
1.1068620681762695,
1.0935207605361938,
-0.004773631226271391,
-0.23538650572299957,
0.2000436633825302,
0.09984944015741348,
0.2946133017539978,
-0.24814189970493317,
-0.5061874985694885,
0.9816781282424927,
0.03967848792672157,
-0.12796686589717865,
-0.045622069388628006,
-0.598222017288208,
0.29242467880249023,
0.06636746972799301,
0.25103530287742615,
0.4683002233505249,
0.4406040906906128,
-0.10355883836746216,
0.7528382539749146,
0.4589250981807709,
-0.3282869756221771,
-0.5101547241210938,
-0.522142767906189,
0.7582359910011292,
-0.004073667339980602,
-0.30651405453681946,
0.3750421404838562,
0.25777626037597656,
0.905367910861969,
0.09760726243257523,
0.4108363687992096,
0.3133285939693451,
0.32598111033439636,
0.20848675072193146,
0.27453547716140747,
-0.7886765599250793,
0.4507359266281128,
0.061063025146722794,
0.3163062632083893,
0.16365927457809448,
-0.06298819929361343,
-0.3081720173358917,
0.19528132677078247,
-0.1078125387430191,
0.13206328451633453,
-0.7009117007255554,
-0.6998046040534973,
-0.09411861002445221,
0.42019543051719666,
0.023952072486281395,
-0.18562674522399902,
0.2068905383348465,
-0.151936337351799,
-0.2798798382282257,
-0.258782297372818,
0.9585322737693787,
0.7437177300453186,
-0.25438016653060913,
-0.28134673833847046,
-0.05459367856383324,
0.15273022651672363,
-0.2521863877773285,
-0.1310780644416809,
0.4305163025856018,
0.4245387017726898,
-0.0732189416885376,
0.6876948475837708,
0.17881733179092407,
-0.7419636845588684,
0.4692351818084717,
-0.15626029670238495,
-0.15254174172878265,
-0.018026087433099747,
-0.2870403528213501,
-0.004499797709286213,
0.3718656003475189,
0.09112682193517685,
-0.17478901147842407,
-0.31499767303466797,
-0.23768968880176544,
0.20990611612796783,
0.2882906198501587,
-0.4486657381057739,
0.34356051683425903,
0.5895577669143677,
0.004703562706708908,
-0.2209111452102661,
-0.06814654171466827,
-0.12195850908756256,
0.8865290284156799,
0.08061421662569046,
-0.08198215067386627,
-0.09908699244260788,
0.7233465909957886,
-0.39520949125289917,
-0.05791569501161575,
-0.540951669216156,
0.04008502513170242,
-0.29406362771987915,
0.2622726559638977,
0.09900413453578949,
0.14091534912586212,
-0.0029056654311716557,
-0.14459344744682312,
0.12730775773525238,
-0.1478264331817627,
-0.2085283100605011,
-0.23064859211444855,
0.13580790162086487,
-0.6496333479881287,
-0.9237818121910095,
0.3763771951198578,
0.41408735513687134,
-0.3989039659500122,
-0.9296171069145203,
-0.4345356225967407,
-0.2696720063686371,
0.12313342094421387,
-0.4785047769546509,
-0.14416076242923737,
-0.47238466143608093,
-0.18986263871192932,
0.18987515568733215,
-0.5308710336685181,
-0.33365723490715027,
0.12543310225009918,
-0.1990022212266922,
0.5913803577423096,
0.3624129295349121,
0.46240031719207764,
-0.22251306474208832,
0.15495388209819794,
-0.2663843035697937,
-0.07321297377347946,
-0.33119192719459534,
0.6566405296325684,
-0.039716970175504684,
-0.3084293305873871,
-0.15570096671581268,
-5.334167957305908,
0.06854928284883499,
-0.14533285796642303,
0.13799190521240234,
0.2372998744249344,
-0.09533175826072693,
0.418158620595932,
-0.4006202220916748,
0.23783132433891296,
-0.5593762397766113,
-0.2692752182483673,
0.04835939034819603,
-0.17394523322582245,
0.40226855874061584,
0.4090377986431122,
-0.08889325708150864,
0.4938699007034302,
0.1110500693321228,
0.5967373847961426,
0.12755702435970306,
0.5602045655250549,
-0.16576798260211945,
-0.1439354121685028,
0.26814278960227966,
0.14069996774196625,
0.11172106117010117,
0.5474058985710144,
-0.29216960072517395,
-0.5658343434333801,
-0.08036276698112488,
-0.2397731989622116,
-0.715373694896698,
0.6665246486663818,
-0.6670105457305908,
-0.06432676315307617,
-0.20499287545681,
0.665235161781311,
-0.08113913238048553,
0.6477478742599487,
-0.5771329402923584,
-0.04834448918700218,
-0.04245232418179512,
0.4517335295677185,
-0.4700980484485626,
-0.40265318751335144,
0.16491779685020447,
-0.3420831263065338,
-0.8141447305679321,
-0.8209909796714783,
0.8856605887413025,
0.15269654989242554,
-0.46750593185424805,
0.4044345021247864,
-0.9777858257293701,
-0.024693531915545464,
-0.10471049696207047,
0.38637015223503113,
0.0062751504592597485,
-0.5515995025634766,
0.02745148353278637,
0.5256969928741455,
-0.32692646980285645,
-0.4606403708457947,
-0.5369736552238464,
-0.04055260866880417,
-0.2461748868227005,
-0.2629851698875427,
0.07759366184473038,
-0.29418349266052246,
0.22495798766613007,
-0.12652114033699036,
-0.6026066541671753,
-0.6362839937210083,
-0.5141130685806274,
-0.1906956434249878,
-0.4173000156879425,
-0.47932863235473633,
0.006917539052665234,
-0.8231737613677979,
0.015901513397693634,
-0.19106289744377136,
-0.3480779230594635,
-0.5009498596191406,
0.3034225404262543,
0.07247518002986908,
-0.3590351939201355,
0.2183661311864853,
-0.06012770161032677,
-0.27863141894340515,
0.23390662670135498,
0.3740271031856537,
-0.7427657842636108,
0.09476035088300705,
0.30501407384872437,
0.7286126017570496,
0.5591691136360168,
0.12692511081695557,
0.0225730761885643,
0.9022639989852905,
-0.4842485189437866,
-0.27252402901649475,
0.13959024846553802,
0.606137752532959,
-0.2413555383682251,
0.3513341248035431,
0.14778417348861694,
-0.049843207001686096,
-0.22501753270626068,
0.7074434161186218,
-0.11197017133235931,
0.11692437529563904,
0.1624971330165863,
-0.34179550409317017,
-0.03447436913847923,
-0.22558845579624176,
-0.5056777000427246,
0.21232086420059204,
0.6149836778640747,
0.7661335468292236,
0.11348527669906616,
0.37434691190719604,
0.6996330618858337,
-0.08333558589220047,
0.26264554262161255,
-0.24176381528377533,
-0.09072748571634293,
-0.038587503135204315,
0.5488543510437012,
-0.5415930151939392,
-0.019497239962220192,
0.5577946901321411,
-0.43326708674430847,
0.4989991784095764,
-0.44215062260627747,
0.48803091049194336,
0.45683208107948303,
-0.047109030187129974,
-0.9469372630119324,
-0.2932077646255493,
-0.8337902426719666,
-0.3967304825782776,
-0.6677380204200745,
0.24462799727916718,
0.2820678651332855,
1.0509753227233887,
0.4279799163341522,
-0.19928599894046783,
-0.4556070864200592,
-0.6897599101066589,
0.42254143953323364,
0.3226300776004791,
-0.2171371579170227,
0.41620731353759766,
-0.7900760769844055,
-0.24945701658725739,
0.49120157957077026,
0.29920098185539246,
-0.5553928017616272,
0.033806316554546356,
-0.4595041871070862,
-0.18836462497711182,
-0.6899576783180237,
-1.162294626235962,
-0.04381940886378288,
-0.24022041261196136,
-0.043212078511714935,
-0.027527155354619026,
-0.10929396748542786,
-0.22463424503803253,
0.5605273246765137,
0.8066975474357605,
-0.0748324915766716,
-0.5341742038726807,
0.2761843800544739,
-0.015991026535630226,
-0.45867350697517395,
0.04038669168949127,
-0.05255447328090668,
-0.09597409516572952,
-0.018773240968585014,
-0.23071184754371643,
0.16120272874832153,
0.12082322686910629,
-0.05172715708613396,
0.1194806918501854,
-0.47225421667099,
0.03871405869722366,
-0.16776664555072784,
-0.8662137389183044,
0.5479248762130737,
-0.14681731164455414,
0.4906924068927765,
0.17030413448810577,
0.13164331018924713,
-0.3676154911518097,
-0.25099268555641174,
-0.2459375411272049,
0.748384416103363,
-0.31547436118125916,
0.2468222677707672,
-0.09054645895957947,
0.19501052796840668,
-0.01987222395837307,
-0.23035891354084015,
-0.3778153657913208,
-0.346059113740921,
0.3094691336154938,
-0.26676249504089355,
-0.4666745662689209,
0.09869656711816788,
-0.4611414670944214,
-0.5760148763656616,
0.11235550791025162,
1.007351279258728,
-0.12025276571512222,
-0.26143065094947815,
-0.10748827457427979,
-0.4462547302246094,
0.09014294296503067,
-0.8763711452484131,
0.08456446975469589,
0.05122499167919159,
0.044462330639362335,
0.24324537813663483,
-0.8025200366973877,
0.7947878241539001,
-0.20767053961753845,
-0.5398141145706177,
-0.4198833703994751,
-0.1444089561700821,
0.2441128045320511,
-0.5001187920570374,
0.5710293054580688,
0.6474038362503052,
-0.5995081067085266,
0.06496015191078186,
-0.3504815101623535,
0.1809541881084442,
0.42594581842422485,
0.8255459070205688,
-0.013088928535580635,
0.41061386466026306,
0.25382161140441895,
-0.6723687648773193,
-1.0254693031311035,
0.4548915922641754,
0.07469654828310013,
0.3100501000881195,
-0.6095610857009888,
0.6421778202056885,
-0.4274533689022064,
0.3123195469379425,
-0.7834597826004028,
-0.5518009662628174,
0.1932370662689209,
-0.43871936202049255,
-0.4979188144207001,
-0.27388331294059753,
0.006052717100828886,
-0.11328969895839691,
0.4057687222957611,
-0.2991078197956085,
-0.31230559945106506,
0.5446312427520752,
0.6116002798080444,
0.5285875797271729,
-0.12462097406387329,
0.14255878329277039,
-0.4400329887866974,
0.3434978425502777,
-0.5667189359664917,
-0.10131796449422836,
-0.22079631686210632,
0.005261324346065521,
0.011807143688201904,
0.03770991414785385,
0.054937079548835754,
-0.19844256341457367,
0.25603535771369934,
0.30972060561180115,
-0.05076491832733154,
0.11464248597621918,
-0.5445205569267273,
0.19603121280670166,
-0.15810932219028473,
-0.6194509267807007,
-0.4318694472312927,
0.13946060836315155,
-0.022950956597924232,
0.1503162831068039,
-0.41086363792419434,
0.15482018887996674,
-0.06857222318649292,
0.3900381922721863,
-0.18609845638275146,
0.16980674862861633,
0.42422735691070557,
0.06875462085008621,
-1.007145643234253,
-0.28841325640678406,
-0.4223659336566925,
-0.043939556926488876,
0.8461506366729736,
-0.19689208269119263,
-0.1498381793498993,
-0.5013731122016907,
0.22506918013095856,
-0.36894553899765015,
0.202429860830307,
0.7742859125137329,
0.33649417757987976,
0.582334578037262,
0.7218443751335144,
0.836419939994812,
-0.2505851089954376,
0.6929875612258911,
0.5297302007675171,
-0.5343261361122131,
-0.17875301837921143,
0.5477688908576965,
0.5330183506011963,
-1.203104019165039,
0.5118492245674133,
0.644290566444397,
0.25696393847465515,
0.26247507333755493,
-0.1541922688484192,
-0.5254300832748413,
0.8116718530654907,
0.36465397477149963,
0.03856976702809334,
0.09483246505260468,
-0.19544221460819244,
0.214124396443367,
-0.6577256917953491,
-0.37619706988334656,
-0.10345830768346786,
-0.541081964969635,
-0.36230212450027466,
1.0049437284469604,
0.9858337640762329,
0.8864613771438599,
0.13919150829315186,
-0.6667340397834778,
0.772508442401886,
-0.29592838883399963,
-0.08204103261232376,
0.3399209976196289,
0.6032119393348694,
-0.6564743518829346,
0.5905227065086365,
0.07104133814573288,
-0.2791357636451721,
-0.7106271982192993,
0.8279629349708557,
-0.016855377703905106,
0.6108153462409973,
-1.1096271276474,
0.35547956824302673,
0.09990507364273071,
-0.24082833528518677,
-0.12066895514726639,
0.4334270656108856,
-0.11660695821046829,
-0.04473455995321274,
-0.20183756947517395,
0.4964991509914398,
-0.372985303401947,
0.1258762627840042,
0.29555052518844604,
0.16432474553585052,
0.4943542182445526,
-0.43565833568573,
0.47570058703422546,
-0.23174849152565002,
0.25907570123672485,
-0.4823911786079407,
-0.07813156396150589,
-0.3958871364593506,
-0.23861946165561676,
-0.3162904679775238,
0.013851426541805267,
0.21410126984119415,
-0.4036948084831238,
-0.2685319483280182,
0.14589962363243103,
0.4984844923019409,
-0.7786532640457153,
0.14571456611156464,
0.29006335139274597,
0.3638266324996948,
-0.41720741987228394,
-0.4895412027835846,
-0.06998416781425476,
-0.13298264145851135,
0.1357436627149582,
0.10479843616485596,
1.0226585865020752,
0.38379400968551636,
0.3536940813064575,
0.7618134617805481,
0.41747167706489563,
0.22346629202365875,
0.43650659918785095,
0.18061739206314087,
-0.056345004588365555,
-0.07030292600393295,
0.2748301923274994,
-0.27621808648109436,
-0.01857156492769718,
1.0582823753356934,
0.30240538716316223,
0.038795191794633865,
0.12566940486431122,
-0.16054780781269073,
-0.3229229152202606,
0.6551327109336853,
-0.3197191655635834,
-0.045414432883262634,
-0.6345167756080627,
-0.5774101614952087,
-0.3799964487552643,
0.07415197044610977,
0.670311689376831,
-0.21814407408237457,
0.04692811518907547,
-0.05460603907704353,
0.17491480708122253,
-1.1809395551681519,
-0.25143206119537354,
-0.5823748111724854,
0.03967957943677902,
0.31386247277259827,
0.4600648283958435,
-0.4185013771057129,
0.41152432560920715,
-0.12046770006418228,
0.261700838804245,
0.021085897460579872,
-1.0926461219787598,
0.1415216326713562,
-0.03259866312146187,
0.2300872504711151,
-0.09059492498636246,
-0.10578367859125137,
-0.16530071198940277,
0.012643304653465748,
0.4247567057609558,
-0.9066932201385498,
-0.09918716549873352,
-0.1688317507505417,
-0.7339898347854614,
0.3854616582393646,
-0.01883135363459587,
0.23192770779132843,
-0.8462088108062744,
0.45699286460876465,
0.014847471378743649,
0.19865737855434418,
0.17197634279727936
] |
247897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20Amdahl | Gene Amdahl | Gene Myron Amdahl (November 16, 1922 – November 10, 2015) was an American computer architect and high-tech entrepreneur, chiefly known for his work on mainframe computers at IBM and later his own companies, especially Amdahl Corporation. He formulated Amdahl's law, which states a fundamental limitation of parallel computing.
Childhood and education
Amdahl was born to immigrant parents of Norwegian and Swedish descent in Flandreau, South Dakota. After serving in the Navy during World War II he completed a degree in engineering physics at South Dakota State University in 1948.
He went on to study theoretical physics at the University of Wisconsin–Madison under Robert G. Sachs. However, in 1950, Amdahl and Charles H. "Charlie" Davidson, a fellow Ph.D. student in the Department of Physics, approached Harold A. Peterson with the idea of a digital computer. Amdahl and Davidson gained the support of Peterson and fellow electrical engineering professor Vincent C. Rideout, who encouraged them to build a computer of their unique design. Amdahl completed his doctorate at UW–Madison in 1952 with a thesis titled A Logical Design of an Intermediate Speed Digital Computer and creating his first computer, the Wisconsin Integrally Synchronized Computer, WISC. He then went straight from Wisconsin to a position at IBM in June 1952.
IBM
At IBM, Amdahl worked on the IBM 704, the IBM 709, and then the Stretch project, the basis for the IBM 7030. He left IBM in December 1955, but returned in September 1960 (after working at Ramo-Wooldridge and at Aeronutronic). He quit out of frustration with the bureaucratic structure of the organization. In an interview conducted in 1989 for the Charles Babbage Institute, he addressed this:
On his return, he became chief architect of IBM System/360 and was named an IBM Fellow in 1965, and head of the ACS Laboratory in Menlo Park, California.
Amdahl Corporation
He left IBM again in September 1970, after his ideas for computer development were rejected, and set up Amdahl Corporation in Sunnyvale, California with aid from Fujitsu.
Competing with IBM in the mainframe market, the company manufactured "plug-compatible" mainframes, shipping its first machine in 1975 – the Amdahl 470V/6, a less expensive, more reliable and faster replacement for the System 370/168. By purchasing an Amdahl 470 and plug-compatible peripheral devices from third-party manufacturers, customers could now run S/360 and S/370 applications without buying actual IBM hardware. Amdahl's software team developed VM/PE (Virtual Machine/Performance Enhancement), software designed to optimize the performance of IBM's MVS operating system when running under IBM's VM operating system.
By 1979, Amdahl Corporation had sold over US$1 billion of V6 and V7 mainframes and had over 6,000 employees worldwide. The corporation went on to distribute an IBM-plug-compatible front-end processor (the 4705) as well as high-performance disk drives, both jointly developed with Fujitsu engineers.
At the 1967 Spring Joint Computer Conference, Amdahl, along with three other computer architects, most notably ILLIAC IV architect Daniel Slotnick, engaged in a discussion on future architectural trends. Amdahl argued, verbally and in three written pages, for performance limitations in any special feature or mode introduced to new machines. This resulted in two, major and lesser, "laws" of computer performance regarding sequential vs. parallel processing. These arguments continue to this day.
1979–2015: Entrepreneur
Amdahl left his eponymous company in August 1979 to set up Trilogy Systems, together with his son Carl, and Clifford Madden. With over US$200 million in funds, Trilogy was aimed at designing an integrated chip for even cheaper mainframes, but the chip development failed within months of the company's $60 million public offering; thereafter, the company focused on developing its VLSI technology and, when that project failed, in 1985, Trilogy merged into Elxsi, a computer maker with its own CPU design. Elxsi also did poorly and Amdahl left in 1989, having already founded his next venture, Andor International, in 1987. Andor hoped to compete in the mid-sized mainframe market, using improved manufacturing techniques developed by one of the company's employees, Robert F. Brown, to make smaller, more efficient machines. Production problems and strong competition led the company into bankruptcy by 1995.
Amdahl co-founded Commercial Data Servers in 1996, again in Sunnyvale, and again developing mainframe-like machines but this time with new super-cooled processor designs and aimed at physically smaller systems. One such machine, from 1997, was the ESP/490 (Enterprise Server Platform/490), an enhancement of IBM's P/390 of the System/390 family. Since then, CDS has changed its name and narrowed its focus. As Xbridge Systems, the company now builds software to scan mainframe datasets and database tables for sensitive information such as credit card numbers, social security and other government identification numbers, sensitive medical diagnosis information that can be linked to an individual, and other information such as that needed for electronic discovery.
In November 2004, Amdahl was appointed to the board of advisors of Massively Parallel Technologies.
He died on November 10, 2015, in Palo Alto, California, from pneumonia, six days shy of his 93rd birthday. He also had Alzheimer's disease in the last years of his life.
Awards and recognition
Amdahl was named an IBM Fellow in 1965, became a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 1967 and was recognized as the Centennial Alumnus of South Dakota State University in 1986. He has numerous awards and patents to his credit and has received Honorary Doctorates from his two alma maters and two other institutions as well.
Amdahl was elected Distinguished Fellow of the British Computer Society (DFBCS) in 1979, and in 1983 he was awarded the Harry H. Goode Memorial Award by the IEEE Computer Society "in recognition of his outstanding contributions to the design, applications and manufacture of large-scale high-performance computers."
In 1998, he was made a Fellow of the Computer History Museum "for his fundamental work in computer architecture and design, project management, and leadership."
In November 2007, Amdahl was recognized with the SIGDA Pioneering Achievement Award. A banquet dinner in his honor featured a short talk by Amdahl on his career, and a panel debate on the future of parallel processing. Panelists included John Gustafson (known for Gustafson's law). The talk and debate were both videotaped, and are available through the SIGDA Web page, and the ACM Digital Library.
See also
Amdahl's law
Amdahl Corporation
IBM mainframe
FUD – a term coined by Amdahl to describe IBM's competitive tactics
References
External links
Oral history interview with Gene M. Amdahl Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota. Amdahl discusses his graduate work at the University of Wisconsin and his design of WISC. Discusses his role in the designing of several computers for IBM including the IBM 7030 Stretch, IBM 701, and IBM 704. He discusses his work with Nathaniel Rochester and IBM's management of the design process. Mentions work with Ramo-Wooldridge, Aeronutronic, and Computer Sciences Corporation
1922 births
2015 deaths
American computer businesspeople
American physicists
Computer hardware engineers
IBM employees
IBM Fellows
People from Flandreau, South Dakota
American people of Norwegian descent
American people of Swedish descent
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Letters and Science alumni
Fellows of the British Computer Society
South Dakota State University alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Deaths from pneumonia in California
United States Navy personnel of World War II | [
-0.11877943575382233,
0.7866833806037903,
-0.5939889550209045,
0.27829107642173767,
0.3343035578727722,
0.3377704918384552,
-0.0037131032440811396,
-0.13815180957317352,
-0.039208825677633286,
-0.13850563764572144,
-0.3051643967628479,
0.280085027217865,
-0.19322851300239563,
0.20803703367710114,
-0.102223701775074,
-0.5685614943504333,
-0.3002403974533081,
-0.5294453501701355,
-0.6011570692062378,
0.13375836610794067,
-0.696722686290741,
-0.5972704887390137,
0.348734587430954,
0.4217645227909088,
-0.0613740049302578,
0.3332812786102295,
0.06706144660711288,
-0.7587549686431885,
-0.034173835068941116,
0.4022296965122223,
0.3977661430835724,
-0.08252272009849548,
0.667914867401123,
-0.5943750143051147,
-0.3244965970516205,
0.034421391785144806,
-0.5295161604881287,
0.29788535833358765,
-0.03279338777065277,
0.3617512583732605,
-0.30990201234817505,
0.12053285539150238,
0.07827496528625488,
0.1663738340139389,
-0.18386229872703552,
-0.25653988122940063,
-1.7056162357330322,
0.1740245670080185,
-0.7351298928260803,
0.1732732057571411,
-0.7716253399848938,
-0.32785579562187195,
0.22919423878192902,
0.3617672622203827,
-0.014704368077218533,
0.30442488193511963,
0.06715340167284012,
-0.15408772230148315,
-0.21633601188659668,
-0.2962743937969208,
0.9155861139297485,
-0.5355221629142761,
0.5592163801193237,
-0.08306316286325455,
0.45880308747291565,
0.5120409727096558,
0.02344425767660141,
0.47822538018226624,
-0.31538042426109314,
0.14781390130519867,
0.042519740760326385,
0.04692618176341057,
-0.03437499329447746,
-0.008487542159855366,
0.6714131236076355,
-0.38953229784965515,
0.7747328877449036,
-0.16622449457645416,
-0.009654540568590164,
-0.141031414270401,
-0.17458511888980865,
0.26774561405181885,
0.7201573252677917,
0.5125066041946411,
0.2268105149269104,
0.017899086698889732,
-0.9777210354804993,
-0.0497293621301651,
-0.7919676899909973,
-0.0988326370716095,
-0.04518419876694679,
-0.3289623260498047,
0.20238514244556427,
0.3514830470085144,
-0.44496166706085205,
-0.4062861502170563,
0.0830136090517044,
0.6895290017127991,
-0.32894739508628845,
-0.0503883920609951,
0.3292527496814728,
-0.015119316056370735,
0.24704474210739136,
-0.39289408922195435,
0.25353145599365234,
0.051891304552555084,
0.3656184673309326,
-0.5132953524589539,
-0.00662814499810338,
-0.0411926805973053,
-1.0205035209655762,
0.003088201628997922,
0.40650713443756104,
-0.03281274810433388,
-0.32269591093063354,
0.9218695163726807,
0.5372582077980042,
-0.4349924325942993,
-0.5294090509414673,
-0.1191958487033844,
0.14256621897220612,
0.5408118963241577,
-0.19521546363830566,
-0.27707967162132263,
-0.7877166271209717,
-0.08916729688644409,
-0.07997918128967285,
0.3397241234779358,
-0.6330034732818604,
-0.10034874081611633,
0.02416554093360901,
0.6167340278625488,
-0.23184040188789368,
-0.20167556405067444,
-0.07296007126569748,
0.06818469613790512,
0.31333374977111816,
-0.21735879778862,
-0.11072744429111481,
0.36927926540374756,
-0.4410269260406494,
-0.6858929991722107,
-0.3827616274356842,
-0.15251857042312622,
0.05100131407380104,
-0.24125337600708008,
0.15450246632099152,
0.1409822553396225,
-0.26596885919570923,
0.19656044244766235,
-0.06892941892147064,
-0.09809695184230804,
-0.20275750756263733,
-0.5071675777435303,
0.1650507003068924,
0.6412087678909302,
0.21644355356693268,
0.301077663898468,
0.2422420084476471,
0.06976651400327682,
0.27492818236351013,
0.06541580706834793,
-0.7523227334022522,
-0.06414798647165298,
0.25032123923301697,
-0.03443817049264908,
0.2758646607398987,
-0.2946685254573822,
-0.11888211220502853,
0.408553808927536,
0.18197055160999298,
-0.551621675491333,
0.6485139727592468,
-0.22537463903427124,
-0.24683047831058502,
0.4903089702129364,
0.7807235717773438,
-0.019712213426828384,
-0.0566447451710701,
-0.004093818832188845,
-0.8052466511726379,
-0.39141640067100525,
0.09349098056554794,
0.4661147892475128,
0.3699178993701935,
-0.08958140760660172,
0.2906445860862732,
-0.44381314516067505,
0.07143989205360413,
-0.20501646399497986,
-0.49301615357398987,
-0.8439854383468628,
0.06764543056488037,
-0.4128507971763611,
0.6037797331809998,
0.3411072790622711,
-0.6579356789588928,
0.895839512348175,
-0.3231009244918823,
0.9602260589599609,
-0.19565024971961975,
-0.3610004484653473,
0.32216525077819824,
-0.3135346472263336,
0.34241849184036255,
0.2125198096036911,
0.6722995042800903,
-0.1362493634223938,
-0.09976807981729507,
0.6559012532234192,
0.47871312499046326,
-0.7588114142417908,
0.11001534014940262,
0.4238090217113495,
0.06324750930070877,
-0.5445958971977234,
-0.36785948276519775,
-0.3371688425540924,
0.1384284943342209,
-0.6810685396194458,
0.9106207489967346,
0.586397111415863,
-0.22688834369182587,
0.8097807168960571,
0.5508385896682739,
1.1808151006698608,
0.2750985026359558,
-0.24671530723571777,
0.24181127548217773,
0.06904034316539764,
0.4570314884185791,
0.17708058655261993,
0.4291398227214813,
-0.8366072177886963,
0.044932108372449875,
-0.07873839139938354,
0.07981196790933609,
0.04936533421278,
0.33570510149002075,
-0.00010827306687133387,
0.07291877269744873,
0.19432321190834045,
-0.9605464935302734,
0.022021515294909477,
0.819206714630127,
-0.5207462310791016,
-0.06968946009874344,
-0.2656078040599823,
0.015276147052645683,
0.10550716519355774,
-0.13980689644813538,
0.5213114619255066,
0.540683925151825,
-0.39477917551994324,
-0.28754839301109314,
0.42971399426460266,
0.13692240417003632,
0.21370139718055725,
0.0454665832221508,
0.3431207835674286,
-0.18335813283920288,
-0.01501263864338398,
0.01220876444131136,
-0.3618233799934387,
0.16645434498786926,
-0.8504284024238586,
0.08155423402786255,
-0.46324998140335083,
0.4664056599140167,
0.2503868639469147,
0.25319603085517883,
-0.42181670665740967,
-0.09259776771068573,
-0.003172005293890834,
-0.4014275074005127,
-1.2079437971115112,
-0.43916448950767517,
-0.41234123706817627,
-0.686273992061615,
-0.9038389921188354,
0.9956133365631104,
1.1377553939819336,
-0.47014501690864563,
-0.6287053823471069,
-0.061304789036512375,
0.5231161713600159,
-0.27295321226119995,
-0.3821452856063843,
0.08315590769052505,
0.4080822169780731,
-0.22829802334308624,
0.7593222260475159,
-0.872898519039154,
-0.016549866646528244,
0.41826415061950684,
1.0999635457992554,
0.33470484614372253,
-0.9864026308059692,
-0.06539863348007202,
-0.3177430331707001,
-0.4679482579231262,
0.3525654077529907,
-0.16246265172958374,
0.05641673132777214,
0.26861339807510376,
0.24260158836841583,
0.12290854007005692,
-0.24677243828773499,
-5.277846813201904,
-0.11403332650661469,
-0.350594699382782,
-0.8926466703414917,
-0.022908387705683708,
0.6428693532943726,
0.1720816045999527,
0.26552829146385193,
0.3867160677909851,
-0.657899796962738,
0.19799835979938507,
-0.36750903725624084,
0.22799813747406006,
0.958111584186554,
0.31094953417778015,
0.5493295788764954,
0.5374053120613098,
-0.06250417977571487,
0.40587377548217773,
0.48937273025512695,
0.2683085799217224,
-0.9341765642166138,
-0.2919727563858032,
0.04228866845369339,
-0.19252286851406097,
-0.05642932280898094,
-0.7780721783638,
0.27693819999694824,
-0.9240399599075317,
-0.3480393886566162,
0.06847693026065826,
-0.21006135642528534,
-0.4047606587409973,
-0.18887393176555634,
-0.41290774941444397,
-0.2247322052717209,
0.8230053186416626,
0.42565950751304626,
0.2562173306941986,
-0.15916016697883606,
0.7448899149894714,
-0.20640021562576294,
0.14442706108093262,
-0.2598596513271332,
0.4003120958805084,
-0.04163870960474014,
-1.0992332696914673,
0.22940990328788757,
0.103509321808815,
0.15564016997814178,
0.24693936109542847,
0.6553239226341248,
0.3706553876399994,
0.30064845085144043,
-0.09829887002706528,
-0.1472245305776596,
0.10562289506196976,
-0.030257850885391235,
-0.642414391040802,
-0.04608863219618797,
0.19928203523159027,
-0.2945268750190735,
0.10448691993951797,
-1.034358024597168,
-0.4467797577381134,
-0.36050835251808167,
0.049229059368371964,
-0.42827650904655457,
0.10168527811765671,
0.21361304819583893,
0.35729140043258667,
1.140779733657837,
0.012941925786435604,
-1.3272854089736938,
-0.20050740242004395,
-0.5365172624588013,
0.13830703496932983,
0.2704775631427765,
-0.5922103524208069,
-0.3310626447200775,
-0.01905299909412861,
-0.4302467107772827,
-0.5749428272247314,
0.8913894295692444,
0.5485237836837769,
-0.13844937086105347,
-0.6152738928794861,
0.4570128321647644,
-0.022317908704280853,
0.41239774227142334,
0.47702378034591675,
-0.02730167657136917,
0.513698399066925,
-0.14717413485050201,
0.7252150774002075,
-0.7524977326393127,
-0.14704954624176025,
0.643246054649353,
0.9034025073051453,
0.34998396039009094,
-0.9297907948493958,
0.06612041592597961,
-0.2712899148464203,
-0.7722039818763733,
-0.09075895696878433,
-0.05477473512291908,
-0.16095629334449768,
-0.253350168466568,
0.6016080975532532,
0.6014962792396545,
-0.5617535710334778,
0.016494018957018852,
-0.4976559579372406,
-0.4339797794818878,
0.22287648916244507,
-0.23265962302684784,
-0.26371923089027405,
0.22960931062698364,
0.3336428701877594,
-0.5503217577934265,
-0.6851112842559814,
-0.016022516414523125,
0.24453112483024597,
0.2221767008304596,
0.6068850755691528,
-0.5898492336273193,
-0.13608168065547943,
0.3714563548564911,
0.1989755928516388,
-0.07782544195652008,
-0.1400773972272873,
1.093449592590332,
-0.060569245368242264,
0.4313383996486664,
-0.5408877730369568,
-0.5524646639823914,
-0.6027446985244751,
0.00986633449792862,
-0.5019136667251587,
-0.22131352126598358,
0.5771291255950928,
-0.12670478224754333,
0.7626240253448486,
0.2365880310535431,
0.041080523282289505,
0.15802638232707977,
0.35423117876052856,
-0.016584860160946846,
-0.03469131514430046,
-0.06824227422475815,
-0.453656941652298,
-0.6649133563041687,
0.48840585350990295,
0.017432479187846184,
-1.0369211435317993,
-0.003363302443176508,
0.14823172986507416,
0.029584158211946487,
-1.012450933456421,
-0.06716452538967133,
0.2506386637687683,
-0.025422170758247375,
-0.991054117679596,
-0.433587908744812,
0.0036189407110214233,
0.5234119296073914,
-0.14814817905426025,
-0.43226543068885803,
0.007717008702456951,
0.4965466558933258,
0.36191776394844055,
-0.49946168065071106,
-0.3186440169811249,
-0.582696795463562,
0.32057756185531616,
0.5606416463851929,
0.02948547527194023,
-0.16809405386447906,
0.10907056927680969,
-0.19144348800182343,
0.07942700386047363,
0.1581835299730301,
-0.8040897250175476,
0.7998054027557373,
0.5509818196296692,
-0.6024523377418518,
-0.3697342276573181,
0.023990916088223457,
-0.7461583018302917,
-0.629437267780304,
0.29569050669670105,
-0.35824331641197205,
0.8788694143295288,
0.47007542848587036,
-0.008117652498185635,
-0.0334748737514019,
0.06006275862455368,
0.19280771911144257,
-0.27857792377471924,
-0.3815774619579315,
0.006627128925174475,
0.10546676814556122,
0.0072043235413730145,
0.20795035362243652,
0.2955545485019684,
-1.1846097707748413,
-0.3138127624988556,
-0.02242860570549965,
-0.00838632881641388,
1.094213604927063,
-0.3422519266605377,
-0.5381137132644653,
0.05093589797616005,
-0.061016056686639786,
-0.7261379957199097,
0.36850297451019287,
0.5348369479179382,
0.24276164174079895,
-0.7732361555099487,
-0.15319962799549103,
-0.21714480221271515,
0.03978561609983444,
-0.0836399495601654,
-0.02540426142513752,
-0.7379133701324463,
0.12894661724567413,
-0.09254622459411621,
0.34475117921829224,
0.8639934659004211,
-0.6281009912490845,
-0.1792181432247162,
0.10865470767021179,
-0.16389289498329163,
0.2734082341194153,
-0.14199212193489075,
-0.5148314833641052,
0.4162536859512329,
0.9967344999313354,
-0.30603286623954773,
0.39915695786476135,
0.4117463231086731,
0.4762294590473175,
0.4392659366130829,
0.2556270658969879,
0.11582125723361969,
0.08990676701068878,
0.019268354400992393,
-0.2778380513191223,
-0.20934174954891205,
0.6213629841804504,
0.2944944202899933,
0.08560683578252792,
-0.24184805154800415,
0.215443953871727,
1.1315131187438965,
0.37165915966033936,
-0.24343952536582947,
-0.3883718252182007,
-0.04747355356812477,
-0.6986855864524841,
-0.20893973112106323,
0.11205262690782547,
-0.39560356736183167,
0.5314030647277832,
-0.42701616883277893,
0.4809885025024414,
-0.48344171047210693,
-0.09244804084300995,
0.9737181663513184,
-0.3753412365913391,
-0.3019072115421295,
-0.2483448088169098,
-0.12965412437915802,
0.5644229054450989,
-0.22599251568317413,
0.4909382164478302,
0.3356791138648987,
-0.15506702661514282,
0.1706167459487915,
-0.7670809626579285,
-0.857670247554779,
0.04171304777264595,
0.7205169200897217,
-0.27286675572395325,
-0.08001331239938736,
-0.3458932936191559,
0.13599509000778198,
-0.2616082429885864,
-0.057754844427108765,
-0.20288726687431335,
-0.8856992721557617,
0.11198645085096359,
0.15571686625480652,
0.27478522062301636,
-0.9088395237922668,
-0.29755139350891113,
0.2608669102191925,
1.0033962726593018,
-0.16924263536930084,
-0.2084663361310959,
0.015792710706591606,
0.395430326461792,
0.6109048128128052,
-0.30953001976013184,
0.14239110052585602,
0.09117105603218079,
-0.1565449982881546,
-0.09883815050125122,
-0.4708395004272461,
0.19115711748600006,
-0.2789771258831024,
-0.3090716302394867,
-0.14642676711082458,
0.6779303550720215,
-0.45741263031959534,
-0.048779524862766266,
0.5044483542442322,
-0.3428582549095154,
0.045718852430582047,
-0.2284792810678482,
0.2195015400648117,
0.3240518271923065,
0.2841741144657135,
-0.4078217148780823,
-0.22186101973056793,
0.6726466417312622,
0.3875790238380432,
-0.5332685112953186,
-0.4032354950904846,
0.40227824449539185,
0.26059862971305847,
-0.5400515794754028,
-0.17837803065776825,
0.45630598068237305,
-0.001331971725448966,
0.23791565001010895,
-0.4887368977069855,
-0.5106472373008728,
-0.23117698729038239,
0.34429922699928284,
0.20984238386154175,
1.3783305883407593,
-0.04444342479109764,
0.40117743611335754,
-0.2179962545633316,
-0.2924749255180359,
0.43386349081993103,
0.9342357516288757,
-0.014723608270287514,
-0.07238388061523438,
0.32130342721939087,
-0.057168591767549515,
0.21140602231025696,
-0.21713754534721375,
-0.09261547774076462,
-0.11358288675546646,
0.4121500551700592,
-0.25659534335136414,
0.9083898067474365,
0.2627634108066559,
-0.2684118151664734,
-0.023055484518408775,
0.8969634175300598,
0.17539776861667633,
-0.045555636286735535,
-0.18507033586502075,
-0.2673383057117462,
-1.379455327987671,
0.254680335521698,
-0.1698140650987625,
-0.1435611993074417,
0.14260220527648926,
-0.25428757071495056,
0.6637127995491028,
-0.012154670432209969,
0.5251700282096863,
0.48453545570373535,
-0.020154442638158798,
-0.2581133246421814,
-0.2537482976913452,
-0.35299646854400635,
-0.35641127824783325,
0.0020447957795113325,
-0.4011507034301758,
-0.03085104562342167,
-0.039052341133356094,
0.05461303889751434,
0.5146932601928711,
0.5054669976234436,
-0.14067070186138153,
0.28887027502059937,
-0.9516951441764832,
-0.13487470149993896,
0.4505522549152374,
0.14459168910980225,
0.0936809778213501,
-0.5909202098846436,
0.36208346486091614,
0.7036048173904419,
0.32336804270744324,
-0.19709011912345886,
0.1692873239517212,
0.4325478971004486,
-0.044811271131038666,
-0.35545697808265686,
0.22097301483154297,
-0.03987155482172966,
-0.2739298641681671,
-0.9049608111381531,
0.684239387512207,
-0.32035934925079346,
0.06585843116044998,
-0.17095932364463806,
0.47028306126594543,
0.01898183673620224,
-0.2726680636405945,
0.48529085516929626,
-0.41276219487190247,
-0.433185875415802,
0.28106507658958435,
0.10515132546424866,
-0.2898902893066406,
0.12204396724700928,
0.06398052722215652,
-0.2539933919906616,
-0.009507643058896065,
0.7576853036880493,
-0.0840931236743927,
0.12475109845399857,
0.5510047078132629,
0.19985435903072357,
0.0752105712890625,
-0.22008642554283142,
-0.08686887472867966,
-0.00830704253166914,
-0.4347725808620453,
0.14426809549331665,
0.4097575545310974,
0.46734723448753357,
-0.6150973439216614,
0.12366493046283722,
0.4871326982975006,
-0.41131922602653503,
-0.04862145707011223,
0.09822174906730652,
0.12761425971984863,
0.21949255466461182,
-0.8584579825401306,
0.026136821135878563,
0.26689982414245605,
0.00719964737072587,
-0.30309584736824036,
0.3435494303703308,
-0.40581807494163513,
0.5328874588012695,
0.660781741142273,
0.30825674533843994,
-0.21897892653942108,
0.35296595096588135,
-0.1027596965432167
] |
247903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shche%20ne%20vmerla%20Ukrainy%20i%20slava%2C%20i%20volia | Shche ne vmerla Ukrainy i slava, i volia | "" (), also known by its official title of "State Anthem of Ukraine" (, ) or by its shortened form "" (), is the national anthem of Ukraine. Its music was officially adopted by Ukraine's Verkhovna Rada on 15 January 1992. The official lyrics were adopted on 6 March 2003 by the Law on the Anthem of Ukraine ().
In the first half of the 20th century, during unsuccessful attempts to gain independence and create a state from the territories of the Russian Empire, Poland, and Austria-Hungary, the song was the national anthem of the Ukrainian People's Republic, West Ukrainian People's Republic, and Carpatho-Ukraine, and was once again adopted by independent Ukraine following its secession from the Soviet Union. Before its re-adaptation, a competition for a national anthem among three patriotic songs took place with one of the other songs being "Za Ukrajinu" () by Mykola Voronyi.
The lyrics constitute a slightly modified original first stanza of the patriotic poem written in 1862 by Pavlo Chubynsky, a prominent ethnographer from the region of Ukraine's capital, Kyiv. In 1863, Mykhailo Verbytsky, a western Ukrainian composer and Greek-Catholic priest, composed music to accompany Chubynsky's text. The first choral performance of the piece was at the Ukraine Theatre in Lviv, in 1864.
History
Creation of the Ukrainian national anthem started in the autumn of 1862 during one of Pavlo Chubynsky's parties. Some researchers believe that the Polish national song "Poland Is Not Yet Lost" (), which later became the national anthem of Poland but dating back to 1797 and the Polish Legions, also had an influence on Chubynsky's lyrics. At the time, the Polish national song was very popular among East European nations of the former Commonwealth of Poland, that were fighting for their independence: a few months after Chubynsky had written his lyrics, the January Uprising began. Likewise influenced by the Polish national song, Slovak poet Samo Tomášik wrote the song "Hey, Slavs", which later became Yugoslavia's anthem in 1944–2003.
The widespread use of Chubynsky's lyrics among Ukrainophiles was very rapid. On October 20 of the same year that Chubynsky wrote the lyrics, the head gendarm Prince Vasily Dolgorukov gave an order to banish Chubynsky for the "dangerous influence on the minds of commoners" and sent him in exile to Arkhangelsk Governorate.
Chubynsky's poem was first officially published in 1863 when it appeared in the fourth issue of Lviv's journal Meta. Soon after the poem became popular in the territories corresponding to today's Western Ukraine, it was noticed by the Ukrainian clergy. Inspired by Pavlo Chubynsky's poem, one of them, Fr. Mykhailo Verbytsky of the Greek-Catholic Church, a prominent Ukrainian composer of his times, decided to write music for it. In 1865 Chubynsky's poem was first published together with Verbytsky's sheet music. The first choral performance of the piece was in 1864 at the Ukraine Theatre in Lviv.
The first recording of this anthem (then spelled "Szcze ne wmerła Ukrajiny ni sława ni wola") in Ukrainian was released on a vinyl record by Columbia Phonograph Company during World War I in 1916. As a folk song it was performed by a Ukrainian emigrant from Lviv and New York resident Mychajlo Zazulak in 1915.
However, Chubynsky's poem wasn't used as a state anthem until 1917, when it was adopted by the Ukrainian Republic. Still, even between 1917 and 1921, this anthem was not legislatively adopted as an exclusive state anthem as other anthems were also used at the time.
During the period between 1918 and 1919, Chubynsky's poem was also used as a state anthem of the short-lived West Ukrainian People's Republic.
In 1939, "" was adopted as the official state anthem of Carpatho-Ukraine.
Soviet times
When the Ukrainian SSR signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR with the Russian SFSR, Transcaucasian SFSR and Byelorussian SSR in 1922, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was formed, the anthem was immediately banned by the Soviet regime. In the dawn of the Soviet Union, when it was decided that each separate Soviet republic could have its own anthem, the poem Shche ne vmerla Ukraina was rejected in order to suppress separatist sentiments held by Ukrainian Nationalists. Soviet leaders wanted a text that would evoke emotions of Ukraine being a fraternal republic within the USSR, which was "equal among equals, free among the free" and it necessarily had to mention the communist party that lead Ukraine towards communism. This task was accomplished by Pavlo Tychyna, whose version of "" was the official anthem of the Ukrainian SSR from 1949 to 1991. Composer Anton Lebedynez' wrote the music for it. This anthem never became popular among Ukrainians and in Soviet times, the anthem of the USSR was played during nearly all official events in Ukraine.
Since independence
On 15 January 1992, the music for the State Anthem of Ukraine was adopted by Ukraine's parliament, the Verkhovna Rada, and was later instituted in the Ukrainian constitution. However, the lyrics for the anthem were not officially adopted until 6 March 2003, when the Verkhovna Rada passed a law on the state anthem of Ukraine (Закон "Про Державний гімн України"), proposed by then president Leonid Kuchma. The law proposed Mykhailo Verbytsky's music and Pavlo Chubynsky's first verse and refrain of his poem "". However, the first stanza of the anthem was to be changed from "" to "".
The law was passed with an overwhelming majority of 334 votes out of 450, with only 46 MPs opposing. Only the members of Socialist Party of Ukraine and Communist Party of Ukraine refrained from the voting. The passing of this law finalised Article 20 of the Constitution of Ukraine. The national anthem that up until then had only officially consisted of Mykhailo Verbytsky's music, would henceforth also include the modified lyrics of Pavlo Chubynsky.
The popularity of the Ukrainian anthem has become particularly high in the wake of the Orange Revolution protests of 2004 and Euromaidan of 2013. Ukrainian composer Valentyn Sylvestrov, who participated in Ukrainian protests in Kyiv, characterised the Ukrainian anthem thus:
In August 2014, Eurovision singer Zlata Ognevich (Inna Bordyuh) released her own version of "". In May 2016, soldiers from the Band of the 44th Artillery Brigade based in Ternopil performed "" from nearly 300 metres underground, breaking a world record.
Euromaidan
During the Euromaidan protests, the anthem of Ukraine became a revolutionary anthem for the protesters. In the early weeks of the protests, protesters would sing the national anthem once an hour, led by singer Ruslana.
On 25 March 2014, Mykyta Rubchenko of Kharkiv created an instrumental rock version of the anthem.
Lyrics
Shche ne vmerla Ukraina was sung as the de facto national anthem at the inauguration of the first President Leonid Kravchuk on 5 December 1991, but it was not until 6 March 2003 that Chubynsky's poem officially became a part of Ukraine's national anthem.
On 6 March 2003, the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted anthem's official lyrics, opting to use only the first verse and chorus from Chubynsky's poem, while slightly modifying its first stanza. Instead of stating "Ukraine has not yet died, neither her glory, nor her freedom" (Ще не вмерла Україна, ні слава, ні воля), the concept of Ukraine perishing as a nation has been removed: the opening line now states "Ukraine's glory has not yet died, nor her freedom" (Ще не вмерла України, і слава, і воля).
Article 20 of the Constitution of Ukraine (28 June 1996) designates Verbytsky's music for the national anthem:
The State Anthem of Ukraine is the national anthem set to the music of M. Verbytsky, with words that are confirmed by the law adopted by no less than two-thirds of the constitutional composition of the Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine.
Lyrics
Chubynsky's original lyrics
The first stanza of Chubynsky's original poem is somewhat similar to the first stanza of national anthems of Poland, Yugoslavia, and Israel.
Draft lyrics
See also
Anthem of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic
"Prayer for Ukraine"
"Zaporizhian March"
"Poland Is Not Yet Lost"
Notes
References
Further reading
Салтан А. Н. Как Кучма с Медведчуком слова для государственного гимна выбирали [Электронный ресурс]. – Режим доступа к статье: http://kievvlast.com.ua/text/kak_kuchma_s_medvedchukom_slova_dlja_gosudarstvennogo_gimna_vibirali37334.html. – Заглавие с экрана. – 25.03.16.
Салтан Н. М., Салтан О. М. Живи Україно незламна і сильна… Парламентські дебати навколо затвердження тексту Державного гімну України 4 та 6 березня 2003 року // Сіверянський літопис. Всеукраїнський науковий журнал. — 2016. — № 4 (130). — С. 16-36.
External links
Information an resources on Shche ne Vmerla Ukraina
Shche ne vmerla Ukrainy in MP3.
National Symbols from President of Ukraine
Constitution of Ukraine, Chapter 1, General Principles – Article 20 of this chapter deals with national symbols. This website, part of the Official website of the Verkhovna Rada, includes a vocal version of the national anthem using pre-2003 lyrics
An English translation of Anthem of Ukraine on WikiTranslate.org
. TSN. "1+1". 2013-3-6
, courtesy of Ket. 15 March 2014
National anthems
National symbols of Ukraine
Ukrainian music
1863 songs
Ukrainian patriotic songs
European anthems
National anthem compositions in G minor | [
0.5568548440933228,
0.10635054856538773,
0.7706272006034851,
-0.3161616623401642,
-0.4325520694255829,
0.2344929277896881,
0.38874536752700806,
0.3143010437488556,
0.09152848273515701,
-0.22643455862998962,
-0.39861807227134705,
0.12617699801921844,
-0.5548393130302429,
0.3695096969604492,
-0.32753145694732666,
0.8808345794677734,
0.5090136528015137,
0.7996928691864014,
-0.4672204852104187,
-0.28887492418289185,
-0.04900070279836655,
0.46847137808799744,
0.4216359555721283,
0.15725207328796387,
0.027782637625932693,
-0.17865538597106934,
0.6227920651435852,
-0.026136785745620728,
-0.666674017906189,
0.5470390915870667,
-0.555223286151886,
0.2582414448261261,
0.47115635871887207,
0.2159140408039093,
0.09503894299268723,
0.26129406690597534,
0.18937884271144867,
-0.22066518664360046,
-0.26336318254470825,
-0.76460200548172,
0.40670540928840637,
-0.2002120167016983,
0.19808611273765564,
-0.0976271703839302,
0.22533725202083588,
-0.8697713613510132,
-0.46953555941581726,
0.8756365180015564,
-0.33495140075683594,
0.3381494879722595,
-0.1519835740327835,
0.31363189220428467,
-0.3174779713153839,
0.40338748693466187,
-0.4068434238433838,
-0.04943815991282463,
-0.7374051213264465,
-0.18568211793899536,
-0.0762723907828331,
-0.10405302047729492,
0.3806600272655487,
0.42109915614128113,
0.04944457858800888,
0.09998248517513275,
0.8013502955436707,
-0.13070783019065857,
-0.6488044261932373,
0.11490034312009811,
-0.6379731297492981,
-0.6942748427391052,
-0.049502894282341,
0.23032064735889435,
-0.2649432122707367,
-0.33051246404647827,
-0.02933112531900406,
-0.2888794243335724,
-0.16134750843048096,
-0.14135827124118805,
0.3030458092689514,
0.4794047772884369,
0.028957102447748184,
-0.2841818630695343,
0.2511645257472992,
0.9867059588432312,
-0.014357276260852814,
-0.3187822103500366,
-0.11111729592084885,
0.19291158020496368,
-0.09111970663070679,
0.031970616430044174,
0.2814480662345886,
-0.5263060927391052,
0.5886631011962891,
-0.3018168807029724,
-0.15817172825336456,
0.3080463707447052,
-0.20965635776519775,
0.4875980615615845,
-0.4358779788017273,
-0.29699787497520447,
-0.11887061595916748,
0.10612761974334717,
-0.14030709862709045,
-0.030819371342658997,
-0.9388623833656311,
-0.40967321395874023,
-0.21147173643112183,
0.05402736738324165,
0.747913122177124,
-0.22706420719623566,
-0.47901850938796997,
-0.12821060419082642,
-0.26808929443359375,
0.1639261543750763,
0.5083764791488647,
-0.03593069314956665,
0.1428573727607727,
-0.43645668029785156,
0.13281026482582092,
0.08379504829645157,
-0.1286306530237198,
0.28439876437187195,
0.44400089979171753,
0.438819944858551,
0.08596465736627579,
0.08798377960920334,
0.60504150390625,
0.3704064190387726,
-0.7633846998214722,
0.25027045607566833,
-0.12555833160877228,
0.50982266664505,
0.1883055865764618,
0.14496146142482758,
-0.16542263329029083,
0.2656621038913727,
0.2942223846912384,
-0.4538090229034424,
0.14775724709033966,
0.5982171893119812,
-0.3708682358264923,
-0.06915760040283203,
-0.6954818964004517,
0.18476174771785736,
0.07346193492412567,
-0.5984946489334106,
-0.35955265164375305,
-0.13656458258628845,
-0.31005027890205383,
-0.41414758563041687,
0.23421072959899902,
0.014126052148640156,
0.19382645189762115,
-0.04083191975951195,
-0.6878318190574646,
-0.1126597598195076,
0.4986395835876465,
0.1937406063079834,
0.19786573946475983,
0.23538096249103546,
0.20778009295463562,
0.16240432858467102,
0.43631717562675476,
0.35512402653694153,
0.10409414768218994,
-0.2971194386482239,
0.08567765355110168,
0.4151360094547272,
0.04373346269130707,
-0.24097087979316711,
0.2783929407596588,
0.030805155634880066,
0.5870118737220764,
0.43827682733535767,
-0.019267983734607697,
0.06455189734697342,
0.18894422054290771,
0.21628080308437347,
-0.07833388447761536,
-0.31317585706710815,
-0.5334615707397461,
0.244124636054039,
-0.12612298130989075,
0.037976499646902084,
0.26760050654411316,
0.5931867957115173,
-0.12861208617687225,
0.05950379744172096,
0.3253258168697357,
-0.3504919111728668,
-0.4676114320755005,
-0.7821784019470215,
-0.23124566674232483,
-0.17367607355117798,
0.9822106957435608,
0.06720256060361862,
0.06560194492340088,
0.04924463853240013,
-0.11049827188253403,
0.38859328627586365,
0.3001549243927002,
-0.21180188655853271,
0.06964121013879776,
0.1968477964401245,
-0.008103029802441597,
0.5565118789672852,
-0.12581688165664673,
0.18751336634159088,
-0.04753689095377922,
0.0205045398324728,
0.14835722744464874,
-0.556829571723938,
0.7161621451377869,
-0.0996270626783371,
-0.3741229772567749,
-0.10849734395742416,
-0.32441285252571106,
0.08960267901420593,
-0.27709704637527466,
0.21347975730895996,
0.45389628410339355,
-0.7146680355072021,
0.2122952938079834,
0.1101972758769989,
-0.4653395116329193,
-0.294842928647995,
-0.1084497943520546,
0.18426501750946045,
-0.09792332351207733,
-0.45375603437423706,
-0.897017776966095,
-0.3281711935997009,
0.15217384696006775,
0.29180967807769775,
-0.2341567426919937,
0.007954373024404049,
-0.02771596610546112,
0.028804240748286247,
0.2354988157749176,
-0.30239158868789673,
0.38415849208831787,
-0.07679284363985062,
0.378768652677536,
0.05028910934925079,
0.1183699518442154,
0.2516802251338959,
-0.28308501839637756,
-0.09197425097227097,
0.11246268451213837,
0.14976346492767334,
-0.08103546500205994,
-0.269109308719635,
0.03857063129544258,
0.023705311119556427,
-0.0695859044790268,
0.2271677404642105,
0.5499264597892761,
-0.20091259479522705,
0.10752453655004501,
0.045483607798814774,
0.003520503407344222,
-0.13749736547470093,
-0.02590911276638508,
-0.07908026874065399,
0.26792609691619873,
-0.181838721036911,
-0.2766028642654419,
-0.09952720999717712,
0.5679904222488403,
-0.24549739062786102,
0.0599222332239151,
0.15351061522960663,
-0.02266308106482029,
-0.07951179146766663,
0.19696901738643646,
0.01955818384885788,
0.19320550560951233,
0.08156459033489227,
-0.7363404631614685,
-0.8694261908531189,
-0.14638452231884003,
0.37227439880371094,
0.1840038299560547,
-0.29113829135894775,
-0.1873731166124344,
-0.18828406929969788,
0.11556685715913773,
-0.21136635541915894,
-0.04659881070256233,
-0.19238847494125366,
-0.10656961053609848,
0.2476324439048767,
0.15074780583381653,
-0.30923452973365784,
-0.3658963441848755,
0.46098223328590393,
0.010890570469200611,
0.3556387424468994,
0.5704978704452515,
-0.05350818112492561,
-0.3512307107448578,
-0.3535114824771881,
-0.19104903936386108,
-0.2012452483177185,
0.26781630516052246,
-0.327365905046463,
-0.5176618099212646,
0.5150639414787292,
-6.011927604675293,
-0.0034845846239477396,
-0.6739770174026489,
0.008613997139036655,
-0.0022754028905183077,
0.12486812472343445,
0.2456277459859848,
-0.3439389169216156,
-0.11948274075984955,
-0.5573799014091492,
-0.3562214970588684,
0.17505861818790436,
0.09299921244382858,
0.1446717530488968,
0.18451723456382751,
-0.10896078497171402,
0.008793871849775314,
-0.2094908058643341,
0.3080083727836609,
-0.2076789289712906,
0.3012677729129791,
0.31446531414985657,
-0.06018509343266487,
0.23838846385478973,
0.5909807682037354,
0.4040462076663971,
-0.17228509485721588,
-0.03785882517695427,
-0.3609626293182373,
-0.33607083559036255,
-0.46972599625587463,
-0.6589242219924927,
0.2527962327003479,
-0.3533000349998474,
0.3758961856365204,
-0.3821012079715729,
0.2944987118244171,
0.2841012477874756,
0.11670271307229996,
-0.23328262567520142,
0.08653353154659271,
-0.2334480881690979,
-0.3038780987262726,
-0.30194026231765747,
-0.07239333540201187,
-0.33395251631736755,
-0.11143553256988525,
-0.2189139425754547,
-0.8624581694602966,
0.5633395314216614,
-0.2844964265823364,
-0.32224056124687195,
0.5445964932441711,
-0.4660564661026001,
0.2326403558254242,
0.27813369035720825,
-0.0681343674659729,
-0.1708909571170807,
-0.04780140519142151,
0.26123857498168945,
-0.01436854712665081,
0.032467689365148544,
-0.02792878821492195,
-0.2925339341163635,
-0.11895706504583359,
-0.2379751205444336,
-0.5396785140037537,
-0.1379828304052353,
0.012999387457966805,
0.7436558604240417,
-0.3592270314693451,
0.718416154384613,
-0.28289854526519775,
-0.8838021159172058,
-0.29177045822143555,
-0.3101609945297241,
-0.25488102436065674,
-0.020690754055976868,
-0.5110463500022888,
0.4968274235725403,
-0.596418023109436,
-0.05583890900015831,
-0.09807177633047104,
0.23509758710861206,
-0.1400837004184723,
0.19308477640151978,
0.05060962960124016,
0.6075170636177063,
0.01572553813457489,
0.17429979145526886,
0.8592261672019958,
-0.9014674425125122,
0.13235558569431305,
0.10278527438640594,
0.43006008863449097,
0.41454827785491943,
0.42661309242248535,
-0.3884052634239197,
0.2061106562614441,
0.046498481184244156,
0.35541194677352905,
0.4862130880355835,
0.036601219326257706,
-0.6577672958374023,
0.2813875377178192,
-0.061668671667575836,
-0.7047418355941772,
-0.13335929811000824,
0.9653931856155396,
-0.3753679394721985,
0.10734934359788895,
0.01699087768793106,
-0.00441015837714076,
-0.5942683815956116,
0.29648175835609436,
-0.5766944885253906,
0.2993358075618744,
0.26250967383384705,
-0.07199417799711227,
0.3927434980869293,
0.3347916901111603,
0.18404029309749603,
-0.35046181082725525,
0.1180739775300026,
-0.9171412587165833,
0.21313901245594025,
0.30422714352607727,
0.48695704340934753,
-0.3080027103424072,
-0.050880301743745804,
0.6024193167686462,
-0.026413677260279655,
0.3167009949684143,
-0.33917760848999023,
0.506040632724762,
0.08270704001188278,
0.1520407348871231,
-0.5254763960838318,
0.38109803199768066,
-0.42461705207824707,
-0.63909512758255,
-0.19192668795585632,
0.1973586529493332,
0.3918225169181824,
0.4449631869792938,
0.23368288576602936,
-0.3745841681957245,
0.14299312233924866,
-0.6099775433540344,
0.2202487736940384,
0.19860656559467316,
0.0990038737654686,
0.44869062304496765,
-0.3314802348613739,
-0.10132336616516113,
0.17043761909008026,
0.02071118913590908,
-0.1511540710926056,
0.19245244562625885,
0.2737721800804138,
0.1834784597158432,
-0.4662291407585144,
-1.5068800449371338,
0.006294415798038244,
0.2094186246395111,
-0.6166766881942749,
-0.8237060904502869,
-0.08908212184906006,
0.19958634674549103,
0.7113867998123169,
0.28589603304862976,
-0.39738261699676514,
-0.40320122241973877,
0.1117774099111557,
0.20578837394714355,
-0.16413231194019318,
0.08194372802972794,
0.009701801463961601,
0.12173646688461304,
0.04716313257813454,
0.2842503488063812,
-0.11214359104633331,
-0.3123840093612671,
0.7007966637611389,
0.3401419222354889,
-0.035747408866882324,
0.21754007041454315,
0.20196127891540527,
0.05652114003896713,
0.4168197810649872,
-0.38152310252189636,
-0.45417696237564087,
-0.43300947546958923,
-0.28658971190452576,
-0.12027320265769958,
-0.18785782158374786,
0.016208719462156296,
0.23482076823711395,
-0.5062066912651062,
-0.10291201621294022,
0.4113020896911621,
-0.00592745142057538,
-0.38240769505500793,
-0.2596585750579834,
-0.17593762278556824,
-0.019058918580412865,
0.5041974782943726,
-0.21953780949115753,
-0.5500925183296204,
-0.20354418456554413,
-0.09714184701442719,
-0.872071385383606,
-0.36773237586021423,
0.5688740015029907,
-0.31257379055023193,
-0.14348141849040985,
0.23456956446170807,
-0.4418342113494873,
-0.3145564794540405,
-0.5108826756477356,
-0.13020645081996918,
0.24039743840694427,
-0.24717764556407928,
0.5879665613174438,
-0.10923811048269272,
0.16708159446716309,
-0.17110152542591095,
-0.2843415141105652,
-0.3535294532775879,
-0.655514121055603,
0.21410857141017914,
0.17088152468204498,
0.3826432228088379,
-0.01715238392353058,
-0.14806994795799255,
-0.5033939480781555,
-0.5182145833969116,
-0.11303935199975967,
-0.05380864441394806,
0.6571252942085266,
-0.07105069607496262,
0.20413684844970703,
0.031211724504828453,
-0.5602174401283264,
-0.1529063731431961,
0.15913072228431702,
0.17693984508514404,
-0.0597810298204422,
-0.3619212806224823,
0.635714054107666,
0.3889763355255127,
0.2312200963497162,
-0.6461766958236694,
-0.45040205121040344,
0.3483617305755615,
-0.715813398361206,
0.04405280575156212,
0.32111844420433044,
0.0395825058221817,
0.5590187311172485,
-0.03948762267827988,
-0.39092549681663513,
-0.5054004192352295,
-0.0881415382027626,
0.28932636976242065,
0.19250908493995667,
0.08597734570503235,
-0.15442167222499847,
-0.4438536763191223,
0.099910207092762,
-0.7737020254135132,
-0.23303300142288208,
0.3051614761352539,
-0.20997323095798492,
-0.39700475335121155,
0.028038961812853813,
-0.10698416829109192,
0.34013429284095764,
-0.15308982133865356,
0.8265326619148254,
-0.42499393224716187,
-0.35903021693229675,
-0.004127494990825653,
0.3517722189426422,
0.22689196467399597,
-0.7141543626785278,
0.30772864818573,
0.24300214648246765,
-0.49375373125076294,
0.05196559429168701,
-0.6494734883308411,
-0.10887487977743149,
-0.44456490874290466,
0.16294170916080475,
-0.3446193337440491,
-0.6453588604927063,
0.5763935446739197,
0.20294904708862305,
-0.102960966527462,
0.31462785601615906,
-0.45772457122802734,
0.09430071711540222,
0.31609559059143066,
-0.00729032140225172,
0.2794981300830841,
0.24585247039794922,
0.19013100862503052,
-0.12970592081546783,
0.19727757573127747,
0.038511816412210464,
0.5233025550842285,
0.004043776076287031,
0.5842736959457397,
0.6343890428543091,
-0.11378945410251617,
0.19488252699375153,
0.47738581895828247,
-0.03628728166222572,
-0.08839558809995651,
-0.22781135141849518,
0.6671999096870422,
-0.12701350450515747,
0.20369087159633636,
0.614127516746521,
-0.45892468094825745,
0.21333712339401245,
-0.3258642852306366,
-0.31310510635375977,
0.3965986967086792,
0.42205968499183655,
0.6239800453186035,
0.6381025314331055,
-0.3749168813228607,
0.3955203890800476,
-0.38201960921287537,
-0.4944298267364502,
-0.1104147657752037,
-0.5013988614082336,
-0.2781198024749756,
0.9113523960113525,
0.5897809863090515,
-0.09437557309865952,
-0.22984983026981354,
0.05202367156744003,
0.01810973882675171,
0.2832213342189789,
0.22541336715221405,
-0.1204325333237648,
0.014285661280155182,
-0.2467237263917923,
0.5626832842826843,
0.2015036940574646,
-0.7182552814483643,
-0.27765488624572754,
0.10279474407434464,
0.2432553768157959,
0.36587879061698914,
-0.3636566400527954,
0.4647207260131836,
0.3247120678424835,
0.10054901242256165,
0.522711992263794,
-0.0466829352080822,
-0.2192068099975586,
-0.510322093963623,
0.20748035609722137,
0.4370853900909424,
-0.729794979095459,
-0.1851637065410614,
-0.5936899781227112,
0.3015746474266052,
0.24201244115829468,
-0.24744707345962524,
0.03613540530204773,
-0.06362118571996689,
-0.04860213026404381,
0.4293455481529236,
0.3475160002708435,
0.5082647800445557,
-0.30102166533470154,
0.0009047812200151384,
0.35564231872558594,
-0.04936594516038895,
-0.7205866575241089,
-0.03590110316872597,
0.1762380301952362,
0.18925884366035461,
-0.5184803009033203,
-0.0999671146273613,
0.1616685837507248,
-0.30264580249786377,
-0.6868663430213928,
-0.12010737508535385,
-0.13611197471618652,
0.07348372787237167,
-0.44450172781944275,
-0.38751038908958435,
0.646454930305481,
0.0884605273604393,
0.8232090473175049,
0.6370999217033386,
0.024111254140734673,
0.026610195636749268,
0.6016444563865662,
-0.37373992800712585,
0.36462968587875366,
-0.39392349123954773,
-0.3333909511566162,
-0.2351607084274292,
0.15564997494220734,
0.4598774015903473,
0.09603287279605865,
0.08491989970207214,
0.35732269287109375,
0.15175719559192657,
0.23031176626682281,
1.060107946395874,
-0.5810436010360718,
0.2633519470691681,
-0.943821370601654,
-0.04015977308154106,
-0.4290488064289093,
0.34613555669784546,
0.44031378626823425,
-0.1732863038778305,
-0.460880309343338,
0.6578127145767212,
0.5010213851928711,
-0.2035854011774063,
0.2624684274196625,
-0.594569742679596,
-0.018254827708005905,
-0.07680695503950119,
0.13495716452598572,
-0.43222013115882874,
0.7702043652534485,
0.2774798572063446,
0.41590631008148193,
-0.1051870733499527,
-0.988826334476471,
0.2643214166164398,
-0.23208288848400116,
-0.12159640341997147,
0.4323797821998596,
0.042372606694698334,
0.5784887671470642,
-0.31779932975769043,
0.32608380913734436,
-0.7494832873344421,
0.04746997728943825,
0.16022007167339325,
-0.1555962860584259,
0.681685209274292,
0.000028093829314457253,
0.5885849595069885,
-0.90159010887146,
0.6253078579902649,
-0.3281775712966919,
0.6521288156509399,
0.3331880271434784
] |
247904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HMS%20Endurance%20%28A171%29 | HMS Endurance (A171) | HMS Endurance was an icebreaker that served as the Royal Navy ice patrol ship between 1991 and 2008. Built in Norway as MV Polar Circle, she was chartered by the Royal Navy in 1991 as HMS Polar Circle, before being purchased outright and renamed HMS Endurance in 1992.
Endurance was a class 1 icebreaker. Her two Bergen BRG8 diesel engines produced over 8000 shaft horsepower enabling her to travel through ice up to thick at . Her propulsion system used a computer-controlled variable-pitch propeller and stern and bow thrusters. She carried two ice-modified Lynx helicopters which were instrumental in the making of the BBC Documentary Series Planet Earth in 2006.
Endurance was laid up in Portsmouth from 2009 to 2016, following serious damage caused by flooding following an error during routine maintenance on a sea suction strainer. In October 2013 it was reported that she would be scrapped; in July 2015 the vessel was offered for sale for further use or recycling and left Portsmouth under tow to the Leyal ship recycling facility in Turkey on 1 June 2016.
Career
MV Polar Circle was built in Norway in 1990 by Ulstein Hatlo for Rieber Shipping. The Royal Navy chartered her for eight months as HMS Polar Circle from 21 November 1991. She was bought outright and renamed HMS Endurance on 9 October 1992.
Endurance provided a sovereign presence in polar waters, performing hydrographic surveys and supporting the British Antarctic Survey in Antarctica. Her usual deployment saw her in the Southern Ocean and returning to the UK through tropical waters each year. Later, a longer, 18-month deployment was designed to maximise her time available for BAS usage.
In 1997, Endurance made the first visit to Argentina by a Royal Naval vessel since the Falklands War, calling at the capital, Buenos Aires, en route to her Antarctic deployment. That she was seen as a scientific and research vessel rather than a warship facilitated the visit and helped to normalise relations between Argentina and the United Kingdom. She visited the Argentinian port of Mar del Plata in 1998 and returned to Buenos Aires in 2002.
In 2005, Endurance was chosen to carry the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh at the International Fleet Review as part of the Trafalgar 200 celebrations.
In July 2007, the United Kingdom offered Endurance to supply Argentina's Antarctic bases after their icebreaker suffered extensive damage in a fire.
Although she enjoyed a varied, purposeful career as the UK's sole ice patrol vessel, Endurances later years were problematic and ended in ignominy. After her 2004 docking period in Falmouth, the ship suffered a minor accident which resulted in her listing badly when the drydock she was situated in flooded up. The months after the refit were troublesome and the ship suffered numerous debilitating machinery failures. This was to become something of a theme over the next four years as the ship's crew struggled to keep her serviceable, set against more demanding challenges.
Docking in Puerto Belgrano 2006
During survey work in Antarctica in January 2006, the ship's engineering staff discovered that her rudder was apparently loose on the stock. Her work period was cut short and she returned to Mare Harbour in the Falkland Islands for further inspections. Det Norske Veritas, the ship's assurance certification company, instructed that the ship should dock at the nearest available port – the nearest large enough being Puerto Belgrano, Argentina's largest naval base, where Endurance docked in mid-March 2006.
Without hotel services on board, the ship's company moved to shore-side accommodation in the city of Bahía Blanca, some twenty kilometres west of Puerto Belgrano. The rudder was removed for repairs, and once it was on the floor of the drydock, a dockers' strike followed. The ship remained there for nearly three weeks. Picket lines formed at the gates of the naval base, preventing the ship's company from relieving the stranded duty watch on board.
When the strike broke, the rudder was replaced and welded into position and the ship left Puerto Belgrano in early April 2006. She returned to Portsmouth via Lisbon and to drydock again for further engineering work on the rudder and stock.
2008 near loss
In December 2008, while on an 18-month deployment, Endurance suffered extensive flooding to her machinery spaces and lower accommodation decks resulting in the near loss of the ship. A serious engine room flood left her without power or propulsion, and she was towed to Punta Arenas by a Chilean tug. After an extensive survey was completed, the estimates to refit the ship were put at around £30m. On 8 April 2009 Endurance arrived off Portsmouth, on the semi-submersible transporter ship .
The Royal Navy inquiry found that the flood happened while a sea-water strainer was being cleaned, in an attempt to improve the production of fresh water. The air lines controlling a hull valve were incorrectly reconnected, resulting in the valve opening and an inability to close it. The pipe installation fell below generally accepted standards, which made reconnection of the air lines ambiguous.
The inquiry also found that, due to manpower constraints, the ship did not have a system maintainer and that clarity of engineering command had been lost, with no-one clearly in charge of risk-management. It was fortunate that, without propulsion, Endurance had drifted over an area shallow enough for anchors to be let go and to hold the ship in position, otherwise, "there was a very real possibility that she would have been lost either by running ashore or by succumbing to the flood." The inquiry judged that the ship's company responded well to control damage in challenging conditions.
Ice Patrol (TV series)
In 2009, National Geographic Channel ran a four-episode documentary series on Endurance. Five ran the same series the following year under the name Ice Patrol, with the final episode showing what happened the day the ship almost sank.
Replacement
On 9 September 2010, speculation in the press suggested it was likely that Endurance would be scrapped and replaced with another icebreaker from Norway.
On 22 March 2011, it was announced that the Royal Navy intended to hire MV Polarbjørn, to be renamed , for three years whilst a final decision on whether to repair or scrap Endurance is made. was purchased in September 2013.
It was announced on 7 October 2013 that Endurance would be sold for scrap, as it was not 'economically viable' to repair the damage sustained in 2008. In July 2015 the Ministry of Defence gave advanced notice of sale of the vessel for further use or recycling, noting that "parties interested in acquiring the vessel for future use should note it will require considerable investment". The vessel left Portsmouth under tow on her final voyage to the breakers' yard in Turkey on 1 June 2016.
Link to Sir Ernest Shackleton
Endurance was named after the ship which Sir Ernest Shackleton used in his Antarctic expedition of 1914–1917. The names of Endurances boats and landing craft continued the Shackleton connection: James Caird and Dudley Docker were named after boats carried by Shackleton's Endurance, Nimrod was named after the ship which Shackleton used on his Antarctic expedition of 1907–1909, and Eddie Shackleton was named after the explorer's son. The motto of Endurance, "fortitudine vincimus" ("by endurance, we conquer"), was also the Shackleton family motto.
Footnotes
External links
MaritimeQuest photo gallery: HMS Endurance
http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/friends/events/endurance/letter3/
Icebreakers of the United Kingdom
Survey vessels of the Royal Navy
Patrol vessels of the United Kingdom
1990 ships
British Antarctic Survey
Ships built in Ulstein | [
-0.230556920170784,
-0.22143076360225677,
0.38236305117607117,
-0.2551664113998413,
0.051732566207647324,
0.4023725986480713,
0.7724229693412781,
-0.48182299733161926,
-0.45381900668144226,
0.5670576095581055,
0.1827218234539032,
0.07710271328687668,
-0.07787636667490005,
-0.05522390082478523,
0.247041255235672,
0.28183287382125854,
0.3755297362804413,
0.4717631936073303,
-0.37730997800827026,
-0.4307396411895752,
0.29124900698661804,
-0.14535708725452423,
0.9036380052566528,
-0.16045552492141724,
0.3084263801574707,
0.052174635231494904,
0.3006008267402649,
0.4524329602718353,
0.1735289841890335,
-0.00629459461197257,
0.34668341279029846,
0.3593149185180664,
0.0018311942694708705,
0.36443179845809937,
0.5523420572280884,
0.13658586144447327,
-0.09548161923885345,
0.013744091615080833,
-0.7700979113578796,
-0.4078708589076996,
-0.3607173264026642,
0.08756396174430847,
0.07255732268095016,
0.17364443838596344,
-0.44427600502967834,
0.25270479917526245,
-0.7868370413780212,
-0.14259572327136993,
0.5692592263221741,
0.17367258667945862,
-0.8552507162094116,
0.16034044325351715,
0.3877611756324768,
-0.26041272282600403,
0.38551774621009827,
0.5156996250152588,
-0.8019166588783264,
-0.3463609516620636,
-0.2906935214996338,
-0.5581107139587402,
0.698116660118103,
0.48722895979881287,
-0.24922625720500946,
-0.3426670432090759,
-0.06066000461578369,
0.10736870765686035,
-0.12866255640983582,
0.3933391273021698,
-0.20995214581489563,
-0.30873438715934753,
0.6371864080429077,
-0.05328697711229324,
-0.18525466322898865,
0.4170869290828705,
-0.3177313506603241,
-0.3016377389431,
0.28638243675231934,
-0.7898545265197754,
0.8256981372833252,
0.3517872989177704,
0.874153196811676,
0.33853548765182495,
0.6713859438896179,
0.435031533241272,
-0.6267450451850891,
0.09352920204401016,
-0.2350807785987854,
0.3980553448200226,
-1.026110291481018,
0.645145058631897,
-0.39031898975372314,
-0.6063315868377686,
0.6399401426315308,
0.9827212691307068,
0.062292441725730896,
0.3708372116088867,
-0.7742100954055786,
0.2849526107311249,
0.6309431791305542,
0.0948585495352745,
0.3870518207550049,
0.19492144882678986,
0.12315027415752411,
-0.28398382663726807,
0.01727471686899662,
0.04305358976125717,
-0.14237210154533386,
-0.36025747656822205,
-0.6608819961547852,
-0.35155218839645386,
-0.2447577565908432,
-0.18853552639484406,
-0.8431437611579895,
0.030576499179005623,
-0.2511313259601593,
0.07722610980272293,
0.36412766575813293,
-0.26006412506103516,
-0.2902575731277466,
-0.03806430846452713,
0.31684765219688416,
0.12081471085548401,
-0.16312582790851593,
-0.14070367813110352,
-0.034611910581588745,
0.33545684814453125,
0.15853770077228546,
0.5637970566749573,
-0.653450071811676,
-0.1924605369567871,
0.17259900271892548,
0.7738076448440552,
-0.5607200860977173,
0.1961205154657364,
-0.33561164140701294,
-0.03583606332540512,
-0.16248543560504913,
0.2400800585746765,
0.43817639350891113,
0.6467520594596863,
-0.42991048097610474,
-0.09513747692108154,
-0.032910559326410294,
-0.2534274160861969,
0.5440584421157837,
-0.277081161737442,
-0.2707963287830353,
0.368970662355423,
-0.22077837586402893,
0.023476362228393555,
-0.34051910042762756,
-0.35183659195899963,
-0.16211053729057312,
-0.12215276062488556,
-0.22125831246376038,
-0.28389614820480347,
0.016384851187467575,
0.06147104874253273,
0.26668015122413635,
0.3434049189090729,
-0.2210947722196579,
0.14570152759552002,
-0.5034738779067993,
0.22849124670028687,
0.9800227880477905,
-0.02250499837100506,
0.215275838971138,
-0.2784072160720825,
0.3314891755580902,
-0.7384821772575378,
-0.33208686113357544,
0.23893041908740997,
0.7698709964752197,
0.260602205991745,
-0.5473485589027405,
-0.15115609765052795,
0.2996074855327606,
0.20233368873596191,
0.3652212917804718,
-0.5039482712745667,
-0.4563986361026764,
0.15770016610622406,
0.2848188579082489,
-0.18334902822971344,
0.5127004981040955,
0.597015380859375,
0.3226344585418701,
0.4276699423789978,
-0.3048774003982544,
-0.05332879349589348,
-0.0805194154381752,
-0.16219225525856018,
0.9580729007720947,
-0.33176442980766296,
1.2434641122817993,
-0.2379000037908554,
-0.47955477237701416,
0.30448272824287415,
-0.0515906885266304,
0.8883321285247803,
0.4480133354663849,
-0.25207197666168213,
0.37852025032043457,
-0.46828609704971313,
-0.26441824436187744,
0.25036096572875977,
0.5179228186607361,
-0.04629099741578102,
-0.07540226727724075,
0.6376866698265076,
-0.7504512667655945,
-0.8453091979026794,
0.0795610323548317,
0.5891551971435547,
-0.01989028789103031,
-0.0593484528362751,
-0.056054916232824326,
-0.0937369167804718,
-0.12501852214336395,
-0.49274584650993347,
0.6324317455291748,
0.42903515696525574,
-0.5495684742927551,
-0.26138201355934143,
-0.43172577023506165,
0.1797305941581726,
-0.05263229086995125,
0.06473042815923691,
0.2633349895477295,
-0.06165536865592003,
-0.025126846507191658,
0.32162943482398987,
-0.1580740213394165,
-0.3520389199256897,
0.22386246919631958,
0.5239576697349548,
0.06446127593517303,
0.342011958360672,
1.0683567523956299,
0.00798157136887312,
0.2955366373062134,
0.6613785624504089,
-0.5259002447128296,
0.2983444929122925,
0.5475561618804932,
0.36833474040031433,
0.33548933267593384,
0.16891668736934662,
-0.2920393943786621,
-0.5779919028282166,
0.21026119589805603,
-0.1989665925502777,
0.34707868099212646,
-0.30919575691223145,
-0.19774441421031952,
-0.05456980690360069,
-0.2774296700954437,
-0.1275518834590912,
0.6620120406150818,
0.508751392364502,
-0.09557125717401505,
-0.3755396604537964,
0.3128621280193329,
0.15838375687599182,
0.35344478487968445,
-0.2547796964645386,
-0.3910042643547058,
-0.7104372382164001,
0.8071268200874329,
-0.12716887891292572,
0.5016791820526123,
-0.23308509588241577,
0.042968519032001495,
-0.21564827859401703,
0.43211600184440613,
0.24266451597213745,
-0.044660598039627075,
0.25131767988204956,
-0.040909312665462494,
-0.33305680751800537,
0.3814307451248169,
0.8648273944854736,
-0.006483841221779585,
-0.282633513212204,
0.05332525074481964,
-0.302707314491272,
-0.18044644594192505,
-0.7319434285163879,
-0.28816667199134827,
-0.29319900274276733,
0.08994176238775253,
-0.3795721232891083,
-0.2855570316314697,
-0.2936706244945526,
-0.3030078411102295,
0.32070034742355347,
-0.1349392682313919,
-0.17665527760982513,
0.47555357217788696,
0.05618952214717865,
-0.2899123728275299,
0.3270984888076782,
-0.7410431504249573,
0.3626348078250885,
-0.08669622987508774,
0.10716640204191208,
-0.4541156589984894,
-0.5246755480766296,
-5.643598556518555,
-0.2399493157863617,
-0.3030147850513458,
-0.13028374314308167,
-0.5786226987838745,
0.20364850759506226,
0.5580871105194092,
0.007695079781115055,
0.03355875238776207,
-0.3710027039051056,
0.6272504925727844,
0.4227850139141083,
0.34531259536743164,
0.3330576419830322,
0.3870105445384979,
0.3652394711971283,
0.7269642353057861,
-0.5592453479766846,
0.848368227481842,
-0.3423978388309479,
0.2919293940067291,
-0.0781521201133728,
-0.24801543354988098,
-0.5424680113792419,
0.08483650535345078,
0.17565038800239563,
-0.5884296298027039,
0.2723119556903839,
-0.4584822356700897,
-0.10170339047908783,
-0.06861552596092224,
-0.27018263936042786,
-0.4231915771961212,
-0.7573567032814026,
0.09018875658512115,
-0.35273829102516174,
0.28553107380867004,
0.3125520348548889,
0.32772743701934814,
-0.9101859927177429,
-0.4294072687625885,
-0.18584151566028595,
0.14176547527313232,
0.01367136649787426,
0.2803364396095276,
-0.04432843253016472,
0.09808674454689026,
0.01828976534307003,
0.36004161834716797,
0.7949329614639282,
-0.2122042179107666,
0.4709392189979553,
0.3858652710914612,
0.3297097682952881,
0.1700567603111267,
-0.007678215857595205,
-0.6615970730781555,
0.2447468638420105,
-0.22668661177158356,
0.4439619183540344,
-0.04791739210486412,
-0.22020183503627777,
-0.18109989166259766,
-0.6141040325164795,
-0.13748371601104736,
0.3242408335208893,
0.05294959992170334,
-0.23252972960472107,
0.25964704155921936,
-0.21274983882904053,
-0.10823600739240646,
0.4779260754585266,
-0.0907135009765625,
-0.6361997723579407,
0.32176482677459717,
-0.4631378650665283,
0.3596625030040741,
0.5485268235206604,
-0.7553644776344299,
0.14097179472446442,
0.13184639811515808,
-0.6122896671295166,
-0.5387805104255676,
0.5151106119155884,
0.10135610401630402,
-0.878839910030365,
0.09571540355682373,
0.29282477498054504,
-0.08106822520494461,
-0.2228580266237259,
0.6494419574737549,
-0.27448129653930664,
-0.02754604071378708,
0.264580637216568,
0.5065487623214722,
-0.31461936235427856,
-0.34799665212631226,
-0.01068020612001419,
0.8460662961006165,
-0.5423081517219543,
0.1692388653755188,
0.07749753445386887,
0.860329270362854,
-0.5929125547409058,
-0.2816236913204193,
-1.0956557989120483,
-0.6002134084701538,
-0.0750841572880745,
0.6089690327644348,
-0.4036984443664551,
-0.25392431020736694,
-0.777282178401947,
-0.5285487174987793,
0.03457346186041832,
-0.054493773728609085,
-0.13931968808174133,
-0.3042341470718384,
0.22374068200588226,
0.6048189997673035,
0.03394274041056633,
-0.7492007613182068,
0.5619336366653442,
-0.03156959265470505,
-0.30156660079956055,
-0.5797143578529358,
-0.5119199752807617,
0.7470675110816956,
0.03664301335811615,
-0.5907517671585083,
-0.002769285347312689,
-0.05596369132399559,
0.7098522186279297,
-0.33252543210983276,
0.04646812006831169,
0.23758170008659363,
-0.15594683587551117,
-0.3424881398677826,
0.12961947917938232,
0.2513073980808258,
0.14556501805782318,
-0.29894208908081055,
-0.26828786730766296,
0.2128831446170807,
0.4524235427379608,
0.94029301404953,
0.6778834462165833,
0.9206594824790955,
-0.19280993938446045,
0.11500371247529984,
0.8251487016677856,
-0.5113546848297119,
-0.23521111905574799,
0.40777283906936646,
-0.5500069260597229,
0.3214820325374603,
0.233263298869133,
0.8248972296714783,
0.10691636055707932,
-0.5555635690689087,
0.2331523299217224,
0.307376891374588,
-0.25628891587257385,
-0.4351293444633484,
-0.3561443090438843,
0.2593747675418854,
0.0597723089158535,
-0.7223414778709412,
-0.14195489883422852,
0.5473935008049011,
-0.0031857530120760202,
-0.04534059762954712,
-0.8609060645103455,
-0.7664048075675964,
0.10752710700035095,
0.510583221912384,
0.0650625005364418,
-0.610904335975647,
-0.32865583896636963,
-0.321368008852005,
0.12250706553459167,
-0.10941396653652191,
0.04932732507586479,
-0.2664395868778229,
0.3890118896961212,
0.5339766144752502,
0.24383313953876495,
-0.5732367634773254,
0.12497962266206741,
0.36622533202171326,
-0.22409754991531372,
0.2736987769603729,
-0.2222357839345932,
0.30539020895957947,
0.12939003109931946,
-0.4477815330028534,
0.4503648281097412,
0.2672399878501892,
0.33811551332473755,
0.28243687748908997,
-0.6220797896385193,
0.4997652769088745,
0.15613771975040436,
-0.5584628582000732,
-0.023090578615665436,
-0.17654746770858765,
-0.41336050629615784,
-0.35307008028030396,
-0.69953453540802,
0.1257818639278412,
0.5153491497039795,
0.04304149001836777,
-0.943574070930481,
0.5115938782691956,
0.9685153961181641,
-0.336134135723114,
0.08898535370826721,
-0.1784072369337082,
0.4047612249851227,
-0.15608233213424683,
-0.6154171228408813,
-0.7171751856803894,
-0.27646657824516296,
-0.13750706613063812,
-0.5889127850532532,
-1.1185705661773682,
0.43813827633857727,
0.16928479075431824,
-0.10322695225477219,
-0.03304905816912651,
0.09115305542945862,
0.015899043530225754,
-0.006804450880736113,
-0.5715633034706116,
-0.24692650139331818,
0.24793100357055664,
-0.2528434097766876,
-0.5194251537322998,
-0.2711186707019806,
0.3197351396083832,
0.3540393114089966,
0.26946529746055603,
0.5953699946403503,
0.3284677267074585,
-0.8410396575927734,
-0.4191407859325409,
0.34127277135849,
0.30192410945892334,
-0.22638371586799622,
-0.02853957936167717,
-0.02893790230154991,
-0.41172969341278076,
-0.3083813786506653,
-0.17619776725769043,
-0.5728153586387634,
1.1563323736190796,
-0.4121113419532776,
0.4494021534919739,
-0.7432578802108765,
0.2532803416252136,
-0.48498499393463135,
0.2825376093387604,
0.35676783323287964,
-0.9625537991523743,
0.01721377670764923,
0.21025408804416656,
0.4020940959453583,
-0.20726662874221802,
-0.08114195615053177,
0.13192710280418396,
0.06848441809415817,
-0.34769630432128906,
0.1304345279932022,
-0.028923580422997475,
0.6919548511505127,
-0.3504462242126465,
0.007839268073439598,
-0.23370057344436646,
-0.2019244134426117,
0.47760695219039917,
0.5244879126548767,
-0.40335455536842346,
0.3213622272014618,
-0.23892094194889069,
-0.5661754012107849,
-0.37409546971321106,
-0.477221816778183,
0.07539147883653641,
-0.48470339179039,
0.1826806515455246,
-0.23609641194343567,
0.7410601377487183,
-0.40940022468566895,
-0.3872155249118805,
-0.25428497791290283,
-0.3044530153274536,
0.3678990602493286,
-0.35671094059944153,
0.5628429055213928,
-0.2948357164859772,
0.22380603849887848,
-0.4083930552005768,
0.5388374924659729,
-0.4413689076900482,
0.00021291196753736585,
-0.5270873308181763,
0.09273447096347809,
0.2645667493343353,
-0.3401607573032379,
0.1922074258327484,
-0.12729522585868835,
0.010518629103899002,
-0.4957335293292999,
0.09153744578361511,
0.5024439692497253,
0.08431585878133774,
0.05029792711138725,
0.16511064767837524,
-0.3769969940185547,
-0.5297244787216187,
0.11016572266817093,
0.14893922209739685,
0.39198020100593567,
0.000438379734987393,
0.40699252486228943,
-0.33737125992774963,
0.6769706010818481,
-0.590096652507782,
-0.2759665548801422,
-0.521437406539917,
0.7693434953689575,
-0.05224750563502312,
-0.33332380652427673,
-0.23057565093040466,
0.7108977437019348,
-0.3667372167110443,
-0.026518074795603752,
0.4867064952850342,
-0.25023841857910156,
0.20198218524456024,
0.8509730696678162,
0.4433439075946808,
0.21115025877952576,
-0.7754656076431274,
-0.6810156106948853,
0.28566524386405945,
0.22768010199069977,
-0.4728318452835083,
0.02190023474395275,
0.7230501174926758,
0.4036210775375366,
0.23230156302452087,
0.1958630234003067,
0.38516801595687866,
-0.5109238028526306,
-0.7171178460121155,
0.5774598121643066,
-0.018823925405740738,
-0.6337817311286926,
0.284286767244339,
0.008255748078227043,
0.09056263417005539,
0.18986296653747559,
0.017382124438881874,
0.12762075662612915,
-0.8493138551712036,
0.022634809836745262,
0.17484474182128906,
-0.21184338629245758,
0.5243021845817566,
0.14428085088729858,
0.5183560848236084,
0.19059833884239197,
-0.16231708228588104,
-0.05120301619172096,
-0.34012678265571594,
0.12603943049907684,
0.11543834954500198,
-0.2332400232553482,
-0.14352448284626007,
-0.402002215385437,
-0.5380321145057678,
0.29888197779655457,
-0.0906205102801323,
-0.9767950177192688,
-0.2678067982196808,
0.034873269498348236,
-0.030818134546279907,
0.17227870225906372,
-0.4258154034614563,
0.4855641722679138,
0.25319939851760864,
-0.2720179259777069,
-0.376707524061203,
-0.14210402965545654,
-0.3502313494682312,
-0.337462842464447,
0.06461862474679947,
0.23206819593906403,
0.06766358017921448,
0.13192406296730042,
0.18868349492549896,
0.29093196988105774,
0.2593039572238922,
0.5559929609298706,
-0.059785738587379456,
0.18051858246326447,
-0.27247464656829834,
-0.13695889711380005,
-0.014607799239456654,
-0.44133299589157104,
0.5779664516448975,
0.06955775618553162,
-0.41658034920692444,
-0.0187847800552845,
0.047842685133218765,
-0.10327695310115814,
0.2326095998287201,
-0.578364908695221,
-0.8503377437591553,
0.41139256954193115,
-0.05299115180969238,
-0.28184929490089417,
0.07733571529388428,
-0.26851481199264526,
-0.5306419730186462,
0.015993520617485046,
0.28525397181510925,
-0.5177851319313049,
0.332436740398407,
0.7446202635765076,
-0.04630604013800621,
0.05959310382604599,
-0.398989737033844,
0.7169566750526428,
-0.19543448090553284,
-0.4563455581665039,
0.059551335871219635,
0.2209610790014267,
0.6419740319252014,
0.5229816436767578,
0.21528814733028412,
-0.06455715000629425,
0.6191412806510925,
0.09458313882350922,
-0.147738978266716,
0.05957760661840439,
-0.2083798199892044,
-0.9644564390182495,
-0.1576603204011917,
-0.23689422011375427,
0.3758837878704071,
-0.3721162974834442,
0.0624215193092823,
-0.5651006698608398,
0.4742914140224457,
-0.4343210458755493,
0.9217855334281921,
-0.3386365473270416,
-0.14713738858699799,
-0.3302561938762665
] |
247905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuvalu%20mo%20te%20Atua | Tuvalu mo te Atua | Tuvalu for the Almighty (Tuvaluan: Tuvalu mo te Atua) is the national anthem of Tuvalu. The lyrics and music are by Afaese Manoa.
It was adopted in 1978, when the country became independent.
Tuvaluan Lyrics
Tuvalu mo te Atua,
Ko te Fakavae sili,
Ko te ala foki tena,
Mo te manuia katoa
Loto lasi o fai,
Tou malo saoloto
Fusi ake katoa
Ki te loto alofa
Kae amo fakatasi
Ate atu fenua.
“Tuvalu mo te Atua”
Ki te se gata mai!
Tuku atu tau pulega
Ki te pule mai luga,
Kilo tonu ki ou mua
Me ko ia e tautai.
“Pule tasi mo ia”
Ki te se gata mai,
Ko tena mana
Ko tou malosi tena.
Pati lima kae kalaga
Ulufonu ki te tupu.
“Tuvalu ko tu saoloto”
Ki te se gata mai!
English Lyrics
Tuvalu for the Almighty
Are the words we hold most dear
For as people or as leaders
Of Tuvalu we all share
In the knowledge that God
Ever rules in heav’n above,
And that we in this land
Are united in His love.
We build on a sure foundation
When we trust in God’s great law
“Tuvalu for the Almighty”
Be our song for evermore!
Let us trust our lives henceforward
To the King to whom we pray,
With our eyes fixed firmly on Him
He is showing us the way.
“May we reign with Him in glory”
Be our song for evermore,
for His almighty power
Is our strength from shore to shore.
Shout aloud in jubilation
To the King whom we adore.
“Tuvalu free and united”
Be our song for evermore!
See also
Afaese Manoa
References
External links
National anthem of Tuvalu MIDI
National Anthem of Tuvalu - Streaming audio, lyrics and information
National anthems
Tuvaluan music
National symbols of Tuvalu
Oceanian anthems
National anthem compositions in B-flat major
1978 establishments in Tuvalu | [
0.6204499006271362,
0.4817348122596741,
-0.06630053371191025,
-0.44248685240745544,
-0.5519323945045471,
0.4221019148826599,
0.6204497218132019,
0.05115707218647003,
-0.06647982448339462,
0.12404419481754303,
-0.4487185478210449,
0.958947479724884,
-0.15879322588443756,
0.16202209889888763,
-0.2291475236415863,
0.2549140453338623,
0.24518893659114838,
0.6774449944496155,
-0.296802818775177,
-0.41316527128219604,
-0.7699221968650818,
-0.20321765542030334,
0.2905668020248413,
0.222406268119812,
0.24914304912090302,
0.03092448227107525,
0.24831843376159668,
0.38114482164382935,
-0.5982268452644348,
-0.023766489699482918,
0.4671901762485504,
1.097611427307129,
-0.18704542517662048,
-0.5747806429862976,
-0.5319598317146301,
-0.6307650208473206,
0.6388682723045349,
-0.5368914008140564,
0.05843299627304077,
0.0427553690969944,
-0.11252345144748688,
-1.0393680334091187,
0.665299654006958,
0.020186888054013252,
0.07577913999557495,
-0.531256377696991,
-1.175906777381897,
0.5076857209205627,
-0.9876856207847595,
0.49134477972984314,
-0.2590513229370117,
0.32564088702201843,
-0.40222427248954773,
0.4347575306892395,
0.3769061267375946,
1.1816498041152954,
-0.6814779043197632,
-0.04975501075387001,
-0.3312138319015503,
-1.0329052209854126,
0.21092034876346588,
-0.06741941720247269,
0.2534983456134796,
-0.16559016704559326,
-0.03916678577661514,
-0.37083324790000916,
-0.3117794692516327,
0.06636672466993332,
-0.16112728416919708,
-0.5441651344299316,
-0.5252417922019958,
-0.041597671806812286,
-0.5486586689949036,
-0.43083512783050537,
-0.17096659541130066,
-0.46886375546455383,
-0.628984808921814,
-0.01653681881725788,
-0.141426682472229,
0.29571428894996643,
-0.14460480213165283,
-0.6798884868621826,
-0.29128676652908325,
0.5630162358283997,
-0.10061135143041611,
0.12650802731513977,
0.5127492547035217,
-0.44684603810310364,
0.17053531110286713,
0.9753628969192505,
-0.22909580171108246,
-0.5329452157020569,
0.14555728435516357,
-0.11782579123973846,
0.10441836714744568,
-0.013764124363660812,
-0.10891151428222656,
0.39336609840393066,
-0.3995852768421173,
-0.12945573031902313,
0.6894648671150208,
0.06549642980098724,
1.071800947189331,
-0.46725931763648987,
-0.8679239153862,
-0.7051680088043213,
-0.3987770974636078,
-0.0667073130607605,
0.5395894646644592,
-0.4162265658378601,
-0.1296992003917694,
-0.07427223771810532,
0.0780787467956543,
0.2832069396972656,
0.40066975355148315,
-0.2993254065513611,
0.6339127421379089,
-0.3564392626285553,
-0.3274606466293335,
-0.2747063934803009,
0.31105586886405945,
0.336809903383255,
0.2685057818889618,
0.4766148626804352,
0.03267112746834755,
0.5651711225509644,
0.6862647533416748,
0.4907754361629486,
-0.03420262411236763,
0.5984652638435364,
0.02910846285521984,
0.15938149392604828,
-0.11205247789621353,
0.0883043184876442,
-0.09495770931243896,
-0.3676932156085968,
0.13279008865356445,
-0.43143850564956665,
0.47368350625038147,
0.6190062761306763,
-0.8728744387626648,
-0.5400703549385071,
-0.4945022165775299,
-0.20081888139247894,
0.6720375418663025,
0.05001910403370857,
-0.9926538467407227,
-0.2635534107685089,
0.05338524281978607,
-0.1992306262254715,
0.311761736869812,
-0.43725571036338806,
0.40200233459472656,
0.21109117567539215,
-0.020906522870063782,
-0.2908434271812439,
0.9562259316444397,
0.06404100358486176,
0.08448086678981781,
0.6613841652870178,
0.17257024347782135,
0.1652243733406067,
0.6259737014770508,
0.21271216869354248,
0.357318639755249,
0.1921079009771347,
0.4344310164451599,
0.9403874278068542,
0.3955610394477844,
-0.2991493344306946,
-0.3925968110561371,
-0.1923264116048813,
0.07550203800201416,
0.3186267912387848,
-0.7533289790153503,
-0.41492071747779846,
0.6288221478462219,
0.10084939748048782,
0.25088223814964294,
-0.21816687285900116,
-0.5177460312843323,
0.3939194083213806,
0.35172516107559204,
0.14546926319599152,
0.45801815390586853,
0.2572229504585266,
-0.08960602432489395,
-0.198232501745224,
0.2714425325393677,
0.5423089265823364,
-0.9302135109901428,
-0.9690583944320679,
0.6011434197425842,
0.03890645131468773,
0.14830315113067627,
0.17104089260101318,
0.05521244555711746,
0.6652894020080566,
0.3883603811264038,
0.5945549011230469,
0.2365162968635559,
0.4515801966190338,
0.6822081208229065,
-0.13988514244556427,
-0.6967244148254395,
0.4977225065231323,
-0.4314652383327484,
0.16188213229179382,
0.46169033646583557,
-0.12468010932207108,
-0.12487035989761353,
-0.03268411383032799,
0.22767192125320435,
0.21926602721214294,
-0.2955465316772461,
-0.474346399307251,
0.230071023106575,
0.31171682476997375,
0.1387479156255722,
-0.338605672121048,
0.2210351824760437,
-0.1248997375369072,
0.0015936978161334991,
0.258866548538208,
0.4051259160041809,
0.4696575403213501,
-0.3467019498348236,
-0.26044991612434387,
-0.1712292730808258,
0.4038209319114685,
0.07914377748966217,
0.17040075361728668,
0.04502737522125244,
-0.03291697055101395,
0.04020571708679199,
0.1671701818704605,
0.09005675464868546,
-0.5915282368659973,
0.44329044222831726,
-0.002374910516664386,
0.1830144077539444,
0.6998738050460815,
-0.4156937003135681,
-0.055005647242069244,
0.6508493423461914,
0.041395656764507294,
-0.4177379310131073,
-0.6519030332565308,
0.42934781312942505,
0.37321415543556213,
0.5549318790435791,
-0.8849283456802368,
0.30446740984916687,
0.6298128962516785,
0.0543331503868103,
-0.44966936111450195,
-0.0456511527299881,
0.02901637740433216,
-0.2044418603181839,
-0.24397893249988556,
-0.3941570222377777,
-0.2837701439857483,
0.7310497760772705,
-0.1315302848815918,
0.23863977193832397,
-1.1224080324172974,
-0.1007436141371727,
-0.05726519972085953,
0.06672622263431549,
-0.18786270916461945,
-0.16992072761058807,
-0.23544283211231232,
-0.06605032086372375,
-0.33594760298728943,
0.19072996079921722,
0.09055661410093307,
-0.45132577419281006,
-0.08084440976381302,
-0.7668747305870056,
-0.37011057138442993,
0.4356505870819092,
0.42300254106521606,
-0.2904658019542694,
-0.7617608308792114,
0.02629990130662918,
0.27880623936653137,
0.9033251404762268,
-0.48141369223594666,
-0.1985156238079071,
0.49830493330955505,
-0.45686283707618713,
-0.38475582003593445,
0.04901980236172676,
-0.3424113988876343,
0.24930748343467712,
0.1375701129436493,
0.615809440612793,
0.35159745812416077,
0.3871903717517853,
-0.6819968223571777,
-0.12588992714881897,
-0.5771068334579468,
0.0719301700592041,
-0.20755159854888916,
0.6483367681503296,
-0.6169633269309998,
-0.5154750943183899,
-0.3976026177406311,
-5.359166145324707,
0.1118917390704155,
0.23149849474430084,
-0.13379666209220886,
0.28411558270454407,
0.41319671273231506,
0.4920012354850769,
-0.5511103868484497,
0.5003029108047485,
-0.8662077784538269,
0.32121220231056213,
-0.03274499252438545,
0.2695452868938446,
0.23542775213718414,
-0.0988222062587738,
0.3327053487300873,
0.10354127734899521,
-0.028299015015363693,
0.4476737976074219,
-0.3103977143764496,
0.25013089179992676,
0.06348254531621933,
0.18014347553253174,
0.0215519480407238,
0.32274580001831055,
0.6464914679527283,
0.03517623618245125,
0.060053013265132904,
-0.1641426384449005,
0.07772883027791977,
-0.20857113599777222,
-0.26867884397506714,
0.3633085787296295,
-0.8423755168914795,
-0.10845702141523361,
-0.4419105350971222,
0.05974012240767479,
0.49102357029914856,
0.4029116630554199,
-0.15100014209747314,
-0.2085304856300354,
-0.29572543501853943,
0.11588714271783829,
-0.4533039629459381,
0.07333140820264816,
-0.30115607380867004,
-0.36635372042655945,
-0.2661963403224945,
-0.35626864433288574,
0.9087608456611633,
-0.5288515090942383,
0.15238624811172485,
0.24113263189792633,
-1.1436585187911987,
-0.14311616122722626,
0.3688723146915436,
0.20281581580638885,
0.4224783182144165,
-0.18505774438381195,
0.011375249363481998,
-0.10462969541549683,
-0.4457400143146515,
-0.15103980898857117,
-0.409096360206604,
-0.2246895432472229,
-0.025862330570816994,
-0.009491045959293842,
-0.06736014038324356,
0.3882055878639221,
0.299738347530365,
-0.27827781438827515,
0.22472330927848816,
-0.7348625659942627,
-0.6517883539199829,
-0.11890455335378647,
-0.819619357585907,
-0.07100045680999756,
0.45319002866744995,
-0.13667835295200348,
-0.1342030167579651,
-0.7317026257514954,
-0.45739004015922546,
-0.4130505919456482,
0.6444681286811829,
0.2086237072944641,
-0.47680550813674927,
-1.005941390991211,
-0.09395734965801239,
-0.15639978647232056,
-0.07881056517362595,
0.42352116107940674,
-0.7355350852012634,
-0.07375861704349518,
0.311715692281723,
0.19468775391578674,
0.47887924313545227,
-0.10980164259672165,
-0.42827802896499634,
0.6082065105438232,
0.04589945822954178,
-0.0437660850584507,
0.14029715955257416,
0.2701406478881836,
-0.1885240077972412,
0.23458372056484222,
0.07142814993858337,
-0.18832260370254517,
0.09097842872142792,
0.532411515712738,
0.11444278806447983,
0.022650916129350662,
-0.316435843706131,
-0.026804206892848015,
0.2299661636352539,
-0.34961873292922974,
-0.313884973526001,
0.553375780582428,
0.7088391184806824,
0.6943152546882629,
-0.1946159303188324,
0.47098657488822937,
0.030873088166117668,
-0.12168823927640915,
-0.45676156878471375,
0.15414173901081085,
-0.13053083419799805,
0.13999351859092712,
0.3086719214916229,
-0.12374797463417053,
-0.478977769613266,
0.4386700987815857,
-0.7680519819259644,
0.6988059878349304,
0.5252642631530762,
0.5315855741500854,
-0.11225792020559311,
0.03883284330368042,
-0.690862774848938,
-0.02421453595161438,
-0.3221803307533264,
-0.25243183970451355,
-0.47805556654930115,
-0.20604307949543,
0.08310368657112122,
0.7668339014053345,
0.690532386302948,
-0.08564634621143341,
-0.07789627462625504,
-0.12555190920829773,
0.5005457997322083,
0.30839645862579346,
0.0003011102962773293,
0.8055634498596191,
-1.273308277130127,
-0.2638097405433655,
0.38677725195884705,
-0.38477641344070435,
-0.021438583731651306,
-0.7473989129066467,
-0.06291964650154114,
0.027868524193763733,
-0.6218603849411011,
-1.3924849033355713,
-0.3998544216156006,
-0.07872676104307175,
-0.21184681355953217,
-0.6065930128097534,
0.035634975880384445,
-0.5065481066703796,
0.2815999984741211,
0.6838594675064087,
-0.44972148537635803,
-0.24937735497951508,
0.03709721565246582,
0.23863667249679565,
-0.7933326959609985,
-0.06334355473518372,
0.6878668069839478,
-0.03227401524782181,
-0.03965049982070923,
-0.49641498923301697,
0.42546528577804565,
-0.3787946403026581,
-0.2817944884300232,
0.03185369446873665,
-0.028870761394500732,
-0.04001211002469063,
0.007332941051572561,
0.10819786041975021,
0.6404098272323608,
-0.11404312402009964,
0.32408446073532104,
0.1229104995727539,
-0.11958926916122437,
-0.20667517185211182,
-0.2497454136610031,
-0.2176126390695572,
0.18550342321395874,
0.10756919533014297,
-0.32117801904678345,
0.45774775743484497,
0.09394370764493942,
-0.6246327757835388,
-0.20703062415122986,
-0.6152024865150452,
0.28333133459091187,
1.1402866840362549,
0.013862925581634045,
-0.7485038042068481,
0.19410565495491028,
-0.1798052042722702,
-1.031919002532959,
0.16703826189041138,
1.26690673828125,
-0.8749686479568481,
-0.26308101415634155,
0.3724711537361145,
-0.27008119225502014,
0.2705252468585968,
-1.0856854915618896,
0.23129329085350037,
0.19752562046051025,
-0.2532118558883667,
0.2174280881881714,
-0.449077844619751,
0.6787813305854797,
0.46302130818367004,
-0.6706169843673706,
0.019535981118679047,
-0.8183444738388062,
0.10842473804950714,
0.11736910045146942,
0.1178942397236824,
0.6175119280815125,
-0.4198131263256073,
0.25159651041030884,
-0.3615191578865051,
-0.3108842968940735,
-0.15799649059772491,
0.41070064902305603,
0.13683433830738068,
1.1762654781341553,
0.34545180201530457,
-0.24323786795139313,
-0.22446228563785553,
0.3732204735279083,
-0.04992711544036865,
-0.014038422144949436,
-0.27880963683128357,
0.193497434258461,
0.022686541080474854,
-0.22468248009681702,
-0.6750516295433044,
-0.4905243515968323,
-0.059838369488716125,
-1.1543347835540771,
0.17182375490665436,
0.7130410671234131,
0.14506004750728607,
-0.13592219352722168,
0.20865337550640106,
0.03128428012132645,
-0.2769007086753845,
0.24927425384521484,
0.5222979784011841,
0.7136539816856384,
0.23192118108272552,
-0.5773938894271851,
0.16358816623687744,
-0.026023663580417633,
-0.5253790616989136,
-0.3969952166080475,
-0.17738953232765198,
-0.11736137419939041,
-0.05028756335377693,
-0.469396710395813,
0.3163423240184784,
-0.14873164892196655,
0.3290966749191284,
0.25064951181411743,
-0.07563821971416473,
-0.2669304311275482,
0.08314525336027145,
0.20016083121299744,
0.3341180384159088,
-1.0887036323547363,
-0.3144533038139343,
0.256544828414917,
0.22297577559947968,
0.2729451656341553,
-0.6001191735267639,
-0.29226088523864746,
0.12602844834327698,
-0.03804692253470421,
-0.03468494117259979,
0.06209633871912956,
0.5761417150497437,
-0.09073193371295929,
-0.4122662842273712,
-0.07273421436548233,
-0.6565935611724854,
0.41555026173591614,
0.41958457231521606,
-0.0224459171295166,
0.27943363785743713,
-0.23513154685497284,
-0.08515236526727676,
-0.34502795338630676,
0.025845391675829887,
0.45507100224494934,
0.12015745788812637,
-0.04714160040020943,
0.3788032531738281,
1.0522297620773315,
-0.09352169930934906,
0.2686234712600708,
0.569634199142456,
-0.23590339720249176,
-0.18908727169036865,
0.9585660696029663,
-0.10184561461210251,
-1.403926134109497,
0.6174136996269226,
0.6345142722129822,
0.5714852809906006,
-0.12414953857660294,
-0.31630590558052063,
-0.5718672871589661,
0.9345497488975525,
0.32488107681274414,
0.0633661076426506,
0.26498550176620483,
-0.12935423851013184,
0.05138539522886276,
-0.9486713409423828,
-0.3482242524623871,
0.19551199674606323,
-0.2795659005641937,
-0.581372082233429,
1.1358861923217773,
0.932651937007904,
0.02774164266884327,
0.07712112367153168,
-0.3146800100803375,
0.5118304491043091,
-0.37726935744285583,
-0.10519138723611832,
0.2512296140193939,
0.5141788721084595,
-0.049498043954372406,
0.5621005892753601,
0.41954466700553894,
-0.0969381108880043,
-1.058121919631958,
0.15932846069335938,
0.3497375547885895,
0.29754164814949036,
-0.3621383011341095,
0.640379786491394,
0.15764230489730835,
0.07525371760129929,
-0.03731823340058327,
0.3277515470981598,
0.011832899414002895,
-0.2073274403810501,
-0.20822259783744812,
0.8265210390090942,
-0.30336591601371765,
-0.22220665216445923,
-0.07642973959445953,
-0.40433377027511597,
0.22903110086917877,
-0.03669051080942154,
0.0748170018196106,
0.07335925102233887,
0.11700819432735443,
-0.29776471853256226,
-0.04595116153359413,
0.05462844297289848,
0.0014762717764824629,
-0.8368943333625793,
-0.45806169509887695,
-0.19043031334877014,
-1.0390799045562744,
0.15637126564979553,
0.03814559429883957,
-0.06791558861732483,
-0.40806421637535095,
-0.23204083740711212,
0.509773850440979,
0.6428759098052979,
-0.007395533844828606,
-0.0203606765717268,
-0.4881848692893982,
-0.29307064414024353,
-0.3453269600868225,
-0.1002647653222084,
0.43082109093666077,
0.19798198342323303,
0.23413805663585663,
0.45209574699401855,
0.09759043902158737,
0.8683988451957703,
0.17855629324913025,
0.2350204437971115,
-0.08705165237188339,
0.26602405309677124,
0.30786338448524475,
-0.2483968585729599,
-0.018374605104327202,
0.3875359892845154,
0.5001095533370972,
-0.5221519470214844,
0.5994415283203125,
-0.232444629073143,
-0.08409230411052704,
0.6774967908859253,
-0.22560063004493713,
0.03272880241274834,
-0.6542670130729675,
-0.1266905516386032,
-0.4842270314693451,
0.39512237906455994,
1.320104718208313,
-0.28419142961502075,
-0.31011372804641724,
-0.11908750236034393,
0.2172423005104065,
-1.0771197080612183,
0.1164492517709732,
-0.6070665121078491,
0.7063788771629333,
-0.054693855345249176,
-0.31457817554473877,
-0.5198662281036377,
0.341558575630188,
0.18114440143108368,
0.5867149829864502,
-0.33398371934890747,
-0.7644564509391785,
0.12321384996175766,
-0.07108131051063538,
0.16608984768390656,
0.2350209802389145,
0.21399381756782532,
-0.42864635586738586,
-0.08243800699710846,
-0.17798547446727753,
-0.42893528938293457,
0.17947882413864136,
0.6630431413650513,
-0.39956438541412354,
0.7980908751487732,
-0.3239912986755371,
-0.09211411327123642,
-0.8448471426963806,
0.4354456067085266,
0.04643363878130913,
0.4630410373210907,
0.37438538670539856
] |
247908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcosm%E2%80%93macrocosm%20analogy | Microcosm–macrocosm analogy | The microcosm–macrocosm analogy (or, equivalently, macrocosm–microcosm analogy) refers to a historical view which posited a structural similarity between the human being (the microcosm, i.e., the small order or the small universe) and the cosmos as a whole (the macrocosm, i.e., the great order or the great universe). Given this fundamental analogy, truths about the nature of the cosmos as a whole may be inferred from truths about human nature, and vice versa.
One important corollary of this view is that the cosmos as a whole may be considered to be alive, and thus to have a mind or soul (the world soul), a position advanced by Plato in his Timaeus. Moreover, this cosmic mind or soul was often thought to be divine, most notably by the Stoics and those who were influenced by them, such as the authors of the Hermetica. Hence, it was sometimes inferred that the human mind or soul too was divine in nature.
Apart from this important psychological and noetic (i.e., related to the mind) application, the analogy was also applied to human physiology. For example, the cosmological functions of the seven classical planets were sometimes taken to be analogous to the physiological functions of human organs, such as the heart, the spleen, the liver, the stomach, etc.
The view itself is ancient, and may be found in many philosophical systems world-wide, such as for example in ancient Mesopotamia, in ancient Iran, or in ancient Chinese philosophy. However, the terms microcosm and macrocosm refer more specifically to the analogy as it was developed in ancient Greek philosophy and its medieval and early modern descendants.
In contemporary usage, the terms microcosm and macrocosm are also employed to refer to any smaller system that is representative of a larger one, and vice versa.
History
Antiquity
Among ancient Greek and Hellenistic philosophers, notable proponents of the microcosm–macrocosm analogy included Anaximander (), Plato (), the Hippocratic authors (late 5th or early 4th century BCE and onwards), and the Stoics (3rd century BCE and onwards). In later periods, the analogy was especially prominent in the works of those philosophers who were heavily influenced by Platonic and Stoic thought, such as Philo of Alexandria (), the authors of the early Greek Hermetica (), and the Neoplatonists (3rd century CE and onwards). The analogy was also employed in late antique and early medieval religious literature, such as in the Bundahishn, a Zoroastrian encyclopedic work, and the Avot de-Rabbi Nathan, a Jewish Rabbinical text.
Middle Ages
Medieval philosophy was generally dominated by Aristotle, who despite having been the first to coin the term "microcosm", had posited a fundamental and insurmountable difference between the region below the moon (the sublunary world, consisting of the four elements) and the region above the moon (the superlunary world, consisting of a fifth element). Nevertheless, the microcosm–macrocosm analogy was adopted by a wide variety of medieval thinkers working in different linguistic traditions: the concept of microcosm was known in Arabic as , in Hebrew as , and in Latin as or . The analogy was elaborated by alchemists such as those writing under the name of Jabir ibn Hayyan (), by the anonymous Shi'ite philosophers known as the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ ("The Brethren of Purity", ), by Jewish theologians and philosophers such as Isaac Israeli (), Saadia Gaon (882/892–942), Ibn Gabirol (11th century), and Judah Halevi (), by Victorine monks such as Godfrey of Saint Victor (born 1125, author of a treatise called Microcosmus), by the Andalusian mystic Ibn Arabi (1165 – 1240), by the German cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401 – 1464), and by numerous others.
Renaissance
The revival of Hermeticism and Neoplatonism in the Renaissance, both of which had reserved a prominent place for the microcosm–macrocosm analogy, also led to a marked rise in popularity of the latter. Some of the most notable proponents of the concept in this period include Marsilio Ficino (1433 – 1499), Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa (1486 – 1535), Francesco Patrizi (1529 – 1597), Giordano Bruno (1548 – 1600), and Tommaso Campanella (1568 – 1639). It was also central to the new medical theories propounded by the Swiss physician Paracelsus (1494 – 1541) and his many followers, most notably Robert Fludd (1574 – 1637). Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) in his anatomy text De fabrica wrote that the human body "in many respects corresponds admirably to the universe and for that reason was called the little universe by the ancients."
See also
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
The following works contain general overviews of the microcosm–macrocosm analogy:
Other sources cited
Natural philosophy
Cosmology
Esoteric cosmology
Hermeticism
Stoicism
Paracelsus | [
0.0492267906665802,
0.2958677411079407,
-0.09192804992198944,
0.07970564812421799,
-0.014115367084741592,
0.24204596877098083,
-0.43977367877960205,
-0.11777578294277191,
-0.025525499135255814,
-1.0240373611450195,
-0.4639042019844055,
0.40002965927124023,
-0.11152125149965286,
0.6476320624351501,
-0.027453871443867683,
0.15366269648075104,
0.27444377541542053,
0.5624744296073914,
-0.2922452390193939,
-0.09698852151632309,
-0.17623856663703918,
0.6109622716903687,
-0.0018844392616301775,
-0.5932997465133667,
-0.0019604258704930544,
-0.09712839871644974,
0.4636251926422119,
-0.23853199183940887,
0.29754146933555603,
0.17383739352226257,
0.5237408876419067,
0.9280290603637695,
-0.6435762643814087,
-0.293032705783844,
0.04642091691493988,
-0.4521162211894989,
-0.10674204677343369,
0.08522914350032806,
0.13689516484737396,
-0.7764583230018616,
0.7558756470680237,
0.13278841972351074,
0.4367086589336395,
0.4538590908050537,
-0.5811934471130371,
-0.35950762033462524,
-2.018944263458252,
0.042242735624313354,
-0.5138207077980042,
-0.17826241254806519,
-0.2465256154537201,
-0.005230230744928122,
0.7794013619422913,
0.6078290343284607,
-0.30050528049468994,
0.7614790797233582,
-0.6777620315551758,
0.005100728943943977,
0.6288094520568848,
-0.32325151562690735,
0.3595488965511322,
0.4757324755191803,
-0.2156038135290146,
-0.10706158727407455,
-0.21592476963996887,
0.25855323672294617,
0.48250240087509155,
-0.3498994708061218,
-0.5168293118476868,
-0.0807565301656723,
0.04313363507390022,
-0.09534694254398346,
0.09451814740896225,
0.3471749722957611,
-0.644652247428894,
-0.1751372367143631,
0.23035095632076263,
-0.045417968183755875,
0.32487738132476807,
-0.24145354330539703,
-0.4355577528476715,
0.08579384535551071,
0.23096399009227753,
-0.24883009493350983,
0.7873047590255737,
0.004628677386790514,
-0.37812766432762146,
0.18005606532096863,
-0.9331454038619995,
0.8804311752319336,
0.0800846517086029,
-0.44123902916908264,
0.48219409584999084,
0.19342991709709167,
0.7779197096824646,
0.10658896714448929,
0.7235005497932434,
-0.12480928003787994,
-0.17808572947978973,
0.11976026743650436,
-0.3047000467777252,
0.2550221383571625,
0.014697817154228687,
-0.1661907434463501,
-0.2120223045349121,
-0.5121933817863464,
-0.12303295731544495,
-0.41315630078315735,
-0.08191787451505661,
-0.38302844762802124,
-0.7172293066978455,
0.12765689194202423,
0.10382945835590363,
0.4291120767593384,
-0.5146510601043701,
-0.055611561983823776,
-0.05041129142045975,
0.1073494404554367,
-0.2868601083755493,
0.0683530941605568,
0.18407417833805084,
0.8975513577461243,
0.11249397695064545,
0.13451175391674042,
0.3305712044239044,
0.23982398211956024,
0.5846100449562073,
0.3690086603164673,
-1.1211258172988892,
-0.25487953424453735,
0.06715045869350433,
0.8238682150840759,
0.1098468154668808,
-0.3247767984867096,
0.21497660875320435,
-0.16091658174991608,
0.7174466252326965,
-0.15044543147087097,
0.14679686725139618,
0.585926353931427,
0.030207503587007523,
-0.8369086980819702,
-0.7439253330230713,
0.21278086304664612,
0.4208950698375702,
-0.3731054961681366,
0.20905505120754242,
-0.38896307349205017,
-0.1518523097038269,
-0.26968005299568176,
-0.12843535840511322,
0.40937864780426025,
-0.617795467376709,
-0.010822562500834465,
0.08389360457658768,
0.34419193863868713,
0.11380299180746078,
0.07293019443750381,
0.029122330248355865,
0.3450053632259369,
0.024669554084539413,
-0.212871253490448,
-0.6409679651260376,
-0.667966902256012,
0.1665709912776947,
-0.30269962549209595,
0.09861946851015091,
0.628384530544281,
-0.26057329773902893,
0.6014156937599182,
0.06078718975186348,
-0.19797691702842712,
0.15628132224082947,
-0.33018335700035095,
-0.16832983493804932,
0.4748188853263855,
0.8477205038070679,
0.041692715138196945,
0.6366458535194397,
0.1519588977098465,
-0.6078747510910034,
-0.07348427921533585,
-0.045632392168045044,
-0.44584882259368896,
0.5944430232048035,
-0.010489730164408684,
0.29544633626937866,
-0.008820361457765102,
-0.21045434474945068,
-0.09505048394203186,
-0.5319560170173645,
-0.487555593252182,
0.33913111686706543,
-1.044100046157837,
1.426363229751587,
0.39494195580482483,
-0.37684330344200134,
0.3474563956260681,
-0.02707885205745697,
0.06159137934446335,
-0.3706115484237671,
0.18305180966854095,
0.13664664328098297,
0.29950201511383057,
-0.23839379847049713,
0.3871534764766693,
0.01627005636692047,
-0.6122645139694214,
-0.3112274408340454,
0.21878181397914886,
0.6515872478485107,
-0.03122405707836151,
0.12754447758197784,
-0.5405992269515991,
0.08786744624376297,
-0.2426234781742096,
-0.2726327180862427,
0.24519315361976624,
-0.6629816293716431,
-0.1036776751279831,
0.869627058506012,
-0.32237672805786133,
0.43483564257621765,
-0.11183778196573257,
0.3295259475708008,
0.1097692996263504,
0.3944515883922577,
0.2664867341518402,
0.7391455173492432,
-0.3946802318096161,
0.015375122427940369,
-0.010922585614025593,
0.6147080659866333,
-0.6252973079681396,
-0.5562141537666321,
-0.19745773077011108,
0.5251045823097229,
-0.3487658202648163,
-0.10773872584104538,
-0.37042924761772156,
-0.5457065105438232,
0.41575586795806885,
-0.6843668818473816,
0.49991294741630554,
-0.28290852904319763,
0.03271585330367088,
-0.3100721836090088,
0.09650401026010513,
-0.49904635548591614,
0.6049683690071106,
-0.40616708993911743,
0.391031414270401,
0.03724510967731476,
-0.4337420165538788,
0.024434952065348625,
-0.07594004273414612,
-0.01046992652118206,
-0.2697225511074066,
-0.21188083291053772,
0.3409483730792999,
0.0855007916688919,
0.02727597951889038,
0.20671051740646362,
0.15472030639648438,
-0.5257803797721863,
-0.7151685357093811,
-0.3812841475009918,
-0.41875728964805603,
0.22458180785179138,
0.49699389934539795,
0.2931313216686249,
-0.1625584214925766,
-0.25963085889816284,
0.006727619096636772,
0.09912706166505814,
-0.25979939103126526,
0.05414937809109688,
0.25564613938331604,
-0.34046274423599243,
-0.5510227680206299,
0.08262971043586731,
0.6074275970458984,
0.24947777390480042,
-0.3946504294872284,
-0.21137934923171997,
0.024929145351052284,
-0.09420440346002579,
-0.2492257058620453,
0.2562026083469391,
-0.17685794830322266,
-0.1806570440530777,
0.5729658603668213,
-0.01489673089236021,
-0.5379305481910706,
-0.1364193856716156,
0.5500001907348633,
0.050050314515829086,
-0.041872911155223846,
-0.14773303270339966,
-0.4007011353969574,
-0.5125694274902344,
0.40089091658592224,
-0.1156117394566536,
-0.2603708803653717,
0.46074095368385315,
0.04554365947842598,
-0.4263923168182373,
0.5858595371246338,
-5.845149040222168,
-0.3414943516254425,
-0.032040804624557495,
-0.05949747562408447,
0.07315772026777267,
-0.10067277401685715,
0.6235606670379639,
-0.11127068102359772,
-0.37088683247566223,
0.20649835467338562,
0.03410794585943222,
0.018953656777739525,
0.04763263836503029,
0.7532716393470764,
0.43283650279045105,
-0.15843184292316437,
-0.13479657471179962,
0.0006795164663344622,
-0.12594743072986603,
0.14504863321781158,
-0.26718568801879883,
-0.07163501530885696,
-0.22240138053894043,
0.5821850299835205,
0.13122119009494781,
-0.02786840684711933,
-0.6142494082450867,
-0.07496197521686554,
-0.04599076136946678,
-0.2835913300514221,
0.03236299753189087,
0.3907697796821594,
0.09224246442317963,
-0.4497067332267761,
0.22640705108642578,
0.43839433789253235,
0.37341079115867615,
0.23346729576587677,
0.275234580039978,
-0.32270506024360657,
-0.30150243639945984,
0.814695417881012,
-0.18757431209087372,
0.25790277123451233,
0.08567304164171219,
-0.20987223088741302,
-0.2479180097579956,
0.5138979554176331,
-0.3112141489982605,
0.662186861038208,
-0.7338997721672058,
0.0468759760260582,
0.5708155035972595,
-0.2537316083908081,
0.4215635657310486,
-0.20460735261440277,
0.3501705527305603,
-0.006459739524871111,
-0.1362627148628235,
-0.3638931214809418,
0.34280022978782654,
-0.6695078015327454,
0.3707386553287506,
-0.6144295334815979,
-0.424971342086792,
-0.4650156497955322,
-1.2257323265075684,
-0.20896749198436737,
0.46189039945602417,
0.10012154281139374,
-0.17622776329517365,
0.04126569256186485,
-0.28529107570648193,
-0.8988757729530334,
0.29513421654701233,
0.0532226599752903,
0.07553377747535706,
-0.07655787467956543,
0.4720088243484497,
0.030751090496778488,
-0.06405749917030334,
-0.15479861199855804,
-0.4315401315689087,
0.4119050204753876,
-0.20889943838119507,
-0.316330224275589,
-0.2935108244419098,
-0.06208270788192749,
-0.6716471910476685,
-0.16157057881355286,
0.19535663723945618,
-0.13647544384002686,
-0.08180606365203857,
0.6685471534729004,
0.0847567468881607,
0.09498351067304611,
-0.05358079448342323,
0.6653711199760437,
0.5106992721557617,
-0.17149782180786133,
0.6379477977752686,
-0.5156000852584839,
0.11928793042898178,
0.17663894593715668,
0.1674174666404724,
0.2927672266960144,
-0.3837738335132599,
0.125203475356102,
0.8338974714279175,
0.06004296988248825,
0.010174614377319813,
0.11335106939077377,
-0.22177499532699585,
0.0739426463842392,
-0.14037665724754333,
0.09475858509540558,
-0.5518394112586975,
-0.09616484493017197,
0.41903918981552124,
0.2905082106590271,
0.020460406318306923,
-0.19464366137981415,
-0.19604022800922394,
0.16475634276866913,
-0.18316544592380524,
-0.0862773060798645,
-0.15942664444446564,
0.1869625598192215,
-0.37499532103538513,
0.11216871440410614,
0.39605286717414856,
0.4572092294692993,
-0.12899723649024963,
-0.10164123773574829,
0.5035247206687927,
-0.3384789526462555,
0.22021359205245972,
0.4883049428462982,
0.16218063235282898,
-0.2301291972398758,
0.9021352529525757,
-0.30138513445854187,
-0.0327908918261528,
-0.29985058307647705,
0.16099396347999573,
0.597082793712616,
-0.060393065214157104,
-0.3443765938282013,
-0.13057073950767517,
0.8918761610984802,
-0.06441434472799301,
-0.004730986896902323,
0.10102809220552444,
-0.6374749541282654,
-0.3083054721355438,
0.010779736563563347,
0.009429404512047768,
0.04340805113315582,
-0.06549368798732758,
-0.39404138922691345,
-0.2149588018655777,
-0.11490058153867722,
-0.652058482170105,
-0.13739797472953796,
-0.08123873919248581,
-0.3026597797870636,
-0.8133649230003357,
0.045328788459300995,
-0.1476176232099533,
0.3228168189525604,
-0.05605662614107132,
-0.316669762134552,
-0.545221745967865,
-0.5624552965164185,
-0.17111192643642426,
0.3712785243988037,
0.2763262093067169,
0.4781395494937897,
-0.10423071682453156,
-0.7389411926269531,
0.5658330917358398,
-0.35455161333084106,
-0.21442751586437225,
-0.17869211733341217,
0.34083807468414307,
-0.3893047869205475,
0.30710867047309875,
0.21578148007392883,
0.12591442465782166,
-0.2721150517463684,
0.10752815008163452,
0.6123956441879272,
0.2436761111021042,
-0.12999995052814484,
-0.3081357777118683,
-0.3812749683856964,
-0.17480944097042084,
0.14417919516563416,
-0.052193328738212585,
-0.635282039642334,
0.32051634788513184,
0.703387439250946,
-0.30293920636177063,
0.5629231929779053,
0.3684593737125397,
-0.671542763710022,
0.204477921128273,
-0.012230395339429379,
-0.2287292778491974,
-0.14052720367908478,
-0.7696899175643921,
-0.506479024887085,
-0.1815253347158432,
0.11530447006225586,
-0.1616782248020172,
0.2887105941772461,
0.5517826080322266,
-0.13967376947402954,
0.1484774351119995,
-0.049919113516807556,
0.3136136531829834,
-0.1799355149269104,
-0.24968373775482178,
-0.03953142091631889,
0.029910342767834663,
-0.0025256448425352573,
0.20469345152378082,
-0.012852859683334827,
0.2663222849369049,
-0.20351046323776245,
-0.2454078048467636,
-0.05944327265024185,
0.027995219454169273,
-0.03539919853210449,
-0.2582078278064728,
-0.26878437399864197,
-0.16380485892295837,
-0.12357865273952484,
-0.10280834883451462,
-0.2974081337451935,
0.4446876645088196,
0.5066981911659241,
-0.15008634328842163,
-0.2935067117214203,
-0.3491901755332947,
0.417599618434906,
0.6886889934539795,
-0.5510057806968689,
-0.7266300320625305,
-0.2841857969760895,
0.05173483490943909,
-0.7691024541854858,
-0.3127296268939972,
-0.34747856855392456,
0.5751222372055054,
0.3914836645126343,
-0.40435531735420227,
0.0203260388225317,
0.15472108125686646,
0.025201065465807915,
-0.046077366918325424,
-0.43775466084480286,
-0.49293768405914307,
-0.2798011898994446,
0.20169129967689514,
0.2193423956632614,
0.2093694508075714,
0.01988040842115879,
0.14321859180927277,
-0.4626650810241699,
1.2099502086639404,
0.015343050472438335,
0.3639169931411743,
0.3763033151626587,
0.6357777118682861,
-0.0886150598526001,
-0.5944427847862244,
-0.18324601650238037,
0.06127184256911278,
-0.8236261010169983,
-0.006778600625693798,
0.06779944896697998,
-0.29235100746154785,
-0.2940926253795624,
0.5820696949958801,
-0.08552125841379166,
0.6244748830795288,
-0.41297340393066406,
-0.04993866756558418,
-0.617506742477417,
-0.776577889919281,
0.07077041268348694,
-0.07027792185544968,
0.38221481442451477,
-0.09851758927106857,
0.03763216733932495,
0.14734648168087006,
0.3426741063594818,
0.009418469853699207,
-0.16746288537979126,
-0.3445740044116974,
0.4741118848323822,
0.2040051966905594,
-0.8725197315216064,
0.7352461218833923,
0.28464022278785706,
0.14641083776950836,
0.14367789030075073,
0.2508535087108612,
-0.08929038047790527,
0.4710996747016907,
0.15235625207424164,
-0.1693643182516098,
0.5346007943153381,
0.19710777699947357,
-0.18836325407028198,
0.37464338541030884,
-0.46332311630249023,
0.9724360108375549,
0.6216339468955994,
-0.25047576427459717,
0.2068563848733902,
0.8477577567100525,
-0.28915154933929443,
-0.24058888852596283,
0.14986775815486908,
-0.26477283239364624,
0.3865688443183899,
-0.13096007704734802,
0.6674361228942871,
0.6524031162261963,
0.5235132575035095,
-0.28181159496307373,
0.16928629577159882,
0.07893051207065582,
-0.4269067645072937,
0.5337967872619629,
-0.32804983854293823,
-0.6190309524536133,
0.7971332669258118,
0.13978137075901031,
0.05341622233390808,
-0.5225859880447388,
0.2986395061016083,
-0.3040739595890045,
0.10340147465467453,
0.10632548481225967,
0.5357008576393127,
-0.38749808073043823,
0.35185736417770386,
0.4292658567428589,
-0.22557008266448975,
0.3573521375656128,
-0.33068886399269104,
0.1782115399837494,
-0.3754377067089081,
0.9427193999290466,
-0.5104373693466187,
-0.33418840169906616,
0.42371076345443726,
-0.28449249267578125,
0.6571871042251587,
0.21037612855434418,
-0.11348488926887512,
0.10108970105648041,
0.06732373684644699,
0.1508697122335434,
-0.2682133913040161,
0.1808461844921112,
-0.12658604979515076,
0.2845631241798401,
0.46667081117630005,
-0.4992358386516571,
0.612499475479126,
0.06805597990751266,
-0.3986911177635193,
0.29840391874313354,
0.36276522278785706,
0.16724056005477905,
-0.24686028063297272,
-0.2754362225532532,
0.13925959169864655,
0.28188732266426086,
-0.4959191083908081,
0.17719322443008423,
0.12443336844444275,
0.274885892868042,
0.7199696898460388,
-0.15911877155303955,
-0.0965578556060791,
0.37011221051216125,
-0.5163168907165527,
0.026293443515896797,
-0.051533620804548264,
-0.7356312870979309,
0.06449095159769058,
-0.3992391526699066,
0.42399832606315613,
-0.30315065383911133,
-0.15313686430454254,
-0.3536747694015503,
0.2694660425186157,
0.15847474336624146,
0.13600239157676697,
-0.624563992023468,
0.4755512475967407,
0.02088000252842903,
-0.10566779971122742,
-0.6006903648376465,
0.4689229130744934,
0.24796658754348755,
-0.5859919190406799,
-0.054029084742069244,
-0.20103619992733002,
-0.21634013950824738,
0.27679944038391113,
0.17426107823848724,
-0.31391942501068115,
0.28175485134124756,
-0.032421424984931946,
0.2553631663322449,
-0.013442721217870712,
0.6054610013961792,
-0.21277722716331482,
-0.19753529131412506,
-0.5596660375595093,
0.16775918006896973,
0.6366218328475952,
0.21859893202781677,
0.36198344826698303,
-0.28887760639190674,
0.5844529271125793,
-0.8273752331733704,
0.4222124218940735,
-0.3332253098487854,
-0.554249107837677,
-0.32407405972480774,
0.34622952342033386,
0.4443635940551758,
-0.32498958706855774,
-0.2647961378097534,
-0.09232932329177856,
-0.3490287959575653,
0.24802137911319733,
-0.8089094161987305,
0.25692880153656006,
-0.04094553366303444,
-0.04614460468292236,
-0.3674018383026123,
0.1654992699623108,
0.5076805353164673,
-0.4052859842777252,
-0.5072037577629089,
-0.3849695920944214,
-0.14631611108779907,
-0.08525391668081284,
0.01810592971742153,
-0.7930318713188171,
0.370439350605011,
0.6735186576843262
] |
247909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvin%20McDowell | Irvin McDowell | Irvin McDowell (October 15, 1818 – May 4, 1885) was a career American army officer. He is best known for his defeat in the First Battle of Bull Run, the first large-scale battle of the American Civil War. In 1862, he was given command of the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac. He fought unsuccessfully against P.G.T. Beauregard's troops during the Valley Campaign of 1862, and was blamed for contributing to the defeat of United States troops at the Second Battle of Bull Run in August.
Early life
McDowell was born in Columbus, Ohio, son of Abram Irvin McDowell and Eliza Seldon McDowell. He was a cousin-in-law of John Buford, and his brother, John Adair McDowell, served as the first colonel of the 6th Iowa Volunteer Infantry Regiment during the Civil War. Irvin initially attended the College de Troyes in France before graduating from the United States Military Academy in 1838, where one of his classmates was P. G. T. Beauregard, his future adversary at First Bull Run. He was commissioned a second lieutenant and posted to the 1st U.S. Artillery. McDowell served as a tactics instructor at West Point, before becoming aide-de-camp to General John E. Wool during the Mexican–American War. He was brevetted captain at Buena Vista and served in the Adjutant General's department after the war. While in that department he was promoted to major on May 31, 1856.
Between 1848 and 1861, McDowell generally served as a staff officer to higher-ranking military leaders, and developed experience in logistics and supply. He developed a close friendship with General Winfield Scott while serving on his staff. He also served under future Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston.
Civil War
McDowell was promoted to brigadier general in the regular army on May 14, 1861, and was given command of the Army of Northeastern Virginia on May 27. The promotion was partly because of the influence of his mentor, Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase. Although McDowell knew that his troops were inexperienced and unready, and protested that he was a supply officer, not a field commander, pressure from the Washington politicians forced him to launch a premature offensive against Confederate forces in Northern Virginia. His strategy during the First Battle of Bull Run was imaginative but ambitiously complex, and his troops were not experienced enough to carry it out effectively, resulting in an embarrassing rout.
After the defeat at Bull Run, Major General George B. McClellan was placed in command of the new Union Army defending Washington, the Army of the Potomac. McDowell became a division commander in the Army of the Potomac. On March 14, 1862, President Lincoln issued an order forming the army into corps and McDowell got command of the I Corps as well as a promotion to major general of volunteers. When the army set off for the Virginia Peninsula in April, McDowell's command was detached for duty in the Rappahannock area out of concern over Stonewall Jackson's activities in the Shenandoah Valley (one division was later sent down to the Peninsula).
Eventually, the three independent commands of Generals McDowell, John C. Frémont, and Nathaniel P. Banks were combined into Major General John Pope's Army of Virginia and McDowell led the III Corps of that army. Because of his actions at Cedar Mountain, McDowell was eventually brevetted major general in the regular army; however, he was blamed for the subsequent disaster at Second Bull Run. McDowell was also widely despised by his own troops who believed him to be in cahoots with the enemy. He escaped culpability by testifying against Major General Fitz John Porter, whom Pope court-martialed for alleged insubordination in that battle. Pope and McDowell did not like each other, but McDowell tolerated serving under him with the full knowledge that he himself would remain a general after the war was over while Pope would revert to the rank of colonel. Despite his formal escape, McDowell received no new assignments for the next two years.
Later service and postbellum career
In July 1864, McDowell was given command of the Department of the Pacific. He later commanded the Department of California from July 27, 1865 to March 31, 1868, briefly commanded the Fourth Military Department, then commanded the Department of the East from July 16, 1868 – December 16, 1872. On November 25, 1872, he was promoted to major general. On December 16, 1872, McDowell succeeded General George G. Meade as commander of the Military Division of the South, and remained until June 30, 1876. From July 1, 1876, he was commander of the Division of the Pacific. In 1882, Congress imposed a mandatory retirement age of 64 for military officers, and McDowell retired on October 14 of that year.
In 1879, when a board of review commissioned by President Rutherford B. Hayes issued its report recommending a pardon for Fitz John Porter, it attributed much of the loss of the Second Battle of Bull Run to McDowell. In the report, he was depicted as indecisive, uncommunicative, and inept, repeatedly failing to answer Porter's requests for information, failing to forward intelligence of Longstreet's positioning to Pope, and neglecting to take command of the left wing of the Union Army as was his duty under the Articles of War.
Following his retirement from the army, General McDowell exercised his fondness for landscape gardening, serving as Park Commissioner of San Francisco, California until his death from heart attack on May 4, 1885. In this capacity he constructed a park in the neglected reservation of the Presidio, laying out drives that commanded views of the Golden Gate. He is buried in San Francisco National Cemetery in the Presidio of San Francisco.
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
Notes
References
Dupuy, Trevor N., Curt Johnson, and David L. Bongard. The Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography. New York: HarperCollins, 1992. .
Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher. Civil War High Commands. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. .
Warner, Ezra J. Generals in Blue: Lives of the Union Commanders. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1964. .
External links
1818 births
1885 deaths
People from Columbus, Ohio
American expatriates in France
Union Army generals
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
People of California in the American Civil War
People of Ohio in the American Civil War
United States Military Academy alumni | [
-0.46468526124954224,
0.5884702205657959,
-0.9317450523376465,
0.1441233605146408,
-0.013918094336986542,
0.43684709072113037,
1.2311922311782837,
-0.1648278832435608,
-0.3194677233695984,
-0.2663916349411011,
-0.2794376313686371,
0.35831424593925476,
-0.4457308351993561,
0.5296223759651184,
-0.4369345009326935,
0.6564154028892517,
-0.4758024215698242,
0.38721194863319397,
-0.017835503444075584,
0.027812236919999123,
0.022083230316638947,
-0.5112524032592773,
0.36518487334251404,
-0.24806225299835205,
0.2625351846218109,
0.12647315859794617,
-0.27362439036369324,
-1.014145851135254,
0.12329261004924774,
0.0850754827260971,
-0.7645896077156067,
0.3623189628124237,
0.5073448419570923,
0.010774441063404083,
-1.3081780672073364,
-0.1989816278219223,
-0.9392538070678711,
-0.10905250906944275,
0.4101726710796356,
0.4271750748157501,
-0.4051084816455841,
-0.021632904186844826,
0.10970868170261383,
-0.3583899736404419,
0.027832863852381706,
-0.25008121132850647,
-1.945080280303955,
0.11306195706129074,
-0.5475499629974365,
-0.5705941319465637,
0.05991092696785927,
-0.17543229460716248,
-0.13582448661327362,
-0.06109548732638359,
-0.285687118768692,
0.13587214052677155,
-0.19374564290046692,
-0.36051687598228455,
0.16875606775283813,
-0.4812847077846527,
0.07635145634412766,
0.38891157507896423,
0.9274446964263916,
-0.14020700752735138,
0.21243974566459656,
-0.10541465878486633,
-0.2345581352710724,
0.7776501178741455,
-0.22576886415481567,
-0.45615169405937195,
0.18131297826766968,
0.12289489060640335,
0.9248934388160706,
0.2562262713909149,
0.3674488365650177,
-0.5258554816246033,
-0.058761171996593475,
0.6243404746055603,
-0.5504286289215088,
0.30422261357307434,
-0.21340686082839966,
-0.5142946243286133,
0.5535547137260437,
-0.08713740855455399,
-0.7372000217437744,
0.3041177988052368,
-0.32992690801620483,
0.25458887219429016,
-0.17296388745307922,
-0.015272434800863266,
0.1161159947514534,
0.14722546935081482,
0.13159655034542084,
0.053681839257478714,
0.42702293395996094,
-0.006324443966150284,
-0.15909406542778015,
0.22186721861362457,
-0.6048453450202942,
-0.2851605713367462,
-0.20698322355747223,
0.3268566131591797,
0.6983792781829834,
0.07676886767148972,
-0.11472836136817932,
0.17357861995697021,
0.19434556365013123,
-0.5289324522018433,
0.04044501110911369,
0.05025986582040787,
-0.356334388256073,
0.34885385632514954,
0.06834860146045685,
-0.5037640929222107,
-0.2507328987121582,
0.4628813564777374,
0.347456693649292,
-0.6039111614227295,
0.18593770265579224,
-0.455975741147995,
0.19816723465919495,
0.4358516037464142,
-0.46543455123901367,
0.1454925239086151,
-0.742885172367096,
0.24146458506584167,
0.08744213730096817,
0.28805914521217346,
-0.22531026601791382,
0.4425314664840698,
0.10502152889966965,
0.8241387009620667,
-0.21023224294185638,
0.5074300169944763,
-0.71797114610672,
-0.17599718272686005,
0.08096154034137726,
-0.3054354190826416,
-0.14036764204502106,
0.15993645787239075,
-0.5167341828346252,
-0.35699009895324707,
-0.35389161109924316,
-0.3711864650249481,
0.38287028670310974,
-0.32081520557403564,
-0.07042016088962555,
0.17573805153369904,
-0.3655339181423187,
-0.05462360009551048,
-0.12545642256736755,
-0.3344120979309082,
0.2089771181344986,
-0.007125940173864365,
-0.05222666636109352,
0.2520510256290436,
0.803273618221283,
0.20534299314022064,
0.7182623744010925,
0.3473522663116455,
-0.24043436348438263,
0.2603372037410736,
-0.1493808776140213,
0.11424048244953156,
0.1928357481956482,
0.1638660877943039,
0.5148245692253113,
-0.5067021250724792,
-0.7436597347259521,
-0.2740786373615265,
-0.12011028081178665,
0.07347977161407471,
0.2955315411090851,
0.5380879044532776,
0.09580934792757034,
0.1417492926120758,
0.5235453844070435,
0.48850035667419434,
0.5099213123321533,
-0.4545912742614746,
-0.847515344619751,
-0.016249310225248337,
0.733122706413269,
0.13036386668682098,
0.58830726146698,
0.3935030400753021,
0.30041417479515076,
-0.610158383846283,
0.5498695969581604,
-0.24628102779388428,
-0.4720424711704254,
-0.12087264657020569,
-0.6259452700614929,
-0.1744101643562317,
0.8498683571815491,
0.2564466595649719,
-0.7910327315330505,
0.33867591619491577,
0.2787536382675171,
0.7887639999389648,
0.48046982288360596,
-0.20733606815338135,
0.4886815845966339,
-0.13579021394252777,
0.22889815270900726,
0.6868256330490112,
0.5903133153915405,
0.07435186952352524,
0.4416811168193817,
0.8136184215545654,
0.2978505492210388,
-0.4086783826351166,
-0.04455942660570145,
0.4385669529438019,
-0.47594156861305237,
0.04013041406869888,
0.03945877403020859,
-0.6430318355560303,
0.590354323387146,
0.004329747520387173,
0.5671623945236206,
-0.30032411217689514,
0.1941174417734146,
0.9046905040740967,
-0.2516632676124573,
0.3715774714946747,
-0.3060542047023773,
0.15880797803401947,
-0.5298265218734741,
-0.795172929763794,
-0.007445882074534893,
0.04096973314881325,
0.003182928077876568,
-0.3936339020729065,
0.3633907735347748,
0.4211721420288086,
-0.04251972585916519,
0.11092313379049301,
0.060059741139411926,
-0.717458188533783,
-0.2752850651741028,
0.7521243095397949,
-0.09253374487161636,
0.2793568968772888,
0.1156754419207573,
0.36712414026260376,
-0.12828052043914795,
-0.4505290389060974,
0.03817475959658623,
-0.26082074642181396,
0.0835217759013176,
0.18568992614746094,
0.20918509364128113,
-0.2345367670059204,
0.17023015022277832,
-0.3499540388584137,
0.21404697000980377,
-0.1381734162569046,
-0.01708817481994629,
0.26258233189582825,
0.18192677199840546,
0.11729874461889267,
-0.4255598485469818,
0.1334204375743866,
0.29428738355636597,
-0.18318809568881989,
-0.605766773223877,
0.18602600693702698,
-0.005589217878878117,
0.2719671130180359,
0.45360395312309265,
-0.14730454981327057,
0.4512713551521301,
0.6443777084350586,
0.238243967294693,
0.17104105651378632,
-0.25643864274024963,
-0.030934393405914307,
-0.5711778998374939,
-0.4609193801879883,
0.49449101090431213,
0.540096640586853,
-0.2612733840942383,
0.3167339563369751,
-0.17541418969631195,
-0.9265927672386169,
-0.18048249185085297,
-0.1913202404975891,
0.04966118931770325,
0.05430670827627182,
0.08184275776147842,
0.6076623797416687,
-0.19681164622306824,
0.5834563374519348,
0.0817452147603035,
0.37925106287002563,
-0.048092130571603775,
-0.29450422525405884,
0.023385029286146164,
0.08875040709972382,
-1.195581078529358,
0.38469570875167847,
-0.17794661223888397,
-0.30344149470329285,
0.7456215023994446,
-0.12918932735919952,
0.011109770275652409,
0.0016123726963996887,
-5.316864967346191,
-0.211732417345047,
-0.08569308370351791,
-0.2639576494693756,
0.007384722586721182,
0.35457438230514526,
0.22920896112918854,
-0.23991799354553223,
-0.031360089778900146,
0.4169730246067047,
0.6429476141929626,
0.34550780057907104,
-0.09403731673955917,
0.21674419939517975,
0.8328514099121094,
0.6005157828330994,
1.0966442823410034,
0.5232107639312744,
0.13590435683727264,
0.5207658410072327,
-0.033990245312452316,
-0.020644236356019974,
-0.2645961344242096,
0.3520885407924652,
0.27565354108810425,
-0.017538469284772873,
-0.13460630178451538,
0.09066284447908401,
-0.33283302187919617,
-0.30909404158592224,
0.09315977245569229,
0.5952110886573792,
-0.26666322350502014,
-0.007623222656548023,
-0.04802047088742256,
-0.5208170413970947,
0.3832854926586151,
0.25785142183303833,
0.1841316819190979,
-0.11314951628446579,
0.2384544014930725,
-0.4634579122066498,
-0.9999184012413025,
0.036433905363082886,
0.3918728232383728,
-0.7868027687072754,
-0.3261584937572479,
0.38576406240463257,
-0.15904487669467926,
0.07251021265983582,
0.3522709906101227,
0.31439802050590515,
0.030919786542654037,
-0.24575087428092957,
-0.1381991058588028,
0.4954187572002411,
0.21914926171302795,
0.11839042603969574,
-0.7930421829223633,
0.26060158014297485,
0.4055370092391968,
-0.6993094682693481,
-0.21855631470680237,
0.22466018795967102,
-0.017477627843618393,
-0.6377313733100891,
0.005750485695898533,
-0.3211904466152191,
0.007560470141470432,
-0.5010275840759277,
0.19538547098636627,
1.6743478775024414,
0.38556191325187683,
-1.0711390972137451,
0.4682995676994324,
-0.1605856567621231,
-0.24374482035636902,
0.09150779247283936,
-0.9670604467391968,
-0.016269991174340248,
-0.48111194372177124,
0.06761016696691513,
0.7280310988426208,
0.996411144733429,
0.33478713035583496,
0.7618593573570251,
-0.13324138522148132,
0.3549768328666687,
-0.3917934000492096,
-0.12496005743741989,
0.05982035771012306,
-0.04450276494026184,
0.06547180563211441,
0.22429293394088745,
0.4742368459701538,
0.1541786640882492,
0.29349443316459656,
0.38841426372528076,
0.07350444048643112,
-0.12503720819950104,
0.06189554184675217,
0.04534323886036873,
0.17305883765220642,
-0.945024311542511,
-0.20451310276985168,
0.06661030650138855,
0.1303817331790924,
0.43610432744026184,
1.2156919240951538,
0.4533728063106537,
-0.2252231240272522,
0.14224708080291748,
0.014917204156517982,
-0.2190685272216797,
0.10269913822412491,
-0.3241249620914459,
0.3601163625717163,
0.3494867980480194,
1.0471513271331787,
0.5823468565940857,
-0.12785068154335022,
0.2264510691165924,
-0.4027165472507477,
-0.2151232659816742,
0.11612211167812347,
-0.4304336607456207,
0.36249783635139465,
-0.6537943482398987,
-0.5480812788009644,
0.18840588629245758,
0.27506762742996216,
0.5740017294883728,
-0.4165019690990448,
0.626107394695282,
-0.4416811168193817,
-0.30429497361183167,
0.15249501168727875,
-0.2670304775238037,
-0.09099800884723663,
-0.13856124877929688,
-0.07616012543439865,
-0.3741028904914856,
-0.3076735734939575,
0.1838548332452774,
0.09316136687994003,
0.23838122189044952,
0.428305983543396,
-0.17100000381469727,
-0.18607088923454285,
0.21809598803520203,
-0.9394465684890747,
-0.6141772866249084,
-0.07445739209651947,
-0.6992464065551758,
-0.04817213490605354,
-0.0546908900141716,
-0.617748498916626,
-0.12813891470432281,
-0.023699117824435234,
-0.05550775304436684,
-0.1662667989730835,
0.3712969422340393,
-0.9143993258476257,
-0.7974158525466919,
0.6465087532997131,
0.021100185811519623,
-0.4030819833278656,
-0.12229463458061218,
-0.4498533010482788,
0.6879929304122925,
0.22245986759662628,
-0.6746810078620911,
-0.09382621198892593,
-0.4538602828979492,
0.12949323654174805,
0.39424511790275574,
0.2483750283718109,
-0.317491739988327,
0.3154822885990143,
-0.38906607031822205,
0.1938478946685791,
-0.09526755660772324,
-0.720323383808136,
-0.27222487330436707,
0.34200283885002136,
-0.2559213936328888,
-0.29316267371177673,
-0.4278591275215149,
0.018784357234835625,
0.08726087957620621,
-0.7459349036216736,
-0.4578111171722412,
0.07070909440517426,
0.6103166937828064,
-0.266615092754364,
0.1178797036409378,
0.20040416717529297,
-0.10292620956897736,
0.12906059622764587,
-0.5938812494277954,
0.0701829046010971,
0.145341157913208,
-0.1299605816602707,
0.006921509280800819,
-0.717452883720398,
-0.9571648240089417,
-0.11679994314908981,
0.33433404564857483,
0.01348956674337387,
0.6232411861419678,
0.03807762637734413,
-0.853571891784668,
-0.416630357503891,
0.08171907067298889,
0.2989736795425415,
0.1479996144771576,
0.3381037712097168,
0.3393678367137909,
-0.6031533479690552,
-0.3900021016597748,
-0.7336416244506836,
-0.022592179477214813,
-0.5087767839431763,
-0.15342947840690613,
-0.1827763468027115,
0.032954368740320206,
0.06509197503328323,
-0.03762810677289963,
1.1703288555145264,
0.04328330233693123,
-0.9708847999572754,
0.17977716028690338,
-0.2308809906244278,
0.5264330506324768,
-0.10554520040750504,
-0.48505961894989014,
0.5510888695716858,
0.306464284658432,
-0.7126359939575195,
-0.4071938693523407,
0.30771604180336,
1.003238320350647,
0.42692023515701294,
-0.376338928937912,
0.06207643076777458,
-0.5272542834281921,
0.0484001487493515,
-0.7243314385414124,
-0.3578070402145386,
0.33183351159095764,
0.8580979108810425,
-0.47506603598594666,
-0.9081193208694458,
-0.273343563079834,
1.4502601623535156,
-0.2216523289680481,
0.17668971419334412,
0.5556581616401672,
0.07818382233381271,
-0.16612669825553894,
0.1482923924922943,
0.1756003201007843,
-0.1893334537744522,
-0.07505936920642853,
-0.14242829382419586,
-0.5167394876480103,
-0.11881260573863983,
-0.3150745630264282,
0.5928184390068054,
-0.3710625469684601,
-0.47220367193222046,
-0.3618833124637604,
-0.08856572955846786,
0.5515293478965759,
-0.1922304630279541,
0.5317996740341187,
0.34630998969078064,
0.13849537074565887,
0.1496143788099289,
-0.1459721028804779,
-1.193151831626892,
-0.28923165798187256,
-0.19326192140579224,
-0.34479936957359314,
-0.5427432060241699,
-0.9112991690635681,
-0.23355992138385773,
-0.34628671407699585,
-0.3137044608592987,
0.15041692554950714,
-0.3491409718990326,
0.35728734731674194,
-0.5019124150276184,
-0.27058351039886475,
-0.31223320960998535,
-0.0885239690542221,
-0.5280810594558716,
0.696812093257904,
-0.3004462718963623,
-0.04744495451450348,
-0.9943414926528931,
0.9983028173446655,
0.0428914837539196,
-0.6740230321884155,
-0.06286340951919556,
0.07084797322750092,
0.10501272231340408,
-0.32819393277168274,
-0.19562773406505585,
-0.31211817264556885,
0.08887669444084167,
-0.2284829169511795,
0.4529625475406647,
-0.12938295304775238,
-0.7942270040512085,
-0.1661757230758667,
0.7386309504508972,
-0.2708025574684143,
-0.7042089700698853,
0.015155520290136337,
-0.033280063420534134,
-0.01578652486205101,
0.48356086015701294,
-0.007192348595708609,
0.4483267664909363,
0.6430660486221313,
-0.34453094005584717,
-0.07776162773370743,
-0.023397313430905342,
0.6887102723121643,
-0.0867697224020958,
-1.0320851802825928,
-0.5942233800888062,
0.5065990686416626,
0.02658724971115589,
0.07418721914291382,
0.3157821595668793,
-0.6327193379402161,
-0.24809306859970093,
0.5942240357398987,
-0.31268569827079773,
0.8332621455192566,
0.13793374598026276,
0.10851951688528061,
-0.19240067899227142,
0.07049350440502167,
0.4418940544128418,
0.2538975179195404,
-0.3664941191673279,
-0.3393552005290985,
0.20462317764759064,
-0.01582079753279686,
0.17170003056526184,
-0.3182092308998108,
-0.19887703657150269,
-0.20238342881202698,
0.48624059557914734,
-0.18226690590381622,
-0.9833431839942932,
-0.3377089500427246,
-0.04653482511639595,
-0.5982496738433838,
1.1535195112228394,
-0.2247946560382843,
-0.046403784304857254,
0.24713267385959625,
0.34424862265586853,
-0.6159762144088745,
-0.379597544670105,
0.4066012501716614,
0.40580716729164124,
-0.3120216131210327,
-0.0472349189221859,
0.4124084413051605,
0.5770504474639893,
0.5438572764396667,
0.7081267237663269,
0.09705651551485062,
-0.28098705410957336,
-0.08401189744472504,
-0.25427713990211487,
0.39015185832977295,
0.11202012747526169,
-0.6937764286994934,
0.06897468864917755,
-0.29276493191719055,
0.15551789104938507,
0.3804437518119812,
0.17905709147453308,
-0.6041646599769592,
0.28225237131118774,
-0.031860701739788055,
-0.335195392370224,
0.37092870473861694,
0.2897510230541229,
0.3647800385951996,
0.35635796189308167,
1.0902892351150513,
0.6005505323410034,
0.4024883508682251,
0.26727110147476196,
0.06531592458486557,
0.4318675398826599,
-0.4286826550960541,
-0.3033342957496643,
0.09885214269161224,
-0.4187047779560089,
-0.13272231817245483,
-0.560646116733551,
0.46491485834121704,
-0.023981746286153793,
0.00009347392187919468,
-0.6211169362068176,
0.12760071456432343,
-0.6163326501846313,
-0.004850657191127539,
1.0082491636276245,
-0.6123967170715332,
0.3016507625579834,
-0.6757491827011108,
0.02520863525569439,
-0.05981690436601639,
0.011739978566765785,
0.4615854322910309,
-0.30472761392593384,
-0.3357631266117096,
0.08436722308397293,
-0.37385663390159607,
0.0516696460545063,
0.8052330613136292,
-0.14058448374271393,
-0.9637733697891235,
-0.6278204917907715,
-0.13041777908802032,
-0.29585590958595276,
-0.9475985169410706,
0.11388859152793884,
0.6631399989128113,
0.18659628927707672,
-0.37334975600242615,
0.5714104771614075,
-0.1662454903125763,
-0.12243418395519257,
-0.03403313457965851,
0.675947368144989,
0.29097744822502136,
-0.2182646095752716,
-0.6036942601203918,
0.7597603797912598,
0.7487995028495789,
-0.06794467568397522,
-0.20548288524150848,
0.2929683029651642,
-0.2572914659976959,
0.5811991095542908,
0.39015573263168335,
0.2588229477405548,
-0.21222996711730957,
0.30094942450523376,
0.2182135432958603
] |
247911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longdendale%20Trail | Longdendale Trail | The Longdendale Trail is an English long-distance rail trail following the former Woodhead railway line, which ran between Manchester and Sheffield and closed east of Hadfield in 1981. It has shallow gradients and a smooth surface that makes it popular with families and cyclists.
The trail, which opened in May 1992, forms part of the longer Trans Pennine Trail, NCR 62, that runs from coast to coast across the UK (Liverpool to Hull). This in turn is part of the E8 European long distance path, which runs for from Cork in Ireland to Istanbul in Turkey.
See also
Rail trail
External links
Footpaths in Derbyshire
Tourist attractions of the Peak District
Rail trails in England
Long-distance footpaths in England | [
-0.03084563836455345,
-0.08602137118577957,
0.37375783920288086,
-0.45822083950042725,
0.25460171699523926,
0.017334820702672005,
0.5166532397270203,
0.3803187310695648,
-0.046511970460414886,
0.29455074667930603,
-0.09601855278015137,
-0.3179848790168762,
-0.17112167179584503,
0.8163238167762756,
-0.5429556369781494,
0.5524637699127197,
-0.3017142713069916,
0.009801517240703106,
-0.41958853602409363,
-0.8397719860076904,
0.18694788217544556,
-0.5640484690666199,
0.3881883919239044,
0.4798632562160492,
0.22388193011283875,
-0.0495050773024559,
0.09049969166517258,
0.1183486059308052,
-0.06356297433376312,
-0.09073788672685623,
0.13021665811538696,
-0.44269561767578125,
0.603019118309021,
-0.32851454615592957,
0.4909188747406006,
0.37046486139297485,
0.5699050426483154,
-0.49103257060050964,
-0.6860466599464417,
-0.3132857382297516,
-0.13475079834461212,
0.2031210958957672,
-0.4089696407318115,
0.43623217940330505,
0.251900851726532,
0.45609983801841736,
-0.8164052963256836,
0.02845349907875061,
-0.35463210940361023,
-0.5228956937789917,
-0.9914914965629578,
0.6148605346679688,
0.7874662280082703,
0.3495776951313019,
0.6244606375694275,
0.5774548053741455,
-0.020885741338133812,
0.07026275247335434,
0.2065480649471283,
-0.28873029351234436,
-0.2659029960632324,
0.3472755551338196,
0.1804676055908203,
0.3154360353946686,
-0.41890037059783936,
0.13116569817066193,
-0.496980756521225,
1.0840643644332886,
-0.3337901532649994,
-0.29294610023498535,
0.2098381370306015,
-0.6132617592811584,
-0.012362951412796974,
1.257555365562439,
-0.22233447432518005,
-0.5726614594459534,
0.02268814481794834,
-0.376433402299881,
0.32767853140830994,
0.22625647485256195,
0.16646552085876465,
0.7435429692268372,
0.6893591284751892,
0.3584396541118622,
0.6018490791320801,
0.5296322107315063,
-0.4972776770591736,
0.5236836671829224,
-0.323074609041214,
0.0941283330321312,
-0.6524996161460876,
-0.4831652343273163,
0.002190555213019252,
-0.023522891104221344,
0.17701996862888336,
-0.1372700035572052,
-0.016310347244143486,
0.19400279223918915,
0.0017721386393532157,
0.17654787003993988,
0.55575031042099,
-0.08981631696224213,
0.2516818046569824,
-0.5480026006698608,
-0.8470796346664429,
-0.2858019769191742,
-0.2432827651500702,
-0.03194991871714592,
0.4270791709423065,
-0.27490711212158203,
-1.1349319219589233,
-0.09741672873497009,
-0.6731206178665161,
0.08691158145666122,
0.30936896800994873,
0.5003572702407837,
0.06464986503124237,
-0.3542253375053406,
0.025243520736694336,
0.34179767966270447,
0.019406823441386223,
0.7274230718612671,
-0.12584084272384644,
0.04037444293498993,
0.12077302485704422,
0.3057694137096405,
0.2631668150424957,
0.48743003606796265,
-0.408744752407074,
0.17963920533657074,
0.5326853394508362,
0.7095829844474792,
0.20765437185764313,
-0.5467063784599304,
-0.022381069138646126,
-0.44473356008529663,
-0.0192253477871418,
0.057643525302410126,
0.15923845767974854,
0.3348487317562103,
-0.8283068537712097,
0.08652380853891373,
0.30359163880348206,
-0.627289891242981,
0.6154083609580994,
0.06426151096820831,
-0.51622474193573,
-0.8978152275085449,
-0.0761406272649765,
-0.2249346524477005,
0.5810705423355103,
-0.013265877030789852,
-0.19804245233535767,
-0.784874677658081,
-0.8649625182151794,
0.7892749309539795,
0.15801483392715454,
-0.4012773334980011,
0.3544176518917084,
0.04857192561030388,
0.09871888905763626,
-0.04177773371338844,
-0.1404958963394165,
0.016483649611473083,
0.7057031393051147,
-0.12976256012916565,
0.09121369570493698,
-0.6000375747680664,
0.5431514382362366,
-0.4077673852443695,
-0.1563166230916977,
-0.06744877249002457,
0.5709599256515503,
-0.684198796749115,
-0.35466718673706055,
-0.36011993885040283,
0.08973749727010727,
0.6187011003494263,
-0.7874327898025513,
-0.3893144130706787,
-0.7525937557220459,
0.12576860189437866,
-0.27135169506073,
-0.3936387896537781,
0.014589132741093636,
-0.22035308182239532,
0.27873536944389343,
0.2989693880081177,
-0.10597551614046097,
0.014380236156284809,
-0.45885640382766724,
-0.6307870745658875,
0.33688852190971375,
-1.0408366918563843,
1.595896601676941,
-0.5282762050628662,
-0.22847342491149902,
0.5341112613677979,
-0.7819995880126953,
0.8645033836364746,
0.34864282608032227,
-0.4441244602203369,
0.1613525003194809,
-0.444084107875824,
-0.34283703565597534,
-0.048948295414447784,
0.2661672830581665,
-0.23688288033008575,
0.30013227462768555,
-0.33592426776885986,
-0.23330636322498322,
-0.34299179911613464,
0.11585026234388351,
0.7290629744529724,
0.10986485332250595,
-0.420040100812912,
-0.16398070752620697,
0.16684463620185852,
0.656829297542572,
-0.7838338017463684,
0.43811464309692383,
0.3451550602912903,
-0.2617889940738678,
-0.2527879774570465,
-0.30807778239250183,
0.8323642611503601,
0.08260834962129593,
0.022926677018404007,
0.5397364497184753,
-0.10242243111133575,
-0.3955373764038086,
0.6321186423301697,
-0.2773337960243225,
0.12195897847414017,
0.33114928007125854,
-0.38395851850509644,
-0.20986829698085785,
-0.681306779384613,
-0.1022595465183258,
-0.42076143622398376,
0.6945154070854187,
0.1792704313993454,
-0.2795030474662781,
0.36482083797454834,
0.027646923437714577,
0.5238112211227417,
0.11915338784456253,
0.7366324067115784,
-0.09726622700691223,
-0.11261741071939468,
0.1956307590007782,
0.6853685975074768,
0.2833321988582611,
0.6313531994819641,
0.07035709172487259,
-0.09386664628982544,
-0.05299244076013565,
-0.29312366247177124,
0.04235502704977989,
0.6483864784240723,
0.37200355529785156,
-0.32981452345848083,
-0.7710795998573303,
0.3195766806602478,
-0.08336830884218216,
-0.24709579348564148,
-0.6229937672615051,
-0.6836421489715576,
0.7038367390632629,
0.513971745967865,
0.26346176862716675,
0.06151900067925453,
-0.4666076600551605,
0.573215126991272,
-0.2861287593841553,
0.08608173578977585,
0.4496052861213684,
-0.0811610296368599,
-0.548716127872467,
-0.4335172772407532,
0.20788899064064026,
0.6649033427238464,
0.16282349824905396,
-0.509660542011261,
-0.20380404591560364,
0.3979221284389496,
0.3645594120025635,
0.5064733624458313,
-0.38880792260169983,
0.39471402764320374,
0.09414105862379074,
-0.05827132984995842,
0.16779136657714844,
0.2057935744524002,
-0.00297458004206419,
0.19581088423728943,
0.1533045619726181,
-0.35475975275039673,
1.1166197061538696,
-0.24035365879535675,
-0.6246452331542969,
-0.022852664813399315,
-0.5618249177932739,
-0.5096999406814575,
0.0012457757256925106,
-0.18490612506866455,
-0.2963968515396118,
-0.8390923738479614,
-5.334639072418213,
0.8841421008110046,
-0.20751623809337616,
-0.20210003852844238,
0.35555434226989746,
0.4796518087387085,
-0.23615741729736328,
-0.2713117003440857,
-0.04913702234625816,
-0.23007908463478088,
-0.1217733770608902,
-0.17641302943229675,
0.43064743280410767,
-0.2871796786785126,
0.2805524170398712,
0.13326214253902435,
0.3376408517360687,
0.13514433801174164,
0.24362049996852875,
-0.5925914645195007,
0.14906325936317444,
-0.17572684586048126,
-0.35266634821891785,
0.4251479506492615,
0.30994218587875366,
0.9645105004310608,
-0.6855865120887756,
0.03133358433842659,
-0.5491653084754944,
0.33881837129592896,
0.8945177793502808,
-0.08280577510595322,
0.18174536526203156,
0.11327795684337616,
-0.3725840151309967,
-0.1521131545305252,
-0.10885360091924667,
0.5590119957923889,
0.4341352581977844,
-0.5666314363479614,
0.09794711321592331,
0.43162238597869873,
-0.3636094927787781,
-0.6214408874511719,
0.6621698141098022,
-0.5989307761192322,
-0.5982927680015564,
-0.2645604610443115,
-0.27161359786987305,
0.5629191994667053,
-0.08598187565803528,
0.4107311964035034,
0.9845888614654541,
-0.1328415870666504,
-0.08159194886684418,
-0.07303744554519653,
0.046536389738321304,
-0.5412400364875793,
-0.04883087798953056,
0.16942185163497925,
0.6019623279571533,
0.007878717966377735,
0.09335743635892868,
-0.4832072854042053,
-0.7909448146820068,
-0.02681359462440014,
0.2558276951313019,
-0.1544037014245987,
0.5496110916137695,
0.1439298391342163,
-0.6230249404907227,
0.2841903865337372,
0.13621407747268677,
-0.5642773509025574,
0.027866901829838753,
-0.21301323175430298,
-0.43563804030418396,
0.5387477278709412,
-0.11073947697877884,
0.17296506464481354,
0.186367928981781,
-0.6167831420898438,
0.22672027349472046,
0.7709619402885437,
0.3523072302341461,
-0.2436879277229309,
-0.45397478342056274,
-0.12987405061721802,
-0.005432907957583666,
-0.23547819256782532,
0.3466838598251343,
-0.7852563858032227,
-0.2893937826156616,
0.3686898946762085,
0.15557311475276947,
0.47524744272232056,
-0.31034576892852783,
0.033489350229501724,
0.2606506943702698,
-0.07131951302289963,
0.7908838987350464,
0.08323213458061218,
0.1580459624528885,
-0.1534050703048706,
-0.3523763418197632,
-0.7960381507873535,
-0.12947188317775726,
-0.07154460996389389,
0.265125572681427,
-0.04908644035458565,
-0.21146854758262634,
-0.24125529825687408,
-0.8840224146842957,
-0.41714274883270264,
-0.3069692552089691,
0.07858307659626007,
-0.6669681668281555,
0.028082305565476418,
0.4036939740180969,
0.09642264246940613,
-0.019390489906072617,
0.1202700063586235,
0.07166670262813568,
-0.06339822709560394,
0.08607273548841476,
-0.347810834646225,
0.2638893723487854,
0.6438385844230652,
-0.07817193865776062,
0.031461507081985474,
-0.07124192267656326,
0.21886703372001648,
0.08571257442235947,
-0.427104115486145,
-0.5592602491378784,
-0.1208169236779213,
-0.20799671113491058,
-0.5313907265663147,
-0.004012812860310078,
0.05412202328443527,
-0.0532807856798172,
0.4329226315021515,
-0.12273126095533371,
0.4299640953540802,
0.24355661869049072,
0.548882782459259,
-0.1370493769645691,
-0.22778697311878204,
-0.9002238512039185,
-0.2998396158218384,
-0.41873234510421753,
0.0020144793670624495,
0.3520773649215698,
-0.3835545480251312,
0.5734871625900269,
-0.8895719051361084,
-0.20643654465675354,
0.1818157434463501,
0.41191399097442627,
-0.5983757376670837,
-0.17949800193309784,
-0.04902065917849541,
-0.8341637849807739,
0.737012505531311,
-0.3196101784706116,
-0.09777644276618958,
-0.5087829232215881,
-0.518024206161499,
0.1998286247253418,
0.312578946352005,
0.2333589792251587,
-0.5357455015182495,
-0.15654098987579346,
0.08915676921606064,
-0.07888711988925934,
0.2917981445789337,
-0.7994872331619263,
-0.24839916825294495,
-0.29164454340934753,
-0.339796781539917,
-0.07131989300251007,
-0.29613766074180603,
0.16475383937358856,
0.6206106543540955,
0.43666502833366394,
-0.6277644038200378,
-0.562289834022522,
0.312046080827713,
0.08201270550489426,
-0.12228157371282578,
0.5367618203163147,
-0.15387184917926788,
0.35457953810691833,
0.5484115481376648,
-0.174294576048851,
-0.3525424301624298,
0.18696711957454681,
-0.10022400319576263,
0.42112699151039124,
-0.6864396929740906,
-0.4082445800304413,
0.2580065429210663,
-0.1957971304655075,
0.2550378739833832,
0.5208154916763306,
-0.8015794157981873,
-0.2540895342826843,
0.1525987982749939,
-0.8434771299362183,
0.535930335521698,
-0.2498963326215744,
-0.6665330529212952,
0.37446871399879456,
0.13681331276893616,
-0.28846868872642517,
0.7748724222183228,
0.1525685340166092,
-0.2564943730831146,
-0.2627021372318268,
-0.1394587904214859,
-0.02189531736075878,
-0.040811844170093536,
-0.7326574921607971,
-0.0049272035248577595,
-0.6132142543792725,
0.13070905208587646,
0.7787548899650574,
-0.8039752244949341,
0.14551261067390442,
-0.518980085849762,
-0.4993208646774292,
-0.714773416519165,
0.07329840958118439,
0.05665295198559761,
0.4360296130180359,
0.37286388874053955,
-0.08069123327732086,
-0.09500110894441605,
0.7948867678642273,
0.21691477298736572,
0.6104211807250977,
0.7349519729614258,
-0.09415517002344131,
-0.9249425530433655,
0.11437584459781647,
0.5834053754806519,
0.6569768190383911,
-0.35240307450294495,
-0.13251467049121857,
0.2756677269935608,
0.5033431649208069,
-0.09252563118934631,
-0.0009874844690784812,
-0.24666738510131836,
0.7197794318199158,
-0.23450712859630585,
-0.4737703204154968,
-0.23117314279079437,
0.45153865218162537,
-0.3365410268306732,
0.3552249073982239,
0.38436949253082275,
-0.4662936329841614,
0.5343632698059082,
0.6436964869499207,
0.008681196719408035,
0.5598957538604736,
-0.6925930380821228,
0.21949897706508636,
-0.7909871339797974,
0.06879746168851852,
0.45054882764816284,
-0.12110632658004761,
0.06511292606592178,
-0.3734576404094696,
-0.21354873478412628,
0.6453765034675598,
-0.5468990802764893,
0.30646151304244995,
-0.23604416847229004,
-0.6840518116950989,
0.019870270043611526,
0.14939133822917938,
-0.2590619921684265,
-0.17969383299350739,
-0.32559043169021606,
0.47983089089393616,
-0.3646230101585388,
-0.7199955582618713,
-0.4450135827064514,
-0.44275960326194763,
-0.10657612979412079,
0.018000638112425804,
-0.4711240828037262,
-0.0794990286231041,
0.14002761244773865,
-0.19585111737251282,
0.12948507070541382,
-0.35014742612838745,
-0.5033999085426331,
-0.8860301971435547,
0.9316103458404541,
-0.1873461753129959,
-0.4591465890407562,
-0.42952728271484375,
0.06667178124189377,
0.26837924122810364,
-0.39892691373825073,
0.5728897452354431,
0.08236749470233917,
0.7222925424575806,
0.86370849609375,
-0.1283257156610489,
1.4189280271530151,
-0.24838638305664062,
-0.37374308705329895,
0.11560145020484924,
-0.11557669937610626,
0.1896456480026245,
0.42594870924949646,
-0.3390685021877289,
0.7522451281547546,
0.4691743552684784,
0.3210320472717285,
-0.27420321106910706,
0.9367365837097168,
-0.40288278460502625,
-0.28993409872055054,
-0.15265056490898132,
0.9496791958808899,
-0.18933193385601044,
-0.27116939425468445,
0.15835323929786682,
1.067022681236267,
-0.29570621252059937,
-0.7426031231880188,
-0.03843753784894943,
-0.11774936318397522,
-0.09990989416837692,
0.2690930962562561,
-0.10244584828615189,
0.30214279890060425,
0.09032227843999863,
-0.12142965197563171,
-0.029529286548495293,
0.3664429485797882,
-0.1285860538482666,
-0.057585880160331726,
0.4652499258518219,
0.1206192821264267,
0.6542510390281677,
0.4983440637588501,
-0.4048181474208832,
-0.22027745842933655,
0.17132090032100677,
0.1521489918231964,
0.2571602761745453,
0.1611219346523285,
-0.3852091431617737,
0.348909854888916,
0.2148834466934204,
1.1648979187011719,
-0.6454219222068787,
-0.7344074249267578,
-0.7188758254051208,
-0.6538077592849731,
-0.2013476938009262,
-0.8479535579681396,
-0.24794901907444,
0.8476055860519409,
0.41611552238464355,
0.47399085760116577,
-0.7327315211296082,
-0.18361741304397583,
-0.4737246334552765,
-0.248610720038414,
0.7148128151893616,
0.8712781667709351,
0.16598723828792572,
-0.03695117309689522,
0.08788032084703445,
0.6001832485198975,
0.024533996358513832,
-0.35751283168792725,
0.19676163792610168,
-1.1029421091079712,
-0.45552435517311096,
0.429271936416626,
-0.3657962679862976,
-0.759219765663147,
-0.06496066600084305,
-0.11100687086582184,
-0.46494901180267334,
-0.4266749322414398,
-0.20980459451675415,
-0.15999990701675415,
-0.22102825343608856,
0.6832231283187866,
0.01343267597258091,
-0.09466934949159622,
-0.17327789962291718,
0.42318737506866455,
-0.0933379977941513,
0.9136483073234558,
-0.028690354898571968,
0.8045303225517273,
-0.697333037853241,
0.32308268547058105,
-0.041318293660879135,
0.7769491076469421,
0.3089334964752197,
0.4140942692756653,
-0.541778028011322,
0.3966095447540283,
0.13649889826774597,
0.07794896513223648,
0.5546488165855408,
-0.38332387804985046,
-0.33045122027397156,
-0.7278815507888794,
0.242057204246521,
0.34915289282798767,
0.12681707739830017,
0.2845819294452667,
0.17157472670078278,
-0.11434480547904968,
0.13453896343708038,
0.2727765142917633,
-0.4779857397079468,
0.7498788833618164,
0.2426302582025528,
-0.2238193303346634,
-0.3514658808708191,
-0.1744285225868225,
-0.4879961609840393,
-0.2592397630214691,
-0.014640907756984234,
0.23725058138370514,
0.19653761386871338,
-0.16238020360469818,
-0.04476781561970711,
-0.32902997732162476,
0.8979262709617615,
0.01387947890907526,
0.34327882528305054,
0.22479289770126343,
0.5262369513511658,
-0.08803106099367142,
-1.2245744466781616,
0.4167790114879608,
0.19833289086818695,
-0.05914299562573433,
0.17550265789031982,
-0.07720495760440826,
0.41473084688186646,
-0.4939466118812561,
-0.07120272517204285,
-0.4133506715297699,
-0.09703528881072998,
0.005375541280955076
] |
247913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain-Ren%C3%A9%20Lesage | Alain-René Lesage | Alain-René Lesage (; 6 May 166817 November 1747; older spelling Le Sage) was a French novelist and playwright. Lesage is best known for his comic novel The Devil upon Two Sticks (1707, Le Diable boiteux), his comedy Turcaret (1709), and his picaresque novel Gil Blas (1715–1735).
Life
Youth and education
Claude Lesage, the father of the novelist, held the united positions of advocate, notary and registrar of the royal court in Rhuys. His mother's name was Jeanne Brenugat. Both Lesage's father and mother died when Lesage was very young, and he was left in the care of his uncle who wasted his education and fortune. Père Bochard, of the Order of the Jesuits, Principal of the College in Vannes, became interested in the boy on account of his natural talents. Bochard cultivated Lesage's taste for literature. At age 25, Lesage went to Paris in 1693 "to pursue his philosophical studies".
In August 1694, he married the daughter of a joiner, Marie Elizabeth Huyard. She was beautiful but had no fortune, and Lesage had little practice. About this time he encountered an old schoolfellow, the dramatist Antoine Danchet, who is said to have advised him to take up literature. He began as a translator, and published in 1695 a French version of the Epistles of Aristaenetus, which was not successful. Shortly afterwards he found a valuable patron and adviser in the Abbé de Lyonne, who bestowed on him an annuity of 600 livres, and recommended him to exchange the classics for Spanish literature, of which he was himself a student and collector. Spanish literature was once very popular in France when the queens of the house of Austria sat upon the throne, but had become neglected by Lesage's time.
First literary efforts
Lesage began by translating plays chiefly from Francisco de Rojas Zorrilla and Lope de Vega. Le Traître puni and Le Point d'honneur from the former and Don Félix de Mendoce from the latter were acted or published in the first two or three years of the 18th century. In 1704, he translated the continuation of Don Quixote by Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, and soon afterwards adapted a play from Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Don César Ursin, which was successful at court and damned in the city. Lesage was, however, nearly forty before he obtained decided success. In 1707, his farce, Crispin rival de son maître, was well received, and Le Diable boiteux (with a frontispiece by Louise-Magdeleine Horthemels) was published and ran to several editions. Lesage altered and improved this play in 1725, giving it its present form. Notwithstanding the success of Crispin, the actors did not like Lesage, and refused a small piece of his called Les Étrennes (1707). He thereupon altered it into Turcaret (1709), considered his theatrical masterpiece.
Prose writings
Some years passed before he again attempted romance writing, and then the first two parts of Gil Blas de Santillane were published in 1715, without the popularity of Le Diable boiteux. Lesage worked at it for a long time, and did not bring out the third part till 1724, nor the fourth till 1735. During these twenty years he was, however, continually busy. Notwithstanding the great merit and success of Turcaret and Crispin, the Théâtre Français did not welcome him, and in 1715 he began to write for the Théâtre de la foire, the comic opera held in booths at festival time. According to one computation he produced, either alone or with others, about a hundred pieces, varying from strings of songs with no regular dialogues, to comediettas only distinguished from regular plays by the introduction of music. He was also industrious in prose fiction. Besides finishing Gil Blas he translated the Orlando innamorato (1721), rearranged Guzman d'Alfarache (1732), published two more or less original novels, Le Bachelier de Salamanque and Estevanille Gonzalez, and in 1732 produced Les avantures de monsieur Robert Chevalier, dit de Beauchêne, capitaine de flibustiers dans la Nouvelle-France, which resembles certain works of Daniel Defoe. Besides all this, Lesage was also the author of La Valise trouvée, a collection of imaginary letters, and of some minor pieces including Une journée des Parques. He did not retire until 1740, when he was more than seventy years of age; he and his wife went to live with his second son, who was a canon at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Lesage's eldest son, Louis-André, had become an actor, and Lesage had disowned him. Lesage's last work, Mélange amusant de saillies d'esprit et de traits historiques les plus frappants, appeared in 1743.
Retirement
With his wife he had three sons and a daughter whose filial piety made her devote her entire life to serving her genius father. Though he lived happily, one event embittered Lesage for years. His eldest son had been educated for the bar, but insisted going on stage. Lesage, who had often painted the life of the actor in the most ridiculous and hateful aspect, was pained by his son's career choice, especially when his son joined the Théâtre Français, against which Lesage had long waged a satirical war. Probably out of deference to his father, the son took the name Montménil, and by the merit of his talents and private character, soon entered the upper society of Paris. Lesage was reconciled with his son many years later and became so devoted to Montménil that he could barely leave his side.
Montménil caught cold during a hunting party and died on 8 September 1743. This was such a severe blow to Lesage that he retired forever from Paris and the world. Lesage's youngest son had also become an actor under the name Pittenec, so Lesage and his wife saw out their old age in the home of their second son who had become the Abbé Lesage (Abbott Lesage). This son had been made a Canon of the Cathedral of Boulogne, through the patronage of the queen, and been bestowed a fair pension.
Lesage lived beyond 80 years of age, but was afflicted with deafness and had to use an ear trumpet. However, his conversation was so delightful that when he ventured into the world and frequented his favourite coffee house in Rue St. Jacques in Paris, guests would gather around him, climbing onto tables and chairs, to hear his famous words of wit and wisdom.
Alain-René Lesage died on 17 November 1747.
Personality
Very little is known of Lesage's life and personality. The few anecdotes which we have of him represent him as a very independent man, declining to accept the literary patronage required to survive. One story tells of the time he had been entreated to read his manuscript (according to the fashion of the day) at the Hôtel de Bouillon by the Duchess. The hour appointed for the reading was noon, but the dramatist was still very interested in legal matters and was detained until 1 o'clock attending the decision of a lawsuit. When he finally appeared at the Hôtel and attempted to apologise, the Duchess of Bouillon was so cold and haughty, observing that he had made her guests lose one hour waiting for his arrival. "It is easy to make up the loss madame", replied Lesage; "I will not read my comedy, and thus you will gain two hours." With that, he left the Hôtel and could never be persuaded to return to the Duchess's house.
Quotations
"Pride and conceit were the original sins of man."
"Facts are stubborn things."
Works
Translations and adaptations
Le Traître puni, 1700
Don Félix de Mendoce, 1700
Point d'honneur, 1702 (French version)
Second Book of the Ingenious Knight Don Quixote of La Mancha, 1704
Orlando innamorato, 1721
Guzman d'Alfarache, 1732 (French version)
Plays
Don César Ursin, 1707 (French version)
Les Étrennes, 1707
Crispin rival de son maître, 1707 (French version)
Turcaret, 1709
Arlequin roi de Serendib, 1713
La Foire de Guibray, 1714
Arlequin Mahomet, 1714
La Statue merveilleuse (fair play, with d'Orneval), 1720 (French version)
La Boîte de Pandore 1721, comedy in 1 act.
Novels
Le Diable boiteux, 1707. (French version) (tr. The Devil upon Two Sticks, The Devil on Two Sticks; English version)
Gil Blas (English version, French)
Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane, (Livres I–VI), 1715. (French version)
Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane, (Livres VII–IX), 1724. (French version)
Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane, (Livres X–XII), 1735. (French version)
Histoire de Gil Blas de Santillane, 1747.
Les avantures de monsieur Robert Chevalier, dit de Beauchêne, capitaine de flibustiers dans la Nouvelle-France, 1732 (French version)
Le Bachelier de Salamanque, 1736. (French version)
Estevanille Gonzalez, 1732* * La Valise trouvée, 1740 (French version)
Mélange amusant de saillies d'esprit et de traits historiques les plus frappants, 1743
Bibliography
Francis Assaf - Lesage et le picaresque (A.-G. Nizet, 1983)
Christelle Bahier-Porte - La Poétique d'Alain-René Lesage (Champion, 2006)
V. Barberet - Lesage et le théâtre de la foire (Paul Sordoillet, 1887), (Slatkine Reprints, 1970)
Roger Laufer - Lesage ; ou, Le métier de romancier (Gallimard, 1971)
Tobias Smollet's Prefatory Memoir in his 1893 English translation of Le Sage's "The Adventures of Gil Blas"
References
Attribution:
That entry includes a long critical appraisal by Saintsbury.
External links
Alain-René Lesage on data.bnf.fr
1668 births
1747 deaths
People from Sarzeau
18th-century French dramatists and playwrights
18th-century French lawyers
French translators
Spanish–French translators
18th-century French writers
18th-century French male writers
18th-century French novelists | [
-0.829776406288147,
0.4751633405685425,
-0.7492673993110657,
-0.022038916125893593,
0.44030147790908813,
1.0330742597579956,
0.6108945608139038,
0.07840476930141449,
-0.14905154705047607,
-0.5897681713104248,
-0.4358890950679779,
0.3861529529094696,
-0.18205732107162476,
0.05375982075929642,
0.11537773907184601,
0.18732672929763794,
-0.11913369596004486,
-0.5334543585777283,
-0.43728113174438477,
-0.40179169178009033,
-0.4911740720272064,
0.31905582547187805,
0.3438323736190796,
0.011497671715915203,
-0.12340549379587173,
0.282964289188385,
-0.020036153495311737,
-0.03762485459446907,
0.20872026681900024,
-0.27461865544319153,
-0.16100145876407623,
0.5660250186920166,
0.24023136496543884,
-0.21221517026424408,
-1.149751901626587,
0.22255294024944305,
-0.8777865767478943,
-0.12352240830659866,
0.037416115403175354,
0.2139090746641159,
-0.3683464825153351,
-0.06570782512426376,
0.254134863615036,
-0.3010208010673523,
-0.2296314388513565,
-0.3132455348968506,
-2.1416175365448,
0.44652900099754333,
-1.025059461593628,
-0.16814549267292023,
0.7651729583740234,
0.07107421010732651,
0.8965874910354614,
0.43772000074386597,
-0.047258298844099045,
0.4363165497779846,
-1.2159087657928467,
-0.4177319407463074,
0.3962007164955139,
-0.2413531094789505,
-0.09110407531261444,
0.3900718688964844,
0.23891310393810272,
0.33764660358428955,
0.07592842727899551,
0.23546941578388214,
0.02450443245470524,
0.09906908869743347,
0.22778497636318207,
0.3632108271121979,
0.31737062335014343,
0.6923073530197144,
0.18829430639743805,
0.7220714688301086,
0.36687588691711426,
-0.686903178691864,
0.332261323928833,
0.378178209066391,
0.04451684653759003,
0.3606433570384979,
-0.43817847967147827,
0.024037467315793037,
1.1284112930297852,
0.15450596809387207,
0.2577403783798218,
0.5924727916717529,
0.08348063379526138,
0.8710765838623047,
-0.8351194858551025,
-0.7024762034416199,
-0.478074312210083,
-0.5121040940284729,
-0.07377998530864716,
-0.1356397420167923,
0.17895404994487762,
0.7882006168365479,
0.17402151226997375,
0.7217615842819214,
-0.194811150431633,
0.09541623294353485,
0.18654531240463257,
0.522609293460846,
0.6408027410507202,
0.13866467773914337,
-0.3400384187698364,
-0.12200647592544556,
0.025715740397572517,
-0.7098749876022339,
0.02984548918902874,
0.4380837678909302,
-0.6019514203071594,
0.6079115867614746,
-0.2848225235939026,
0.13197849690914154,
0.1108003780245781,
0.2037363499403,
0.004541061352938414,
-0.6117020845413208,
-0.7290578484535217,
-0.0357867069542408,
0.19287864863872528,
-0.34961408376693726,
0.4468744099140167,
0.2976471781730652,
-0.4967297911643982,
-0.0658341646194458,
-0.24489986896514893,
0.23599772155284882,
-0.2519095242023468,
0.48174506425857544,
0.41242367029190063,
1.0962190628051758,
-0.7256240248680115,
-0.2816818356513977,
-0.6502556800842285,
0.4054943323135376,
0.5174925923347473,
0.18057601153850555,
-0.18665926158428192,
0.3534853756427765,
-0.9602680206298828,
0.19681581854820251,
-0.3599870800971985,
0.04405372962355614,
-0.27403947710990906,
-0.08334443718194962,
0.16084811091423035,
0.010569065809249878,
0.23202566802501678,
0.035165343433618546,
-0.8539351224899292,
0.1912737339735031,
0.029832830652594566,
-0.633965015411377,
-0.41217461228370667,
0.20217595994472504,
0.4413999319076538,
0.8961607813835144,
0.24612469971179962,
-0.20053112506866455,
0.13328073918819427,
0.48147693276405334,
0.09242114424705505,
0.14122238755226135,
0.46270543336868286,
-0.8143691420555115,
0.3169267475605011,
-0.5520823001861572,
0.08391359448432922,
0.28793343901634216,
0.0603940486907959,
0.08434678614139557,
0.43211784958839417,
-0.3394249379634857,
-0.08613454550504684,
0.6524581909179688,
0.573767900466919,
0.17993393540382385,
0.4242631494998932,
0.22951428592205048,
-0.9956640601158142,
0.5098364353179932,
-0.061707958579063416,
-0.6128692030906677,
0.6809850335121155,
0.23531973361968994,
0.6389718651771545,
-0.16759896278381348,
0.6380048394203186,
-0.3376755118370056,
-1.2090604305267334,
-0.4718914031982422,
0.3788658380508423,
-0.5358108878135681,
0.9653039574623108,
0.5060182809829712,
0.00008243929914897308,
1.4204121828079224,
0.08425870537757874,
0.5451673865318298,
-0.45965632796287537,
-0.18443988263607025,
0.4981520473957062,
0.598781406879425,
0.07478828728199005,
0.2854245603084564,
-0.5062866806983948,
0.10192655771970749,
0.39053863286972046,
0.4779658913612366,
0.4747316241264343,
-0.6796927452087402,
0.7115495800971985,
0.3655239939689636,
-0.6845575571060181,
-0.5655772686004639,
-0.47705069184303284,
-0.07997574657201767,
0.15035881102085114,
0.06615836918354034,
0.25530508160591125,
-0.6223160028457642,
0.31513163447380066,
1.0222322940826416,
-0.1379425972700119,
0.938881516456604,
0.2108701914548874,
-0.25584033131599426,
0.17072533071041107,
-0.6876709461212158,
-0.6051543951034546,
0.20826880633831024,
0.30023452639579773,
-0.7232524752616882,
0.23123423755168915,
0.27997899055480957,
0.06783445924520493,
-0.35965782403945923,
-0.13253551721572876,
-0.32115328311920166,
0.43122398853302,
0.7107424736022949,
-0.05612210929393768,
-0.0446123406291008,
0.5514079332351685,
0.4771876633167267,
-0.24456675350666046,
-0.040203917771577835,
0.2399989515542984,
-0.17184191942214966,
-0.3010460138320923,
0.8663480877876282,
0.12882448732852936,
-0.14395059645175934,
-0.290057510137558,
-0.32798847556114197,
0.34473198652267456,
0.576321005821228,
0.30837130546569824,
-0.0060696834698319435,
-0.180738165974617,
-0.20761413872241974,
-0.1353897750377655,
0.2831127345561981,
0.3158798813819885,
0.23221455514431,
0.030377596616744995,
-0.4366839528083801,
0.32426542043685913,
0.2739807069301605,
0.5670948624610901,
-0.6536816358566284,
0.04462544620037079,
0.38951677083969116,
0.09494172781705856,
-0.36277008056640625,
-0.25033342838287354,
0.24410127103328705,
-0.3202611804008484,
-0.6847187876701355,
-0.4614548087120056,
0.7770718336105347,
-0.7348366975784302,
-0.05415694788098335,
0.30915185809135437,
-0.22704273462295532,
0.06218479201197624,
-0.13797906041145325,
0.25129446387290955,
-0.19361521303653717,
-0.36592698097229004,
0.2140614241361618,
-0.4964926540851593,
-0.25021007657051086,
0.19005469977855682,
-0.07434829324483871,
-0.6704418063163757,
-0.7909936308860779,
-0.13205339014530182,
-0.10799248516559601,
-0.12414596229791641,
0.15916360914707184,
0.008520659059286118,
0.46387824416160583,
0.843408465385437,
0.12526768445968628,
0.26766735315322876,
0.6911820769309998,
-5.204330921173096,
-0.24623751640319824,
0.09404803812503815,
0.10060983151197433,
0.18010744452476501,
-0.19987449049949646,
0.6514530777931213,
0.07909556478261948,
-0.048652611672878265,
-0.25479966402053833,
-0.15646055340766907,
-0.3635544776916504,
-0.15034665167331696,
0.6205171942710876,
0.43305549025535583,
0.4107282757759094,
-0.14746129512786865,
-0.4865100383758545,
0.38977181911468506,
0.26650238037109375,
0.07821967452764511,
0.2852652966976166,
-0.24593806266784668,
0.47216570377349854,
0.06983073800802231,
-0.10469520092010498,
0.05729246139526367,
0.16692784428596497,
-1.2131327390670776,
-0.28560638427734375,
-0.01409880630671978,
-0.008918985724449158,
0.40057095885276794,
-0.26654505729675293,
0.35462427139282227,
-0.8001987338066101,
-0.06288754940032959,
0.5106795430183411,
-0.5766085982322693,
0.08705489337444305,
-0.45469117164611816,
0.2713174819946289,
-0.46548572182655334,
0.47908467054367065,
-0.29446813464164734,
-0.46308642625808716,
-0.4875996708869934,
0.3603147566318512,
0.1966058313846588,
0.3326611816883087,
0.13883745670318604,
-0.3509957492351532,
0.09354029595851898,
0.0810098797082901,
0.34323060512542725,
-0.1942443698644638,
0.3477684557437897,
-0.1617306023836136,
-1.0329288244247437,
-0.1284518539905548,
0.47465598583221436,
-0.19354858994483948,
0.07234659790992737,
-0.5299355983734131,
0.23891301453113556,
-0.3600159287452698,
-0.1309295892715454,
0.03047315776348114,
-0.169592946767807,
-0.3408867418766022,
-0.15148578584194183,
0.8361465334892273,
0.017607104033231735,
-1.1639007329940796,
-0.5117274522781372,
-0.26154935359954834,
-0.17774203419685364,
-0.20824754238128662,
-0.564680278301239,
-0.1320832520723343,
-0.08010407537221909,
-0.5214473605155945,
-0.2971855103969574,
0.5942569375038147,
0.7998529672622681,
0.27128535509109497,
-0.3139694333076477,
0.27518826723098755,
-0.7566477060317993,
-0.04616506025195122,
0.13455908000469208,
-0.15518957376480103,
-0.04563809558749199,
0.03215229511260986,
0.6024562120437622,
0.11975425481796265,
-0.4635380506515503,
-0.1776748150587082,
0.22991114854812622,
0.22515015304088593,
-1.0469187498092651,
-0.1056172177195549,
0.5334903001785278,
-0.08439052850008011,
0.8039553761482239,
-0.45419424772262573,
0.2635886073112488,
0.31217148900032043,
0.7664178609848022,
0.2619663178920746,
0.2691311836242676,
0.7010114789009094,
-0.6630553007125854,
-0.3264000713825226,
-0.10983429104089737,
-0.6854922771453857,
0.5611793398857117,
0.03930015116930008,
0.10436716675758362,
0.3628394901752472,
-0.5811047554016113,
0.5648809671401978,
-0.1756039708852768,
-0.3885748088359833,
0.2555549740791321,
-0.5443544387817383,
-0.1384996920824051,
-0.5317303538322449,
0.025248005986213684,
-0.15281815826892853,
0.11035110801458359,
0.493482381105423,
-0.18761484324932098,
-0.053718749433755875,
-0.0486481674015522,
-0.7064295411109924,
-0.32055753469467163,
-0.37449896335601807,
-0.1088084727525711,
-0.12472173571586609,
0.1538822501897812,
-0.564944326877594,
0.04396611824631691,
0.13742925226688385,
0.40934696793556213,
-0.5298804640769958,
0.026620054617524147,
0.10694649815559387,
-0.20832301676273346,
1.127611756324768,
0.27324536442756653,
0.4314507842063904,
1.0547257661819458,
0.08546371012926102,
-0.637204647064209,
0.4546436071395874,
-0.827491044998169,
0.23107218742370605,
0.13963067531585693,
-0.15423446893692017,
0.23110194504261017,
-0.19064781069755554,
-0.8501401543617249,
-0.16054533421993256,
-0.009521986357867718,
0.10682724416255951,
-0.4447932541370392,
-0.391422301530838,
-0.26635608077049255,
0.47666895389556885,
0.11856436729431152,
-0.7899274826049805,
0.04140833765268326,
-0.4506450295448303,
0.16929878294467926,
-0.4497098922729492,
-0.14318133890628815,
0.14461933076381683,
0.1306188404560089,
-0.43770816922187805,
0.41699618101119995,
-0.23226842284202576,
-0.6552067399024963,
0.33922022581100464,
1.0743991136550903,
-0.24033117294311523,
0.009314015507698059,
-0.5367050170898438,
-0.4600886106491089,
-0.2897108197212219,
0.031016869470477104,
-0.13884198665618896,
0.1890454739332199,
0.4227360785007477,
-0.1200760081410408,
-0.413339227437973,
0.0047094328328967094,
-0.2046578973531723,
0.03929237276315689,
-0.2839626669883728,
-0.00955920573323965,
0.4953165650367737,
0.11534549295902252,
-0.3181774616241455,
0.1672734171152115,
-1.4220563173294067,
-0.03712732344865799,
-0.4630855619907379,
-0.09969059377908707,
0.7075592279434204,
-0.72935551404953,
-0.9069473147392273,
0.1268567144870758,
0.6288778781890869,
-0.019158892333507538,
-0.17581693828105927,
0.3358492851257324,
-0.06190759316086769,
-0.4133196473121643,
-0.4174666404724121,
-0.34794899821281433,
-0.4824093282222748,
-0.4050838351249695,
-0.3394976556301117,
-0.5659873485565186,
-0.3737070560455322,
0.5145561099052429,
-0.06139913201332092,
0.8344254493713379,
-0.23170334100723267,
0.04821179434657097,
0.1478729099035263,
0.13736946880817413,
0.36903756856918335,
-0.7961689233779907,
-0.3371092677116394,
0.5735803246498108,
-0.0008073660428635776,
-0.11896983534097672,
0.21401716768741608,
0.6973599791526794,
0.9246631860733032,
0.5994418859481812,
-0.09473305940628052,
0.10325943678617477,
0.4408740699291229,
0.03918152302503586,
-0.4771903455257416,
-0.17498788237571716,
0.6413807272911072,
-0.22616760432720184,
-0.09813954681158066,
-0.8807203769683838,
-0.5169276595115662,
0.9509198069572449,
-0.24422307312488556,
-0.442891001701355,
0.40917274355888367,
-0.11887770891189575,
0.3725563883781433,
-0.11957991123199463,
-0.4316127300262451,
0.3010811507701874,
-0.4384314715862274,
-0.05894215777516365,
-0.07528061419725418,
0.044733792543411255,
0.22696751356124878,
0.11391082406044006,
-0.5466959476470947,
-0.48396652936935425,
-0.6376421451568604,
-0.8196427226066589,
0.9153062105178833,
-0.10561724007129669,
0.08192754536867142,
0.2829931974411011,
-0.4350939095020294,
0.7491714954376221,
-0.6415903568267822,
-0.8835775852203369,
0.09625747054815292,
-0.2667716443538666,
-0.26133909821510315,
-0.3661693036556244,
-0.24013496935367584,
-0.05010633543133736,
-0.2519809603691101,
-0.11807019263505936,
0.45545387268066406,
-0.29947564005851746,
0.2823961675167084,
0.3629404604434967,
0.10530269891023636,
0.01748676784336567,
0.07383958250284195,
-0.6001301407814026,
0.951283872127533,
-0.06798872351646423,
-0.007612580433487892,
-0.2737899720668793,
0.24185770750045776,
0.8211406469345093,
-0.594826340675354,
0.5310390591621399,
0.1471424400806427,
-0.06308070570230484,
-0.23458583652973175,
-0.3434661328792572,
0.4364453852176666,
0.9370748996734619,
0.16893035173416138,
0.16177083551883698,
0.35819265246391296,
-0.12351188063621521,
0.16986674070358276,
0.10460410267114639,
-0.5471957325935364,
-0.5496460795402527,
-0.10775730758905411,
0.20770876109600067,
0.07086694240570068,
0.7645735740661621,
-1.0043308734893799,
0.546255886554718,
0.6020539999008179,
-0.21472886204719543,
-0.20826692879199982,
-1.1230928897857666,
-0.11599250137805939,
0.17163974046707153,
0.057049158960580826,
-0.694813072681427,
0.48128339648246765,
0.044292040169239044,
-0.37091273069381714,
-0.08519590646028519,
-0.43281102180480957,
0.4829366207122803,
-0.349846750497818,
0.3275262415409088,
0.7782723903656006,
-0.13129672408103943,
0.041298527270555496,
-0.214066743850708,
-0.08399063348770142,
0.1613638699054718,
0.49690380692481995,
-0.3799952268600464,
-0.3219102919101715,
0.634792685508728,
0.23192979395389557,
0.35226431488990784,
-0.7778656482696533,
0.4094310700893402,
0.3344085216522217,
0.30538466572761536,
-0.25172147154808044,
-0.11233759671449661,
0.5531420111656189,
-0.22443073987960815,
-0.22110427916049957,
0.4776493310928345,
0.04756208881735802,
0.05829992517828941,
0.15900848805904388,
0.605546236038208,
-0.5509138107299805,
0.39831095933914185,
0.10958857089281082,
0.3570959270000458,
-0.1992517113685608,
-0.3896718919277191,
0.46824395656585693,
0.40159252285957336,
0.46952706575393677,
0.5866718888282776,
-0.18429267406463623,
-0.20261603593826294,
-0.2537599802017212,
-0.5529348850250244,
-0.23950839042663574,
0.24266387522220612,
0.2554919123649597,
0.11266089975833893,
0.17408117651939392,
-0.16337448358535767,
-0.21102601289749146,
0.18072372674942017,
-0.22653412818908691,
0.1424577236175537,
-1.0990417003631592,
-0.024630937725305557,
-0.0038789177779108286,
-0.7583882808685303,
0.6329747438430786,
-0.5075939297676086,
1.092806100845337,
0.054492320865392685,
-0.3304643929004669,
0.12031446397304535,
0.1560661792755127,
-0.012698497623205185,
-0.4444665312767029,
0.38888564705848694,
0.4953431785106659,
-0.0758073627948761,
-0.21177752315998077,
-1.3626465797424316,
0.3511951267719269,
0.30903124809265137,
0.016570165753364563,
-0.29994478821754456,
0.2940751910209656,
-0.25832730531692505,
-0.34360042214393616,
0.1723567247390747,
0.0549541711807251,
0.029747547581791878,
-0.034516096115112305,
0.2797315716743469,
0.23965707421302795,
0.07529949396848679,
-0.4796597957611084,
-0.6552445292472839,
0.18492154777050018,
0.05714322626590729,
-0.1258750855922699,
0.26636672019958496,
0.2106173038482666,
-0.1603056937456131,
0.23739758133888245,
-0.5148423910140991,
0.07379470765590668,
-0.2328379601240158,
-0.8231576085090637,
0.8510746955871582,
0.5749669075012207,
0.17567011713981628,
-0.6204707026481628,
0.6257472634315491,
0.35244667530059814,
-0.058817364275455475,
0.060355495661497116,
0.01614822819828987,
0.18548478186130524,
-0.5654017925262451,
-0.08819714933633804,
-0.1815040409564972,
0.09182839095592499,
0.167521134018898,
-0.39884647727012634,
0.050122372806072235,
-0.6081095933914185,
0.08593196421861649,
-0.08690383285284042,
-0.12754978239536285,
-0.8117357492446899,
0.5490981340408325,
-0.1661066710948944
] |
247916 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny%20Lind | Jenny Lind | Johanna Maria "Jenny" Lind (6 October 18202 November 1887) was a Swedish opera singer, often called the "Swedish Nightingale". One of the most highly regarded singers of the 19th century, she performed in soprano roles in opera in Sweden and across Europe, and undertook an extraordinarily popular concert tour of the United States beginning in 1850. She was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music from 1840.
Lind became famous after her performance in Der Freischütz in Sweden in 1838. Within a few years, she had suffered vocal damage, but the singing teacher Manuel García saved her voice. She was in great demand in opera roles throughout Sweden and northern Europe during the 1840s, and was closely associated with Felix Mendelssohn. After two acclaimed seasons in London, she announced her retirement from opera at the age of 29.
In 1850, Lind went to America at the invitation of the showman P. T. Barnum. She gave 93 large-scale concerts for him and then continued to tour under her own management. She earned more than $350,000 () from these concerts, donating the proceeds to charities, principally the endowment of free schools in Sweden. With her new husband, Otto Goldschmidt, she returned to Europe in 1852, where she had three children and gave occasional concerts over the next three decades, settling in England in 1855. From 1882, for some years, she was a professor of singing at the Royal College of Music in London.
Life and career
Early life
Born in Klara in central Stockholm, Sweden, Lind was the illegitimate daughter of Niclas Jonas Lind (1798–1858), a bookkeeper, and Anne-Marie Fellborg (1793–1856), a schoolteacher. Lind's mother had divorced her first husband for adultery but refused to remarry until after his death in 1834. Lind's parents married when she was 14.
Lind's mother ran a day school for girls out of her home. When Lind was about 9, her singing was overheard by the maid of Mademoiselle Lundberg, the principal dancer at the Royal Swedish Opera. The maid, astounded by Lind's extraordinary voice, returned the next day with Lundberg, who arranged an audition and helped her gain admission to the Royal Dramatic Training Academy, the acting school of the Royal Dramatic Theatre, where she studied with Carl Magnus Craelius, the singing master at the theatre.
Lind began to sing onstage when she was 10. She had a vocal crisis at the age of 12 and had to stop singing for a time, but she recovered. Her first great role was Agathe in Weber's Der Freischütz in 1838 at the Royal Swedish Opera. At 20, she was a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music and court singer to the King of Sweden and Norway. Her voice became seriously damaged by overuse and untrained singing technique, but her career was saved by the singing teacher Manuel García with whom she studied in Paris from 1841 to 1843. He insisted that she should not sing at all for three months, to allow her vocal cords to recover, before he started to teach her a healthy and secure vocal technique.
After Lind had been with García for a year, the composer Giacomo Meyerbeer, an early and faithful admirer of her talent, arranged an audition for her at the Opéra in Paris, but she was rejected. The biographer Francis Rogers concludes that Lind strongly resented the rebuff: when she became an international star, she always refused invitations to sing at the Paris Opéra. Lind returned to the Royal Swedish Opera, greatly improved as a singer by García's training. She toured Denmark where, in 1843, Hans Christian Andersen met and fell in love with her. Although the two became good friends, she did not reciprocate his romantic feelings. She is believed to have inspired three of his fairy tales: "Beneath the Pillar", "The Angel" and "The Nightingale". He wrote, "No book or personality whatever has exerted a more ennobling influence on me, as a poet, than Jenny Lind. For me she opened the sanctuary of art." The biographer Carol Rosen believes that after Lind rejected Andersen as a suitor, he portrayed her as The Snow Queen with a heart of ice.
German and British success
In December 1844, through Meyerbeer's influence, Lind was engaged to sing the title role in Bellini's opera Norma in Berlin. That led to more engagements in opera houses throughout Germany and Austria, but such was her success in Berlin that she continued there for four months before she left for other cities. Among her early admirers were Robert Schumann, Hector Berlioz and, most importantly for her, Felix Mendelssohn. Ignaz Moscheles wrote: "Jenny Lind has fairly enchanted me... her song with two concertante flutes is perhaps the most incredible feat in the way of bravura singing that can possibly be heard". That number, from Meyerbeer's Ein Feldlager in Schlesien (The Camp of Silesia, 1844, a role written for Lind but not premiered by her) became one of the songs most associated with Lind, and she was called on to sing it wherever she performed in concert. Her operatic repertoire comprised the title roles in Lucia di Lammermoor, Maria di Rohan, Norma, La sonnambula and La vestale as well as Susanna in The Marriage of Figaro, Adina in L'elisir d'amore and Alice in Robert le diable. About that time, she became known as "the Swedish Nightingale". In December 1845, the day after her debut at the Leipzig Gewandhaus under the baton of Mendelssohn, she sang without fee for a charity concert in aid of the Orchestra Widows' Fund. Her devotion and generosity to charitable causes remained a key aspect of her career and greatly enhanced her international popularity even among the unmusical.
At the Royal Swedish Opera, Lind had been friends with the tenor Julius Günther. They sang together both in opera and on the concert stage and became romantically linked by 1844. Their schedules separated them, however, as Günther remained in Stockholm and then became a student of Garcia in Paris in 1846–1847. After reuniting in Sweden, according to Lind's 1891 Memoir, they became engaged to marry in the spring of 1848, just before Lind returned to England. However, the two broke off the engagement in October of the same year.
After a successful season in Vienna, where she was mobbed by admirers and feted by the Imperial Family, Lind traveled to London and gave her first performance there on 4 May 1847, when she appeared in an Italian version of Meyerbeer's Robert le diable. It was attended by Queen Victoria; the next day, The Times wrote:
We have had frequent experience of the excitement appertaining to "first nights", but we may safely say, and our opinion will be backed by several hundreds of Her Majesty's subjects, that we never witnessed such a scene of enthusiasm as that displayed last night on the occasion of Mademoiselle Jenny Lind's début as Alice in an Italian version of Robert le diable.
Queen Victoria attended each of Lind's sixteen debut performances in London. In July 1847, Lind starred in the world première of Verdi's opera I masnadieri at Her Majesty's Theatre, under the baton of the composer. During her two years on the operatic stage in London, Lind appeared in most of the standard opera repertory. In early 1849, still in her twenties, Lind announced her permanent retirement from opera. Her last opera performance was on 10 May 1849 in Robert le diable; Queen Victoria and other members of the Royal Family were present. Lind's biographer Francis Rogers wrote, "The reasons for her early retirement have been much discussed for nearly a century, but remain today a matter of mystery. Many possible explanations have been advanced, but not one of them has been verified".
Lind and Mendelssohn
In London, Lind's close friendship with Mendelssohn continued. There had been claims that their relationship was more than friendship. In 2013, George Biddlecombe confirmed in the Journal of the Royal Musical Association that "The Committee of the Mendelssohn Scholarship Foundation possesses material indicating that Mendelssohn wrote passionate love letters to Lind entreating her to join him in an adulterous relationship and threatening suicide as a means of exerting pressure upon her, and that these letters were destroyed on being discovered after her death".
Mendelssohn was present at Lind's London debut in Robert le diable, and his friend, the critic Henry Chorley, who was with him, wrote: "I see as I write the smile with which Mendelssohn, whose enjoyment of Mdlle. Lind's talent was unlimited, turned round and looked at me, as if a load of anxiety had been taken off his mind. His attachment to Mademoiselle Lind's genius as a singer was unbounded, as was his desire for her success." Mendelssohn worked with Lind on many occasions and wrote the beginnings of an opera, Lorelei, for her, based on the legend of the Lorelei Rhine maidens; the opera was unfinished at his death. He composed the soprano aria in his oratorio Elijah ("Hear Ye Israel") with Lind's voice in mind, focusing the tessitura of the aria around F-sharp (F♯5), a note in her range that Mendelssohn supposedly found irresistibly charming.
Four months after her London debut, she was devastated by the premature death of Mendelssohn in November 1847. She did not at first feel able to sing the soprano part in Elijah, which he had written for her. She finally did so at a performance in London's Exeter Hall in late 1848, which raised £1,000 to fund a musical scholarship as a memorial to him; it was her first appearance in oratorio. The original intention had been to found a school of music in Mendelssohn's name in Leipzig, but there was not enough support in Leipzig, and with the help of Sir George Smart, Julius Benedict and others, Lind eventually raised enough money to fund a scholarship "to receive pupils of all nations and promote their musical training". The first recipient of the Mendelssohn Scholarship was the 14-year-old Arthur Sullivan, whom Lind encouraged in his career.
American tour
In 1849, Lind was approached by the American showman P. T. Barnum with a proposal to tour throughout the United States for more than a year. Realising that it would yield large sums for charity, particularly the endowment of free schools in her native Sweden, Lind agreed. Her financial demands were stringent, but Barnum met them, and in 1850, they reached agreement.
Together with a supporting baritone, Giovanni Belletti, and her London colleague, Julius Benedict, as pianist, arranger and conductor, Lind sailed to America in September 1850. Barnum's advance publicity made her a celebrity even before she arrived in the US, and she received a wild reception on arriving in New York. Tickets for some of her concerts were in such demand that Barnum sold them by auction. The enthusiasm of the public was so strong that the American press coined the term "Lind mania".
After her first two performances in New York in September 1850, Lind's party toured the east coast of America, with continued success, and later took in Cuba, the Southern US and Canada. By early 1851, Lind had become uncomfortable with Barnum's relentless marketing of the tour, and she invoked a contractual right to sever her ties with him; they parted amicably. She continued the tour for nearly a year, under her own management, until May 1852. Benedict left the party in 1851 to return to England, and Lind invited Otto Goldschmidt to replace him as pianist and conductor. Lind and Goldschmidt were married on 5 February 1852, near the end of the tour, in Boston. She took the name "Jenny Lind-Goldschmidt", both privately and professionally.
Details of the later concerts under her own management are scarce, but it is known that under Barnum's management Lind gave 93 concerts in America for which she earned about $350,000, and he netted at least $500,000 ($ and $, as of 2021, respectively). She donated her profits to various charities, including free schools in Sweden and some US charities. The tour is a plot point in the 1980 musical Barnum and the 2017 film The Greatest Showman, both of which include a fictionalized relationship between Lind and Barnum with "romantic undertones".
Later years
Lind and Goldschmidt returned to Europe together in May 1852. They lived first in Dresden, Germany, and, from 1855, in England for the rest of their lives. They had three children: Otto, born September 1853 in Germany, Jenny, born March 1857 in England, and Ernest, born January 1861 in England.
Although she refused all requests to appear in opera after her return to Europe, Lind continued to perform in the concert hall. In 1856, at the invitation of the Philharmonic Society conducted by William Sterndale Bennett, she sang the chief soprano part in the first English performance of the cantata Paradise and the Peri by Robert Schumann. In 1866, she gave a concert with Arthur Sullivan at St James's Hall. The Times reported, "there is magic still in that voice... the most perfect singing – perfect alike in expression and in vocalization... Nothing more engaging, nothing more earnest, nothing more dramatic can be imagined." At Düsseldorf in January 1870, she sang in Ruth, an oratorio composed by her husband. When Goldschmidt formed the Bach Choir in 1875, Lind trained the soprano choristers for the first English performance of Bach's B minor Mass in April 1876, and performed in the mass. Her concerts decreased in frequency until she retired from singing in 1883.
From 1879 until 1887, Lind worked with Frederick Niecks on his biography of Frédéric Chopin. In 1882, she was appointed professor of singing at the newly founded Royal College of Music. She believed in an all-round musical training for her pupils, insisting that, in addition to their vocal studies, they were instructed in solfège, piano, harmony, diction, deportment and at least one foreign language.
She lived her final years at Wynd's Point, Herefordshire, on the Malvern Hills near the British Camp. Her last public appearance was at a charity concert at Royal Malvern Spa in 1883. She died, at 67, at Wynd's Point on 2 November 1887 and was buried in the Great Malvern Cemetery to the music of Chopin's Funeral March. She bequeathed a considerable part of her wealth to help poor Protestant students in Sweden receive an education.
Critical reputation
There are no known surviving recordings of Lind's voice. She is believed to have made an early phonograph recording for Thomas Edison, but in the words of the critic Philip L. Miller, "Even had the fabled Edison cylinder survived, it would have been too primitive, and she too long retired, to tell us much". The biographer Francis Rogers concludes that although Lind was much admired by Meyerbeer, Mendelssohn, the Schumanns, Berlioz and others, "In voice and in dramatic talent she was undoubtedly inferior to her predecessors, Malibran and Pasta, and to her contemporaries, Sontag and Grisi." He notes that because of her expert promoters, including Barnum, "almost all that was written about her was undoubtedly biased by an almost overwhelming propaganda in her favor, bought and paid for". Rogers says of Mendelssohn and Lind's other admirers that their tastes were "essentially Teutonic" and, except for Meyerbeer, they were not expert in Italian opera, Lind's early specialty. He quotes a critic of the New York Herald, who noted "little deficiencies in execution, in ascending the scale, which even enthusiasm cannot deprive of their sharpness". The American press agreed that Lind's presentation was more typical of Germanic "cold, untouching, icy purity of tone and style", rather than the passionate expression necessary for Italian opera, and the Herald wrote that her style was "suited to please the people of our cold climate. She will have triumphs here that would never attend her progress through France or Italy".
The critic H. F. Chorley, who admired Lind, described her voice as having "two octaves in compass – from D to D – having a higher possible note or two, available on rare occasions; and that the lower half of the register and the upper one were of two distinct qualities. The former was not strong – veiled, if not husky; and apt to be out of tune. The latter was rich, brilliant and powerful – finest in its highest portions." Chorley praised her breath management, her use of pianissimo, her taste in ornament and her intelligent use of technique to conceal the differences between her upper and lower registers. He thought her "execution was great" and that she was a "skilled and careful musician" but felt that "many of her effects on the stage appeared overcalculated" and that singing in foreign languages impeded her ability to give expression to the text. He felt that her concert singing was more admirable than her operatic performances, but he praised some of her roles. Chorley judged her finest work to be in the German repertoire, citing Mozart, Haydn and Mendelssohn's Elijah as best suited to her. Miller concluded that although connoisseurs of the voice preferred other singers, her wider appeal to the public at large was not merely a legend created by Barnum but was a mixture of "a uniquely pure (some called it celestial) quality in her voice, consistent with her well-known generosity and charity".
Memorials
Lind is commemorated in Poets' Corner, Westminster Abbey, London under the name "Jenny Lind-Goldschmidt". Among those present at the memorial's unveiling ceremony on 20 April 1894 were Goldschmidt, members of the Royal Family, Sullivan, Sir George Grove and representatives of some of the charities supported by Lind. There is also a plaque commemorating Lind in The Boltons, Kensington, London and a blue plaque at 189 Old Brompton Road, London, SW7, which was erected in 1909.
Lind has been commemorated in music, on screen and even on banknotes. Both the 1996 and 2006 issues of the Swedish 50-krona banknote bear a portrait of Lind on the front. Many artistic works have honoured or featured her. Anton Wallerstein composed the "Jenny Lind Polka" around 1850. In the 1930 Hollywood film A Lady's Morals, Grace Moore starred as Lind, with Wallace Beery as Barnum. In 1941 Ilse Werner starred as Lind in the German-language musical biography film The Swedish Nightingale. In 2001, a semibiographical film, Hans Christian Andersen: My Life as a Fairytale, featured Flora Montgomery as Lind. In 2005, Elvis Costello announced that he was writing an opera about Lind, called The Secret Arias with some lyrics by Andersen. A 2010 BBC television documentary "Chopin – The Women Behind the Music" includes discussion of Chopin's last years, during which Lind "so affected" the composer.
Many places and objects have been named for Lind, including Jenny Lind Island in Canada, the Jenny Lind locomotive and a clipper ship, the USS Nightingale. An Australian schooner was named Jenny Lind in her honour. In 1857, it was wrecked in a creek on the Queensland coast; the creek was accordingly named Jenny Lind Creek. A bronze statue of a seated Jenny Lind by Erik Rafael-Rådberg, dedicated in 1924, sits in the Framnäs section of Djurgården island in Stockholm.
In Britain, Goldschmidt's endowment of an infirmary for children in her honour in Norwich is perpetuated in its present form as the Jenny Lind Children's Hospital of the Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital. There is a Jenny Lind Park in the same city. A chapel is named for Lind at the University of Worcester City Campus. A hotel and pub is named after her in the Old Town of Hastings, East Sussex. Hereford County Hospital has a psychiatric ward named for Jenny Lind. A district in Glasgow is named after her. In Sutton, London, the pub "The Jenny Lind", next to Lind Road, has been renamed "The Nightingale".
In the US, Lind is commemorated by street names in Amelia, Ohio; Fort Smith, Arkansas; New Bedford, Massachusetts; Taunton, Massachusetts; McKeesport, Pennsylvania; North Easton, Massachusetts; North Highlands, California and Stanhope, New Jersey; and in the name of Jenny Lind, Arkansas. The town of Jenny Lind, California is likely named after her, although there are several tales about its naming. An elementary school in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and the Jenny Lind Tower, a stone tower in North Truro, Massachusetts, are named for her. She visited Mammoth Cave in central Kentucky in 1851, and a feature in the cave was named in her honor, called "Jenny Lind's Armchair". Cottage-style spindled furniture is still named for her, especially Jenny Lind cribs and beds. Andover, Illinois, has the Jenny Lind Chapel, a Swedish Lutheran Chapel that Lind donated $1,500 to construct. The Jenny Lind Wing is part of a student residence building at Augustana College, Rock Island, Illinois, which was founded by the Swedish Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod in North America in 1860. The college also named a Jenny Lind Vocal Ensemble. Jenny Lind soup is a soup named for her. The American Swedish Historical Museum's Jenny Lind Room is devoted to her and the lasting effects of her widespread popularity in America. Her 1850–1852 tour of America is a plot point in the 1980 musical Barnum and the 2017 film The Greatest Showman, both of which include a fictionalized relationship between Lind and Barnum with "romantic undertones".
Norwegian Air Shuttle's Boeing 737-8JP registration LN-DYG is called Jenny Lind and has a drawing of Lind on its tail.
See also
Jenny Lind private railroad car
Justina Casagli
Elisabeth Frösslind
Elisabeth Olin
Lina Sandell
List of Swedes in music
References
Notes
Footnotes
Sources
Further reading
External links
JennyLind.org website
Profile of and links to information about Jenny Lind, the Barnum's American History Museum site
Boyette, Patsy M. "Jenny Lind Sang Under This Tree", Olde Kinston Gazette, Kinstonpress.com (March 1999)
Lind and Chopin at World of Opera website
Jenny Lind: Her Life, Her Struggles and Her Triumphs by G. G. Rosenberg (1850)
Lind's Memoirs (1820–1851)
Biography by N. Parker Willis (1951)
1820 births
1887 deaths
19th-century Swedish actresses
19th-century Swedish women opera singers
Academics of the Royal College of Music
Burials in Worcestershire
People associated with Malvern, Worcestershire
Singers from Stockholm
Pupils of Manuel García (baritone)
Swedish expatriates in England
Swedish Lutherans
Swedish operatic sopranos
Swedish stage actresses | [
-0.2841026782989502,
0.22373738884925842,
0.12013276666402817,
-0.15590320527553558,
-0.452103853225708,
0.9364753365516663,
0.865008533000946,
-0.22227495908737183,
-0.7997225522994995,
0.0646851509809494,
0.15078091621398926,
0.08688201755285263,
-0.0692678913474083,
0.5051074028015137,
-0.5674909353256226,
0.17050862312316895,
0.45771047472953796,
0.2654968798160553,
-0.31025272607803345,
-0.24555088579654694,
-0.33411741256713867,
-0.4727461040019989,
0.4280093014240265,
-0.24414464831352234,
-0.361698180437088,
-0.014396199956536293,
-0.4068796932697296,
0.3110187351703644,
0.9222975373268127,
0.31530827283859253,
-0.12238306552171707,
0.7178726196289062,
0.7872795462608337,
-0.04914427176117897,
-0.9507846236228943,
0.6234706044197083,
-0.04940104857087135,
0.1403382271528244,
-0.032036542892456055,
0.09409595280885696,
-0.6643649339675903,
-0.30693739652633667,
0.34895482659339905,
-0.02123894914984703,
0.008775057271122932,
-0.6610094904899597,
-1.9642325639724731,
0.6030140519142151,
-0.1177850142121315,
0.17784175276756287,
-0.3902602791786194,
0.5675882697105408,
0.16450078785419464,
0.6218554377555847,
-0.2967708110809326,
-0.40214666724205017,
-0.5670764446258545,
0.042348090559244156,
0.0038108262233436108,
0.15001456439495087,
0.3826408088207245,
-0.25676313042640686,
0.25562959909439087,
-0.5693380832672119,
0.15557892620563507,
0.28500473499298096,
-0.15804187953472137,
-0.1813652515411377,
-0.14237567782402039,
-0.39285746216773987,
0.22014351189136505,
0.515634298324585,
0.2415972352027893,
-0.5231207609176636,
-0.2513188421726227,
-0.5353251695632935,
0.3126904368400574,
-0.23791073262691498,
0.7236576080322266,
0.2952560782432556,
-0.2644948363304138,
-0.22149565815925598,
0.9308410286903381,
0.31630390882492065,
0.21715694665908813,
0.07504868507385254,
-0.047173190861940384,
0.3584281802177429,
-0.20182150602340698,
-0.23483413457870483,
-0.4126306474208832,
-0.5513480305671692,
0.5590311288833618,
0.10604224354028702,
0.03545742481946945,
0.3460973799228668,
0.694246232509613,
0.23496751487255096,
-0.2601606547832489,
0.23631851375102997,
0.038976311683654785,
0.6342527866363525,
0.20704275369644165,
-0.30340075492858887,
-0.3177121579647064,
0.2543828785419464,
-0.18671123683452606,
0.08610458672046661,
-0.43146294355392456,
0.5114607810974121,
-0.5216525793075562,
-0.6172130107879639,
0.006493366789072752,
0.1249619871377945,
-0.449211061000824,
0.15272651612758636,
0.29020360112190247,
-0.16279059648513794,
-0.17758379876613617,
0.3130895793437958,
0.4351503849029541,
-0.0081179765984416,
0.3035203218460083,
0.07803653925657272,
-0.5034942626953125,
0.3953886330127716,
-0.21440792083740234,
0.4388965666294098,
-0.37448784708976746,
0.23500321805477142,
0.04049036279320717,
0.8950263261795044,
-0.3573266267776489,
-0.0794406309723854,
0.22526298463344574,
-0.020523106679320335,
0.15270061790943146,
0.2222553789615631,
0.0028818626888096333,
0.26780980825424194,
-0.6160899996757507,
-0.1061544194817543,
-0.9140250086784363,
-0.5046497583389282,
0.42301058769226074,
-0.12414104491472244,
-0.7788931131362915,
-0.4734346866607666,
-0.1402270644903183,
-0.31831490993499756,
-0.47077062726020813,
0.0557081438601017,
0.5433747172355652,
-0.3689941167831421,
-0.8362610340118408,
0.17897967994213104,
0.5718263387680054,
-0.16155727207660675,
0.500148355960846,
-0.00027404597494751215,
0.42212700843811035,
0.768821656703949,
-0.03708738088607788,
-0.008781240321695805,
-0.3384731709957123,
-0.27885374426841736,
0.17291203141212463,
0.5309335589408875,
-0.4152822196483612,
-0.1436789333820343,
-0.5850188136100769,
0.3297851085662842,
0.14053359627723694,
0.639037013053894,
-0.05146237090229988,
0.04514721781015396,
-0.33545950055122375,
0.08028554171323776,
-0.36411041021347046,
-0.3096088767051697,
-0.8630537390708923,
0.08585202693939209,
0.03845764324069023,
-0.21459931135177612,
0.1399354636669159,
0.9079636335372925,
0.21930992603302002,
0.41519713401794434,
0.72092205286026,
-0.2254420965909958,
-0.4186839163303375,
-0.4075773358345032,
0.19045530259609222,
1.1047496795654297,
0.7650654315948486,
0.14320148527622223,
-0.16931776702404022,
0.28191155195236206,
-0.2589300870895386,
0.17290590703487396,
0.014851662330329418,
-0.36889955401420593,
0.06114061549305916,
0.08615552634000778,
0.16175603866577148,
0.2526453733444214,
0.20446841418743134,
-0.3683786988258362,
0.253547728061676,
0.1714928299188614,
-0.06937149912118912,
-0.8574928641319275,
0.021039582788944244,
0.25947633385658264,
-0.46663135290145874,
-0.08135493099689484,
-0.7765635848045349,
-0.07091213762760162,
0.661569356918335,
-0.04151534661650658,
0.43320125341415405,
0.25279009342193604,
-0.10297761112451553,
0.14990635216236115,
0.05255676805973053,
0.8328995704650879,
-0.07847822457551956,
0.6326221227645874,
0.13165628910064697,
0.0028123981319367886,
-0.30442875623703003,
-0.2720514237880707,
0.5800238251686096,
0.04069847613573074,
0.23256482183933258,
-0.023096023127436638,
-0.11393877863883972,
0.19631683826446533,
0.3544912338256836,
-0.6752875447273254,
0.6023305058479309,
0.48023876547813416,
-0.6949149370193481,
0.5130807161331177,
0.07461739331483841,
0.4149770736694336,
-0.38303279876708984,
-0.7097685933113098,
-0.41467350721359253,
-0.025531403720378876,
0.10772046446800232,
0.6451733708381653,
-0.5822645425796509,
0.40059956908226013,
0.035600077360868454,
-0.46011656522750854,
0.9941872954368591,
-0.3435984253883362,
0.16408810019493103,
0.45756796002388,
0.6809520125389099,
0.21216100454330444,
0.40297865867614746,
0.0454806387424469,
0.06806439906358719,
-0.3013545870780945,
0.4356827139854431,
-0.4194582402706146,
0.7365128397941589,
-0.07679054141044617,
0.1699969470500946,
0.16609826683998108,
-0.05632597953081131,
0.6494513154029846,
-0.15727482736110687,
-0.28428491950035095,
-0.6384873390197754,
-0.5203993916511536,
-0.3210407495498657,
-0.5683638453483582,
-0.3571147322654724,
0.49818193912506104,
-0.2487730234861374,
-0.49851396679878235,
-0.8194931745529175,
0.29352718591690063,
-0.037659067660570145,
0.007830985821783543,
0.1669650375843048,
0.06163322925567627,
-0.4275512099266052,
0.7348453998565674,
-0.5478228330612183,
0.012883245013654232,
-0.5644644498825073,
-0.31873857975006104,
-0.030016586184501648,
0.4343273341655731,
0.18376964330673218,
-0.13449634611606598,
-0.8784781694412231,
0.17135274410247803,
-0.3201872408390045,
0.015880748629570007,
-0.29041486978530884,
0.41496720910072327,
-0.3236437737941742,
0.35902220010757446,
-5.302550315856934,
-0.40386244654655457,
0.2402505725622177,
-1.17870032787323,
0.046186041086912155,
0.6037339568138123,
0.011753657832741737,
-0.6326178312301636,
0.4967971742153168,
-0.025440948083996773,
0.9343340396881104,
0.20786984264850616,
-0.21272481977939606,
0.6566920876502991,
0.15034541487693787,
-0.2883701026439667,
-0.26245588064193726,
0.03451766446232796,
0.00027434443472884595,
0.3788427412509918,
-0.024109842255711555,
-0.25852519273757935,
-0.3440069556236267,
0.6747334003448486,
-0.5800458192825317,
0.0807432308793068,
0.14685474336147308,
-0.43572211265563965,
-1.0431113243103027,
-0.26786842942237854,
-0.08758111298084259,
-0.20744815468788147,
-0.3162534534931183,
0.1860159933567047,
0.15861381590366364,
0.045005399733781815,
0.5049566626548767,
0.5522107481956482,
0.10306442528963089,
-0.019631048664450645,
-0.20526763796806335,
-0.20260445773601532,
-0.527037501335144,
-0.17221349477767944,
-0.4503260552883148,
-0.027207063511013985,
-0.43940797448158264,
0.22294290363788605,
-0.6174895763397217,
1.1595200300216675,
0.13398438692092896,
-0.7794022560119629,
0.14421260356903076,
-0.5259195566177368,
0.05092538893222809,
-0.069512739777565,
-0.14721918106079102,
0.15238402783870697,
-0.33766257762908936,
0.4046076834201813,
0.4850325584411621,
0.0693325623869896,
-0.41462382674217224,
-0.13874125480651855,
-0.8368224501609802,
-0.16672497987747192,
-0.260506808757782,
0.5541147589683533,
0.4007643163204193,
-0.4650910794734955,
0.5261959433555603,
0.3750606179237366,
0.16616509854793549,
-1.393282175064087,
-0.047031939029693604,
-0.9734832048416138,
-0.11593799293041229,
-0.3755698502063751,
-0.7209360599517822,
0.14742036163806915,
0.3482513725757599,
-0.10926221311092377,
0.6206766963005066,
0.38676145672798157,
0.8020203709602356,
0.12245311588048935,
-0.19620035588741302,
-0.17068639397621155,
0.22162698209285736,
-0.3416534960269928,
-0.15900874137878418,
-0.7511920928955078,
-0.3045320510864258,
0.12622448801994324,
0.14463621377944946,
0.7324864268302917,
0.0662304237484932,
0.350676953792572,
0.4390549957752228,
0.09799844026565552,
0.4718392789363861,
-0.1970340460538864,
0.4453253448009491,
-0.09165659546852112,
0.420886754989624,
-0.2531047463417053,
-0.2768513262271881,
-0.4839164912700653,
0.8781033158302307,
-0.16627319157123566,
0.19051721692085266,
-0.19657373428344727,
0.1889435350894928,
-0.6855098009109497,
0.20986753702163696,
-0.8583769798278809,
0.06831977516412735,
1.2287541627883911,
0.06996170431375504,
0.14352650940418243,
0.23820002377033234,
-0.44165652990341187,
0.3031526207923889,
-0.1518709510564804,
0.43233969807624817,
0.12102541327476501,
0.19042536616325378,
0.09526810795068741,
-0.6884368658065796,
0.23841917514801025,
-0.060164205729961395,
0.4026351869106293,
0.053660985082387924,
0.07517518848180771,
-0.015725258737802505,
-0.14558878540992737,
-0.8867831230163574,
-0.2438996136188507,
0.14081203937530518,
-0.42278820276260376,
-0.031862273812294006,
-0.07765741646289825,
-0.5182859301567078,
0.8664158582687378,
0.5616493821144104,
-0.0032053727190941572,
-0.39540138840675354,
-0.6124109625816345,
-0.6559970378875732,
0.33196958899497986,
-0.24841584265232086,
0.09823918342590332,
0.6211936473846436,
-0.20496371388435364,
-0.37002578377723694,
-0.061295799911022186,
-0.16882221400737762,
0.13426204025745392,
-0.563515841960907,
-0.0716085210442543,
-0.11489205062389374,
-0.30952298641204834,
-1.051025629043579,
-0.027463341131806374,
-0.059771787375211716,
0.13697490096092224,
-0.6285384893417358,
-0.05165676400065422,
0.40145355463027954,
0.5108733773231506,
-0.22754943370819092,
-0.601590096950531,
-0.12751536071300507,
0.1658322662115097,
0.38890713453292847,
0.36178866028785706,
-0.15102224051952362,
0.23684236407279968,
-0.2966515123844147,
0.21453233063220978,
-0.21190273761749268,
-0.2111148089170456,
-0.9802389740943909,
0.2216993272304535,
0.03266315907239914,
0.1891123354434967,
-0.39524486660957336,
-0.7144425511360168,
-0.09745070338249207,
0.4585193693637848,
-0.3161463737487793,
-0.16500890254974365,
-0.351576566696167,
0.7562077045440674,
-0.6278530955314636,
-0.17547231912612915,
-0.23950588703155518,
-0.2685915529727936,
0.16658297181129456,
-0.4852616488933563,
-0.02659161202609539,
-0.02020205929875374,
-0.6188192963600159,
-0.14921949803829193,
0.4354065954685211,
-1.1356291770935059,
0.45531541109085083,
0.3735341727733612,
-0.24112460017204285,
0.9300519227981567,
-0.1557447463274002,
-0.87168949842453,
0.17805099487304688,
0.9231874942779541,
-0.06665382534265518,
0.008902691304683685,
0.20687943696975708,
-0.6051903963088989,
-0.7646920680999756,
-0.5331950783729553,
-0.9004018902778625,
-0.72286456823349,
-0.7475122809410095,
-0.10383065789937973,
-0.41964682936668396,
-0.636573851108551,
-0.2783314287662506,
-0.4886542558670044,
0.8166863322257996,
-0.4051814377307892,
0.04413566365838051,
0.28941377997398376,
0.015532798133790493,
-0.1513611376285553,
-0.13917036354541779,
-0.5303687453269958,
-0.11915948241949081,
0.08622228354215622,
0.06927084922790527,
0.675406813621521,
0.9429947137832642,
0.5981061458587646,
0.1505953073501587,
0.19734357297420502,
-0.015482268296182156,
-0.1301855742931366,
0.12346521019935608,
-0.2501904368400574,
0.23434153199195862,
0.1113833412528038,
0.4235387146472931,
-0.48996251821517944,
0.04457276687026024,
-0.4712561070919037,
1.0238969326019287,
-0.2523290812969208,
0.3279871940612793,
0.15672717988491058,
0.03341856226325035,
0.09662671387195587,
0.18917156755924225,
-0.041548289358615875,
0.3058145046234131,
-0.26316025853157043,
-0.03257770091295242,
0.762528121471405,
-0.16220791637897491,
-0.07540138065814972,
0.04085187986493111,
-0.09381796419620514,
-0.030690910294651985,
-0.5313190817832947,
-0.03399764001369476,
0.13887085020542145,
-0.401988685131073,
0.616906464099884,
0.20418177545070648,
-0.23825129866600037,
0.20373712480068207,
0.36079487204551697,
-0.04945290833711624,
0.1385459303855896,
-0.7320811152458191,
-0.07668370753526688,
-0.37577614188194275,
-0.3010547459125519,
-0.42037802934646606,
-0.06754004210233688,
-0.10253220796585083,
0.23027628660202026,
-0.3030034303665161,
0.48349127173423767,
0.3890264928340912,
1.0587842464447021,
0.32545727491378784,
0.38443994522094727,
-0.1985599398612976,
0.8238798975944519,
-0.14257937669754028,
-0.15682430565357208,
-0.1867576390504837,
0.5999920964241028,
0.4443163573741913,
-0.18564334511756897,
0.3002990484237671,
-0.24426130950450897,
-0.2473333775997162,
-0.5849108695983887,
-0.5570172071456909,
0.08615392446517944,
0.1535850465297699,
0.45335525274276733,
-0.4716431796550751,
0.48221588134765625,
-0.3605770170688629,
-0.11748349666595459,
0.5478296279907227,
-0.11624505370855331,
0.12823757529258728,
0.36336749792099,
0.4076668918132782,
0.14463812112808228,
0.5828596949577332,
0.07515134662389755,
-0.15523658692836761,
0.11494099348783493,
0.11324995011091232,
0.6848782300949097,
-0.16092225909233093,
0.21137429773807526,
0.05867357924580574,
-0.6920033097267151,
-0.0062063406221568584,
0.9905363321304321,
-0.27792641520500183,
-0.43512511253356934,
0.42046454548835754,
-0.6569699645042419,
-0.27747389674186707,
0.13305635750293732,
0.4758357107639313,
0.38584399223327637,
0.5268305540084839,
0.4435606002807617,
0.16718041896820068,
0.10280490666627884,
0.0195645522326231,
0.5844135284423828,
-0.7407528758049011,
-0.5074827671051025,
0.1609700620174408,
0.6715373992919922,
0.9735828638076782,
-0.5937387347221375,
0.4433130621910095,
0.33056965470314026,
0.40140190720558167,
-0.4594608247280121,
-0.23208074271678925,
0.37589097023010254,
-0.2509087324142456,
-0.5962936282157898,
1.2022284269332886,
0.3190392851829529,
-0.7199440598487854,
-0.0528203621506691,
-0.07751666009426117,
0.030136000365018845,
0.12325842678546906,
-0.32805585861206055,
0.22470077872276306,
-0.31125015020370483,
-0.5563620924949646,
0.8234587907791138,
0.5077983140945435,
-0.006422754377126694,
0.4711012542247772,
-0.10910332202911377,
0.014516555704176426,
0.1356232464313507,
-0.993507444858551,
0.6810407042503357,
0.8757978081703186,
-0.6782345771789551,
-0.15073895454406738,
-0.3686322569847107,
-0.31080162525177,
-0.1806023120880127,
0.391236811876297,
-0.24916145205497742,
0.7363723516464233,
0.09819579124450684,
0.3686784505844116,
0.07392995059490204,
-0.5966777205467224,
-0.03239918127655983,
0.29053181409835815,
0.3386552631855011,
0.03591202199459076,
-0.08569776266813278,
-0.016552643850445747,
0.8654038906097412,
0.47981393337249756,
-0.03984290361404419,
-0.999605655670166,
0.3174530267715454,
-0.3334827423095703,
0.7799334526062012,
0.003882357385009527,
0.05200525373220444,
-0.11842046678066254,
0.6318380236625671,
-0.08131204545497894,
0.27343279123306274,
-0.7596995830535889,
-0.19242067635059357,
1.0239886045455933,
0.24784058332443237,
-0.1090329959988594,
-0.5839095711708069,
-0.10222505778074265,
-0.6293724775314331,
0.20478422939777374,
-0.4726073741912842,
-0.12438157200813293,
0.3384604752063751,
-0.2697871923446655,
-0.25194790959358215,
-0.2109280675649643,
-0.06233912333846092,
-0.903605043888092,
0.5775973200798035,
-0.370965838432312,
-0.039161525666713715,
-0.4786533713340759,
-0.33021384477615356,
-0.03726327046751976,
0.07265359908342361,
0.36462491750717163,
-0.8694038987159729,
0.5918334722518921,
0.24262063205242157,
-0.6226500272750854,
0.04477096349000931,
0.3153678774833679,
0.3437850773334503,
0.033574558794498444,
-0.3378255069255829,
0.016757218167185783,
0.38342544436454773,
-0.059024959802627563,
-0.6509155631065369,
0.39857909083366394,
-1.072693109512329,
0.2026267796754837,
-0.19382140040397644,
0.3383275866508484,
-0.10447945445775986,
0.09860283881425858,
0.07510364055633545
] |
247917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Seville | University of Seville | The University of Seville (Universidad de Sevilla) is a university in Seville, Spain. Founded under the name of Colegio Santa María de Jesús in 1505, it has a present student body of over 65,000, and is one of the top-ranked universities in the country.
History
The University of Seville originally dates to the 15th century. Created by Archdeacon Maese Rodrigo Fernández de Santaella, it was originally called Colegio de Santa Maria de Jesus, and was confirmed as a practicing university in 1505 by the papal bull of Pope Julius II. Today, the University of Seville is known for research in technology and science.
In the middle of the 13th century, the Dominicans, in order to prepare missionaries for work among the Moors and Jews, organised schools for the teaching of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek. To cooperate in this work and to enhance the prestige of Seville, Alfonso the Wise in 1254 established "general schools" (escuelas generales) of Arabic and Latin in Seville. Alexander IV recognized this foundation as a generale litterarum studium by the Papal Bull of 21 June 1260 and granted its members certain dispensations in the matter of residence. Later, the cathedral chapter established ecclesiastical studies in the College of San Miguel. Rodrigo Fernández de Santaella, archdeacon of the cathedral and commonly known as Maese Rodrigo, began the construction of a building for a university in 1472; in 1502 the Catholic Monarchs published the royal decree creating the university, and in 1505 Julius II granted the Bull of authorization; in 1509 the college of Maese Rodrigo was finally installed in its own building, under the name of Santa María de Jesús, but its courses were not opened until 1516. The Catholic Monarchs and the pope granted the power to confer degrees in logic, philosophy, theology, and canon and civil law. The colegio mayor de Maese Rodrigo and the university proper, although housed in the same building, never lost their separate identities, as is shown by the fact that, in the 18th century, the university was moved to the College of San Hermenegildo, while that of Maese Rodrigo remained independent, although languishing.
Influence
The influence of the University of Seville, from the ecclesiastical point of view, was considerable, though not equal to that of the Universities of Salamanca and of Alcalá. Renowned alumni include Sebastián Antonio de Cortés, Riquelme, Rioja, Luis Germán y Ribón, founder of the Horatian Academy, Juan Sánchez, professor of mathematics at San Telmo, Martín Alberto Carbajal, Cardinal Belluga, Cardinal Francisco Solís Folch, Marcelo Doye y Pelarte, Bernardo de Torrijos, Francisco Aguilar Ribón, the Abate Marchena, Alberto Lista, and many others who shone in the magistracy, or were distinguished ecclesiastics. The University of Seville had a great influence on the development of the fine arts in Spain. In its shadow the school of the famous master Juan de Mal Lara was founded, and intellects like those of Fernando de Herrera, Juan de Arguijo, and many others were developed, while literary and artistic clubs were formed, like that of Francisco Pacheco, which was a school for both painting and poetry. During the period of secularization and sequestration (1845–57) the University of Seville passed into the control of the State and received a new organization.
At the same time that the royal university was established, the Universidad de Mareantes (university of sea-farers) was developed. Here, the Catholic Monarchs established the Casa de Contratación by a royal decree of 1503, with classes for pilots and seamen, and courses in cosmography, mathematics, military tactics, and artillery. This establishment was of incalculable importance, for it was here that the expeditions to the Indies were organised, and the great Spanish mariners were educated. This form of polytechnic school, which, according to Eden, Bourné, and Alexander von Humboldt, had taught a great deal to Europe, fell into decay in the 17th century, following the fortunes of Spanish science.
Equality, liberty, justice and pluralism
The university enjoys the independence afforded by self-governance, which gives it a certain flexibility that may work to advantage in the hiring of professors and lecturers. The ancient motto of the university is: "Equality, Liberty, Justice and Pluralism".
The university's stated mission is to educate students who will do the research and development necessary to scientific and technological innovation. This is reflected in the number of degrees offered; students attending the university have a choice of 65 different subjects and one of the widest ranges of academic and sporting facilities in Spain, making it a popular university for both Spanish and international students. In 2004 it had 73,350 students spread on different campuses, being second in number of students among Spanish universities.
Campus internationalisation
Since 1994, North American exchange students have been able to take classes taught by University of Seville faculty members in Spanish in the Faculty of Philology and the Faculty of Geography and History. As of Fall 2009, the university has agreements with 15 international organizations including the Council on International Educational Exchange, the College Consortium for International Studies, International Studies Abroad, SUNY New Paltz and Wells College. and St. John's University. The University of Seville has had a partnership with the Real Colegio Complutense at Harvard University since 2015.
Organization
The University of Seville comprises:
Governed by the Department Council (Consejo de Departamento): The Departments
Governed by Centre Council (Junta de Centro): consists of
Faculties,
Technical Sciences Schools (Escuelas Técnicas Superiores), and
University Schools (Escuelas Universitarias).
The main building of the University of Seville is known as the "Old Tobacco Factory", named for its original use. Built in the 18th century, Seville's tobacco factory was the largest industrial building in the world at the time and remained a tobacco factory until the 1950s. This beautiful building is also the setting for the renowned opera, Carmen, by Bizet. Carmen was a fictional worker in the tobacco factory, the original story being a novella by Prosper Mérimée. This building houses two of the university's faculties: the School of Literature and Philology, and the School of Geography and History.
Other campuses and faculties are located throughout Seville, including the Health Science schools in La Macarena, the Business School in Nervion, the Engineering School and School of Communications in La Cartuja and the Languages Institute (Instituto de Idiomas) and Science Schools in Romina
Library
The library holds about 777,000 volumes.
Notable people
José María de Azcárate, art historian, author, professor, and academic researcher, specializing in medieval Castilian art and Renaissance sculpture.
Luis Cernuda, poet
Francisco Elías de Tejada y Spínola, philosophy of law professor
Baltasar Garzón, judge
Felipe González, former Prime Minister of the Spanish Government
Alfonso Guerra, former Deputy Prime Minister of the Spanish Government
Mark D. Levine, New York City Council member
Raquel Martínez Rabanal, radio and television hostess
Manuel Olivencia, professor and lawyer
Pedro Salinas, professor and poet
Stephen Sommers, American writer and director
See also
List of early modern universities in Europe
References
External links
University of Seville at Google Maps, Rectorado campus.
1505 establishments in Spain
Buildings and structures in Seville
Education in Seville
Educational institutions established in the 1500s
Engineering universities and colleges in Spain
Universities in Andalusia | [
0.37571147084236145,
-0.007485529407858849,
0.8151637315750122,
-0.21496503055095673,
-0.28022560477256775,
0.2602482736110687,
0.3637569844722748,
1.2358720302581787,
-0.5457834601402283,
-0.5733997821807861,
0.2791104316711426,
0.05696190148591995,
0.4362155497074127,
0.21611924469470978,
-0.18248328566551208,
-0.0027412893250584602,
0.22080190479755402,
0.49926984310150146,
-0.18628518283367157,
-0.4754506051540375,
-0.2904752194881439,
0.16043633222579956,
0.041721243411302567,
0.0006506500067189336,
-0.04662076011300087,
0.06152072548866272,
0.1555420160293579,
0.3822723627090454,
-0.015764852985739708,
0.11757177859544754,
0.16429108381271362,
0.04640086367726326,
-0.20376482605934143,
-0.19930826127529144,
0.020243339240550995,
0.1653548926115036,
-0.579420268535614,
-0.4534374177455902,
-0.33839279413223267,
-0.42333829402923584,
-0.4146210849285126,
-0.24966439604759216,
0.193673774600029,
0.09709498286247253,
-0.14581070840358734,
-1.0037939548492432,
-0.9707344770431519,
0.7168264985084534,
-0.5369913578033447,
0.8858392834663391,
-0.44178974628448486,
0.22956833243370056,
0.5504140853881836,
0.15723711252212524,
-0.43467646837234497,
0.18720069527626038,
-0.7368518114089966,
0.03627964109182358,
-0.022503556683659554,
0.06832480430603027,
0.14581118524074554,
1.4342243671417236,
0.12979739904403687,
0.31303080916404724,
0.16150985658168793,
-0.2375834435224533,
0.27910226583480835,
0.4340461790561676,
-0.8085154294967651,
-0.3061819076538086,
-0.01973785273730755,
0.32282647490501404,
-0.4905731678009033,
0.0722508579492569,
-0.5741236209869385,
-1.4616563320159912,
-0.10747475177049637,
0.16394087672233582,
-0.15275071561336517,
0.6382288336753845,
0.06741224974393845,
0.04048533737659454,
0.7203718423843384,
0.020511073991656303,
1.2263062000274658,
0.33737677335739136,
-1.1008011102676392,
-0.35596510767936707,
-0.7906236052513123,
0.25121623277664185,
-0.3869272470474243,
0.14472097158432007,
0.20317672193050385,
0.08587992936372757,
-0.0524873211979866,
0.2240353375673294,
-0.03545936569571495,
0.23732420802116394,
-0.5783243775367737,
0.15481413900852203,
-0.34062159061431885,
0.623715877532959,
0.1783110499382019,
-0.3058944344520569,
-0.030988967046141624,
-0.19917084276676178,
-0.9005115628242493,
-0.2495543509721756,
-0.2439001351594925,
-0.2938289940357208,
-0.7840223908424377,
0.07118633389472961,
-0.2798433303833008,
0.48090872168540955,
0.053264498710632324,
0.8657662868499756,
0.8700178861618042,
-0.11361648887395859,
-0.44314882159233093,
-0.09371884912252426,
-0.5489864945411682,
0.5448448657989502,
0.09956574440002441,
-0.0011274267453700304,
-0.07488611340522766,
0.7351629734039307,
0.3847430646419525,
0.06100407615303993,
-0.31978803873062134,
-0.1308186799287796,
0.6101436614990234,
0.4824202358722687,
-0.06244155019521713,
-0.3628688454627991,
0.07459502667188644,
-0.3979203999042511,
-0.07879868149757385,
0.7911120057106018,
-0.2298905849456787,
-0.06023263931274414,
-0.8142364025115967,
-0.16952958703041077,
-0.7783382534980774,
-0.23592866957187653,
-0.06878352910280228,
-0.5504310131072998,
-0.14762181043624878,
-0.01683034747838974,
-0.400139719247818,
-0.4273547828197479,
0.2066505253314972,
0.14401119947433472,
-0.4626789093017578,
0.5091315507888794,
-0.021313728764653206,
0.23869286477565765,
0.7460358142852783,
0.06232091411948204,
0.7486646175384521,
0.091013602912426,
0.0021226354874670506,
0.06399278342723846,
0.041914597153663635,
0.04675678908824921,
-0.49432843923568726,
-0.3928716778755188,
0.5754504799842834,
0.41328155994415283,
0.28281325101852417,
0.20410719513893127,
-0.6180238127708435,
-0.11073002964258194,
0.4177261292934418,
-0.6973769068717957,
0.009282909333705902,
-0.174931138753891,
0.29831451177597046,
-0.037127889692783356,
0.09093541651964188,
-0.1614835560321808,
-0.8395285606384277,
0.42008665204048157,
0.12207183241844177,
0.38418030738830566,
0.04529020935297012,
-0.2737484872341156,
0.7818013429641724,
0.7637667655944824,
-0.5755202770233154,
0.11915368586778641,
-0.8883309960365295,
-0.15959769487380981,
-0.17914989590644836,
0.4516085088253021,
0.5540437698364258,
-0.009851842187345028,
-0.7659494876861572,
1.245736837387085,
-0.6978827714920044,
0.7348135113716125,
-0.97114497423172,
0.015397299081087112,
0.3099476993083954,
0.2026456892490387,
-0.004495931323617697,
-0.24676334857940674,
0.1210925355553627,
0.20813798904418945,
0.3992772102355957,
0.6491840481758118,
0.13441210985183716,
-0.6527326703071594,
-0.018479611724615097,
0.19220036268234253,
-0.32598546147346497,
-0.729175865650177,
-0.240104541182518,
-0.5458792448043823,
0.12016437202692032,
0.16231176257133484,
1.10822594165802,
-0.40642184019088745,
-0.03004279173910618,
0.4376908540725708,
0.2678526043891907,
0.48796629905700684,
-0.2544781565666199,
0.5176909565925598,
0.5382411479949951,
-0.4720765948295593,
0.3861033618450165,
-0.29206013679504395,
0.12613937258720398,
-0.08747691661119461,
-0.2718852460384369,
0.04117797315120697,
-0.4726797640323639,
-0.2691667377948761,
0.19163663685321808,
-0.5122361779212952,
0.5818590521812439,
0.11465904861688614,
-0.5191951394081116,
0.6493098139762878,
0.7984839677810669,
-0.2246137261390686,
-0.37570494413375854,
0.2756085693836212,
-0.22623135149478912,
-0.12957322597503662,
0.15326952934265137,
0.03429572656750679,
-0.21767236292362213,
-0.5520063042640686,
-0.1363518238067627,
-0.3419606387615204,
0.6182346940040588,
0.2336278259754181,
0.336323618888855,
0.09820414334535599,
-0.13020461797714233,
0.18958795070648193,
-0.037604428827762604,
0.7058426141738892,
-0.4318557679653168,
-0.4456147849559784,
-0.41753000020980835,
-1.1387187242507935,
0.04641560837626457,
-0.14615780115127563,
0.487453430891037,
-0.6103695631027222,
-0.1960357129573822,
-0.05139226093888283,
-0.7473326921463013,
-0.25396662950515747,
0.29596376419067383,
-0.14618350565433502,
-0.9631580114364624,
-0.5478920340538025,
-0.0699746161699295,
0.6226374506950378,
-0.2898915112018585,
-1.0140023231506348,
-0.42136093974113464,
0.18488872051239014,
0.04216250777244568,
-0.3049403727054596,
-0.5487127900123596,
-0.33253902196884155,
-0.4551808834075928,
0.4323975145816803,
0.1879791021347046,
0.3511818051338196,
-0.3973962664604187,
-0.41626760363578796,
0.5121687054634094,
-0.4279421865940094,
0.9081796407699585,
-0.5717723369598389,
-1.136391520500183,
0.4069199562072754,
0.2641642689704895,
0.03794333338737488,
0.252899169921875,
-0.4816538691520691,
-0.18136714398860931,
0.8021929860115051,
-5.16697883605957,
-0.17879202961921692,
-0.5729846358299255,
-0.29945921897888184,
0.9064331650733948,
-0.5303008556365967,
0.691874086856842,
-0.47128114104270935,
-0.04082349315285683,
-0.6407479047775269,
-0.1324688196182251,
0.3224276006221771,
-0.007039313670247793,
0.729728102684021,
0.1092052161693573,
1.0068455934524536,
-0.1532234251499176,
-0.4379708170890808,
0.5300018191337585,
0.22161997854709625,
-0.3762538433074951,
-0.4273618459701538,
-0.1418817788362503,
0.5818279385566711,
0.2231278270483017,
0.639039933681488,
-0.5114368796348572,
-0.25528189539909363,
-0.8612385392189026,
-0.4625950753688812,
0.294603556394577,
-0.03872326388955116,
0.011314586736261845,
0.05153532326221466,
-0.4118005335330963,
0.07029081135988235,
0.45416656136512756,
0.191933736205101,
-0.46142610907554626,
-0.48418286442756653,
0.30141082406044006,
0.5651130676269531,
-0.12322260439395905,
0.38457268476486206,
0.4196666181087494,
-0.2078372687101364,
-0.45779284834861755,
-0.07984505593776703,
0.0518021360039711,
0.4452059864997864,
0.14318224787712097,
-0.49601659178733826,
0.28501614928245544,
0.30497506260871887,
-0.33942753076553345,
-0.7521452903747559,
0.6692178845405579,
0.12873102724552155,
-0.049839045852422714,
0.7156939506530762,
0.02441735938191414,
-0.5359237790107727,
0.292721152305603,
-0.9383625388145447,
-0.30884209275245667,
-0.026193726807832718,
0.11941751092672348,
0.17516468465328217,
0.28708913922309875,
0.3157370388507843,
0.5789929032325745,
0.4946351945400238,
-1.0578241348266602,
-0.7788366079330444,
-0.3027329742908478,
-0.26343250274658203,
-0.598819375038147,
-0.4599972665309906,
-0.12743709981441498,
-0.28143471479415894,
0.3017352521419525,
-0.11646823585033417,
-0.2864342927932739,
0.49777016043663025,
-0.25716155767440796,
-0.15041132271289825,
0.5341699719429016,
-0.014364789240062237,
0.02231914922595024,
-0.4089031517505646,
0.22310669720172882,
-0.5785092711448669,
0.34283700585365295,
0.25276821851730347,
-0.3364827036857605,
-0.06730548292398453,
-0.2535896599292755,
0.7447739839553833,
-0.432813435792923,
-0.41167083382606506,
0.5875842571258545,
-0.5028368830680847,
0.15238653123378754,
0.06822346895933151,
0.2973301112651825,
0.03407399356365204,
0.04302452877163887,
0.28136423230171204,
0.3736983835697174,
-0.04986588656902313,
0.4479122459888458,
0.22335800528526306,
-0.16806194186210632,
-0.5318525433540344,
0.12055613100528717,
-0.5562527775764465,
-0.22914451360702515,
0.14797930419445038,
-0.11854571104049683,
0.2591121196746826,
0.17388944327831268,
0.5112263560295105,
0.33216217160224915,
0.19816482067108154,
0.06375826895236969,
-0.5026835799217224,
0.26446959376335144,
0.2910066843032837,
-0.08987953513860703,
-0.16825316846370697,
0.04903401434421539,
0.08696503937244415,
0.20264102518558502,
0.49040916562080383,
0.08832862228155136,
0.03932105377316475,
-0.5516107678413391,
-0.5936310291290283,
0.7425249218940735,
-0.3473060429096222,
0.1219685897231102,
-0.026967311277985573,
0.011673764325678349,
0.5060311555862427,
0.906867504119873,
0.4018253684043884,
-0.5024449229240417,
0.031089583411812782,
-1.5150574445724487,
0.41566675901412964,
0.05281751602888107,
-0.578934371471405,
-0.0963364914059639,
0.125915065407753,
0.21972763538360596,
-0.10859905928373337,
-0.36588162183761597,
0.3605947196483612,
0.17464208602905273,
0.32328733801841736,
-0.17148619890213013,
-0.10175152868032455,
-0.9180561304092407,
0.4575345814228058,
0.44525012373924255,
-0.3822912573814392,
-0.6576313376426697,
-0.5579634308815002,
-0.30407729744911194,
0.7290626764297485,
-0.035136573016643524,
-0.5048484206199646,
-0.6696521639823914,
-0.7308814525604248,
0.6841885447502136,
-0.5761775970458984,
0.35537266731262207,
0.3670996427536011,
0.2636519968509674,
-0.0317750945687294,
0.7220969796180725,
-0.15011276304721832,
0.37454572319984436,
0.21758008003234863,
0.4802437722682953,
-0.09235502034425735,
-0.43445050716400146,
-0.8892645835876465,
0.01049618050456047,
0.19096879661083221,
0.47012895345687866,
0.2739535868167877,
-0.08244776725769043,
0.2627504765987396,
-0.628603458404541,
-0.8778383731842041,
-0.11412345618009567,
-0.06701883673667908,
-0.1213245540857315,
-0.08929242938756943,
-0.15544016659259796,
0.8471382856369019,
-0.494348406791687,
0.6468738317489624,
-0.3888273239135742,
-0.38716262578964233,
0.5952118039131165,
0.3535366952419281,
-0.5129019021987915,
-0.3129546344280243,
-0.663969099521637,
-0.872140109539032,
0.3636690676212311,
0.7456837892532349,
-1.193049430847168,
-0.08627210557460785,
0.05217577517032623,
-0.7134085893630981,
-0.6049746870994568,
0.013898094184696674,
0.15763498842716217,
-0.11662115901708603,
-0.023468153551220894,
0.09854772686958313,
-0.4108681380748749,
1.0108941793441772,
0.02765467017889023,
-0.6897309422492981,
0.6518336534500122,
-0.5803045630455017,
0.7213225960731506,
0.0680253878235817,
0.26929548382759094,
0.10886316746473312,
-0.10855323076248169,
-0.43231508135795593,
0.073593869805336,
-0.020416036248207092,
-0.34117045998573303,
0.1698940396308899,
0.5478794574737549,
0.6509547829627991,
-0.16934843361377716,
-0.43141424655914307,
0.6136255264282227,
0.34176182746887207,
0.346738338470459,
0.2638075351715088,
-0.7575197219848633,
0.17643329501152039,
0.1591779738664627,
-0.5369351506233215,
-0.6460875272750854,
-0.2945467531681061,
0.8310397863388062,
-0.06948035955429077,
0.09931214153766632,
0.08290886133909225,
-0.08672939240932465,
-0.5256621837615967,
0.09504581987857819,
0.0007924349047243595,
-0.7846283316612244,
0.21944087743759155,
0.17839528620243073,
-0.2008884847164154,
-0.04375375434756279,
-0.7599390745162964,
0.7676138877868652,
0.14455421268939972,
-0.011848035268485546,
-0.5391972064971924,
0.03413404896855354,
0.7456303834915161,
-0.040372513234615326,
0.1707504540681839,
-0.2926572859287262,
-0.27325013279914856,
0.30894792079925537,
0.05483470857143402,
-0.7137676477432251,
0.09353546053171158,
-0.12150097638368607,
-0.5060865879058838,
-0.07142049819231033,
0.11904609203338623,
-0.12553799152374268,
0.042753737419843674,
-0.4923788905143738,
0.8593214750289917,
-0.19194060564041138,
-0.5425715446472168,
-0.09930369257926941,
0.31926512718200684,
-0.010766234248876572,
0.22497811913490295,
0.25927111506462097,
0.22101977467536926,
0.4709852337837219,
-0.11245671659708023,
-0.3260625898838043,
0.8776547312736511,
0.6986230611801147,
0.10449989885091782,
0.4851420521736145,
-0.1017746850848198,
0.40545654296875,
0.06284559518098831,
-0.41956421732902527,
-0.259226530790329,
-0.1979249268770218,
0.30792170763015747,
0.743707001209259,
0.5205292701721191,
-0.2939246892929077,
0.49845919013023376,
0.12068825215101242,
-0.5575567483901978,
0.2264958620071411,
0.41589462757110596,
-0.02972748875617981,
0.05337527021765709,
0.26612788438796997,
0.04991413652896881,
0.35978931188583374,
1.1044217348098755,
-0.3914760649204254,
-0.554624080657959,
0.4063895642757416,
-0.27789443731307983,
0.05905647575855255,
0.35871776938438416,
-0.45569100975990295,
1.118268370628357,
-0.10954029858112335,
0.1431884765625,
0.1875217854976654,
-0.8132688999176025,
-0.3935149610042572,
0.15274983644485474,
1.1576063632965088,
1.0148766040802002,
-0.3198074996471405,
0.568976640701294,
-0.2974070608615875,
0.18870380520820618,
-0.3927065432071686,
0.69525545835495,
0.02385731041431427,
-0.4092414677143097,
0.5710522532463074,
0.18237866461277008,
0.22791706025600433,
-0.09874290227890015,
0.0009662709780968726,
0.5368320345878601,
0.3055352568626404,
0.14340876042842865,
-0.7546806931495667,
0.2326355278491974,
-0.21113136410713196,
0.5620172619819641,
0.9141414761543274,
-0.4255957007408142,
-0.5836331248283386,
0.42240670323371887,
0.3699977695941925,
-0.11820662021636963,
-0.18068507313728333,
0.3657921850681305,
0.07551516592502594,
0.2405729591846466,
0.021268704906105995,
0.005030620377510786,
0.4970865547657013,
0.8861098885536194,
0.32815614342689514,
0.762380063533783,
-0.04110157489776611,
0.19856928288936615,
-0.28787702322006226,
0.47117406129837036,
-0.1645994335412979,
-0.2828996777534485,
-0.6294533610343933,
-0.031592004001140594,
-0.5794039964675903,
-0.006806768476963043,
-0.2727750539779663,
-0.0697622299194336,
-0.058934036642313004,
-0.24796192348003387,
0.6717356443405151,
0.20971570909023285,
-0.48835819959640503,
0.0029356598388403654,
-0.531097412109375,
0.5026684403419495,
0.5494993925094604,
-0.3863799273967743,
-0.09734519571065903,
0.24149467051029205,
-0.2286003828048706,
0.09613686800003052,
-0.8212263584136963,
0.38884979486465454,
-0.23654961585998535,
0.13513247668743134,
-0.5984207391738892,
0.2385498583316803,
0.14485181868076324,
-0.09217636287212372,
-0.28301703929901123,
0.2019055038690567,
-0.608754575252533,
0.3229813873767853,
0.3160286545753479,
-0.5379900932312012,
-0.6793664693832397,
-0.2225644737482071,
-0.2843591868877411,
-0.7502644658088684,
0.16956068575382233,
0.8026023507118225,
0.11428745090961456,
-0.603376030921936,
0.28661680221557617,
1.1039730310440063,
-0.6576672792434692,
0.3399091958999634,
-0.130066379904747,
0.43995195627212524,
-0.9511098265647888,
0.09061691910028458,
-0.4344285726547241,
0.17986159026622772,
0.3674214482307434,
0.7344762086868286,
0.5009758472442627,
-0.5195311307907104,
0.05614527687430382,
-0.02837044931948185,
0.6754835844039917,
-0.355671763420105,
-0.17821939289569855,
-0.44506531953811646,
-0.32707878947257996,
-0.06510822474956512,
-0.5535526275634766,
-0.01293368823826313,
0.20137308537960052,
-0.3871661424636841,
0.772445023059845,
0.10225167870521545,
-0.1419355571269989,
0.08273600786924362,
0.23571036756038666,
-0.7995083332061768,
0.7040562629699707,
0.557625949382782
] |
247921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gray%20Areas | Gray Areas | Gray Areas was a quarterly magazine published from 1992 to 1995 by publisher Netta Gilboa. The magazine was based in Phoenix, Arizona. It won several awards including "One Of The Top Ten Magazines of 1992" by Library Journal. It discussed subcultures involving drugs (narcotics), phreaking, cyberpunk, pornography, the Grateful Dead and related issues. It only published 7 issues, but continues on as a website.
Issue Contents
Issue 1 - Fall 1992 - Volume 1, No. 1 (84 pages)
Interview: John Perry Barlow on computer crimes
Interview: Kay Parker on the Adult Film Industry
Tape History: Grateful Dead Live Video Tapes
Interview: The Zen Tricksters Rock Band
Issue 2 - Spring 1993 - Volume 2, No. 1 (116 pages)
Interview: Attorney/Musician Barry Melton
Interview: Adult Film Director Candida Royalle
Tape History: Little Feat Live Audio Tapes
Tape History: Grateful Dead Bootleg CDs
Things To Know About Urine Tests
It's Later Than You Thought: Your 4th Amendment Rights
Computer Privacy and the Common Man
An Essay On The Fan-Artist Relationship
My Pilgrimage To Jim Morrison's Grave
Interview: Paul Quinn of the Soup Dragons
Issue 3 - Summer 1993 - Volume 2, No. 2 (132 pages)
Interview: Musician GG Allin
Interview: Grateful Dead Hour host David Gans
Richard Pacheco on Adult Films
Tape History: Jefferson Airplane Live Video Tapes
Phone Phun Phenomena: Notes On The Prank Call Underground
Interview: Prank Call Expert John Trubee
Interview: Urnst Kouch, Computer Virus Writer
Howard Stern Is Here To Stay
Worlds At War, Pt. 1: The Gray Gods: A Theory of UFO Encounters
Issue 4 - Fall 1993 - Volume 2, No. 3 (148 pages)
Interview: Ivan Stang of the Church of the SubGenius
Interview: RIAA Piracy Director Steven D'Onofrio
Interview: Phone Sex Fantasy Girl
Review: Defcon I hackers convention
Gray Travel: Amsterdam
Confessions of an Amerikan LSD Eater
Worlds At War, Pt. 2: The Ultimate Sin: UFO Conspiracies
A Day With The KKK
Run For Your Life: Why The Music Industry Wants You To Record Concerts
Plagiarism: Thoughts on Sampling, Originality and Ownership
Interview: Solar Circus Rock Band
Issue 5 - Spring 1994 - Volume 3, No. 1 (148 pages)
Interview: Breaking Into The WELL
Interview: S/M Dominatrix
Paul Melka on computer viruses
Review: Pumpcon II and HoHoCon IV hacker conventions
Inside Today's Hacking Mind
Interview: Phone Phreak
Improving The Prison Environment
Teenager Joins In The Fight Against AIDS
Concealing My Identity: A Silence Imposed By Society
All About Smart Drugs
Lollapalooza 1993 Review
Entertainment Industry Lawyers
Deadheads and the Constitution
Tape History: Jefferson Airplane Bootlegs
Tape History: A Guide To Vintage Live Soul Tapes
The New Music Seminar July 1993
Issue 6 - Fall 1994 - Volume 3, No. 2 (148 pages)
Interview: Hacker/Phrack Publisher Erik Bloodaxe
Interview: Adult Film Star Taylor Wane
Review: Computers, Freedom and Privacy conference
Stormbringer of Phalcon/Skism on computer virus writers
A Cyberpunk Manifesto For The 90s
Interview: Cable TV Thief
True Cop, Blue Cop, Gray Cop
Is Jury tampering A Crime?
Interview: Folk Singer Melanie
Jimi Hendrix: The Bootleg CDs
Tape History: Big Brother and the Holding Company
The Genitorturers Mean You Some Harm
Issue 7 - Spring 1995 - Volume 4, No. 1 (148 pages)
Interview: Mike Gordon of Phish
Interview: Internet Liberation Front
Review: Defcon II, HoHoCon and HOPE hacker conventions
Tape History: Jethro Tull Live Video Tapes
Scanners: Tuning In Illegally On Phone Calls
Confessions of an AIDS Activist
Adventures In The Porn Store
New Conflicts Over The Oldest Profession
Two Thousand In Two Years: A Housewife Hooker's Story
Psychoanalysis and Feminism
Prozac: The Controversial Future of Psychopharmacology
The Gray Area of Drug addiction
The Art of Deception: Polygraph Lie Detection
Voices of Adoptees: The Silent Society
The Gray Art of John Wayne Gacy
Lollapalooza 1994 Review
References
External links
Official Website
Cultural magazines published in the United States
Quarterly magazines published in the United States
Defunct literary magazines published in the United States
Hacker magazines
Magazines established in 1992
Magazines disestablished in 1995
Magazines published in Arizona
Works about computer hacking
Mass media in Phoenix, Arizona | [
-0.3494489789009094,
0.005852561444044113,
-0.15668834745883942,
0.01216654572635889,
-0.05148700997233391,
-0.08804464340209961,
-0.2320610135793686,
-0.02421790175139904,
-0.0073594083078205585,
-0.014965726062655449,
-0.38046300411224365,
0.14911311864852905,
-0.10469912737607956,
0.047324296087026596,
-0.23175829648971558,
0.2668849229812622,
0.2667236328125,
-0.03164560720324516,
-0.32807743549346924,
0.07490560412406921,
-0.17140381038188934,
-0.43743449449539185,
0.1681557297706604,
-0.14591966569423676,
-0.0991939976811409,
-0.4194658100605011,
0.4659624397754669,
0.1483335942029953,
-0.07945280522108078,
0.24817316234111786,
0.012850295752286911,
0.7026300430297852,
-0.19928890466690063,
-0.04477950558066368,
-0.24403727054595947,
0.46363940834999084,
-0.17647479474544525,
-0.10045377165079117,
-0.396548330783844,
-0.2663261592388153,
0.328726589679718,
0.27646389603614807,
-0.13181336224079132,
0.23291057348251343,
0.3323003351688385,
0.0923946425318718,
-1.8638931512832642,
-0.30265799164772034,
-0.8065187931060791,
0.0852464884519577,
-0.8315430283546448,
0.7294830083847046,
0.5220932364463806,
0.4160800278186798,
-0.1186254620552063,
0.5295369029045105,
-0.14693757891654968,
0.03513416647911072,
-0.3921353220939636,
-0.01836381107568741,
0.5949710011482239,
-0.19083479046821594,
0.22842606902122498,
-0.06440911442041397,
-0.10812829434871674,
0.12249777466058731,
-0.3572598695755005,
0.13641144335269928,
0.5486401915550232,
-0.2744428813457489,
-0.09915512055158615,
0.3980391025543213,
0.11896123737096786,
0.31048309803009033,
-0.35684001445770264,
0.21171681582927704,
0.6055753231048584,
-0.5300432443618774,
0.14882202446460724,
0.3725928068161011,
-0.3907338082790375,
0.4571790099143982,
0.8304371237754822,
-0.26659712195396423,
0.25294187664985657,
-0.1556798368692398,
0.12349836528301239,
-0.09309424459934235,
-0.19841113686561584,
0.5698587894439697,
-0.024650102481245995,
-0.6372061967849731,
1.0987942218780518,
0.3912535309791565,
0.19099991023540497,
-0.4386514723300934,
0.2505282759666443,
0.21292106807231903,
0.198946014046669,
-0.21560871601104736,
0.02693161927163601,
0.26085981726646423,
0.021060040220618248,
-0.09714072942733765,
-0.522310733795166,
-0.6165363788604736,
0.04730495810508728,
-0.6508359909057617,
0.3095306158065796,
0.334524005651474,
-0.14230060577392578,
0.19971086084842682,
0.09744323045015335,
-0.03828606382012367,
0.18132174015045166,
0.8544830679893494,
0.07529710233211517,
-0.1551404446363449,
-0.334651917219162,
0.35882073640823364,
-0.07921827584505081,
0.9820548892021179,
0.09348831325769424,
-0.029107533395290375,
-0.09038803726434708,
0.07285185158252716,
0.7270981073379517,
0.03245030343532562,
-0.38345274329185486,
0.5812559127807617,
-0.23750391602516174,
0.06802473962306976,
0.0708271786570549,
-0.09581384807825089,
0.14879180490970612,
-0.010188920423388481,
0.5297574400901794,
-0.05917254835367203,
0.029765872284770012,
0.1830889880657196,
0.1270076036453247,
0.04597683250904083,
-1.2577935457229614,
-0.6586903929710388,
0.314887672662735,
-0.657273530960083,
0.3811362683773041,
-0.27046504616737366,
-0.37628480792045593,
-0.23754678666591644,
0.28179946541786194,
-0.09168089181184769,
0.2700839042663574,
-0.1876865178346634,
-0.261383593082428,
0.1225782185792923,
-0.1880442202091217,
-0.05800698697566986,
0.40512922406196594,
-0.08796963095664978,
0.3334207236766815,
0.2447306513786316,
0.0877079963684082,
-0.29329749941825867,
-0.05242372304201126,
-0.3114786446094513,
-0.02000037580728531,
0.3434445559978485,
0.7147828936576843,
0.2075394243001938,
0.03827185183763504,
-0.15134724974632263,
0.36128437519073486,
0.10553521662950516,
0.3820316195487976,
0.05309903249144554,
0.9524226784706116,
0.6144815683364868,
0.12731294333934784,
-0.057723477482795715,
-0.7300816774368286,
-0.13383622467517853,
-0.020364299416542053,
-0.2936827838420868,
0.36108022928237915,
-0.17491509020328522,
0.5460278391838074,
0.3285245895385742,
0.36583414673805237,
0.5296837091445923,
-0.48668181896209717,
-0.335714727640152,
0.3900313377380371,
-0.009117129258811474,
1.0988324880599976,
0.18131707608699799,
-0.4759209156036377,
1.1141645908355713,
-0.16307595372200012,
0.28392359614372253,
0.035048048943281174,
0.1716953068971634,
0.20581717789173126,
0.3249828815460205,
0.1505308598279953,
0.30735793709754944,
-0.33380579948425293,
0.1459376960992813,
-0.2890095114707947,
0.3393920063972473,
-0.11043969541788101,
-0.375258207321167,
0.20197279751300812,
0.7096359729766846,
0.3512045443058014,
-0.22724635899066925,
-0.24785761535167694,
0.5994085073471069,
-0.005349159240722656,
-0.4195365607738495,
1.1842525005340576,
0.19091925024986267,
-0.33263176679611206,
0.6839507222175598,
-0.07254118472337723,
0.358386367559433,
0.29073092341423035,
0.05120133236050606,
0.8809700608253479,
-0.39856770634651184,
0.017367901280522346,
0.6545833945274353,
0.1631113439798355,
-1.1352261304855347,
0.046946410089731216,
0.07001259922981262,
0.42958852648735046,
-0.32338854670524597,
0.5367458462715149,
-0.08231724798679352,
0.29668107628822327,
-0.44483599066734314,
0.009638017043471336,
0.3881717026233673,
0.5659130215644836,
0.3876436948776245,
0.08361458778381348,
0.20306122303009033,
-0.49621668457984924,
0.3030797839164734,
0.28391775488853455,
0.777774453163147,
-0.17588752508163452,
-0.4648115932941437,
-0.22289392352104187,
0.09231177717447281,
-0.23867791891098022,
-0.7199856638908386,
0.6103708148002625,
0.17785075306892395,
0.5579624772071838,
0.14598500728607178,
0.029957694932818413,
-0.3210561275482178,
0.5167993307113647,
-0.8262674808502197,
0.15137358009815216,
-0.6986557841300964,
-0.23406335711479187,
-0.052356842905282974,
0.20901888608932495,
0.6140117645263672,
0.08206124603748322,
-0.2612443268299103,
-0.21106672286987305,
-0.47181999683380127,
-0.09544655680656433,
0.13087092339992523,
-0.19854936003684998,
-0.5949824452400208,
0.2684968411922455,
0.5588716268539429,
0.3808327317237854,
-0.27551209926605225,
-0.05272352322936058,
0.14980217814445496,
0.3202056884765625,
-0.4054206609725952,
0.045155975967645645,
0.2913725972175598,
0.031366147100925446,
0.12642309069633484,
-0.05252941697835922,
0.2199847400188446,
-0.1817619651556015,
0.5701090693473816,
-0.4129953384399414,
-0.062223222106695175,
-0.06327681243419647,
0.2813589572906494,
0.016302386298775673,
-0.030603928491473198,
0.16569682955741882,
0.1265910267829895,
0.01862892135977745,
-0.6488708257675171,
-0.6508477926254272,
-0.7025776505470276,
-5.9249091148376465,
-0.11794167757034302,
-0.06393787264823914,
-0.010034743696451187,
-0.6488249897956848,
0.29795488715171814,
0.2390773594379425,
-0.004742976278066635,
0.4402693212032318,
-0.26100215315818787,
0.13231724500656128,
0.028892075642943382,
-0.48224735260009766,
0.45909634232521057,
0.294080913066864,
0.4093013107776642,
0.4301278293132782,
0.057316720485687256,
-0.25422921776771545,
-0.2483619749546051,
-0.32594841718673706,
-0.01299219112843275,
0.04166204854846001,
0.39082273840904236,
0.24322043359279633,
0.6479131579399109,
-0.5822196006774902,
0.18902309238910675,
-0.17492777109146118,
-0.20404374599456787,
0.06889377534389496,
-0.3573640286922455,
-0.6860865354537964,
0.3925877511501312,
0.34668365120887756,
0.5642430186271667,
0.09385860711336136,
0.3920913636684418,
0.29371318221092224,
0.014000779017806053,
-0.08299107849597931,
0.6380499005317688,
-0.19332163035869598,
-0.3870627284049988,
0.2506198585033417,
-0.035656124353408813,
-0.11735963821411133,
-0.06582784652709961,
-0.4032232165336609,
0.6357299089431763,
0.045841243118047714,
-0.3816547095775604,
0.00015260319923982024,
0.5973441004753113,
-0.7310458421707153,
-0.22287634015083313,
0.4062007963657379,
-0.4940415322780609,
-0.3910680115222931,
-0.025900594890117645,
0.4884513318538666,
-0.004269776865839958,
0.41860005259513855,
-0.7805597186088562,
-0.2705135941505432,
-0.3093704283237457,
-0.7709154486656189,
0.06718575954437256,
0.39995235204696655,
-0.11064701527357101,
-0.2457253485918045,
0.5086129307746887,
-0.009390606544911861,
-1.0510737895965576,
-0.20823535323143005,
-0.603790819644928,
0.25821688771247864,
-0.20688648521900177,
0.06570623070001602,
-0.14445745944976807,
0.18659278750419617,
-0.11927882581949234,
0.13458186388015747,
0.30879977345466614,
-0.8461323380470276,
-0.8363140225410461,
-0.2988671064376831,
0.24774570763111115,
-0.34218570590019226,
-0.25817498564720154,
0.8678396344184875,
-0.07446735352277756,
0.14997442066669464,
0.4837741553783417,
0.2744746506214142,
0.435546875,
0.5615854859352112,
-0.09685962647199631,
0.33774900436401367,
-0.5273283123970032,
-0.0870913416147232,
-0.07213041186332703,
-0.1988842636346817,
-0.7821475863456726,
-0.41914793848991394,
0.05692229047417641,
-0.5780903697013855,
-0.2594292163848877,
0.5172696709632874,
-0.6374760270118713,
-0.26296520233154297,
-0.04861222952604294,
-0.5785024762153625,
-0.3876071572303772,
0.5226808190345764,
0.07675232738256454,
0.12645043432712555,
0.49398091435432434,
-0.2947445213794708,
-0.1359606683254242,
-0.26675575971603394,
-0.10988619923591614,
0.639970600605011,
-0.5511126518249512,
-0.09052950143814087,
0.27423596382141113,
-0.25777801871299744,
0.20428189635276794,
-0.12836679816246033,
0.802463710308075,
0.48906126618385315,
-0.0014766122912988067,
0.3783685564994812,
-0.13119280338287354,
0.10333386063575745,
-0.48506203293800354,
-0.5394595265388489,
-0.05883060395717621,
-0.4006662368774414,
0.06851522624492645,
-0.09542127698659897,
0.211263045668602,
0.2544710040092468,
0.10593368858098984,
0.5617075562477112,
-0.3243649899959564,
-0.1015312597155571,
-0.5769807696342468,
-0.19766663014888763,
0.9311810731887817,
0.013360230252146721,
-0.3891991674900055,
0.3689829111099243,
-0.22754089534282684,
-0.3109152019023895,
0.14098769426345825,
0.4980544447898865,
0.2496003806591034,
-0.5025675296783447,
-0.19764816761016846,
-0.017064781859517097,
-0.3329783082008362,
-1.1672180891036987,
0.00015006118337623775,
0.0725170224905014,
-0.4409584701061249,
-0.3991163969039917,
-0.06119371950626373,
-0.27993062138557434,
0.13514603674411774,
0.3855617940425873,
-0.3294430077075958,
-0.16604647040367126,
-0.06653952598571777,
0.023604460060596466,
0.4149141013622284,
0.08220712840557098,
-0.3719882071018219,
-0.03880752623081207,
-0.05419173091650009,
0.35326439142227173,
-0.25646936893463135,
-0.5476068258285522,
-0.133998304605484,
0.5876796245574951,
-0.12625108659267426,
-0.09079553186893463,
-0.30966487526893616,
0.20599395036697388,
0.14880399405956268,
0.5802828669548035,
0.10218238085508347,
0.48008301854133606,
0.34836310148239136,
-0.2789285182952881,
-0.29263418912887573,
0.7718521952629089,
0.1327798217535019,
-0.6165189743041992,
-0.4781150221824646,
-0.08513147383928299,
0.46654611825942993,
-0.5706626772880554,
0.09876246005296707,
-0.32054030895233154,
-0.7020356059074402,
0.2309017777442932,
-0.16171061992645264,
-0.7646269202232361,
-0.03289259225130081,
-0.31059014797210693,
0.2568984031677246,
-0.4866972863674164,
-0.08520027995109558,
0.04909707233309746,
0.05833324417471886,
-0.19353948533535004,
-0.4050544798374176,
-0.4600104093551636,
-0.14257940649986267,
-0.14986662566661835,
-0.03829211741685867,
-0.6316127181053162,
-0.13939319550991058,
-0.463472843170166,
-0.07899566739797592,
0.9572785496711731,
-0.3392188549041748,
-0.11673383414745331,
-0.5733453035354614,
0.38918083906173706,
-0.01352448295801878,
-0.5043819546699524,
0.03831801563501358,
-0.07722806930541992,
0.3435972332954407,
-0.19781064987182617,
-0.2061004936695099,
0.16236329078674316,
0.7083209753036499,
0.11313867568969727,
0.04763204604387283,
-0.03741573542356491,
-0.23686973750591278,
0.23612220585346222,
0.11995255202054977,
-0.19748511910438538,
-0.316845178604126,
-0.6878373622894287,
-0.12693659961223602,
0.3474154770374298,
-0.8201122879981995,
-0.16446617245674133,
-0.2905178666114807,
0.7369943857192993,
-0.2621627748012543,
-0.09398021548986435,
0.002610971685498953,
-0.045287780463695526,
-0.23227564990520477,
-0.14431701600551605,
-0.15339377522468567,
-0.40302368998527527,
0.6298829913139343,
0.04420531541109085,
0.14934493601322174,
0.28827154636383057,
-0.3047180473804474,
0.03348080441355705,
-0.21418972313404083,
0.06248123198747635,
-0.3218275308609009,
0.3218463361263275,
0.4060605764389038,
-0.04614335671067238,
-0.2739422917366028,
-0.11676165461540222,
-0.31467604637145996,
0.06394878774881363,
-0.20593468844890594,
-0.4258691370487213,
-0.27736127376556396,
0.06912746280431747,
-0.08533386886119843,
0.4787388741970062,
-0.7391254305839539,
-0.0325804241001606,
0.24380047619342804,
-0.2136705219745636,
-0.5728883743286133,
0.3647143542766571,
-0.0011066353181377053,
-0.12801611423492432,
-0.21525157988071442,
-0.1308264285326004,
0.03129212558269501,
0.3319632411003113,
0.0811787098646164,
0.18735328316688538,
-0.45039403438568115,
-0.31044644117355347,
0.42359623312950134,
0.11342164129018784,
0.15255863964557648,
0.5715216994285583,
0.167337104678154,
-0.0606951043009758,
0.25347328186035156,
-0.23986195027828217,
-0.3726307451725006,
0.1507181078195572,
-0.2704557180404663,
-0.03853568062186241,
0.8422861695289612,
-0.719296395778656,
0.1988534778356552,
0.30349913239479065,
-0.44841986894607544,
0.7002118825912476,
-0.03284382447600365,
0.24348586797714233,
0.2563156187534332,
-0.04642517492175102,
0.5103954076766968,
-0.47627806663513184,
0.5334813594818115,
-0.26240578293800354,
0.44740068912506104,
0.27377772331237793,
0.019067425280809402,
0.48942098021507263,
0.31009724736213684,
-0.06645543873310089,
-0.21307793259620667,
0.12924784421920776,
-0.4053708016872406,
-0.01757405884563923,
-0.2699792683124542,
-0.5471205115318298,
0.46894869208335876,
0.5511505007743835,
-0.006291957106441259,
-0.022847279906272888,
-0.13241928815841675,
-0.2650749683380127,
0.22058647871017456,
0.17260466516017914,
0.04156776890158653,
0.44379541277885437,
-0.10204936563968658,
0.18610982596874237,
0.316842645406723,
0.007640867028385401,
0.011687720194458961,
-0.09226761758327484,
-0.6295238733291626,
0.40602755546569824,
-0.19478324055671692,
0.23207491636276245,
-0.408527672290802,
-0.4299528896808624,
0.016423027962446213,
-0.39901530742645264,
0.44267576932907104,
-0.10125390440225601,
-0.10985423624515533,
0.22556418180465698,
-0.6588501334190369,
0.8041473627090454,
-0.2131555825471878,
-0.14715516567230225,
0.2702169716358185,
-0.27696895599365234,
0.4877704381942749,
-0.03997073322534561,
-0.08126331865787506,
0.5960249900817871,
0.045985523611307144,
0.2284528911113739,
0.5147662162780762,
-0.34601473808288574,
-0.3692193031311035,
-0.6192964911460876,
-0.28030824661254883,
0.21187366545200348,
-0.039456553757190704,
-0.14491882920265198,
0.5197110176086426,
-0.15075431764125824,
-0.25462037324905396,
-0.1614941656589508,
-0.7451726198196411,
-0.42842337489128113,
0.08322616666555405,
-0.5573720335960388,
0.29974037408828735,
-0.21291302144527435,
0.936336874961853,
-0.3355429172515869,
-0.18545979261398315,
-0.23738694190979004,
-0.2241785079240799,
0.539945125579834,
0.27612054347991943,
-0.5610892176628113,
0.33171847462654114,
-0.457314670085907,
-0.04197613522410393,
-0.5305115580558777,
0.283573180437088,
0.054635412991046906,
0.3614186644554138,
0.11746564507484436,
0.5262373089790344,
-0.1516849845647812,
-0.07002440840005875,
0.779019296169281,
0.19899635016918182,
-0.14303311705589294,
0.501811146736145,
-0.05660046637058258,
-0.447454035282135,
-0.18840450048446655,
-0.030289383605122566,
0.3540465533733368,
-0.17851698398590088,
0.27066120505332947,
0.3175385594367981,
0.24081455171108246,
0.6922597289085388,
-0.20370347797870636,
-0.5842435956001282,
-0.7483498454093933,
0.14862261712551117,
-0.5795140862464905,
0.15996529161930084,
-0.1586606651544571,
0.5548104047775269,
0.9103381633758545,
-0.34230467677116394,
0.038116853684186935,
-0.5882998108863831,
-0.20592346787452698,
-0.22436869144439697,
-0.7416985630989075,
0.09015010297298431,
0.22627700865268707,
-0.3528274893760681,
-0.4376092553138733,
0.577700138092041,
-0.0452573299407959,
-0.4066179394721985,
-0.05819113552570343,
-0.653224527835846,
0.29391688108444214,
-0.12288468331098557,
0.08820794522762299,
-0.30442574620246887,
0.4831608235836029,
0.3051108419895172
] |
247922 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinar | Dinar | The dinar () is the principal currency unit in several countries near the Mediterranean Sea, and its historical use is even more widespread.
The modern dinar's historical antecedents are the gold dinar, the main coin of the medieval Islamic empires, first issued in AH 77 (696–697 CE) by Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan. The word "dinar" derives from the silver "denarius" coin of ancient Rome, first minted about 211 BCE.
The English word "dinar" is the transliteration of the Arabic دينار (dīnār), which was borrowed via the Syriac dīnarā, itself from the Latin dēnārius.
The Kushan Empire introduced a gold coin known as the dīnāra into India in the 1st century AD; the Gupta Empire and its successors up to the 6th century adopted the coin. The modern gold dinar is a projected bullion gold coin, not issued as official currency by any state.
Legal tender
Countries currently using a currency called "dinar" or similar
Countries and regions which have previously used a currency called "dinar" in the 20th century
The 8th century English king Offa of Mercia minted copies of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by Caliph Al-Mansur with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse. The moneyer visibly had no understanding of Arabic as the Arabic text contains many errors. Such coins may have been produced for trade with Islamic Spain.
See also
Economy of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Kelantanese dinar
List of circulating currencies
Middle East economic integration
References
External links
Malaysia: Kelantan collects Zakat in Shariah money
Denominations (currency)
Islamic banking
Islamic banking and finance terminology
Modern obsolete currencies | [
0.07420027256011963,
0.37757542729377747,
-0.09307936578989029,
-0.004932217299938202,
0.23256662487983704,
0.38425424695014954,
-0.44768062233924866,
0.4109126925468445,
-0.3701070249080658,
-0.033487506210803986,
-0.32933783531188965,
0.23832930624485016,
0.1161019429564476,
0.6835454702377319,
-0.05706776678562164,
0.15079203248023987,
0.7504954934120178,
0.713214099407196,
0.022451555356383324,
-0.2595384418964386,
-0.20772184431552887,
0.6973415613174438,
0.407819002866745,
-0.5240567922592163,
-0.153218075633049,
0.08046768605709076,
0.3266037106513977,
0.05433056131005287,
-0.22165991365909576,
0.04487556591629982,
0.03949442878365517,
0.8385084271430969,
-0.48542261123657227,
0.09040029346942902,
0.048343200236558914,
-0.31976377964019775,
-0.009100406430661678,
-0.24759794771671295,
-0.38992586731910706,
-0.8330234885215759,
0.39833003282546997,
-0.542236328125,
0.2914715111255646,
0.6696047186851501,
-0.5587753653526306,
-0.6956219673156738,
-1.122781753540039,
0.320941299200058,
-0.8832791447639465,
0.18715684115886688,
-0.07403885573148727,
0.5573974251747131,
-0.4149070978164673,
0.334622859954834,
0.33139801025390625,
0.7249007225036621,
-1.1613823175430298,
-0.02651168592274189,
0.1588164120912552,
-0.012492378242313862,
0.6236938834190369,
0.1154601201415062,
-0.35955414175987244,
-0.11611033231019974,
0.3801494538784027,
-0.08909561485052109,
0.3226345479488373,
0.3250071406364441,
0.07069417834281921,
0.18151409924030304,
-0.43968597054481506,
-0.5124947428703308,
-0.6883620619773865,
-0.1175650879740715,
-0.6018130779266357,
-0.20232172310352325,
-0.39023229479789734,
0.39234450459480286,
-0.23869572579860687,
-0.015288706868886948,
-0.2896200716495514,
0.02094350941479206,
0.8297383785247803,
-0.6533949375152588,
0.14450475573539734,
-0.04306573048233986,
0.12351616472005844,
-0.03832196816802025,
-0.14685899019241333,
0.7339727282524109,
0.04387377202510834,
0.08922800421714783,
0.800626277923584,
0.07095296680927277,
-0.15638571977615356,
0.10415418446063995,
-0.12386273592710495,
0.2663343846797943,
0.0585508868098259,
0.42724594473838806,
0.1775076538324356,
0.7360466122627258,
0.43716755509376526,
0.15330322086811066,
-0.1721005141735077,
0.13738571107387543,
0.04485281556844711,
-0.6437748670578003,
0.20361119508743286,
-0.38159462809562683,
0.3689994513988495,
-0.22718940675258636,
0.2674854099750519,
0.21196049451828003,
-0.4690205752849579,
-0.617323100566864,
0.6745152473449707,
0.252057820558548,
-0.31101876497268677,
-0.0587473027408123,
0.15828755497932434,
0.39329981803894043,
-0.18810047209262848,
-0.03580205887556076,
0.6384081840515137,
-0.18698640167713165,
0.4951537847518921,
0.447136789560318,
-0.3234111964702606,
-0.0022748748306185007,
0.4772360920906067,
0.4676165282726288,
-0.33306849002838135,
0.30241861939430237,
-0.21557366847991943,
-0.6119897365570068,
0.0678040087223053,
-0.22317686676979065,
0.59214848279953,
0.4252013564109802,
-0.7641931176185608,
0.46939846873283386,
-0.30521467328071594,
0.0741216242313385,
0.07392017543315887,
-0.21771195530891418,
0.10694686323404312,
-0.48343464732170105,
0.15754202008247375,
-0.37354719638824463,
-0.04839279130101204,
-0.43473878502845764,
0.5379393696784973,
-0.04240507259964943,
-0.3162094056606293,
-0.6076408624649048,
-0.21072369813919067,
0.43413621187210083,
0.1276819109916687,
-0.34252575039863586,
-0.20339997112751007,
0.20655542612075806,
0.2500733435153961,
-0.2738976776599884,
-0.08069321513175964,
-0.275497704744339,
0.28639814257621765,
0.8395292162895203,
0.02091354690492153,
-0.025455882772803307,
-0.32681581377983093,
-0.1308082491159439,
0.7181864380836487,
0.27745920419692993,
-0.7003818154335022,
-0.1634828746318817,
0.36293378472328186,
0.47003355622291565,
0.47402557730674744,
0.07730881869792938,
-0.46275413036346436,
0.2655869126319885,
0.20888644456863403,
0.010327693074941635,
0.7295578718185425,
-0.23263807594776154,
0.17062723636627197,
-0.03456320986151695,
-0.3053942024707794,
-0.05132995918393135,
-0.5370263457298279,
0.04855470359325409,
-0.45927953720092773,
-0.3389202058315277,
0.3988843262195587,
-0.4691111147403717,
-0.9296170473098755,
0.48675718903541565,
0.17675724625587463,
0.26488441228866577,
-1.2528072595596313,
-0.36414170265197754,
0.8692699074745178,
0.3426174819469452,
-0.3994254767894745,
0.4098648428916931,
0.3180350959300995,
0.2809576988220215,
0.7270777821540833,
0.4510026276111603,
0.502113938331604,
-0.5332354307174683,
0.5082715153694153,
-0.5911773443222046,
-0.7861410975456238,
0.22179371118545532,
-0.24497687816619873,
0.2892785966396332,
0.018682584166526794,
0.552473247051239,
0.6380024552345276,
-0.38733890652656555,
0.004073828924447298,
0.5825560092926025,
-0.5181978940963745,
-0.24943818151950836,
0.07484680414199829,
0.18713468313217163,
0.19222110509872437,
-0.3585774302482605,
0.15145815908908844,
-0.6120159029960632,
0.49881744384765625,
-0.07974456250667572,
-0.17029280960559845,
-0.07869289815425873,
-0.23479993641376495,
-0.3423221707344055,
-0.2080172747373581,
0.12528595328330994,
0.20572100579738617,
0.18645715713500977,
0.11122337728738785,
-0.14156459271907806,
0.5760244131088257,
0.7223951816558838,
0.13816802203655243,
0.34159165620803833,
-0.3697616457939148,
-0.2661976218223572,
0.14351849257946014,
0.23985950648784637,
0.17063453793525696,
-0.31796807050704956,
-0.2872230112552643,
-0.4364422857761383,
0.745703935623169,
0.6087085604667664,
0.7683774828910828,
-0.08009524643421173,
-0.4194554090499878,
0.14190033078193665,
0.12849166989326477,
-0.10036207735538483,
-0.10011987388134003,
-0.3160858452320099,
-0.5875207185745239,
-0.6924928426742554,
0.2020541876554489,
0.32529231905937195,
1.0046168565750122,
0.06874198466539383,
-0.16627366840839386,
0.4801085591316223,
0.15258392691612244,
0.23459789156913757,
0.08446305245161057,
-0.6906445622444153,
-0.9349862337112427,
-0.30303651094436646,
0.34942880272865295,
0.17066192626953125,
0.5310956835746765,
-0.587780237197876,
-0.2142445147037506,
-0.4710042476654053,
0.11502952873706818,
-0.6936960816383362,
0.5187546610832214,
-0.41538679599761963,
-0.5007984042167664,
-0.010357951745390892,
-0.26842421293258667,
-0.09224626421928406,
-0.059036511927843094,
-0.23850904405117035,
-0.07061535865068436,
0.15588700771331787,
0.5241531729698181,
-0.6125931739807129,
-0.3082621395587921,
0.32996782660484314,
0.0387832410633564,
0.36684736609458923,
0.4434002935886383,
0.08312923461198807,
-0.09776683151721954,
0.2800491154193878,
-5.738778591156006,
-0.028562309220433235,
-0.8508825302124023,
-0.40473100543022156,
-0.46091124415397644,
0.3224166929721832,
0.680279552936554,
-0.37996694445610046,
-0.01385412085801363,
0.008720089681446552,
-0.5362764000892639,
-0.21079786121845245,
0.33338725566864014,
0.6056691408157349,
0.21733681857585907,
0.09694907814264297,
-0.14715513586997986,
0.3433873951435089,
-0.17313039302825928,
0.3585011959075928,
0.22824856638908386,
-0.4111540615558624,
-0.3303024172782898,
0.8790675401687622,
0.14503103494644165,
-0.21170413494110107,
0.05889777094125748,
0.04860476404428482,
-0.42097756266593933,
-0.1258993297815323,
-0.2905009090900421,
-0.280744343996048,
0.4368627369403839,
-0.5520002245903015,
0.5815288424491882,
-0.05677866190671921,
0.47586876153945923,
0.07594933360815048,
0.188977912068367,
-0.4986177384853363,
-0.20001164078712463,
0.9142993688583374,
0.8964648842811584,
0.12894950807094574,
0.40208104252815247,
-0.11726974695920944,
-0.39323943853378296,
0.22338241338729858,
-0.5120460391044617,
0.5852141976356506,
0.3612264096736908,
-0.3951890170574188,
-0.24949170649051666,
-0.5699184536933899,
-0.36951345205307007,
0.3868608772754669,
0.2473645657300949,
-0.1562516987323761,
-0.3830740749835968,
0.3990218937397003,
0.6482193470001221,
-0.2835144102573395,
-0.05438484251499176,
-0.14761598408222198,
-0.237542524933815,
-0.48644086718559265,
-0.8037065267562866,
-0.2788034975528717,
-0.0024218682665377855,
0.7207384705543518,
-0.7350122928619385,
-0.002421135548502207,
-0.2718622088432312,
-0.517356812953949,
0.3141671419143677,
-0.5497715473175049,
-0.07040341943502426,
0.552852213382721,
-0.217971071600914,
0.8835194110870361,
-0.3203108608722687,
-0.29098784923553467,
0.18160519003868103,
0.16824913024902344,
-0.1218424141407013,
-0.5597127676010132,
-0.20811718702316284,
0.4361613392829895,
-0.5264198184013367,
-0.1501525491476059,
0.8156965374946594,
-0.5029407143592834,
0.6914185881614685,
-0.1910550594329834,
-0.0037177784834057093,
0.2855033278465271,
-0.2639123499393463,
-0.4123614728450775,
0.5605463981628418,
-0.08524186164140701,
0.5344752073287964,
-0.37887075543403625,
0.2068919837474823,
-0.8396808505058289,
-0.46957847476005554,
-0.0274478979408741,
-0.24034754931926727,
0.8170834183692932,
0.3482467234134674,
-0.19101400673389435,
-0.33359330892562866,
0.2626085877418518,
-0.17787322402000427,
-0.04854942858219147,
0.3508172333240509,
-0.020735453814268112,
-0.5481387972831726,
0.2784750759601593,
0.14153403043746948,
-0.05649952590465546,
-0.03777078539133072,
0.15548323094844818,
-0.332863450050354,
-0.23376436531543732,
-0.3089101314544678,
-0.4077848792076111,
-0.1472553163766861,
-0.0799349769949913,
-0.051382847130298615,
0.18522806465625763,
0.15217700600624084,
0.10816049575805664,
-0.22570879757404327,
0.3871685862541199,
0.394374281167984,
-0.014132446609437466,
-0.31424567103385925,
-0.11418846994638443,
0.2603839337825775,
-0.5198164582252502,
0.3135361075401306,
-0.15078610181808472,
0.20196983218193054,
-0.007563023827970028,
0.3764069974422455,
0.2625836431980133,
-0.40891221165657043,
0.05027709901332855,
-0.09657051414251328,
0.1978747695684433,
0.40658602118492126,
0.398256778717041,
0.18310001492500305,
0.25534576177597046,
-0.4936695694923401,
-0.17040637135505676,
0.41756102442741394,
0.7345132827758789,
-0.07693319022655487,
-0.10122913867235184,
0.0011605038307607174,
-0.33501970767974854,
-0.8235296607017517,
0.16348925232887268,
0.32077792286872864,
-0.3227498233318329,
-0.06282825767993927,
-0.17451955378055573,
0.44102171063423157,
1.003295660018921,
0.151573047041893,
-0.5457288026809692,
0.0018831983907148242,
-0.6478232741355896,
-0.12446179986000061,
0.0407259427011013,
0.5158616304397583,
-0.1483047604560852,
-0.4250994920730591,
-0.191238671541214,
-0.04090210050344467,
-0.09517531096935272,
0.04804098606109619,
0.7671663165092468,
-0.3992849886417389,
-0.09668543934822083,
-0.13413316011428833,
0.457338809967041,
-0.3634466528892517,
-0.11131533235311508,
0.18534013628959656,
0.05310793220996857,
0.19133150577545166,
0.042624250054359436,
-0.5643782615661621,
-0.5407508611679077,
-0.02424801141023636,
0.6570308804512024,
-0.5700917840003967,
0.28585657477378845,
0.035916756838560104,
0.11180955171585083,
-0.3982867896556854,
-0.04943406581878662,
0.21476012468338013,
-0.3782699406147003,
0.6270185708999634,
-0.08303140848875046,
-0.8618524670600891,
0.024860352277755737,
-0.7698310017585754,
-0.37204447388648987,
-0.3191758692264557,
0.25963258743286133,
-0.13416223227977753,
-0.02802913635969162,
0.26349377632141113,
-0.29633447527885437,
-0.17709310352802277,
-0.46850618720054626,
0.4244861304759979,
0.018033405765891075,
-0.3739318251609802,
-0.214792862534523,
0.1056293398141861,
0.747555673122406,
0.2829848527908325,
-0.5233985185623169,
0.2951086163520813,
-0.11878903955221176,
-0.025911711156368256,
0.00863600429147482,
0.06438878923654556,
0.08009056746959686,
0.017931755632162094,
0.0016244890866801143,
-0.10437120497226715,
-0.24722450971603394,
-0.30492934584617615,
0.4312916696071625,
-0.18378886580467224,
0.1802968531847,
0.4494897127151489,
-0.05306047946214676,
-0.9640988111495972,
0.3705863356590271,
0.404247909784317,
-0.6365324854850769,
-0.6099650859832764,
0.7791864275932312,
-0.24460089206695557,
-0.3582865297794342,
-0.3221307098865509,
-0.14639915525913239,
0.14193063974380493,
-0.28015026450157166,
0.2195824831724167,
-0.050374362617731094,
-0.0978977158665657,
-0.0021957047283649445,
0.2784408926963806,
-0.29734429717063904,
-0.4985494315624237,
-0.2100568413734436,
0.47063344717025757,
-0.27824628353118896,
-0.4227347671985626,
-0.4151175916194916,
0.9210819602012634,
-0.10110794752836227,
0.0032631896901875734,
-0.7117385268211365,
0.2911073863506317,
0.11318466067314148,
0.660798966884613,
0.2883398234844208,
-0.14245836436748505,
0.17285491526126862,
-0.07308764010667801,
0.03717058524489403,
-0.5552991628646851,
0.3578777611255646,
0.21202997863292694,
-0.0952756330370903,
0.32232528924942017,
-0.15564598143100739,
-0.4035504162311554,
-0.185385063290596,
-0.5555879473686218,
0.10659445077180862,
0.1867608278989792,
-0.14128024876117706,
-0.05338475853204727,
0.14222049713134766,
-0.31097355484962463,
0.5349406599998474,
0.10347695648670197,
0.5256156325340271,
-0.47894734144210815,
0.2284148782491684,
0.08424055576324463,
0.4426494240760803,
0.02860841155052185,
-0.6548568606376648,
-0.18528403341770172,
-0.12318933010101318,
-0.04074828699231148,
0.4392422139644623,
-0.041593220084905624,
-0.15052732825279236,
-0.1550939828157425,
-0.02287757210433483,
0.25038081407546997,
0.15708769857883453,
0.020029140636324883,
-0.30415937304496765,
0.8948914408683777,
-0.2918838560581207,
0.3454318940639496,
0.8425400257110596,
0.2003539502620697,
-0.5497776865959167,
0.05828355252742767,
-0.12528473138809204,
-0.3279740512371063,
0.027821887284517288,
-0.10153454542160034,
-0.1994599997997284,
0.07041808217763901,
0.10974225401878357,
0.31850534677505493,
0.3480947017669678,
-0.861238956451416,
-0.40174436569213867,
-0.14518578350543976,
-0.46404212713241577,
-0.0652046725153923,
-0.6716001033782959,
0.035336583852767944,
0.9587540030479431,
0.6402091383934021,
0.5825154185295105,
-0.3395100235939026,
0.24233269691467285,
0.4870660603046417,
0.4293760657310486,
-0.4472677409648895,
-0.5497525334358215,
0.4134926199913025,
0.1983102411031723,
0.7243074774742126,
0.010576451197266579,
0.5285783410072327,
0.4200316369533539,
0.23382015526294708,
-0.6176236271858215,
-0.47362783551216125,
0.22271358966827393,
-0.09373945742845535,
0.3535977005958557,
-0.020130518823862076,
0.8549371361732483,
0.4987817704677582,
-0.26739516854286194,
0.15149767696857452,
0.38060325384140015,
-0.03167479485273361,
-0.688402533531189,
-0.2887735068798065,
0.3409098982810974,
0.26651531457901,
0.4636093080043793,
-0.39848315715789795,
0.6745632290840149,
0.4110453426837921,
-0.20080150663852692,
0.026805520057678223,
0.5290723443031311,
0.35080686211586,
0.08947256952524185,
-0.13494396209716797,
-0.38029059767723083,
-0.11343570053577423,
-0.8686497211456299,
-0.46517854928970337,
-0.041560277342796326,
0.13701961934566498,
-0.13387738168239594,
-0.6932069063186646,
-0.44258323311805725,
-0.04872473329305649,
-0.6695138812065125,
-0.3694990873336792,
-0.5114797949790955,
0.008871232159435749,
-0.903870701789856,
0.17794592678546906,
0.5618445873260498,
-0.06392253935337067,
-0.5670084357261658,
0.6343624591827393,
0.13623496890068054,
0.10431990772485733,
-0.007550807204097509,
-0.461635023355484,
0.31768500804901123,
0.16123701632022858,
-0.07193268090486526,
-0.4026685953140259,
-0.009466990828514099,
0.849728524684906,
-0.7482591271400452,
0.16588255763053894,
0.6926695108413696,
-0.25052765011787415,
-0.043927088379859924,
0.4859262704849243,
-0.23567162454128265,
0.04991163685917854,
-1.348055362701416,
0.2968416213989258,
-0.43232229351997375,
0.01987779140472412,
0.477309912443161,
0.1346345841884613,
0.026501668617129326,
0.5519084930419922,
-0.02751339040696621,
-0.8361682891845703,
0.3611883521080017,
-0.4995718002319336,
0.1629202514886856,
-0.3152458369731903,
0.5593163371086121,
-0.2258157581090927,
-0.3062742352485657,
0.20418864488601685,
-0.40794456005096436,
-0.18830403685569763,
-0.23516510426998138,
0.10870343446731567,
0.3356293737888336,
-0.2206309735774994,
-0.37596002221107483,
-0.20179809629917145,
0.3810882568359375,
-0.5016818046569824,
-0.2170928418636322,
-0.3658151626586914,
0.8111752867698669,
0.4567505419254303,
0.1251842975616455,
-0.03906441479921341,
0.07553718239068985,
0.250139057636261,
-0.5251195430755615,
0.2672915458679199,
-0.6836000084877014,
0.5353041887283325,
-0.369433730840683
] |
247924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic%20group | Algebraic group | In algebraic geometry, an algebraic group (or group variety) is a group that is an algebraic variety, such that the multiplication and inversion operations are given by regular maps on the variety.
In terms of category theory, an algebraic group is a group object in the category of algebraic varieties.
Classes
Several important classes of groups are algebraic groups, including:
Finite groups
GL(n, F), the general linear group of invertible matrices over a field F, and its algebraic subgroups.
Jet groups
Elliptic curves and their generalizations as abelian varieties
There are other algebraic groups, but Chevalley's structure theorem asserts that every algebraic group is an extension of an abelian variety by a linear algebraic group. More precisely, if K is a perfect field, and G an algebraic group over K, there exists a unique normal closed subgroup H in G, such that H is a linear algebraic group and G/H an abelian variety.
According to another basic theorem, any group that is also an affine variety has a faithful finite-dimensional linear representation: it is isomorphic to a matrix group, defined by polynomial equations.
Over the fields of real and complex numbers, every algebraic group is also a Lie group, but the converse is false.
A group scheme is a generalization of an algebraic group that allows, in particular, working over a commutative ring instead of a field.
Algebraic subgroup
An algebraic subgroup of an algebraic group is a Zariski-closed subgroup.
Generally these are taken to be connected (or irreducible as a variety) as well.
Another way of expressing the condition is as a subgroup that is also a subvariety.
This may also be generalized by allowing schemes in place of varieties. The main effect of this in practice, apart from allowing subgroups in which the connected component is of finite index > 1, is to admit non-reduced schemes, in characteristic p.
Coxeter groups
There are a number of analogous results between algebraic groups and Coxeter groups – for instance, the number of elements of the symmetric group is , and the number of elements of the general linear group over a finite field is the q-factorial ; thus the symmetric group behaves as though it were a linear group over "the field with one element". This is formalized by the field with one element, which considers Coxeter groups to be simple algebraic groups over the field with one element.
Glossary of algebraic groups
There are a number of mathematical notions to study and classify algebraic groups.
In the sequel, G denotes an algebraic group over a field k.
See also
Algebraic topology (object)
Borel subgroup
Tame group
Morley rank
Cherlin–Zilber conjecture
Adelic algebraic group
Pseudo-reductive group
References
Milne, J. S., Affine Group Schemes; Lie Algebras; Lie Groups; Reductive Groups; Arithmetic Subgroups
Further reading
Algebraic groups and their Lie algebras by Daniel Miller
Properties of groups | [
-0.3537026643753052,
-0.09299943596124649,
-0.06892186403274536,
0.04657578840851784,
-0.5935730934143066,
-0.14181683957576752,
-0.356514036655426,
0.2056991159915924,
-0.3326514661312103,
-0.44824349880218506,
-0.7601886987686157,
0.034562427550554276,
-0.5500428676605225,
0.14960670471191406,
-0.12301681935787201,
0.9041445255279541,
0.3285095691680908,
0.26726868748664856,
-1.0463570356369019,
-0.792646586894989,
0.13597598671913147,
0.12043681740760803,
0.22498612105846405,
-0.274217426776886,
0.27084097266197205,
-0.36622798442840576,
0.0056506674736738205,
0.4275994896888733,
0.7447588443756104,
0.8480865955352783,
-0.07498597353696823,
0.720771312713623,
0.5086249113082886,
0.3232495188713074,
-0.14416031539440155,
-0.05156752094626427,
0.6770087480545044,
-0.0654502809047699,
-0.12469936907291412,
-0.370380163192749,
0.7163782119750977,
-0.1356344372034073,
-0.07639768719673157,
0.3938000202178955,
-0.5356208086013794,
-0.38825687766075134,
-1.3041013479232788,
0.5399112105369568,
-0.11796849220991135,
-0.1623060703277588,
-0.6191739439964294,
-0.18887564539909363,
0.24392171204090118,
0.30849945545196533,
-0.06011570617556572,
0.4786399304866791,
-0.6487365365028381,
-0.19025500118732452,
0.2823238968849182,
-0.20863892138004303,
-0.3457808494567871,
0.7518721222877502,
0.45209890604019165,
-0.28942909836769104,
-0.17360521852970123,
0.6101171970367432,
-0.49074074625968933,
0.14843721687793732,
-1.0325262546539307,
-0.7180434465408325,
0.03204759582877159,
-0.4350780248641968,
-0.14689327776432037,
0.7886397242546082,
0.06438791751861572,
-0.2655140161514282,
0.01336232665926218,
-0.7583642601966858,
0.1334923356771469,
0.24928687512874603,
-0.6139807105064392,
1.1974352598190308,
0.5744929313659668,
-0.28009602427482605,
0.39087754487991333,
0.2415722906589508,
-0.9466211795806885,
1.1365160942077637,
-0.6686565279960632,
0.12984782457351685,
0.3315073847770691,
-0.2156742662191391,
0.899682343006134,
-0.26191243529319763,
0.446443110704422,
0.5950674414634705,
0.43819525837898254,
-0.26601535081863403,
0.30896425247192383,
0.1346183568239212,
-0.013836120255291462,
0.20074409246444702,
-0.303287148475647,
-0.7490025162696838,
-1.0342413187026978,
-0.3720214068889618,
0.1134118139743805,
0.16270074248313904,
0.11520209908485413,
-0.19401782751083374,
-1.1799432039260864,
0.1717931479215622,
-0.1638539731502533,
-0.021614260971546173,
0.061900731176137924,
-0.03915470838546753,
-0.015144736506044865,
0.5705007910728455,
-0.09076554328203201,
0.5317267179489136,
-0.4746236801147461,
0.3328729271888733,
-0.27114787697792053,
0.6783337593078613,
-0.22063520550727844,
0.22925812005996704,
-0.18204648792743683,
1.0164225101470947,
-0.8007704019546509,
-0.5119436383247375,
-0.14896313846111298,
0.419501930475235,
0.3534099757671356,
0.2773001492023468,
0.49024295806884766,
-0.9180131554603577,
-0.4372648596763611,
-0.37289541959762573,
-0.24066606163978577,
-0.005041062366217375,
-1.0776861906051636,
-0.24982142448425293,
-0.5289893746376038,
-0.4450606107711792,
0.2431657910346985,
-0.3497985303401947,
-0.3222299814224243,
-0.2576744556427002,
0.12613248825073242,
0.21352900564670563,
-0.20105063915252686,
-0.24844980239868164,
-0.43506550788879395,
0.22581817209720612,
-0.14370150864124298,
0.2969553768634796,
0.5356716513633728,
0.4897441267967224,
-0.08776869624853134,
-0.30935758352279663,
-0.0025336751714348793,
-0.40191665291786194,
-0.06788306683301926,
-0.5560463070869446,
0.5252832174301147,
-0.5635677576065063,
0.2799544036388397,
0.18972067534923553,
0.027650808915495872,
0.29049548506736755,
-0.5067234635353088,
-0.5975664854049683,
0.23991478979587555,
0.16133271157741547,
-0.1337927281856537,
-0.25195568799972534,
-0.34797483682632446,
-0.2698478102684021,
0.5762035250663757,
-0.1517046093940735,
-1.2688779830932617,
-0.3256775736808777,
0.5491089820861816,
-0.35309019684791565,
-0.054897382855415344,
0.07159337401390076,
0.4181923270225525,
0.17389044165611267,
0.3421744108200073,
0.07624552398920059,
-0.2870226502418518,
0.5214533805847168,
0.12729427218437195,
-0.49678850173950195,
1.606137752532959,
0.2094813585281372,
-0.9065154790878296,
-0.07393858581781387,
-0.18999914824962616,
0.49140846729278564,
0.024889787659049034,
-0.3887893855571747,
0.5315330028533936,
-0.19076451659202576,
-0.04389113932847977,
0.8498440384864807,
-0.45909640192985535,
-0.020577065646648407,
-0.19999024271965027,
0.2738935649394989,
0.006638278253376484,
-0.07662378996610641,
0.6993937492370605,
-0.16716764867305756,
-0.052488308399915695,
0.20309747755527496,
-0.8273261785507202,
0.3269120454788208,
-0.1777743399143219,
-0.127473384141922,
0.8246352672576904,
-0.28150662779808044,
-0.15111178159713745,
0.14477480947971344,
-0.6274439096450806,
0.8247957229614258,
0.5545481443405151,
0.7077248096466064,
0.5979734659194946,
-0.1984848827123642,
-0.5262588858604431,
-0.5570733547210693,
0.3263511657714844,
-0.1325964480638504,
-0.014663911424577236,
0.7114428281784058,
0.3064064085483551,
-0.3988892734050751,
0.031096233054995537,
-0.8510618805885315,
0.55535489320755,
0.1521894484758377,
-0.9864893555641174,
-0.3522636294364929,
0.35740986466407776,
0.18580710887908936,
-0.8124266862869263,
0.22339195013046265,
-0.4014686942100525,
0.05213012546300888,
-0.335185706615448,
-0.2766827642917633,
0.17520979046821594,
-0.3321487605571747,
-0.6649304032325745,
0.08376440405845642,
-0.11560829728841782,
-0.3943811058998108,
0.8488782644271851,
0.8576598763465881,
-0.11482762545347214,
-0.31794267892837524,
-0.380347341299057,
-0.3462735712528229,
-0.3759646713733673,
-0.42695653438568115,
-0.4079912602901459,
0.033499713987112045,
0.721402108669281,
0.11144840717315674,
0.4962950646877289,
-1.1539722681045532,
-0.6461904048919678,
0.01421323511749506,
-0.9692428112030029,
-0.485557496547699,
-0.5487603545188904,
-0.49259382486343384,
-1.0327695608139038,
-0.16162684559822083,
-0.10653799772262573,
0.2598612606525421,
0.7827872633934021,
0.2163255661725998,
-0.49872255325317383,
-0.19911932945251465,
-0.10068690776824951,
-0.5824773907661438,
-0.08780056983232498,
-0.6493476033210754,
-0.16847571730613708,
0.08181995898485184,
-0.4286426901817322,
-0.08298391848802567,
0.47701945900917053,
0.5005618333816528,
-0.06454311311244965,
-0.4027502238750458,
-0.07675547897815704,
-0.15896263718605042,
-1.085689663887024,
0.16572748124599457,
-0.18109874427318573,
-0.21161670982837677,
-0.4722239673137665,
0.33666908740997314,
-0.33035215735435486,
0.3101770281791687,
-4.9978742599487305,
-0.0012878271518275142,
-0.5465002655982971,
-0.2283754199743271,
-0.7274649739265442,
0.012844263575971127,
0.45560207962989807,
-0.3058106601238251,
-0.03132973983883858,
0.2558952867984772,
-0.026735635474324226,
-0.4028870463371277,
-0.7434372901916504,
0.9324807524681091,
0.11665001511573792,
0.6411628127098083,
-0.01624651625752449,
0.19392426311969757,
0.3369957506656647,
0.431708961725235,
0.015354455448687077,
-0.09521840512752533,
-0.5023133754730225,
-0.0009262051898986101,
-0.1587560623884201,
0.5446215867996216,
-0.08657488226890564,
0.06270997226238251,
-0.402423620223999,
0.08038278669118881,
-0.03792537748813629,
-0.08490760624408722,
0.2687571048736572,
-0.48054951429367065,
-0.6537076830863953,
0.3668217658996582,
0.6505031585693359,
-0.006382908206433058,
-0.033493492752313614,
-0.9452059268951416,
-0.49573761224746704,
0.5007622838020325,
0.03487014397978783,
-0.3778584599494934,
0.7794166207313538,
-0.227687805891037,
-0.3665156364440918,
-0.5075181126594543,
-0.2771279513835907,
0.7868748903274536,
0.18469524383544922,
0.09538687020540237,
0.6254535913467407,
-0.34112539887428284,
-0.006891137920320034,
0.7147553563117981,
0.2285158634185791,
-0.11849167943000793,
-0.5445123910903931,
0.6315526962280273,
0.6548255085945129,
-0.16505011916160583,
0.6118301749229431,
0.1260206252336502,
-0.8281034231185913,
0.3011864423751831,
-1.0600967407226562,
0.0587470717728138,
0.7936596870422363,
-0.2804482877254486,
-0.5031406879425049,
0.71323162317276,
0.3424314558506012,
-0.2854550778865814,
0.21326567232608795,
-0.3862266540527344,
-0.21935036778450012,
0.2615334093570709,
0.3081844747066498,
0.6108431220054626,
-0.291435182094574,
-0.00773761048913002,
-0.24254564940929413,
0.23490510880947113,
-0.38470107316970825,
0.29421719908714294,
-0.21343690156936646,
-0.04528646916151047,
-0.2951020300388336,
0.5435592532157898,
0.8124711513519287,
0.04052811861038208,
0.6416047215461731,
0.6628327369689941,
0.6521925926208496,
-0.04568931460380554,
0.9664517045021057,
-0.12171267718076706,
0.5578534603118896,
-0.7840133905410767,
0.5229459404945374,
-0.10963985323905945,
0.18068674206733704,
0.3756166398525238,
-0.06468231976032257,
-0.6701417565345764,
-0.6198661923408508,
0.771338939666748,
1.0251260995864868,
0.1956215798854828,
0.28462910652160645,
0.22078800201416016,
-0.3205285370349884,
-0.5485193133354187,
0.783050000667572,
0.10982834547758102,
-0.5292059779167175,
0.8397780060768127,
1.23099684715271,
-0.600291907787323,
-0.2402535229921341,
0.34594446420669556,
0.3728184700012207,
-0.3839555084705353,
-0.8991627097129822,
-0.12134521454572678,
0.18900629878044128,
0.3311544954776764,
-0.28571048378944397,
-0.19888490438461304,
-0.565973162651062,
0.860476016998291,
-0.05341159552335739,
-0.15194812417030334,
-0.16682609915733337,
-0.216236874461174,
-0.02434280514717102,
0.18703152239322662,
0.2064187377691269,
-0.6647933721542358,
0.9728183746337891,
-0.009387659840285778,
-0.3028188943862915,
-0.2870733439922333,
0.3237560987472534,
-0.0026543496642261744,
-0.4364650547504425,
0.23643536865711212,
-0.18499420583248138,
0.5782637000083923,
0.08245646953582764,
-0.2993825078010559,
0.7482868432998657,
-0.19699519872665405,
0.3978905975818634,
0.3711148202419281,
-0.4309937655925751,
0.3749273717403412,
0.3998507559299469,
-0.8177227973937988,
0.31869804859161377,
0.3750026226043701,
-0.5619289875030518,
-0.2847536504268646,
-0.2443987876176834,
0.07583241909742355,
-0.45623138546943665,
-0.2019643932580948,
-0.05635237693786621,
0.2848915159702301,
0.21846835315227509,
-0.02096663974225521,
-0.314469575881958,
-0.45909735560417175,
0.3111560344696045,
-0.11701077967882156,
0.06155093386769295,
-0.2761944532394409,
0.1372927874326706,
0.1516347974538803,
0.05900516360998154,
-1.0205063819885254,
-0.06846879422664642,
0.7919390201568604,
0.8379688262939453,
0.3194567561149597,
-0.09779044985771179,
0.23075853288173676,
-0.738521158695221,
0.26357772946357727,
0.5383067727088928,
-0.3611367642879486,
-0.7138733863830566,
0.21409134566783905,
0.04257996007800102,
0.22279062867164612,
0.6333025097846985,
0.16011498868465424,
0.058779411017894745,
-0.777450680732727,
-0.7343032956123352,
0.30195558071136475,
-0.3228074014186859,
0.41908252239227295,
0.7730171084403992,
-0.3536149561405182,
-0.23976394534111023,
-0.788562536239624,
-0.360616534948349,
0.14941449463367462,
-0.36607763171195984,
-0.45012983679771423,
-0.31108710169792175,
-1.0702542066574097,
0.004499590490013361,
0.881945013999939,
0.05588383227586746,
-0.6898532509803772,
-0.2555609941482544,
-0.21611781418323517,
-0.00007311886292882264,
-0.24782773852348328,
-0.04214495047926903,
-0.003945149946957827,
0.290798157453537,
0.09600865095853806,
0.013036887161433697,
-0.5370844006538391,
0.21078351140022278,
0.11870795488357544,
0.24761614203453064,
0.2302250862121582,
-0.4178111255168915,
0.469933420419693,
0.04277505353093147,
-0.5994353294372559,
-0.256781667470932,
0.6077149510383606,
-0.2660123407840729,
-0.26705944538116455,
0.773937463760376,
0.09532734006643295,
-0.49161097407341003,
-0.18105055391788483,
0.42951861023902893,
-0.17360541224479675,
0.46811753511428833,
-0.9165641069412231,
0.18275564908981323,
0.33099883794784546,
0.4213554859161377,
-0.03387631103396416,
-0.05149669572710991,
-0.5078914165496826,
0.8870804905891418,
0.3466695249080658,
0.06460778415203094,
-0.28960978984832764,
0.4592932164669037,
0.20758962631225586,
0.04964914917945862,
-0.15867389738559723,
-0.06991792470216751,
0.08051066100597382,
0.4249027669429779,
0.08355981856584549,
-0.27322641015052795,
0.2986798584461212,
1.0484282970428467,
0.09203419089317322,
-0.005961122456938028,
-0.12642408907413483,
0.5616532564163208,
0.8295284509658813,
0.3738003671169281,
0.04482806473970413,
-0.028571689501404762,
-0.10420278459787369,
-0.6587972044944763,
0.20297439396381378,
-1.0969668626785278,
-0.12843811511993408,
-0.11230957508087158,
-0.4242800772190094,
-0.24863098561763763,
-0.42062023282051086,
0.48439639806747437,
0.6258925795555115,
-0.5413897037506104,
0.33930522203445435,
-0.4711369574069977,
-0.18585707247257233,
-0.09155013412237167,
-0.49372124671936035,
-0.10637635737657547,
0.801977276802063,
0.16042454540729523,
0.4890662133693695,
-0.3453894555568695,
0.12239380925893784,
-0.9295316338539124,
-0.09309364855289459,
-0.17701245844364166,
-0.7654836177825928,
-0.1338420808315277,
0.6070175170898438,
0.3750303387641907,
-0.04071842506527901,
-0.1828189492225647,
-0.3157612085342407,
0.23209404945373535,
0.4344969689846039,
-0.42092272639274597,
0.4827613830566406,
-0.7262749671936035,
0.2721056342124939,
0.6640509963035583,
-0.6470165848731995,
0.3559992015361786,
0.3887087404727936,
0.14286914467811584,
0.2696961760520935,
-0.08720172196626663,
0.028175044804811478,
-0.8563660979270935,
0.14430083334445953,
-0.47902020812034607,
0.1689673662185669,
-0.4818638265132904,
0.24001818895339966,
0.5009821653366089,
0.40168774127960205,
-0.6022098064422607,
0.7953256368637085,
0.47381970286369324,
-0.5175303816795349,
0.14989039301872253,
-0.20593149960041046,
0.18296273052692413,
0.573750376701355,
0.5962009429931641,
1.0289106369018555,
0.02583845518529415,
0.1617017537355423,
-0.02401154860854149,
0.5275066494941711,
-0.3007202744483948,
-0.07702223211526871,
-0.1884107142686844,
0.3334704339504242,
0.5205337405204773,
0.2808293402194977,
0.48773813247680664,
0.028277980163693428,
-0.21836476027965546,
0.8085454106330872,
-0.08324160426855087,
-0.02532128058373928,
0.19063712656497955,
0.6870216727256775,
-0.04471549019217491,
0.6328966617584229,
-0.30161795020103455,
0.2890865206718445,
-0.37550652027130127,
0.5218400955200195,
0.33984383940696716,
-0.15252803266048431,
-0.25087448954582214,
0.46559393405914307,
-0.2182609736919403,
0.4963143765926361,
-0.15536938607692719,
0.39193129539489746,
-0.13627667725086212,
-0.6952290534973145,
0.15265361964702606,
0.6557926535606384,
-0.5248269438743591,
0.18055357038974762,
0.211879163980484,
0.09834893047809601,
-0.1976677030324936,
-0.8821544051170349,
-0.33563223481178284,
-0.41369903087615967,
0.25807109475135803,
0.09024789184331894,
-0.17000813782215118,
1.2063250541687012,
0.6412742733955383,
-0.49214309453964233,
-0.3483906090259552,
0.04052133485674858,
0.35111692547798157,
0.4653979241847992,
-0.898155689239502,
1.2517032623291016,
0.32613345980644226,
-0.8551687598228455,
-0.18469953536987305,
-0.42848989367485046,
0.40797486901283264,
-0.16468261182308197,
-0.8134921193122864,
-0.2980782389640808,
-0.6544516682624817,
-0.4213763475418091,
-0.488800972700119,
0.5575512647628784,
0.5672035217285156,
0.13238371908664703,
-0.14258477091789246,
0.3414006233215332,
-0.031453534960746765,
-0.007377723231911659,
0.3446063995361328,
0.20100964605808258,
-0.47261255979537964,
-0.14623327553272247,
0.11180837452411652,
0.028305014595389366,
0.12995244562625885,
0.8162234425544739,
0.41046273708343506,
0.13996194303035736,
0.24659578502178192,
-0.010318641550838947,
0.560538113117218,
0.08417395502328873,
0.17253725230693817,
0.10483784973621368,
-0.6759841442108154,
0.3389247953891754,
-0.4818197786808014,
-0.20134568214416504,
0.44985032081604004,
0.08131446689367294,
0.1327347308397293,
-0.3390744626522064,
-0.3919312357902527,
-0.2916165590286255,
-0.7475239634513855,
0.13883914053440094,
-0.26120638847351074,
0.4595484733581543,
-0.23064662516117096,
-0.33642274141311646,
-0.7150774002075195,
0.2511182725429535,
0.40939050912857056,
-0.2943366765975952,
0.5609293580055237,
-0.09587258845567703,
-0.2563488185405731,
0.2162289172410965,
0.42531368136405945,
-0.5441178679466248,
-0.4520604610443115,
0.7551849484443665
] |
247927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border%20control | Border control | Border control refers to measures taken by governments to monitor and regulate the movement of people, animals, and goods across land, air, and maritime borders. While border control is typically associated with international borders, it also encompasses controls imposed on internal borders within a single state.
Border control measures serve a variety of purposes, ranging from enforcing customs, sanitary and phytosanitary, or biosecurity regulations to restricting migration. While some borders (including most states' internal borders and international borders within the Schengen Area) are open and completely unguarded, others (including the vast majority of borders between countries as well as some internal borders) are subject to some degree of control and may be crossed legally only at designated checkpoints. Border controls in the 21st century are tightly intertwined with intricate systems of travel documents, visas, and increasingly complex policies that vary between countries.
History
States and rulers have always regarded the ability to determine who enters or remains in their territories as a key test of their sovereignty, but prior to World War I, border controls were only sporadically implemented. In medieval Europe, for example, the boundaries between rival countries and centres of power were largely symbolic or consisted of amorphous borderlands, 'marches', and 'debatable lands' of indeterminate or contested status and the real 'borders' consisted of the fortified walls that surrounded towns and cities, where the authorities could exclude undesirable or incompatible people at the gates, from vagrants, beggars and the 'wandering poor', to 'masterless women', lepers, Romani, or Jews.
The concept of border controls has its origins in antiquity. In Asia, the existence of border controls is evidenced in classical texts. The Arthashastra () make mentions of passes issued at the rate of one masha per pass to enter and exit the country. Chapter 34 of the Second Book of Arthashastra concerns with the duties of the () who must issue sealed passes before a person could enter or leave the countryside. Passports resembling those issued today were an important part of the Chinese bureaucracy as early as the Western Han (202 BCE-220 CE), if not in the Qin Dynasty. They required such details as age, height, and bodily features. These passports (zhuan) determined a person's ability to move throughout imperial counties and through points of control. Even children needed passports, but those of one year or less who were in their mother's care may not have needed them.
In the medieval Islamic Caliphate, a form of passport was the bara'a, a receipt for taxes paid. Border controls were in place to ensure that only people who paid their zakah (for Muslims) or jizya (for dhimmis) taxes could travel freely between different regions of the Caliphate; thus, the bara'a receipt was a "basic passport".
In medieval Europe, passports were issued since at least the reign of Henry V of England, as a means of helping his subjects prove who they were in foreign lands. The earliest reference to these documents is found in a 1414 Act of Parliament. In 1540, granting travel documents in England became a role of the Privy Council of England, and it was around this time that the term "passport" was used. In 1794, issuing British passports became the job of the Office of the Secretary of State. The 1548 Imperial Diet of Augsburg required the public to hold imperial documents for travel, at the risk of permanent exile. During World War I, European governments introduced border passport requirements for security reasons, and to control the emigration of people with useful skills. These controls remained in place after the war, becoming a standard, though controversial, procedure. British tourists of the 1920s complained, especially about attached photographs and physical descriptions, which they considered led to a "nasty dehumanisation".
Starting in the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire established quarantine stations on many of its borders to control disease. For example, along the Greek-Turkish border, all travellers entering and exiting the Ottoman Empire would be quarantined for 9–15 days. These stations would often be manned by armed guards. If plague appeared, the Ottoman army would be deployed to enforce border control and monitor disease.
One of the earliest systematic attempts of modern nation states to implement border controls to restrict entry of particular groups were policies adopted by Canada, Australia, and America to curtail immigration of Asians in white settler states in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first anti-East Asian policy implemented in this era was the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 in America, which was followed suit by the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 in Canada, which imposed what came to be called the Chinese head tax. These policies was a sign of injustice and unfair treatment to the Chinese workers because the jobs they engaged in were mostly menial jobs. Similar policies were adopted in various British colonies in Australia over the latter half of the 19th century targeting Asian immigrants arriving as a result of the region's series of gold rushes as well as Kanakas (Pacific Islanders brought into Australia as indentured labourers) who alongside the Asians were perceived by trade unionists and White blue collar workers as a threat to the wages of White settlers. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, these discriminatory border control measures quickly expanded into the White Australia Policy, while subsequent legislation in America (e.g. the Immigration Act of 1891, the Naturalisation Act of 1906, and the Immigration Act of 1917) resulted in an even stricter policy targeting immigrants from both Asia and parts of southern and eastern Europe.
Even following the adoption of measures such as the White Australia Policy and the Chinese Exclusion Act in English-speaking settler colonies, pervasive control of international borders remained a relatively rare phenomenon until the early 20th century, prior to which many states had open international borders either in practice or due to a lack of any legal restriction. John Maynard Keynes identified World War I in particular as the point when such controls became commonplace.
Decolonisation during the twentieth century saw the emergence of mass emigration from nations in the Global South, thus leading former colonial occupiers to introduce stricter border controls. In the United Kingdom this process took place in stages, with British nationality law eventually shifting from recognising all Commonwealth citizens as British subjects to today's complex British nationality law which distinguishes between British citizens, modern British Subjects, British Overseas Citizens, and overseas nationals, with each non-standard category created as a result of attempts to balance border control and the need to mitigate statelessness. This aspect of the rise of border control in the 20th century has proven controversial. The British Nationality Law 1981 has been criticised by experts, as well as by the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination of the United Nations, on the grounds that the different classes of British nationality it created are, in fact, closely related to the ethnic origins of their holders.
The creation of British Nationality (Overseas) status, for instance, (with fewer privileges than British citizen status) was met with criticism from many Hong Kong residents who felt that British citizenship would have been more appropriate in light of the "moral debt" owed to them by the UK. Some British politicians and magazines also criticised the creation of BN(O) status. In 2020, the British government under Boris Johnson announced a programme under which BN(O)s would have leave to remain in the UK with rights to work and study for five years, after which they may apply for settled status. They would then be eligible for full citizenship after holding settled status for 12 months. This was implemented as the eponymously named "British National (Overseas) visa", a residence permit that BN(O)s and their dependent family members have been able to apply for since 31 January 2021. BN(O)s and their dependents who arrived in the UK before the new immigration route became available were granted "Leave Outside the Rules" at the discretion of the Border Force to remain in the country for up to six months as a temporary measure. In effect, this retroactively granted BN(O)s a path to right of abode in the United Kingdom. Despite the COVID-19 pandemic, about 7,000 people had entered the UK under this scheme between July 2020 and January 2021.
Ethnic tensions created during colonial occupation also resulted in discriminatory policies being adopted in newly independent African nations, such as Uganda under Idi Amin which banned Asians from Uganda, thus creating a mass exodus of the (largely Gujarati) Asian community of Uganda. Such ethnically driven border control policies took forms ranging from anti-Asian sentiment in East Africa to Apartheid policies in South Africa and Namibia (then known as Southwest Africa under South African rule) which created bantustans and pass laws to segregate and impose border controls against non-whites, and encouraged immigration of whites at the expense of Blacks as well as Indians and other Asians. Whilst border control in Europe and east of the Pacific have tightened over time, they have largely been liberalised in Africa, from Yoweri Museveni's reversal of Idi Amin's anti-Asian border controls to the fall of Apartheid (and thus racialised border controls) in South Africa.
The development of border control policies over the course of the 20th century also saw the standardisation of refugee travel documents under the Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees of 1951 and the 1954 Convention travel document for stateless people under the similar 1954 statelessness convention.
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 produced a drastic tightening of border controls across the globe. Many countries and regions have imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions for citizens of or recent travellers to the most affected areas. Other countries and regions have imposed global restrictions that apply to all foreign countries and territories, or prevent their own citizens from travelling overseas. The imposition of border controls has curtailed the spread of the virus, but because they were first implemented after community spread was established in multiple countries in different regions of the world, they produced only a modest reduction in the total number of people infected These strict border controls economic harm to the tourism industry through lost income and social harm to people who were unable to travel for family matters or other reasons. When the travel bans are lifted, many people are expected to resume traveling. However, some travel, especially business travel, may be decreased long-term as lower cost alternatives, such as teleconferencing and virtual events, are preferred. A possible long-term impact has been a decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents. Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19.
Aspects
Contemporary border control policies are complex and address a variety of distinct phenomena depending on the circumstances and political priorities of the state(s) implementing them. Consequently, there are several aspects of border control which vary in nature and importance from region to region.
Air and maritime borders
In addition to land borders, countries also apply border control measures to airspace and waters under their jurisdiction. Such measures control access to air and maritime territory as well as extractible resources (e.g. fish, minerals, fossil fuels).
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), states exercise varying degrees of control over different categories of territorial waters:
Internal waters: Waters landward of the baseline, over which the state has complete sovereignty: not even innocent passage is allowed without explicit permission from said state. Lakes and rivers are considered internal waters.
Territorial sea: A state's territorial sea is a belt of coastal waters extending at most 22 kilometres from the baseline of a coastal state. If this would overlap with another state's territorial sea, the border is taken as the median point between the states' baselines, unless the states in question agree otherwise. A state can also choose to claim a smaller territorial sea. The territorial sea is regarded as the sovereign territory of the state, although foreign ships (military and civilian) are allowed innocent passage through it, or transit passage for straits; this sovereignty also extends to the airspace over and seabed below. As a result of UNCLOS, states exercise a similar degree of control over its territorial sea as over land territory and may thus utilise coast guard and naval patrols to enforce border control measures provided they do not prevent innocent or transit passage.
Contiguous zone: A state's contiguous zone is a band of water extending farther from the outer edge of the territorial sea to up to 44 kilometres from the baseline, within which a state can implement limited border control measures for the purpose of preventing or punishing "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea". This will typically be 22 kilometres wide, but could be more (if a state has chosen to claim a territorial sea of less than 22 kilometres), or less, if it would otherwise overlap another state's contiguous zone. However, unlike the territorial sea, there is no standard rule for resolving such conflicts and the states in question must negotiate their own compromise. America invoked a contiguous zone out to 44 kilometres from the baseline on 29 September 1999.
Exclusive economic zone An exclusive economic zone extends from the baseline to a maximum of 370 kilometres. A coastal nation has control of all economic resources within its exclusive economic zone, including fishing, mining, oil exploration, and any pollution of those resources. However, it cannot prohibit passage or loitering above, on, or under the surface of the sea that is in compliance with the laws and regulations adopted by the coastal State in accordance with the provisions of the UN Convention, within that portion of its exclusive economic zone beyond its territorial sea. The only authority a state has over its EEZ is therefore its ability to regulate the extraction or spoliation of resources contained therein and border control measures implemented to this effect focus on the suppression of unauthorised commercial activity.
Vessels not complying with a state's maritime policies may be subject to ship arrest and enforcement action by the state's authorities. Maritime border control measures are controversial in the context of international trade disputes, as was the case following France's detention of British fishermen in October 2021 in the aftermath of Brexit or when the Indonesian navy detained the crew of the Seven Seas Conqueress alleging that the vessel was unlawfully fishing within Indonesian territorial waters while the Singaporean government claimed the vessel was in Singaporean waters near Pedra Branca.
Similarly, international law accords each state control over the airspace above its land territory, internal waters, and territorial sea. Consequently, states have the authority to regulate flyover rights and tax foreign aircraft utilising their airspace. Additionally, the International Civil Aviation Organization designates states to administer international airspace, including airspace over waters not forming part of any state's territorial sea. Aircraft unlawfully entering a country's airspace may be grounded and their crews may be detained.
No country has sovereignty over international waters, including the associated airspace. All states have the freedom of fishing, navigation, overflight, laying cables and pipelines, as well as research. Oceans, seas, and waters outside national jurisdiction are also referred to as the high seas or, in Latin, mare liberum (meaning free sea). The 1958 Convention on the High Seas defined "high seas" to mean "all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State" and where "no State may validly purport to subject any part of them to its sovereignty". Ships sailing the high seas are generally under the jurisdiction of their flag state (if there is one); however, when a ship is involved in certain criminal acts, such as piracy, any nation can exercise jurisdiction under the doctrine of universal jurisdiction regardless of maritime borders.
As part of their air and maritime border control policies, most countries restrict or regulate the ability of foreign airlines and vessels to transport of goods or passengers between sea ports and airports in their jurisdiction, known as cabotage. Restrictions on maritime cabotage apply exist in most countries with territorial and internal waters so as to protect the domestic shipping industry from foreign competition, preserve domestically owned shipping infrastructure for national security purposes, and ensure safety in congested territorial waters. For example, in America, the Jones Act provides for extremely strict restrictions on cabotage. Similarly, China does not permit foreign flagged vessels to conduct domestic transport or domestic transhipments without the prior approval of the Ministry of Transport. While Hong Kong and Macau maintain distinct internal cabotage regimes from the mainland, maritime cabotage between either territory and the mainland is considered domestic carriage and accordingly is off limits to foreign vessels. Similarly, maritime crossings across the Taiwan Strait requires special permits from both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China and are usually off-limits to foreign vessels. In India, foreign vessels engaging in the coasting trade require a licence that is generally only issued when no local vessel is available. Similarly, a foreign vessel may only be issued a licence to engage in cabotage in Brazil if there are no Brazilian flagged vessels available for the intended transport.
As with maritime cabotage, most jurisdictions heavily restrict cabotage in passenger aviation, though rules regarding air cargo are typically more lax. Passenger cabotage is not usually granted under most open skies agreements. Air cabotage policies in the European Union are uniquely liberal insofar as carriers licensed by one member state are permitted to engage in cabotage in any EU member state, with few limitations. Chile has the most liberal air cabotage rules in the world, enacted in 1979, which allow foreign airlines to operate domestic flights, conditional upon reciprocal treatment for Chilean carriers in the foreign airline's country. Countries apply special provisions to the ability of foreign airlines to carry passengers between two domestic destinations through an offshore hub.
Many countries implement air defence identification zones (ADIZs) requiring aircraft approaching within a specified distance of its airspace to contact or seek prior authorisation from its military or transport authorities. An ADIZ may extend beyond a country's territory to give the country more time to respond to possibly hostile aircraft. The concept of an ADIZ is not defined in any international treaty and is not regulated by any international body, but is nevertheless a well-established aerial border control measure. Usually such zones only cover undisputed territory, do not apply to foreign aircraft not intending to enter territorial airspace, and do not overlap.
Biosecurity
Biosecurity refers to measures aimed at preventing the introduction and/or spread of harmful organisms (e.g. viruses, bacteria, etc.) to animals and plants in order to mitigate the risk of transmission of infectious disease. In agriculture, these measures are aimed at protecting food crops and livestock from pests, invasive species, and other organisms not conducive to the welfare of the human population. The term includes biological threats to people, including those from pandemic diseases and bioterrorism. The definition has sometimes been broadened to embrace other concepts, and it is used for different purposes in different contexts. The most common category of biosecurity policies are quarantine measures adopted to counteract the spread of disease and, when applied as a component of border control, focus primarily on mitigating the entry of infected individuals, plants, or animals into a country. Other aspects of biosecurity related to border control include mandatory vaccination policies for inbound travellers and measures to curtail the risk posed by bioterrorism or invasive species. Quarantine measures are frequently implemented with regard to the mobility of animals, including both pets and livestock. Notably, in order to reduce the risk of introducing rabies from continental Europe, the United Kingdom used to require that dogs, and most other animals introduced to the country, spend six months in quarantine at an HM Customs and Excise pound. This policy was abolished in 2000 in favour of a scheme generally known as Pet Passports, where animals can avoid quarantine if they have documentation showing they are up to date on their appropriate vaccinations.
In the past, quarantine measures were implemented by European countries in order to curtail the Bubonic Plague and Cholera. In the British Isles, for example, the Quarantine Act 1710 (9 Ann.) established maritime quarantine policies in an era in which strict border control measures as a whole were yet to become mainstream. The first act was called for due to fears that the plague might be imported from Poland and the Baltic states. The second act of 1721 was due to the prevalence of the plague at Marseille and other places in Provence, France. It was renewed in 1733 after a new outbreak in continental Europe, and again in 1743, due to an epidemic in Messina. In 1752 a rigorous quarantine clause was introduced into an act regulating trade with the Levant, and various arbitrary orders were issued during the next twenty years to meet the supposed danger of infection from the Baltic states. Although no plague cases ever came to England during that period, the restrictions on traffic became more stringent, and in 1788 a very strict Quarantine Act was passed, with provisions affecting cargoes in particular. The act was revised in 1801 and 1805, and in 1823–24 an elaborate inquiry was followed by an act making quarantine only at the discretion of the Privy Council, which recognised yellow fever or other highly infectious diseases as calling for quarantine, along with plague. The threat of cholera in 1831 was the last occasion in England of the use of quarantine restrictions. Cholera affected every country in Europe despite all efforts to keep it out. When cholera returned to England in 1849, 1853 and 1865–66, no attempt was made to seal the ports. In 1847 the privy council ordered all arrivals with a clean bill of health from the Black Sea and the Levant to be admitted, provided there had been no case of plague during the voyage and afterwards, the practice of quarantine was discontinued.
In modern maritime law, biosecurity measures for arriving vessels centre around 'pratique', a licence from border control officials permitting a ship to enter port on assurance from the captain that that the vessel is free from contagious disease. The clearance granted is commonly referred to as 'free pratique'. A ship can signal a request for 'pratique' by flying a solid yellow square-shaped flag. This yellow flag is the Q flag in the set of international maritime signal flags. In the event that 'free pratique' is not granted, a vessel will be held in quarantine according to biosecurity rules prevailing at the port of entry until a border control officer inspects the vessel. During the COVID-19 pandemic, a controversy arose as to who granted pratique to the Ruby Princess. A related concept is the 'bill of health', a document issued by officials of a port of departure indicating to the officials of the port of arrival whether it is likely that the ship is carrying a contagious disease, either literally on board as fomites or via its crewmen or passengers. As defined in a consul's handbook from 1879:
A bill of health is a document issued by the consul or the public authorities of the port which a ship sails from, descriptive of the health of the port at the time of the vessel's clearance. A clean bill of health certifies that at the date of its issue no infectious disease was known to exist either in the port or its neighbourhood. A suspected or touched bill of health reports that rumours were in circulation that an infectious disease had appeared but that the rumour had not been confirmed by any known cases. A foul bill of health or the absence of a clean bill of health implies that the place the vessel cleared from was infected with a contagious disease. The two latter cases would render the vessel liable to quarantine.
Another category of biosecurity measures adopted by border control organisations is mandatory vaccination. As a result of the prevalence of Yellow Fever across much of the African continent, a significant portion of countries in the region require arriving passengers to present an International Certificate of Vaccination or Prophylaxis (Carte Jaune) certifying that they have received the Yellow Fever vaccine. A variety of other countries require travellers who have visited areas where Yellow Fever is endemic to present a certificate in order to clear border checkpoints as a means of preventing the spread of the disease. Prior to the emergence of COVID-19, Yellow Fever was the primary human disease subjected to de facto vaccine passport measures by border control authorities around the world. Similar measures are in place with regard to Polio and meningococcal meningitis in regions where those diseases are endemic and countries bordering those regions. Prior to the eradication of Smallpox, similar Carte Jaune requirements were in force for that disease around the world.
As a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, biosecurity measures have become a highly visible aspect of border control across the globe. Most notably, quarantine and mandatory COVID-19 vaccination for international travellers. Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the implementation of biosecurity measures has had a negative economic and social impact on the travel industry. Slow travel increased in popularity during the pandemic, with tourists visiting fewer destinations during their trips.
Biosecurity measures such as restrictions on cross-border travel, the introduction of mandatory vaccination for international travellers, and the adoption of quarantine or mandatory testing measures have helped to contain the spread of COVID-19. While test-based border screening measures may prove effective under certain circumstances, they may fail to detect a significant quantity positive cases if only conducted upon arrival without follow-up. A minimum 10-day quarantine may be beneficial in preventing the spread of COVID-19 and may be more effective if combined with an additional control measure like border screening. A study in Science found that travel restrictions could delay the initial arrival of COVID-19 in a country, but that they produced only modest overall effects unless combined with domestic infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions. (This is consistent with prior research on influenza and other communicable diseases.) Travel bans early in the pandemic were most effective for isolated locations, such as small island nations.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, many jurisdictions across the globe introduced biosecurity measures on internal borders. This ranged from quarantine measures imposed upon individuals crossing state lines within America to prohibitions on interstate travel in Australia.
Customs
Each country has its own laws and regulations for the import and export of goods into and out of a country, which its customs authority enforces. The import or export of some goods may be restricted or forbidden, in which case customs controls enforce such policies. Customs enforcement at borders can also entail collecting excise tax and preventing the smuggling of dangerous or illegal goods. A customs duty is a tariff or tax on the importation (usually) or exportation (unusually) of goods.
In many countries, border controls for arriving passengers at many international airports and some road crossings are separated into red and green channels in order to prioritise customs enforcement. Within the European Union's common customs area, airports may operate additional blue channels for passengers arriving from within that area. For such passengers, border control may focus specifically on prohibited items and other goods that are not covered by the common policy. Luggage tags for checked luggage travelling within the EU are green-edged so they may be identified. In most EU member states, travellers coming from other EU countries within the Schengen Area can use the green lane, although airports outside the Schengen Area or with frequent flights arriving from jurisdictions within Schengen but outside the European Union may use blue channels for convenience and efficiency.
A customs area is an area designated for storage of commercial goods that have not cleared border controls. Commercial goods not yet cleared through customs are often stored in a type of customs area known as a bonded warehouse, until processed or re-exported. Ports authorised to handle international cargo generally include recognised bonded warehouses. For the purpose of customs duties, goods within the customs area are treated as being outside the country. This allows easy transshipment to a third country without customs authorities being involved. For this reason, customs areas are usually carefully controlled and fenced to prevent smuggling. However, the area is still territorially part of the country, so the goods within the area are subject to other local laws (for example drug laws and biosecurity regulations), and thus may be searched, impounded or turned back. The term is also sometimes used to define an area (usually composed of several countries) which form a customs union, a customs territory, or to describe the area at airports and ports where travellers are checked through customs.
Sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures are customs measures to protect humans, animals, and plants from diseases, pests, or contaminants. The Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures, concluded at the Uruguay Round of the Multilateral Trade Negotiations, establishes the types of SPS measures each jurisdiction is permitted to impose. Examples of SPS are tolerance limits for residues, restricted use of substances, labelling requirements related to food safety, hygienic requirements and quarantine requirements. In certain countries, sanitary and phytosanitary measures focuses extensively on curtailing and regulating the import of foreign agricultural products in order to protect domestic ecosystems. For example, Australian border controls restrict most (if not all) food products, certain wooden products and other similar items. Similar restrictions exist in Canada, America and New Zealand.
Border control in many countries in Asia and the Americas prioritises enforcing customs laws pertaining to narcotics. For instance, India and Malaysia are focusing resources on eliminating drug smuggling from Myanmar and Thailand respectively. The issue stems largely from the high output of dangerous and illegal drugs in the Golden Triangle as well as in regions further west such as Afghanistan. A similar problem exists east of the Pacific, and has resulted in countries such as Mexico and America tightening border control in response to the northward flow of illegal substances from regions such as Colombia. The Mexican Drug War and similar cartel activity in neighbouring areas has exacerbated the problem. In certain countries illegal importing, exporting, sale, or possession of drugs constitute capital offences and may result in a death sentence. A March 2018 report by Harm Reduction International says: "There are at least 33 countries and territories that prescribe the death penalty for drug offences in law. ... Between January 2015 and December 2017, at least 1,320 people are known to have been executed for drug-related offences - 718 in 2015; 325 in 2016; and 280 in 2017." A 2015 article by The Economist says that the laws of 32 countries provide for capital punishment for drug smuggling, but only in six countries – China, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Singapore –are drug offenders known to be routinely executed. Additionally, Singapore, Malaysia, and Indonesia impose mandatory death sentences on individuals caught smuggling restricted substances across their borders. For example, Muhammad Ridzuan Ali was executed in Singapore on 19 May 2017 for drug trafficking. According to a 2011 article by the Lawyers Collective, an NGO in India, "32 countries impose capital punishment for offences involving narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances." South Korean law provides for capital punishment for drug offences, but South Korea has a de facto moratorium on capital punishment as there have been no executions since 1997, even though there are still people on death row and new death sentences continue to be handed down.
Border security
Border security refers to measures taken by one or more governments to enforce their border control policies. Such measures target a variety of issues, ranging from customs violations and trade in unlawful goods to the suppression of unauthorised migration or travel. The specific border security measures taken by a jurisdiction vary depending on the priorities of local authorities and are affected by social, economic, and geographical factors.
In India, which maintains free movement with Nepal and Bhutan, border security focuses primarily on the Bangladeshi, Pakistani, and Myanmar borders. India's primary focus with regard to the border with Bangladesh is to deter unlawful immigration and drug trafficking. On the Pakistani border, the Border Security Force aims to prevent the infiltration of Indian territory by terrorists from Pakistan and other countries in the west (Afghanistan, Iraq, Syria, etc.). In contrast, India's border with Myanmar is porous and the 2021 military coup in Myanmar saw an influx of refugees seeking asylum in border states including Mizoram. The refoulement of Rohingya refugees is a contentious aspect of India's border control policy vis à vis Myanmar.
Meanwhile, American border security policy is largely centred on the country's border with Mexico. Security along this border is composed of many distinct elements; including physical barriers, patrol routes, lighting, and border patrol personnel. In contrast, the border with Canada is primarily composed of joint border patrol and security camera programmes, forming the longest undefended border in the world. In remote areas along the border with Canada, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden sensors on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points.
Border security on the Schengen Area's external borders is especially restrictive. Members of the Schengen Agreement are required to apply strict checks on travellers entering and exiting the area. These checks are co-ordinated by the European Union's Frontex agency, and subject to common rules. The details of border controls, surveillance and the conditions under which permission to enter into the Schengen Area may be granted are exhaustively detailed in the Schengen Borders Code. All persons crossing external borders—inbound or outbound—are subject to a check by a border guard. The only exception is for regular cross-border commuters (both those with the right of free movement and third-country nationals) who are well known to the border guards: once an initial check has shown that there is no alert on record relating to them in the Schengen Information System or national databases, they can only be subject to occasional 'random' checks, rather than systematic checks every time they cross the border. Additionally, border security in Europe is increasingly being outsourced to private companies, with the border security market growing at a rate of 7% per year. In its Border Wars series, the Transnational Institute showed that the arms and security industry helps shape European border security policy through lobbying, regular interactions with EU's border institutions and its shaping of research policy. The institute criticises the border security industry for having a vested interest in increasing border militarisation in order to increase profits. Furthermore, the same companies are also often involved in the arms trade and thus profit twice: first from fuelling the conflicts, repression and human rights abuses that have led refugees to flee their homes and later from intercepting them along their migration routes.
Border walls
Border walls are a common aspect of border security measures across the world. Border walls generally seek to limit unauthorised travel across an international border and are frequently implemented as a populist response to refugees and economic migrants.
The India-Bangladesh barrier is a 3406 km long fence of barbed wire and concrete just under 3 m high currently under construction. It's stated aim is to limit unauthorised migration. The project has run into several delays and there is no clear completion date for the project yet. Similar to India's barrier with Bangladesh and the proposed wall between America and Mexico, Iran has constructed a wall on its frontier with Pakistan. The wall aims to reduce unauthorised border crossings and stem the flow of drugs, and is also a response to terrorist attacks, notably the one in the Iranian border town of Zahedan on 17 February 2007, which killed thirteen people, including nine Iranian Revolutionary Guard officials. Former president Donald Trump's proposal to build a new wall along the border formed a major feature of his 2016 presidential campaign and, over the course of his presidency, his administration spent approximately US$15 billion on the project, with US$5 billion appropriated from US Customs and Border Protection, US$6.3 billion appropriated from anti-narcotics initiative funded by congress, and US$3.6 billion appropriated from the American military. Members of both the Democratic and Republican parties who opposed President Trump's border control policies regarded the border wall as unnecessary or undesirable, arguing that other measures would be more effective at reducing illegal immigration than building a wall, including tackling the economic issues that lead to immigration being a relevant issue altogether, border surveillance or an increase in the number of customs agents. Additionally, in August 2020, the United States constructed 3.8 km of short cable fencing along the border between Abbotsford, British Columbia, and Whatcom County, Washington.
Border walls have formed a major component of European border control policy following the European migrant crisis. The walls at Melilla and at Ceuta on Spain's border with Morocco are designed to curtail the ability of refugees and migrants to enter the European Union via the two Spanish cities on the Moroccan coast. Similar measures have been taken on the Schengen area's borders with Turkey in response to the refugee crisis created in Syria by terrorist organisations such as Daesh and the Syrian Free Army. The creation of European Union's collective border security organisation, Frontex, is another aspect of the bloc's growing focus on border security. Within the Schengen Area, border security has become an especially prominent priority for the Hungarian government under right-wing strongman Viktor Orbán. Similarly, Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a border barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods. The difference between the countries' economic situations means that many Yemenis head to Saudi Arabia to find work. Saudi Arabia does not have a barrier with its other neighbours in the Gulf Cooperation Council, whose economies are more similar. In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed constructing a security fence along the entire length of its 900 kilometre long desert border with Iraq. As of July 2009 it was reported that Saudis will pay $3.5 billion for security fence. The combined wall and ditch will be 965 kilometres long and include five layers of fencing, watch towers, night-vision cameras, and radar cameras and manned by 30,000 troops. Elsewhere in Europe, the Republic of Macedonia began erecting a fence on its border with Greece in November 2015.
In 2003, Botswana began building a 480 kilometre long electric fence along its border with Zimbabwe. The official reason for the fence is to stop the spread of foot-and-mouth disease among livestock. Zimbabweans argue that the height of the fence is clearly intended to keep out people. Botswana has responded that the fence is designed to keep out cattle, and to ensure that entrants have their shoes disinfected at legal border crossings. Botswana also argued that the government continues to encourage legal movement into the country. Zimbabwe was unconvinced, and the barrier remains a source of tension.
Border checkpoints
A Border checkpoint is a place where goods or individuals moving across borders are inspected for compliance with border control measures. Access-controlled borders often have a limited number of checkpoints where they can be crossed without legal sanctions. Arrangements or treaties may be formed to allow or mandate less restrained crossings (e.g. the Schengen Agreement). Land border checkpoints (land ports of entry) can be contrasted with the customs and immigration facilities at seaports, international airports, and other ports of entry.
Checkpoints generally serve two purposes:
To prevent entrance of individuals who are either undesirable (e.g. criminals or others who pose threats) or simply unauthorised to enter.
To prevent entrance of goods that are illegal or subject to restriction, or to collect tariffs in accordance with customs or quarantine policies.
A border checkpoint at which travellers are permitted to enter a jurisdiction is known as a port of entry. International airports are usually ports of entry, as are road and rail crossings on a land border. Seaports can be used as ports of entry only if a dedicated customs presence is posted there. The choice of whether to become a port of entry is up to the civil authority controlling the port. An airport of entry is an airport that provides customs and immigration services for incoming flights. These services allow the airport to serve as an initial port of entry for foreign visitors arriving in a country. While the terms airport of entry and international airport are generally used interchangeably, not all international airports qualify as airports of entry since international airports without any immigration or customs facilities exist in the Schengen Area whose members have eliminated border controls with each other. Airports of entry are usually larger than domestic airports and often feature longer runways and facilities to accommodate the heavier aircraft commonly used for international and intercontinental travel. International airports often also host domestic flights, which often help feed both passengers and cargo into international ones (and vice-versa). Buildings, operations and management have become increasingly sophisticated since the mid-20th century, when international airports began to provide infrastructure for international civilian flights. Detailed technical standards have been developed to ensure safety and common coding systems implemented to provide global consistency. The physical structures that serve millions of individual passengers and flights are among the most complex and interconnected in the world. By the second decade of the 21st century, there were over 1,200 international airports and almost two billion international passengers along with 50 million tonnes of cargo passing through them annually.
A 'Quilantan' or 'Wave Through' entry is a phenomenon at American border checkpoints authorising a form of non-standard but legal entry without any inspection of travel documents. It occurs when the border security personnel present at a border crossing choose to summarily admit some number of persons without performing a standard interview or document examination. If an individual can prove that they were waved through immigration in this manner, then they are considered to have entered with inspection despite not having answered any questions or received a passport entry stamp. This definition of legal entry only extends to foreigners who entered America at official border crossings and does not provide a path to legal residency for those who did not enter through a recognised crossing.
Border zones
Border zones are areas near borders that have special restrictions on movement. Governments may forbid unauthorised entry to or exit from border zones and restrict property ownership in the area. The zones function as buffer zones specifically monitored by border patrols in order to prevent unauthorised cross-border travel. Border zones enable authorities to detain and prosecute individuals suspected of being or aiding undocumented migrants, smugglers, or spies without necessarily having to prove that the individuals in question actually engaged in the suspected unauthorised activity since, as all unauthorised presence in the area is forbidden, the mere presence of an individual permits authorities to arrest them. Border zones between hostile states can be heavily militarised, with minefields, barbed wire, and watchtowers. Some border zones are designed to prevent illegal immigration or emigration and do not have many restrictions but may operate checkpoints to check immigration status. In most places, a border vista is usually included and/or required. In some nations, movement inside a border zone without a licence is an offence and will result in arrest. No probable cause is required as mere presence inside the zone is an offence, if it is intentional. Even with a licence to enter, photography, making fires, and carrying of firearms and hunting are prohibited.
Examples of international border zones are the Border Security Zone of Russia and the Finnish border zone on the Finnish–Russian border. There are also intra-country zones such as the Cactus Curtain surrounding the Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba, the Korean Demilitarised Zone along the North Korea-South Korea demarcation line and the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong. Important historical examples are the Wire of Death set up by the German Empire to control the Belgium–Netherlands border and the Iron Curtain, a set of border zones maintained by the Soviet Union and its satellite states along their borders with Western states. One of the most militarised parts was the restricted zone of the inner German border. While initially and officially the zone was for border security, eventually it was engineered to prevent escape from the Soviet sphere into the West. Ultimately, the Eastern Bloc governments resorted to using lethal countermeasures against those trying to cross the border, such as mined fences and orders to shoot anyone trying to cross into the West. The restrictions on building and habitation made the area a "green corridor", today established as the European Green Belt.
In the area stretching inwards from its internal border with the mainland, Hong Kong maintains a Frontier Closed Area out of bounds to those without special authorisation. The area was established in the 1950s when Hong Kong was under British administration as a consequence of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory prior to the Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong in 1997. The purposes of the area were to prevent illegal immigration and smuggling; smuggling had become prevalent as a consequence of the Korean War. Today, under the one country, two systems policy, the area continues to be used to curtail unauthorised migration to Hong Kong and the smuggling of goods in either direction.
As a result of the partition of the Korean peninsula by America and the Soviet Union after World War II, and exacerbated by the subsequent Korean War, there is a Demilitarised Zone (DMZ) spanning the de facto border between North and South Korea. The DMZ follows the effective boundaries as of the end of the Korean War in 1953. Similarly to the Frontier Closed Area in Hong Kong, this zone and the defence apparatus that exists on both sides of the border serve to curtail unauthorised passage between the two sides. In South Korea, there is an additional fenced-off area between the Civilian Control Line (CCL) and the start of the Demilitarised Zone. The CCL is a line that designates an additional buffer zone to the Demilitarised Zone within a distance of 5 to 20 kilometres from the Southern Limit Line of the Demilitarised Zone. Its purpose is to limit and control the entrance of civilians into the area in order to protect and maintain the security of military facilities and operations near the Demilitarised Zone. The commander of the 8th US Army ordered the creation of the CCL and it was activated and first became effective in February 1954. The buffer zone that falls south of the Southern Limit Line is called the Civilian Control Zone. Barbed wire fences and manned military guard posts mark the CCLe. South Korean soldiers typically accompany tourist busses and cars travelling north of the CCL as armed guards to monitor the civilians as well as to protect them from North Korean intruders. Most of the tourist and media photos of the "Demilitarised Zone fence" are actually photos of the CCL fence. The actual Demilitarised Zone fence on the Southern Limit Line is completely off-limits to everybody except soldiers and it is illegal to take pictures of the Demilitarised Zone fence.
Similarly, the whole estuary of the Han River in the Korean Peninsula is deemed a "Neutral Zone" and is officially off-limits to all civilian vessels. Only military vessels are allowed within this neutral zone. In recent years, Chinese fishing vessels have taken advantage of the tense situation in the Han River Estuary Neutral Zone and illegally fished in this area due to both North Korean and South Korean navies never patrolling this area due to the fear of naval battles breaking out. This has led to firefights and sinkings of boats between Chinese fishermen and South Korean Coast Guard. On January 30, 2019, North Korean and South Korean military officials signed a landmark agreement that would open the Han River Estuary to civilian vessels for the first time since the Armistice Agreement in 1953. The agreement was scheduled to take place in April 2019 but the failure of the 2019 Hanoi Summit indefinitely postponed these plans.
The Green Line separating Southern Cyprus and Northern Cyprus is a demilitarised border zone operated by the United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus operate and patrol within the buffer zone. The buffer zone was established in 1974 due to ethnic tensions between Greek and Turkish Cypriots. The green line is similar in nature to the 38th parallel separating the Republic of Korea and North Korea.
Some border zones, referred to as border vistas, are composed of legally mandated cleared space between two areas of foliage located at an international border intended to provide a clear demarcation line between two jurisdictions. Border vistas are most commonly found along undefended international boundary lines, where border security is not as much of a necessity and a built barrier is undesired, and are a treaty requirement for certain borders. An example of a border vista is a six-metre cleared space around unguarded portions of the Canada–United States border. Similar clearings along the border line are provided for by many international treaties. For example, the 2006 border management treaty between Russia and China provides for a 15-metre cleared strip along the two nations' border.
Immigration law and policy
Immigration law refers to the national statutes, regulations, and legal precedents governing immigration into and deportation from a country. Strictly speaking, it is distinct from other matters such as naturalisation and citizenship, although they are often conflated. Immigration laws vary around the world, as well as according to the social and political climate of the times, as acceptance of immigrants sways from the widely inclusive to the deeply nationalist and isolationist. Countries frequently maintain laws which regulate both the rights of entry and exit as well as internal rights, such as the duration of stay, freedom of movement, and the right to participate in commerce or government. National laws regarding the immigration of citizens of that country are regulated by international law. While the United Nations' International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights mandates that all countries allow entry to their own citizens, this principle is not always respected in practice. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia adopted a policy of denying entry to all individuals in particularly affected jurisdictions, including Australian citizens and permanent residents. Similarly, while states within the Schengen Area typically permit freedom of movement across borders, many states within the area implemented ad hoc border controls during the pandemic.
Immigration policy is the aspect of border control concerning the transit of people into a country, especially those that intend to stay and work in the country. Taxation, tariff and trade rules set out what goods immigrants may bring with them, and what services they may perform while temporarily in the country. Agricultural policy may make exemptions for migrant farm workers, who typically enter a country only for the harvest season and then return home to a country or region in the Global South (such as Mexico or Jamaica from where America and Canada, respectively, often import temporary agricultural labour). An important aspect of immigration policy is the treatment of refugees, more or less helpless or stateless people who throw themselves on the mercy of the state they try to enter, seeking refuge from actual or purported poor treatment in their country of origin. Asylum is sometimes granted to those who face persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group, or political opinion.
As a result of investment-oriented immigration policies, states sometimes implement border control measures known as immigrant investor programmes that offer permanent residence or citizenship in return for investment. Immigrant investor programmes originated in the 1980s when tax havens in the Pacific and Caribbean began "cash-for-passport" programmes that facilitated visa-free travel and tax avoidance. Such programmes have sparked controversy in several countries. A lack of demonstrable economic benefits, and security concerns, have been among the most common criticisms. In 2014 the Canadian government suspended their golden visa programme (although, as of 2017, Quebec maintains its own golden visa programme). The implementation of such programmes in Europe has been criticised by the European Parliament, which approved a non-binding resolution that in 2014 declaring that an EU passport, which by definition provides its bearer the right to reside in any EU or EEA jurisdiction, should not have a "price tag".
Diaspora communities
Certain countries adopt immigration policies designed to be favourable towards members of diaspora communities with a connection to the country. For example, the Indian government confers Overseas Citizenship of India (OCI) status on foreign citizens of Indian origin to live and work indefinitely in India. OCI status was introduced in response to demands for dual citizenship by the Indian diaspora, particularly in countries with large populations of Indian origin. It was introduced by The Citizenship (Amendment) Act, 2005 in August 2005. Similar to OCI status, the UK Ancestry visa exempts members of the British diaspora from usual immigration controls, while Poland issues the Karta Polaka to citizens of certain northeast European countries with Polish ancestry.
Some nations recognise a right of return for people with ancestry in that country or a connection to a particular ethnic group. A notable example of this is the right of Sephardi Jews to acquire Spanish nationality by virtue of their community's Spanish origins. Similar exemptions to immigration controls exist for people of Armenian origin seeking to acquire Armenian citizenship. Ghana, similarly, grants an indefinite right to stay in Ghana to members of the African diaspora regardless of citizenship. Similarly, Israel maintains a policy permitting members of the Jewish diaspora to immigrate to Israel regardless of prior nationality.
South Korean immigration policy is relatively unique in that, as a consequence of its claim over the territory currently administered by North Korea, citizens of North Korea are regarded by the South as its own citizens by birth. Consequently, North Korean refugees in China often attempt to travel to countries such as Thailand which, while not offering asylum to North Koreans, classifies them as unauthorised immigrants and deports them to South Korea instead of North Korea. At the same time, this policy has operated to prevent pro-North Korea Zainichi Koreans recognised by Japan as Chōsen-seki from entering South Korea without special permission from the South Korean authorities as, despite being regarded as citizens of the Republic of Korea and members of the Korean diaspora, they generally refuse to exercise that status.
Open borders
An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions, this does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, though more authoritarian states may limit the freedom of internal movement of its citizens, as for example in the former USSR. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being European countries under the Schengen Agreement or the open Belarus-Russia border. Open borders used to be very common among all nations, however this became less common after the First World War, which led to the regulation of open borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialised nations.
Open borders are the norm for borders between subdivisions within the boundaries of sovereign states, though some countries do maintain internal border controls (for example between the People's Republic of China mainland and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau; or between the American mainland, the unincorporated territories other than Puerto Rico, and Hawaii. Open borders are also usual between member states of federations, though (very rarely) movement between member states may be controlled in exceptional circumstances. Federations, confederations and similar multi-national unions typically maintain external border controls through a collective border control system, though they sometimes have open borders with other non-member states through special international agreements such as between Schengen Agreement countries as mentioned above.
Presently, open border agreements of various types are in force in several areas around the world, as outlined below:
Asia and Oceania:
Under the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India and Nepal maintain a similar arrangement to the CTA and the Union State. Indians and Nepalis are not subject to any migration controls in each other's countries and there are few controls on land travel by citizens across the border.
India and Bhutan also have a similar programme in place The border between Jaigaon, in the Indian state of West Bengal, and the city of Phuentsholing is essentially open, and although there are internal checkpoints, Indians (as outlined under the Visa policy of Bhutan are allowed to proceed throughout Bhutan with a voter's ID or an identity slip from the Indian consulate in Phuentsholing. Similarly, Bhutanese passport holders enjoy free movement in India.
Thailand and Cambodia: Whilst not as liberal as the policies concerning the Indo-Nepalese and Indo-Bhutanese borders, Thailand and Cambodia have begun issuing combined visas to certain categories of tourists applying at specific Thai or Cambodian embassies and consulates in order to enable freer border crossings between the two countries. The policy is currently in force for nationals of America and several European (primarily EU, EEA, and GCC) and Oceanian countries as well as for Indian and Chinese nationals residing in Singapore.
Australia and New Zealand: Similar to the agreement between India and Nepal, Trans-Tasman Travel Arrangement between Australia and New Zealand is a free movement agreement citizens of each country to travel freely between them and allowing citizens and some permanent residents to reside, visit, work, study in the other country for an indefinite period, with some restrictions. The arrangement came into effect in 1973, and allows citizens of each country to reside and work in the other country, with some restrictions. Other details of the arrangement have varied over time. From 1 July 1981, all people entering Australia (including New Zealand citizens) have been required to carry a passport. Since 1 September 1994 Australia, has had a universal visa requirement, and to specifically cater for the continued free movement of New Zealanders to Australia, the Special Category Visa was introduced for New Zealanders.
Central America :The Central America-4 Border Control Agreement abolishes border controls for land travel between El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Guatemala. However, this does not apply to air travel.
Europe and the Middle East
Union State of Russia and Belarus The Union State of Russia and Belarus is a supranational union of Russia and Belarus, which eliminates all border controls between the two nations. Before a visa agreement was signed in 2020, each country maintained its own visa policies, thus resulting in non-citizens of the two countries generally being barred from travelling directly between the two. However, since the visa agreement was signed, each side recognises the other's visas, which means that third-country citizens can enter both countries with a visa from either country.
Western Europe: The two most significant free travel areas in Western Europe are the Schengen Area, in which very little if any border control is generally visible, and the Common Travel Area (CTA), which partially eliminates such controls for nationals of the United Kingdom and Ireland. Between countries in the Schengen Area, and to an extent within the CTA on the British Isles, internal border control is often virtually unnoticeable, and often only performed by means of random car or train searches in the hinterland, while controls at borders with non-member states may be rather strict.
Gulf Cooperation Council: Members of the Gulf Cooperation Council, or GCC, allow each other's citizens freedom of movement in an arrangement similar to the CTA and to that between India and Nepal. Between 5 June 2017 and 5 January 2021, freedom of movement in Saudi Arabia, the UAE, and Bahrain was suspended for Qataris as a result of the Saudi-led blockade of the country.
Hostile environment policies
Certain jurisdictions gear their immigration policies toward creating a hostile environment for undocumented migrants in order to deter migration by creating an unwelcoming atmosphere for potential and existing immigrants. Notably, the British Home Office adopted a set of administrative and legislative measures designed to make staying in the United Kingdom as difficult as possible for people without leave to remain, in the hope that they may "voluntarily leave". The Home Office policy was first announced in 2012 under the Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition. The policy was implemented pursuant to the 2010 Conservative Party Election Manifesto. The policy has been criticised for being unclear, has led to many incorrect threats of deportation and has been called "Byzantine" by the England and Wales Court of Appeal for its complexity.
Similarly, anti-immigration movements in America have advocated for policies aimed at creating a hostile environment for intended and existing immigrants at various points in history. Historical examples include the nativist Know Nothing movement of the mid-19th century, which advocated hostile policies against Catholic immigrants; the Workingman's Party, which promoted xenophobic attitudes toward Asians in California during the late-19th century, a sentiment that ultimately led to the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882; the Immigration Restriction League, which advocated xenophobic policies against southern and eastern Europe during the late-19th and early 20th centuries, and the joint congressional Dillingham Commission. Following World War I, these cumulatively resulted in the highly restrictive Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and the Immigration Act of 1924. Over the first two decades of the 20th century, the Republican Party adopted an increasingly nativist platform, advocating against sanctuary cities and in favour of building a wall with Mexico and reducing the number of immigrants permitted to settle in the country. Ultimately, President Donald Trump's administration furthered many of these policy goals, including the adoption of harsh policies such as the Remain in Mexico and family separation policies vis à vis refugees and migrants arriving from Central America via Mexico. Islamophobic policies such as the travel ban targeted primarily at Muslim-majority countries also feature prominently in attempts to create a hostile environment for immigrants perceived by populists as not belonging to the predominant WASP culture in America.
India's citizenship registration policy serves to create a hostile environment for the country's Muslim community in the regions in which it has been implemented. The Indian government is presently in the process of building several detention camps throughout India in order to detain people not listed on the register. On 9 January 2019, the Union government released a '2019 Model Detention Manual', which stated that every city or district, having a major immigration check post, must have a detention centre. The guidelines suggest detention centres with 3 m high boundary walls covered with barbed wires.
International zones
An international zone is any area not fully subject to the border control policies of the state in which it is located. There are several types of international zones ranging from special economic zones and sterile zones at ports of entry exempt from customs rules to concessions over which administration is ceded to one or more foreign states. International zones may also maintain distinct visa policies from the rest of the surrounding state.
Internal border controls
Internal border controls are measures implemented to control the flow of people or goods within a given country. Such measures take a variety of forms ranging from the imposition of border checkpoints to the issuance of internal travel documents and vary depending on the circumstances in which they are implemented. Circumstances resulting in internal border controls include increasing security around border areas (e.g. internal checkpoints in America or Bhutan near border regions), preserving the autonomy of autonomous or minority areas (e.g. border controls between Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah, and Sarawak; border controls between Hong Kong, Macau, and mainland China), preventing unrest between ethnic groups (e.g. Northern Ireland's peace walls, border controls in Tibet and Northeastern India), and disputes between rival governments (e.g. between the Republic of China and the People's Republic of China).
During the COVID-19 pandemic, temporary internal border controls were introduced in jurisdictions across the globe. For instance, travel between Australian states and territories was prohibited or restricted by state governments at various points of the pandemic either in conjunction with sporadic lockdowns or as a stand-alone response to COVID-19 outbreaks in neighbouring states. Internal border controls were also introduced at various stages of Malaysia's Movement Control Order, per which interstate travel was restricted depending on the severity of ongoing outbreaks. Similarly, internal controls were introduced by national authorities within the Schengen Area, though the European Union ultimately rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen Agreement per se.
Asia
Internal border controls exist in many parts of Asia. For example, travellers visiting minority regions in India and China often require special permits to enter. Internal air and rail travel within non-autonomous portions of India and mainland China also generally require travel documents to be checked by government officials as a form of interior border checkpoint. For such travel within India, Indian citizens may utilise their Voter ID, National Identity Card, passport, or other proof of Indian citizenship whilst Nepali nationals may present any similar proof of Napali citizenship. Meanwhile, for such travel within mainland China, Chinese nationals from the mainland are required to use their national identity cards.
Within China, extensive border controls are maintained for those travelling between the mainland, special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau, and areas controlled by the Republic of China. Foreign nationals need to present their passports or other required types of travel documents when travelling between these areas. For Chinese nationals (including those with British National (Overseas) status), there are special documents for travel between these territories. Similar arrangements exist for travel between territories controlled by the Republic of China and territories controlled by the People's Republic of China. Internal border controls in China have also resulted in the creation of special permits allowing Chinese citizens to immigrate to or reside in other immigration areas within the country.
China also maintains distinct, relaxed border control policies in the Special Economic Zones of Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Xiamen. Nationals of most countries can obtain a limited area visa upon arrival in these regions, which permit them to stay within these cities without proceeding further into other parts of Mainland China. Visas for Shenzhen are valid for 5 days, and visas for Xiamen and Zhuhai are valid for 3 days. The duration of stay starts from the next day of arrival. The visa can only be obtained only upon arrival at Luohu Port, Huanggang Port Control Point, Fuyong Ferry Terminal or Shekou Passenger Terminal for Shenzhen; Gongbei Port of Entry, Hengqin Port or Jiuzhou Port for Zhuhai; and Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport for Xiamen.
Similarly, China permits nationals of non—visa-exempt ASEAN countries to visit Guilin without a visa for a maximum of 6 days if they travel with an approved tour group and enter China from Guilin Liangjiang International Airport. They may not visit other cities within Guangxi or other parts of Mainland China.
Meanwhile, in Bhutan, a microstate accessible by road only through India, there are interior border checkposts (primarily on the Lateral Road) and, additionally, certain areas require special permits to enter, whilst visitors not proceeding beyond the border city of Phuentsholing do not need permits to enter for the day (although such visitors are de facto subject to Indian visa policy since they must proceed through Jaigaon). Individuals who are not citizens of India, Bangladesh, or the Maldives must obtain both their visa and any regional permits required through a licensed tour operator prior to arriving in the country. Citizens of India, Bangladesh, and the Maldives may apply for regional permits for restricted areas online.
More generally, authorities in mainland China maintain a system of residency registration known as hukou (), by which government permission is needed to formally change one's place of residence. It is enforced with identity cards. This system of internal border control measures effectively limited internal migration before the 1980s but subsequent market reforms caused it to collapse as a means of migration control. An estimated 150 to 200 million people are part of the "blind flow" and have unofficially migrated, generally from poor, rural areas to wealthy, urban ones. However, unofficial residents are often denied official services such as education and medical care and are sometimes subject to both social and political discrimination. In essence, the denial of social services outside an individual's registered area of residence functions as an internal border control measure geared toward dissuading migration within the mainland.
The Hộ khẩu system in Vietnam is similar to the Hukou system in mainland China. Local authorities issue each household a "household registration book" or sổ hộ khẩu, in which the basic biographical information of each household member is recorded. The sổ hộ khẩu is the ultimate legal proof of residence in Vietnam. Together with the "citizen identification card" or giấy chứng minh nhân dân/căn cước công dân, the sổ hộ khẩu constitutes the most important legal identification document in Vietnam. Modelled after the Chinese hukou system and originally used in urban areas only, hộ khẩu functioned as a way to manage urban growth and limit how many people moved, as well as who moved in and out of the cities. Gradually, the system became a universal method of control as its application expanded to the countryside. Presently, the system defines four types of residence, KT1 through KT4. KT1 is the primary and permanent type of residence, and denotes a person's primary residential address. If this person moves on a semi-permanent basis to another place within the same province or national municipality (within Saigon, for example), then he or she needs to register for a KT2 residential status at that new address. If this same move happens across provincial borders, then the person has to sign up for a KT3 registration. For migrant workers and students temporarily residing outside of their province or national municipality of permanent residence, they need to apply for a KT4 registration. Navigating this matrix of regulations is tough. But the public security apparatus that manages the hộ khẩu system is also difficult to deal with, especially if one is a poor migrant worker with little to no formal education. Yet hộ khẩu remains absolutely crucial, especially for the poor. It is tied to access to welfare benefits, and, in the case of children, the right to attend public school. For a migrant family in Saigon with no KT3 or KT4 registration, subsidised medical care, poverty assistance, and almost-free schooling are all out of reach. Much like its counterpart in mainland China, the denial of services outside an individual's place of registered residence resulting from this system of internal border control serves to dissuade internal migration.
Another example is the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, which have maintained their own border controls since joining Malaysia in 1963. The internal border control is asymmetrical; while Sabah and Sarawak impose immigration control on Malaysian citizens from other states, there is no corresponding border control in Peninsular Malaysia, and Malaysians from Sabah and Sarawak have unrestricted right to live and work in the Peninsular. For social and business visits less than three months, Malaysian citizens may travel between the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak using the Malaysian identity card (MyKad) or Malaysian passport, while for longer stays in Sabah and Sarawak they are required to have an Internal Travel Document or a passport with the appropriate residential permit.
The most restrictive internal border controls are in North Korea. Citizens are not allowed to travel outside their areas of residence without explicit authorisation, and access to the capital city of Pyongyang is heavily restricted. Similar restrictions are imposed on tourists, who are only allowed to leave Pyongyang on government-authorised tours to approved tourist sites.
Europe
An example from Europe is the implementation of border controls on travel between Svalbard, which maintains a policy of free migration as a result of the Svalbard Treaty and the Schengen Area, which includes the rest of Norway. Other examples of effective internal border controls in Europe include the closed cities of certain CIS members, areas of Turkmenistan that require special permits to enter, restrictions on travel to the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region in Tajikistan, and (depending on whether Northern and Southern Cyprus are considered separate countries) the Cypriot border. Similarly, Iraq's Kurdistan region maintains a separate and more liberal visa and customs area from the rest of the country, even allowing visa free entry for Israelis whilst the rest of the country bans them from entering. Denmark also maintains a complex system of subnational countries which, unlike the Danish mainland, are outside the European Union and maintain autonomous customs policies. In addition to the numerous closed cities of Russia, parts of 19 subjects of the Russian Federation are closed for foreigners without special permits and are consequently subject to internal border controls.
Another complex border control situation in Europe pertains to the United Kingdom. Whilst the crown dependencies are within the Common Travel Area, neither Gibraltar nor the sovereign British military exclaves of Akrotiri and Dhekelia are. The former maintains its own border control policies, thus requiring physical border security at its border with the Schengen Area as well as the implementation of border controls for travellers proceeding directly between Gibraltar and the British mainland. The latter maintains a relatively open border with Southern Cyprus, though not with Northern Cyprus. Consequently, it is a de facto member of the Schengen Area and travel to or from the British mainland requires border controls. On 31 December 2020, Spain and the United Kingdom reached an agreement in principle under which Gibraltar would join the Schengen Area, clearing the way for the European Union and the UK to start formal negotiations on the matter.
In the aftermath of Brexit, border controls for goods flowing between Great Britain and Northern Ireland were introduced in accordance with the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland agreed to as part of the UK's withdrawal agreement with the EU. Due to the thirty-year internecine conflict in Northern Ireland, the UK-Ireland border has had a special status since that conflict was ended by the Belfast Agreement/Good Friday Agreement of 1998. As part of the Northern Ireland Peace Process, the border has been largely invisible, without any physical barrier or custom checks on its many crossing points; this arrangement was made possible by both countries' common membership of both the EU's Single Market and Customs Union and of their Common Travel Area. Upon the UK's withdrawal from the European Union, the border in Ireland became the only land border between the UK and EU. EU single market and UK internal market provisions require certain customs checks and trade controls at their external borders. The Northern Ireland Protocol is intended to protect the EU single market, while avoiding imposition of a 'hard border' that might incite a recurrence of conflict and destabilise the relative peace that has held since the end of the Troubles. Under the Protocol, Northern Ireland is formally outside the EU single market, but EU free movement of goods rules and EU Customs Union rules still apply; this ensures there are no customs checks or controls between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island. In place of an Ireland/Northern Ireland land border, the protocol has created a de facto customs border down the Irish Sea for customs purposes, separating Northern Ireland from the island of Great Britain, to the disquiet of prominent Unionists. To operate the terms of the protocol, the United Kingdom must provide border control posts at Northern Ireland's ports: actual provision of these facilities is the responsibility of Northern Ireland's Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA). Temporary buildings were put in place for 1 January 2021, but in February 2021, the responsible Northern Ireland minister, Gordon Lyons (DUP), ordered officials to stop work on new permanent facilities and to stop recruiting staff for them. In its half yearly financial report 26 August 2021, Irish Continental Group, which operates ferries between Great Britain and the Republic of Ireland, expressed concern at the lack of implementation of checks on goods arriving into Northern Ireland from Great Britain, as required under the protocol. The company said that the continued absence of these checks (on goods destined for the Republic of Ireland) is causing a distortion in the level playing field, since goods that arrive directly into Republic of Ireland ports from Great Britain are checked on arrival. The implementation of border controls between Great Britain and Northern Ireland was the primary catalyst for the 2021 Northern Ireland riots.
An unusual example of internal border controls pertains to customs enforcement within the Schengen area. Even though borders are generally invisible, the existence of areas within the Schengen area but outside the European Union Value Added Tax Area, as well as jurisdictions such as Andorra which are not officially a part of the Schengen area but can not be accessed without passing through it, has resulted in the existence of sporadic internal border controls for customs purposes. Additionally, as per Schengen area rules, hotels and other types of commercial accommodation must register all foreign citizens, including citizens of other Schengen states, by requiring the completion of a registration form by their own hand. The Schengen rules do not require any other procedures; thus, the Schengen states are free to regulate further details on the content of the registration forms, and identity documents which are to be produced, and may also require the persons exempted from registration by Schengen laws to be registered. A Schengen state is also permitted to reinstate border controls with another Schengen country for a short period where there is a serious threat to that state's "public policy or internal security" or when the "control of an external border is no longer ensured due to exceptional circumstances". When such risks arise out of foreseeable events, the state in question must notify the European Commission in advance and consult with other Schengen states. Since the implementation of the Schengen Agreement, this provision has been invoked frequently by member states, especially in response to the European migrant crisis.
The Israeli military maintains an intricate network of internal border controls within Israeli and Palestinian territory restricting the freedom of movement of Palestinians, composed of permanent, temporary, and random manned checkpoints in the West Bank; the West Bank Barrier; and restrictions on the usage of roads by Palestinians. Spread throughout the State of Israel and the areas of the State of Palestine under de facto Israeli control, internal border control measures are a key feature of Israeli and Palestinian life and are among the most restrictive in the world. Additionally, the blockade of the Gaza Strip results in a de facto domestic customs and immigration border for Palestinians. In order to clear internal border controls, Palestinians are required to obtain a variety of permits from Israeli authorities depending on the purpose and area of their travel. The legality and impact of this network of internal border controls is controversial. B'Tselem, an Israeli non-governmental organisation that monitors human rights in Palestine, argues that they breach the rights guaranteed by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights—in particular, the right to a livelihood, the right to an acceptable standard of living, the right to satisfactory nutrition, clothing, and housing, and the right to attain the best standard of physical and mental health. B'Tselem also argues that the restrictions on ill, wounded and pregnant Palestinians seeking acute medical care is in contravention of international law that states that medical professionals and the sick must be granted open passage. While Israeli Supreme Court has deemed the measures acceptable for security reasons, Haaretzs Amira Hass argues this policy defies one of the principles of the Oslo Accords, which states that Gaza and the West Bank constitute a single geographic unit.
Much like relations between Jewish settlers in Israel and the native Palestinian population, strained intercommunal relations in Northern Ireland between Irish Catholics and the descendants of Protestant settlers from England and Scotland have resulted in de facto internal checkpoints. The peace lines are an internal border security measure to separate predominantly republican and nationalist Catholic neighbourhoods from predominantly loyalist and unionist Protestant neighbourhoods. They have been in place in some form or another since the end of The Troubles in 1998, with the Good Friday Agreement. The majority of peace walls are located in Belfast, but they also exist in Derry, Portadown, and Lurgan, with more than 32 kilometres of walls in Northern Ireland. The peace lines range in length from a few hundred metres to over 5 kilometres. They may be made of iron, brick, steel or a combination of the three and are up to 8 metres high. Some have gates in them (sometimes staffed by police) that allow passage during daylight but are closed at night.
North America
Contemporary
Multiple types of internal border controls exist in the United States. While the American territories of Guam and the Northern Mariana Islands follow the same visa policy as the mainland, together, they also maintain their own visa waiver programme for certain nationalities. Since the two territories are outside the customs territory of the United States, there are customs inspections when travelling between them, and the rest of the U.S. American Samoa has its own customs and immigration regulations, thus travelling between it and other American jurisdictions involves both customs and immigration inspections. The Virgin Islands are a special case, falling within the American immigration zone and solely following American visa policy, but being a customs free territory. As a result, there are no immigration checks between the two, but travellers arriving in Puerto Rico or the American mainland directly from the Virgin Islands are subject to border control for customs inspection. The United States also maintains interior checkpoints, similar to those maintained by Bhutan, along its borders with Mexico and Canada, subjecting people to border controls even after they have entered the country.
The Akwesasne nation; with territory in Ontario, Quebec, and New York; features several de facto internal border controls. As a result of protests by Akwesasne residents on their rights to cross the border unimpeded, as provided under the 1795 Jay Treaty, the Canada Border Services Agency closed its post on Cornwall Island, instead requiring travellers to proceed to the checkpoint in the city of Cornwall. As a consequence of the arrangement, residents of the island are required to clear border controls when proceeding North to the Ontarian mainland, as well as when proceeding South to Akwesasne territory in New York, thus constituting internal controls both from a Canadian perspective and from the perspective of the Akwesasne nation. Similarly, travelling between Canada and the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation requires driving through the state of New York, meaning that individuals will be required to clear American controls when leaving Quebec proper and to clear Canadian border controls when entering Quebec proper, though Canada does not impose border controls when entering the Quebec portion of the Akwesasne nation. Nevertheless, for residents who assert a Haudenosaunee national identity distinct from Canadian or American citizenship, the intricate network of Canadian and American border controls are seen as a foreign-imposed system of internal border controls, similar to the Israeli checkpoints in Palestinian territory.
The city of Hyder, Alaska has also been subject to internal border controls since America chose to stop regulating arrivals in Hyder from British Columbia. Since travellers exiting Hyder into Stewart, British Columbia are subject to Canadian border controls, it is theoretically possible for someone to accidentally enter Hyder from Canada without their travel documents and then to face difficulties since both America and Canada would subject them to border controls that require travel documents. At the same time, however, the northern road connecting Hyder to uninhabited mountain regions of British Columbia is equipped with neither American nor Canadian border controls, meaning that tourists from Canada proceeding northwards from Hyder are required to complete Canadian immigration formalities when they return to Stewart despite never having cleared American immigration.
Historical
In the past, internal border control measures were utilised by authorities in North America to control the movements of Indigenous or enslaved persons. Such systems typically took the form of an internal passport required for Indigenous or enslaved individuals to travel beyond their reserve or plantation.
In 1885 the "pass system" of internal border controls targeting Indigenous peoples was instituted in Canada. Introduced at the time of the North-West Rebellion, it remained in force until 1951. Any Indigenous person caught outside his Indian reserve without a pass issued by an Indian agent was returned to the reserve or incarcerated.
Throughout the Thirteen Colonies before the Revolutionary War, slaves confined to homes or agricultural plantations, or whose movements were limited by curfews, could be required to furnish written evidence their owner had granted an exemption to permit their free movement. For example, the New Hampshire Assembly in 1714 passed "An Act To Prevent Disorders In The Night": Notices emphasizing the curfew were published in The New Hampshire Gazette in 1764 and 1771.
Internal passports were required for African Americans in the southern slave states before the American Civil War, for example, an authenticated internal passport dated 1815 was presented to Massachusetts citizen George Barker to allow him to freely travel as a free black man to visit relatives in slave states. After many of these states seceded, forming the Confederate States of America, the Confederate government introduced internal passports for whites as well.
Realm of New Zealand
Tokelau, Niue, and the Cook Islands (Cook Islands Māori: Kūki 'Āirani) maintain independent and less restrictive border controls from New Zealand. The Cook Islands further maintain a separate nationality law. Additionally, border controls for Tokelau are complicated by the fact that the territory is, for the most part, only accessible via Samoa.
Apartheid-era South Africa
In South Africa prior to the end of Apartheid, pass laws were a form of internal passport system designed to segregate the population, manage urbanisation, and allocate migrant labour. Also known as the natives' law, pass laws severely limited the movements of not only black African citizens, but other people as well by requiring or designated areas. Before the 1950s, this legislation largely applied to African men, and attempts to apply it to women in the 1910s and 1950s were met with significant protests. Pass laws were one of the dominant features of the country's apartheid system until it was effectively ended in 1986. The first internal passports in South Africa were introduced on 27 June 1797 by the Earl Macartney in an attempt to prevent Africans from entering the Cape Colony. The Cape Colony was merged with the two Afrikaners republics in southern Africa to form the Union of South Africa in 1910. By this time, versions of pass laws existed elsewhere. A major boost for their utilization was the rise of the mining sector from the 1880s: pass laws provided a convenient means of controlling workers' mobility and enforcing contracts. In 1896 the South African Republic brought in two pass laws which required Africans to carry a metal badge. Only those employed by a master were permitted to remain on the Rand. Those entering a "labour district" needed a special pass which entitled them to remain for three days. The Natives (Urban Areas) Act of 1923 deemed urban areas in South Africa as "white" and required all black African men in cities and towns to carry around permits called "passes" at all times. Anyone found without a pass would be arrested immediately and sent to a rural area. It was replaced in 1945 by the Natives (Urban Areas) Consolidation Act, which imposed "influx control" on black men and also set up guidelines for removing people deemed to be living idle lives from urban areas. This act outlined requirements for African peoples' "qualification" to reside legally in white metropolitan areas. To do so, they had to have Section 10 rights, based on whether
the person had been born there and resided there always since birth;
the person had laboured continuously for ten years in any agreed area for any employer, or lived continuously in any such area for fifteen years;
The Black (Natives) Laws Amendment Act of 1952 amended the 1945 Native Urban Areas Consolidation Act, stipulating that all black people over the age of 16 were required to carry passes and that no black person could stay in an urban area more than 72 hours unless allowed to by Section 10. The Natives (Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of Documents) Act of 1952, commonly known as the Pass Laws Act, repealed the many regional pass laws and instituted one nationwide pass law, which made it compulsory for all black South Africans over the age of 16 to carry the "passbook" at all times within white areas. The law stipulated where, when, and for how long a person could remain.
The document was similar to an internal passport, containing details on the bearer such as their fingerprints, photograph, the name of his/her employer, his/her address, how long the bearer had been employed, as well as other identification information. Employers often entered a behavioural evaluation, on the conduct of the pass holder. An employer was defined under the law and could only be a white person. The pass also documented permission requested and denied or granted to be in a certain region and the reason for seeking such permission. Under the terms of the law, any government employee could strike out such entries, basically cancelling the permission to remain in the area. A passbook without a valid entry then allowed officials to arrest and imprison the bearer of the pass. These passes often became the most despised symbols of apartheid. The resistance to the Pass Law led to many thousands of arrests and was the spark that ignited the Sharpeville Massacre on 21 March 1960, and led to the arrest of Robert Sobukwe that day.
Specific requirements
The degree of strictness of border controls varies across countries and borders. In some countries, controls may be targeted at the traveller's religion, ethnicity, nationality, or other countries that have been visited. Others may need to be certain the traveller has paid the appropriate fees for their visas and has future travel planned out of the country. Yet others may concentrate on the contents of the traveller's baggage, and imported goods to ensure nothing is being carried that might bring a biosecurity risk into the country.
Biometrics
Several countries require all travellers, or all foreign travellers, to be fingerprinted on arrival and refuse admission to or arrest travellers who refuse to comply. In some countries, such as America, this may apply even to transit passengers proceeding to a third country. Many countries also require a photo be taken of people entering the country. America, which does not fully implement exit control formalities at its land frontiers (although long mandated by domestic legislation), intends to implement facial recognition for passengers departing from international airports to identify people who overstay their visa. Together with fingerprint and face recognition, iris scanning is one of three biometric identification technologies internationally standardised since 2006 by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) for use in e-passports and the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. The Department of Homeland Security has announced plans to greatly increase the biometric data it collects at American borders. In 2018, Singapore began trials of iris scanning at three land and maritime immigration checkpoints.
Immigration stamps
An immigration stamp is an inked impression in a passport or other travel document typically made by rubber stamp upon entering or exiting a territory. Depending on the jurisdiction, a stamp can serve different purposes. For example, in the United Kingdom, an immigration stamp in a passport includes the formal leave to enter granted to a person subject to entry control. In other countries, a stamp activates or acknowledges the continuing leave conferred in the passport bearer's entry clearance. Under the Schengen system, a foreign passport is stamped with a date stamp which does not indicate any duration of stay. This means that the person is deemed to have permission to remain either for three months or for the period shown on his visa if specified otherwise. Member states of the European Union are not permitted to place a stamp in the passport of a person who is not subject to immigration control. Stamping is prohibited because it is an imposition of a control to which the person is not subject. Passport stamps may occasionally take the form of sticker stamps, such as entry stamps from Japan. Depending on nationality, a visitor may not receive a stamp at all (unless specifically requested), such as an EU or EFTA citizen travelling to an EU or EFTA country, Albania, or North Macedonia. Most countries issue exit stamps in addition to entry stamps. A few countries issue only entry stamps, including Canada, El Salvador, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, Singapore, United Kingdom and the America. Australia, Hong Kong, Israel, Macau and South Korea do not stamp passports upon entry nor exit. These countries or regions issue landing slips instead, with the exception of Australia who do not issue any form of physical evidence of entry. Visas may also take the form of passport stamps.
Immigration authorities usually have different styles of stamps for entries and exits, to make it easier to identify the movements of people. Ink colour might be used to designate mode of transportation (air, land or sea), such as in Hong Kong prior to 1997; while border styles did the same thing in Macau. Other variations include changing the size of the stamp to indicate length of stay, as in Singapore.
In many cases passengers on cruise ships do not receive passport stamps because the entire vessel has been cleared into port. It is often possible to get a souvenir stamp, although this requires finding the immigration office by the dock. In many cases officials are used to such requests and will cooperate. Also, as noted below, some of the smallest European countries will give a stamp on request, either at their border or tourist office charging, at most, a nominal fee.
Exit controls
Whilst most countries implement border controls both at entry and at exit, some jurisdictions do not. For instance, the United States and Canada do not implement exit controls at land borders and collect exit data on foreign nationals through airlines and through information sharing with neighbouring countries' entry border controls. These countries consequently don't issue exit stamps even to travellers who require stamps on entry. Similarly, Australia, Singapore and South Korea have eliminated exit stamps even though they continue to implement brief border control checks upon exit for most foreign nationals. In countries where there is no formal control by immigration officials of travel documents upon departure, exit information may be recorded by immigration authorities using information provided to them by transport operators.
No exit control:
United States of America
Canada
Mexico (by air, but entrance declaration coupon is collected)
Bahamas
Ireland
United Kingdom
Formal exit control without passport stamping:
Albania (Entry & Exit stamp may issued upon request)
Australia (Exit stamp issued upon explicit request)
China (Exit stamp issued upon request when using e-Gate)
Costa Rica (only at Costa Rican airports; different entry and exit stamps are made at the border crossing with Panama)
El Salvador
Fiji
Hong Kong (no entry or exit stamps are issued, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival only)
Iran
Israel (no entry or exit stamps are issued at Ben Gurion Airport, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival and departure)
Japan (Exit stamp issued upon request & when not using e-Gate since July 2019)
Macau (no entry or exit stamps are issued, instead landing slips are issued upon arrival only)
New Zealand
South Korea (since 1 November 2016)
Panama (only at Panamanian airports; different entry and exit stamps are made at the border crossing with Costa Rica)
Republic of China (exit stamp issued upon request & when not using e-Gate)
Singapore (no exit stamps since 22 April 2019)
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Schengen Area countries (when the Entry Exit System becomes operational in 2022, it is anticipated that the passports of third-country nationals will not be stamped when they enter and leave the Schengen Area)
Exit permits
Some countries in Europe maintain controversial exit visa systems in addition to regular border controls. For instance, Uzbekistan requires its own citizens to obtain exit visas prior to leaving for countries other than fellow CIS nations in eastern Europe. Several countries in the Arabian peninsula require exit visas for foreign workers under the Kafala System meaning "sponsorship system"). Russia occasionally requires foreigners who overstay to obtain exit visas since one cannot exit Russia without a valid visa. Czechia has a similar policy. Similarly, a foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs an exit visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). Not all foreign citizens are subject to that requirement. Citizens of Germany, for example, do not require this exit visa. During the Cold War, countries in the Eastern Bloc maintained strict controls on citizens’ ability to travel abroad. Citizens of the Soviet Union, East Germany, and other communist states were typically required to obtain permission prior to engaging in international travel. Unlike most of these states, citizens of Yugoslavia enjoyed a significant freedom of international movement.
Certain Asian countries have policies that similarly require certain categories of citizens to seek official authorisation prior to travelling or emigrating. This is usually either as a way to enforce national service obligations or to protect migrant workers from travelling to places where they may be abused by employers. Singapore, for instance, operates an Exit Permit scheme in order to enforce the national service obligations of its male citizens and permanent residents. These restrictions vary according to age and status. South Korea and Taiwan have similar policies. India, on the other hand, requires citizens who have not met certain educational requirements (and thus may be targeted by human traffickers or be coerced into modern slavery) to apply for approval prior to leaving the country and endorses their passports with "Emigration Check Required". Nepal similarly requires citizens emigrating to America on an H-1B visa to present an exit permit issued by the Ministry of Labour. This document is called a work permit and needs to be presented to immigration to leave the country. In a bid to increase protection for the large amount of Indian, Bangladeshi, Chinese, and Nepali citizens smuggled through Indian airports to the Middle East as underpaid labourers, many Indian airline companies require travellers to obtain an 'OK to Board' confirmation sent directly from visa authorities in certain GCC countries directly to the airline and will bar anyone who has not obtained this endorsement from clearing exit immigration.
Eritrea requires the vast majority of its citizens to apply for special authorisation if they wish to leave, or even travel within, the country.
Travel documents
Border control policies typically require travellers to present valid travel documents in order to ascertain their identity, nationality or permanent residence status, and eligibility to enter a given jurisdiction. The most common form of travel document is the passport, a booklet-form identity document issued by national authorities or the governments of certain subnational territories containing an individual's personal information as well as space for the authorities of other jurisdictions to affix stamps, visas, or other permits authorising the bearer to enter, reside, or travel within their territory. Certain jurisdictions permit individuals to clear border controls using identity cards, which typically contain similar personal information.
Visas
A visa is a travel document issued to foreign nationals enabling them to clear border controls. They traditionally take the form of an adhesive sticker or, occasionally, a stamp affixed to a page in an individual's passport or equivalent document. Visas policies different purposes depending on the priorities of each jurisdiction, ranging from ensuring that visitors do not pose a national security risk or have sufficient financial resources to simply functioning as a tax on tourists, as is the case with countries like Mauritius and other leisure destinations which issue visas on arrival, electronic visas, or electronic travel authorisations (ETAs) to most or all visitors. Visas may include limits on the duration of the foreigner's stay, areas within the state they may enter, the dates they may enter, the number of permitted visits, or an individual's right to work in the state in question.
Many countries in Asia have liberalised their visa controls in recent years to encourage transnational business and tourism. For example, India, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka have introduced electronic visas to make border control less arduous for business travellers and tourists. Malaysia has introduced similar eVisa facilities, and has also introduced the eNTRI programme to expedite clearance for Indian citizens and Chinese citizens from the mainland. Thailand regularly issues visas on arrival to many non-exempt visitors at major ports of entry in order to encourage tourism. Indonesia, in recent years, has progressively liberalised its visa regime, no longer requiring visas or on-arrival visas from most nationals, while Singapore has signed visa waiver agreements with many countries in recent years and has introduced electronic visa facilities for Indians, Eastern Europeans, and mainland Chinese. This trend towards visa liberalisation in Asia is part of the regional trend toward social and economic globalisation that has been linked to heightened economic growth.
Certain countries, predominantly but not exclusively in western Europe and the Americas, issue working holiday visas for younger visitors to supplement their travel funds by working minor jobs. These are especially common in members of the European Union, and elsewhere in Europe.
Saudi Arabia issues a special category visa for people on religious pilgrimage. Similar policies are in force in other countries with significant religious sites.
Certain jurisdictions impose special visa requirements on journalists in order to curtail the freedom of foreign reporters and news organisations to report on controversial topics. Countries that impose such visas include Cuba, China, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, America and Zimbabwe.
As a consequence of awkward border situations created by the fall of the Soviet Union, certain former members of the USSR and their neighbours maintain special visa exemption policies for travellers transiting across international boundaries between two points in a single country. For instance, Russia permits vehicles to transit across the Saatse Boot between the Estonian villages of Lutepää and Sesniki without any visa or border checkpoint provided that they do not stop. Similar provisions are made for the issuance of Facilitated Rail Transit Documents by Schengen Area members for travel between Kaliningrad Oblast and the Russian mainland, enabling Russian citizens to travel to and from the exclave without a passport or visa.
Many countries let individuals clear border controls using foreign visas. Notably, the Philippines permits nationals of India and China can use any of several foreign visas to clear border controls. In order to encourage tourism by transit passengers, South Korea permits passengers in transit who would otherwise require a South Korean visa to enter for up to thirty days utilising an Australian, Canadian, American, or Schengen visa. Uniquely, the British territory of Bermuda has ceased to issue its own visas and instead requires that travellers either clear immigration visa-free in one of the three countries (Canada, America, and United Kingdom) to/from which it has direct flights, or hold a visa for one of them.
Beginning in the 2000s, many countries introduced e-visas and electronic travel authorisations (ETAs) as an alternative to traditional visas. An ETA is a kind of pre-arrival registration, which may or may not officially classified as a visa depending on the issuing jurisdiction, required for foreign travellers who are exempted from obtaining a full visa. In contrast to the procedures that typically apply in regard to proper visas, per which the traveller normally has no recourse if rejected, if an ETA is rejected the traveller can choose to apply for a visa instead. In contrast, an e-visa is simply a visa that travellers can apply for and receive online without visiting the issuing state's consular mission or visa agency. The following jurisdictions require certain categories of international travellers to hold an ETA or e-visa in order to clear border controls upon arrival:
Australia: Australia administers two distinct categories of ETA. The Electronic Travel Authority scheme is available to citizens of a variety of North America and Asian countries while the eVisitor scheme provides a similar facility for nationals of the European Union and the European Economic Area.
Electronic Travel Authority: Development of the Electronic Travel Authority system commenced in January 1996. It was first implemented in Singapore on a trial basis on 11 September 1996, for holders of Singaporean and American passports travelling on Qantas and Singapore Airlines. Implementation of online applications began in June 2001. The current ETA came into effect on 23 March 2013 replacing older ETAs (subclass 976, 977 and 956) while offering a single authorisation for both tourist and business purposes. The ETA allows the holder to visit Australia for unlimited times, up to 3 months per visit, in a 12-month period for tourism or business purposes. There is no visa application charge but a service charge of AU$20 applies for applications lodged online. At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an ETA must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more. The ETA is currently available to passport holders of a handful of jurisdictions in Asia and North America.
eVistor programme: The eVisitor scheme was established to create a reciprocal short stay travel arrangement for nationals of Australia and the European Union, while still maintaining Australia's universal visa system. In essence, while nationals of the European Union and European Economic Area are still theoretically issued visas, the burden posed by the system is so minimal as to satisfy the EU's requirement for visa reciprocity on the part of states whose nationals are accorded visa free access to the Schengen Area. The eVisitor is available to citizens of all 27 European Union member states and 9 other countries. The eVisitor is issued free of charge and allows the holder to visit Australia for unlimited times, up to 3 months per visit, in a 12-month period for tourism or business purposes. At the time of travel to, and entry into, Australia, all holders of an eVisitor must be free from tuberculosis and must not have any criminal convictions for which the sentence or sentences (whether served or not) total 12 months or more. Holders of most jurisdictions in Western Europe are eligible to enter Australia under the eVisitor programme.
East African Community: From February 2014, Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda issue an East African Tourist Visa. The visa costs 100 USD and has no restrictions on nationality. It is a non-extendable multiple-entry 90-day visa that has to be first used to enter the country that issued it.
Hong Kong: Indian nationals and Chinese nationals from areas administered by the Republic of China do not require a visa to enter Hong Kong, but must apply for a pre-arrival registration (PAR) prior to arrival. If not successful, Indian travellers may apply for a visa instead. Taiwanese people are eligible only if they were born in Taiwan or entered Hong Kong as an ROC nationals before, otherwise they should instead apply for an entry permit (a de facto visa) to enter Hong Kong using their Republic of China passport. They may alternatively enter Hong Kong using a Mainland Travel Permit for Taiwan Residents issued by Mainland Chinese authorities without any additional permit.
India: India permits nationals of most jurisdictions to clear border controls using an e-visa. Travellers holding an e-Visa must arrive via 26 designated airports or 3 designated seaports. As of September 2021, India has suspended the issuance of e-visas to British and Canadian citizens in retaliation for what the Indian government deems discriminatory application of COVID-19 restrictions targeted at Indian nationals.
Kenya: From 1 January 2021, Kenya solely issues e-visas and physical visas are no longer available.
New Zealand: New Zealand has required that visa waiver travellers (other than citizens of Australia, members of a visiting force, or individuals associated with a scientific programme or expedition in Antarctica sponsored by a party to the Antarctic Treaty) obtain an Electronic Travel Authority (NZeTA) since 1 October 2019.
North America: East of the Pacific, both America and Canada have introduced ETAs. Travellers from visa-free countries entering Canada by air, except American nationals (including those with and without full citizenship), must obtain an ETA prior to arrival but not if arriving by land or sea. Travellers under the Visa Waiver Programme are required to obtain permission through the Electronic System for Travel Authorisation if arriving in America by air or cruise but not if entering by land or by ferry, using a passport issued by the Government of Bermuda to a British Overseas Territories Citizen, or if entering as a Canadian citizen. Travellers from Brazil normally require a visa to enter Canada, but are eligible to apply for an ETA if they have held a Canadian visa within the 10 years prior to applying, or if they currently hold a valid non-immigrant American visa. Such travellers still may not enter Canada by land or sea without a valid Canadian visa.
Pakistan: Visitors from several jurisdictions may enter Pakistan for tourism without obtaining a visa in advance provided they hold an ETA.
Sri Lanka: Travellers to Sri Lanka must obtain an ETA prior to getting a visa on arrival at the entry port, except for a few countries where the ETA is exempted, and for a few countries where a visa must be got in advance. Citizens of India, Pakistan, and other countries in the northwestern part of Asia receive discounted ETAs.
Qatar: From 27 September 2017, citizens of all nationalities who hold valid residence permits or visas from either Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the Schengen countries, the United Kingdom, the United States of America or the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council can obtain an ETA for up to 30 days. The visa may be extended online for 30 additional days. Qatar introduced an e-Visa system on 23 June 2017. All countries except , , and that do not qualify for visa on arrival or visa free entry may apply for a tourist visa online through the eVisa system. Visas are issued within four working days if all documents are submitted and are valid for a stay period up to 30 days in Qatar.
United Kingdom: Citizens of Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the UAE can obtain an Electronic Visa Waiver, or EVW, online to enter the United Kingdom.
Nationality and travel history
Many nations implement border controls restricting the entry of people of certain nationalities or who have visited certain countries. For instance Georgia refuses entry to holders of passports issued by the Republic of China. Similarly, since April 2017, nationals of Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sudan, Syria, Yemen, and Iran have been banned from entering the parts of eastern Libya under the control of the Tobruk government. The majority of Arab countries, as well as Iran and Malaysia, ban Israeli citizens, however exceptional entry to Malaysia is possible with approval from the Ministry of Home Affairs. Certain countries may also restrict entry to those with Israeli stamps or visas in their passports. As a result of tension over the Artsakh dispute, Azerbaijan currently forbids entry to Armenian citizens as well as to individuals with proof of travel to Artsakh.
Between September 2017 and January 2021, America did not issue new visas to nationals of Iran, North Korea, Libya, Somalia, Syria, or Yemen pursuant to restrictions imposed by the Trump administration, which were subsequently repealed by the Biden administration on 20 January 2021. While in force, the restrictions were conditional and could be lifted if the countries affected meet the required security standards specified by the Trump administration, and dual citizens of these countries could still enter if they presented a passport from a non-designated country.
Prescreening
A significant number of countries maintain prescreening facilities for passengers departing from other jurisdictions to clear border controls prior to arrival and thereby skip checkpoints upon arrival. Aside from simplifying arrival formalities, this enables border control authorities to deny entry to potentially inadmissible travellers prior to their embarking and to reduce congestion at border checkpoints located at ports of arrival.
Hong Kong and Mainland China: There are two border crossings between Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland that at which border controls imposed by the two jurisdictions are colocated:
West Kowloon Railway Station (): A component of the Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link (), West Kowloon Station contains a "Mainland Port Area ()", essentially enabling passengers and goods to clear mainland Chinese immigration on Hong Kong soil.
Shenzhen Bay Port (): The land border checkpoint at Shenzhen Bay Port in the mainland contains a Hong Kong Port Area () which enables passengers and goods to clear Hong Kong border controls in the mainland. The checkpoint is located in the Chinese mainland on land leased from the city of Shenzhen in Guangdong province. By enabling travellers to clear both Chinese and Hong Kong border controls in one place, it eliminates any need for a second checkpoint on the Hong Kong side of the Shenzhen Bay Bridge.
Singapore and Malaysia:
Woodlands Train Checkpoint (, , ): For cross-border rail passengers, Singaporean exit and Malaysian entry preclearance border controls are co-located at the Woodlands Train Checkpoint in Singapore, whilst Malaysian exit controls are located separately at Johor Bahru Sentral railway station in Malaysia.
Johor Bahru – Singapore Rapid Transit System (, , , RTS): The upcoming RTS connecting Singapore and Johor Bahru will feature border control preclearance both on the Singaporean side and on the Malaysian side. This will enable passengers arriving in Singapore from Malaysia or vice versa to proceed straight to their connecting transport, since the RTS will link to both the Singapore MRT system (Thomson-East Coast MRT Line) and Johor Bahru Sentral. Unlike the preclearance systems adopted in America and Hong Kong, but similar to the United Kingdom's juxtaposed controls, this system will mitigate arrival border controls on both sides of the border.
Malaysia and Thailand:
Padang Besar railway station (, ): The Padang Besar railway station in Padang Besar, Malaysia has co-located border control facilities for both Malaysia and Thailand, although the station is wholly located inside Malaysian territory (albeit just 200 metres south of the Malaysia-Thailand border). The facilities for each country operate from separate counters inside the railway station building at the platform level. Passengers entering Thailand clear Malaysian and Thai border formalities here in Malaysian territory before boarding their State Railway of Thailand trains which then cross the actual borderline several minutes after departing the station. Passengers from Thailand entering Malaysia are also processed here, using the same counters as there are no separate counters for processing entries and exits for either country.
United Kingdom and the Schengen Area: Border control for travel between the United Kingdom and the Schengen Area features significant prescreening under the juxtaposed controls programme for travel both by ferry and rail. This includes customs and immigration prescreening on both sides of the Channel Tunnel, and immigration-only prescreening for ferry passengers and on the Eurostar between the United Kingdom and stations located in Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. Eurostar and Eurotunnel passengers departing from the Schengen area go through both French, Dutch, or Belgian exit border control and British entry border controls before departures, while passengers departing from the United Kingdom, including those departing for Belgium or the Netherlands, undergo French border controls on British soil. For travel by ferry, French entry border control for ferries between Dover and Calais or Dunkerque take place at the Port of Dover, whilst French exit and British entry border control takes place at Calais and Dunkerque. For travel by rail, twelve juxtaposed border control checkpoints are currently in operation.
America: The American government operates border preclearance facilities at a number of ports and airports in foreign territory. They are staffed and operated by U.S. Customs and Border Protection officers. Travellers pass through American Immigration and Customs, Public Health, and Agriculture inspections before boarding their aircraft, ship, or train. This process is intended to streamline border procedures, reduce congestion at ports of entry, and facilitate travel between the preclearance location and American airports unequipped to handle international travellers. These facilities are present at the majority of major Canadian airports, as well as selected airports in Bermuda, Aruba, the Bahamas, Abu Dhabi and Ireland. Facilities located in Canada accept NEXUS cards and United States Passport cards (land/sea entry only) in lieu of passports. A preclearance facility is currently being planned at Dubai International Airport Citizens of the Bahamas who enter America through either of the two preclearance facilities in that country enjoy an exemption from the general requirement to hold a visa as long as they can sufficiently prove that they do not have a significant criminal record in either the Bahamas or America. All Bahamians applying for admission at a port-of-entry other than the pre-clearance facilities located in Nassau or Freeport International airports are required to be in possession of a valid visa. Preclearance facilities are also operated at Pacific Central Station, the Port of Vancouver, and the Port of Victoria in British Columbia, and there are plans to open one at Montreal Central Station in Quebec.
Informal prescreening: In some cases countries can introduce controls that functions as border controls but aren't border controls legally and don't need to be performed by government agencies. Normally they are performed and organised by private companies, based on a law that they have to check that passengers don't travel into a specific country if they aren't allowed to. Such controls can take effect in one country based on the law of another country without any formalised border control prescreening agreement in force. Even if they aren't border controls they function as such. The most prominent example is airlines which check passports and visa before passengers are allowed to board the aircraft. Also for some passenger boats such check are performed before boarding.
Expedited border controls
Certain countries and trade blocs establish programmes for high-frequency and/or low risk travellers to expedite border controls, subjecting them to lighter or automated checks, or priority border control facilities. In some countries, citizens or residents have access to automated facilities not available to foreigners. The following expedited border control programmes are currently in effect:
APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC): The APEC Business Travel Card, or ABTC, is an expedited border control programme for business travellers from APEC economies (excluding Canada and America). It provides visa exemptions and access to expedited border control facilities. ABTC holders are eligible for expedited border control at Canadian airports but not for any visa exemptions. ABTCs are generally issued only to citizens of APEC member countries, however Hong Kong issues them to Permanent Residents who are not Chinese citizens, a category primarily consisting of British, Indian, and Pakistani citizens. The use of ABTCs in China is restricted as a result of the One Country, Two Systems and One China policies. Chinese nationals from Hong Kong, Macau, and the Republic of China are required to use special internal travel documents to enter the mainland. Similar restrictions exist on the use of ABTC for Chinese citizens of other regions entering areas administered by the Republic of China. (see: Internal border controls).
: SmartGates located at major Australian airports allow Australian ePassport holders and ePassport holders of a number of other countries to clear immigration controls more rapidly, and to enhance travel security by performing passport control checks electronically. SmartGate uses facial recognition system to verify the traveller's identity against the data stored in the chip in their biometric passport, as well as checking against immigration databases. Travellers require a biometric passport to use SmartGate as it uses information from the passport (such as photograph, name and date of birth) and in the respective countries' databases (i.e. banned travellers database) to decide whether to grant entry or departure from Australia or to generate a referral to a customs agent. These checks would otherwise require manual processing by a human which is time-consuming, costly and potentially error-prone.
British Isles: ePassport gates in the British Isles are operated by the UK Border Force and the Irish Naturalisation and Immigration Service, and are located at immigration checkpoints in the arrival halls of some airports across the British Isles, offering an alternative to using desks staffed by immigration officers. The gates use facial recognition system to verify the user's identity by comparing the user's facial features to those recorded in the photograph stored in the chip in their biometric passport. British citizens, European Economic Area citizens and citizens of Australia, Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and America as well as Chinese citizens of Hong Kong who are enrolled in the Registered Traveller Service, can use ePassport gates at 14 ports of entry in the United Kingdom provided that they are aged either 18 and over or 12 and over travelling with an adult and holding valid biometric passports. In Ireland, eGates are available at Dublin Airport for arrivals at Terminal 1 (Piers 1 and 2) and Terminal 2 and, in addition to Irish and British citizens, they are currently available to citizens of Switzerland and the European Economic Area with electronic passports aged 18 or over though there are proposals to extend the service to non-European citizens. Irish Passport Cards can not be used at eGates.
: CARIPASS is a voluntary travel card programme that will provide secure and simple border crossings for citizens and legal residents of participating Caribbean Community jurisdictions. The CARIPASS initiative is coordinated by the Implementation Agency for Crime and Security (CARICOM IMPACS), and seeks to provide standardised border control facilities within participating Caribbean communities. CARIPASS is accepted as a valid travel document within and between participating member states and will allow cardholders to access automated gate facilities at immigration checkpoints that will use biometric technology to verify the user.
China:
Mainland China: Residents in the PRC, both Chinese citizens and foreign residents (not tourists) can use the Chinese E-Channel after registration, which is done at the border, before leaving the Mainland. Chinese citizens with Hong Kong or Macau Permanent Residence can use their Home Return Permit instead of their passport to enter and leave the Mainland.
Hong Kong & Macau: The Automated Passenger Clearance System (), colloquially known as the e-Channel) is an automated border control facility available at airports in Hong Kong and Macau, and at land borders between the mainland and the Special Administrative Regions. It is open to residents in the appropriate regions, and to selected foreign nationals. In Hong Kong, the eChannel is also available to non-residents on departure, without registration, and to registered non-residents who qualify as "frequent travellers", including Chinese citizens from the Mainland, for both arrival and departure. Finally, Hong Kong's and Macau's eChannel systems recognise each other's Permanent Resident ID card, after registration in an automated kiosk at the ferry terminal.
Republic of China: A similar automated entry system, eGate, exists in areas administered by the Republic of China providing expedited border control for ROC nationals as well as certain classes of residents and frequent visitors. Users simply scan their travel documents at the gate and are passed through for facial recognition. As of 2019, there have been instances of foreign non-registered travellers allowed to use the eGate system to depart, notably at Taipei Taoyuan Airport Terminal 1, but not Terminal 2, using a passport scan and fingerprints.
: Along with the introduction of J-BIS, an "Automated gate" () was set up at Terminal 1 and 2 at Narita Airport, Haneda Airport, Chubu Centrair Airport and Kansai Airport. With this system, when a person enters or leaves the country, rather than having to be processed by an examiner there, a person can use a machine at the gate, thereby making both entry and departure simpler and easier, as well as more convenient. Japanese people with valid passports, foreigners with both valid passports (this includes refugees with valid travel certificates and re-entry permits) and re-entry permits can use this system.
: Viajero Confiable is a Mexican trusted traveller programme which allows members to pass securely through customs and immigration controls in reduced time, using automated kiosks at participating airports. Viajero Confiable was introduced in three airports in 2014 and has since expanded to additional sites. Like the NEXUS, Global Entry, and TSA PreCheck programs, Viajero Confiable members traveling via participating airports may use designated lanes which allow them to speedily and securely clear customs, because the Mexican government has already performed a background check on them, and they are considered a trusted traveller. At the participating airports, members may use automated kiosks to scan their passport and fingerprints, and complete an electronic immigration form. The programme is targeted at Mexican citizens, as well as American or Canadian citizens who are members of the Global Entry or NEXUS programme and are lawful permanent residents of Mexico.
: In New Zealand, a SmartGate system exists at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Queenstown airports, enabling holders of biometric passports issued by New Zealand, Australia, Canada, China, France, Germany, Ireland and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and America to clear border controls using automated facilities. The system can currently only be used by travellers 12 years of age or older, however a trial is under way that may potentially lower the age of eligibility to use eGate for people with an eligible ePassport from 12 years of age to 10 years of age. New Zealand eGates utilise biometric technology, comparing the picture of your face in your ePassport with the picture it takes of you at the gate in order to confirm your identity. To make sure eGate can do this, travellers must make sure they look as similar to their ePassport photos as possible and remove glasses, scarves and hats that they were not wearing when their passport picture was taken. eGate can handle minor changes in your face, for example if the travellers' weight or hair has changed. Customs, Biosecurity and Immigration officials utilise information provided at eGates, including photos, to clear travellers and their items across New Zealand's border. Biometric information is kept for three months before destruction but other information, including about movements across New Zealand's border is kept indefinitely and handled in accordance with the Privacy Act 1993, or as the law authorises. This might include information being used by or shared with other law enforcement or border control authorities. Since 1 July 2019, visitors from the 60 Visa Waiver countries require a New Zealand electronic Travel Authority (NZeTA). This is an online application and a further toolkit and requirements for airlines and travel agents can be downloaded from the New Zealand Immigration website.
: The enhanced-Immigration Automated Clearance System (eIACS) is available at all checkpoints for Singapore citizens, permanent residents, foreign residents with long-term passes, APEC Business Travel Card holders, and other registered travellers. Foreign visitors whose fingerprints are registered on arrival may use the eIACS lanes for exit clearance. In addition, the Biometric Identification of Motorbikers (BIKES) System is available for eligible motorcyclists at the land border crossings with Malaysia. Meanwhile, all visitors who have been fingerprinted on entry at a manned counter can use the eIACS to leave Singapore by air. Additionally, nationals of certain countries may register to use the eIACS system on entry, provided they meet prescribed conditions.
: South Korea maintains a programme known as the Smart Entry Service, open for registration by South Koreans aged 7 or above and by registered foreigners aged 17 or above. Furthermore, visitors aged 17 or older may use the Smart Entry Service on exit at international airports, as long as they have provided their biometrics on arrival.
: The automated passport control (APC) system, which uses a facial recognition system, has been available for Thai nationals since 2012 and more than 20 million have used it. Suvarnabhumi Airport opened 8 automated immigration lanes for foreigners, but only Singaporeans were allowed to use the system initially. Since then, Singaporeans and holders of the Hong Kong SAR passport have been allowed to use the system. Once processed, the foreign travellers can leave the automatic channel and present their passport to a Thai immigration officer to be stamped.
North America: North America has a wide variety of expedited border control programmes:
Global Entry: Global Entry is a programme for frequent travellers that enables them to utilise automated border control facilities and priority security screening. In addition to American citizens and Permanent Residents, the programme is open to Indian, Singaporean, and South Korean citizens among others. Global Entry members are eligible to use automated Global Entry facilities at certain airports to clear border control more efficiently. Enrolled users must present their machine-readable passport or permanent residency card, and submit their fingerprints to establish identity. Users then complete an electronic customs declaration, and are issued a receipt instructing them to either proceed to baggage claim, or to a normal inspection booth for an interview. Participants may utilise automated kiosks to clear American border controls at participating airports.
CANPASS: Canadian citizens and Permanent Residents can apply for CANPASS which, in its present form, provides expedited border controls for individuals entering Canada on corporate and private aircraft.
NEXUS and FAST: NEXUS is a joint Canadian-American expedited border control programme for low risk travellers holding Canadian or U.S. citizenship or permanent residence. Membership requires approval by Canadian and American authorities and entitles members to dedicated RFID-enabled lanes when crossing the land border. A NEXUS card can also be utilised as a travel document between the two countries and entitles passengers to priority border control facilities in Canada and Global Entry facilities in America. Free and Secure Trade (FAST) is a similar programme for commercial drivers and approved importers, reducing the amount of customs checks conducted at the border and expediting the border control process. When entering America by air, holders of NEXUS cards may use Global Entry kiosks to clear border controls at participating airports
SENTRI: SENTRI is a programme similar to NEXUS for American and Mexican citizens that additionally allows members to register their cars for expedited land border controls. Unlike NEXUS, SENTRI is administered solely by the American government and does not provide expedited controls when entering Mexico. When entering America by land from Canada, it can be used as a NEXUS card, but not the other way around. Individuals holding a NEXUS card may additionally register their cars for expedited land border controls under SENTRI. When entering America by air, holders of SENTRI cards may use Global Entry kiosks to clear border controls at participating airports
TSA PreCheck: TSA PreCheck is a trusted traveller programme initiated in December 2013 and administered by the American Transportation Security Administration that allows selected members of select frequent flyer programs, members of Global Entry, NEXUS, and SENTRI, members of the armed forces, and cadets and midshipmen of the United States service academies After completing a background check, being fingerprinted, and paying an $85 fee, travellers will get a Known Traveler Number. TSA does not issue an ID card like Global Entry, NEXUS, and SENTRI do. Travelers are notified if they have PreCheck by having an indicator printed on their boarding pass that may say "TSAPRECHK", "TSA PRE", or "TSA Pre✓®" depending on the airline and type of boarding pass. As of December 2019, a total of 73 airlines were participating in the program.
Local border traffic is the flow of travellers within the area surrounding a controlled international or internal border. In many cases local border traffic is subject to special regulations to expedite border controls for individuals travelling within local border areas. Depending on the particular border in question, these measures may be restricted to local residents, implemented as a blanket regional visa waiver by one jurisdiction for nationals of the other, restricted to frequent cross-border travellers, or available to individuals lawfully present in one jurisdiction seeking to visit the other.
: For example, the relaxed border controls maintained by Bhutan for those not proceeding past Phuentsholing and certain other border cities enable travellers to enter without going through any document check whatsoever.
America: The Border Crossing Card issued by American authorities to Mexican nationals enables Mexicans to enter border areas without a passport. Both America and Bhutan maintain interior checkposts to enforce compliance.
: China maintains relaxed border controls for individuals lawfully in Hong Kong or Macau to visit the surrounding Pearl River Delta visa-free provided that certain conditions are met.
The "Brest – Grodno" visa free territory, established by a presidential decree signed in August 2019 has permitted local visa free access to most visitors lawfully present in the neighbouring Schengen Area since 10 November 2019. Visitors are allowed to stay without a visa for 15 days. Entry is possible through designated checkpoints with Poland and Lithuania, Brest-Uschodni Railway Station, Grodno Railway Station, Brest Airport and Grodno Airport. Prior to travel, visitors must obtain authorisation from a local travel agency in Belarus.
Schengen Area: Schengen states which share an external land border with a non-Schengen state are authorised by EU Regulation 1931/2006 to conclude bilateral agreements with neighbouring countries implementing a simplified local border traffic regime. Such agreements define a border area and provide for the issuance of local border traffic permits to residents of the border area that may be used to cross the EU external border within the border area.
Border control organisations by country
Border control is generally the responsibility of specialised government organisations which oversee various aspects their jurisdiction's border control policies, including customs, immigration policy, border security, biosecurity measures. Official designations, division of responsibilities, and command structures of these organisations vary considerably and some countries split border control functions across multiple agencies.
America
Most aspects of American border control are handled by various divisions of the Department of Homelend Security (DHS).
US Customs and Border Protection: U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP), a division of the DHS, is the country's primary border control organisation, charged with regulating and facilitating international trade, collecting import duties, and enforcing American trade, customs and immigration regulations. It has a workforce of more than 58000 employees. Every individual entering America is subject to inspection by Customs and Border Protection (CBP) officers for compliance with immigration, customs and agriculture regulations. Travellers are screened for a variety of prohibited items ranging from gold, silver, and precious metals to alcoholic beverages, firearms, and narcotics.
Transport Security Administration: The Transport Security Administration, or TSA, is a division of the DHS responsible for conducting security checks at American airports and other transport hubs, including overseas preclearance facilities (with the notable exception of those in Canada, where CATSA conducts security checks prior to CBP immigration screening). For passengers departing by air from America, TSA screening is the only physical check conducted upon departure.
Immigration and Customs Enforcement: Immigration and Customs Enforcement, or ICE, is the organisation responsible for enforcing immigration laws within America, focusing largely on deporting undocumented migrants. ICE operates detention centres throughout the country and approximately 34,000 undocumented migrants are imprisoned by ICE on any given day, in over 500 detention centres, jails, and prisons nationwide.
United States Citizenship and Immigration Services: United States Citizenship and Immigration Services is responsible for various aspects of border control relating to immigration, including reviewing visa petitions and applications as well as processing asylum claims.
State and local law enforcement agencies: Officers from police forces established by state, county, and municipal governments across America are deputised by ICE to detain undocumented migrants pursuant to Immigration and Nationality Act Section 287(g). Under section 287(g), ICE trains and authorises state and local law enforcement officers to identify, process, and detain undocumented migrants they encounter during their daily law-enforcement activity. The 287(g) programme has been criticised for increasing racist profiling by police and undermining community safety as the fear of deportation discourages undocumented migrants from reporting crimes or talking to law enforcement officers.
Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada: Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC; ) is the department of the Government of Canada with responsibility for matters dealing with immigration to Canada, refugees, and Canadian citizenship. IRCC's mandate emanates from the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Act. The Minister of IRCC is the key person to uphold and administer the Citizenship Act of 197 and its subsequent amendments. The minister will work closely with the Minister of Public Safety in relation to the administration of the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act.
Canada Border Services Agency: The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA; ) is the primary organisation tasked with maintaining Canada's border controls. The Agency was created on 12 December 2003, though its creation was formalised by the Canada Border Services Agency Act, which received Royal Assent on 3 November 2005. amalgamating Canada Customs (from the now-defunct Canada Customs and Revenue Agency) with border and enforcement personnel from the Department of the CIC and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA).
Canadian Air Transport Security Authority: The Canadian Air Transport Security Authority (CATSA; () is the Canadian Crown corporation responsible for security screening of people and baggage and the administration of identity cards at the 89 designated airports in Canada. CATSA is answerable to Transport Canada and reports to the Government of Canada through the Minister of Transport.
China
Border control in China is the responsibility of a variety of entities in each of the country's four distinct immigration areas. In the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau, agencies tracing their lineage to British and Portuguese colonial authorities, respectively, perform border control functions based on the policies and practices in force before those territories' return to the People's Republic of China. Areas administered by the Republic of China are subject to border controls distinct from those in the People's Republic of China.
People's Republic of China:
: The Immigration Department () of Hong Kong is responsible for border controls of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Regions, including internal controls with the rest of China. After the People's Republic of China resumed sovereignty of the territory in July 1997, Hong Kong's immigration system remained largely unchanged from its British predecessor model. In addition, visa-free entry acceptance regulations into Hong Kong for passport holders of some 170 countries remain unchanged before and after 1997.
: The Immigration Department of Macau, under the Public Security Police Force, is the government agency responsible for immigration matters, whilst the Public Security Police Force itself is responsible for enforcing immigration laws in Macau.
Mainland China: Border control in Mainland China is the responsibility of National Immigration Administration (NIA; )), a unit of the Ministry of Public Security (MPS; ). Customs related border controls are largely within the purview of the General Administration of Customs of the People's Republic of China.
Republic of China: In areas controlled by the Republic of China the National Immigration Agency (NIA; ), a subsidiary organisation of the Ministry of the Interior is responsible for border control. The agency is headed by the Director General. The current Director-General is Chiu Feng-kuang. The agency was established in early 2007 and its job includes the care and guidance of new immigrants, exit and entry control, the deportation of undocumented migrants, and the prevention of human trafficking. The agency also deals with persons from Mainland China, Hong Kong and Macau who do not hold household registration in the areas controlled by the ROC.
Border control in India is performed by a variety of organisations, each focusing on a distinct section of its external borders.
Border Security Force: The Border Security Force, or BSF, is the primary border defence organisation of India. It is one of the five Central Armed Police Forces of the Union of India, it was raised in the wake of the 1965 War on 1 December 1965, "for ensuring the security of the borders of India and for matters connected there with". From independence in 1947 to 1965, the protection of India's international boundaries was the responsibility of local police belonging to each border state, with little inter-state coordination. BSF was created as a Central government-controlled security force to guard all of India's borders, thus bringing greater cohesion in border security. BSF is charged with guarding India's land border during peacetime and preventing transnational crime. It is a Union Government Agency under the administrative control of the Ministry of Home Affairs. It currently stands as the world's largest border guarding force.
Assam Rifles: The Assam Rifles, one of India's oldest continuously existent paramilitary units, has been responsible for physical controls on the border between India and Myanmar since 2002. The border area between India, Myanmar, and China is largely made up of minority groups, many of which are transboundary communities. Consequently, enforcing border controls is a challenge for all three countries, and porous sections of the border between India and Myanmar have historically been common since Myanmar was formerly a part of the British Indian Empire.
Indo–Tibetan Border Police: The Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP) is charged with maintaining border controls on India's side of the extensive border between minority regions of India and China. In September 1996, the Parliament of India enacted the "Indo-Tibetan Border Police Force Act, 1992" to "provide for the constitution and regulation" of the ITBP "for ensuring the security of the borders of India and for matters connected therewith". The first head of the ITBP, designated Inspector General, was Balbir Singh, a police officer previously belonging to the Intelligence Bureau. The ITBP, which started with 4 battalions, has since restructuring in 1978, undergone expansion to a force of 56 battalions as of 2017 with a sanctioned strength of 89,432.
The Directorate General of Immigration (Indonesian: Direktorat Jenderal Imigrasi) is the primary agency tasked with border control in Indonesia.
Iranian Immigration & Passport Police: The Immigration & Passport Police Office is a subdivision of Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic of Iran with the authority to issue Iranian passports and deals with Immigrants to Iran. The agency is member of ICAO's Public Key Directory (PKD).
Islamic Republic of Iran Border Guard Command: Islamic Republic of Iran Border Guard Command, commonly known as NAJA Border Guard, is a subdivision of Law Enforcement Force of Islamic Republic of Iran (NAJA) and Iran's sole agency that performs border guard and control in land borders, and coast guard in maritime borders. The unit was founded in 2000, and from 1991 to 2000, the unit's duties was done by of Security deputy of NAJA. Before 1991, border control was Gendarmerie's duty.
The Immigration Department of Malaysia is a department of the Federal Government of Malaysia which provides services to Malaysian Citizens, Permanent Residents and Foreign Visitors.
The functions of the department are as follows:
1. Issuing of passports and travel documents to Malaysian Citizens and Permanent Residents.
2. Issuing of visas, passes and permits to Foreign Nationals entering Malaysia.
3. Administering and managing the movement of people at authorised entry and exit points.
4. Enforcing the Immigration Act 1959/63, Immigration Regulations 1963 and Passport Act 1966.
Border Security Command and Coastal Security Bureau are collectively responsible for restricting unauthorised cross-border (land and sea) entries and exits, in the early 1990s the bureaux responsible for border security and coastal security were transferred from the State Security Department to the Ministry of People's Armed Forces. Sometime thereafter, the Border Security Bureau was enlarged to corps level and renamed the Border Security Command. Previously headquartered in Chagang Province, the Border Security Command was relocated to Pyongyang in 2002.
Physical controls on the internationally recognised portions of Pakistan's international borders are managed by dedicated paramilitary units (the Pakistan Rangers on the border with India, Frontier Corps with Afghanistan and Iran) and the Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts with China, Pakistan-administered side of the Line of Control is guarded and patrolled by Pakistan Army.
Pakistan Rangers: The Pakistan Rangers are a paramilitary law enforcement organisation in Pakistan and have a primary mission of securing important sites such as Pakistan's International Border with India as well as employed in internal security operations, and providing assistance to the police in maintaining law and order. Rangers is an umbrella term for the Pakistan Rangers – Punjab, headquartered in Lahore, responsible for guarding Punjab Province's 1,300 km long IB with India, and the Pakistan Rangers – Sindh, headquartered in Karachi, defending Sindh Province's ~912 km long IB with India. The forces operate under their own separate chains of command and wear distinct uniforms. Most famously each evening, the Pakistan Rangers – Punjab together with their Indian counterparts in the BSF, participate in an elaborate flag lowering ceremony at Wagah border crossing near Lahore.
Frontier Corps: The Frontier Corps, is an umbrella term for the two western provincial auxiliary forces part of the paramilitary forces of Pakistan along the western provinces of Balochistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and are the direct counterparts to the Rangers of the eastern provinces (Sindh and Punjab). The Frontier Corps comprises two separate organisations: FC NWFP stationed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province (formerly known as the North-West Frontier Province), and includes the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, and FC Balochistan stationed in Balochistan province. Each subdivision is headed by a seconded inspector general, who is a Pakistan Army officer of at least major-general rank, although the force itself is under the jurisdiction of the Interior Ministry. With a total manpower of approximately 80,000, the task of the Frontier Corps is to help local law enforcement in the maintenance of law and order, and to carry out border patrol and anti-smuggling operations. Some of the FC's constituent units such as the Chitral Scouts, the Khyber Rifles, Swat Levies, the Kurram Militia, the Tochi Scouts, the South Waziristan Scouts, and the Zhob Militia have regimental histories dating back to British colonial times and many, e.g. the Khyber Rifles, have distinguished combat records before and after 1947.
Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts: The Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts are part of the Paramilitary forces of Pakistan, under the direct control of the Ministry of the Interior of the Pakistan Government. The Scouts are an internal and border security force with the prime objective to protect the China–Pakistan border and support Civil Administration in ensuring maintenance of law and order in Gilgit-Baltistan and anywhere else in Pakistan. The force was formerly known as the Northern Areas Scouts but was renamed to the Gilgit−Baltistan Scouts in 2011.
Pakistan Customs: Customs-related border security measures in Pakistan are the responsibility of Pakistan Customs.
Schengen Area
Border control in the Schengen Area is primarily performed by the national authorities of individual member states. Consequently, there are many distinct organisations involved with border control along the area's external frontiers and at sea and air ports of entry within its members states.
European Border and Coast Guard Agency (Frontex): Frontex is the Schengen Area's multilateral border control organisation. It is headquartered in Warsaw and operates in coordination with the border and coast guards of individual Schengen Area member states. According to the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE) and the British Refugee Council, in written evidence submitted to the UK House of Lords inquiry, Frontex fails to demonstrate adequate consideration of international and European asylum and human rights law including the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and EU law in respect of access to asylum and the prohibition of refoulement. In September 2009, a Turkish military radar issued a warning to a Latvian helicopter conducting an anti-migrant and anti-refugee patrol in the eastern Aegean Sea to leave the area as it is in Turkish airspace. The Turkish General Staff reported that the Latvian Frontex aircraft had violated Turkish airspace west of Didim. According to a Hellenic Air Force announcement, the incident occurred as the Frontex helicopter —identified as an Italian-made Agusta A109— was patrolling a common route used by people smugglers near the small isle of Farmakonisi. Another incident took place in October 2009 in the airspace above the eastern Aegean sea, off the island of Lesbos. On 20 November 2009, the Turkish General Staff issued a press note alleging that an Estonian Border Guard aircraft Let L-410 UVP taking off from Kos on a Frontex mission had violated Turkish airspace west of Söke. As part of the Border and Coast Guard a Return Office was established with the capacity to repatriate immigrants residing illegally in the union by deploying Return Intervention Teams composed of escorts, monitors, and specialists dealing with related technical aspects. For this repatriation, a uniform European travel document would ensure wider acceptance by third countries. In emergency situations such Intervention Teams will be sent to problem areas to bolster security, either at the request of a member state or at the agency's own initiative. It is this latter proposed capability, to be able to deploy specialists to member states borders without the approval of the national government in question that is proving the most controversial aspect of this European Commission plan.
Direction centrale de la police aux frontières: The Direction centrale de la police aux frontières (DCPF) is a directorate of the French National Police that is responsible for border control at certain border crossing points and border surveillance in some areas in France. They work alongside their British counterparts at Calais, and along the Channel Tunnel Rail Link with the British Transport Police. The DCPF is consequently largely responsible for Schengen Area border controls with the United Kingdom.
Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects: Direction générale des douanes et droits indirects (DGDDI), commonly known as les douanes, is a French law enforcement agency responsible for levying indirect taxes, preventing smuggling, surveilling borders and investigating counterfeit money. The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at smaller border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders and regional airports.
Finnish Border Guard: The Finnish Border Guard, including the coast guard, is the agency responsible for border control related to persons, including passport control and border patrol. The Border Guard is a paramilitary organisation, subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior in administrative issues and to the President of the Republic in issues pertaining to the president's authority as Commander-in-Chief (e.g. officer promotions). The Finland-Russia border is a controlled external border of the Schengen Area, routinely patrolled and protected by a border zone enforced by the Border Guard. Finland's borders with Norway and Sweden are internal Schengen borders with no routine border controls, but the Border Guard maintains personnel in the area owing to its search and rescue (SAR) duties. There are two coast guard districts for patrolling maritime borders. In peacetime, the Border Guard trains special forces and light infantry and can be incorporated fully or in part into the Finnish Defence Forces when required by defence readiness. The Border Guard has police and investigative powers in immigration matters and can independently investigate immigration violations. The Border Guard has search and rescue (SAR) duties, both maritime and inland. The Guard operates SAR helicopters that are often used in inland SAR, in assistance of a local fire and rescue department or other authorities. The Border Guard shares border control duties with Finnish Customs, which inspects arriving goods, and the Finnish Police, which enforces immigration decisions such as removal.
Koninklijke Marechaussee: The Koninklijke Marechaussee (English: Royal Military Constabulary) is a branch of the Dutch Armed Forces and are responsible for border control functions as well as guarding national borders and ports of entry, notably Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and Eurostar terminals at Amsterdam Centraal and Roterdam Centraal. At Schiphol Airport, the Koninklijke Marechaussee operates a criminal investigations department and combats drugs trafficking in cooperation with FIOD for both passenger and air freight.
Swedish border police: Border control duties in Sweden are handled by a special group in the police force. Sweden has natural land borders only to Norway and Finland, where there are no border controls, so border surveillance is not done there apart from customs control. Therefore, border control is focused on some fixed control points, during the border control-less Schengen period until 2015 mainly airports. The introduction of full border control from Denmark and the continent in 2015 put a heavy load on the border police who had to check 8000 cars and 50 trains per day coming over the Öresund Bridge, and 3000 cars in Helsingborg and more in other ferry ports. The police quickly educated several hundred semi-authorised border control guards who had to ask the real officers to take over any doubtful case. The customs office and the coast guard can not do formal border controls, but can stop people in doubtful cases and ask police to take over.
The Immigration and Checkpoints Authority, or ICA, is the border control agency of Singapore under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
The ICA is responsible for border control, border customs services, and immigration enforcement in Singapore. ICA is accountable to Parliament through the Minister for Home Affairs. The agency is in charge of maintaining all border checkpoints in Singapore. In addition, ICA handles anti-terrorism operations and is responsible for many visa and residence related aspects of border control.
HM Revenue and Customs: Customs administration related to border controls in the United Kingdom largely fall within the jurisdiction of HM Revenue and Customs.
UK Visas and Immigration (UKVI): UKVI operates the visa aspect of the United Kingdom's border controls, managing applications from foreign nationals seeking to visit or work in the UK, and also considers applications from businesses and educational institutions seeking to become sponsors for foreign nationals. It also considers applications from foreign nationals seeking British citizenship.
Border Force: The Border Force is in charge of physical controls and checkpoints at airports, land borders, and ports. Since 1 March 2012, Border Force has been a law-enforcement command within the Home Office, accountable directly to ministers. Border Force is responsible for immigration and customs at 140 rail, air and sea ports in the UK and western Europe, as well as thousands of smaller airstrips, ports and marinas. The work of the Border Force is monitored by the Independent Chief Inspector of Borders and Immigration.
Immigration Enforcement: Immigration Enforcement is the organisation responsible for enforcing border control policies within the United Kingdom, including pursuing and removing undocumented migrants.
Controversies
Certain border control policies of various countries have been the subject of controversy and public debate.
America
Policies targeting Muslims: Since the implementation of added security measures in the aftermath of the 2001 World Trade Centre attacks, reports of discrimination against people perceived to be Muslim by American border security officers have been prevalent in the media. The travel restrictions implemented during the Trump presidency primarily against Muslim majority countries have provoked controversy over whether such measures are a legitimate Border security measure or unethically discriminatory.
Separation of families seeking asylum: In April 2018, as part of its "zero tolerance" policy, the American government ordered the separation of the children of refugees and asylum seekers from their parents. As a consequence of popular outrage, and criticism from the medical and religious communities, the policy was put on hold by an executive order signed by President Trump on 20 June 2018. Under the policy, federal authorities separated children from their parents, relatives, or other adults who accompanied them in crossing the border, whether apprehended during an illegal crossing or, in numerous reported cases, legally presenting themselves for asylum. The policy involved prosecuting all adults detained at the Mexican border, imprisoning parents, and handing minors to the American Department of Health and Human Services (). The federal government reported that the policy resulted in the separation of over 2300 children from their parents. The Trump administration blamed Congress for the atrocity and labelled the change in policy as "the Democrats' law", even though Congress had been overwhelmingly dominated by Republicans since 2016. Regardless, members of both parties criticised the policy and detractors of the Trump administration emphasise the fact there does not seem to be any written law that required the government to implement such a policy. Attorney General Jeff Sessions, in defending the policy, quoted a passage from the Bible, notwithstanding the fact that religious doctrine carries absolutely no weight in American law. Other officials praised the policy as a deterrent to unlawful immigration. The costs of separating migrant children from their parents and keeping them in "tent cities" are higher than keeping them with their parents in detention centres. To handle the large amount of immigration charges brought by the Trump administration, federal prosecutors had to divert resources from other crime cases. It costs $775 per person per night to house the children when they are separated but $256 per person per night when they are held in permanent HHS facilities and $298 per person per night to keep the children with their parents in immigration detention centres. The head of the Justice Department's major crimes unit in San Diego diverted staff from drug smuggling cases. Drug smuggling cases were also increasingly pursued in state courts rather than federal courts, as federal prosecutor were increasingly preoccupied with pursuing charges against illegal border crossings. The Kaiser Family Foundation said that costs associated with the policy may also divert resources from programmes within the Department of Health and Human Services. In July 2018, it was reported that HHS had diverted at least $40 million from its health programs to care for and reunify migrant children, and that the HHS was preparing to shift more than $200 million from other HHS accounts.
Australia:
Offshore detention centres: Beginning in 2001, Australia implemented border control policies featuring the detention of asylum seekers and economic migrants who arrived unlawfully by boat in nearby islands in the Pacific. These policies are controversial and in 2017 the Supreme Court of Papua New Guinea declared the detention centre at Manus Island to be unconstitutional. The adherence of these policies to international human rights law is a matter of controversy.
Travel restrictions on Australian citizens during the COVID-19 pandemic: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Australia adopted a policy of denying entry to its own citizens arriving from jurisdictions perceived to pose a high risk of COVID-19 transmission. Additionally, Australia adopted a broad policy of restricting entry to the country for all individuals located overseas, including Australian citizens, resulting in a large number of Australian citizens stranded abroad. Australia's policies with regard to its own citizens undermined the principle in international law that a state must permit entry to its own citizens, as enshrined in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. At the same time, the Australian government prohibited the majority of Australian citizens from exiting the country, even if they ordinarily reside overseas.
Bhutan: Starting primarily in the 1990s, the Bhutanese government implemented strict restrictions on the country's ethnically Nepali Lhotshampa population and implemented internal border control policies to restrict immigration or return of ethnic Nepalis, creating a refugee crisis. This policy shift effectively ended previously liberal immigration policies with regards to Nepalis and counts among the most racialised border control policies in Asia.
China: China does not currently recognise North Korean defectors as refugees and subjects them to immediate deportation if caught. The China-DPRK border is fortified and both sides aim to deter refugees from crossing. This aspect of Chinese border control policy has been criticised by human rights organisations.
Cyprus: As a result of Northern Cyprus's sovereignty dispute with Southern Cyprus, the South (a member of the European Union) has imposed restrictions on the North's airports, and pressure from the European Union has resulted in all countries other than Turkey recognising the South's ability to impose a border shutdown on the North, thus negating the right to self determination of the predominantly Turkish Northern Cypriot population and subjecting their airports to border controls imposed by the predominantly Greek South. As a result, Northern Cyprus is heavily dependent on Turkey for economic support and is unable to develop a functioning economy.
Israel: Border control, both on entry and on exit, at Israeli airports rate passengers' potential threat to security using factors including nationality, ethnicity, and race. Instances of discrimination against Arabs, people perceived to be Muslim, and Russian Jews among others have been reported in the media. Security at Tel Aviv's Ben Gurion Airport relies on a number of fundamentals, including a heavy focus on what Raphael Ron, former director of security at Ben Gurion, terms the "human factor", which he generalised as "the inescapable fact that terrorist attacks are carried out by people who can be found and stopped by an effective security methodology." As part of its focus on this so-called "human factor", Israeli security officers interrogate travellers, profiling those who appear to be Arab based on name or physical appearance. Even as Israeli authorities argue that racist, ethnic, and religious profiling are effective security measures, according to Boaz Ganor, Israel has not undertaken any known empirical studies on the efficacy of the technique of racial profiling.
Gallery
See also
Asylum seeker
Border barrier
Airspace
Air sovereignty
Illegal entry
United States Border Patrol
Security guard
Illegal immigration
Immigration law
Maritime boundary
Freedom of movement
Refugees
Notes
References
Further reading
Susan Harbage Page & Inéz Valdez (17 April 2011). "Residues of Border Control", Southern Spaces
Philippe Legrain (2007). Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown,
Aristide Zolberg (2006). A Nation by Design: Immigration Policy in the Fashioning of America, Harvard University Press,
Philippe Legrain (2007). Immigrants: Your Country Needs Them, Little Brown,
Ruben Rumbaut & Walter Ewing (Spring 2007). "The Myth of Immigrant Criminality and the Paradox of Assimilation: Incarceration Rates among Native and Foreign-Born Men", The Immigration Policy Center.
Bryan Balin (2008). State Immigration Legislation and Immigrant Flows: An Analysis The Johns Hopkins University
Douglas S. Massey (September 2005). "Beyond the Border Buildup: Towards a New Approach to Mexico-U.S. Migration", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
IPC Special Report (November 2005). "Economic Growth & Immigration: Bridging the Demographic Divide", Immigration Policy Center, the American Immigration Law Foundation
American Immigration Council (April 2014). "Immigrant Women in the United States: A Demographic Portrait"
Jill Esbenshade (Summer 2007). "Division and Dislocation: Regulating Immigration through Local Housing Ordinances". American Immigration Council
Jeffrey S. Passel & Roberto Suro (September 2005). "Rise, Peak and Decline: Trends in U.S. Immigration". Pew Hispanic Center
Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2005). "Estimates of the Size and Characteristics of the Undocumented Population". Pew Hispanic Center
Jeffrey S. Passel (March 2007). "Growing Share of Immigrants Choosing Naturalization". Pew Hispanic Center
UNCTAD's Classification of Non-Tariff Measures (2012) report
External links
ITC's Market Access Map, an online database of customs tariffs and market requirements.
Control
Export and import control
International relations
Control
International law
Travel
Visas | [
0.12455707788467407,
0.05877528339624405,
0.2162543386220932,
0.12520241737365723,
0.6525732278823853,
-0.029606645926833153,
0.1879703551530838,
0.15240266919136047,
-0.3140200972557068,
-0.651120126247406,
-0.6084624528884888,
0.13421133160591125,
-0.5206389427185059,
0.41628265380859375,
-0.409255713224411,
0.5142068862915039,
-0.057951174676418304,
0.3997342586517334,
0.320371150970459,
-0.31541815400123596,
-0.3362507224082947,
-0.2678801119327545,
0.1302957981824875,
-0.388997346162796,
0.2919657528400421,
-0.360126793384552,
-0.03768343850970268,
0.4623614251613617,
-0.6056970357894897,
0.1629408597946167,
0.5486066341400146,
0.6807858347892761,
-0.5507454872131348,
0.3855971097946167,
-0.18359607458114624,
-0.22087423503398895,
0.0161755234003067,
-0.29798954725265503,
-0.5575708746910095,
-0.4866219460964203,
-0.32347774505615234,
0.33575719594955444,
-0.4912702441215515,
0.30715611577033997,
0.1866929978132248,
-0.753674328327179,
-0.8591580986976624,
0.37473154067993164,
-0.3167308270931244,
-0.03606346622109413,
-0.6398007273674011,
0.3459460437297821,
-0.5296745300292969,
0.3850287199020386,
0.4391668438911438,
-0.1585453599691391,
-1.1052368879318237,
-0.44597432017326355,
0.03796253353357315,
-0.2914853096008301,
0.4146321713924408,
0.121904656291008,
-0.21130232512950897,
0.27822133898735046,
0.3976149559020996,
-0.1499406099319458,
0.3279814124107361,
-0.019460022449493408,
0.42675602436065674,
-0.7281914353370667,
-0.47826293110847473,
-0.08506299555301666,
0.09580375254154205,
-0.06123025342822075,
-0.5460354089736938,
0.06552153825759888,
0.186313197016716,
-0.33454224467277527,
-0.3998195230960846,
0.4286409616470337,
0.25242578983306885,
0.23190750181674957,
0.34502679109573364,
-0.5704089403152466,
0.41403087973594666,
-0.24124018847942352,
-0.34432467818260193,
0.24810194969177246,
-0.276799738407135,
0.2306278944015503,
0.644097626209259,
0.18252821266651154,
0.13238729536533356,
-0.3385156989097595,
-0.19316767156124115,
0.029529040679335594,
0.21071241796016693,
0.23490281403064728,
0.45454028248786926,
0.5523287057876587,
-0.38150185346603394,
0.14730653166770935,
0.5555347800254822,
-0.01930013857781887,
-0.3337647318840027,
-0.8541015386581421,
-0.07190808653831482,
-0.12028265744447708,
0.005053175147622824,
-0.25348329544067383,
0.060731906443834305,
0.0943964421749115,
0.026416078209877014,
0.08073451370000839,
-0.4346500039100647,
0.5096826553344727,
0.21016104519367218,
0.1456090360879898,
0.4838540554046631,
0.2841984033584595,
0.2841026484966278,
0.07228654623031616,
-0.4452648162841797,
-0.09811266511678696,
-0.04038890823721886,
-0.11556200683116913,
0.6732325553894043,
0.2995603382587433,
-0.7400140762329102,
0.2565968632698059,
-0.13579876720905304,
0.9612137079238892,
-0.1861289143562317,
0.13117824494838715,
-0.49225249886512756,
-0.04318130016326904,
0.9624015688896179,
0.2654680013656616,
0.8272422552108765,
-0.17381857335567474,
-0.7055990695953369,
-0.6697567105293274,
-0.5088790059089661,
0.06189417093992233,
0.3380887806415558,
-0.16293583810329437,
-0.0026331646367907524,
-0.8585502505302429,
-0.23118697106838226,
0.09764028340578079,
0.16986916959285736,
0.5516348481178284,
-0.15416555106639862,
0.41635510325431824,
-0.42015910148620605,
0.10030081868171692,
0.3548056483268738,
-0.05784986540675163,
-0.4124066233634949,
-0.3939458429813385,
0.10434688627719879,
0.14203539490699768,
-0.3962973952293396,
-0.13222233951091766,
0.23690006136894226,
-0.3597187101840973,
-0.44814181327819824,
0.6561100482940674,
0.19142389297485352,
0.16607864201068878,
-0.21094654500484467,
0.2725849151611328,
0.18785111606121063,
-0.22002020478248596,
0.28693893551826477,
0.23105674982070923,
-0.2373398095369339,
0.39921653270721436,
0.6358078718185425,
0.46590420603752136,
-0.4286492168903351,
0.33586186170578003,
0.12938424944877625,
0.36582690477371216,
0.22354945540428162,
0.10440482944250107,
0.5653204321861267,
-0.3204381465911865,
-0.7559046149253845,
-0.36957505345344543,
-0.3630465865135193,
-0.3315962255001068,
0.1308944970369339,
-0.47930917143821716,
0.5248816609382629,
0.10574235767126083,
-0.0068992748856544495,
1.0537991523742676,
-0.417764276266098,
0.6658182144165039,
-0.2530222535133362,
-0.33893540501594543,
0.6473593711853027,
-0.02870989590883255,
-0.5693304538726807,
0.7988331317901611,
-0.01170754712074995,
-0.2506299316883087,
0.1269022673368454,
0.180457204580307,
0.1573564112186432,
-0.6293118000030518,
-0.01484997384250164,
-0.2599933445453644,
0.4344547986984253,
0.17871606349945068,
-0.4233359694480896,
0.032675519585609436,
-0.15665531158447266,
0.046869128942489624,
0.19307640194892883,
-0.07596173882484436,
0.0016998958308249712,
1.005983829498291,
-0.5384312868118286,
-0.30388954281806946,
0.11557824909687042,
0.6194398403167725,
0.2535014748573303,
-1.1722017526626587,
-0.6314833760261536,
-0.09622938185930252,
0.23068320751190186,
-0.4119679033756256,
-0.2887580096721649,
-0.1398947536945343,
0.41255560517311096,
-0.06798946857452393,
-0.18319393694400787,
-0.2539737820625305,
-0.38542836904525757,
0.07448503375053406,
0.20449352264404297,
0.6830202341079712,
-0.1147346943616867,
0.22864314913749695,
0.4638531804084778,
0.15254995226860046,
-0.1195375919342041,
0.10021784156560898,
0.9751914739608765,
0.4436487555503845,
0.4132089912891388,
-0.8400274515151978,
0.36328089237213135,
-0.703887939453125,
0.05665210634469986,
-0.0331571027636528,
0.27829861640930176,
-0.3078296482563019,
0.1975802779197693,
0.10334976017475128,
-0.02822408638894558,
0.0332878939807415,
-0.5835325717926025,
-0.759864091873169,
-0.5902379751205444,
-0.08034444600343704,
-0.06003088504076004,
0.5035462379455566,
0.6967772841453552,
0.25554487109184265,
-0.02043277956545353,
-0.5028449296951294,
-0.1643083542585373,
-0.05492381379008293,
0.5883641242980957,
0.4004353880882263,
-0.32221806049346924,
-0.028776636347174644,
0.5731713771820068,
0.20680536329746246,
0.46998298168182373,
-0.7061793208122253,
-0.05921071767807007,
-1.0710008144378662,
0.1756347268819809,
-0.641886830329895,
-0.17067818343639374,
0.008348562754690647,
-0.401701420545578,
0.17383281886577606,
0.05836329609155655,
0.49063265323638916,
-0.09864786267280579,
0.6221927404403687,
-0.391505628824234,
0.2736622095108032,
0.960999071598053,
0.018841439858078957,
-0.021538546308875084,
0.11735125631093979,
-0.4917498826980591,
0.24128563702106476,
-0.3330918848514557,
-0.06964556127786636,
-0.4902803301811218,
-0.2573849856853485,
-5.632261276245117,
0.14680388569831848,
-0.15628314018249512,
-0.1823238730430603,
-0.5480782389640808,
0.017070306465029716,
1.3985480070114136,
-0.2002793252468109,
0.030024301260709763,
0.20693092048168182,
0.36231884360313416,
-0.06961127370595932,
0.30626171827316284,
0.22995930910110474,
0.8076207041740417,
0.4449515640735626,
0.455057829618454,
-0.47959136962890625,
0.11688058078289032,
0.6135433316230774,
-0.4338894188404083,
-0.13886801898479462,
0.39932724833488464,
-0.039898581802845,
0.1681077927350998,
-0.22433052957057953,
-0.6264798045158386,
0.19900193810462952,
-0.5093554854393005,
-0.05368449538946152,
-0.3064631223678589,
-0.13516387343406677,
-0.15405690670013428,
-0.33529478311538696,
0.1730474978685379,
-0.12173452228307724,
0.15268266201019287,
0.5388972163200378,
0.03813246637582779,
-0.22226054966449738,
-0.08319653570652008,
0.7126206159591675,
0.4627983570098877,
0.3681747615337372,
0.009008890017867088,
-0.5573479533195496,
0.30624252557754517,
-0.4260044991970062,
-0.08575218915939331,
0.6897467374801636,
-0.2532331645488739,
0.17231841385364532,
0.7107748985290527,
-0.21789002418518066,
-0.048061802983284,
-0.014082000590860844,
0.50766921043396,
-0.7877988219261169,
-0.6898630857467651,
0.5431279540061951,
0.2108924686908722,
-1.0535744428634644,
0.04532516002655029,
-0.12321414798498154,
0.15467824041843414,
0.04775337502360344,
-0.8016262054443359,
-0.7965879440307617,
0.18473471701145172,
0.0837971419095993,
-0.08034697920084,
0.31317663192749023,
0.12466076016426086,
-0.48995548486709595,
-0.0917452722787857,
-0.7167477607727051,
0.19912703335285187,
-0.221025288105011,
0.9468985199928284,
-0.384748250246048,
-0.4009369909763336,
0.4817461371421814,
-0.02880207635462284,
-0.05643416568636894,
-0.039836686104536057,
-0.20093680918216705,
0.42833101749420166,
0.31629425287246704,
-0.6247139573097229,
-0.34254536032676697,
0.8737658262252808,
-0.04663742333650589,
0.22561068832874298,
-0.3270055949687958,
0.03180346265435219,
-0.02494494803249836,
-0.16510625183582306,
-0.12243025749921799,
0.46808040142059326,
-0.6568626761436462,
0.6594145894050598,
0.045091718435287476,
0.15245889127254486,
-0.6736270785331726,
0.05958220735192299,
-0.4018544554710388,
-0.046031732112169266,
0.4952840507030487,
0.5870293974876404,
-0.23721005022525787,
-0.1563696414232254,
0.6958257555961609,
0.0644221156835556,
-0.31031233072280884,
-0.4012902081012726,
0.2575325071811676,
-0.3744950592517853,
0.28701356053352356,
0.2220478355884552,
-0.14622849225997925,
0.17228135466575623,
0.2940950393676758,
0.02076667919754982,
0.6689308881759644,
0.18553319573402405,
-0.3925428092479706,
-0.32873204350471497,
0.44993048906326294,
0.5194118022918701,
-0.134766086935997,
0.5832605361938477,
0.6372510194778442,
0.46172773838043213,
-0.24581952393054962,
0.3129395544528961,
-0.5919479131698608,
-0.11271137744188309,
0.1513984054327011,
0.35081747174263,
-0.12619389593601227,
-0.327158659696579,
-0.2974283993244171,
0.04910876601934433,
-0.06791803985834122,
0.5213027596473694,
0.10119052976369858,
-0.16313789784908295,
-0.25646957755088806,
0.06388182193040848,
0.6131660342216492,
-0.38977178931236267,
-0.45540928840637207,
-0.110072061419487,
-0.26207268238067627,
0.5560615062713623,
-0.6955574750900269,
0.8960958123207092,
0.4461822509765625,
0.38709914684295654,
-0.7709407210350037,
0.22710448503494263,
-0.050929129123687744,
-0.5401219129562378,
0.23571772873401642,
0.15162056684494019,
0.10420597344636917,
-0.06700083613395691,
-0.27021417021751404,
-0.44011998176574707,
0.6120885610580444,
-0.12075656652450562,
-0.8714637160301208,
-0.20109552145004272,
-0.38154417276382446,
-0.2835700511932373,
0.11177027970552444,
-0.39223483204841614,
0.07468187063932419,
-0.1248706728219986,
-0.10887779295444489,
-0.273829847574234,
-0.4623739719390869,
-0.17766402661800385,
0.3462011516094208,
-0.286444753408432,
-0.1624327003955841,
0.3683604896068573,
-0.11828596889972687,
0.24799004197120667,
-0.3280433714389801,
0.1765538454055786,
0.12194974720478058,
-0.345046728849411,
0.07477372884750366,
-0.0661623477935791,
-0.23514947295188904,
-0.34522759914398193,
0.3677821755409241,
-0.7870572209358215,
-0.10378935933113098,
0.6039489507675171,
0.7166598439216614,
-0.40587112307548523,
0.38072022795677185,
-0.09278881549835205,
0.014937248080968857,
0.23637963831424713,
0.3266427218914032,
-0.2680734097957611,
0.34589895606040955,
-0.4294595718383789,
-0.12441714107990265,
-0.6903374791145325,
0.8715872764587402,
-0.6299151182174683,
-0.17965276539325714,
0.17739181220531464,
-0.32193291187286377,
-0.05519799515604973,
0.0354711078107357,
0.3389831483364105,
-0.16654101014137268,
-0.5800305604934692,
-0.08518008142709732,
-0.38957199454307556,
0.37575286626815796,
0.20687797665596008,
-0.8030633926391602,
0.5359711050987244,
0.11207496374845505,
-0.5722295641899109,
-0.3017445206642151,
0.39665889739990234,
0.6975951790809631,
-0.19228783249855042,
0.032627612352371216,
-0.30064165592193604,
-0.39157164096832275,
0.22795546054840088,
0.19263075292110443,
0.4254063665866852,
0.7494185566902161,
0.45356041193008423,
-0.4346776306629181,
-0.2879461348056793,
0.6997599601745605,
-0.07700494676828384,
-1.0555342435836792,
-0.7960584759712219,
-0.08858412504196167,
-0.18683622777462006,
-0.27219757437705994,
-0.5096228718757629,
0.07679715752601624,
0.27625319361686707,
0.009789802134037018,
0.0963050127029419,
0.33499225974082947,
0.5312892198562622,
0.27345967292785645,
0.32640862464904785,
-0.6071242690086365,
-0.27155405282974243,
0.014374599792063236,
0.40583544969558716,
-0.6520305275917053,
-0.1588173359632492,
0.2381833791732788,
-0.18128785490989685,
-0.6352642178535461,
0.0293468926101923,
-0.501775324344635,
0.9355044364929199,
0.04995115101337433,
0.5287861824035645,
-0.40474405884742737,
0.4488537013530731,
0.04552282392978668,
0.17612162232398987,
-0.045658331364393234,
-0.22146499156951904,
-0.33462977409362793,
0.4865720272064209,
-0.8605189919471741,
0.634665310382843,
-0.49871253967285156,
0.36033523082733154,
0.21008865535259247,
-0.5044837594032288,
-0.4848371744155884,
-0.3268320858478546,
-0.041567109525203705,
-0.31947237253189087,
0.5056573152542114,
-0.0238721314817667,
-0.04711476340889931,
-0.02289661020040512,
0.42711690068244934,
-0.0194342490285635,
0.07556632906198502,
-0.8494464755058289,
0.552272379398346,
-0.33112645149230957,
-0.8787202835083008,
0.5549631118774414,
-0.232463538646698,
0.4760814905166626,
-0.38512757420539856,
0.42541682720184326,
0.16239875555038452,
0.012476526200771332,
-0.07757193595170975,
0.11784578114748001,
1.0085355043411255,
0.1992110162973404,
0.12049877643585205,
0.6288039684295654,
-0.6852524876594543,
0.6479224562644958,
0.4031730592250824,
-0.07629513740539551,
-0.20335614681243896,
-0.20792531967163086,
0.25476816296577454,
0.23248210549354553,
0.40987592935562134,
-0.05293761566281319,
0.2274717092514038,
0.24006253480911255,
0.347567617893219,
0.16715088486671448,
0.046305783092975616,
0.09585090726613998,
-0.38050106167793274,
-0.20165550708770752,
-0.10859725624322891,
0.5296657681465149,
-0.7610011696815491,
-0.4333084523677826,
0.4714433550834656,
0.10518750548362732,
0.5610127449035645,
-0.049329597502946854,
0.29243767261505127,
-0.2520020008087158,
0.4658343493938446,
0.5506516695022583,
0.14078544080257416,
-0.5618938207626343,
0.3641067147254944,
0.5464455485343933,
-0.21463754773139954,
0.11482349038124084,
0.41902995109558105,
-0.10995657742023468,
-0.39227941632270813,
0.36153459548950195,
-0.14257891476154327,
-0.48706433176994324,
-0.595414400100708,
0.12153983116149902,
0.5009246468544006,
-0.007952642627060413,
0.06748922914266586,
0.7829702496528625,
0.11008194833993912,
0.6459565162658691,
-0.9393678307533264,
0.07664801180362701,
0.4166565537452698,
0.12669333815574646,
0.4462655484676361,
-0.560560941696167,
0.32030025124549866,
0.3699989318847656,
-0.515364408493042,
0.15988749265670776,
0.12785661220550537,
0.022243525832891464,
-0.20363283157348633,
0.19941404461860657,
0.2173786461353302,
0.44368183612823486,
-1.1219890117645264,
-0.18380680680274963,
-0.17060019075870514,
-0.5142555236816406,
0.4052938222885132,
-0.4849115312099457,
-0.20871229469776154,
-0.040751490741968155,
-0.26389169692993164,
-0.3198998272418976,
-0.3069240152835846,
-0.08718851953744888,
-0.09107698500156403,
-0.015233972109854221,
1.0024380683898926,
-0.1835027039051056,
-0.4753420352935791,
0.05711815506219864,
0.4998266100883484,
-0.4024283289909363,
-0.024178657680749893,
-0.1377241164445877,
0.6020137667655945,
-0.4553738534450531,
0.06852110475301743,
-0.13144168257713318,
0.6726977825164795,
0.5064913034439087,
-0.5502461194992065,
-0.10294489562511444,
0.21552081406116486,
0.16888228058815002,
0.22617337107658386,
0.5032339096069336,
-0.8153968453407288,
0.2685713768005371,
-0.7070789337158203,
0.2277107983827591,
-0.42313531041145325,
-0.5105876326560974,
0.03722626343369484,
-0.26511499285697937,
-0.4158002436161041,
0.5751998424530029,
0.4025816023349762,
-0.13801658153533936,
1.1942211389541626,
-0.107648104429245,
-0.4937913119792938,
-0.8125864863395691,
-0.18521414697170258,
0.12145692855119705,
-0.2007719725370407,
-0.2120976597070694,
0.7059733867645264,
0.9607823491096497,
-0.23215605318546295,
0.6148378252983093,
-0.15631616115570068,
0.3802328109741211,
-0.1932237446308136,
-0.8480710387229919,
-0.604130744934082,
-0.41104573011398315,
-0.034960564225912094,
-0.8129771947860718,
0.5996536016464233,
0.23970748484134674,
-0.06569213420152664,
0.11891839653253555,
0.03793494775891304,
-0.03417268022894859,
-0.010959040373563766,
-0.028903324156999588,
-0.6654292941093445,
-0.558785617351532,
-0.06430799514055252
] |
247934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Daguerre | Louis Daguerre | Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre ( , ; 18 November 1787 – 10 July 1851) was a French artist and photographer, recognized for his invention of the eponymous daguerreotype process of photography. He became known as one of the fathers of photography. Though he is most famous for his contributions to photography, he was also an accomplished painter, scenic designer, and a developer of the diorama theatre.
Biography
Louis Daguerre was born in Cormeilles-en-Parisis, Val-d'Oise, France. He was apprenticed in architecture, theatre design, and panoramic painting to Pierre Prévost, the first French panorama painter. Exceedingly adept at his skill of theatrical illusion, he became a celebrated designer for the theatre, and later came to invent the diorama, which opened in Paris in July 1822.
In 1829, Daguerre partnered with Nicéphore Niépce, an inventor who had produced the world's first heliograph in 1822 and the oldest surviving camera photograph in 1826 or 1827. Niépce died suddenly in 1833, but Daguerre continued experimenting, and evolved the process which would subsequently be known as the daguerreotype. After efforts to interest private investors proved fruitless, Daguerre went public with his invention in 1839. At a joint meeting of the French Academy of Sciences and the Académie des Beaux Arts on 7 January of that year, the invention was announced and described in general terms, but all specific details were withheld. Under assurances of strict confidentiality, Daguerre explained and demonstrated the process only to the Academy's perpetual secretary François Arago, who proved to be an invaluable advocate. Members of the Academy and other select individuals were allowed to examine specimens at Daguerre's studio. The images were enthusiastically praised as nearly miraculous, and news of the daguerreotype quickly spread. Arrangements were made for Daguerre's rights to be acquired by the French Government in exchange for lifetime pensions for himself and Niépce's son Isidore; then, on 19 August 1839, the French Government presented the invention as a gift from France "free to the world", and complete working instructions were published. In 1839, he was elected to the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician.
Daguerre died, from a heart attack, on 10 July 1851 in Bry-sur-Marne, from Paris. A monument marks his grave there.
Daguerre's name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel tower.
Development of the daguerreotype
In the mid-1820s, prior to his association with Daguerre, Niépce used a coating of bitumen of Judea to make the first permanent camera photographs. The bitumen was hardened where it was exposed to light and the unhardened portion was then removed with a solvent. A camera exposure lasting for hours or days was required. Niépce and Daguerre later refined this process, but unacceptably long exposures were still needed.
After the death of Niépce in 1833, Daguerre concentrated his attention on the light-sensitive properties of silver salts, which had previously been demonstrated by Johann Heinrich Schultz and others. For the process which was eventually named the daguerreotype, he exposed a thin silver-plated copper sheet to the vapour given off by iodine crystals, producing a coating of light-sensitive silver iodide on the surface. The plate was then exposed in the camera. Initially, this process, too, required a very long exposure to produce a distinct image, but Daguerre made the crucial discovery that an invisibly faint "latent" image created by a much shorter exposure could be chemically "developed" into a visible image. Upon seeing the image, the contents of which are unknown, Daguerre said, "I have seized the light – I have arrested its flight!"
The latent image on a daguerreotype plate was developed by subjecting it to the vapour given off by mercury heated to 75 °C. The resulting visible image was then "fixed" (made insensitive to further exposure to light) by removing the unaffected silver iodide with concentrated and heated salt water. Later, a solution of the more effective "hypo" (hyposulphite of soda, now known as sodium thiosulfate) was used instead.
The resultant plate produced an exact reproduction of the scene. The image was laterally reversed—as images in mirrors are—unless a mirror or inverting prism was used during exposure to flip the image. To be seen optimally, the image had to be lit at a certain angle and viewed so that the smooth parts of its mirror-like surface, which represented the darkest parts of the image, reflected something dark or dimly lit. The surface was subject to tarnishing by prolonged exposure to the air and was so soft that it could be marred by the slightest friction, so a daguerreotype was almost always sealed under glass before being framed (as was commonly done in France) or mounted in a small folding case (as was normal in the UK and US).
Daguerreotypes were usually portraits; the rarer landscape views and other unusual subjects are now much sought-after by collectors and sell for much higher prices than ordinary portraits. At the time of its introduction, the process required exposures lasting ten minutes or more for brightly sunlit subjects, so portraiture was an impractical ordeal. Samuel Morse was astonished to learn that daguerreotypes of the streets of Paris did not show any people, horses or vehicles, until he realized that due to the long exposure times all moving objects became invisible. Within a few years, exposures had been reduced to as little as a few seconds by the use of additional sensitizing chemicals and "faster" lenses such as Petzval's portrait lens, the first mathematically calculated lens.
The daguerreotype was the Polaroid film of its day: it produced a unique image which could only be duplicated by using a camera to photograph the original. Despite this drawback, millions of daguerreotypes were produced. The paper-based calotype process, introduced by Henry Fox Talbot in 1841, allowed the production of an unlimited number of copies by simple contact printing, but it had its own shortcomings—the grain of the paper was obtrusively visible in the image, and the extremely fine detail of which the daguerreotype was capable was not possible. The introduction of the wet collodion process in the early 1850s provided the basis for a negative-positive print-making process not subject to these limitations, although it, like the daguerreotype, was initially used to produce one-of-a-kind images—ambrotypes on glass and tintypes on black-lacquered iron sheets—rather than prints on paper. These new types of images were much less expensive than daguerreotypes, and they were easier to view. By 1860 few photographers were still using Daguerre's process.
The same small ornate cases commonly used to house daguerreotypes were also used for images produced by the later and very different ambrotype and tintype processes, and the images originally in them were sometimes later discarded so that they could be used to display photographic paper prints. It is now a very common error for any image in such a case to be described as "a daguerreotype". A true daguerreotype is always an image on a highly polished silver surface, usually under protective glass. If it is viewed while a brightly lit sheet of white paper is held so as to be seen reflected in its mirror-like metal surface, the daguerreotype image will appear as a relatively faint negative—its dark and light areas reversed—instead of a normal positive. Other types of photographic images are almost never on polished metal and do not exhibit this peculiar characteristic of appearing positive or negative depending on the lighting and reflections.
Competition with Talbot
Unbeknownst to either inventor, Daguerre's developmental work in the mid-1830s coincided with photographic experiments being conducted by William Henry Fox Talbot in England. Talbot had succeeded in producing a "sensitive paper" impregnated with silver chloride and capturing small camera images on it in the summer of 1835, though he did not publicly reveal this until January 1839. Talbot was unaware that Daguerre's late partner Niépce had obtained similar small camera images on silver-chloride-coated paper nearly twenty years earlier. Niépce could find no way to keep them from darkening all over when exposed to light for viewing and had therefore turned away from silver salts to experiment with other substances such as bitumen. Talbot chemically stabilized his images to withstand subsequent inspection in daylight by treating them with a strong solution of common salt.
When the first reports of the French Academy of Sciences announcement of Daguerre's invention reached Talbot, with no details about the exact nature of the images or the process itself, he assumed that methods similar to his own must have been used, and promptly wrote an open letter to the Academy claiming priority of invention. Although it soon became apparent that Daguerre's process was very unlike his own, Talbot had been stimulated to resume his long-discontinued photographic experiments. The developed out daguerreotype process only required an exposure sufficient to create a very faint or completely invisible latent image which was then chemically developed to full visibility. Talbot's earlier "sensitive paper" (now known as "salted paper") process was a printed out process that required prolonged exposure in the camera until the image was fully formed, but his later calotype (also known as talbotype) paper negative process, introduced in 1841, also used latent image development, greatly reducing the exposure needed, and making it competitive with the daguerreotype.
Daguerre's agent Miles Berry applied for a British patent under the instruction of Daguerre just days before France declared the invention "free to the world". The United Kingdom was thereby uniquely denied France's free gift, and became the only country where the payment of license fees was required. This had the effect of inhibiting the spread of the process there, to the eventual advantage of competing processes which were subsequently introduced into England. Antoine Claudet was one of the few people legally licensed to make daguerreotypes in Britain.
Diorama theatres
In the spring of 1821, Daguerre partnered with Charles Marie Bouton with the common goal of creating a diorama theatre. Daguerre had expertise in lighting and scenic effects, and Bouton was the more experienced painter. However, Bouton eventually withdrew, and Daguerre acquired sole responsibility of the diorama theatre.
The first diorama theatre was built in Paris, adjacent to Daguerre's studio. The first exhibit opened 11 July 1822 showing two tableaux, one by Daguerre and one by Bouton. This would become a pattern. Each exhibition would typically have two tableaux, one each by Daguerre and Bouton. Also, one would be an interior depiction, and the other would be a landscape. Daguerre hoped to create a realistic illusion for an audience, and wanted audiences to be not only entertained, but awe-stricken.
The diorama theatres were magnificent in size. A large translucent canvas, measuring around 70 ft wide and 45 ft tall, was painted on both sides. These paintings were vivid and detailed pictures, and were lit from different angles. As the lights changed, the scene would transform. The audience would begin to see the painting on the other side of the screen. The effect was awe-inspiring. "Transforming impressions, mood changes, and movements were produced by a system of shutters and screens that allowed light to be projected- from behind- on alternately separate sections of an image painted on a semi-transparent backdrop" (Szalczer).
Because of their size, the screens had to remain stationary. Since the tableaux were stationary, the auditorium revolved from one scene to another. The auditorium was a cylindrical room and had a single opening in the wall, similar to a proscenium arch, through which the audience could watch a "scene". Audiences would average around 350, and most would stand, though limited seating was provided. Twenty-one diorama paintings were exhibited in the first eight years. These included ‘Trinity Chapel in Canterbury Cathedral’, ‘Chartres Cathedral’, ‘City of Rouen’, and ‘Environs of Paris’ by Bouton; ‘Valley of Sarnen’, ‘Harbour of Brest’, ‘Holyroodhouse Chapel’, and ‘Roslin Chapel’ by Daguerre.
The Roslin Chapel was known for a few legends involving an unconsuming fire. The legend goes that the Chapel has appeared to be in flames just before a high-status death, but has later shown no damage from any such fire. This chapel was also known for being unique in its architectural beauty. Daguerre was aware of both of these aspects of Roslin Chapel, and this made it a perfect subject for his diorama painting. The legends connected with the chapel would be sure to attract a large audience. Interior of Roslin Chapel in Paris opened 24 September 1824 and closed February 1825. The scene depicted light coming in through a door and a window. Foliage shadows could be seen at the window, and the way the light's rays shone through the leaves was breathtaking and seemed to "go beyond the power of painting" (Maggi). Then the light faded on the scene as if a cloud was passing over the sun. The Times dedicated an article to the exhibition, calling it "perfectly magical".
Diorama became a popular new medium, and imitators arose. It is estimated that profits reached as much as 200,000 francs. This would require 80,000 visitors at an entrance fee of 2.50 francs. Another diorama theatre opened in Regent's Park, London, taking only four months to build. It opened in September 1823. The most prosperous years were the early to mid-1820s.
The dioramas prospered for a few years until going into the 1830s. Then, inevitably, the theatre burned down. The diorama had been Daguerre's only source of income. At first glance, the event was tragically fateful. But the enterprise was already close to its end, thus losing the diorama tableaux was not completely disastrous, considering the funds granted under the insurance.
Portraits of and artworks by Louis Daguerre
See also
John Herschel
Frederick Langenheim
List of people considered father or mother of a field
Palladiotype
Photographic processes
Platinotype Company
William Willis
Daguerreotype
References
Sources
Carl Edwin Lindgren. Teaching Photography in the Indian School. Photo Trade Directory: 1991. India International Photographic Council. Edited: N. Sundarraj and K. Ponnuswamy. VII IIPC-SIPATA Intl. Workshop and Conference on Photography — Madras, p. 9.
R. Colson (ed.), Mémoires originaux des créateurs de la photographie. Nicéphore Niepce, Daguerre, Bayard, Talbot, Niepce de Saint-Victor, Poitevin, Paris 1898
Helmut and Alison Gernsheim, L.J.M. Daguerre. The History of the Diorama and the Daguerreotype, London 1956 (revised edition 1968)
Beaumont Newhall, An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Various Processes of the Daguerreotype and the Diorama by Daguerre, New York 1971
Hans Rooseboom, What's wrong with Daguerre? Reconsidering old and new views on the invention of photography, Nescio, Amsterdam, 2010 (www.nescioprivatepress.blogspot.com)
Daniel, Malcolm. "Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography." The Metropolitan Museum of Art – Home. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2011. Web. 17 January 2012.
Gale, Thomas. "Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre." BookRags. BookRags, Inc., 2012. Web. 14 April 2012.
Kahane, Henry. Comparative Literature Studies. 3rd ed. Vol. 12. Penn State UP, 1975. Print.
Maggi, Angelo. "Roslin Chapel in Gandy’s Sketchbook and Daguerre’s Diorama." Architectural History. 1991 ed. Vol. 42. SAHGB Publications Limited, 1991. Print.
Szalczer, Eszter. "Nature’s Dream Play: Modes of Vision and August Strindberg’s Re-Definition Of the Theatre." Theatre Journal. 1st ed. Vol. 53. Johns Hopkins UP, 2001..Print.
"Classics of Science: The Daguerreotype." The Science News-Letter. 374th ed. Vol. 13. Society For Science & the Public, 1928. Print.
Watson, Bruce, "Light: A Radiant History from Creation to the Quantum Age," (London and NY: Bloomsbury, 2016). Print.
Wilkinson, Lynn R. "Le Cousin Pons and the Invention of Ideology." PMLA. 2nd ed. Vol. 107. Modern Language Association, 1992. Print.
Wood, R. Derek. "The Diorama in Great Britain in the 1820s". Annals of Science, Sept 1997, Vol 54, No.5, pp. 489–506 (Taylor & Francis Group). Web.(Midley History of early Photography) 14 April 2012
External links
Daguerre (1787–1851) and the Invention of Photography from the Metropolitan Museum of Art
DIORAMAS
Louis Daguerre and Bry-sur-Marne
Louis Daguerre Biography
Louis Daguerre (1787–1851) from World Wide Art Resources.
Daguerre, Louis Jacques Mande by Robert Leggat.
Daguerre and the daguerreotype An array of source texts from the Daguerreian Society web site
Daguerre's Boulevard du Temple photograph – a discussion on its making and subsequent history.
Daguerre Memorial in Washington D.C.
Louis Daguerre Encyclopædia Britannica
Daguerre in a historical context
Official Website of Bry-Sur-Marne's Museum - Enhancement of the museum's collections, some are related with the work of Louis Daguerre.
- Rediscovery by Dutch photographer Wilmar explaining the shutterspeed of the Boulevard du Temple photo.
1787 births
1851 deaths
People from Cormeilles-en-Parisis
French scenic designers
19th-century French inventors
19th-century French physicists
19th-century French painters
19th-century French photographers
People of the Industrial Revolution
Pioneers of photography
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) | [
0.18707197904586792,
0.2760162949562073,
-0.9195106029510498,
0.36875033378601074,
0.5219984650611877,
0.529563844203949,
-0.1719442903995514,
-0.11637488007545471,
-0.782640814781189,
-0.5199981331825256,
-0.30456119775772095,
0.2680359482765198,
-0.4640723764896393,
-0.18736965954303741,
-0.13111871480941772,
-0.07542137056589127,
-0.2384575456380844,
-0.2752888798713684,
-0.3391249179840088,
-0.24127398431301117,
-0.4891115427017212,
-0.43299412727355957,
0.007394468877464533,
-0.39506950974464417,
-0.5735293626785278,
-0.18449945747852325,
-0.21880066394805908,
0.45547646284103394,
0.281516432762146,
0.34742143750190735,
0.47497648000717163,
0.1258370578289032,
0.6230823993682861,
0.09822407364845276,
-0.8983127474784851,
0.12399858236312866,
-0.5959379076957703,
-0.14597013592720032,
0.40524736046791077,
0.00782802328467369,
-0.3002399504184723,
0.20852693915367126,
-0.04750265181064606,
-0.12720315158367157,
-0.16983996331691742,
-0.11195176094770432,
-1.433062195777893,
0.5222338438034058,
-0.33529964089393616,
-0.0498155876994133,
-0.2654281258583069,
0.1415308117866516,
0.37569311261177063,
1.093009114265442,
-0.5856531262397766,
0.7221640348434448,
-0.319533109664917,
-0.04261448234319687,
-0.1696578711271286,
-0.23499172925949097,
0.08931177854537964,
-0.2624705135822296,
0.6024187207221985,
0.12526360154151917,
0.3134922981262207,
0.19996364414691925,
-0.0027886161115020514,
0.0046132649295032024,
0.37114381790161133,
0.16232174634933472,
0.5410731434822083,
0.10012467950582504,
0.2018875628709793,
0.32935193181037903,
-0.2134486883878708,
-0.024133237078785896,
-0.11113197356462479,
-0.2767470180988312,
0.13617919385433197,
0.3043326139450073,
0.23946863412857056,
-0.43279775977134705,
0.8535743951797485,
0.34231042861938477,
-0.11559654027223587,
0.668563961982727,
-0.43500882387161255,
0.24326306581497192,
-0.5546078681945801,
0.1476503312587738,
-0.4707790017127991,
-0.45304423570632935,
0.39733582735061646,
-0.25288528203964233,
-0.09634014219045639,
0.25443267822265625,
-0.24341261386871338,
0.3648054301738739,
-0.3271166980266571,
0.04066624864935875,
-0.1696052849292755,
-0.2217056006193161,
0.3770088255405426,
0.1277036964893341,
0.02980882301926613,
-0.10080619901418686,
-0.17418737709522247,
0.08719553053379059,
-0.09458447247743607,
0.41909438371658325,
-0.26501578092575073,
-0.08353067934513092,
-0.3629511594772339,
0.2550201714038849,
-0.19665051996707916,
-0.18064112961292267,
0.24425183236598969,
-0.3435826599597931,
-0.3231487274169922,
-0.10095909982919693,
0.033293310552835464,
0.569807767868042,
0.45529916882514954,
-0.11101046204566956,
-0.5410889983177185,
-0.0473150797188282,
0.37031880021095276,
0.4055231213569641,
-0.11078102141618729,
0.04322430491447449,
-0.08869144320487976,
0.709439754486084,
0.12820075452327728,
-0.4440458118915558,
0.009090873412787914,
-0.3804562985897064,
-0.17040103673934937,
-0.35430318117141724,
-0.4649840295314789,
0.3592068552970886,
-0.2807963192462921,
-0.1231059655547142,
-0.12478569895029068,
0.188266322016716,
-0.3968742787837982,
-0.21871447563171387,
0.3550311326980591,
0.1194399893283844,
-0.05229142680764198,
-0.06397717446088791,
-0.6583210825920105,
-0.274617075920105,
0.1920507848262787,
-0.7782262563705444,
-0.27783986926078796,
0.23469729721546173,
-0.06048749387264252,
0.23735348880290985,
0.1056365892291069,
-0.5154983401298523,
-0.036080144345760345,
0.20561233162879944,
-0.42476096749305725,
0.16335992515087128,
0.4280494749546051,
-0.5860196352005005,
0.28760334849357605,
0.4654286503791809,
-0.35696905851364136,
-0.06380782276391983,
0.007884835824370384,
-0.5509496331214905,
-0.1588699221611023,
-0.1807180643081665,
-0.656921923160553,
0.7626875042915344,
0.18345490097999573,
0.4160631000995636,
0.2901685833930969,
-0.15267083048820496,
-0.8599266409873962,
0.14382216334342957,
0.02566414326429367,
-0.05450033023953438,
0.6166521906852722,
0.11099765449762344,
0.619723379611969,
0.06994004547595978,
0.17099080979824066,
-0.17204689979553223,
-0.8288336396217346,
-0.013171062804758549,
-0.25071951746940613,
-0.7045626640319824,
0.7892749309539795,
0.13328221440315247,
-0.371461421251297,
0.6782322525978088,
0.27964457869529724,
0.31615015864372253,
-0.8873865604400635,
-0.11333690583705902,
0.1278156340122223,
-0.05281924456357956,
-0.09911011159420013,
0.08758548647165298,
0.13479174673557281,
0.2978819012641907,
0.20781919360160828,
0.482658714056015,
0.2641392946243286,
-0.5479586720466614,
0.4594845473766327,
0.8581927418708801,
-0.6755173206329346,
0.13521011173725128,
-0.8665362000465393,
-0.48840591311454773,
-0.018498990684747696,
0.23362791538238525,
0.01729978807270527,
0.005241266451776028,
-0.3136439621448517,
1.099015235900879,
0.25349220633506775,
0.9471061825752258,
0.3856717348098755,
0.01926097273826599,
0.6002119183540344,
-0.6943403482437134,
-0.09847993403673172,
-0.0510881170630455,
0.7562816143035889,
-0.24027274549007416,
0.3970054090023041,
0.3113732635974884,
0.13556240499019623,
-0.6499131917953491,
0.13907505571842194,
-0.20924034714698792,
0.8755285739898682,
0.19732016324996948,
0.5006462931632996,
-0.059896815568208694,
0.691619336605072,
0.709619402885437,
-0.24986323714256287,
0.20854367315769196,
0.026997283101081848,
-0.5023238658905029,
0.013045855797827244,
0.8558491468429565,
-0.30525100231170654,
0.0829913318157196,
-0.14014020562171936,
-0.9055804014205933,
0.9948016405105591,
-0.25627124309539795,
0.24007274210453033,
0.3228442966938019,
0.36944031715393066,
-0.2244177758693695,
-0.04637352004647255,
0.4389554262161255,
-0.12143488973379135,
-0.37447211146354675,
-0.26130151748657227,
-0.2574252486228943,
0.5640932321548462,
0.7125118374824524,
0.45417308807373047,
0.3859226107597351,
0.06700285524129868,
0.4899842441082001,
0.11625324189662933,
-0.45458677411079407,
-0.11365857720375061,
0.3374265432357788,
0.023179857060313225,
-0.30876100063323975,
-0.3260570764541626,
0.7129159569740295,
-0.5560840368270874,
-0.13337299227714539,
-0.19271647930145264,
-0.3611646890640259,
-0.06070958450436592,
-0.6422709226608276,
0.10509329289197922,
-0.18150992691516876,
0.030417798087000847,
0.9814122319221497,
-0.3090640604496002,
0.029853753745555878,
-0.17508648335933685,
-0.21945564448833466,
-0.6597787737846375,
-0.6170094013214111,
-0.32774052023887634,
-0.5980138778686523,
-0.6344088912010193,
-0.04520314931869507,
0.8174887895584106,
-0.2924659550189972,
0.30299392342567444,
0.2032983899116516,
0.2745898962020874,
-0.06775961816310883,
-5.731605052947998,
0.17918141186237335,
0.4009800851345062,
-0.17274285852909088,
-0.7844352722167969,
-0.27187618613243103,
0.4674629867076874,
-0.043966278433799744,
0.46273520588874817,
-0.3406665325164795,
0.022371632978320122,
-0.40869924426078796,
-0.13302573561668396,
0.30633535981178284,
0.0894707590341568,
0.6057089567184448,
0.0844762772321701,
0.16339513659477234,
0.1522136926651001,
0.6179947853088379,
-0.4073065519332886,
-0.23452523350715637,
0.3047177791595459,
0.25707876682281494,
0.17928136885166168,
-0.16157986223697662,
-0.08940710127353668,
-0.24741800129413605,
-0.4748578667640686,
-0.3676474988460541,
0.1529383659362793,
-0.016158975660800934,
0.1939978301525116,
0.3834855258464813,
0.3065340220928192,
-0.34658685326576233,
0.5232844948768616,
0.5817294716835022,
-0.40322887897491455,
-0.19107694923877716,
0.617013692855835,
0.5696189999580383,
-0.5524333715438843,
0.1141049936413765,
-0.17220310866832733,
-0.3360576629638672,
-0.43817970156669617,
0.023074619472026825,
-0.6383863687515259,
0.21555107831954956,
0.6786196231842041,
-0.4198750853538513,
0.06684063374996185,
-0.17145133018493652,
-0.008376621641218662,
-0.01438547857105732,
-0.10479818284511566,
0.06542880088090897,
-0.859316349029541,
0.19363388419151306,
0.42373186349868774,
-0.0991489589214325,
-0.169075146317482,
-0.5899157524108887,
-0.026523565873503685,
-0.06119044870138168,
-0.2049526572227478,
-0.34377267956733704,
-0.0009472300298511982,
-0.004095684736967087,
0.04589759185910225,
0.7072579264640808,
0.09228206425905228,
-1.048899531364441,
-0.6685695052146912,
0.2365877777338028,
-0.07247067987918854,
-0.056355010718107224,
-0.3724595606327057,
0.22152179479599,
-0.17296159267425537,
-0.9176027178764343,
0.3296537697315216,
0.7926186919212341,
0.6645617485046387,
-0.17061901092529297,
-0.7751836776733398,
0.4807490110397339,
-0.24302425980567932,
0.02300085313618183,
0.8850799798965454,
0.0004337984137237072,
0.2496633380651474,
0.43483126163482666,
0.2664552330970764,
0.035318516194820404,
0.5819938778877258,
0.07244135439395905,
0.6105935573577881,
0.15509021282196045,
-0.07721772789955139,
0.33557868003845215,
-0.1556972861289978,
-0.67527836561203,
0.21580082178115845,
-0.3384539783000946,
-0.09000276029109955,
0.3583328127861023,
0.6991793513298035,
0.36873897910118103,
-0.03138483688235283,
0.3795098662376404,
-0.4278264343738556,
-0.12524724006652832,
0.32689669728279114,
-0.8381482362747192,
0.06294216960668564,
-0.412340372800827,
0.4034390449523926,
-0.2009749561548233,
-0.44194766879081726,
0.5482077598571777,
-0.5486307740211487,
0.26030614972114563,
0.09319792687892914,
-0.26612257957458496,
-0.15992577373981476,
-0.13925932347774506,
0.3147076964378357,
0.002173356944695115,
-0.1135520339012146,
0.9444413185119629,
-0.18855144083499908,
0.199150949716568,
0.5843616724014282,
-0.031628187745809555,
-0.6692711114883423,
-0.5645248293876648,
0.006168868858367205,
-0.3533242344856262,
0.18075063824653625,
-0.036930669099092484,
-0.15627841651439667,
0.5087485909461975,
0.7876215577125549,
-0.12924054265022278,
-0.2588399648666382,
0.05796928331255913,
-0.20023265480995178,
0.35029932856559753,
-0.4001260995864868,
-0.3139953315258026,
0.032362718135118484,
0.4007123112678528,
-0.10601872950792313,
0.20872201025485992,
-0.8422873616218567,
0.078192338347435,
-0.18455955386161804,
-0.28361669182777405,
0.5911110043525696,
-0.27667340636253357,
-0.7116051316261292,
-0.4193603992462158,
-0.06514451652765274,
0.350969135761261,
-0.31230905652046204,
-0.15200559794902802,
-0.19495905935764313,
0.0084763802587986,
0.03239663690328598,
-0.4941171407699585,
-0.3013680875301361,
-0.6735955476760864,
0.024601077660918236,
0.08413301408290863,
-0.3193337321281433,
0.34885087609291077,
-0.21578095853328705,
-0.11356091499328613,
0.004273692145943642,
0.03126949444413185,
-0.647629976272583,
-0.10739806294441223,
0.1843535304069519,
0.029409432783722878,
-0.16655133664608002,
0.0008876680512912571,
-0.1370909959077835,
0.06604071706533432,
0.5198676586151123,
0.18818973004817963,
-0.28956112265586853,
0.6565539240837097,
-0.327849805355072,
-0.7708887457847595,
-0.3683103024959564,
0.10266678780317307,
-0.015135769732296467,
-0.22700339555740356,
-0.4480539858341217,
-0.2246251255273819,
0.217206671833992,
-0.2480197548866272,
0.008918838575482368,
-0.5019857287406921,
0.12237169593572617,
0.29963478446006775,
-0.5276840925216675,
0.019803037866950035,
-0.5526111125946045,
-0.43246614933013916,
-0.0707407146692276,
0.22156015038490295,
-0.24495920538902283,
0.478137344121933,
0.20662449300289154,
0.1682894229888916,
-0.122095488011837,
-0.6869995594024658,
-0.008095400407910347,
0.3996829092502594,
-0.34138715267181396,
0.010434968397021294,
0.38017919659614563,
0.3643723726272583,
0.5274495482444763,
0.6414742469787598,
0.3841865658760071,
0.018488693982362747,
-0.13492408394813538,
0.2659692168235779,
-0.022651201114058495,
-0.07159695029258728,
-0.371670663356781,
0.01122239138931036,
0.8413844108581543,
0.6910118460655212,
-0.05617927387356758,
-0.35117286443710327,
0.6546656489372253,
0.9729927182197571,
0.11109040677547455,
0.97788405418396,
-0.02555374801158905,
0.6814168691635132,
0.3715362846851349,
-0.055649206042289734,
-0.21274334192276,
0.1151852086186409,
-0.499759703874588,
0.3735623359680176,
-0.2858024537563324,
-0.20956648886203766,
0.5344566702842712,
-0.15007004141807556,
-0.158005490899086,
0.35148608684539795,
0.0706607848405838,
0.3972419500350952,
0.0017931514885276556,
0.16465848684310913,
0.572397768497467,
-0.6650484204292297,
0.4455304443836212,
0.5326394438743591,
-0.2237221598625183,
0.3850879371166229,
0.12960882484912872,
-0.02387935295701027,
0.2333611398935318,
-0.5913914442062378,
-0.515667200088501,
0.9072153568267822,
0.0870463028550148,
0.4866560995578766,
0.10005142539739609,
0.369653582572937,
-0.2529810965061188,
-0.5531471967697144,
-0.6611807942390442,
0.09827908873558044,
0.18471580743789673,
-0.15511515736579895,
-0.2685330808162689,
-0.5953496694564819,
-0.36446914076805115,
0.06469224393367767,
-0.30628830194473267,
-0.09147201478481293,
-0.3827889859676361,
0.22887621819972992,
0.2883386015892029,
-0.03421314060688019,
0.011559861712157726,
0.5211101770401001,
-0.32817021012306213,
1.0982342958450317,
-0.3997509181499481,
-0.14675335586071014,
-0.10754447430372238,
0.3227075934410095,
0.6523283123970032,
-0.3319159150123596,
0.5736569762229919,
0.10432960093021393,
0.20806066691875458,
-0.5515083074569702,
-0.33254358172416687,
0.37507298588752747,
0.14172063767910004,
-0.12533757090568542,
-0.2912764251232147,
-0.13036571443080902,
-0.6000588536262512,
-0.2683532238006592,
1.098092794418335,
-0.047642782330513,
-0.546551525592804,
-0.0003808670735452324,
0.14517322182655334,
0.17793495953083038,
0.19475197792053223,
-0.6739750504493713,
-0.10362926870584488,
0.25806206464767456,
0.4568673074245453,
0.8309759497642517,
-0.08601231873035431,
0.09946392476558685,
0.3846306800842285,
0.24537372589111328,
-0.5135447978973389,
1.0541001558303833,
-0.2611943185329437,
-0.023244310170412064,
-0.3303150236606598,
-0.40514540672302246,
0.003836411749944091,
-0.16535411775112152,
0.032163105905056,
0.9900714159011841,
-0.17198395729064941,
-0.01628105714917183,
-0.2269551008939743,
-0.22703373432159424,
-0.021954525262117386,
0.1023460254073143,
-0.32700657844543457,
-0.14694160223007202,
0.7088027596473694,
0.10870703309774399,
0.4592280089855194,
0.27080169320106506,
0.12077458202838898,
0.17904023826122284,
0.4020298719406128,
-0.07832662761211395,
-0.18286161124706268,
0.25799593329429626,
-0.20602118968963623,
-0.014426634646952152,
0.5168763399124146,
-0.21327745914459229,
-0.47409871220588684,
0.06191946193575859,
-0.15795741975307465,
-0.43875181674957275,
-0.00013844201748725027,
0.020573820918798447,
-0.14130964875221252,
-0.47510895133018494,
-0.04562767222523689,
0.12116650491952896,
-0.046272631734609604,
-0.13293780386447906,
0.2173357903957367,
0.11626165360212326,
-0.1531202644109726,
-0.437717467546463,
-0.4731845557689667,
-0.08315905928611755,
0.07080325484275818,
-0.43609341979026794,
-0.11756622791290283,
-0.23268146812915802,
-0.35357898473739624,
0.09237340837717056,
0.2926445007324219,
-0.34820446372032166,
0.1253708004951477,
-0.129098579287529,
0.013616682961583138,
-0.1471976637840271,
-0.5788232684135437,
0.515807569026947,
-0.2569006085395813,
0.7896265387535095,
-0.006681086961179972,
-0.3592396378517151,
-0.34358784556388855,
-0.028124401345849037,
0.01169201172888279,
-0.7208412289619446,
0.3322902023792267,
0.2419239729642868,
-0.4429154396057129,
0.404308557510376,
-0.8426246047019958,
0.35416942834854126,
0.038172297179698944,
-0.3707164525985718,
-0.3040691018104553,
0.4822190999984741,
-0.5899520516395569,
0.24014481902122498,
0.46377208828926086,
-0.0609988272190094,
0.029439182952046394,
-0.4462074041366577,
0.3038628399372101,
-0.27241843938827515,
0.4349656105041504,
-0.2792951464653015,
-0.4745731055736542,
-0.133711576461792,
0.05389641225337982,
-0.08769284933805466,
0.14985235035419464,
0.7770743370056152,
0.17776520550251007,
0.42209169268608093,
-0.5240580439567566,
-0.08359265327453613,
-0.9101425409317017,
-1.2292828559875488,
0.18974636495113373,
0.26606935262680054,
-0.12105630338191986,
-0.5179105401039124,
0.46377450227737427,
0.6436848640441895,
-0.071621373295784,
0.09357091784477234,
0.23434197902679443,
-0.10996993631124496,
-0.6168354153633118,
0.12363113462924957,
-0.22965402901172638,
0.035087257623672485,
0.15883171558380127,
-0.15702471137046814,
0.18044167757034302,
-0.7203965783119202,
0.09422256797552109,
-0.07012030482292175,
0.38286465406417847,
-0.6066440343856812,
0.6325560212135315,
-0.28744757175445557
] |
247935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft%20noise%20pollution | Aircraft noise pollution | Aircraft noise pollution refers to noise produced by aircraft in flight that has been associated with several negative stress-mediated health effects, from sleep disorders to cardiovascular ones. Governments have enacted extensive controls that apply to aircraft designers, manufacturers, and operators, resulting in improved procedures and cuts in pollution.
Sound production is divided into three categories:
Mechanical noise—rotation of the engine parts, most noticeable when fan blades reach supersonic speeds.
Aerodynamic noise—from the airflow around the surfaces of the aircraft, especially when flying low at high speeds.
Noise from aircraft systems—cockpit and cabin pressurization and conditioning systems, and Auxiliary Power units.
Mechanisms of sound production
Aircraft noise is noise pollution produced by an aircraft or its components, whether on the ground while parked such as auxiliary power units, while taxiing, on run-up from propeller and jet exhaust, during takeoff, underneath and lateral to departure and arrival paths, over-flying while en route, or during landing. A moving aircraft including the jet engine or propeller causes compression and rarefaction of the air, producing motion of air molecules. This movement propagates through the air as pressure waves. If these pressure waves are strong enough and within the audible frequency spectrum, a sensation of hearing is produced. Different aircraft types have different noise levels and frequencies. The noise originates from three main sources:
Engine and other mechanical noise
Aerodynamic noise
Noise from aircraft systems
Engine and other mechanical noise
Much of the noise in propeller aircraft comes equally from the propellers and aerodynamics. Helicopter noise is aerodynamically induced noise from the main and tail rotors and mechanically induced noise from the main gearbox and various transmission chains. The mechanical sources produce narrow band high intensity peaks relating to the rotational speed and movement of the moving parts. In computer modelling terms noise from a moving aircraft can be treated as a line source.
Aircraft gas turbine engines (jet engines) are responsible for much of the aircraft noise during takeoff and climb, such as the buzzsaw noise generated when the tips of the fan blades reach supersonic speeds. However, with advances in noise reduction technologies—the airframe is typically more noisy during landing.
The majority of engine noise is due to jet noise—although high bypass-ratio turbofans do have considerable fan noise. The high velocity jet leaving the back of the engine has an inherent shear layer instability (if not thick enough) and rolls up into ring vortices. This later breaks down into turbulence. The SPL associated with engine noise is proportional to the jet speed (to a high power). Therefore, even modest reductions in exhaust velocity will produce a large reduction in jet noise.
Engines are the main source of aircraft noise. The geared Pratt & Whitney PW1000G helped reduce the noise levels of the Bombardier CSeries, Mitsubishi MRJ and Embraer E-Jet E2 crossover narrowbody aircraft: the gearbox allows the fan to spin at an optimal speed, which is one third the speed of the LP turbine, for slower fan tip speeds. It has a 75% smaller noise footprint than current equivalents. The PowerJet SaM146 in the Sukhoi Superjet 100 features 3D aerodynamic fan blades and a nacelle with a long mixed duct flow nozzle to reduce noise.
Aerodynamic noise
Aerodynamic noise arises from the airflow around the aircraft fuselage and control surfaces. This type of noise increases with aircraft speed and also at low altitudes due to the density of the air. Jet-powered aircraft create intense noise from aerodynamics. Low-flying, high-speed military aircraft produce especially loud aerodynamic noise.
The shape of the nose, windshield or canopy of an aircraft affects the sound produced. Much of the noise of a propeller aircraft is of aerodynamic origin due to the flow of air around the blades. The helicopter main and tail rotors also give rise to aerodynamic noise. This type of aerodynamic noise is mostly low frequency determined by the rotor speed.
Typically noise is generated when flow passes an object on the aircraft, for example, the wings or landing gear. There are broadly two main types of airframe noise:
Bluff Body Noise – the alternating vortex shedding from either side of a bluff body, creates low-pressure regions (at the core of the shed vortices) which manifest themselves as pressure waves (or sound). The separated flow around the bluff body is quite unstable, and the flow "rolls up" into ring vortices—which later break down into turbulence.
Edge Noise – when turbulent flow passes the end of an object or gaps in a structure (high lift device clearance gaps) the associated fluctuations in pressure are heard as the sound propagates from the edge of the object (radially downwards).
Noise from aircraft systems
Cockpit and cabin pressurization and conditioning systems are often a major contributor within cabins of both civilian and military aircraft. However, one of the most significant sources of cabin noise from commercial jet aircraft, other than the engines, is the Auxiliary Power Unit (APU), an on‑board generator used in aircraft to start the main engines, usually with compressed air, and to provide electrical power while the aircraft is on the ground. Other internal aircraft systems can also contribute, such as specialized electronic equipment in some military aircraft.
Health effects
Aircraft engines are the major source of noise and can exceed 140 decibels (dB) during takeoff. While airborne, the main sources of noise are the engines and the high speed turbulence over the fuselage.
There are health consequences of elevated sound levels. Elevated workplace or other noise can cause hearing impairment, hypertension, ischemic heart disease, annoyance, sleep disturbance, and decreased school performance. Although some hearing loss occurs naturally with age, in many developed nations the impact of noise is sufficient to impair hearing over the course of a lifetime. Elevated noise levels can create stress, increase workplace accident rates, and stimulate aggression and other anti-social behaviors. Airport noise has been linked to high blood pressure.
Aircraft noise increases risks of heart attacks.
German environmental study
A large-scale statistical analysis of the health effects of aircraft noise was undertaken in the late 2000s by Bernhard Greiser for the Umweltbundesamt, Germany's central environmental office. The health data of over one million residents around the Cologne airport were analysed for health effects correlating with aircraft noise. The results were then corrected for other noise influences in the residential areas, and for socioeconomic factors, to reduce possible skewing of the data.<ref name="Tödlicher Lärm' 2009, Page 45">Tödlicher Lärm—Spiegel, Nr. 51, 14 Dezember 2009, Page 45 </ref>
The German study concluded that aircraft noise clearly and significantly impairs health. For example, a day-time average sound pressure level of 60 decibels increasing coronary heart disease by 61% in men and 80% in women. As another indicator, a night-time average sound pressure level of 55 decibels increased the risk of heart attacks by 66% in men and 139% in women. Statistically significant health effects did however start as early as from an average sound pressure level of 40 decibels.
FAA advice
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulates the maximum noise level that individual civil aircraft can emit through requiring aircraft to meet certain noise certification standards. These standards designate changes in maximum noise level requirements by "stage" designation. The U.S. noise standards are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36 – Noise Standards: Aircraft Type and Airworthiness Certification (14 CFR Part 36). The FAA says that a maximum day-night average sound level of 65 dB is incompatible with residential communities. Communities in affected areas may be eligible for mitigation such as soundproofing.
Cabin noise
Aircraft noise also affects people within the aircraft: crew and passengers. Cabin noise can be studied to address the occupational exposure and the health and safety of pilots and flight attendants. In 1998, 64 commercial airline pilots were surveyed regarding hearing loss and tinnitus. In 1999, the NIOSH conducted several noise surveys and health hazard evaluations, and found noise levels exceeding its recommended exposure limit of 85 A-weighted decibels as an 8-hr TWA. In 2006, the noise levels inside an Airbus A321 during cruise have been reported as approximately 78 dB(A) and during taxi when the aircraft engines are producing minimal thrust, noise levels in the cabin have been recorded at 65 dB(A). In 2008, a study of Swedish airlines cabin crews found average sound levels between 78 and 84 dB(A) with maximum A-weighted exposure of 114 dB but found no major hearing threshold shifts. In 2018, a study of sound levels measured on 200 flights representing six aircraft groups found media noise level of 83.5 db(A) with levels reaching 110 dB(A) on certain flights, but only 4.5% exceeded the NIOSH recommended 8-hr TWA of 85 dB(A).
Cognitive effects
Simulated aircraft noise at 65 dB(A) has been shown to negatively affect individuals’ memory and recall of auditory information. In one study comparing the effect of aircraft noise to the effect of alcohol on cognitive performance, it was found that simulated aircraft noise at 65 dB(A) had the same effect on individuals’ ability to recall auditory information as being intoxicated with a Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) level of at 0.10. A BAC of 0.10 is double the legal limit required to operate a motor vehicle in many developed countries such as Australia.
Mitigation programs
In the United States, since aviation noise became a public issue in the late 1960s, governments have enacted legislative controls. Aircraft designers, manufacturers, and operators have developed quieter aircraft and better operating procedures. Modern high-bypass turbofan engines, for example, are quieter than the turbojets and low-bypass turbofans of the 1960s. First, FAA Aircraft Certification achieved noise reductions classified as "Stage 3" aircraft; which has been upgraded to "Stage 4" noise certification resulting in quieter aircraft. This has resulted in lower noise exposures in spite of increased traffic growth and popularity.
In the 1980s the U.S. Congress authorized the FAA to devise programs to insulate homes near airports. While this does not address the external noise, the program has been effective for residential interiors. Some of the first airports at which the technology was applied were San Francisco International Airport and San Jose International Airport in California. A computer model is used which simulates the effects of aircraft noise upon building structures. Variations of aircraft type, flight patterns and local meteorology can be studied. Then the benefits of building retrofit strategies such as roof upgrading, window glazing improvement, fireplace baffling, caulking construction seams can be evaluated.
Regulation
Stages are defined in the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 14 Part 36.
For civil jet aircraft, the US FAA Stage 1 is the loudest and Stage 4 is quieter.
Stage 3 was required for all large jet and turboprop aircraft at US civilian airports from the year 2000,
and at least Stage 2 for under MTOW jets until December 31, 2015.
The previous was Stage 4 for large airplanes, equivalent to the ICAO Annex 16, Volume 1 Chapter 4 standards, while the more stringent Chapter 14 became effective July 14, 2014, and was adopted by the FAA as Stage 5 from January 14, 2016, effective for new type certificates from December 31, 2017, or December 31, 2020 depending on weight.
The US allows both the louder Stage 1 and quiet Stage 2 helicopters.
The quietest Stage 3 helicopter noise standard became effective on May 5, 2014, and are consistent with ICAO Chapter 8 and Chapter 11.
Night flying restrictions
At Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted airports in London, UK and Frankfurt Airport in Germany, night flying restrictions apply to reduce noise exposure at night.
Satellite-based navigation systems
A series of trials were undertaken at London's Heathrow Airport, between December 2013 and November 2014, as part of the UK's "Future Airspace Strategy", and the Europe-wide "Single European Sky" modernisation project. The trials demonstrated that using satellite-based navigation systems it was possible to offer noise relief to more surrounding communities, although this led to a significant unexpected rise in noise complaints (61,650 ) due to the concentrated flight paths. The study found that steeper angles for take-off and landing led to fewer people experiencing aircraft noise and that noise relief could be shared by using more precise flight paths, allowing control of the noise footprint of departing aircraft. Noise relief could be enhanced by switching flight paths, for example by using one flight path in the morning and another in the afternoon.
Technological advances
Engine design
Modern High bypass turbofans are not only more fuel efficient, but also much quieter than older turbojet and low-bypass turbofan engines. On newer engines noise-reducing chevrons further reduce the engine's noise, while on older engines the use of hush kits are used to help mitigate their excessive noise.
Engine location
The ability to reduce noise may be limited if engines remain below aircraft's wings. NASA expects a cumulative 20–30 dB below Stage 4 limits by 2026–2031, but keeping aircraft noise within airport boundaries requires at least a 40–50 dB reduction. Landing gear, wing slats and wing flaps also produce noise and may have to be shielded from the ground with new configurations. NASA found over-wing and mid-fuselage nacelles could reduce noise by 30–40 dB, even 40–50 dB for hybrid wing body which may be essential for open rotors.
By 2020, helicopter technologies now in development, plus new procedures could reduce noise levels by 10 dB and noise footprints by 50%, but more advances are needed to preserve or expand heliports. Package delivery UAS will need to characterize their noise, establish limits and reduce their impact.
See also
Aviation taxation and subsidies
Electric airplane
Farley v Skinner
Hush kit
Helicopter noise reduction
Jet noise
Noise barrier
Rotor-stator interaction
Silent Aircraft Initiative
Train noise
XF-84H Thunderscreech, the loudest aircraft ever built.
General:
Health effects from noise
Noise pollution
Noise regulation
Aviation and the environment
ReferencesU.S. Noise Control Act of 1972 United States Code Citation: 42 U.S.C. 4901 to 4918
S. Rosen and P. Olin, Hearing loss and coronary heart disease, Archives of Otolaryngology'', 82:236 (1965)
External links
Aircraft noise
Noise
Sound
Environment and health | [
0.5080482959747314,
0.8020394444465637,
-0.28513166308403015,
-0.1279779076576233,
-0.2866569757461548,
-0.12499018013477325,
0.16112075746059418,
0.30410659313201904,
-0.2788405120372772,
-0.803269624710083,
-0.37796473503112793,
0.46456196904182434,
-0.4845027029514313,
0.1326277256011963,
-0.2363738715648651,
0.24232709407806396,
0.19096457958221436,
0.800636351108551,
0.20332618057727814,
0.04307412728667259,
-0.3492818772792816,
0.04630090668797493,
0.16409823298454285,
0.11547865718603134,
0.23762966692447662,
-0.45540180802345276,
0.28396904468536377,
0.43757128715515137,
-0.2696724236011505,
0.33852216601371765,
0.09575317054986954,
1.0075520277023315,
0.057024527341127396,
0.22110143303871155,
-0.11331193894147873,
0.39236554503440857,
-0.04631683602929115,
-0.5187130570411682,
-0.299745112657547,
0.26621395349502563,
-0.46164774894714355,
-0.1877100169658661,
0.09286937862634659,
0.46523627638816833,
0.02771672047674656,
-0.3437792658805847,
-1.3145562410354614,
0.2015192210674286,
0.19876959919929504,
0.15281035006046295,
-0.04798499122262001,
0.15433858335018158,
0.1527644395828247,
0.699691116809845,
0.3454056680202484,
0.40028050541877747,
-0.39621835947036743,
-0.003126557683572173,
0.07804768532514572,
-0.06872174888849258,
0.534478485584259,
-0.23524267971515656,
-0.7530577778816223,
-0.04196322709321976,
0.5252729654312134,
-0.013388857245445251,
0.353617787361145,
0.04765594005584717,
-0.26178714632987976,
-0.23141418397426605,
-0.6518802642822266,
-0.07049879431724548,
0.2768585979938507,
-0.1493327021598816,
-0.5226342678070068,
0.012977156788110733,
0.563090980052948,
0.11812764406204224,
-0.25031107664108276,
-0.05296531319618225,
0.40023428201675415,
0.6725372076034546,
0.5743474364280701,
0.26428335905075073,
0.21064549684524536,
-0.16956986486911774,
-0.9807391166687012,
0.8776867985725403,
-0.10119663923978806,
-0.014442470856010914,
0.30154475569725037,
-0.3619379699230194,
0.6088019013404846,
0.3309977948665619,
0.010560923255980015,
0.17603567242622375,
0.5247433185577393,
0.13747279345989227,
0.10363341867923737,
0.2427733838558197,
0.048089053481817245,
0.17754507064819336,
0.8779597878456116,
0.23340541124343872,
0.20472151041030884,
-0.41708803176879883,
-0.47948727011680603,
-0.3040245771408081,
-0.1052158772945404,
-0.017094198614358902,
-0.4685458540916443,
-0.17061243951320648,
-0.4421405792236328,
-0.42247769236564636,
-0.9624665975570679,
0.33316823840141296,
0.0458926260471344,
0.06626632064580917,
-0.06295054405927658,
-0.12610052525997162,
0.12223833054304123,
0.3140641450881958,
-0.7385204434394836,
0.1282620131969452,
-0.5813595652580261,
0.6146442890167236,
0.8568273186683655,
0.2854195833206177,
-0.29457956552505493,
0.1741458773612976,
-0.07409831136465073,
0.9381750226020813,
-0.44010770320892334,
0.14993524551391602,
0.22791717946529388,
0.1321410983800888,
0.7901577949523926,
0.31491798162460327,
0.7222548127174377,
0.049987759441137314,
-0.7118406295776367,
-1.308439016342163,
-1.242993950843811,
-0.11360631138086319,
-0.1525854617357254,
0.12246053665876389,
-0.15988124907016754,
-0.2754194438457489,
-0.014216508716344833,
-0.24570879340171814,
0.07585848122835159,
-0.16078577935695648,
-0.6862717866897583,
0.11878903210163116,
-0.03183509409427643,
-0.6614499688148499,
0.3748851418495178,
-0.4590538442134857,
0.42398977279663086,
0.11312735825777054,
0.3857835829257965,
-0.16783052682876587,
-0.7737876772880554,
-0.10232357680797577,
-0.40893468260765076,
-0.11641240864992142,
0.08565913885831833,
0.35323160886764526,
0.021115051582455635,
0.036006852984428406,
-0.535070538520813,
0.13914112746715546,
0.2924862504005432,
-0.6844968199729919,
0.2675098180770874,
0.14634406566619873,
0.5030609369277954,
0.08791352808475494,
0.5112536549568176,
0.6954933404922485,
-0.931695282459259,
-0.029724787920713425,
0.38504135608673096,
-0.27387967705726624,
0.2690940201282501,
0.1850266456604004,
0.34595584869384766,
-0.20146726071834564,
-0.1671103537082672,
-0.5756080746650696,
-0.47337213158607483,
-0.7174841165542603,
0.42822539806365967,
-0.8510264754295349,
0.942759096622467,
0.12684637308120728,
-0.06263921409845352,
0.322262704372406,
0.589580237865448,
0.1970844268798828,
0.223322331905365,
0.2802848517894745,
0.7005159258842468,
-0.22159866988658905,
-0.6908283829689026,
0.8212631344795227,
0.0006213417509570718,
-0.24378155171871185,
-0.266826868057251,
-0.07110545039176941,
0.6775104403495789,
-0.31682088971138,
0.2869643568992615,
-0.35114115476608276,
0.3225599527359009,
-0.23980306088924408,
-1.0694454908370972,
0.5640769600868225,
-0.6589183211326599,
-0.44423070549964905,
-0.0625801682472229,
0.18412353098392487,
-0.2850629687309265,
0.38426828384399414,
0.045600298792123795,
0.7801470756530762,
0.17849130928516388,
0.2209760993719101,
0.508324146270752,
-0.8151668906211853,
0.0867297425866127,
0.24888457357883453,
-0.6417105197906494,
-0.25293657183647156,
-0.2893810570240021,
0.2850233018398285,
0.15026827156543732,
-0.12173892557621002,
0.12356797605752945,
-0.11644455790519714,
-0.23504453897476196,
0.4643755257129669,
-1.0841920375823975,
0.026618244126439095,
-0.2638174891471863,
-0.21902933716773987,
-0.10123668611049652,
-0.11288318037986755,
-0.4983659088611603,
0.11048874258995056,
0.8019149899482727,
0.4082476496696472,
0.27100950479507446,
-0.7081637382507324,
-0.3990311026573181,
0.15534602105617523,
-0.04563576355576515,
-0.015557114034891129,
0.25387901067733765,
-0.7190766930580139,
-0.020798949524760246,
0.17477858066558838,
0.38990336656570435,
-0.0952221229672432,
-0.5359668135643005,
-0.9891884326934814,
-0.23619917035102844,
-0.07314229756593704,
-0.06721165776252747,
-0.1528329998254776,
1.0712567567825317,
-0.13865193724632263,
-0.09192316979169846,
-0.378966361284256,
-0.5082322359085083,
-0.3173256814479828,
0.11631723493337631,
0.37915733456611633,
-0.6203001141548157,
0.2650972902774811,
0.5024546980857849,
0.7166398763656616,
0.16008758544921875,
-0.9855744242668152,
-0.1454494595527649,
0.13058340549468994,
0.22313238680362701,
-0.2366091012954712,
0.0032338963355869055,
-0.22313424944877625,
-0.5868538618087769,
-0.5091578364372253,
-0.18557165563106537,
0.7211507558822632,
0.3814091384410858,
0.29135754704475403,
0.40005630254745483,
0.569899320602417,
0.2837561368942261,
-0.7080181837081909,
0.05134757608175278,
0.30110031366348267,
-0.6610007882118225,
-0.18088847398757935,
-0.8144650459289551,
0.27493321895599365,
-0.7344916462898254,
-0.4759849011898041,
-5.399256229400635,
0.4889863431453705,
-0.15939678251743317,
-0.2693212032318115,
-0.42366933822631836,
0.25645866990089417,
0.6949220299720764,
-0.4291389584541321,
-0.4307023286819458,
0.06606222689151764,
0.20998576283454895,
0.26114416122436523,
0.5902971625328064,
0.5338996648788452,
0.1570177972316742,
0.33742356300354004,
0.8540211319923401,
-0.586229145526886,
0.2691284120082855,
0.6779094934463501,
0.42827939987182617,
0.40521878004074097,
-0.414417564868927,
0.25044235587120056,
0.41785112023353577,
-0.2544422149658203,
-0.3036418557167053,
0.1102590411901474,
-0.7910093069076538,
0.010947645641863346,
0.3465834856033325,
-0.5307980179786682,
-0.4123377799987793,
-0.08441192656755447,
0.05605673789978027,
0.19379161298274994,
0.26721516251564026,
0.17867477238178253,
-0.018041178584098816,
-0.00528139341622591,
-0.36725476384162903,
0.16032008826732635,
-0.041815679520368576,
0.1336238533258438,
0.631432294845581,
0.32398721575737,
-0.07115839421749115,
-0.1432122439146042,
0.20758549869060516,
0.311092734336853,
0.08471696078777313,
0.09973860532045364,
0.8820530772209167,
0.5609658360481262,
0.4061431288719177,
0.26384085416793823,
0.28546109795570374,
-0.05558864027261734,
-0.3451429307460785,
0.13047417998313904,
0.01248983759433031,
0.02936084195971489,
-0.48058849573135376,
-0.23493829369544983,
-0.23571640253067017,
0.03938600793480873,
-0.38687506318092346,
-1.0175580978393555,
0.44608837366104126,
-0.36616790294647217,
-0.13154196739196777,
0.33771973848342896,
0.35583731532096863,
-0.5888856649398804,
0.29333850741386414,
-0.8229389786720276,
0.260230153799057,
0.23158860206604004,
0.3203144073486328,
-0.4165705442428589,
-0.3903537690639496,
-0.0811351090669632,
-0.3586895763874054,
-0.44772154092788696,
0.03890525922179222,
-0.3567016124725342,
0.0056309145875275135,
0.27592355012893677,
-0.0028682476840913296,
-0.05593263730406761,
1.0810701847076416,
-0.009025726467370987,
0.09759030491113663,
0.5410352945327759,
0.3921048641204834,
0.2950766086578369,
0.34416085481643677,
0.028283532708883286,
0.928825318813324,
-0.01541482750326395,
0.526587724685669,
-0.3974538743495941,
-0.4933464229106903,
-0.47109144926071167,
-0.3542502224445343,
-0.32807406783103943,
-0.009359077550470829,
-0.031302232295274734,
0.8063045144081116,
-0.5917861461639404,
0.7398070693016052,
-0.05186896771192551,
-0.5769747495651245,
-0.6037822365760803,
0.2927820682525635,
-0.24251852929592133,
-0.2694302201271057,
1.066511869430542,
0.08528550714254379,
-0.35075289011001587,
0.8746150732040405,
-0.03846367821097374,
-0.7555614709854126,
0.28334367275238037,
0.1998046338558197,
-0.05987748131155968,
-0.47266361117362976,
0.18986591696739197,
-0.6259170174598694,
-0.4786858856678009,
0.3965003192424774,
0.4428558349609375,
0.1727803498506546,
0.4841836094856262,
-0.06163080781698227,
-0.7318676710128784,
-0.13060399889945984,
0.322182297706604,
0.13808146119117737,
-0.44012370705604553,
0.3711472749710083,
0.012581865303218365,
-0.1131754070520401,
-0.3685329556465149,
0.9149877429008484,
0.8745704889297485,
-0.41117092967033386,
-0.5000436305999756,
0.26141369342803955,
0.02389494702219963,
-0.021552611142396927,
-0.5944834351539612,
-0.2891225516796112,
-0.20205596089363098,
-0.18242144584655762,
0.36881113052368164,
0.6293231844902039,
0.15928475558757782,
-0.20648221671581268,
-0.7334807515144348,
0.8603630661964417,
-0.035328809171915054,
-0.8681253790855408,
-0.21205414831638336,
-0.23943373560905457,
0.27567267417907715,
-0.03711395338177681,
-0.6258113980293274,
-0.11952026933431625,
0.6294331550598145,
-0.08318686485290527,
-0.3570779860019684,
-0.5345646739006042,
-0.05218134820461273,
0.5133989453315735,
-0.12878772616386414,
-0.4007676839828491,
-0.07142709195613861,
0.06328672170639038,
-0.25905489921569824,
-0.29539254307746887,
0.2667671740055084,
-0.7669841051101685,
0.41771140694618225,
-0.27774423360824585,
0.12111003696918488,
0.33151689171791077,
0.11273378878831863,
0.013675191439688206,
-0.46283718943595886,
-0.14256437122821808,
0.18325145542621613,
-0.04988766834139824,
-0.3607451021671295,
-0.17285612225532532,
-0.5978983044624329,
-0.05439107120037079,
0.054341018199920654,
-0.4331163763999939,
-0.5083146691322327,
0.7730763554573059,
0.2565712332725525,
-0.6131150722503662,
0.017293935641646385,
-0.02861914038658142,
-0.7606738209724426,
0.07073110342025757,
0.3273973762989044,
-0.6250934600830078,
0.3272824287414551,
-0.4057765603065491,
-0.6674100160598755,
-0.38146400451660156,
0.38170352578163147,
-0.578323245048523,
-0.00048694500583224,
-0.019096245989203453,
-0.22559507191181183,
-0.29145821928977966,
-0.030323855578899384,
-0.1277092546224594,
0.06988164782524109,
-0.45168519020080566,
-0.21051229536533356,
-0.658811628818512,
-0.03453570976853371,
-0.08529876917600632,
-0.44132208824157715,
0.6978920102119446,
-0.5956608057022095,
-0.6439800262451172,
0.35529154539108276,
0.37760356068611145,
0.08492161333560944,
-0.49024075269699097,
-0.13195312023162842,
-0.3329997956752777,
-0.09399780631065369,
0.4618431329727173,
0.15039773285388947,
0.2383316606283188,
0.9998054504394531,
0.2205626666545868,
-0.7455149292945862,
-0.22244977951049805,
0.7488647699356079,
0.2160225212574005,
-0.539412260055542,
-0.6173337697982788,
-0.03394148498773575,
0.14912869036197662,
-0.1321246325969696,
-0.835142970085144,
0.35748693346977234,
0.5370251536369324,
-0.33788594603538513,
-0.12978346645832062,
-0.24835100769996643,
0.23608529567718506,
-0.16597935557365417,
-0.015228869393467903,
-0.12222611159086227,
-0.0049674310721457005,
0.22844964265823364,
0.5505828261375427,
-0.28785818815231323,
-0.39444246888160706,
0.22737838327884674,
0.28911882638931274,
-0.5949683785438538,
0.3687443137168884,
0.029888544231653214,
0.5496143698692322,
0.11244091391563416,
0.5656315088272095,
0.08419518172740936,
-0.037280015647411346,
-0.3518316447734833,
0.0712747573852539,
0.31661519408226013,
0.3669567108154297,
-0.6368252038955688,
0.16848330199718475,
-0.8931241631507874,
0.5632255673408508,
-0.12390656769275665,
0.353575199842453,
-0.027004046365618706,
-0.5203374624252319,
-0.4373394250869751,
-0.2426585555076599,
-0.015186906792223454,
-0.245127871632576,
0.40330982208251953,
0.36393260955810547,
-0.020503384992480278,
0.23204874992370605,
0.21718834340572357,
0.3540753126144409,
-0.29406532645225525,
-0.804592490196228,
0.2205965369939804,
-0.26980826258659363,
-0.6149724125862122,
0.7880614399909973,
0.07791337370872498,
-0.008275207132101059,
-0.7801366448402405,
-0.10771510750055313,
-0.21252834796905518,
0.40043148398399353,
-0.14541998505592346,
-0.3881640136241913,
1.0700350999832153,
-0.11342430859804153,
0.5584890246391296,
0.2332984358072281,
-0.37207454442977905,
1.2331863641738892,
0.3195594251155853,
-0.15831691026687622,
-0.32141509652137756,
0.598084032535553,
0.05716664344072342,
-0.5061097145080566,
-0.16022102534770966,
-0.21870987117290497,
0.06747740507125854,
0.568668007850647,
0.08159874379634857,
0.5523341298103333,
0.3907996714115143,
0.021233735606074333,
0.606645405292511,
-0.15360568463802338,
-0.34692689776420593,
0.3979058861732483,
-1.0789158344268799,
-1.2008483409881592,
0.24480147659778595,
0.40431123971939087,
0.3475567102432251,
0.8754242658615112,
0.3452531397342682,
-0.00928610097616911,
0.5424025058746338,
0.09717284142971039,
0.3087173104286194,
-0.44769975543022156,
-0.27801352739334106,
-0.31291064620018005,
0.013334146700799465,
0.09837736934423447,
-0.32023516297340393,
0.21354420483112335,
-0.34019935131073,
0.8996801376342773,
-0.24321061372756958,
-0.3050551116466522,
0.10080806165933609,
-0.011017737910151482,
0.3361862599849701,
0.34441113471984863,
0.25890523195266724,
0.22814126312732697,
-0.21134577691555023,
0.29305312037467957,
0.03644361346960068,
0.487867534160614,
0.05037304013967514,
0.19648177921772003,
0.5291139483451843,
-0.49960339069366455,
0.22388821840286255,
0.31506890058517456,
0.008547361940145493,
0.1900642365217209,
-0.052322495728731155,
0.16102194786071777,
0.20696119964122772,
0.20600184798240662,
0.5494773983955383,
-0.1182461604475975,
-0.6324905157089233,
0.1744573414325714,
-0.20576022565364838,
-0.5298084616661072,
0.37374499440193176,
0.9110378623008728,
-0.19314928352832794,
0.07868123054504395,
-0.3147929906845093,
-0.6611921191215515,
0.1265876740217209,
-0.023909680545330048,
-0.42750534415245056,
0.35883089900016785,
0.21592161059379578,
-0.2078585922718048,
0.026145679876208305,
0.4976816773414612,
0.3851763606071472,
-0.45184803009033203,
0.38441595435142517,
-1.1370466947555542,
0.7272310853004456,
-0.5744757652282715,
0.34021690487861633,
-0.5008049607276917,
0.6583856344223022,
-0.05278322845697403,
0.043223511427640915,
-0.05087133124470711,
0.4831291735172272,
0.3779850900173187,
0.02850807085633278,
0.45385411381721497,
-0.6069324612617493,
-0.3560885488986969,
-0.2994031012058258,
0.12976156175136566,
-0.3682994842529297,
0.1958557367324829,
-0.47249504923820496,
-0.017527034506201744,
-0.12602855265140533,
0.18869374692440033,
0.06911478191614151,
0.3827155530452728,
0.4956406354904175,
-0.6836124062538147,
0.40035369992256165,
-0.9710079431533813,
0.30341875553131104,
0.2811506986618042,
-0.42345717549324036,
0.38338780403137207,
0.5782163143157959,
0.6013485789299011,
-0.4117164611816406,
0.5029336810112,
-0.688197672367096,
0.15520644187927246,
-0.24160104990005493,
-1.1276354789733887,
-0.3945872187614441,
-0.04446971416473389,
-0.5328865647315979,
0.06056411191821098,
0.7843373417854309,
0.427338570356369,
-0.4871706962585449,
0.04768628254532814,
-0.2543664872646332,
-0.30177605152130127,
-0.014786968939006329,
0.17111337184906006,
-0.2664087414741516,
0.043648649007081985,
-0.07002121210098267
] |
247939 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Den%20Briel | Den Briel | Briel may refer to:
Briel (parish), a parish in the municipality of Buggenhout and the sub-municipality of Baasrode in the town Dendermonde in Flanders
Brielle, a town in the Netherlands | [
-0.12681029736995697,
0.4909631609916687,
0.3366701304912567,
-0.6596130728721619,
-0.11114456504583359,
0.5372677445411682,
0.06355426460504532,
0.08156473189592361,
-0.5727060437202454,
-0.039035405963659286,
0.46305763721466064,
0.17496739327907562,
0.773019552230835,
0.6520325541496277,
-0.5658453106880188,
0.5377523899078369,
0.3576987683773041,
0.2816944122314453,
0.6651617884635925,
-1.0910499095916748,
-0.02168450690805912,
-1.1953564882278442,
-0.03925810381770134,
-0.18766160309314728,
0.07208424061536789,
-0.20060670375823975,
0.20960059762001038,
0.5925898551940918,
0.6234147548675537,
-0.0478249192237854,
-0.36137253046035767,
0.6234418153762817,
0.08907338231801987,
-0.010147841647267342,
0.16329173743724823,
0.2679823338985443,
-0.3537229001522064,
-0.8171617984771729,
0.2673546373844147,
-0.16111622750759125,
-0.04209333285689354,
0.27437394857406616,
-0.20889431238174438,
0.299079030752182,
-0.8922333121299744,
-0.36510664224624634,
-1.1699024438858032,
-0.014614774845540524,
-0.4106147289276123,
0.11306903511285782,
-0.6392796039581299,
0.03594113886356354,
0.10834947228431702,
0.07619922608137131,
-0.0576743483543396,
0.008224081248044968,
-0.811323344707489,
-0.30769437551498413,
1.16032874584198,
0.1846606284379959,
0.11291826516389847,
-0.13136734068393707,
-0.1952214241027832,
0.21572695672512054,
0.3466266393661499,
0.03986561670899391,
-0.2894529402256012,
0.3096795678138733,
-0.39416223764419556,
-0.4342662990093231,
-0.48725759983062744,
0.13116395473480225,
-0.04332461208105087,
-0.29260098934173584,
0.42527851462364197,
0.4473603367805481,
-0.5977872610092163,
-0.38569897413253784,
-0.25421375036239624,
0.4053562581539154,
0.06886956095695496,
-0.28163036704063416,
1.2644689083099365,
-0.42940059304237366,
0.9480847120285034,
1.0292538404464722,
-0.500194787979126,
-0.377038836479187,
-0.22108380496501923,
0.07772212475538254,
0.1372906118631363,
-0.5244674682617188,
-0.2087695300579071,
0.06264794617891312,
-0.011909966357052326,
0.14079034328460693,
0.11553118377923965,
0.4156937897205353,
-0.3284144997596741,
0.7002449035644531,
0.2035335898399353,
0.5719290971755981,
0.7161473631858826,
0.14963746070861816,
-0.7448386549949646,
-0.2512747347354889,
-0.2698708474636078,
-0.47988688945770264,
0.08559630066156387,
-0.8494256138801575,
-0.20212608575820923,
0.7524253726005554,
-0.028171248733997345,
0.27637922763824463,
0.528531551361084,
0.29525747895240784,
0.36380061507225037,
0.2672409117221832,
-0.43917569518089294,
0.322809636592865,
0.23628243803977966,
1.218652606010437,
0.39788907766342163,
0.15480870008468628,
-0.007405433803796768,
-0.1601094752550125,
-0.27215901017189026,
0.44584962725639343,
-0.21073158085346222,
0.5547696352005005,
0.8876358270645142,
1.1025149822235107,
-0.2767738997936249,
-0.2351842224597931,
-0.3076358437538147,
0.49477747082710266,
0.5477192997932434,
0.35187557339668274,
0.48361527919769287,
0.5053959488868713,
-1.3069846630096436,
0.058907847851514816,
-0.23336321115493774,
0.034922707825899124,
0.0763043761253357,
-0.04732513800263405,
-0.30344119668006897,
-0.6190151572227478,
0.2938272953033447,
-0.32482805848121643,
0.1749771237373352,
0.008519088849425316,
-0.015584917739033699,
0.4362797737121582,
-1.3680742979049683,
0.6463849544525146,
-0.13306564092636108,
-0.007469269912689924,
0.34229058027267456,
0.3896939754486084,
-0.40624162554740906,
-0.28796833753585815,
0.39364081621170044,
0.2767030596733093,
0.014265919104218483,
0.3860842287540436,
0.2473447173833847,
0.237749844789505,
-0.20931652188301086,
0.4030558168888092,
-0.7979664206504822,
0.172501802444458,
0.6324083209037781,
-0.5081826448440552,
0.12978288531303406,
0.09159749746322632,
1.2344837188720703,
0.03881821036338806,
0.2650063633918762,
-0.04820724204182625,
-0.8991675972938538,
0.07486365735530853,
0.062056876718997955,
0.247114896774292,
0.09586366266012192,
0.3298110365867615,
0.09535648673772812,
0.052308354526758194,
-0.9009327292442322,
0.5164853930473328,
-0.37450623512268066,
-0.6820060610771179,
0.8807653784751892,
0.17805887758731842,
0.7275728583335876,
0.061846766620874405,
0.08036119490861893,
0.42290198802948,
-0.22739805281162262,
0.6392393708229065,
-0.4738321304321289,
-0.30936044454574585,
0.02712192013859749,
-0.18060439825057983,
-0.40952184796333313,
0.38405922055244446,
0.07680505514144897,
-0.5096632838249207,
0.0751299038529396,
0.6800705790519714,
-0.050314974039793015,
0.2731146514415741,
0.336578369140625,
0.12541243433952332,
-0.02070753462612629,
-0.26620346307754517,
0.1436932533979416,
0.2905915081501007,
-0.34602802991867065,
0.10931503027677536,
0.6533436179161072,
-0.2526175081729889,
-0.6193512082099915,
0.13092100620269775,
0.0009367039310745895,
0.17394541203975677,
0.25522658228874207,
0.12719333171844482,
0.4116111695766449,
-0.8853815197944641,
0.08129319548606873,
0.018160557374358177,
0.12831339240074158,
-0.9108919501304626,
-0.19169779121875763,
-0.31052926182746887,
-0.2905927002429962,
-0.6994060277938843,
0.6388592720031738,
-0.6660172343254089,
-0.16763485968112946,
0.40080034732818604,
-0.39163708686828613,
0.1843695342540741,
0.4265401065349579,
0.9933255314826965,
-0.006729776505380869,
0.5442450642585754,
-0.7945383191108704,
-0.3118657171726227,
-0.03279649838805199,
0.2937326729297638,
0.021411370486021042,
-0.14746829867362976,
-0.12298255413770676,
-0.39264723658561707,
-0.14644280076026917,
0.4391566514968872,
0.34565314650535583,
0.19468438625335693,
-0.005487658549100161,
-0.31142133474349976,
0.7978750467300415,
0.6649743318557739,
0.02093595080077648,
-0.7929511070251465,
-0.16779954731464386,
-0.19681790471076965,
0.8918198347091675,
0.12116936594247818,
-0.3025234043598175,
-0.3100455701351166,
-0.9944980144500732,
-0.19569039344787598,
-0.05606073886156082,
-0.09601889550685883,
-0.3202793598175049,
0.29309511184692383,
-0.6340152025222778,
0.08805697411298752,
-0.6447042226791382,
0.9921121001243591,
-0.04739660397171974,
-1.0625449419021606,
0.8889270424842834,
-0.35165390372276306,
0.15066401660442352,
-0.13684959709644318,
-0.17243517935276031,
-0.24583010375499725,
0.33118295669555664,
-0.16918346285820007,
-0.23080089688301086,
0.46898582577705383,
0.26541170477867126,
-0.46264883875846863,
-0.3171239197254181,
-0.5828519463539124,
0.5316259860992432,
-0.3585841953754425,
-0.619469404220581,
0.3546684682369232,
-0.46728816628456116,
0.011482317931950092,
-0.19096089899539948,
-0.19694894552230835,
-0.35045763850212097,
0.12901514768600464,
-4.876035213470459,
0.27817392349243164,
0.16785269975662231,
-0.41377654671669006,
-0.3674730062484741,
-0.9432116150856018,
0.29255029559135437,
-0.5067392587661743,
-0.05662325769662857,
0.5159345269203186,
-0.04507862403988838,
-0.8442960977554321,
0.5637577176094055,
0.8175798654556274,
1.1300370693206787,
0.018134823068976402,
0.43531060218811035,
0.039621904492378235,
0.0449388362467289,
-0.22174686193466187,
-0.5202364921569824,
-0.16344308853149414,
0.026167230680584908,
0.01800352707505226,
0.6195282936096191,
0.7437054514884949,
0.5064653158187866,
-0.2068745344877243,
-1.1033947467803955,
0.00601845420897007,
0.24749481678009033,
-0.44910046458244324,
0.7106302976608276,
0.1911085695028305,
-0.48197782039642334,
-0.13744224607944489,
0.23255480825901031,
0.7037467360496521,
0.9491638541221619,
-0.4863029718399048,
0.4491015076637268,
0.9726653099060059,
-0.055045343935489655,
-0.2620578110218048,
0.04980716481804848,
-0.6968083381652832,
-1.2719709873199463,
-0.18154454231262207,
-0.06649546325206757,
0.7902461886405945,
0.3592465817928314,
-0.5248849987983704,
0.8154375553131104,
-0.13201473653316498,
0.7660346031188965,
-0.3543732762336731,
-0.007435967214405537,
-0.8407260775566101,
-0.16697493195533752,
0.9286999702453613,
0.7977837920188904,
-0.530325710773468,
-0.06256573647260666,
-0.7194666862487793,
0.23208512365818024,
-0.617531955242157,
0.536759614944458,
-0.48502933979034424,
0.3233332335948944,
-0.331355482339859,
0.47058260440826416,
0.016417939215898514,
-0.00037368337507359684,
-1.0551563501358032,
-0.18863850831985474,
-0.15136924386024475,
-0.7944552302360535,
-0.2887365520000458,
0.26399433612823486,
0.06323572993278503,
0.2810218632221222,
-0.2525880038738251,
-0.45794424414634705,
0.6386843323707581,
0.09864797443151474,
-0.847105860710144,
-0.625418484210968,
-0.05409899353981018,
-0.2628396153450012,
-0.5660557746887207,
0.32424914836883545,
-0.206413134932518,
0.22414930164813995,
0.23138391971588135,
-0.8928382992744446,
0.8424527049064636,
-0.04894549027085304,
-0.4479258358478546,
-0.03441004827618599,
-0.2566712200641632,
0.3998435139656067,
-0.5939935445785522,
0.3531109094619751,
-0.32490652799606323,
-0.1065259501338005,
-0.07862520217895508,
0.3227453827857971,
0.44378823041915894,
0.3809010684490204,
-0.1451045721769333,
-0.2553733289241791,
0.18856622278690338,
0.3461994528770447,
-0.8761196136474609,
0.5892911553382874,
-0.5428984761238098,
-0.3555757701396942,
0.7861748337745667,
0.07075101137161255,
0.05155833438038826,
0.2241346389055252,
0.6979100108146667,
-0.16907654702663422,
-0.7892608642578125,
-0.24748589098453522,
-0.16385418176651,
0.21369028091430664,
-0.07101588696241379,
-1.0982176065444946,
0.13706322014331818,
-0.41935205459594727,
-0.2872695028781891,
0.07268049567937851,
-0.16865624487400055,
0.13675732910633087,
-0.5116543769836426,
-0.7469246983528137,
-0.7522005438804626,
-0.060720548033714294,
-0.1859334260225296,
0.7058964371681213,
-0.32074230909347534,
0.05689678713679314,
0.16406315565109253,
-0.4062177836894989,
0.4757043123245239,
0.24217668175697327,
-0.4978988766670227,
-0.9534074068069458,
0.16015906631946564,
-0.3196789026260376,
-0.03531726077198982,
0.42831727862358093,
-0.8215690851211548,
0.16656051576137543,
-0.4836218059062958,
-0.03609086945652962,
0.3862060606479645,
0.5443902015686035,
-0.1120474711060524,
-0.13191336393356323,
-0.12270163744688034,
-0.6567403674125671,
0.6076248288154602,
0.3712437152862549,
-0.44557470083236694,
-0.013867796398699284,
-0.16908958554267883,
-0.37898045778274536,
0.5914186239242554,
-0.04597587510943413,
-0.7577390074729919,
-0.7812532186508179,
0.19053137302398682,
-0.07090212404727936,
-0.32817527651786804,
0.23878630995750427,
0.06383068114519119,
-0.5604835748672485,
-0.4515848755836487,
0.0968671441078186,
0.6470467448234558,
0.3380914628505707,
1.1025692224502563,
0.6916142106056213,
-0.6758422255516052,
0.05880865827202797,
0.0005800074432045221,
-0.35709625482559204,
-0.44591349363327026,
0.550731897354126,
0.2103796750307083,
0.207069531083107,
0.42569440603256226,
-0.819888710975647,
-1.1273612976074219,
0.242768332362175,
-0.39142656326293945,
-0.07253514230251312,
-0.380484402179718,
0.36151111125946045,
0.3064976930618286,
-0.4953599274158478,
0.6489898562431335,
0.19259342551231384,
-1.1442662477493286,
0.9121636748313904,
0.18038097023963928,
-0.9455359578132629,
0.3639540374279022,
-0.9392499327659607,
-1.098617672920227,
0.41124477982521057,
0.17250517010688782,
-0.5115888714790344,
0.09179122745990753,
0.584934413433075,
-0.22444473206996918,
-0.5094125270843506,
-0.10047067701816559,
-0.1933431327342987,
-0.4698854386806488,
-0.32985997200012207,
0.18554526567459106,
-0.4763847887516022,
0.552276074886322,
-0.03269919008016586,
-0.16701287031173706,
0.5800227522850037,
0.05512447655200958,
-0.5117142200469971,
-0.2401418685913086,
0.9221110343933105,
0.10765768587589264,
-0.2136583924293518,
0.37193068861961365,
0.17185983061790466,
0.37147220969200134,
0.3883407711982727,
0.22133082151412964,
0.6390421986579895,
0.3046242892742157,
-0.14147844910621643,
-0.40937361121177673,
-0.11060847342014313,
-0.07213325798511505,
0.06702128797769547,
-0.156890869140625,
-0.26620393991470337,
0.11112823337316513,
0.2342732846736908,
-0.35964226722717285,
-0.9313618540763855,
0.42863956093788147,
1.741346001625061,
0.5321246385574341,
-0.4877568781375885,
0.9384385943412781,
0.40196165442466736,
0.25183168053627014,
-0.2775118350982666,
-0.07603717595338821,
0.10061439126729965,
0.8035932183265686,
0.5987424850463867,
0.04883577674627304,
-0.2251911759376526,
-0.4992540776729584,
0.4884863495826721,
-0.03145754337310791,
-0.35508430004119873,
-0.20128431916236877,
0.3033164143562317,
-0.05214628204703331,
-0.12830694019794464,
0.002518381690606475,
-0.7408233880996704,
-0.9457221031188965,
0.5714422464370728,
-0.20124180614948273,
-0.4960419535636902,
0.055552542209625244,
-0.3509979248046875,
0.003533576847985387,
-0.15217708051204681,
-0.4477514624595642,
-0.47821542620658875,
0.32712337374687195,
-0.017757683992385864,
0.04060569405555725,
-0.2111586183309555,
-0.2733643651008606,
0.016686396673321724,
0.4813944399356842,
0.4086748957633972,
0.48535484075546265,
-0.14352834224700928,
-0.09134118258953094,
0.0017945240251719952,
0.7797114849090576,
-1.1316670179367065,
0.1918339878320694,
0.1334180384874344,
0.09456892311573029,
0.5514841675758362,
0.4725985527038574,
-0.15717796981334686,
0.2236323356628418,
0.12347917258739471,
0.07155786454677582,
-0.5483868718147278,
0.11828701198101044,
0.2323840707540512,
0.8113301396369934,
-0.1866779774427414,
0.1552811861038208,
0.5527175068855286,
-0.30289602279663086,
-0.4165891706943512,
0.45769962668418884,
-0.029470937326550484,
-0.5299124717712402,
0.5303771495819092,
0.6787712574005127,
-0.2714061439037323,
1.7907030582427979,
-0.13522464036941528,
-0.11441047489643097,
0.5551161766052246,
-0.5488569140434265,
0.31682339310646057,
0.408316433429718,
-0.7794070839881897,
0.6044979095458984,
-0.8669729828834534,
0.25351688265800476,
-0.32544803619384766,
-0.3338806629180908,
0.001230927067808807,
0.30367597937583923,
-0.05449824780225754,
0.9885596036911011,
-0.41895541548728943,
-0.37404975295066833,
-0.09718121588230133,
0.19947068393230438,
0.6155005693435669,
0.2345047891139984,
0.9962844252586365,
0.202301025390625,
-0.07799515128135681,
-0.2708054482936859,
0.1587735116481781,
-1.082833170890808,
-0.29089123010635376,
0.010881463997066021,
0.18960191309452057,
-0.20690184831619263,
-0.8512344360351562,
0.22367455065250397,
-0.06779558211565018,
-0.0361611545085907,
-0.10691817104816437,
-0.34597310423851013,
-0.26331061124801636,
-0.5661752820014954,
-0.15244652330875397,
0.19780218601226807,
0.14951056241989136,
0.8245435357093811,
0.3494262397289276,
-0.01448415033519268,
-0.1956748515367508,
-0.7142072916030884,
0.34246185421943665,
0.0425991490483284,
0.3327021896839142,
-0.40578868985176086,
-0.028854455798864365,
0.5914567112922668,
0.26361313462257385,
0.030474090948700905,
0.0842294991016388,
0.024645360186696053,
-0.10603192448616028,
-0.36121663451194763,
-0.09394132345914841,
0.16078463196754456,
-0.18935558199882507,
-0.04901658743619919,
0.36480990052223206,
-0.2781532108783722,
0.2074204683303833,
0.6784086227416992,
-0.8244326114654541,
-0.43507611751556396,
-0.32815489172935486,
0.5498070120811462,
0.35242581367492676,
-0.1668197214603424,
-0.19773931801319122,
-0.17920733988285065,
-0.3222459554672241,
-0.07342866063117981,
-0.1896355301141739,
0.736947238445282,
-0.3180207908153534,
0.4874335825443268,
-0.3245871067047119,
0.35201191902160645,
0.8776960372924805,
-0.06983619183301926,
-0.11123109608888626,
0.4820345640182495,
-0.18133258819580078,
-0.08419778943061829,
0.1966494470834732,
-0.0006092888070270419,
-0.2278028130531311,
-0.16797734797000885,
0.3724621832370758,
-0.21308909356594086,
0.36515212059020996,
0.4752952754497528,
0.40030160546302795,
-0.38538047671318054,
-0.39960354566574097,
-0.2166840136051178,
-0.30340906977653503,
-0.08431204408407211,
0.0695938989520073,
-0.18989551067352295,
-0.20722109079360962,
-0.18561296164989471,
-0.8863784074783325,
-0.028415635228157043,
0.6877135038375854,
0.5790561437606812,
0.06294558197259903,
-0.4762458801269531,
-0.3906609117984772,
-0.22189076244831085,
-0.08874927461147308,
0.2072828859090805,
-1.3739477396011353,
0.40743592381477356,
0.13313047587871552,
-0.0960155576467514,
-0.5474820137023926,
0.0016115197213366628,
0.39981403946876526,
-0.6410924196243286,
0.8243822455406189,
0.11011383682489395,
-0.5407447814941406,
-0.3341294229030609,
-0.5696309208869934,
-0.39373496174812317,
0.4392768442630768,
-0.028324441984295845
] |
247945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rems-Murr-Kreis | Rems-Murr-Kreis | Rems-Murr is a Landkreis (district) in the middle of Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from north clockwise) Heilbronn, Schwäbisch Hall, Ostalbkreis, Göppingen, Esslingen, the district-free city Stuttgart and the district Ludwigsburg.
History
The district was created in 1973 when Waiblingen was merged with most of the district Backnang and a few municipalities from the district Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Geography
The largest part of the district is located in the Swabian-Franconian Forest (Schwäbisch-Fränkischer Wald), of which the Mainhardt Forest forms a part. The two rivers Rems and Murr gave the district its name.
Coat of arms
The coat of arms shows a deer antler in the middle, the symbol of the former state of Württemberg. The two wavy blue lines above and below symbolize the two rivers Murr (in the north) and Rems (in the south) after which the district was named.
Twinning
Rems-Murr-Kreis is twinned with:
Southampton, United Kingdom, (since 1991)
Cities and towns
References
External links
Official website (German)
Stuttgart (region)
Districts of Baden-Württemberg | [
-0.40493297576904297,
1.0382537841796875,
0.7188407182693481,
-0.874596357345581,
-0.6623427271842957,
0.634857714176178,
1.2686129808425903,
0.08811775594949722,
-0.14510753750801086,
-0.5096972584724426,
-0.5497459173202515,
-0.10921474546194077,
0.18759018182754517,
0.659001886844635,
0.19774983823299408,
0.343668669462204,
0.6364063024520874,
0.6710425019264221,
-0.03458591178059578,
-0.7161405682563782,
0.144721120595932,
-0.20663000643253326,
0.636325478553772,
0.00093960075173527,
-0.45572662353515625,
-0.3416161835193634,
0.44810324907302856,
0.26931843161582947,
0.28328579664230347,
-0.3727158308029175,
0.04851008951663971,
0.9534160494804382,
-0.35098695755004883,
-0.13180506229400635,
0.664865255355835,
0.6515810489654541,
0.49968600273132324,
-0.8154997229576111,
0.9579799771308899,
-0.530926525592804,
-0.18520858883857727,
0.1994580328464508,
-0.6744145750999451,
-0.46119606494903564,
-0.0077099185436964035,
-1.1830964088439941,
-1.6507439613342285,
-0.14263233542442322,
-1.0612918138504028,
0.3911323845386505,
-0.32679957151412964,
0.34654855728149414,
0.6238229274749756,
0.3544130325317383,
-0.3852173984050751,
0.7461315989494324,
-1.4587516784667969,
0.297722190618515,
1.147148847579956,
0.7355602979660034,
0.30529916286468506,
0.22329919040203094,
-0.7005825638771057,
0.29048952460289,
-0.010864732787013054,
0.38956284523010254,
-0.1726951003074646,
0.8283844590187073,
-0.16059206426143646,
-0.8807179927825928,
-0.8095555305480957,
-0.607819676399231,
0.6392958164215088,
0.20256176590919495,
-0.03152238950133324,
-0.4465332329273224,
-0.6368139386177063,
-0.26433828473091125,
-0.10875044763088226,
-0.7112061381340027,
-0.22533206641674042,
0.24400925636291504,
0.9772248268127441,
-0.07746101915836334,
0.7866090536117554,
0.019319424405694008,
-0.5905213356018066,
-0.4651135802268982,
-0.18222323060035706,
0.7639180421829224,
-0.3485465943813324,
-0.08355522155761719,
-0.3540404140949249,
0.34934109449386597,
0.6470131874084473,
-0.5881327986717224,
-0.15404807031154633,
-0.34873950481414795,
0.4144231379032135,
0.6162232756614685,
0.013898608274757862,
0.8585466146469116,
0.827804684638977,
0.3730693459510803,
-0.17307452857494354,
0.10263480991125107,
-0.37142816185951233,
-0.8241912126541138,
-0.45205122232437134,
-0.6548258662223816,
-0.6240803599357605,
0.7822363972663879,
-0.4446033835411072,
-0.021498937159776688,
-0.23187683522701263,
0.25773513317108154,
0.7288550734519958,
-0.3905264139175415,
-0.06829910725355148,
0.21676965057849884,
0.5660650730133057,
0.7122508883476257,
-0.18177874386310577,
0.5283252596855164,
-0.12801064550876617,
0.4241337776184082,
-0.022690558806061745,
0.7520303726196289,
-0.42362192273139954,
1.000888705253601,
0.5870757699012756,
1.1419134140014648,
0.08527380973100662,
-0.5074155330657959,
0.10899970680475235,
-0.4573369324207306,
1.0782967805862427,
0.24639439582824707,
0.38556107878685,
0.21471042931079865,
-0.5593740940093994,
-0.3076193630695343,
-0.9765557646751404,
-0.2065684199333191,
0.32493722438812256,
-0.0943484753370285,
-0.6438992023468018,
-0.6720207929611206,
0.01640341244637966,
-0.36099016666412354,
0.3253272771835327,
-0.29651015996932983,
-0.2922355830669403,
0.20215542614459991,
-0.7643343210220337,
1.0569225549697876,
0.28634804487228394,
-0.08731338381767273,
0.6062961220741272,
0.5494043231010437,
0.7203658223152161,
-0.4655928611755371,
0.13279367983341217,
-0.10879100859165192,
0.4040830135345459,
-0.09984486550092697,
0.3138066530227661,
-0.13477490842342377,
-0.1914139837026596,
0.24598857760429382,
-1.1209874153137207,
-0.09355420619249344,
0.10442426055669785,
-0.586786687374115,
0.5138137340545654,
-0.19943542778491974,
0.9347245097160339,
0.748924195766449,
-0.25121352076530457,
-0.4903874397277832,
-0.5857279300689697,
0.31404244899749756,
-0.03722529485821724,
0.4223223030567169,
0.4051970839500427,
0.05918625369668007,
-0.020471449941396713,
-0.21158985793590546,
0.05235676094889641,
0.10070762783288956,
-0.1576688140630722,
-1.0493667125701904,
1.1504285335540771,
0.0215463750064373,
1.324293613433838,
0.8488452434539795,
-0.1475382000207901,
-0.49833208322525024,
-0.5744784474372864,
0.6691015362739563,
-0.16812507808208466,
-0.7805277109146118,
-0.021850381046533585,
-0.067908875644207,
-0.9601091742515564,
0.7424777150154114,
-0.4895293712615967,
-0.5331865549087524,
-0.06229224428534508,
0.31856822967529297,
0.45652028918266296,
0.09678009152412415,
-0.11419785767793655,
-0.5108403563499451,
0.49478679895401,
-0.28073200583457947,
0.07395460456609726,
-0.3659402132034302,
-0.6824378371238708,
-0.25316187739372253,
0.2089717835187912,
0.1345578283071518,
-0.16420133411884308,
0.6730295419692993,
-0.2933891713619232,
0.40631183981895447,
0.41774213314056396,
0.6200258731842041,
-0.4921785891056061,
-0.9726164937019348,
0.7521016001701355,
0.47692134976387024,
0.2940026819705963,
0.0959569662809372,
-0.14601720869541168,
-0.5857580304145813,
-0.2627164423465729,
-0.18337462842464447,
0.24835073947906494,
-0.9815719127655029,
0.08971677720546722,
0.5577203035354614,
-0.6539945602416992,
0.3890715539455414,
-0.13913941383361816,
0.5200698375701904,
-0.2823815941810608,
0.41523411870002747,
-0.7864549160003662,
-0.24024073779582977,
0.2667604088783264,
0.14270414412021637,
0.14456091821193695,
-0.8800721168518066,
0.17299047112464905,
-0.1401573121547699,
0.2557048201560974,
0.5432250499725342,
-0.23800654709339142,
0.4290075898170471,
-0.4599880576133728,
0.07203711569309235,
0.6891191005706787,
-0.1956503689289093,
-1.201811671257019,
0.0247003473341465,
0.36949801445007324,
-0.369817852973938,
-0.4311392605304718,
0.19382289052009583,
-0.20816177129745483,
-0.5939826965332031,
-0.6923145055770874,
-0.8997442126274109,
0.38609784841537476,
-0.24511535465717316,
-0.4709489941596985,
0.5345574617385864,
-0.9962626695632935,
0.3316659927368164,
0.3084928095340729,
0.9286410808563232,
-0.07226989418268204,
-0.40429675579071045,
-0.6183542609214783,
0.30306920409202576,
0.7136409282684326,
0.33169376850128174,
-0.3601553738117218,
0.3106999695301056,
-0.34445762634277344,
0.025952456519007683,
-0.4968244731426239,
0.36153531074523926,
0.059103913605213165,
0.03131813555955887,
-0.0902772769331932,
-0.1998768001794815,
0.6393818259239197,
-0.052664872258901596,
-0.8424251675605774,
0.46667593717575073,
-0.7241495251655579,
0.12231466174125671,
-0.820815920829773,
-0.3713390827178955,
-0.7271853685379028,
0.19141122698783875,
-3.9134464263916016,
-1.0898691415786743,
-0.44813764095306396,
-0.39603519439697266,
-0.16074220836162567,
0.17025020718574524,
0.4229496717453003,
-0.5343226790428162,
-0.4104126989841461,
0.19564512372016907,
0.6308175325393677,
-0.6389607191085815,
-0.06004716455936432,
0.8757253885269165,
0.7906659245491028,
0.19972656667232513,
0.03096560575067997,
0.5850507020950317,
0.03232765570282936,
-0.43519777059555054,
-0.040971387177705765,
0.013256714679300785,
0.2502857744693756,
0.2674742639064789,
0.6729333400726318,
0.7556149363517761,
0.07796528935432434,
-0.06823403388261795,
-1.1841614246368408,
-0.7318533658981323,
0.7358070611953735,
0.03777502849698067,
-0.29359593987464905,
-0.008545813150703907,
-0.2667400538921356,
-0.031614355742931366,
0.5199001431465149,
0.25722071528434753,
0.701164186000824,
-0.6339702010154724,
-0.06900086998939514,
0.6568178534507751,
-0.05530720204114914,
0.0927627682685852,
0.6268441081047058,
-0.23877349495887756,
-1.2095118761062622,
0.19869539141654968,
-0.22608040273189545,
1.4841758012771606,
0.013848996721208096,
-0.522717297077179,
0.8113386631011963,
0.07128452509641647,
0.2115132361650467,
-0.11241993308067322,
0.40553635358810425,
0.2454453557729721,
0.1035628542304039,
0.6588366031646729,
0.19446922838687897,
-0.5259178280830383,
-0.05026756227016449,
-0.43563517928123474,
-0.3264177441596985,
-0.45961877703666687,
-0.01893107034265995,
-0.10845289379358292,
0.15965107083320618,
-0.21468089520931244,
-0.774196982383728,
0.6283819079399109,
-0.31687813997268677,
-0.4637075960636139,
-0.35531944036483765,
-0.9398579597473145,
-0.8093563914299011,
-0.2931493818759918,
0.2379797250032425,
0.03884875774383545,
0.329525887966156,
-0.3907880485057831,
0.19011545181274414,
0.3045622408390045,
0.6249858140945435,
0.04292730242013931,
-0.45004260540008545,
-0.32854384183883667,
-0.09181942045688629,
-0.21966983377933502,
-0.23418258130550385,
-0.6757732629776001,
0.38581329584121704,
0.2200116664171219,
-1.0848639011383057,
1.162597417831421,
0.003018702147528529,
-0.42387956380844116,
0.004250943660736084,
-0.684927225112915,
0.3711276948451996,
-0.8871489763259888,
0.46532994508743286,
0.3732191026210785,
-0.512055516242981,
-0.4734795093536377,
0.20906373858451843,
0.03861153870820999,
0.1610824018716812,
0.14754512906074524,
-0.15730731189250946,
-0.3007547855377197,
-0.1846933215856552,
-1.1266299486160278,
0.7413972020149231,
-1.0933284759521484,
-1.1113535165786743,
1.2524724006652832,
-0.1912149339914322,
0.7846214175224304,
0.5813015103340149,
-0.17417138814926147,
0.5871590375900269,
-0.8474068641662598,
-0.40201640129089355,
0.5598670244216919,
0.6442328691482544,
-0.15341773629188538,
-0.3557600975036621,
0.5869696140289307,
-0.1881147027015686,
-0.37631192803382874,
-0.6190466284751892,
-0.6339377760887146,
0.14728108048439026,
-0.35935428738594055,
0.21583321690559387,
0.4220101535320282,
0.0745655819773674,
0.025707706809043884,
1.1128970384597778,
0.287556916475296,
-0.6074240207672119,
0.5911664366722107,
-0.2969856560230255,
0.48384660482406616,
0.45537638664245605,
-0.14691990613937378,
-0.9617645144462585,
0.2065843641757965,
-0.6822465658187866,
-0.2412440925836563,
0.06123458966612816,
-0.6436725854873657,
-0.36203819513320923,
-0.08025750517845154,
0.2488628476858139,
0.4469355344772339,
0.2715294659137726,
-0.5240729451179504,
-0.07169382274150848,
0.08777792006731033,
-0.9278655052185059,
0.7159453630447388,
0.7259675860404968,
-0.025947241112589836,
-0.019965261220932007,
-0.30349454283714294,
-0.913101077079773,
0.8742304444313049,
-0.2171977013349533,
-0.010299824178218842,
-0.8573272824287415,
-0.09763254225254059,
0.002699358854442835,
-0.24355068802833557,
0.012879480607807636,
0.40464019775390625,
0.5569740533828735,
-0.43268367648124695,
-0.33551353216171265,
0.2601919174194336,
-0.19334714114665985,
0.7341660261154175,
-0.09176554530858994,
-0.5902677774429321,
-0.17139367759227753,
-0.2821583151817322,
-0.8764312863349915,
-0.5872516632080078,
0.5686215758323669,
-0.41832053661346436,
0.19021473824977875,
-0.032798126339912415,
-0.49863383173942566,
-1.7016034126281738,
-0.015522131696343422,
-0.3129226565361023,
-0.07258575409650803,
-0.522478461265564,
0.7671138048171997,
0.8007846474647522,
0.017682276666164398,
1.3979936838150024,
0.5224509239196777,
-1.0434573888778687,
0.38044071197509766,
1.2461215257644653,
-0.356142520904541,
0.9078488945960999,
-0.44062528014183044,
-0.7130233645439148,
0.7851297855377197,
1.1595282554626465,
-0.7192012071609497,
-0.045813221484422684,
0.14828982949256897,
-0.2675464153289795,
-0.7504190802574158,
0.00004271263969712891,
-0.7009617686271667,
-0.3991459608078003,
-0.5711387991905212,
-0.05413373187184334,
-1.1740399599075317,
-0.07298369705677032,
0.1977424919605255,
-0.6901426315307617,
0.8957090377807617,
-0.5782958269119263,
0.2613002359867096,
0.4177577495574951,
1.221863031387329,
-0.46505677700042725,
-0.15198609232902527,
-0.19191332161426544,
-0.14157943427562714,
0.8057752847671509,
0.37106335163116455,
0.7325716614723206,
0.452582448720932,
0.5040358901023865,
0.8278703689575195,
-0.6323232650756836,
0.02038549818098545,
0.11285143345594406,
0.6484888792037964,
-0.5743142366409302,
-0.6867319941520691,
0.5343685746192932,
0.05339619517326355,
-0.24566218256950378,
-0.7109627723693848,
-0.3358614146709442,
1.1832256317138672,
-0.24216613173484802,
-0.35655006766319275,
0.4852714240550995,
0.5300054550170898,
0.1357361525297165,
-0.3230043053627014,
-0.0510072223842144,
0.3364456593990326,
0.04573622718453407,
0.22786271572113037,
-0.05111877992749214,
-0.2144382894039154,
0.26827529072761536,
0.515874445438385,
-0.22278453409671783,
-0.840018093585968,
-0.16226710379123688,
-0.7426519989967346,
-0.09386271983385086,
-0.4932610094547272,
0.4763829708099365,
-0.30609259009361267,
-0.9290295243263245,
-0.15250973403453827,
-0.6496114730834961,
0.06152349337935448,
0.2386852502822876,
0.04624723270535469,
-0.6956690549850464,
0.4029737114906311,
-0.7709589600563049,
-0.8025944828987122,
0.12028327584266663,
-0.9144203662872314,
0.6719698309898376,
-0.3605765104293823,
-0.27771055698394775,
-0.4329850971698761,
0.6671419143676758,
0.4582468569278717,
0.10828746110200882,
-0.24029208719730377,
0.08744410425424576,
-0.39563828706741333,
0.1727992445230484,
-0.6692056655883789,
0.3008553087711334,
0.10967738181352615,
0.04546211287379265,
0.3379327356815338,
0.5164014101028442,
-0.3299000561237335,
-0.12338082492351532,
-0.0015767808072268963,
0.1813516765832901,
-0.15207111835479736,
0.010641886852681637,
-0.01728070341050625,
1.3475728034973145,
-0.3374299705028534,
1.1823722124099731,
0.42742428183555603,
-0.3266872763633728,
0.2727603614330292,
0.7528107762336731,
0.16300636529922485,
-0.5196685791015625,
1.206790566444397,
0.7992038726806641,
-0.24966394901275635,
1.3489131927490234,
-0.016283661127090454,
-0.37598180770874023,
0.3796745240688324,
0.03479438275098801,
-0.314555287361145,
0.24935761094093323,
-0.8768309950828552,
0.43628236651420593,
-0.6411381959915161,
-0.3992139995098114,
0.09711669385433197,
0.21945232152938843,
-0.1965969353914261,
-0.09092912822961807,
0.1277894228696823,
0.9871537685394287,
-0.1072620078921318,
0.15629611909389496,
0.4848933219909668,
0.3624286651611328,
-0.058548469096422195,
-0.15077213943004608,
0.44611209630966187,
-0.5422284603118896,
0.2679665684700012,
0.22706225514411926,
0.2379738837480545,
-0.5394884347915649,
0.030140159651637077,
0.45807555317878723,
0.19743984937667847,
-0.1388523429632187,
-0.6575796008110046,
0.07724012434482574,
0.42381706833839417,
-0.970798909664154,
-0.5775869488716125,
0.16370482742786407,
-0.35068655014038086,
-1.046492338180542,
-0.26960933208465576,
-0.05667495355010033,
-0.26512065529823303,
0.23664619028568268,
0.07484123855829239,
-0.028679564595222473,
0.2838042080402374,
-0.0016346656484529376,
0.7578917741775513,
-0.1471364051103592,
0.6577305793762207,
-0.6066681146621704,
-0.17169331014156342,
0.804775595664978,
-0.0012529471423476934,
0.3381800651550293,
0.17366214096546173,
-0.3190910816192627,
-0.29705390334129333,
0.3128320574760437,
0.18875879049301147,
-0.1376509815454483,
0.7582288384437561,
-0.6496118307113647,
0.2796117663383484,
0.3855500817298889,
-0.3990786373615265,
0.31009534001350403,
-0.8730307817459106,
0.04949966073036194,
-0.6744941473007202,
0.7556869983673096,
0.21140073239803314,
-0.17233997583389282,
0.28881266713142395,
0.4132021367549896,
-0.1691291332244873,
0.4309496581554413,
-0.5845648646354675,
0.2881172001361847,
-0.5686378479003906,
0.06889329850673676,
-0.2571306526660919,
0.8275003433227539,
0.33192959427833557,
-0.10874071717262268,
0.1834029108285904,
0.5838430523872375,
-0.12111420929431915,
-0.3576640784740448,
0.048906534910202026,
-0.35045501589775085,
-0.0769544392824173,
0.03429984301328659,
0.7368091344833374,
-0.10117822140455246,
0.6896796822547913,
0.38495737314224243,
0.1272653341293335,
-0.28355929255485535,
-0.17243075370788574,
-0.020815104246139526,
0.11966796219348907,
0.03125682845711708,
0.26840493083000183,
0.4777488708496094,
-0.329292356967926,
0.07543107122182846,
-0.5120680928230286,
0.48710307478904724,
0.012416237965226173,
0.9062210321426392,
0.5844722390174866,
-0.14314137399196625,
-0.4724668562412262,
-0.7059646248817444,
1.1491364240646362,
0.4124278724193573,
-1.5963612794876099,
0.3509289622306824,
-0.8986167311668396,
-0.8060088753700256,
-0.005010463297367096,
0.10720791667699814,
-0.10820891708135605,
-0.5816644430160522,
0.027029510587453842,
-0.32349130511283875,
-0.27285483479499817,
0.2622782588005066,
-0.1753106713294983,
-0.8675808310508728,
0.6083271503448486,
-0.4179900884628296
] |
247947 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry%20Levan | Larry Levan | Larry Levan (; born Lawrence Philpot, July 20, 1954 – November 8, 1992) was an American DJ best known for his decade-long residency at the New York City night club Paradise Garage, which has been described as the prototype of the modern dance club. He developed a cult following who referred to his sets as "Saturday Mass". Influential post-disco DJ François Kevorkian credits Levan with introducing the dub aesthetic into dance music. Along with Kevorkian, Levan experimented with drum machines and synthesizers in his productions and live sets, ushering in an electronic, post-disco sound that presaged the ascendence of house music. He DJ'd at Club Zanzibar in the 1980s as well, home to the Jersey Sound brand of deep house or garage house.
Early life
Levan was born at Brooklyn Jewish Hospital, New York, to Minnie (née Levan) and Lawrence Philpot. He has an older brother Isaac and sister Minnie who are biological twins. He was born with a congenital heart condition and suffered from asthma from a very young age which would make him prone to fainting in class. Although a fragile young boy, he excelled in math and physics, leaving an impression on his teachers that he would become an inventor one day. He inherited his love for music from his mother who loved blues, jazz, and gospel music, and he was able to use a record player from the age of three. As his mother reflects, "I'd make him put records on so that we could dance together." While attending Erasmus Hall High School in the late 1960s and early 1970s, as the neighborhood of Flatbush transitioned to a predominantly African-American population amid white flight, the flamboyantly vanguard Levan (who dyed his hair orange nearly a decade before the ascendance of punk rock), was frequently bullied by his classmates. Eventually, he dropped out of high school and found assuagement in Harlem's longstanding ball culture as a dressmaker, where he first became acquainted with fellow designer and lifelong best friend Frankie Knuckles.
He became infatuated with an idea of making the "music that would never stop" during a brief affair with hippie DJ David Mancuso, who introduced Levan to Manhattan's burgeoning underground downtown dance culture. Mancuso was the proprietor of The Loft, a minimally decorated, members-only dance club (uniquely situated in his home) where "punch, fruit and candy" were served in lieu of alcohol and music was processed by a state-of-the-art sound system. According to the pseudonymous "Apollo," an acquaintance of Levan and Knuckles, "You could only get into the Loft by private invitation. This was not because Mancuso wanted to create an elitist environment; he intentionally wanted to bring together diverse groups of gays who wouldn't ordinarily party together to create a democratic, integrated venue. David was powerfully attracted to black music and culture as well as men, so this Loft party was instrumental in bringing together wealthy, white gay men, many of them music executives, with this black musical dance culture he adored."
Musical career
Levan got his start alongside Frankie Knuckles at the Continental Baths, as a replacement for the DJ from The Gallery, Nicky Siano, who briefly employed both men as decorators at The Gallery and taught them his pioneering three turntable technique. Accordingly, Levan's DJing style was influenced by Siano's penchant for Philadelphia soul and upbeat rock and Mancuso's jazz-inflected eclecticism; as with Mancuso, he briefly dated Siano during the epoch. While Knuckles was still trying to make his way in the New York club scene, Levan soon became a popular attraction at venues such as SoHo Place due to his "diva persona," which he had previously developed in the city's notoriously competitive black drag "houses".
At the height of the disco boom in 1977, Levan was offered a residency at the Paradise Garage. Although owner Michael Brody—who employed Levan at the defunct Reade Street in 1976, where he "developed the techniques as well as the sound – the deep, dark bass, the queasy, dubby emotion that he would extract from records – that would make him a legend"—intended to create a downtown facsimile of Studio 54 catering to an upscale white gay clientele, the new venue initially drew an improbable mix of streetwise blacks, Latinos, and punks after a disastrous opening night alienated the target demographic; according to West End Records founder Mel Cheren, Brody's former companion and a silent partner in the venture, "The sound equipment got stuck in a blizzard at an airport in Louisville, Kentucky. And people were kept outside in 17-degree weather. Some of them never came back... the club didn't really take on the atmosphere that people remember it for until 1980."
Open only to a select membership and housed in an otherwise unadorned building on King Street in Greenwich Village, the club and Levan's DJing slowly entered the mainstream. Influential WBLS DJ/programming director Frankie Crocker often mentioned the club on air and based his playlists around Levan's sets. The Richard Long & Associates Sound system (RLA) of the club included custom-designed "Levan Horn" bass speakers.
Filling the void left by leading DJ/remixer Walter Gibbons following his conversion to evangelical Christianity, Levan became a prolific producer and mixer in the 1980s, with many of his efforts crossing over onto the national dance music charts. Among the records that received Levan's touch were his remixes of "Ain't No Mountain High Enough" by Inner Life, "Ain't Nothin' Goin On But The Rent" by Gwen Guthrie and "Heartbeat" by Taana Gardner, as well as his production work on the long-germinating "Don't Make Me Wait" by the Peech Boys, a group that Levan formed and was part of (and who became the New York Citi Peech Boys when the Beach Boys threatened a lawsuit due to the similar sound of the name). With a strong gospel tinge in the vocal arrangements and driven by a tinkling piano, the latter song is a quintessential example of his soulful aesthetic. One of the first dance releases to incorporate influences from dub music and an appended vocal-only edit, Levan tinkered with the song for nearly a year despite the looming bankruptcy of West End Records. When it was finally released, much of the song's word-of-mouth momentum had been lost, leading it to stall in the lower reaches of the charts.
As the popularity of the Garage soared in the mid-1980s just as many patrons and friends succumbed to AIDS, Levan became increasingly dependent upon PCP and heroin. While performing, he began to ensconce himself within a protective entourage of drag queens and younger acolytes. At the Paradise Garage, Levan was described as being "worshipped, almost like a god." As beat-matching and ideological stylistic adherence became the norm among club DJs, Levan's idiosyncratic sets (running the gamut from Evelyn "Champagne" King, Chaka Khan and Deodato with Camille to Kraftwerk, Manuel Göttsching, and British synthpop) elicited criticism from some quarters. Nevertheless, he remained at the forefront of dance music; recordings of Levan's final sets at the Garage demonstrate his affinity for the insurgent sounds of Chicago house and hip-hop.
The Garage ended its run with a 48-hour-long party in September 1987, weeks before Brody died from AIDS-related complications. The club's closure and Brody's death devastated Levan, who knew that few club owners would tolerate his quirks and drug dependencies. Although Brody had verbally bequeathed the club's sound and lighting systems to Levan, they were instead left to Brody's mother in his will. This change was reportedly instigated by the late impresario's lover and manager, who reportedly despised Levan.
Despite protestations and pleas to the Brody family from Mel Cheren, the systems remained in storage as their property. Unable to secure a long-term residency after a stay at the short-lived Choice in the East Village alongside DJ/proprietor Richard Vasquez and Joey Llanos, Levan began to sell his valuable records for drug money. Friends like Danny Krivit would buy them back for him out of sympathy.
As the 1990s dawned, Levan was on the brink of a comeback. Dismissed as a relic in New York despite managing occasional appearances at the au courant Sound Factory, his popularity had nonetheless soared among connoisseurs of disco and early American electronic dance music in Europe and Japan. In 1991, he was brought over to London for a weekend by Justin Berkmann to DJ at the Ministry of Sound nightclub. To the mutual surprise of both parties, he ended up staying for three months; during this period, he remixed and produced tracks for the club's record label and helped to tune the venue's acclaimed sound system.
Although he was still dependent on heroin, Levan's 1992 tour of Japan garnered gushing accolades in the local press. Encouraged by Cheren, he entered rehab and continued his tentative recording forays. Francois Kevorkian described Levan's final Japanese sets as nostalgic and inspirational, imbued with an air of bittersweetness and closure.
Later months and death
Levan informed his mother in June 1992 that he had "lived a good life" and was "ready to die". Having been mildly injured on the Japanese tour, he was voluntarily hospitalized at Beth Israel Medical Center following his return to New York. Three days after being released into the care of his mother, he was re-hospitalized at Beth Israel with hemorrhoid symptoms. He died, aged 38, of heart failure caused by endocarditis at 6:15 p.m. EST, on Sunday, November 8, 1992.
Personal life
Levan was openly gay. He was previously romantically involved with Nicky Siano (a fellow Brooklynite and Mancuso disciple who had been in a relationship with Mel Cheren). Frankie Knuckles and Levan were lifetime friends who were introduced to each other by a "drag queen called Gerald" when Levan was 15 years old; Levan and Knuckles both were active in the local drag scene.
Legacy
In September 2004, Levan was inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame for his outstanding achievement as a DJ.
Tributes
Anything Goes! (1994), the second album by dance group C+C Music Factory, contains a tribute to Levan titled "A Moment of Silence for Larry Levan." (It also contains a track "A Moment of Silence for Chep Nunez"; Nunez was an American music producer, editor, and mixer who reached chart success with the group 2 Puerto Ricans, a Blackman, and a Dominican.)
The album The Rose Has Teeth in the Mouth of a Beast (2006), by the electronic music duo Matmos, contains a tribute to Levan titled "Steam and Sequins for Larry Levan".
The 2003 documentary Maestro, directed by Josell Ramos, tells the story of the underground dance music movement and the importance of Larry Levan as one of its key figures.
In 2019, Corrado Rizza directed and produced a documentary movie titled Larry's Garage about Larry Levan.
See also
LGBT people from New York City
References
Bibliography
External links
West End Records – Larry Levan's associated label
Larrry Levan featured on the free Emancipation podcast (October 2008)
Larry Levan at SoundCloud
Legends of the dance floor: A piece of Paradise ("Garage-Gate-Tape") – Larry Levan 1979, full five hour show at BBC Radio 6
Legends of the dance floor: A piece of Paradise ("Garage-Gate-Tape") – Larry Levan 1979, full five hour show at SoundCloud
American garage house musicians
Record producers from New York (state)
American house musicians
House musicians
Remixers
Post-disco musicians
African-American Episcopalians
African-American DJs
Club DJs
LGBT DJs
LGBT African Americans
Musicians from Brooklyn
1954 births
1992 deaths
Drug-related deaths in New York City
American gay musicians
American drag queens
African-American drag queens
Erasmus Hall High School alumni
20th-century American musicians
20th-century American businesspeople
Deaths from endocarditis
LGBT people from New York (state)
Electronic dance music DJs
20th-century American Episcopalians
20th-century LGBT people
20th-century African-American musicians | [
0.5021570324897766,
0.523093581199646,
-0.22772373259067535,
-0.014715874567627907,
0.6222338676452637,
0.09606775641441345,
0.27929139137268066,
-0.01754065789282322,
-0.24463294446468353,
0.08140629529953003,
-0.554031252861023,
0.46455705165863037,
-0.31758102774620056,
0.046335212886333466,
-0.1110614612698555,
-0.16995248198509216,
0.2178836315870285,
-1.223265290260315,
-0.022761480882763863,
-0.07424960285425186,
0.24706655740737915,
0.08002149313688278,
-0.18727929890155792,
0.32815298438072205,
-0.3843385577201843,
0.3642449676990509,
-0.7176175713539124,
-0.12193100154399872,
-0.4350182116031647,
0.09387184679508209,
0.42134103178977966,
-0.39427462220191956,
0.6530739068984985,
-0.779174268245697,
0.2933236360549927,
0.3811987042427063,
-0.11607741564512253,
-0.18379971385002136,
-0.24818597733974457,
-0.1388600468635559,
-0.1842079609632492,
-0.023713717237114906,
0.5614156126976013,
0.5085594654083252,
-0.48750030994415283,
0.2445414662361145,
-0.8948280811309814,
0.7192044258117676,
-0.9905529022216797,
-0.4758148193359375,
-0.10698659718036652,
0.24204972386360168,
0.4873373508453369,
0.10446055978536606,
0.3066922426223755,
-0.36068129539489746,
-0.5100588202476501,
0.29437026381492615,
0.029848521575331688,
-0.2551775574684143,
0.5082064867019653,
0.15379072725772858,
0.3338771462440491,
-0.6558851003646851,
0.1288619190454483,
0.44647446274757385,
0.06679609417915344,
0.4483201801776886,
0.45928582549095154,
0.11461131274700165,
0.2182256132364273,
0.38785767555236816,
-0.587701678276062,
-0.16694743931293488,
-0.04229002818465233,
-0.2388845980167389,
0.6705053448677063,
-0.5755261778831482,
0.05849636718630791,
0.7765953540802002,
-0.13301832973957062,
-0.34505051374435425,
1.08424973487854,
0.5673879384994507,
0.27626168727874756,
-0.2956917881965637,
-0.6140043139457703,
0.04929695278406143,
-0.6470995545387268,
-0.26506146788597107,
-0.6116361618041992,
-0.7800289392471313,
0.3803841769695282,
0.13864807784557343,
-0.7310677170753479,
0.05191801115870476,
0.578499972820282,
0.11718514561653137,
0.2573663890361786,
-0.3838181495666504,
0.22848288714885712,
0.07022657245397568,
0.10685189068317413,
-0.13805170357227325,
0.23854681849479675,
0.09321136772632599,
0.0886451005935669,
-0.6081980466842651,
-0.06243753433227539,
-0.1865244358778,
-0.2579832673072815,
0.3126695454120636,
0.2591473162174225,
0.003472479060292244,
0.5695141553878784,
0.5085875988006592,
-0.5056297779083252,
-0.6527281999588013,
-0.7016963958740234,
-0.22870907187461853,
-0.08268154412508011,
-0.14357297122478485,
0.15189534425735474,
0.39626848697662354,
-0.9177419543266296,
-0.46422457695007324,
-0.1439286321401596,
0.3773883879184723,
-0.5910060405731201,
-0.09954764693975449,
0.19629648327827454,
0.6266513466835022,
0.33321934938430786,
-0.3113308548927307,
-0.7027695775032043,
0.08211170881986618,
0.6921548843383789,
0.08590380102396011,
-0.07570760697126389,
0.7518359422683716,
-0.27863410115242004,
-0.31360939145088196,
-0.3179653584957123,
-0.4973946511745453,
0.17158158123493195,
-0.21635453402996063,
0.24389399588108063,
-0.12936697900295258,
-0.018800590187311172,
-0.5391638278961182,
-0.15812554955482483,
0.37451300024986267,
0.03938526660203934,
-0.7429244518280029,
-0.1595955789089203,
0.11866370588541031,
-0.017577150836586952,
0.42528265714645386,
0.5880520343780518,
-0.5987501740455627,
-0.5096865296363831,
0.27987533807754517,
-0.03741152584552765,
0.3961314260959625,
0.4283493161201477,
-0.12344665825366974,
-0.1785060614347458,
-0.23245370388031006,
-0.2746545970439911,
0.21394190192222595,
-0.22338315844535828,
0.3199598789215088,
0.5278794765472412,
-0.22927646338939667,
-0.5306203365325928,
0.3654317557811737,
1.0337284803390503,
-0.20753753185272217,
0.509354293346405,
0.14035987854003906,
-0.5074930191040039,
-0.3863748013973236,
-0.1800338178873062,
-0.26222366094589233,
0.2654966413974762,
-0.7901937365531921,
0.00394477741792798,
-0.21911339461803436,
0.5608813166618347,
0.11447122693061829,
0.07477912306785583,
-0.29353585839271545,
-0.3098030388355255,
-0.13046474754810333,
0.7699041366577148,
0.25977620482444763,
-0.39861562848091125,
0.4205535650253296,
0.40243709087371826,
0.3547365665435791,
-0.03651435300707817,
0.2996002733707428,
0.5992357730865479,
0.061285071074962616,
-0.24071180820465088,
-0.030432159081101418,
0.2647860646247864,
-0.3279016613960266,
0.4052196145057678,
0.4536639451980591,
0.17603950202465057,
-1.0444014072418213,
0.019987380132079124,
0.161436066031456,
-0.04279278963804245,
-0.5968610048294067,
-0.6416796445846558,
0.1752069741487503,
-0.07349225133657455,
-0.08975234627723694,
0.7325391173362732,
0.6126412153244019,
0.09993842244148254,
0.3203604817390442,
-0.08129359036684036,
0.9474458694458008,
-0.31617608666419983,
-0.29040443897247314,
0.433630108833313,
0.3822344243526459,
0.49098411202430725,
0.3820989429950714,
0.13426515460014343,
-0.9399350881576538,
0.32738780975341797,
0.5800107717514038,
0.43285122513771057,
-0.5448421239852905,
-0.011914566159248352,
-0.3561263084411621,
0.04000496864318848,
-0.1632988303899765,
-0.6520013213157654,
0.03214587643742561,
0.2563783526420593,
-0.2003386914730072,
-0.2887990176677704,
-0.17723630368709564,
-0.3338080048561096,
0.5134637355804443,
-0.09759511053562164,
0.42477142810821533,
0.727742075920105,
-0.04801538214087486,
-0.1469171643257141,
0.5453347563743591,
-0.17809341847896576,
-0.4441613554954529,
0.6134681701660156,
-0.2796129882335663,
0.198392853140831,
-0.003197261830791831,
-0.17204278707504272,
-0.10778950154781342,
-0.1842304915189743,
-0.5892855525016785,
0.26903027296066284,
-0.2563910484313965,
0.19182555377483368,
-0.06591809540987015,
-0.15635809302330017,
-0.1365751475095749,
0.07767427712678909,
0.44459328055381775,
-0.3467077314853668,
0.11411506682634354,
-0.3938586711883545,
-0.01616646721959114,
0.5617348551750183,
-0.8339481353759766,
0.9925084710121155,
0.17315833270549774,
-0.18752799928188324,
-0.40284445881843567,
-0.3674929440021515,
0.36425018310546875,
-0.41672074794769287,
-0.07772215455770493,
0.2327170968055725,
-0.5471528768539429,
-0.4101659059524536,
0.5311118364334106,
-1.0026723146438599,
0.27312031388282776,
0.3558920919895172,
0.45135408639907837,
0.082778699696064,
-0.5128496885299683,
-0.623942494392395,
0.3689696192741394,
-0.02914220653474331,
0.34906384348869324,
-0.9040258526802063,
0.2796357274055481,
0.4925413131713867,
-0.08026688545942307,
-0.21627479791641235,
-0.5536801218986511,
-5.391158580780029,
0.5326203107833862,
-0.34149396419525146,
-0.028172021731734276,
-0.1235986202955246,
0.23457416892051697,
0.6567002534866333,
-0.07773634791374207,
0.012567955069243908,
-0.40961959958076477,
-1.2017439603805542,
-0.5882768630981445,
-0.11779287457466125,
0.9028599262237549,
0.4839784502983093,
0.03211664780974388,
-0.08895096927881241,
-0.5661721229553223,
-0.227408766746521,
0.10420884937047958,
-0.36527490615844727,
-0.4735129475593567,
0.03834999352693558,
-0.1449066400527954,
0.054220911115407944,
0.2587502598762512,
-0.6911130547523499,
0.16650031507015228,
-1.0556395053863525,
-0.32555973529815674,
-0.568985104560852,
0.06059195101261139,
-1.0712614059448242,
-0.5411955714225769,
0.49166858196258545,
0.6752691268920898,
0.5371315479278564,
-0.534868061542511,
0.08294878154993057,
0.012434185482561588,
0.17149658501148224,
0.46713224053382874,
0.04725876450538635,
-0.006413719616830349,
0.5484711527824402,
0.26432499289512634,
-0.6421091556549072,
-0.14140085875988007,
-0.38843393325805664,
0.3266259729862213,
0.37007853388786316,
-0.3608088791370392,
0.3764806389808655,
-0.19282597303390503,
-0.06592927128076553,
-0.5596581101417542,
0.07944389432668686,
-0.26072555780410767,
-0.07230144739151001,
-0.23436039686203003,
0.25142112374305725,
-0.4754939377307892,
0.07744549214839935,
-0.7066802978515625,
0.2503231167793274,
0.2743898332118988,
-0.0750705748796463,
0.1392955183982849,
0.44444140791893005,
0.318998247385025,
0.12532368302345276,
0.5660077929496765,
0.04745952785015106,
-1.3175742626190186,
-0.46679267287254333,
-0.31430768966674805,
0.12728716433048248,
0.22865621745586395,
-0.011157093569636345,
-0.03732279688119888,
0.23690707981586456,
-0.0882965549826622,
-0.7592880725860596,
0.6738913059234619,
-0.3745470941066742,
-0.8760385513305664,
-0.26352372765541077,
0.7273163795471191,
-0.6621172428131104,
0.3549073040485382,
0.2591792047023773,
0.009023023769259453,
-0.15027165412902832,
-0.08362681418657303,
-0.08618706464767456,
0.23174618184566498,
-0.39599719643592834,
0.6056734323501587,
0.16417641937732697,
0.7114826440811157,
-0.03308379650115967,
-0.7558417916297913,
0.38378769159317017,
-0.45042768120765686,
0.4862346053123474,
-0.2592751085758209,
-0.03898950293660164,
-0.2617050111293793,
0.4915097951889038,
0.07540060579776764,
-0.4537048637866974,
0.5055757761001587,
-0.682039737701416,
-0.2440897822380066,
0.8899165987968445,
-0.31299591064453125,
-0.3161502778530121,
-0.22763663530349731,
0.05997525528073311,
0.26532357931137085,
-0.04066520556807518,
0.3279334306716919,
0.05420132726430893,
0.5009176135063171,
-0.08959328383207321,
-0.25139665603637695,
0.21675439178943634,
-0.1302521824836731,
0.08442538231611252,
0.249025359749794,
-0.3932642936706543,
0.6466568112373352,
-0.028329135850071907,
0.04635906219482422,
0.29241815209388733,
0.465116947889328,
-0.5371131896972656,
-0.5287845134735107,
-0.044793833047151566,
0.25002190470695496,
-0.30465641617774963,
-0.13632099330425262,
0.7876741290092468,
0.3958054482936859,
-0.010377379134297371,
0.6185150742530823,
-0.07884044200181961,
0.11308267712593079,
0.16753706336021423,
0.32018589973449707,
0.4764893651008606,
-0.3900918960571289,
0.5884115695953369,
-0.47363710403442383,
-0.3065164387226105,
-0.22246180474758148,
-0.17614412307739258,
0.02864711917936802,
-0.06887824088335037,
0.24736349284648895,
0.6656326651573181,
-0.6771669387817383,
-1.0898102521896362,
0.30974966287612915,
-0.3234184980392456,
0.7119505405426025,
-0.003736618673428893,
-0.26338276267051697,
-0.840823769569397,
-0.12437156587839127,
-0.29789966344833374,
-0.5093255639076233,
0.2889368236064911,
-0.3457188010215759,
0.5571702718734741,
0.19757923483848572,
-0.44243139028549194,
-0.19957901537418365,
0.7096949219703674,
0.16062979400157928,
0.5989927649497986,
0.10627344995737076,
-0.8592731356620789,
0.4761142432689667,
0.8403630256652832,
-0.8245237469673157,
-0.9573249220848083,
-0.44947564601898193,
0.40732598304748535,
0.03282175213098526,
0.1637231558561325,
-0.21647676825523376,
0.8247271180152893,
0.2508065104484558,
0.15590548515319824,
-0.6934435963630676,
0.06718172878026962,
0.9137194752693176,
-1.1365551948547363,
0.033735379576683044,
0.1136162057518959,
-0.04753275588154793,
-0.10083230584859848,
0.14670605957508087,
0.9987731575965881,
-0.886838436126709,
0.24827565252780914,
-0.2194642275571823,
-0.16732443869113922,
0.8254475593566895,
-0.6004643440246582,
-0.10046663135290146,
0.004004299640655518,
-0.2885354161262512,
-0.641038179397583,
0.14120601117610931,
0.3202161490917206,
0.2801184058189392,
-0.4357893764972687,
0.10277384519577026,
-0.032187823206186295,
0.02922968938946724,
0.037721842527389526,
0.11056838929653168,
-0.6372380256652832,
-0.45263394713401794,
-0.16644491255283356,
0.23895592987537384,
-0.20569297671318054,
-0.1267697513103485,
0.4117380678653717,
-0.023670926690101624,
0.01548770722001791,
-0.3750755190849304,
-0.36290639638900757,
-0.13207262754440308,
0.3512152135372162,
0.6676748991012573,
0.0914611965417862,
0.05001246556639671,
0.6344271898269653,
0.4250406324863434,
0.3990885615348816,
0.027920758351683617,
0.21002225577831268,
-0.04894760623574257,
0.41202783584594727,
-0.16037717461585999,
-0.16712723672389984,
0.0528126060962677,
0.6168680191040039,
-0.014919770881533623,
-0.46970728039741516,
-0.3583613634109497,
0.778354823589325,
-0.3785170614719391,
0.29746291041374207,
-0.50491863489151,
0.16645477712154388,
-0.16379019618034363,
0.12668810784816742,
0.34919634461402893,
-0.647578239440918,
0.00756721431389451,
-0.3622001111507416,
0.1862618327140808,
-0.05799591913819313,
-0.4369410276412964,
-0.0002535375824663788,
-1.348218321800232,
0.20095616579055786,
-0.10437440127134323,
0.11289767175912857,
0.11068448424339294,
0.2629374861717224,
-0.21756958961486816,
0.5535892248153687,
-0.5161618590354919,
0.34074294567108154,
-0.4498811662197113,
-0.13598854839801788,
0.1569470316171646,
0.3236624002456665,
-0.26469430327415466,
0.5343392491340637,
-0.4747830033302307,
-0.703338623046875,
-0.046933479607105255,
0.06670413166284561,
-0.09624815732240677,
-0.29128772020339966,
0.44590646028518677,
0.630547046661377,
0.6802591681480408,
-0.18126660585403442,
0.3353818356990814,
0.4322082996368408,
0.8039404153823853,
0.20854324102401733,
-0.08008232712745667,
-0.11928338557481766,
0.08174196630716324,
0.7731507420539856,
0.1701720505952835,
0.1696116179227829,
-0.47133100032806396,
0.6108076572418213,
-0.45688799023628235,
-0.03538801521062851,
0.26247984170913696,
0.4092402160167694,
-0.34005630016326904,
0.26157015562057495,
0.4370512366294861,
-1.0741174221038818,
0.48390766978263855,
1.2184754610061646,
-0.10079752653837204,
0.23576661944389343,
-0.01830507256090641,
0.10780573636293411,
-0.08959828317165375,
0.6255629062652588,
0.2975767254829407,
1.1972285509109497,
0.2382810264825821,
-0.1622937172651291,
0.016865365207195282,
-0.12232574075460434,
-0.04965018108487129,
0.5664563179016113,
-0.2786203920841217,
0.07455933839082718,
-0.10535777360200882,
0.06439248472452164,
0.0064322915859520435,
-0.7350338101387024,
-0.25795745849609375,
-0.3999546468257904,
0.10328444838523865,
-0.27016180753707886,
0.8585182428359985,
-0.08829095214605331,
0.026025818660855293,
0.2608417272567749,
0.2375272959470749,
0.20060189068317413,
0.19235467910766602,
0.06243932247161865,
0.000321186933433637,
0.5066816210746765,
0.11961062997579575,
-0.02030244655907154,
-0.3212723433971405,
0.5644840002059937,
-0.36753982305526733,
0.6285653114318848,
0.03023243136703968,
0.2560192346572876,
0.354826420545578,
-0.07672851532697678,
0.01817191019654274,
0.3871186673641205,
0.13403815031051636,
-0.4338858723640442,
-0.2916143834590912,
-0.22185461223125458,
-1.2705243825912476,
0.6592784523963928,
0.09278171509504318,
-0.02986334264278412,
0.4572458267211914,
-0.9737641215324402,
0.19664016366004944,
0.11286146193742752,
-0.32584264874458313,
1.1206583976745605,
0.1196141391992569,
-0.3373468816280365,
0.04297270253300667,
-0.012170083820819855,
-0.28558310866355896,
-0.6507208943367004,
0.24993270635604858,
0.20694328844547272,
0.37417417764663696,
-0.3299829363822937,
-0.1919417679309845,
-0.49269190430641174,
0.1712883561849594,
0.28359290957450867,
-0.9534119963645935,
-0.03931872546672821,
0.30060094594955444,
-0.13229501247406006,
-0.09315461665391922,
-0.3756474256515503,
0.122092105448246,
0.38688212633132935,
0.3336498439311981,
-0.18200553953647614,
0.06780946999788284,
0.4221912622451782,
-0.03519466146826744,
-0.514879047870636,
0.17371326684951782,
-0.6749098300933838,
-0.8420135378837585,
-0.3525129556655884,
1.2057818174362183,
-0.38644328713417053,
-0.14543694257736206,
-0.10649937391281128,
0.781782865524292,
-0.08477804809808731,
0.6777690649032593,
0.6303627490997314,
-0.08023371547460556,
-0.20913246273994446,
-0.21330596506595612,
0.07770922780036926,
0.34083235263824463,
0.027885181829333305,
-0.08154542744159698,
-0.1948295384645462,
0.005949095357209444,
0.1381213217973709,
-0.7073528170585632,
-0.505765974521637,
0.6459260582923889,
0.3338123559951782,
-0.6893834471702576,
-0.5507621169090271,
-0.319091260433197,
0.03151486814022064,
-1.1028989553451538,
0.3233160078525543,
0.8460355997085571,
0.7155526280403137,
-0.2288089543581009,
0.7422783374786377,
0.4320921301841736,
-0.7439790368080139,
-0.31678348779678345,
-0.09959996491670609,
-0.0192799624055624,
0.21546012163162231,
-0.5151671767234802,
-0.33632782101631165,
0.25363966822624207,
-0.36109986901283264,
-0.8854763507843018,
-0.06438301503658295,
-0.27636873722076416,
0.24211649596691132,
-0.13376350700855255,
0.1521296352148056,
-0.08015532046556473,
0.2037818431854248,
-0.3040108382701874
] |
247955 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%20Furyk | Jim Furyk | James Michael Furyk (born May 12, 1970) is an American professional golfer who plays on the PGA Tour and the PGA Tour Champions. In 2010, he was the FedEx Cup champion and PGA Tour Player of the Year. He has won one major championship, the 2003 U.S. Open. Furyk holds the record for the lowest score in PGA Tour history, a round of 58 which he shot during the final round of the 2016 Travelers Championship, and has earned notoriety for his unorthodox golf swing.
In September 2006 he reached a career high of second in the Official World Golf Ranking. He ranked in the top-10 for over 440 weeks between 1999 and 2016.
Early life
James Michael Furyk was born on May 12, 1970, in West Chester, Pennsylvania. His ancestry is Czech and Polish on his mother's side and Ukrainian and Hungarian on his father's side. His father, Mike, was an assistant pro at the Edgmont Country Club and later also spent time as a pro at West Chester Golf and Country Club as well as Hidden Springs Golf Course in Horsham. His early years were spent in the Pittsburgh suburbs learning the game from his father, who was also head pro at Uniontown Country Club in Uniontown, Fayette County.
Furyk graduated from Manheim Township High School in Lancaster County in 1988, where he played basketball in addition to being a state champion golfer. He played his junior golf at Meadia Heights Golf Club just south of Lancaster city. He played college golf at the University of Arizona in Tucson, where he was an All-American twice, and led the Wildcats to their first (and only) NCAA title in 1992.
Professional career
Furyk turned professional in 1992. He won the Nike Mississippi Gulf Coast Classic on the Nike Tour in 1993. He joined the PGA Tour in 1994 and won at least one tournament each year between 1998 and 2003. At the time, this was the second-best streak of winning seasons behind Tiger Woods and he made the top ten in the Official World Golf Ranking. Furyk's biggest win to date came on June 15, 2003, when he tied the record for the lowest 72-hole score in U.S. Open history to win his first major championship.
In 2004, he only played in fourteen events after missing three months due to surgery to repair cartilage damage in his wrist; he missed six cuts and his highest finish was T6, which caused him to fall out of the top hundred on the money list. He returned to good form in 2005 and regained his top ten ranking, winning a PGA Tour event in that year and two in 2006. In the 2006 season, he finished a career-high second on the money list and won the Vardon Trophy for the first time. He had 13 top-10 finishes, including nine top-3s, four second-place finishes, and two victories.
The 2010 season was a banner one for Furyk. After going more than two seasons winless, he won a career-best three tournaments on Tour in 2010: The Transitions Championship, the Verizon Heritage, and the season-ending Tour Championship. His victory in the Tour Championship also earned him the 2010 FedEx Cup after winning by one stroke. His accomplishments in 2010 won him both the PGA Player of the Year and PGA Tour Player of the Year for the first time.
Since 2012, Furyk has come close on several occasions to winning more titles. At the 2012 U.S. Open, Furyk led after 54 holes and was still the leader deep into the final day, before snap hooking his drive into the trees at the 16th which led to a bogey and was followed by another at the 18th. He finished in a tie for fourth, two strokes behind Webb Simpson. At the 2012 WGC-Bridgestone Invitational, Furyk led after the first three rounds and looked set to win the championship as he held a one-stroke lead going into the final hole, but a double-bogey cost him the title to Keegan Bradley.
At the 2013 PGA Championship, Furyk led by one stroke going into the final day over Jason Dufner, but this time his lead was overturned on the front nine and he was unable to reduce the deficit as Dufner won by two strokes. Furyk's caddy since 1999 has been Mike "Fluff" Cowan, who was Tiger Woods' caddy for Woods's first two years as a professional.
On September 13, 2013, Furyk shot a 12-under-par 59 in the second round of the BMW Championship at Conway Farms Golf Club in Lake Forest, Illinois, becoming just the sixth player to shoot 59 in a PGA Tour event.
In July 2014, Furyk held the 54-hole lead at the RBC Canadian Open, with a three stroke advantage over his nearest competitor Tim Clark. However Clark produced five birdies in his last eight holes to claim the title, after Furyk missed a 12 footer on the 18th green to force a playoff.
In February 2015, Furyk held a one shot lead at the AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am going into the final round, but shot a two over round of 74 to finish six strokes behind Brandt Snedeker. Furyk's round was the worst of any player to finish within the top 50 on the final day. Since Furyk's last victory at The Tour Championship in 2010, he is 0-for-9 with a lead/co-lead after 54 holes. On April 19, 2015, Furyk ended the long slump when he defeated Kevin Kisner with birdie on the second playoff hole at the RBC Heritage. The victory was his second at the event and his 17th victory on the PGA Tour.
In 2015, at the BMW Championship, Furyk withdrew with a wrist injury. This was his first withdrawal since 1995, it also came at the same course he had shot a 59 two years before. Furyk qualified for the 2015 Presidents Cup team but could not play due to the same injury and instead became an assistant captain. J. B. Holmes replaced him on the team.
Furyk missed the early part of the 2016 season after under-going wrist surgery. This caused him to miss the 2016 Masters Tournament and brought to end a run of 47 consecutive major championship appearances. In June 2016, at the 2016 U.S. Open, Furyk finished in a tie for second, three shots behind Dustin Johnson at one under par. He shot a four-under round of 66 in the final round to vault up the leaderboard. This was the third time during his career Furyk had been runner-up at the U.S. Open.
On August 7, 2016, Furyk shot a 12-under-par 58 in the final round of the Travelers Championship at TPC at River Highlands in Cromwell, Connecticut, becoming the first player to shoot 58 in a PGA Tour event. This also made Furyk the first PGA Tour pro to card two rounds under 60.
On January 11, 2017, Furyk was named as the United States Ryder Cup captain for 2018. At the 2018 Ryder Cup, the U.S. lost to the Europe team by 17½ points to 10½ at Le Golf National in France. Following the matches, Furyk was subject to criticism from Masters champion Patrick Reed. Reed criticized Furyk's manner of making pairings and, more specifically, his decision to break up the previously successful Reed-Jordan Spieth pairing.
The 2017–18 season was the first time Furyk was not fully exempt on the PGA Tour, playing the season with only past champion status. He started the 2018–19 season out of the 126–150 category.
On March 17, 2019, Furyk finished second in The Players Championship, one stroke behind Rory McIlroy. It was a welcome result for 48-year-old Furyk, who barely qualified for the tournament and who had struggled with injury and poor play in 2017 and 2018.
PGA Tour Champions (2020–present)
On August 2, 2020, Furyk made his debut on the PGA Tour Champions, after having turned 50 years old in May 2020. He won The Ally Challenge in his first start on the tour.
In his second start on the PGA Tour Champions, on September 20, 2020, Furyk won the PURE Insurance Championship at Pebble Beach Golf Links in a playoff over Jerry Kelly. He joined Arnold Palmer and Bruce Fleisher as the only golfers to win their first two starts on tour.
In July 2021, Furyk won his first senior major tournament, the U.S. Senior Open at Omaha Country Club. Furyk defeated Mike Weir and Retief Goosen by three strokes.
Swing
As Mike Furyk describes in a Golf Digest issue in 2001, Jim Furyk's hips "underturn" during the backswing and "overturn" coming down. On the downswing, he draws the club in a large arc behind his body (viewing from his right hand side), then pastes his elbow against his right hip at impact. David Feherty described Furyk's swing as "an octopus falling out of a tree". Gary McCord said that it evokes the image of "a one-armed golfer using an axe to kill a snake in a telephone booth."
Personal life
Furyk is married to his wife Tabitha, and they have two children. He owns homes in the Kapalua Resort and in Ponte Vedra Beach.
Professional wins (29)
PGA Tour wins (17)
PGA Tour playoff record (4–8)
Sunshine Tour wins (1)
Nike Tour wins (1)
Nike Tour playoff record (1–1)
South American Tour wins (1)
Other wins (6)
Other playoff record (2–1)
PGA Tour Champions wins (3)
PGA Tour Champions playoff record (1–0)
Major championships
Wins (1)
Results timeline
Results not in chronological order in 2020.
CUT = missed the half-way cut
"T" indicates a tie for a place
NT = No tournament due to COVID-19 pandemic
Summary
Most consecutive cuts made – 13 (1994 U.S. Open – 1998 Open Championship)
Longest streak of top-10s – 4 (1997 U.S. Open – 1998 Masters)
Results in The Players Championship
CUT = missed the halfway cut
"T" indicates a tie for a place
Results in World Golf Championships
Results not in chronological order before 2015.
1Cancelled due to 9/11
QF, R16, R32, R64 = Round in which player lost in match play
"T" = Tied
NT = No tournament
Note that the HSBC Champions did not become a WGC event until 2009.
Senior major championships
Wins (1)
Results timeline
"T" indicates a tie for a place
PGA Tour career summary
*As of the 2020 season.
U.S. national team appearances
Professional
Ryder Cup: 1997, 1999 (winners), 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 (winners), 2010, 2012, 2014, 2018 (non-playing captain)
Presidents Cup: 1998, 2000 (winners), 2003 (tie), 2005 (winners), 2007 (winners), 2009 (winners), 2011 (winners)
Presidents Cup record W–L–H: 20–10–3
World Cup: 2003
Wendy's 3-Tour Challenge (representing PGA Tour): 2002 (winners)
See also
1993 PGA Tour Qualifying School graduates
List of golfers with most PGA Tour wins
Lowest rounds of golf
References
External links
Site featuring Jim's instructional Short Game video
American male golfers
Arizona Wildcats men's golfers
PGA Tour golfers
PGA Tour Champions golfers
Winners of men's major golf championships
Winners of senior major golf championships
Ryder Cup competitors for the United States
Golfers from Pennsylvania
Golfers from Florida
Sportspeople from Chester County, Pennsylvania
People from Ponte Vedra Beach, Florida
American people of Czech descent
American people of Hungarian descent
American people of Polish descent
American people of Ukrainian descent
1970 births
Living people | [
-0.7151220440864563,
0.37586092948913574,
-0.5432826280593872,
-0.43941959738731384,
0.306104451417923,
0.2465982586145401,
0.7469477653503418,
0.1626012623310089,
-0.04072876274585724,
-0.1686536967754364,
-0.018233008682727814,
0.4320313632488251,
-0.4580812454223633,
-0.4036671817302704,
0.18303264677524567,
0.5020477771759033,
0.04509232938289642,
0.10134025663137436,
0.06302184611558914,
0.022140182554721832,
0.018940092995762825,
-0.33151447772979736,
0.37227803468704224,
-0.037050068378448486,
-0.3170437514781952,
0.8092719912528992,
-0.3177303969860077,
-0.3061276078224182,
-0.7675488591194153,
-0.12534071505069733,
0.5291585922241211,
0.16803324222564697,
0.4247048795223236,
-0.8069463968276978,
-0.09466967731714249,
0.5692076683044434,
-0.4538399577140808,
-0.5282231569290161,
-0.14827756583690643,
0.4612978994846344,
-0.4115568995475769,
0.10065698623657227,
-0.023414142429828644,
0.3171083331108093,
0.5961630940437317,
-0.1258733719587326,
-1.2254078388214111,
0.0691169947385788,
-0.5432721376419067,
-0.313308984041214,
0.27399730682373047,
-0.4264887273311615,
-0.14031283557415009,
-0.21317002177238464,
0.29783686995506287,
-0.424713671207428,
-0.4500550627708435,
0.11914114654064178,
-0.2813588082790375,
-0.6474387645721436,
0.391006201505661,
-0.07517657428979874,
0.21163909137248993,
-0.5829189419746399,
0.09358726441860199,
0.3785637319087982,
0.23258067667484283,
0.6085802912712097,
-0.35059934854507446,
-0.23909565806388855,
0.3707861304283142,
0.1209447905421257,
-0.0973326712846756,
0.12395372241735458,
0.8633309602737427,
-0.4357357621192932,
-0.42403170466423035,
-0.007346735335886478,
-0.3684200048446655,
0.1540210247039795,
0.06399280577898026,
-0.228040412068367,
0.6759121417999268,
0.46564602851867676,
-0.10789655894041061,
0.23551325500011444,
-0.28244903683662415,
0.3799020051956177,
-0.2667412757873535,
0.326246976852417,
-0.6184346079826355,
-0.030828053131699562,
0.280263215303421,
0.15054568648338318,
0.2048853486776352,
-0.16372579336166382,
-0.2514152228832245,
0.7088256478309631,
0.6916472315788269,
0.2578318119049072,
0.3005707263946533,
-0.3279061019420624,
-0.2505190670490265,
-0.2223673015832901,
-0.3652094900608063,
0.037854522466659546,
-0.037510838359594345,
-0.24009208381175995,
0.06331215053796768,
-0.18425442278385162,
-0.36347198486328125,
0.24534058570861816,
0.08668868243694305,
-0.3412158489227295,
0.2001919001340866,
0.7271603345870972,
0.2239973545074463,
-0.26705601811408997,
-0.004251366946846247,
-0.25240767002105713,
0.44085389375686646,
0.21569490432739258,
-0.27997875213623047,
0.6587735414505005,
-0.6219677329063416,
-0.08175019174814224,
0.034873951226472855,
0.010262311436235905,
-0.10403726249933243,
0.19519411027431488,
0.20054295659065247,
0.6357052326202393,
-0.38692569732666016,
0.47082555294036865,
-0.6160702705383301,
0.27036839723587036,
0.4609931409358978,
0.22961768507957458,
-0.11099912971258163,
0.07585135847330093,
-0.6866215467453003,
-0.32794666290283203,
-0.7233966588973999,
0.0005590824293904006,
0.2971828281879425,
-0.34976330399513245,
-0.15495841205120087,
-0.167292982339859,
0.7325618267059326,
0.2210702747106552,
0.18928736448287964,
0.3565148413181305,
-0.45005181431770325,
-0.09207334369421005,
-0.23939365148544312,
1.0034794807434082,
0.5792487859725952,
-0.08464310318231583,
0.39724189043045044,
0.292623907327652,
0.5474556088447571,
0.07708881050348282,
-0.16053171455860138,
-0.05809745937585831,
0.9469364881515503,
0.107790507376194,
-0.0501035675406456,
-1.0114046335220337,
-0.08582128584384918,
-0.0477539598941803,
-0.2164997160434723,
0.12446349859237671,
0.7365527749061584,
-0.4175965487957001,
-0.056476544588804245,
-0.025879181921482086,
0.48003774881362915,
0.2964341342449188,
0.09191009402275085,
-0.766292154788971,
-0.5263113975524902,
-1.0297636985778809,
0.5891641974449158,
0.0010577799985185266,
0.7865893840789795,
0.012956674210727215,
0.2736717760562897,
-0.638032078742981,
0.8463078141212463,
-0.07394710183143616,
-0.3986097276210785,
-0.5215651988983154,
0.43800780177116394,
-0.19665604829788208,
0.26489636301994324,
-0.3586118817329407,
-0.5471930503845215,
-0.24012647569179535,
-0.015065568499267101,
0.566562294960022,
-0.49333372712135315,
-0.4828978478908539,
-0.06975796818733215,
-0.2610405385494232,
-0.10572925209999084,
0.633296012878418,
0.9443056583404541,
0.0996541827917099,
0.5020069479942322,
0.7893694043159485,
0.258021742105484,
-0.8361120223999023,
-0.4219493567943573,
0.23506221175193787,
-0.4208807349205017,
-0.46824881434440613,
-0.0949479192495346,
-0.7003880143165588,
0.3343260586261749,
-0.28922945261001587,
0.8507222533226013,
0.6883907318115234,
-0.1384134143590927,
0.7406703233718872,
-0.6073530316352844,
0.7582315802574158,
-0.4935967028141022,
0.27957990765571594,
-0.19316209852695465,
-0.31853145360946655,
0.133047416806221,
0.6393125653266907,
0.24793531000614166,
-0.7534325122833252,
0.2244838923215866,
-0.5370495319366455,
0.6785716414451599,
-0.5854032039642334,
-0.3546474874019623,
-0.1626655012369156,
0.3307546079158783,
0.1798343062400818,
-0.38770627975463867,
-0.12345711886882782,
0.20864780247211456,
-0.23011690378189087,
0.6514441967010498,
0.24255460500717163,
-0.17203043401241302,
-0.40668001770973206,
0.3001099228858948,
0.5325145721435547,
1.2181179523468018,
-0.6508708596229553,
0.26442402601242065,
0.7590405941009521,
-0.0003603288496378809,
0.09592746198177338,
-0.4620387852191925,
-0.1590876430273056,
-0.050957582890987396,
0.31227633357048035,
-0.27950575947761536,
0.22472520172595978,
-0.08667692542076111,
-0.4915616512298584,
-0.08660058677196503,
-0.09999766200780869,
0.3491060137748718,
-0.29298409819602966,
0.6988899111747742,
-0.5442761778831482,
-0.3952273726463318,
-0.5787789225578308,
-0.3342948257923126,
0.5258450508117676,
0.012287585064768791,
-0.5148096084594727,
-0.35083088278770447,
-0.3723874092102051,
0.5665395855903625,
0.8707185983657837,
0.5277004837989807,
-0.21071164309978485,
-0.20638461410999298,
0.18901577591896057,
-0.4490850865840912,
-0.3449399173259735,
-0.15578188002109528,
-0.07387208193540573,
-0.3391162157058716,
0.4600680470466614,
-0.38307854533195496,
0.6357935667037964,
-0.06430191546678543,
-0.2335626780986786,
-0.24186711013317108,
-0.5061277151107788,
0.3793550431728363,
-0.12734486162662506,
0.06815946102142334,
0.11497306823730469,
0.1858852356672287,
0.06633560359477997,
0.4273516833782196,
-0.19336310029029846,
-0.4474581182003021,
-0.34932881593704224,
-5.518747806549072,
0.048210229724645615,
-0.21089377999305725,
0.14434899389743805,
0.1638200432062149,
-0.27643927931785583,
0.2031032294034958,
-0.44542932510375977,
-0.34899070858955383,
-0.6060709953308105,
-0.33693286776542664,
-0.14199458062648773,
0.34953901171684265,
0.14186663925647736,
0.49025294184684753,
0.1681264489889145,
0.542770504951477,
-0.8423929214477539,
0.5911242365837097,
0.05029558017849922,
-0.0528382807970047,
0.11159928143024445,
-0.6263405084609985,
-0.39983367919921875,
-0.30708804726600647,
0.3585570156574249,
-0.7268562912940979,
0.22710557281970978,
-0.5976656675338745,
-0.3857958912849426,
-0.12434902042150497,
0.6570321321487427,
-0.6297569274902344,
0.10385432094335556,
-0.1381349265575409,
-0.3962496221065521,
0.8036070466041565,
0.23098932206630707,
0.06821921467781067,
-0.6131473779678345,
0.10566829890012741,
-0.3731822073459625,
-0.6321402192115784,
0.09730910509824753,
0.7152639627456665,
-0.11767656356096268,
-0.6588168740272522,
-0.08394504338502884,
-0.04760320857167244,
0.554679274559021,
0.37462759017944336,
-0.18036861717700958,
0.31865060329437256,
0.29816627502441406,
0.34264683723449707,
-0.3442162573337555,
0.4388522803783417,
-0.10510221868753433,
-0.14679935574531555,
0.9384268522262573,
-0.11616644263267517,
-0.6879746317863464,
0.7582619786262512,
0.20810462534427643,
-0.038654450327157974,
-0.13096126914024353,
0.6272962689399719,
-0.21324776113033295,
-0.019068798050284386,
0.12432284653186798,
-0.0315987803041935,
0.7790372967720032,
-0.001829888904467225,
-1.3602209091186523,
0.49735119938850403,
-0.2584160268306732,
0.12145571410655975,
-0.047030575573444366,
-0.51254802942276,
-0.42495447397232056,
0.3322434425354004,
-0.15687961876392365,
0.013461064547300339,
-0.031227482482790947,
0.06770539283752441,
-0.43158942461013794,
0.18718813359737396,
0.8152211308479309,
0.37442219257354736,
-0.06635415554046631,
-0.1740519106388092,
-0.3405071794986725,
0.5563728213310242,
-0.22256356477737427,
0.3407317101955414,
0.22976575791835785,
0.6663352251052856,
0.3526683449745178,
0.2589474022388458,
-0.27325478196144104,
0.1003783792257309,
-0.5303154587745667,
0.004901474341750145,
-0.956489622592926,
0.2081286758184433,
-0.1687355488538742,
0.12305299192667007,
0.3240341544151306,
0.47008898854255676,
0.20345433056354523,
0.5154739618301392,
0.03233342617750168,
-0.8372805714607239,
-0.06235593557357788,
-0.003194529330357909,
0.0986376479268074,
-0.23832479119300842,
0.1939622163772583,
0.21909502148628235,
0.4792430102825165,
-0.25371992588043213,
-0.14476993680000305,
0.1896364837884903,
-0.19093337655067444,
-0.01745794154703617,
-0.08033894002437592,
0.357360303401947,
0.03962734714150429,
-0.13077379763126373,
0.24563834071159363,
-0.7311607003211975,
0.9586081504821777,
-0.1944955587387085,
0.10077821463346481,
0.09870865195989609,
-0.06365640461444855,
-0.4091818332672119,
-0.45796263217926025,
0.10366284102201462,
0.027480974793434143,
0.43147286772727966,
-0.3026507794857025,
0.12871365249156952,
0.30484700202941895,
-0.14737404882907867,
0.26706960797309875,
-0.368394136428833,
0.9266943335533142,
-0.21435274183750153,
0.5620811581611633,
-0.23273593187332153,
-0.19593827426433563,
0.6178624629974365,
-0.8033315539360046,
-0.17039166390895844,
0.616898775100708,
-0.1715182512998581,
-0.06169134005904198,
-0.14613939821720123,
-0.47446784377098083,
0.3084334135055542,
-0.46033692359924316,
-1.1289633512496948,
0.03043336607515812,
-0.18736232817173004,
0.08173312991857529,
-0.21438480913639069,
-0.29269152879714966,
-0.618695855140686,
0.5381420850753784,
-0.0064616273157298565,
-0.6122498512268066,
-0.6638817191123962,
-0.4380820691585541,
0.3344631791114807,
-0.22698865830898285,
-0.10811466723680496,
0.047852274030447006,
0.11039731651544571,
-0.6191046237945557,
0.07987292110919952,
0.14239585399627686,
-0.7143450975418091,
0.4707089364528656,
0.6707650423049927,
-0.3628659248352051,
-0.6148178577423096,
-0.4857928156852722,
0.14509184658527374,
0.2439223676919937,
0.4920267164707184,
-0.15589746832847595,
0.018335646018385887,
0.24068914353847504,
0.8264167904853821,
-0.29318809509277344,
0.4459894895553589,
-0.2107546031475067,
-0.5973214507102966,
-0.45311856269836426,
0.6536283493041992,
-0.2840227484703064,
-0.32219475507736206,
0.4465847909450531,
0.057155124843120575,
-0.6151916980743408,
0.14389950037002563,
0.4659452438354492,
-0.37777048349380493,
0.23290278017520905,
0.3528328239917755,
-0.3729407787322998,
-0.23585747182369232,
0.626707911491394,
-0.16049590706825256,
-0.02578299306333065,
0.22042566537857056,
0.5582762956619263,
-0.5211154222488403,
0.019968632608652115,
-1.041760802268982,
-0.26158154010772705,
0.06786643713712692,
0.11878810822963715,
-0.33850497007369995,
0.09476277232170105,
0.6800912022590637,
-0.023229148238897324,
0.8357807993888855,
-0.06771812587976456,
-0.12156989425420761,
0.2421504706144333,
-0.04684204235672951,
-0.013625231571495533,
0.4516000747680664,
0.03677517548203468,
-0.03231605142354965,
0.6260731816291809,
-0.5180252194404602,
-0.19464300572872162,
0.5021041631698608,
1.361746072769165,
0.2939334809780121,
-0.6090137362480164,
0.25298982858657837,
-0.5864125490188599,
0.12451942265033722,
-0.4171035587787628,
-0.26715683937072754,
0.2464570850133896,
0.4700203537940979,
0.11095541715621948,
0.08191121369600296,
0.2370632439851761,
1.198012113571167,
-0.48038044571876526,
-0.2088795304298401,
-0.2701817452907562,
0.1256149262189865,
-0.22606734931468964,
-0.1060299202799797,
0.13100285828113556,
-0.10915584117174149,
0.30180707573890686,
-0.22747670114040375,
-0.23963281512260437,
-0.16935309767723083,
-0.37308743596076965,
0.2969721257686615,
-0.5567835569381714,
-0.543936550617218,
-0.7506914138793945,
0.5728054642677307,
0.9092797040939331,
-0.7037561535835266,
0.3660518229007721,
0.6104992628097534,
-0.5091595649719238,
-0.5898758769035339,
0.32264846563339233,
-0.45157450437545776,
-0.3764059543609619,
-0.2213035225868225,
-0.2878803014755249,
0.031050248071551323,
-0.19763873517513275,
0.18397745490074158,
0.034755632281303406,
0.002283346140757203,
-0.05019548162817955,
-0.606847882270813,
0.43354904651641846,
-0.3967267870903015,
-0.25302204489707947,
-0.661090075969696,
-0.2665223777294159,
0.5562629699707031,
0.08396017551422119,
-0.41276606917381287,
0.13819459080696106,
0.007350805681198835,
0.5340384840965271,
-0.027240294963121414,
-0.06961628049612045,
-0.16020919382572174,
0.21983826160430908,
-0.31290146708488464,
-0.30003225803375244,
-0.3333623707294464,
0.21260827779769897,
0.05922646075487137,
-0.3451530635356903,
0.6048045754432678,
-0.028577253222465515,
-0.18839184939861298,
0.2338007390499115,
0.623618483543396,
-0.17344878613948822,
0.03267267346382141,
0.14010590314865112,
0.04506952688097954,
-0.09236336499452591,
0.6985178589820862,
-0.05444055795669556,
0.049715448170900345,
0.738681972026825,
0.17768631875514984,
-0.07468286156654358,
-0.16148310899734497,
0.12811292707920074,
-0.15625661611557007,
-0.15249645709991455,
-0.5603001117706299,
0.46474727988243103,
0.06223788112401962,
-0.1142820417881012,
0.18633748590946198,
-0.16978564858436584,
0.027627721428871155,
0.270113080739975,
-0.3435344099998474,
0.373121440410614,
0.09506569057703018,
0.1662227362394333,
0.06607694178819656,
-0.2927383482456207,
-0.11342119425535202,
0.4308587610721588,
0.037469953298568726,
0.02040991559624672,
0.03363540768623352,
-0.200606107711792,
-0.004952042829245329,
-0.2272302806377411,
0.30067065358161926,
-0.3422914147377014,
0.20262925326824188,
-0.5842278003692627,
-0.4932343065738678,
-0.32601821422576904,
0.36377260088920593,
-0.35890477895736694,
0.8586094975471497,
0.31238266825675964,
-0.3053169548511505,
-0.1041645035147667,
-0.5415416955947876,
-0.8750746846199036,
-0.16000109910964966,
0.7643744945526123,
-0.3913910388946533,
-0.2590375244617462,
0.12043409049510956,
0.5757742524147034,
0.3696810305118561,
0.02730136178433895,
-0.010957600548863411,
0.04809317737817764,
-0.6154006719589233,
0.28462138772010803,
-0.7792251706123352,
0.7576183080673218,
-0.8230592012405396,
-0.08246303349733353,
0.3116702437400818,
-0.15339848399162292,
-0.40256962180137634,
0.311689168214798,
0.008348514325916767,
0.15707606077194214,
0.6937978267669678,
-0.45911091566085815,
-0.5736057758331299,
0.2234315574169159,
0.3704991936683655,
-0.09958956390619278,
0.04773658141493797,
0.5215620994567871,
0.9177476167678833,
0.3245880901813507,
0.07251101732254028,
0.20377451181411743,
0.4362048804759979,
-0.04552024230360985,
-0.9659366011619568,
0.18156428635120392,
-0.45348086953163147,
-0.24957697093486786,
-0.1778796762228012,
0.35087108612060547,
0.008234948851168156,
0.03929091989994049,
-0.26320597529411316,
0.3185136914253235,
-0.0035653053782880306,
0.3232719600200653,
1.131980061531067,
-0.16031262278556824,
0.3832004964351654,
-0.4648175835609436,
0.21057170629501343,
-0.17991238832473755,
0.5049730539321899,
0.38648930191993713,
-0.0740346685051918,
0.2882033884525299,
-0.21685749292373657,
-0.23788174986839294,
-0.11473120748996735,
0.6671112775802612,
-0.23240402340888977,
-0.7701674699783325,
-0.19201946258544922,
0.6033728122711182,
-0.11818734556436539,
-0.9077150821685791,
0.6573703289031982,
0.5577736496925354,
0.5821805596351624,
-0.2457832396030426,
0.7128231525421143,
-0.23205730319023132,
-0.4149986505508423,
-0.5708135962486267,
-0.6385932564735413,
0.5012198686599731,
-0.41025230288505554,
-0.9839701652526855,
0.2565799653530121,
0.32330402731895447,
0.32486656308174133,
-0.6517727971076965,
-0.13051021099090576,
-0.5938323736190796,
0.12082228064537048,
-0.27576154470443726,
0.3537493944168091,
0.3424720764160156,
0.15381082892417908,
-0.454021155834198
] |
247957 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith%20College | Smith College | Smith College is a private liberal arts women's college in Northampton, Massachusetts. It was chartered in 1871 by Sophia Smith and opened in 1875. It is the largest member of the historic Seven Sisters colleges, a group of elite women's colleges in the Northeastern United States. Smith is also a member of the Five College Consortium, along with four other nearby institutions in the Pioneer Valley: Mount Holyoke College, Amherst College, Hampshire College, and the University of Massachusetts Amherst; students of each college are allowed to attend classes at any other member institution. On campus are Smith's Museum of Art and Botanic Garden, the latter designed by Frederick Law Olmsted.
Smith has 41 academic departments and programs and is structured around an open curriculum, lacking course requirements and scheduled final exams. It is known for its progressive, politically active student body and rigorous academics. Undergraduate admissions is exclusively restricted to women, although after criticism from the college community Smith announced a trans-inclusive admissions policy in 2015. Smith offers several graduate degrees, all of which accept applicants regardless of gender, and co-administers programs leading to Ph.D.s alongside other Five College members. The college was the first historically women's college to offer an undergraduate engineering degree. Admissions is considered highly selective. It was the first women's college to join the NCAA, and its sports teams are known as the Pioneers.
Smith alumnae include notable authors, journalists, activists, feminists, politicians, philanthropists, actresses, filmmakers, academics, CEOs, two first ladies of the United States, and recipients of the Pulitzer Prize, Rhodes Scholarship, Academy Award, Emmy Award, MacArthur Grant, Peabody Award, and Tony Award.
History
Early History
The college was chartered in 1871 by a bequest of Sophia Smith and opened its doors in 1875 with 14 students and 6 faculty. When she inherited a fortune from her father at age 65, Smith decided leaving her inheritance to found a women's college was the best way for her to fulfill the moral obligation she expressed in her will:
The campus was planned and planted in the 1890s as a botanical garden and arboretum, designed by noted American landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmsted. The campus landscape now encompasses and includes more than 1,200 varieties of trees and shrubs.
By 1915–16, the student enrollment was 1,724, and the faculty numbered 163. Today, with some 2,600 undergraduates on campus and 250 students studying elsewhere, Smith is the largest privately endowed college for women in the country.
United States Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School
The United States Naval Reserve Midshipmen's School at Smith College was training grounds for junior officers of the Women's Reserve of the U.S. Naval Reserve (WAVES) and was nicknamed "USS Northampton". On August 28, 1942, a total of 120 women reported to the school for training.
21st Century
On December 10, 2012, the Board of Trustees announced Kathleen McCartney had been selected as the 11th president of Smith College, effective July 1, 2013.
In April 2015, the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.
Presidents
Smith has been led by 11 presidents and two acting presidents. (Elizabeth Cutter Morrow was the first acting president of Smith College and the first female head of the college, but she did not use the title of president.) For the 1975 centennial, the college inaugurated its first woman president, Jill Ker Conway, who came to Smith from Australia by way of Harvard and the University of Toronto. Since President Conway's term, all Smith presidents have been women, with the exception of John M. Connolly's one-year term as acting president in the interim after President Simmons left to lead Brown University.
Laurenus Clark Seelye 1875–1910
Marion LeRoy Burton 1910–1917
William Allan Neilson 1917–1939
Elizabeth Cutter Morrow 1939–1940 (acting president)
Herbert Davis 1940–1949
Benjamin Fletcher Wright 1949–1959
Thomas Corwin Mendenhall 1959–1975
Jill Ker Conway 1975–1985
Mary Maples Dunn 1985–1995
Ruth Simmons 1995–2001
John M. Connolly 2001–2002 (acting president)
Carol T. Christ 2002–2013
Kathleen McCartney 2013–present
Academics
Smith College has 285 professors in 41 academic departments and programs, for a faculty:student ratio of 1:9. It was the first women's college in the United States to grant its own undergraduate degrees in engineering. The Picker Engineering Program offers a single ABET accredited Bachelor of Science in engineering science, combining the fundamentals of multiple engineering disciplines.
In 2008, Smith joined the SAT optional movement for undergraduate admission.
Smith runs its own junior year abroad (JYA) programs in four European cities: Paris, Hamburg, Florence, and Geneva. These programs are notable for requiring all studies to be conducted in the language of the host country (with both Paris and Geneva programs conducted in French). In some cases students live in homestays with local families. Nearly half of Smith's juniors study overseas, either through Smith JYA programs or at more than 40 other locations around the world.
Junior math majors from other undergraduate institutions are invited to study at Smith College for one year through the Center for Women in Mathematics. Established in the fall of 2007 by Professors Ruth Haas and Jim Henle, the program aims to allow young women to improve their mathematical abilities through classwork, research and involvement in a department centered on women. The Center also offers a post-baccalaureate year of math study to women who either did not major in mathematics as undergraduates or whose mathematics major was not strong.
The Louise W. and Edmund J. Kahn Liberal Arts Institute supports collaborative research without regard to the traditional boundaries of academic departments and programs. Each year the Institute supports long-term and short-term projects proposed, planned and organized by members of the Smith College faculty. By becoming Kahn Fellows, students get involved in interdisciplinary research projects and work alongside faculty and visiting scholars for a year.
Students can develop leadership skills through Smith's two-year Phoebe Reese Lewis Leadership Program. Participants train in public speaking, analytical thinking, teamwork strategies and the philosophical aspects of leadership.
Through Smith's internship program, "Praxis: The Liberal Arts at Work," all undergraduates are guaranteed access to one college funded internship during their years at the college. This program enables students to access interesting self-generated internship positions in social welfare and human services, the arts, media, health, education, and other fields.
Ada Comstock Scholars Program
The Ada Comstock Scholars Program is an undergraduate degree program that serves Smith students of nontraditional college age. The program accommodates approximately 100 women ranging in age from mid-twenties to over sixty. Ada Comstock Scholars attend the same classes as traditional undergraduates, either full or part-time, and participate fully in a variety of extracurricular activities. They may live on or off campus. Financial aid is available to each Ada Comstock Scholar with demonstrated need.
Beginning in 1968, with the approval of the Committee on Educational Policy, Smith College initiated a trial program loosely titled The Continuing Education Degree for several women of non-traditional age who were looking to complete their unfinished degrees. Their successes inspired President Thomas C. Mendenhall and Dean Alice Dickinson to officially expand the program. In January 1975, the Ada Comstock Scholars Program was formally established under President Jill Ker Conway and in the fall of that year forty-five women were enrolled. The students range in ages, backgrounds, and geographical locations. The growth of the program peaked just over 400 students in 1988.
The program is named for Ada Louise Comstock Notestein (1876–1973), an 1897 Smith graduate, professor of English and dean of Smith from 1912–23, and president of Radcliffe College from 1923–43. Ada Comstock Notestein devoted much of her life to the academic excellence of women. Considering education and personal growth to be a lifelong process, she stayed actively involved in women's higher education until her death at the age of 97.
Graduate degrees and study options
Smith offers men and women graduate work leading to the degrees of master of arts in teaching (elementary, middle or high school), master of fine arts, master of education of the deaf, master of science in biological sciences, master of science in exercise and sport studies and master and Ph.D. in social work. In special one-year programs, international students may qualify for a certificate of graduate studies or a diploma in American studies. Each year approximately 100 men and women pursue advanced graduate work at Smith.
Also offered in a non-degree studies program is the Diploma in American Studies. This is a highly competitive one-year program open only to international students of advanced undergraduate or graduate standing. It is designed primarily, although not exclusively, for those who are teaching or who plan to teach some aspect of American culture and institutions.
The Smith College School for Social Work is nationally recognized for its specialization in clinical social work and puts a heavy emphasis on direct field work practice. The program is accredited by the Council on Social Work Education. The school offers a Master of Social Work (M.S.W.) degree as well as a Ph.D. program designed to prepare MSWs for leadership positions in clinical research education and practice.
The college has a limited number of other programs leading to Ph.D.s, and is part of a cooperative doctoral program co-administered by Amherst College, Hampshire College, Mount Holyoke College and the University of Massachusetts Amherst.
Admissions and rankings
Admissions
The 2019 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes Smith as 'most selective'.
For the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Smith received 5,780 applications, accepted 1,789 (31.0%) and enrolled 613. The middle 50% range of SAT scores was 670–750 for critical reading and 670–770 for math, while the middle 50% range for the ACT composite score was 31–34 for enrolled first year students. The average SAT for Smith College is 1430. However, Smith is also a test optional college.
Rankings
U.S. News & World Reports 2021 rankings placed Smith tied for the 15th overall best liberal arts college in the U.S., and rated it 8th for "Best Value", tied for 17th in "Best Undergraduate Engineering Program" at schools where doctorate not offered, tied for 19th in "Best Undergraduate Teaching", and tied for 94th in "Top Performers on Social Mobility". In 2019, Forbes rated Smith 81st overall in its America's Top Colleges ranking of 650 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges. Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Smith 16th in its 2019 ranking of 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. For 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Smith 23rd among 218 liberal arts colleges in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service. Smith College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.
Traditions
Residential culture and student life
Smith requires most undergraduate students to live in on-campus houses unless they reside locally with their family. This policy is intended to add to the camaraderie and social cohesion of its students. Unlike most institutions of its type, Smith College does not have dorms, but rather 36 separate houses, ranging in architectural style from 18th-century to contemporary. It is rumored the architecture of Chapin House was the inspiration for the Tara Plantation House in Gone with the Wind. (Author Margaret Mitchell went to Smith for one year and lived in Chapin.) A novelty of Smith's homelike atmosphere is the continuing popularity of Sophia Smith's recipe for molasses cookies. These are often served at the traditional Friday afternoon tea held in each house, where students, faculty and staff members and alumnae socialize.
Two cultural spaces on campus, used by students of color to build their community, include the Mwangi Cultural Center and Unity House. Mwangi originally opened as the Afro-American Cultural Center in 1968, but was later renamed in honor of the first female physician in Kenya, and Smith alum, Dr. Ng’endo Mwangi ('61). After loaning Mwangi to the other cultural organizations on campus for four years, the Black Students’ Alliance decided to reclaim Mwangi in April 1990. Leaders, members and supporters of cultural organizations got together to form a group called UNITY, in October of the same year, to demand a space for other cultural organizations. Today, Unity House serves as a home to the 11 cultural organizations on campus.
Two recent additions to the campus, both of which enhance its sense of community, are the architecturally dramatic Campus Center and the state-of-the-art Olin Fitness Center.
In 2009, construction was also completed on Ford Hall, a new science and engineering facility. According to the Smith College website, Ford Hall is a "...facility that will intentionally blur the boundaries between traditional disciplines, creating an optimum environment for students and faculty to address key scientific and technological developments of our time." The building was officially dedicated on October 16, 2009.
The campus also boasts a botanic garden that includes a variety of specialty gardens including a rock garden and historic glass greenhouses dating back to 1895. The botanic garden formerly featured a Japanese tea hut, which was removed in October 2015 following concerns over "issues of safety and vandalism."
Smith offers "panel discussions and seminars for lesbian, bisexual, and transgender students on subjects such as coming out as transgender at work." In 2003, Smith students voted to remove pronouns from the language of the Student Government Association constitution, in order to make that document inclusive of transgender students who don't identify with the pronouns "she" and "her."
Until 2013, transgender women were not allowed to attend Smith unless all their legal documentation consistently stated they were female. This policy came to public attention in March 2013 when Smith rejected the application of a trans woman named Calliope Wong. In the rejection letter, Smith's Dean of Admission Debra Shaver wrote "Your FAFSA indicates your gender as male. Therefore, Smith cannot process your application." This policy was changed in 2013 to only require all non legal application materials to indicate a female identity, including references. Not satisfied with the change, students as well as various alumni formed the group Q&A ("Queers and Allies") to advocate for more trans-inclusive policies. Q&A subsequently protested the policy on Facebook and other social media websites, as well as staging protests on campus that garnered significant media attention. In 2014, Smith formed an Admissions Policy Study Group, co-chaired by Daphne Lamothe and Audrey Smith, who at the time were associate professor of Afro-American studies and vice president for enrollment, respectively. The group recommended that to be considered for admission to Smith, applicants live and/or identify as a woman, check the "female" box when applying, and that the President establish a working group to support all trans and non-binary students at Smith. These recommendations went to the faculty and the Board of Trustees and in 2015, Smith announced a new policy that only required female identification on the common application. Under the policy, transgender men and non-binary or genderqueer applicants are not eligible for admission. This new policy also affirms that any student who, once admitted, transitions to another identity other than "female" and, who completes the college’s graduation requirements, will be awarded a Smith degree. The Resource Center for Sexuality and Gender; The Office for Equity and Inclusion and its Trans/Non-binary Working Group; Transcending Gender, a student group focused on support and education; and the Transgender Support Group run by Counseling Services work to support trans and non-binary students at Smith across the gender identity spectrum.
In the fall of 2018, students at Smith protested after a Smith employee called the police on a black student working at Smith over the summer, when the employee saw her in a common space. Organized by the Black Students’ Alliance and the Smith African & Caribbean Students Association, students protested and walked out of the annual Smith convocation. While the incident received national attention and news coverage, Smith conducted an independent investigation and investigators found that there was no bias in the incident. In response to the incident, Smith hosted an Inclusion and Diversity Conference on April 10, 2019, featuring workshops and presenters run by various members of the Smith community. However, during that time another controversy arose: the hiring of Mount Holyoke College and Smith's joint police chief, Daniel Hect. Students from both campuses brought to their administrators' attention the fact that Hect had "liked" right-wing tweets on Twitter, such as Donald Trump tweeting "Build that Wall!" and a tweet from the National Rifle Association, before deleting his account once the conflict with students began. At the conference, students protested a presentation from the campus police, including Hect, about policing in a diverse community. Protests continued the next day when hundreds of students participated in a sit-in organized by the group Students for Social Justice and Institutional Change outside of John M. Greene Hall. The coalition presented a broad list of demands to the administration, proposing reform to many sectors of campus life, including curriculum, health and counseling services, accessibility, policing, admissions policies and affinity housing. In response to the demands, Smith launched a working group charged with identifying key themes in response to the day of inclusion and ensuing protests and revamped the Office of Equity and Inclusion, adding programmatic changes, new or modified positions, training and development opportunities and new events to promote inclusion and equity.
In October 2020, Smith alumna Jodi Shaw, then Student Support Coordinator in the Department of Residence Life, began posting videos commenting on mandated diversity trainings for staff at Smith College at her YouTube channel. Shaw characterized the trainings as contributing to a climate of "harassment, discrimination, and hostility" at the college, especially for staff. On February 19, 2021, columnist Bari Weiss published Shaw's resignation letter on Weiss's Substack blog. In it Shaw described the implementation of the trainings as "psychologically abusive" and the culture as "deeply hostile and fearful." She alleged that the college had "offered a settlement in exchange for my silence, but I turned it down". On February 22, Smith College published a letter from President Kathleen McCartney alleging that an unnamed former employee had accused the college of "creating a racially hostile environment for white people, a baseless claim that the college flatly denies," and that "it was the employee herself who demanded payment of an exceptionally large sum in exchange for dropping a threatened legal claim and agreeing to standard confidentiality provisions." McCartney affirmed that the college's "commitment to, and strategies for, advancing equity and inclusion are grounded in evidence."
On February 24, 2021, the New York Times reported on worsening tensions between students, staff, and administrators around issues of racial justice and the college's diversity trainings. President McCartney stated that "Good training is never about making people too uncomfortable or to feel ashamed or anything. I think our staff is content and are embracing it." A former janitor told the paper that he had gone through numerous training sessions in race and intersectionality at Smith, and that they had left staff workers cynical.
Houses
Smith College has many different houses serving as dormitories. Each house is self-governing. While many students remain in the same house for the entirety of their four years at Smith, they are not obligated to do so, and may move to different houses on campus as space allows. While houses previously collected dues, in the 2019–2020 school year they were eradicated to avoid placing financial pressure on low-income students or students who were otherwise unable to pay without sacrificing funding for the House.
Houses are found in four main regions of campus: Upper and Lower Elm Street, Green Street, Center Campus, and the Quadrangle. Each region can, in turn, be divided into smaller areas to more precisely provide the location of the house in question. In 2019, the college shifted from officially recognizing the four main areas of campus to instead categorizing houses in four neighborhoods: Ivy, Paradise, Mountain, and Garden. This change was largely internal, and categorizes houses by size rather than location.
Green Street houses
Hubbard House – Hubbard House is the residence of fictional President Selina Meyer from the HBO Show Veep. The house boasts Julia Child, as well as Ada Comstock as former residents.
Lawrence House – Sylvia Plath resided in this house during her time at Smith.
Morris House – Morris was built in 1891, with its sister house Lawrence to help accommodate the growing student body. It is named after Kate Morris Cone, Smith College class of 1879.
Tyler House – Named after William Seymour Tyler, one of the original trustees of the college. Former First Lady Barbara Bush lived here before she left to marry George Bush.
Washburn House – Washburn is named for former-trustee and senator William B. Washburn. During the Second World War, the house served as a Spanish-speaking residence for students unable to study abroad.
44 Green Street
54 Green Street
Center Campus houses
Cutter House
Chapin House – Author Margaret Mitchell lived here. Chapin's staircase served as the inspiration for the staircase of Scarlett O'Hara's Tara in Gone With the Wind.
Haven/Wesley Houses
Hopkins House
Park Complex
Park Annex – one of two new Affinity houses at Smith College, houses that cater to minority identities on campus.
Sessions Complex – the oldest house on Smith campus. It has a secret passageway.
Tenney House
Ziskind House
Upper Elm Street houses
Capen House – Built in 1825 by Samuel Howe, the founder of Northampton Law School, it became part of the Capen School in 1883 and was willed to the college by the school's founder in 1921. It is designed in the Classical Revival style. It is named after the founder of the Capen School, Bessie Talbot Capen.
Gillett House – Connected to Northrop house via a breezeway, Gillett houses the only vegan/vegetarian dining hall on campus.
Lamont House – Built in 1955, Lamont House was the first house constructed after the construction of the Quad houses in 1936. Named for alumna Florence Corliss Lamont, who earned her A.B. in 1893 and later an M.A. from Columbia. She married Harvard graduate and future Smith Trustee Thomas Lamont and had four children. Through her life she would continue to give generously to her alma mater. Lamont House is just across Elm Street, tucked behind Northrop and Gillett Houses. Lamont houses 83 students.
Northrop House
Parsons Complex
Parsons Annex – one of two new Affinity houses at Smith College, houses that cater to minority identities on campus.
Talbot House – Built in 1909 as part of the Capen School, it was willed to the college in 1921. Its mascot is the moose. US First Lady Nancy Reagan '43 lived here during her time at Smith. It is also named for Bessie Talbot Capen.
Lower Elm Street houses
Albright House
Baldwin House – U.S. Senator Tammy Baldwin ('84) was a Baldwin House resident during her time at Smith College.
Chase House – Once a school for girls from 1870s until 1968 when it was acquired as housing for the college. It was once a Junior & Senior only house, and now serves as a substance free residence. Named after Mary Ellen Chase, a writer and English professor.
Conway House – A residence for Ada Comstock Scholars and their families, named after Smith President Jill Ker Conway
Duckett House
150 Elm Street
East Quadrangle houses
Cushing House – named for math professor Eleanor P. Cushing; Gloria Steinem resided here during her time at Smith.
Emerson House
Jordan House – Built in 1922 and named for the longtime head of the Smith English Department, Mary Augusta Jordan.
King House – Named for Franklin King, who served as the superintendent of building and grounds at Smith for 50 years
Scales House -King's "sister house," was named after Laura Woolsey Lord Scales, who graduated from Smith in 1901 and was the school's first dean of students
West Quadrangle houses
Comstock House – Named after Ada Comstock class of 1897, former Dean of the College and President of Radcliffe College
Gardiner House
Morrow House – Named after Elizabeth Cutter Morrow, class of 1896 and former acting President of the College
Wilder House
Wilson House – Named after Martha Wilson, class of 1895
Paradise Apartments – each complex is named after a notable Smith Alum
Campus folklore
Smith has numerous folk tales and ghost stories emerge from the histories of some of its historic buildings. It was named as the most haunted college in America by College Consensus. One such tale holds Sessions House is inhabited by the ghost of Lucy Hunt, who died of a broken heart after being separated from her lover, General Burgoyne. Reports of a ghost in Sessions House predate its history as a campus house. Built in 1751 by the Hunt family, the house has a secret staircase where, according to legend, the Hunt's eldest daughter Lucy would rendezvous with her lover, General Burgoyne. The two were ultimately driven apart, and in the 1880s it was believed the ghost of a heartbroken Burgoyne haunted the staircase. Since Sessions House became part of college housing in the 20th century, the specter has taken on a decidedly feminine identity, and some former residents of Sessions claim to have seen Lucy's ghost in the stairwell.
Clubs, sports, and organizations
In addition to the 11 varsity sports, there are currently more than 120 clubs and organizations that cater to Smith students’ variety of interests. There are options that can be found based on academic, political, cultural, and athletic interests. If a student doesn't find an organization that fits their specific interest or need, they can create their own.
Athletics
Smith's athletic teams have been known as the Pioneers since 1986. The name expresses the spirit of Smith's students and the college's leadership role in women's athletics (the first women's basketball game was played at Smith in 1893).
A new spirit mark was unveiled to the Smith community in December 2008. The new visual identity for Smith's sports teams marks the culmination of a yearlong project to promote visibility and enthusiasm for Smith's intercollegiate and club teams—and to generate school spirit broadly. The spirit mark is used for athletics uniforms, casual apparel and promotional items for clubs and organizations. As Smith was the first women's college to join the NCAA, the new mark is seen as linking the college's pioneering alumnae athletes to their equally determined and competitive counterparts today. Smith athletes won some of the early national intercollegiate women's tennis championships in singles (Louise Raymond, 1938 and 1939) and doubles (1933, 1935, 1938 and 1948).
Smith College does not have college colors in the usual sense. Its official color is white, trimmed with gold, but the official college logo is blue and yellow (a previous logo was burgundy and white). NCAA athletic teams have competed in blue and white (or blue and yellow, in the case of the soccer, crew, swimming, and squash teams) uniforms since the 1970s, and selected Pioneers as the official name and mascot in 1986. Popular club sports are free to choose their own colors and mascot; both Rugby and Fencing have chosen red and black.
Smith has a rotating system of class colors dating back to the 1880s, when intramural athletics and other campus competitions were usually held by class. Today, class colors are yellow, red, blue and green, with incoming first-year classes assigned the color of the previous year's graduating class; their color then "follows" them through to graduation. Alumnae classes, particularly at reunion, continue to identify with and use their class color thereafter.
Cultural organizations
There are 11 chartered cultural organizations that fall under the UNITY title: the Asian Students’ Association (ASA), Black Students’ Alliance (BSA), Chinese Interregional Student Cultural Org (CISCO), South Asian Student Association of Smith (EKTA), Indigenous Smith Students and Allies (ISSA), International Students’ Organization (ISO), Korean Students’ Association (KSA), the Latin American Students’ Organization (LASO), Multiethnic Interracial Smith College (MISC), Smith African and Caribbean Students’ Association (SACSA), and the Vietnamese Students’ Association (VSA). Smith College Website Multicultural Affairs The Black Students’ Alliance is the oldest of all Unity organizations. In Fall 2012, as an effort to document the history of students of color on Smith campus, the Weaving Voices Archives Project was created.
Academic year eventsConvocation signals the start of the fall semester. For new students it is the first chance to experience Smith College's tradition and spirit. Likewise, for some returning students, the annual event is like a big, welcome-home party as well as an occasion for celebration and an opportunity for creative attire. House communities develop imaginative themes for group fashion, and Smith seniors put special touches on favorite hats to create their own unique "senior hats," to be worn for the first time at Convocation.Mountain Day is observed early in the fall semester. The President of the College selects a crisp, sunny, beautiful autumn day when the leaves are in full color, and announces the cancellation of classes by having bells rung on campus at 7:15 AM on the chosen day. The eager anticipation of Mountain Day leads to intense speculation meteorology by students in the weeks leading up to the surprise announcement. Traditional observance of Mountain Day by students might involve New England road trips or outdoor pursuits, and college dining services provides box lunches to be taken off-campus. Many of the Houses go apple picking together.Cromwell Day, named for Smith's first African-American student, Otelia Cromwell, and her niece Adelaide Cromwell, began in 1989 to provide students with an in-depth program specifically addressing issues of racism and diversity. Afternoon classes are cancelled, and students are invited to participate in lectures, workshops, symposia and cultural events focused on a different theme each year. In 2020, Otelia Cromwell Day was renamed "Cromwell Day" to simultaneously honor Otelia Cromwell's niece Adelaide Cromwell, Smith College's first African-American faculty member.Rally Day In February 1876, the College began an annual observance of George Washington's birthday. In 1894, a rally became part of the day's events, and the focus of the celebration became primarily patriotic rather than exclusively social—though always with a women's college twist. Students that year staged a mock debate on the subject, "Does Higher Education Unfit a Man for Domestic Life?" In 1906 the celebration was first referred to as Rally Day (although the name was not used officially by the College until 1992). In 1944, seniors made Rally Day the first public wearing of their graduation caps and gowns; since then, mortarboards have been replaced by wacky, often homemade hats. Today, the Rally Day Convocation is centered on a historical theme, and features a distinguished keynote speaker and the awarding of Smith College Medals to accomplished alumnae.
Reunions and commencement events
The Alumnae Association of Smith College hosts official class reunions every five years. All alumnae from all classes are welcome to return in any year; "off-year" alumnae attend campus-wide events as the "Class of 1776."
Traditional reunion and Commencement events are linked, and celebrate the close ties between Smith's alumnae and its graduating seniors and their families. At the conclusion of final exams, most underclassmen leave the campus, while seniors remain in their houses for a week to celebrate and prepare for Commencement. Alumnae arrive for reunions later in the week, and many alumnae arrange for official accommodations in the campus houses, right alongside senior residents.Ivy Day, the day before Commencement, is the high point of reunion and a significant event for seniors as well. Junior ushers lead a parade through campus, carrying vines of ivy to be planted by the departing seniors as a symbol of their lifelong connection to the college. Alumnae (and, often, their children), dressed in white and wearing sashes in their class color, line up in reverse order by class along both sides of the route. Seniors line up nearest the end of the parade route, wearing traditional white outfits and each carrying a single red rose. All cheer each alumnae class as it marches past, then fall in to join the end of the parade. Many alumnae classes carry signs with humorous poems or slogans, or hold balloons or wear hats in their class color. Ivy Day festivities conclude in the Quad, where the seniors plant their ivy and speakers address alumnae on the progress of fundraising and the state of the college.Illumination Night, beginning at dusk on the Saturday evening before Commencement, is a celebration of the campus and a send-off of sorts for graduating seniors. Throughout central campus, electric street lights are replaced for one night by multicolored Japanese-style paper lanterns, lit with real candles. These hang on both sides of every walking path and cast a soft glow over the buildings and lawns. Student a cappella singing groups and improv comedy troupes roam the campus, stopping occasionally to entertain the crowds. A jazz band, hired by the college, turns the science buildings' courtyard into a dance floor. Seniors, alumnae, faculty and their families spend the evening on walking tours of the illuminated campus and Botanic Gardens. The major official event of the night is the Senior Step Sing: seniors gather on the steps of Neilson Library, where they are serenaded by members of the Sophomore Push''' committee, then are physically pushed off the stairs and "into the real world."
Until the early 1990s, all alumnae reunions were held during Commencement weekend. However, as the number of returning alumnae grew beyond the capacity of the campus, reunions were split into Reunion I/Commencement Weekend and Reunion II, held the following weekend. "Significant" reunions (50-, 25- and 10- year, but also 2-year) and the earliest reunion classes (65-year and prior) are assigned to Reunion I; other reunions (5-, 15-, 20-, 30-year, and so on) are assigned to Reunion II.
There have been several controversies surrounding commencement over the years. See Smith College commencement controversies to learn more.
Environmental sustainability
Smith has taken numerous steps toward environmental sustainability, including a 30% reduction in energy use. Also, through a contract with Zipcar, the college has reduced the need for individually owned cars on campus. Complementing this effort, the college has also promoted sustainability through academics and through the arts.
In keeping with its sustainability efforts, all Smith dining locations have discontinued the use of "to-go" supplies which included paper cups and plates, as well as plastic utensils. They now encourage students to bring their own, reusable containers and utensils if they wish to bring food back to their rooms. Smith College provides all students with a reusable drink container at the beginning of each academic year. In past years, these containers have been variations on travel mugs, Sigg bottles, and nalgenes. Those dining halls that still offer "To-Go" options no longer provide paper bags, and instead use wax paper bags, biodegradable plastic, and recyclable utensils made of vegetable cellulose. In the fall of 2017, Smith dining halls began to offer plastic tupperware containers students may borrow and return to the dining halls to be washed.
For Smith's efforts regarding sustainability, the institution earned a grade of "A-" on the "College Sustainability Report Card 2010" administered by the Sustainable Endowments Institute. Smith was lauded for many of the indicator categories, including student involvement, green building, and transportation, but was marked down for endowment transparency.
Notable alumnae
Among the more notable of Smith College's alumnae in chronological order are:
Otelia Cromwell (class of 1900): first African-American graduate of Smith college and the first African American woman to receive a doctorate from Yale
Blanche Hinman Dow (class of 1913): former president of the American Association of University Women
Clara Savage Littledale (Class of 1913): writer and war reporter for Good Housekeeping, and Parents editor for over thirty years.
Eunice Carter (class of 1921): first female African-American assistant district attorney for the state of New York, active in the prosecution of mob boss Charles "Lucky" Luciano
Margaret Mitchell (class of 1922): author of Gone with the Wind, did not graduate from Smith
Mary Watson Weaver (class of 1925): composer and poet
Julia Child (class of 1934): chef, author and television personality
Madeleine L'Engle (class of 1941): author best known for A Wrinkle in Time Betty Friedan (class of 1942): feminist and author of The Feminine Mystique Nancy Reagan (class of 1943): First Lady of the United States from 1981 to 1989
Penny Chenery (class of 1943): sportswoman, racehorse breeder and owner, horse racing advocate
Jean Harris (class of 1945): headmistress of the Madeira School who murdered her ex-lover Herman Tarnower in a jealous rage
Rhoda Dorsey (class of 1946): historian and first woman president of Goucher College
Barbara Bush (class of 1947): former First Lady of the United States, did not graduate from Smith
Mary Otis Stevens (class of 1949): American architect
Natalie Babbitt (class of 1954): notable illustrator and author of Tuck Everlasting Sylvia Plath (class of 1955): poet, novelist and short story author
Gloria Steinem (class of 1956): founder of Ms. magazine and noted feminist, activist, and journalist
Lynden B. Miller (class of 1960): public garden designer, park advocate and author
Jane Yolen (class of 1960): children's book author
Ng'endo (Florence) Mwangi (class of 1961): Kenya's first woman physician
Jane Harman (class of 1966): U.S. Representative for California's 36th Congressional District
Molly Ivins (class of 1966): journalist, political commentator, and humorist
Shelly Lazarus (class of 1968): former CEO and Chairman of Ogilvy & Mather
Nikki Tsongas (class of 1968): U.S. Representative for Massachusetts' 3rd Congressional District
Catharine MacKinnon (class of 1968): notable proponent of radical feminism, scholar, lawyer, teacher and activist
Laura D'Andrea Tyson (class of 1969): economist; Director of the National Economic Council
Yolanda King (class of 1976): activist
Christine McCarthy (class of 1977): Chief Financial Officer of The Walt Disney Company
Ann M. Martin (class of 1978): author of The Babysitter's Club Phebe Novakovic (class of 1979): Chairman and CEO of General Dynamics
Ruth Ozeki (class of 1980): author of A Tale for the Time Being Margaret Edson (class of 1983): winner of a Pulitzer Prize for Drama
Tammy Baldwin (class of 1984): United States Senator; first openly LGBT person to be elected to congress
Tori Murden (class of 1985): the first woman to row solo across the Atlantic Ocean, and to ski to the geographic South Pole
Thelma Golden (class of 1987): Director and Chief Curator of The Studio Museum in Harlem
Durreen Shahnaz (class of 1989): founder of Impact Investment Exchange (IIX)
Piper Kerman (class of 1992): Orange Is the New Black author, lived in Chapin House
Deborah Archer (class of 1993): first Black person to be elected President of American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
Kim Janey (class of 1994): first woman and first black person to serve as mayor of the City of Boston
Hanya Yanagihara (class of 1995): author and editor
Emily W. Murphy (class of 1995) Administrator of the General Services Administration under Donald Trump; known for her unprecedented refusal to immediately begin the transition to a Biden administration after Trump's loss
Dorie Clark, (class of 1997): author and executive education professor
Luma Mufleh (class of 1997): founder and director of Fugees Family, Inc., a non-profit organization devoted to working with child survivors of war
Cass Bird (class of 1999): fashion photographer
Erin Morgenstern (class of 2000): The Night Circus author
Sara Haines (class of 2000): co-host of The View, ABC News correspondent
Rubaiyat Hossain (class of 2002): filmmaker of feature films Under Construction and Made in Bangladesh
Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy (class of 2002): documentarian, winner of two Academy Awards
Julia Scott (class of 2002): NPR and New York Times journalist
Kimberly Drew (class of 2012): art curator and cultural critic
Notable staff
Herbert Baxter Adams (1850–1901), educator, historian, and cofounder of the American Historical Association taught history at Smith from 1878 to 1881.
Sylvia Plath (1932–1963), a great American poet and erudite, was an English professor from 1957–1958.
Newton Arvin, American literary critic and academic
Leonard Baskin, artist who taught at Smith from 1953 to 1974
Emily Hale, speech and drama teacher, and muse of T.S. Eliot
Louise Holland (1893–1990), academic, philologist and archaeologist, taught here from 1957 to 1964
Yusef Abdul Lateef, an American jazz multi-instrumentalist and composer, thought to be one of the most influential musicians of the 20th century, taught at Smith during the early 2000's.
Kurt Vonnegut, served as Writer-in-Residence during the 2000–2001 school year
Jane Zielonko, translator of The Captive Mind (1953), taught English at Smith from 1946.
Mary Ellen Chase, educator and author, taught English at Smith from 1926 to 1955.
In 1960, three Smith professors, one who had been there for 38 years, were fired or "allowed to retire" for being gay. This was chronicled in a book (The Scarlet Professor—Newton Arvin: A Literary Life Shattered by Scandal (Doubleday, 2001), by Barry Werth), and the PBS Independent Lens film, The Great Pink Scare''. It was also depicted in an opera based on based on Werth's book in 2017 at Amherst College. In 2002, Smith, the nation's largest liberal arts college for women, acknowledged a wrong from four decades earlier by creating a lecture series and a small scholarship—the $100,000 Dorius/Spofford Fund for the Study of Civil Liberties and Freedom of Expression, and the Newton Arvin Prize in American Studies, a $500 annual stipend. But despite faculty appeals, there was no apology.
See also
Cambridge School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture
College Archives (Smith College)
Tofu Curtain
Smith College commencement controversies
SS Smith Victory – a cargo shipped named after Smith College
References
Bibliography
Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s, Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).
External links
The Sophian, Smith's student newspaper
1871 establishments in Massachusetts
Buildings and structures in Northampton, Massachusetts
Educational institutions established in 1871
Liberal arts colleges in Massachusetts
Seven Sister Colleges
Universities and colleges in Hampshire County, Massachusetts
Women's universities and colleges in the United States
Private universities and colleges in Massachusetts | [
0.5564835667610168,
0.10236658155918121,
-0.6574768424034119,
-0.16239270567893982,
0.5706504583358765,
0.8863648772239685,
0.7519367933273315,
0.45710739493370056,
-0.5329821705818176,
-0.5686766505241394,
0.31660181283950806,
0.1261712908744812,
0.280011922121048,
0.2224666178226471,
-0.7602042555809021,
-0.33740222454071045,
0.43475446105003357,
0.37810519337654114,
-0.4087904095649719,
-0.7605525851249695,
-0.030795926228165627,
0.03967663273215294,
0.49050208926200867,
0.16913092136383057,
-0.6453338861465454,
0.5325026512145996,
0.6387684345245361,
-0.10298921912908554,
0.45305463671684265,
0.08171815425157547,
-0.31681495904922485,
-0.11171871423721313,
0.9427342414855957,
-0.3414461612701416,
0.26024138927459717,
-0.15408079326152802,
0.1498352289199829,
-0.01446177065372467,
0.08708101511001587,
-0.4780052602291107,
-0.1415545642375946,
-0.9223324656486511,
-0.03775189444422722,
0.2560666799545288,
-0.11670141667127609,
-0.2526715099811554,
-1.2387659549713135,
0.18722635507583618,
-1.061933994293213,
0.19421127438545227,
0.05440613999962807,
0.7577598094940186,
0.9537833333015442,
0.2835265100002289,
0.39577701687812805,
0.40980857610702515,
-0.5913622379302979,
0.32047876715660095,
0.2257090061903,
-0.021325670182704926,
-0.22243623435497284,
0.13955572247505188,
0.1483372300863266,
0.4080910384654999,
-0.5254812240600586,
-0.06051095202565193,
-0.2611745595932007,
0.1273254007101059,
-0.42559102177619934,
-0.5420337319374084,
-0.21614517271518707,
-0.5963592529296875,
-0.2694237232208252,
-0.010612704791128635,
-0.2711108326911926,
-0.5138577818870544,
-0.16263428330421448,
-0.26744669675827026,
0.4002077281475067,
0.15038518607616425,
-0.14989683032035828,
0.10898642241954803,
0.41421133279800415,
0.6983681917190552,
0.826962947845459,
0.5192872285842896,
-0.845696210861206,
-0.1964111179113388,
0.2677905559539795,
0.5694084167480469,
-0.5201807618141174,
0.0075939674861729145,
-0.1838761568069458,
0.4105489253997803,
-0.1589984893798828,
0.17185786366462708,
-0.13190042972564697,
-0.0728367492556572,
0.21609164774417877,
-0.4408593773841858,
-0.08896108716726303,
0.3607954680919647,
0.3182727098464966,
0.05328697711229324,
-0.5914780497550964,
-0.07228774577379227,
-0.052834074944257736,
-0.28701671957969666,
-0.2304527312517166,
-0.6313638687133789,
-0.49875497817993164,
0.21982738375663757,
-0.19638587534427643,
0.14356718957424164,
-0.24248051643371582,
0.4830154776573181,
0.616713285446167,
-0.5537460446357727,
-0.38784363865852356,
-0.1143965870141983,
0.07446944713592529,
0.6052927374839783,
0.4035496115684509,
0.1566046178340912,
0.3655531704425812,
0.6096851229667664,
0.38713008165359497,
0.2520667314529419,
-0.2834358811378479,
-0.33420276641845703,
0.535122275352478,
0.32634615898132324,
0.3782987594604492,
0.14687667787075043,
0.13822266459465027,
-0.15225444734096527,
-0.21114005148410797,
-0.11487667262554169,
-0.056205298751592636,
0.5821765661239624,
-1.101628303527832,
0.022997550666332245,
-0.5450108647346497,
-0.545846164226532,
0.025567492470145226,
-0.09792307019233704,
-0.012561636976897717,
-0.10080284625291824,
0.09633281081914902,
0.5220715999603271,
0.6126611232757568,
0.0990644320845604,
0.0711972638964653,
-0.39477109909057617,
-0.2944711446762085,
-0.48075589537620544,
0.8024810552597046,
0.35851386189460754,
0.5989804863929749,
0.5375274419784546,
-0.3328585624694824,
0.3495897948741913,
0.0747385025024414,
-0.16752204298973083,
-0.17535918951034546,
-0.21437977254390717,
0.38490208983421326,
-0.1621709018945694,
-0.29532894492149353,
0.18764661252498627,
-0.7766211628913879,
-0.2294664978981018,
0.3282405138015747,
-0.10022218525409698,
-0.357523649930954,
-0.6033985018730164,
0.7545716166496277,
0.3567752242088318,
0.262071430683136,
-0.632310152053833,
-0.4770905077457428,
0.053939174860715866,
0.5080053806304932,
-0.1558421105146408,
-0.3800412118434906,
-0.38786303997039795,
-0.17690199613571167,
0.3289676606655121,
-0.24324128031730652,
0.3135858178138733,
-0.6061453819274902,
0.1257292628288269,
0.11989134550094604,
-0.04452665522694588,
0.9950853586196899,
-0.2151443511247635,
-0.8512173891067505,
0.832188069820404,
-0.9064858555793762,
0.16910575330257416,
0.21773722767829895,
-0.5904302000999451,
-0.3263065814971924,
-0.620750904083252,
-0.9161816835403442,
0.28890714049339294,
0.6163584589958191,
0.1882803589105606,
-0.18512693047523499,
0.4780866503715515,
0.3579155206680298,
-0.9627930521965027,
0.10785149782896042,
1.0459237098693848,
-0.06186426803469658,
-0.07094918191432953,
-0.6478027105331421,
-0.24981912970542908,
0.5229042768478394,
-0.4424491822719574,
0.9361980557441711,
-0.6443934440612793,
0.4748171269893646,
-0.0157433170825243,
-0.24054695665836334,
-0.09094630181789398,
-0.5351115465164185,
0.474498450756073,
0.4823870360851288,
0.11423267424106598,
0.2525787055492401,
0.27275538444519043,
0.026275530457496643,
0.17458349466323853,
0.5383970141410828,
-0.0750708058476448,
-0.6763644814491272,
-0.15731938183307648,
0.685069739818573,
-0.6039720773696899,
-0.3049947917461395,
0.03495723754167557,
-0.7933832406997681,
0.2796870470046997,
0.34602487087249756,
0.09664928913116455,
-0.06717956066131592,
-0.13611212372779846,
-0.14190411567687988,
-0.5219133496284485,
0.44146424531936646,
0.1390075534582138,
-0.05884229391813278,
-0.027235137298703194,
-0.7149277329444885,
-0.30552852153778076,
0.418667197227478,
0.20495234429836273,
0.9510055780410767,
0.14060065150260925,
-0.20972296595573425,
0.07770197838544846,
0.669750452041626,
0.3031207025051117,
-0.15715275704860687,
-0.3528692424297333,
0.09247829765081406,
-0.7037479877471924,
0.010479067452251911,
0.2688364088535309,
0.1789553016424179,
0.2079717516899109,
-0.3087347745895386,
-0.2503993809223175,
-0.0007863733917474747,
0.01272090058773756,
-0.19468767940998077,
0.2482883483171463,
-1.0088062286376953,
-0.3107794225215912,
0.10316372662782669,
0.35516729950904846,
-0.06790725141763687,
-0.23659256100654602,
0.1952250599861145,
-0.12962807714939117,
0.19662201404571533,
-0.30027249455451965,
-0.26199066638946533,
0.03891722857952118,
-0.22230756282806396,
0.17553076148033142,
0.08462771028280258,
-0.02289259061217308,
0.2243403047323227,
0.2299554944038391,
0.3157212436199188,
-0.3038712441921234,
0.32351115345954895,
-0.20544108748435974,
-0.43981000781059265,
0.7156659364700317,
-0.2368951439857483,
0.1059935912489891,
-0.4530356228351593,
-0.18871574103832245,
0.33039090037345886,
-0.4197715222835541,
-5.535167694091797,
0.6325065493583679,
0.03628921136260033,
-0.34027498960494995,
0.5366421937942505,
-0.6407680511474609,
-0.06609906256198883,
-0.2938156723976135,
-0.36567869782447815,
-0.06712128221988678,
-0.03238214924931526,
-0.10029522329568863,
0.009448536671698093,
0.19845832884311676,
0.2595251500606537,
0.33984115719795227,
0.5061149001121521,
-0.44792574644088745,
-0.05616234242916107,
0.45935890078544617,
0.42702382802963257,
0.03781328722834587,
-0.18889237940311432,
0.6451160311698914,
0.24833324551582336,
0.47382527589797974,
-0.26799821853637695,
-0.032363954931497574,
-0.2998555600643158,
-0.13850152492523193,
0.09563811123371124,
-0.3968711495399475,
-0.06556180864572525,
0.198398157954216,
-0.14788199961185455,
-0.045167673379182816,
0.8917750716209412,
0.2060205489397049,
0.6057667136192322,
-0.037874557077884674,
0.6244572997093201,
0.34123969078063965,
-0.35645654797554016,
-0.7168450355529785,
0.3584946393966675,
-0.23495091497898102,
-0.36222901940345764,
0.29341816902160645,
-0.12867484986782074,
0.2964007258415222,
-0.20106016099452972,
-0.3631258010864258,
0.31265151500701904,
0.17896127700805664,
-0.2523226737976074,
-0.010976108722388744,
-0.07586876302957535,
0.5892336368560791,
0.33413180708885193,
-0.12125038355588913,
0.17918482422828674,
-0.11114100366830826,
0.423672080039978,
-0.46928051114082336,
-0.509748637676239,
-0.5602837800979614,
-0.39052289724349976,
0.7650629281997681,
0.4613160789012909,
0.3606557250022888,
0.4692341685295105,
0.31670132279396057,
-0.08451712876558304,
-0.9519856572151184,
-0.008939343504607677,
-0.4914158582687378,
-0.6955743432044983,
-0.17160546779632568,
-0.2529837489128113,
-0.281227171421051,
0.18766117095947266,
-0.014348290860652924,
0.972359836101532,
0.6669855713844299,
0.6609891057014465,
-0.3932766020298004,
-0.24468159675598145,
0.3369908630847931,
-0.5330830216407776,
-0.20912131667137146,
-0.10246913135051727,
-0.2874118685722351,
0.3454682528972626,
0.3088928461074829,
0.487393856048584,
0.04051510989665985,
1.0304558277130127,
0.20595881342887878,
-0.44468289613723755,
0.05090581253170967,
0.27879345417022705,
-0.3202952742576599,
-0.024246690794825554,
-0.29168111085891724,
-0.3322167992591858,
-0.19881893694400787,
-0.36874446272850037,
0.3122742772102356,
0.8868563771247864,
0.03846972808241844,
-0.44759401679039,
-0.6775557994842529,
-0.21973294019699097,
-0.673266589641571,
-0.01684662327170372,
-0.2767977714538574,
-0.24769698083400726,
0.48097923398017883,
0.02658054605126381,
0.02323232963681221,
-0.173518568277359,
0.24199479818344116,
-0.19102148711681366,
-0.47768503427505493,
0.29614052176475525,
-1.1230226755142212,
0.41486331820487976,
0.4783717095851898,
-0.6911551356315613,
0.34430813789367676,
-0.11283144354820251,
-0.011979962699115276,
-0.7383185029029846,
0.16927264630794525,
-0.00830883253365755,
0.09706329554319382,
-0.5408058166503906,
0.03395325317978859,
-0.29799219965934753,
0.6020992994308472,
-0.1409282088279724,
0.12057818472385406,
-0.29614022374153137,
0.5041713118553162,
0.4257335066795349,
0.7754084467887878,
0.24376413226127625,
0.20732253789901733,
-0.7347314357757568,
-0.052748627960681915,
-0.2589088976383209,
-0.3967706859111786,
0.42198532819747925,
0.8196486234664917,
0.4423958361148834,
0.4564646780490875,
0.13461075723171234,
0.26499247550964355,
-0.28290390968322754,
0.17764556407928467,
-0.18479207158088684,
-0.20149298012256622,
-0.9261390566825867,
0.13668638467788696,
0.16720211505889893,
0.1872156262397766,
-0.07123376429080963,
0.23011444509029388,
-0.8156481981277466,
0.3520607054233551,
0.47950106859207153,
0.07926078885793686,
-0.0676376149058342,
-0.3638474941253662,
0.5494458079338074,
0.10829060524702072,
0.06585827469825745,
-0.0415525920689106,
-0.2227884978055954,
0.3502403199672699,
0.6005590558052063,
-0.9715541005134583,
0.31557556986808777,
0.10013002157211304,
0.28969359397888184,
-0.3492780923843384,
-0.5940604209899902,
-0.31397613883018494,
-0.5985821485519409,
-0.17790159583091736,
-0.3476119935512543,
-0.45332956314086914,
0.3974142372608185,
0.8646730780601501,
-0.31334805488586426,
0.007371946237981319,
-0.02836950123310089,
0.3339182436466217,
-0.10248948633670807,
0.038773536682128906,
-0.2712395191192627,
0.6664514541625977,
-0.9595892429351807,
0.27252471446990967,
-0.05760730430483818,
-0.3227446973323822,
0.07592486590147018,
-0.3136540949344635,
0.3036106526851654,
0.39433741569519043,
-0.5902060866355896,
0.13194365799427032,
0.6725349426269531,
0.29175376892089844,
-0.5813471078872681,
-0.5697891116142273,
0.21928861737251282,
-0.1655401587486267,
-0.3217099905014038,
-0.45573869347572327,
0.05269460380077362,
0.16278398036956787,
-0.0865078866481781,
0.1660522073507309,
-0.46165648102760315,
0.6976327300071716,
0.24189352989196777,
-0.2489539086818695,
-0.27765703201293945,
-0.2756974697113037,
-0.2400505095720291,
-0.23888243734836578,
-0.7728688716888428,
0.06379909068346024,
0.6213033199310303,
-0.41981232166290283,
0.34755292534828186,
0.09149929881095886,
0.15679126977920532,
-0.1606435328722,
0.437044620513916,
0.3278915584087372,
-0.3881691098213196,
-0.5710984468460083,
-0.3321658968925476,
0.29923707246780396,
0.38806596398353577,
-0.4446357190608978,
-0.6186156272888184,
0.43727630376815796,
0.5163671970367432,
-0.70904940366745,
-0.20407503843307495,
-0.11226088553667068,
0.06282393634319305,
-0.4832162857055664,
-0.16717617213726044,
0.009302297607064247,
-0.050236620008945465,
-0.35301530361175537,
-0.10633870959281921,
-0.15385892987251282,
-1.2746315002441406,
0.11252850294113159,
-0.34169504046440125,
0.10095012933015823,
-0.3270653188228607,
-0.39880964159965515,
-0.05505700781941414,
-0.7586401104927063,
0.36272725462913513,
-0.46934473514556885,
-0.32465484738349915,
0.34517568349838257,
-0.40681156516075134,
0.28355327248573303,
-0.36704114079475403,
-0.4718383550643921,
0.3109833300113678,
0.10539579391479492,
-0.3024285137653351,
0.37289178371429443,
-0.5120846033096313,
-0.49525168538093567,
0.847828209400177,
-0.6485456824302673,
-0.23073701560497284,
0.020373472943902016,
-0.5213093161582947,
0.3764853775501251,
-0.08480001986026764,
-0.47593364119529724,
0.00024027451581787318,
-0.6552102565765381,
-0.6154882907867432,
-0.044181644916534424,
0.40394288301467896,
0.27865710854530334,
0.7932848334312439,
0.12294357270002365,
-0.333187460899353,
0.6145142912864685,
0.8029752969741821,
-0.08411342650651932,
0.11451812833547592,
-0.19877466559410095,
-0.5814930200576782,
0.1349802166223526,
-0.009655495174229145,
-0.21534046530723572,
-0.15200768411159515,
-0.28927022218704224,
0.8836085200309753,
0.4430876076221466,
-0.8443684577941895,
-0.24176552891731262,
-0.08964381366968155,
-0.6098856925964355,
0.43429216742515564,
0.03683798387646675,
-0.5051409006118774,
0.5979855060577393,
0.5976237058639526,
0.6332073211669922,
-0.026815803721547127,
0.7821118831634521,
-0.14965420961380005,
-0.3601495325565338,
0.20817524194717407,
-0.2537024915218353,
0.16855694353580475,
-0.10379482060670853,
-0.3206796944141388,
0.7325038909912109,
-0.028716687113046646,
-0.30845707654953003,
-0.5777482390403748,
-0.9687806963920593,
-0.5562063455581665,
0.5681686997413635,
0.6246360540390015,
0.8643516898155212,
0.4330028295516968,
0.6857234835624695,
-0.24835680425167084,
0.033754706382751465,
0.14072635769844055,
0.11809230595827103,
0.09526504576206207,
-0.5163892507553101,
0.12991565465927124,
0.14240531623363495,
0.32057633996009827,
-0.15551820397377014,
-0.05937778204679489,
0.31611528992652893,
0.21636295318603516,
-0.2517956793308258,
0.06103437766432762,
-0.29164761304855347,
0.12460171431303024,
0.04885191097855568,
0.3065502345561981,
-0.5069149136543274,
-0.07186737656593323,
-0.38106009364128113,
0.5732990503311157,
-0.19216446578502655,
-0.5112296342849731,
0.5062289237976074,
0.4714224934577942,
0.5714479088783264,
0.03366043046116829,
-0.5206678509712219,
-0.01810811646282673,
0.6692211627960205,
0.566213071346283,
0.7180986404418945,
0.2747707664966583,
-0.18233130872249603,
-0.008777717128396034,
-0.36332574486732483,
-0.0740966722369194,
0.3043676018714905,
-0.599632203578949,
-0.42598605155944824,
-0.0869167149066925,
0.056099630892276764,
-0.049234386533498764,
-0.2380240261554718,
0.1882140189409256,
-0.22145290672779083,
0.3639122247695923,
0.22232167422771454,
0.1268785446882248,
0.2235894650220871,
0.11214886605739594,
0.7236688137054443,
0.2213088572025299,
0.6779552698135376,
-0.27457937598228455,
-0.26531222462654114,
-0.13196730613708496,
0.407383531332016,
-0.41697797179222107,
-0.1168036013841629,
0.02928818203508854,
0.17772719264030457,
-0.8521026968955994,
0.19873759150505066,
0.5848557353019714,
0.12681522965431213,
0.21581599116325378,
0.3698844313621521,
-0.170950248837471,
0.45749321579933167,
1.1984351873397827,
-0.0845516175031662,
-0.5155413746833801,
-0.6432618498802185,
-0.15194280445575714,
0.12748348712921143,
0.22318638861179352,
0.8664374351501465,
-0.0020619079004973173,
-0.20191547274589539,
-0.22204986214637756,
0.027300970628857613,
-0.15984195470809937,
0.22398506104946136,
-0.3981785774230957,
0.05482252687215805,
0.0069236066192388535,
0.3691403269767761,
-0.36507779359817505,
0.06480100005865097,
0.1843571960926056,
1.0232571363449097,
0.6968027353286743,
-0.5162478089332581,
-0.24958859384059906,
-0.7190696597099304,
-0.31692829728126526,
0.2153238207101822,
-0.9150266051292419,
0.32662227749824524,
0.043041717261075974,
-0.11027727276086807,
-0.6213093996047974,
0.7638466954231262,
-0.2054680734872818,
-0.6901784539222717,
0.07781112939119339,
0.15218162536621094,
-0.2693582773208618,
0.13824105262756348,
0.42086052894592285,
-0.25011515617370605,
0.4013705849647522,
0.23914793133735657
] |
247958 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Fraustadt | Battle of Fraustadt | The Battle of Fraustadt was fought on 2 February 1706 (O.S.) / 3 February 1706 (Swedish calendar) / 13 February 1706 (N.S.) between Sweden and Saxony-Poland and their Russian allies near Fraustadt (now Wschowa) in Poland. During the Battle of Fraustadt on February 3, August II was only 120 km away, with a cavalry force about 8,000 men strong. That was one of the main reasons that Swedish General Rehnskiöld hurried to engage Schulenburg. The battle is an example of a successful pincer movement and was one of Sweden's greatest victories in the Great Northern War.
Background
Deployment
The Saxon army had not chosen its position carefully; Schulenburg had been maneuvered into a position chosen by the Swedes. Rehnskiöld withdrew his forces from Schlawa to Fraustadt. Rehnskiöld later stated in his journals, “Så resolverade jag att draga mig till Fraustadt tillbaka i den tanken att locka till mig fienden efter mig utur sin fördel, inbillandes honom att jag ville alldeles draga mig av” roughly translated as ”Thus I resolved to withdraw to Fraustadt with the thought to lure the enemy to me away from his advantageous position, deceiving him into thinking I was in full retreat”.
The Saxons, superior in numbers regarding infantry (9,000 Saxons and 6,300 Russians), but with less cavalry (4,000 Saxons) than the Swedes, took a strong defensive position behind lines of chevaux de frise littered by artillery. In two lines, with cavalry on both flanks, between the villages of Geyersdorf and Röhrsdorf and ahead of the town of Fraustadt, entrenched behind frozen lakes and marshes opposing the Saxon-Russian army, Rehnskiöld placed his infantry of 3,700 men in the center in three columns and his cavalry consisting of 5,700 units on both flanks.
The battle
On the left flank, the Swedish cavalry under Hummerhielm had some trouble passing through a frozen swamp, but the Saxon cavalry did not use that advantage. After regrouping, the Swedes charged the Saxon Garde du Corps and Chevaliers Garde regiments three times, utterly routing them. Colonel von Krassow, commander of the Swedish cavalry on the right flank, passed outside the left Russian flank with 12 dragoon squadrons, near the village of Rörsdorf, and engaged the Saxon Cavalry covering the Russian flank. After witnessing the destruction of the Saxon right flank, the left flank fled, and were routed by the Swedish dragoons. Colonel von Krassow's cavalry then wheeled clock-wise into the Saxon-Russian rear, which caused several of the Saxon regiments to break formation.
On the Saxon left flank, facing Rehnskiöld's infantry, the Russians were deployed with their uniforms inside-out so they would look more like Saxons with their red colors instead of the Russian-standard green. This was however an order from Schulenburg who questioned their battle skills to reveal the weakness of the flank. The Swedish infantry assaulted the Saxon-Russian line frontally, under heavy cannon and musket fire. Upon discovering that the left wing of the enemy line was held by the Russian troops, Rhenskiöld directed his infantry to assault their positions, which were also being attacked from the rear by colonel von Krassow's cavalry. The Russian infantry were quickly surrounded and dispersed.
The Saxon middle had its flank and rear exposed, and its regiments buckled and broke formation in short order under the pressure along its left flank. The Saxon right flank initially held, inflicting some damage to the Swedish infantry until the cavalry in the frozen swamp attacked their rear. The Saxon-Russian army fell apart and the main body fled to the south through Fraustadt. The Swedish cavalry, previously bogged down in the swamp, raced ahead on the open terrain, and met the fleeing Saxons and Russians on the far outskirts of the town. Trapped by Swedish cavalry to their front and infantry to their rear, the defeated Saxon-Russian forces surrendered en masse.
Casualties and losses
In the end 7,377 Saxons and Russians had been killed and over 7,300 taken prisoner where of 2,000 of them were wounded. The Swedes suffered some 400 killed, (amongst them, commander of the Kronoberg Regiment, colonel Gabriel Lilliehöök) and 1,000 wounded. Schulenburg managed to escape, despite having suffered a bullet wound to his hip. 71 banners, the whole Saxon artillery, 11,000 rapiers and equally as many muskets had also been captured. Rehnskiöld executed about 500 Russian prisoners; it is debated whether he did this in retaliation for Russian atrocities in Courland or because he believed their inside-out coats were an attempt to be recognized as Saxons, who were given better terms in captivity. Hiding your own identity and claiming to be something else was frowned upon at the time, and sometimes considered reason enough to be denied quarter.
Analysis
The Swedish success in the battle was mainly due to Rehnskiöld effectively neutralising the Saxon infantry, who were superior in number at the start of the battle, combined with the pincer movement performed by the Swedish cavalry under Hummerhielm and von Krassow. Schulenburg also made two grave mistakes: first by being lured into terrain not to his advantage and then underestimating the mobility of the Swedish cavalry, especially on the flanks. It is known from Rehnskiöld's personal journals that he had intended a double envelopment from the beginning. The Battle of Fraustadt is one of the most classic double envelopments in military history. It is probable that Rehnskiöld had studied the Battle of Cannae 216 BC although it is uncertain if he intended to copy it.
Aftermath
The captured Russians (some 500) were, according to some historians, executed by an order from Rehnskiöld, although involvement of the latter has been disputed. The authors further quotes Lieutenant Colonel Nils Gyllenstierna of the Norra Skånska cavalry regiment about the fate of the Russian infantry, “på några 100 när massakrerat, emedan vi inte i begynnelsen kunde giva kvarter, eftersom vår vänstra flygel ännu stod i full eld” roughly translated as “all but a few hundred were massacred, as initially quarters could not be given, since our left flank was still in full assault”.
From Alexander Magnus Dahlberg's (Dragoon at Buchwalds dragoonregiment) diary:
Roughly translated to:
The road to Saxony was open for King Charles XII of Sweden. King August II of Poland gave up his claim on the Polish crown, although he remained Elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony. He would later regain the Polish throne in 1709. The prisoners taken by the Swedes during the battle that were of German, French and Swiss nationality were immediately reorganized into the ranks of the Swedish army. The Saxon prisoners were shipped to Sweden, where they formed a regiment and three battalions. This regiment made a good effort at the Battle of Helsingborg in 1710.
See also
Campaign of Grodno
Swedish invasion of Poland (1701–1706)
References
https://www.wfgamers.org.uk/great-northern-war/gnw-battle-of-fraustadt
Conflicts in 1706
1706 in Europe
Battles of the Great Northern War
Battles involving Poland
Battles involving Russia
Battles involving Saxony
Battles involving Sweden | [
-0.8972745537757874,
0.14977627992630005,
0.49668028950691223,
0.0694475919008255,
-0.4762919843196869,
0.40684667229652405,
1.0117735862731934,
-0.15722313523292542,
-0.4212464988231659,
-0.5596306920051575,
0.15479640662670135,
-0.008914850652217865,
0.08518393337726593,
0.7739463448524475,
-0.41535866260528564,
0.15938334167003632,
0.7955545783042908,
-0.05937483534216881,
-0.03134819492697716,
-0.6516998410224915,
0.49252334237098694,
-0.5958849787712097,
0.3250068128108978,
0.7342945337295532,
0.19540877640247345,
-0.19252809882164001,
0.19436976313591003,
-0.09003791958093643,
0.7474501132965088,
0.015388309955596924,
-0.1560651957988739,
0.6973118782043457,
0.045487817376852036,
-0.09671351313591003,
-0.49092990159988403,
-0.059113018214702606,
-0.3261468708515167,
-0.06568532437086105,
-0.21152684092521667,
-0.39221587777137756,
-0.34237557649612427,
0.7789459824562073,
0.154339998960495,
0.09968198090791702,
0.03709523752331734,
-0.09893736988306046,
-1.656927466392517,
-0.16385583579540253,
-0.7461663484573364,
-0.3670867681503296,
0.03526019677519798,
0.4447610378265381,
0.5390452742576599,
1.1267924308776855,
-0.480331689119339,
0.23970092833042145,
-1.2185934782028198,
-0.4668019711971283,
0.49624720215797424,
-0.03353646770119667,
0.80506831407547,
0.2092023491859436,
-0.15937498211860657,
-0.2756649851799011,
-0.33141207695007324,
-0.30015191435813904,
0.36477842926979065,
0.9468042254447937,
0.3234233856201172,
-0.6277682185173035,
0.16511237621307373,
-0.12649931013584137,
0.1287543773651123,
-0.02286572754383087,
0.31911972165107727,
-0.6522819399833679,
-0.10087063908576965,
0.15612123906612396,
-0.2598661482334137,
-0.5979259014129639,
-0.1747686266899109,
-0.5108829140663147,
0.8880038857460022,
-0.4728994071483612,
0.8670480251312256,
0.2934113144874573,
-0.5095755457878113,
-0.3416467010974884,
-0.8079579472541809,
0.3781595528125763,
0.3982914388179779,
-0.28488728404045105,
-0.01690695434808731,
0.19381067156791687,
0.0428280234336853,
0.24477587640285492,
0.0859001949429512,
0.20159798860549927,
0.0325092114508152,
0.5471293330192566,
0.1559564769268036,
0.8364616632461548,
0.6153426766395569,
0.330884724855423,
-0.25481176376342773,
-0.24652604758739471,
0.3608022630214691,
-0.4542892277240753,
-0.3709609806537628,
-0.8146103024482727,
-0.14481337368488312,
0.24045097827911377,
-0.291151762008667,
-0.29264751076698303,
-0.5495668053627014,
0.23624292016029358,
0.8306115865707397,
-0.48942646384239197,
0.4545048773288727,
0.38406550884246826,
0.1958942413330078,
1.0112855434417725,
-0.44228625297546387,
0.5250105857849121,
-0.4335203468799591,
-0.07373061031103134,
0.11419317871332169,
0.34535518288612366,
-0.10254451632499695,
0.42478007078170776,
-0.134170264005661,
1.456297755241394,
0.196145161986351,
-0.1638053059577942,
-0.19001424312591553,
0.27848491072654724,
0.743141233921051,
0.45887520909309387,
-0.37864112854003906,
-0.4843725562095642,
-0.7668450474739075,
-0.28677481412887573,
-0.6501160264015198,
0.40225160121917725,
0.05941889435052872,
-0.3772166669368744,
-0.3744668662548065,
-0.8008435964584351,
0.25219306349754333,
-0.41279059648513794,
0.12352219223976135,
0.021725350990891457,
-0.5856516361236572,
0.3424709141254425,
-0.2836291193962097,
0.7483420372009277,
0.6776410937309265,
-0.5003818273544312,
0.06105107069015503,
0.612285852432251,
0.410765677690506,
0.25625818967819214,
0.10851113498210907,
0.23457160592079163,
0.08255133032798767,
-0.19069868326187134,
0.6702256798744202,
0.11808814853429794,
-0.06145276129245758,
-0.17438118159770966,
-0.2561136484146118,
0.003082268638536334,
-0.2011719048023224,
-0.04673018679022789,
0.8190963864326477,
0.12464790046215057,
0.8467651009559631,
0.16291214525699615,
0.28188997507095337,
-0.2623728811740875,
-0.6289016604423523,
-0.09067749977111816,
0.5708465576171875,
0.04564930126070976,
1.0208828449249268,
1.046345591545105,
0.21371154487133026,
-0.16989850997924805,
0.12793992459774017,
0.4337267279624939,
-0.010129435919225216,
-0.6964105367660522,
0.4137366712093353,
0.24535274505615234,
1.3430012464523315,
-0.09551510959863663,
-0.6388270854949951,
-0.173055499792099,
0.15945687890052795,
0.6761179566383362,
-0.1857079714536667,
-0.7103344202041626,
0.3789849579334259,
0.4240351915359497,
-0.1957647055387497,
0.5647521615028381,
-0.391106516122818,
0.03134738281369209,
0.05504138022661209,
0.4971977770328522,
0.0985620841383934,
-0.03714624047279358,
-0.1822371929883957,
0.0385173074901104,
0.46130692958831787,
0.025627650320529938,
-0.5895234942436218,
0.13126130402088165,
0.10601633042097092,
-0.4333704113960266,
0.20518191158771515,
-0.10244036465883255,
-0.2514919638633728,
0.864741861820221,
0.24632877111434937,
0.7738280296325684,
-0.027147214859724045,
0.3964948356151581,
-0.11730362474918365,
-1.5971617698669434,
0.38179054856300354,
0.2503400444984436,
0.0716274306178093,
0.014562447555363178,
0.2019127607345581,
-0.2695010304450989,
-0.39681875705718994,
-0.18593256175518036,
0.2245645970106125,
-0.4224354028701782,
0.6158729195594788,
0.395589143037796,
-0.21209417283535004,
0.5472227334976196,
0.09432992339134216,
0.5625649094581604,
0.3911344110965729,
-0.008480583317577839,
-0.3634129762649536,
-0.4738847613334656,
0.14115804433822632,
-0.17486000061035156,
-0.45581114292144775,
-0.6323824524879456,
0.27472203969955444,
-0.5973197221755981,
0.15251906216144562,
-0.21068015694618225,
0.03398064151406288,
0.363945335149765,
0.21290086209774017,
-0.4057835340499878,
0.17904509603977203,
0.014787436462938786,
0.33563536405563354,
-0.26231443881988525,
-0.4016990661621094,
-0.24700051546096802,
-0.0805058553814888,
-0.14913779497146606,
0.17027954757213593,
-0.44145193696022034,
-0.2538588345050812,
-1.1134331226348877,
0.1960880011320114,
-0.445924311876297,
-0.7401840686798096,
0.32308462262153625,
0.0851602703332901,
-0.07529568672180176,
-0.04903551936149597,
0.8352207541465759,
-0.06829799711704254,
-0.14876826107501984,
0.20204785466194153,
0.5925318598747253,
0.8506271839141846,
0.33428090810775757,
-0.17639486491680145,
-0.27574893832206726,
0.05894991755485535,
-0.03806475177407265,
-0.5617411732673645,
0.2680923342704773,
0.3589697480201721,
0.6407036781311035,
-0.5002200603485107,
-0.1910962164402008,
0.6195645928382874,
0.044538840651512146,
-0.4862116575241089,
0.4453265964984894,
-0.8306297063827515,
-0.18069888651371002,
-0.18317775428295135,
-1.0694628953933716,
-0.06858697533607483,
0.20317234098911285,
-5.098308086395264,
-0.20566920936107635,
-0.11214419454336166,
-0.07293932139873505,
-0.28390419483184814,
-0.23676957190036774,
0.5286462306976318,
-0.3244009017944336,
0.1057857796549797,
0.49387916922569275,
0.12799105048179626,
-0.6275309920310974,
-0.16497133672237396,
0.27131104469299316,
0.5169082880020142,
0.20732121169567108,
0.5471161007881165,
-0.3443194031715393,
-0.028743358328938484,
-0.39721882343292236,
0.2725752890110016,
0.05299190804362297,
0.05661548301577568,
0.3469073176383972,
0.3418579399585724,
0.178214892745018,
0.13292530179023743,
-0.17047637701034546,
-0.3986685276031494,
0.019443098455667496,
0.01604277268052101,
-0.3098891079425812,
0.1664622277021408,
-0.060711443424224854,
-0.5387320518493652,
-0.08847049623727798,
0.8361297249794006,
0.8577444553375244,
0.30367666482925415,
-0.45715412497520447,
0.3438892364501953,
0.7668565511703491,
-0.6096681952476501,
0.06470620632171631,
0.885934591293335,
-0.8381896615028381,
-0.46985098719596863,
0.6369502544403076,
-0.7351389527320862,
0.906988799571991,
0.488362580537796,
-0.4285648763179779,
0.1946599930524826,
-0.2831965684890747,
0.40242883563041687,
-0.328355610370636,
-0.2086387425661087,
-0.14260341227054596,
0.36284658312797546,
0.03333013877272606,
-0.3220520317554474,
-0.19009527564048767,
0.2697387635707855,
-0.4527438282966614,
0.19036661088466644,
-0.22924774885177612,
0.4141242504119873,
0.09791496396064758,
0.5291857123374939,
0.04044156149029732,
0.39838075637817383,
1.2139337062835693,
-0.1313210427761078,
-1.0025882720947266,
-0.09100312739610672,
-0.08893478661775589,
-0.6359887719154358,
-0.5008746981620789,
0.09161683171987534,
-0.017915550619363785,
0.44020527601242065,
-0.2606014013290405,
-0.1856929063796997,
0.41743460297584534,
0.9006754159927368,
0.28013911843299866,
-0.7738205194473267,
0.009790503419935703,
-0.7071666121482849,
-0.42406582832336426,
0.23244750499725342,
-0.6317865252494812,
-0.3704931437969208,
0.3241334855556488,
-0.46156787872314453,
0.8349670767784119,
-0.6538106799125671,
-0.5310969352722168,
0.2978415787220001,
0.34674525260925293,
0.4736528992652893,
-0.2916807532310486,
-0.18322359025478363,
-0.48963627219200134,
0.09137410670518875,
-0.001813952112570405,
-0.32877352833747864,
0.5426672697067261,
0.7698595523834229,
0.5953957438468933,
-0.3424986004829407,
-0.043441738933324814,
0.07106217741966248,
-0.7490512728691101,
0.4411357641220093,
-0.8363145589828491,
0.06496993452310562,
0.8712393641471863,
0.37514135241508484,
-0.30317166447639465,
0.45717859268188477,
-0.1292600780725479,
-0.14788104593753815,
-0.4476093351840973,
-0.22920478880405426,
-0.3986477553844452,
-0.32956233620643616,
-0.05804239958524704,
-0.6454330682754517,
0.44450798630714417,
-0.26202473044395447,
-0.005580908618867397,
-0.13390783965587616,
0.16402406990528107,
0.0893658921122551,
-0.5790435671806335,
-0.05877445265650749,
-0.8202925324440002,
0.3343234062194824,
-0.09089210629463196,
0.28411224484443665,
-0.05122729763388634,
-0.46821802854537964,
-0.1332949548959732,
-0.8296740055084229,
0.24562016129493713,
0.572699785232544,
-0.7260323166847229,
-0.3443339467048645,
0.6517170667648315,
-0.9463382363319397,
-0.4491986632347107,
0.6210755109786987,
0.25861477851867676,
-0.31319907307624817,
-0.26696038246154785,
0.3262728750705719,
0.3723122179508209,
0.13100528717041016,
-0.17587080597877502,
-0.15929703414440155,
0.5705087184906006,
-0.9900563955307007,
0.10795120149850845,
-0.27551698684692383,
-0.6034933924674988,
-0.4358188509941101,
-0.6523330211639404,
-0.37137746810913086,
0.4748702347278595,
0.05516556650400162,
-0.14354532957077026,
-0.6490998268127441,
0.33276069164276123,
0.2404993623495102,
-0.32290181517601013,
0.10554544627666473,
0.16225796937942505,
-0.37485331296920776,
-0.6013246774673462,
0.12508173286914825,
0.36984190344810486,
0.0713568925857544,
0.6396586298942566,
0.552982747554779,
-0.04589919373393059,
-0.2711499333381653,
0.15857954323291779,
-0.41748398542404175,
0.15832631289958954,
-0.01390860415995121,
0.012645737268030643,
-0.18422073125839233,
0.23955564200878143,
-0.24531158804893494,
-0.7724704742431641,
-0.3866853713989258,
-0.18564920127391815,
-0.07726482301950455,
-0.3670889437198639,
0.16532933712005615,
0.7104781270027161,
-0.6907759308815002,
0.21062561869621277,
-0.039801351726055145,
-0.654704749584198,
0.4769914448261261,
0.7066699862480164,
-0.48371025919914246,
0.5546562671661377,
-0.19031274318695068,
-0.526903510093689,
-0.17071013152599335,
0.4585566818714142,
-0.3115667700767517,
-0.16342321038246155,
0.08548621833324432,
-0.17958977818489075,
-0.3343788683414459,
0.10109464824199677,
-0.5151483416557312,
-0.053586918860673904,
-0.9445837736129761,
-0.39879143238067627,
-0.8361772298812866,
0.34655997157096863,
-0.010475371964275837,
-0.2932560443878174,
0.6474823951721191,
0.09732387214899063,
-0.2902560234069824,
-0.20755577087402344,
0.3743894696235657,
0.1251741647720337,
0.09587405622005463,
-0.23056620359420776,
0.36915868520736694,
-0.1258808821439743,
-0.18629099428653717,
0.587677001953125,
0.5474911332130432,
0.626581609249115,
0.7049517631530762,
-0.2716214954853058,
0.1545758843421936,
-0.16756312549114227,
0.1620752513408661,
-0.1498582363128662,
-0.5297373533248901,
-0.12759341299533844,
-0.3321587145328522,
0.08697684109210968,
-0.8833677768707275,
-0.26450833678245544,
0.8019418120384216,
-0.23672577738761902,
0.05736468732357025,
0.6183995604515076,
-0.0552898533642292,
0.12719912827014923,
-0.3489029109477997,
0.5214031338691711,
-0.09640922397375107,
-0.22974860668182373,
0.1989644318819046,
0.1710549294948578,
-0.7237096428871155,
-0.7371840476989746,
-0.35702502727508545,
0.1607585847377777,
0.3672756850719452,
-0.546128511428833,
0.11956212669610977,
-0.4847199022769928,
0.8383176326751709,
0.387376070022583,
-0.25220417976379395,
-0.520261824131012,
0.5775956511497498,
-0.18367180228233337,
-0.019654395058751106,
-0.40103834867477417,
-0.2633275091648102,
-0.8501030802726746,
-0.13018852472305298,
-0.743256151676178,
-0.5778574347496033,
-0.013249186798930168,
-0.2738597095012665,
0.7427370548248291,
0.2172708362340927,
-0.2230987399816513,
-0.6081575751304626,
0.47366735339164734,
0.76894211769104,
0.4180161654949188,
-0.33283618092536926,
0.3821200430393219,
-0.5566176772117615,
0.4314572513103485,
-1.0809344053268433,
0.7344596982002258,
0.3792269825935364,
-0.470833420753479,
0.41186556220054626,
0.7055801153182983,
-0.39438414573669434,
0.09246646612882614,
-0.4151366353034973,
-0.09647928178310394,
0.5018364191055298,
0.006849190220236778,
-0.4415212571620941,
0.1398831158876419,
-0.5201139450073242,
-0.08692309260368347,
0.41119152307510376,
-0.04164975881576538,
-0.13889406621456146,
-0.14702017605304718,
0.30445852875709534,
-0.8608140349388123,
0.7463515400886536,
0.34371668100357056,
-0.38810139894485474,
0.8504586815834045,
0.010000171139836311,
-0.0037691164761781693,
-0.3364947438240051,
-0.14562582969665527,
0.22314493358135223,
0.470851331949234,
-0.5560370087623596,
0.6440126895904541,
-0.5013919472694397,
0.42150869965553284,
-0.13435354828834534,
-0.8983039259910583,
-0.11832527071237564,
0.4219188690185547,
0.0086338110268116,
0.9733157157897949,
-0.29877769947052,
-0.39627793431282043,
-0.2973003089427948,
0.23810505867004395,
-0.4469859302043915,
-0.16080906987190247,
0.8253527879714966,
-0.2005416303873062,
0.8710947632789612,
0.1613331139087677,
0.009930520318448544,
-0.8689039349555969,
0.12024784088134766,
0.22230808436870575,
0.3829905390739441,
-0.04937518760561943,
-0.10574311017990112,
-0.5082244277000427,
0.3891369700431824,
-0.5556665658950806,
0.32560139894485474,
0.23519088327884674,
-0.7429865598678589,
0.05365806072950363,
-0.25583070516586304,
0.43268048763275146,
0.07395297288894653,
0.17686806619167328,
0.5957481861114502,
-0.5376080870628357,
0.12460248172283173,
-0.4136018753051758,
0.7382025122642517,
-0.11857328563928604,
0.25764200091362,
-0.19732558727264404,
0.499318391084671,
0.2756834030151367,
-0.2712273597717285,
0.31362974643707275,
-0.42632660269737244,
-0.1054498553276062,
-0.15566204488277435,
-0.7135264873504639,
-0.3793778121471405,
-0.07327006012201309,
0.4534620940685272,
-1.250410795211792,
0.15340130031108856,
-0.4224439561367035,
0.5663294196128845,
0.01675095409154892,
-0.5522632598876953,
0.032287321984767914,
-0.08443880826234818,
0.5184026956558228,
0.12135329842567444,
-0.43907955288887024,
0.014854341745376587,
0.22326382994651794,
-0.10110028833150864,
0.6414909958839417,
-0.24680711328983307,
1.1578540802001953,
-0.49217987060546875,
0.5237820744514465,
0.3514494001865387,
0.6292303800582886,
0.2210659682750702,
-0.2895856201648712,
-0.3118562698364258,
0.14340239763259888,
-0.33055800199508667,
-0.6864891648292542,
0.6567108631134033,
-0.3590642511844635,
-0.030397390946745872,
-0.28109946846961975,
0.16343124210834503,
-0.5139198303222656,
0.2528104782104492,
-0.32863345742225647,
0.05570504069328308,
-0.7347508668899536,
-0.001429022173397243,
-0.0319354385137558,
0.17621514201164246,
0.04178369417786598,
0.26214295625686646,
0.16399726271629333,
-0.09370487928390503,
-0.16705907881259918,
-0.7675227522850037,
-0.08747665584087372,
1.0511696338653564,
0.3129889667034149,
0.6730069518089294,
-0.3560536503791809,
0.4278380572795868,
-0.5118741989135742,
0.4442940652370453,
0.1601644903421402,
-1.3074864149093628,
0.018776288256049156,
0.2420605570077896,
-0.16466425359249115,
0.5017422437667847,
0.6885862350463867,
0.13587847352027893,
0.09087534993886948,
0.709775984287262,
-0.32998520135879517,
-0.34082895517349243,
0.1370508372783661,
-0.7733421921730042,
-0.6501928567886353,
-0.23409582674503326,
-0.012418068945407867
] |
247959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willow%20tit | Willow tit | The willow tit (Poecile montanus) is a passerine bird in the tit family, Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder throughout temperate and subarctic Europe and across the Palearctic. The plumage is grey-brown and off-white with a black cap and bib. It is more of a conifer specialist than the closely related marsh tit, which explains it breeding much further north. It is resident, and most birds do not migrate.
Taxonomy
The willow tit was described in 1827 by the Swiss naturalist Thomas Conrad von Baldenstein under the trinomial name Parus cinereus montanus. The type locality is the mountain forests in the Canton of Grisons, Switzerland. The willow tit is now placed in the genus Poecile that was erected by the German naturalist Johann Jakob Kaup in 1829. The genus name, Poecile, is the Ancient Greek name for a now unidentifiable small bird, and the specific montanus is Latin for "of the mountains".
Poecile was at one time treated as a subgenus within the genus Parus but molecular taxonomic analysis, using both nuclear and mitochondrial genes, supports Poecile as a distinct clade. Within Poecile, most of the Old World species (including the willow tit) form a separate clade from the New World chickadees. The taxonomic analysis has shown that the willow tit is sister to the Caspian tit (Poecile hyrcanus).
The willow tit was formerly considered conspecific with the black-capped chickadee of North America due to their very similar appearance. This is seen in an older version of the Peterson Field Guide, Birds of Britain and Europe. Underneath the name it states; "N Am. Black-Capped Chickadee" as an alternate name. In fact the willow tit, black-capped chickadee, marsh tit and Carolina chickadee are all very similar to one another in appearance.
There are 14 recognised subspecies:
P. m. kleinschmidti (Hellmayr, 1900) – Britain
P. m. rhenanus (O. Kleinschmidt, 1900) – northwest France to west Germany, north Switzerland and north Italy
P. m. montanus (Conrad von Baldenstein, 1827) – southeast France to Romania, Bulgaria and Greece
P. m. salicarius (C. L. Brehm, 1831) – Germany and west Poland to northeast Switzerland and Austria
P. m. borealis (de Sélys-Longchamps, 1843) – Scandinavia south to Ukraine
P. m. uralensis (Grote, 1927) – southeast European Russia, west Siberia and Kazakhstan
P. m. baicalensis R. Swinhoe, 1871 east central and east Siberia, north Mongolia, north China and north Korea
P. m. anadyrensis (Belopolski, 1932) northeast Siberia
P. m. kamtschatkensis Bonaparte, 1850 – Kamchatka Peninsula and north Kuril Islands
P. m. sachalinensis (Lönnberg, 1908) – Sakhalin Island and south Kuril Islands
P. m. restrictus (Hellmayr, 1900) – Japan
P. m. songarus (Severtsov, 1873) – southeast Kazakhstan to Kyrgyzstan and northwest China
P. m. affinis Przewalski, 1876 – north central China
P. m. stoetzneri (O. Kleinschmidt, 1921) – northeast China
The Sichuan tit (Poecile weigoldicus) was formerly treated as a subspecies of the willow tit. It was promoted to species status based on a 2002 phylogenetic analysis that compared DNA sequences from the mitochondrial cytochrome-b gene. The single locus results were later confirmed by a larger multi-locus analysis published in 2017.
Description
The willow tit is in length, has a wingspan of and weighs around .
In the east of its range it is much paler than marsh tit, but as one goes west the various races become increasingly similar, so much so that it was not recognised as a breeding bird in Great Britain until the end of the 19th century, despite being widespread.
The willow tit is distinguished from the marsh tit by a sooty brown instead of a glossy blue black cap; the general colour is otherwise similar, though the under parts are more buff and the flanks distinctly more rufous; the pale buff edgings to the secondaries form a light patch on the closed wing. The feathers of the crown and the black bib under the bill are longer, but this is not an easily noticed character. However, the more graduated tail (not square) shows distinctly when spread.
The commonest call is a nasal , , , but the notes of the bird evidently vary considerably. Occasionally a double note, , , is repeated four or five times.
Behaviour and ecology
Breeding
The willow tit excavates its own nesting hole, even piercing hard bark; this is usually in a rotten stump or in a tree, more or less decayed. Most nests examined are cups of felted material, such as fur, hair and wood chips, but feathers are sometimes used. The number of eggs varies from six to nine, with reddish spots or blotches.
In a study using ring-recovery data carried out in northern Finland, the survival rate for juveniles for their first year was 0.58, and the subsequent adult annual survival rate was 0.64. For birds that survive the first year the typical lifespan is thus only three years. The maximum recorded age is 11 years; this has been recorded for a bird in Finland and for another near Nottingham in England.
Food and feeding
Birds feed on insects, caterpillars, and seeds, much like other tits. This species is parasitised by the moorhen flea, Dasypsyllus gallinulae.
Status
The willow tit has an extremely large range with an estimated population of between 175 and 253 million mature individuals. This large population appears to be slowly decreasing but the decline is not sufficiently rapid to approach the threshold of vulnerability. The species is therefore classed as of least-concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. In contrast, the number in the United Kingdom declined by 83% between 1995 and 2017. There was also a contraction in the range. The rapid decline is believed be due to three factors: habitat loss, competition for nest holes by other tits particularly blue tits, and nest predation by the great spotted woodpecker. Over the same period, the number of great spotted woodpeckers increased fourfold.
References
Sources
External links
Xeno-canto: audio recordings of the willow tit
willow tit
Birds of Eurasia
willow tit | [
-0.2669411599636078,
-0.24039798974990845,
-0.8730089068412781,
-0.47662466764450073,
0.3527129888534546,
0.950425922870636,
0.6193432211875916,
0.6474571824073792,
-0.38586121797561646,
0.06917016953229904,
-0.1993449628353119,
0.1685819774866104,
-0.9847670793533325,
-0.20079074800014496,
-0.5099106431007385,
0.26687219738960266,
0.8027295470237732,
0.33466827869415283,
0.3980185091495514,
-0.4971799850463867,
-0.24200892448425293,
-0.37287527322769165,
0.3914825916290283,
-0.58807772397995,
0.18936818838119507,
0.2132999449968338,
0.4829506278038025,
0.6268618106842041,
0.4710754156112671,
0.2036702036857605,
-0.39942237734794617,
0.7317519187927246,
0.490750789642334,
-0.4728514850139618,
-0.002108009299263358,
-0.014650125987827778,
-0.04664332792162895,
-0.5091086030006409,
-0.19436825811862946,
-0.3986818790435791,
0.30268630385398865,
-0.5397163033485413,
-0.0803193524479866,
-0.03853342682123184,
-0.5545801520347595,
-0.6466948390007019,
-1.5990846157073975,
0.5286746621131897,
-0.331959068775177,
0.36569640040397644,
-0.46203652024269104,
0.5834360122680664,
0.16167223453521729,
0.31119149923324585,
0.4443591833114624,
0.20437069237232208,
-0.8189162611961365,
0.007406352553516626,
0.10340070724487305,
-0.3696111738681793,
-0.6886228919029236,
0.13317739963531494,
0.2346603274345398,
0.35940301418304443,
-0.11590135842561722,
0.4426669776439667,
0.2880643606185913,
-0.26296475529670715,
-0.26897719502449036,
0.0017124149017035961,
0.11307212710380554,
-0.17655621469020844,
-0.25036996603012085,
0.5007041692733765,
-0.30234307050704956,
0.23766463994979858,
-0.2590016722679138,
0.16282933950424194,
0.6228554844856262,
0.2687181532382965,
0.15865042805671692,
0.4403500258922577,
1.3941282033920288,
0.09955989569425583,
0.18112283945083618,
-0.049402981996536255,
-0.35666561126708984,
0.5021965503692627,
-0.22188106179237366,
-0.08313609659671783,
-0.5992438197135925,
-0.24444438517093658,
0.03135932981967926,
0.4063092768192291,
-0.3870096802711487,
-0.2558399438858032,
-0.5353633761405945,
-0.04876506328582764,
0.5300545692443848,
-0.07877949625253677,
0.3152644634246826,
0.08044356107711792,
0.599776029586792,
-0.3697606921195984,
-0.8685362339019775,
0.20181962847709656,
-0.34449103474617004,
-0.34498271346092224,
-0.11384625732898712,
0.23701025545597076,
-0.7903262972831726,
0.06901660561561584,
0.38330787420272827,
0.218605637550354,
0.3857760429382324,
1.0118526220321655,
0.3606100082397461,
-0.16188369691371918,
-0.1902923882007599,
-0.1405884325504303,
0.6031743288040161,
0.3575146794319153,
-0.09764125198125839,
0.3690324127674103,
0.4980737566947937,
0.8349554538726807,
0.49833741784095764,
0.5171191096305847,
-0.27442023158073425,
0.5968710780143738,
0.33936500549316406,
1.3808090686798096,
-0.39266514778137207,
-0.3114188611507416,
-0.13106313347816467,
-0.46337905526161194,
-0.3480527400970459,
-0.16592958569526672,
1.022133708000183,
0.6958299875259399,
-1.0750163793563843,
0.40207797288894653,
-0.43135032057762146,
-0.367771714925766,
0.1667642444372177,
0.4842357337474823,
-0.2529869079589844,
-0.6090606451034546,
-0.1921435296535492,
-0.4660402536392212,
0.08062577992677689,
-0.2156672179698944,
0.2528410851955414,
-0.07660660892724991,
-0.610052227973938,
-0.48529553413391113,
0.6325225830078125,
-0.06780632585287094,
0.5522750020027161,
0.09093786031007767,
-0.11697614938020706,
0.40286439657211304,
-0.2536572217941284,
-0.0787002295255661,
-0.1442883461713791,
0.07712540030479431,
-0.06585205346345901,
0.08424396067857742,
0.11736464500427246,
0.30523791909217834,
-0.2685862183570862,
0.5886082649230957,
0.7990190386772156,
0.33132609724998474,
-0.3684869408607483,
-0.4960096776485443,
-0.2378588765859604,
0.08533532917499542,
0.08317270874977112,
-0.031140867620706558,
-0.6128215789794922,
0.21352723240852356,
0.4175835847854614,
-0.24162481725215912,
0.4887615144252777,
0.31193214654922485,
0.31301450729370117,
0.3193023204803467,
0.4657406508922577,
-0.8619793057441711,
-0.44774794578552246,
-0.07801477611064911,
0.2877643406391144,
0.014979886822402477,
0.6044538617134094,
-0.2246471494436264,
-0.5023846626281738,
0.305105984210968,
0.3424700200557709,
0.05045777186751366,
-0.04141714423894882,
-0.6445369720458984,
0.6514914631843567,
0.0597502626478672,
-1.0951755046844482,
0.3424278199672699,
-0.3853316009044647,
0.2660128176212311,
0.2300003319978714,
-0.2984035611152649,
0.23403649032115936,
-0.4646201729774475,
-0.08427735418081284,
-0.06480623781681061,
-0.3246888220310211,
-0.35346922278404236,
-0.19072896242141724,
0.11064428091049194,
0.3035551607608795,
-0.1076381579041481,
0.9095298051834106,
-0.28972128033638,
-0.10453984886407852,
0.3499503433704376,
0.06721475720405579,
0.8801330924034119,
0.337043821811676,
-0.24853692948818207,
0.5272445678710938,
-0.3331046402454376,
-0.5300246477127075,
0.01706150732934475,
0.17906314134597778,
-0.25671184062957764,
-0.17807918787002563,
0.11059285700321198,
-0.03907144069671631,
-0.6145948767662048,
0.4010431170463562,
0.024869076907634735,
0.3615209460258484,
0.42734211683273315,
-0.25418439507484436,
0.36798912286758423,
0.16592681407928467,
-0.0958452820777893,
-0.32885387539863586,
0.1942220777273178,
0.20789633691310883,
0.10225319862365723,
0.34493136405944824,
0.5148518085479736,
0.0119758490473032,
0.0413789376616478,
-0.28414931893348694,
0.4079000949859619,
0.39195480942726135,
0.4640193581581116,
0.3231462836265564,
0.07167961448431015,
-0.30384066700935364,
0.2753366231918335,
-0.00935888011008501,
0.5338394641876221,
-0.1191745400428772,
-0.29547709226608276,
-0.3056463897228241,
0.122035913169384,
0.4660130441188812,
0.21009638905525208,
0.9943367838859558,
-0.1659027338027954,
-0.5865172147750854,
0.2645260691642761,
-0.13667361438274384,
-0.16411076486110687,
-0.35129445791244507,
-0.4181855320930481,
-0.8453944325447083,
-0.5034849643707275,
-0.0520792230963707,
0.7772133946418762,
0.3725992739200592,
-0.06246611848473549,
-0.11217793822288513,
-0.1696944385766983,
0.6416701674461365,
-0.2897302508354187,
-0.2416497766971588,
-0.8602777719497681,
-0.4490726590156555,
0.24596945941448212,
0.302053302526474,
0.34470197558403015,
-1.1687510013580322,
-0.1471938043832779,
0.13567344844341278,
0.9187445640563965,
0.4357030689716339,
-0.49070000648498535,
-0.09651841223239899,
0.21680912375450134,
-0.15714934468269348,
0.1695319265127182,
0.27550917863845825,
-0.08146370947360992,
0.31151559948921204,
-0.06586438417434692,
-5.317958831787109,
0.4087260663509369,
0.1298711597919464,
-0.6432611346244812,
0.18369928002357483,
0.23690903186798096,
-0.057981718331575394,
-0.546899139881134,
-0.34731003642082214,
0.14480610191822052,
0.6389903426170349,
0.01106396783143282,
-0.2472056746482849,
0.06340239197015762,
0.9061069488525391,
-0.11929063498973846,
-0.35244205594062805,
-0.3295755982398987,
0.600575864315033,
-0.22194018959999084,
0.19487734138965607,
0.4605497419834137,
-0.15400025248527527,
0.36713454127311707,
-0.014938831329345703,
-0.12124012410640717,
0.10184429585933685,
-1.107156753540039,
-0.5349923968315125,
-0.2027389407157898,
-0.17608799040317535,
-0.41483816504478455,
-0.26150354743003845,
0.10820604860782623,
-0.0789879783987999,
-0.336134672164917,
0.6681295037269592,
0.03114406019449234,
0.3387092649936676,
-0.559014618396759,
-0.1840984970331192,
0.06005581468343735,
0.31726863980293274,
0.3344026803970337,
0.20028288662433624,
0.21766337752342224,
-0.4171253740787506,
-0.6345729827880859,
-0.15021635591983795,
0.7908753752708435,
-0.13579441606998444,
0.07289214432239532,
0.46005943417549133,
0.41034775972366333,
0.37045562267303467,
0.07824595272541046,
-0.22067870199680328,
-0.17193301022052765,
-0.9299851655960083,
0.4191066026687622,
0.16255420446395874,
-0.304218053817749,
-0.11540874093770981,
-0.7555862665176392,
0.11201121658086777,
0.225160613656044,
-0.6815391778945923,
0.370238721370697,
0.7400414943695068,
-0.19150325655937195,
-0.09371921420097351,
-0.36232760548591614,
-0.571930468082428,
-1.1705539226531982,
0.8088816404342651,
-0.48773816227912903,
-0.21363985538482666,
0.07519514858722687,
-0.6281901597976685,
-0.1276819258928299,
0.17919765412807465,
-0.5036802291870117,
0.21069970726966858,
0.04748308286070824,
0.42688748240470886,
-0.5640379190444946,
-0.7355549335479736,
-0.521676242351532,
0.01241359207779169,
-0.4312662184238434,
0.4999127686023712,
-0.2655773162841797,
-0.3754548132419586,
0.07929631322622299,
1.124234914779663,
0.5413111448287964,
0.40376147627830505,
0.28433817625045776,
0.18419556319713593,
0.028656885027885437,
0.42741432785987854,
-0.1418825387954712,
-0.007031198125332594,
-0.3743090033531189,
-0.07853911817073822,
-0.5538564324378967,
-0.00686461478471756,
0.34350085258483887,
0.7668260931968689,
-0.34577611088752747,
0.5306572914123535,
-0.8000397086143494,
-0.4626931846141815,
-0.07443773746490479,
-0.41107434034347534,
0.06605227291584015,
0.38556015491485596,
0.11168686300516129,
0.3716496229171753,
0.33317306637763977,
-0.05223053693771362,
-0.4905000329017639,
0.1579774171113968,
-0.4530397057533264,
-0.23575814068317413,
-0.6942071318626404,
-0.1202138289809227,
-0.06969676166772842,
-0.8723249435424805,
-0.8733334541320801,
-0.09291375428438187,
-0.4014981985092163,
-0.1868152916431427,
-0.20626144111156464,
-0.32943955063819885,
0.07231290638446808,
-0.47985708713531494,
0.0974586009979248,
0.44284701347351074,
0.2425224930047989,
-0.5710967779159546,
-0.23763108253479004,
-0.4557182192802429,
0.194949209690094,
0.8967387676239014,
0.1206519827246666,
-0.7472829222679138,
-0.46454760432243347,
-0.6492944955825806,
0.8820574283599854,
0.387628436088562,
-0.5980579853057861,
0.4682128429412842,
-0.444985568523407,
0.34219709038734436,
0.2758057415485382,
0.1599581390619278,
0.3353721797466278,
-0.07145694643259048,
-0.14925776422023773,
-0.6095598340034485,
-0.16048835217952728,
-0.6223133206367493,
0.33762916922569275,
0.3623065650463104,
-0.49363118410110474,
-0.2081991583108902,
-0.23282858729362488,
-0.17869360744953156,
0.5026147961616516,
0.5332051515579224,
0.32486507296562195,
-0.38499167561531067,
0.790567934513092,
-0.08771606534719467,
0.08386687934398651,
-0.39114952087402344,
0.17787271738052368,
-0.08225734531879425,
0.11077350378036499,
-0.332046240568161,
0.23707763850688934,
-0.36609727144241333,
0.1085934042930603,
0.7126469016075134,
-0.7164947390556335,
0.2753416895866394,
-0.017818046733736992,
0.1482856571674347,
0.0447019562125206,
0.39542728662490845,
0.2171233594417572,
0.2429801970720291,
-0.08950954675674438,
-0.5083699822425842,
-0.19439797103405,
-0.42409250140190125,
0.6199294924736023,
-0.25588148832321167,
-0.5943800806999207,
-0.15390631556510925,
-0.24992869794368744,
-0.32097190618515015,
-0.18041417002677917,
-0.21968306601047516,
-0.7506936192512512,
0.7083439230918884,
-0.2710847854614258,
-0.743640124797821,
0.545032799243927,
0.16732405126094818,
-0.17873728275299072,
0.19092045724391937,
0.7269225120544434,
0.03808171674609184,
0.09654358774423599,
-0.38853809237480164,
0.1395018994808197,
-0.6292173862457275,
-0.4728949964046478,
-0.2351476103067398,
-0.6387699842453003,
0.20227265357971191,
-0.35054174065589905,
-0.7077045440673828,
-0.373733788728714,
0.42001578211784363,
-0.1696246862411499,
0.7586700320243835,
-0.31275415420532227,
-0.16132211685180664,
-0.131352961063385,
0.32118651270866394,
-0.09559649974107742,
-0.12227924168109894,
-0.04766739159822464,
-0.43752214312553406,
-0.44590920209884644,
0.27293914556503296,
0.8579024076461792,
0.4142058193683624,
1.3861148357391357,
0.14948002994060516,
-0.30785250663757324,
-0.42247578501701355,
-0.052392564713954926,
0.2921912670135498,
-0.46191030740737915,
-1.2444475889205933,
-0.20613433420658112,
0.7187227606773376,
0.05446568876504898,
-0.20301099121570587,
0.38835859298706055,
0.7732710242271423,
-0.44889506697654724,
-0.2727566063404083,
0.1489269882440567,
0.023290175944566727,
0.7466667294502258,
0.07433827966451645,
-0.3005625307559967,
-0.45572808384895325,
0.38469335436820984,
0.04597650468349457,
-0.12960848212242126,
-0.5367578268051147,
-0.03142031282186508,
-0.25061938166618347,
-0.6308203339576721,
0.3742343485355377,
-0.04258685186505318,
0.28114256262779236,
-0.12853050231933594,
-0.25887149572372437,
-0.030749961733818054,
0.11499302834272385,
-0.627032458782196,
0.35653018951416016,
0.3945176899433136,
-0.29794058203697205,
0.03283054381608963,
0.5574947595596313,
0.10390601307153702,
-0.1731368899345398,
-0.03645304962992668,
-0.031574808061122894,
-0.40075501799583435,
-0.00025287235621362925,
-0.3303123414516449,
-0.8970843553543091,
0.07253741472959518,
-0.2236761599779129,
0.08769293874502182,
0.37848564982414246,
0.7063280344009399,
0.5031890273094177,
0.11840995401144028,
-0.08197125047445297,
0.24225880205631256,
-0.8907963633537292,
0.03421609476208687,
0.9522705078125,
-0.5071199536323547,
-0.12791681289672852,
-0.3129897713661194,
-0.02949383109807968,
-0.14263896644115448,
-0.7650490403175354,
-0.24828249216079712,
0.793237566947937,
0.014784879051148891,
0.08371198922395706,
0.5648221373558044,
0.11190381646156311,
0.27407610416412354,
-0.03397291898727417,
-0.25000694394111633,
0.17705070972442627,
0.7828510999679565,
0.5548465847969055,
0.1978427916765213,
0.7010530233383179,
0.2529500424861908,
0.060973506420850754,
0.6647771000862122,
-0.7510671019554138,
0.12291327863931656,
0.8110611438751221,
0.06543781608343124,
0.3340141475200653,
-0.26425701379776,
0.011107527650892735,
-0.02172054722905159,
0.4253076910972595,
-0.7009427547454834,
-0.12060663849115372,
-0.4675540328025818,
-0.3243618607521057,
0.9510316848754883,
1.578598976135254,
0.24311764538288116,
0.3797726631164551,
0.13969182968139648,
0.3507293164730072,
0.0943383127450943,
0.01241558138281107,
0.3103467524051666,
0.057986464351415634,
-0.018105747178196907,
0.26100367307662964,
0.06984910368919373,
0.10126066952943802,
-0.8908008933067322,
0.5677222013473511,
0.24029827117919922,
-0.2854647636413574,
0.3528529107570648,
0.2453462779521942,
0.249267116189003,
0.3072652220726013,
0.4704754054546356,
-0.4915318787097931,
-0.1216871365904808,
-1.05695641040802,
0.44012993574142456,
-0.46087583899497986,
-0.10010919719934464,
-0.6108185052871704,
0.16298671066761017,
0.303970605134964,
0.19771386682987213,
-0.09271503984928131,
0.21802572906017303,
-0.06435846537351608,
0.052458856254816055,
0.3119005560874939,
0.3359527587890625,
-0.3389795124530792,
-0.3142993748188019,
-0.7048671841621399,
0.1803007870912552,
0.5581381916999817,
-0.37005218863487244,
0.6539205312728882,
-0.18394304811954498,
0.035046301782131195,
-0.29366180300712585,
-0.6834375262260437,
-0.4611184298992157,
-0.25708457827568054,
-0.35692092776298523,
-0.2502175271511078,
-0.3709295094013214,
0.21457722783088684,
-0.489088773727417,
0.3292180895805359,
0.903846025466919,
-0.3305979371070862,
0.06357486546039581,
0.4274834394454956,
-0.1373317390680313,
0.28721940517425537,
0.06854816526174545,
0.12175348401069641,
-0.13900205492973328,
-0.35753995180130005,
0.17413575947284698,
-1.0929615497589111,
0.13323412835597992,
0.9428811073303223,
0.9131034016609192,
0.021283568814396858,
0.0902133509516716,
-0.1828184425830841,
0.14128194749355316,
0.5157678723335266,
0.24094299972057343,
-0.5118141770362854,
-0.5766858458518982,
-0.2857586145401001,
-0.7749224305152893,
0.5282601714134216,
0.029246700927615166,
0.12007681280374527,
0.14088690280914307,
0.6329379677772522,
0.013584090396761894,
-0.7805343866348267,
0.6432117223739624,
-0.42533865571022034,
0.03561260923743248,
-0.041748326271772385,
-0.18834148347377777,
-0.5886735320091248,
-0.6594181060791016,
0.37364256381988525,
0.5670788884162903,
-0.16111771762371063,
-0.46011054515838623,
0.28206387162208557,
-0.1766330897808075,
-0.006316438317298889,
-0.16309264302253723,
0.05584488809108734,
0.09566543251276016,
-0.04993407055735588,
-0.9452459216117859,
-0.7397281527519226,
-0.4674034118652344,
0.16008499264717102,
-0.6011632084846497,
0.1754763275384903,
-0.714582085609436,
-0.2075013965368271,
-0.07150857895612717,
0.33693382143974304,
-0.255207359790802,
-0.31381261348724365,
0.19031764566898346
] |
247960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikoyan-Gurevich%20MiG-25 | Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 | The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 (; NATO reporting name: Foxbat) is a supersonic interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft that is among the fastest military aircraft to enter service. Designed by the Soviet Union's Mikoyan-Gurevich bureau, it is one of the few combat aircraft built primarily using stainless steel. It was to be the last plane designed by Mikhail Gurevich, before his retirement.
The first prototype flew in 1964 and the aircraft entered service in 1970. It has an operational top speed of Mach 2.83. Although its thrust was sufficient to reach Mach 3.2+, its speed was limited to prevent engines from overspeeding at higher air speeds and possibly damaging them beyond repair. The MiG-25 features a powerful radar and four air-to-air missiles and was theoretically capable of a ceiling of . When first seen in reconnaissance photography, the large wings suggested an enormous and highly maneuverable fighter, at a time when U.S. design theories were also evolving towards higher maneuverability due to combat performance in the Vietnam War. The appearance of the MiG-25 sparked serious concern in the West and prompted dramatic increases in performance for the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, then under development in the late 1960s. The capabilities of the MiG-25 were better understood by the West in 1976 when Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected in a MiG-25 to the United States via Japan. It turned out that the aircraft's weight necessitated its large wings.
Production of the MiG-25 series ended in 1984 after completion of 1,186 aircraft. A symbol of the Cold War, the MiG-25 flew with Soviet allies and former Soviet republics, remaining in limited service in several export customers. It is one of the highest-flying military aircraft, one of the fastest serially produced interceptor aircraft, and the second-fastest serially produced aircraft after the SR-71 reconnaissance aircraft, which was built in very small series compared to the MiG-25. , the MiG-25 remains the fastest manned serially produced aircraft in operational use and the fastest plane that was offered for supersonic flights and edge-of-space flights to civilian customers.
Design and development
Background
During the Cold War, Soviet Air Defence Forces, PVO (not to be confused with Soviet Air Force, VVS) was given the task of strategic air defence of the USSR. This meant not only dealing with accidental border violations, but more importantly defending the vast airspace of the USSR against US reconnaissance aircraft and strategic bombers carrying free-fall nuclear bombs. The performance of these types of aircraft was steadily improved. In the late 1950s, the very high altitude overflights of Soviet territory by the Lockheed U-2 revealed the need for a higher altitude interceptor aircraft than available at that time.
The subsonic Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers were followed by the Mach 2 Convair B-58 Hustler, with the Mach 3 North American B-70 Valkyrie on the drawing board at that time. A major upgrade in the PVO defence system was required, and, at the start of 1958, a requirement was issued for manned interceptors capable of reaching and heights of up to . Mikoyan and Sukhoi responded.
The Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB had been working on a series of interceptors during the second half of the 1950s: the I-1, I-3U, I-7U, I-75, Ye-150, Ye-150A, Ye-152, Ye-152A, Ye-152P, and Ye-152M. The Ye-150 was noteworthy because it was built specifically to test the Tumansky R-15 engine, two of which would later be used for the MiG-25. This led to Ye-152, alternatively known as Ye-166, which set several world records. The Ye-152M (converted from one of the two Ye-152 aircraft) was intended to be the definite heavy interceptor design. But before it was finished, the PVO had selected the Tupolev Tu-128. As the work on the MiG-25 was well under way, the single-engine Ye-152M was abandoned.
Development
Work on the new Soviet interceptor that became the MiG-25 started in mid-1959, a year before Soviet intelligence learned of the American Mach 3 A-12 reconnaissance aircraft. It is not clear if the design was influenced by the American A-5 Vigilante.
The design bureau studied several possible layouts for the new aircraft. One had the engines located side by side, as on the MiG-19. The second had a stepped arrangement with one engine amidships, with exhaust under the fuselage, and another in the aft fuselage. The third project had an engine arrangement similar to that of the English Electric Lightning, with two engines stacked vertically. Options two and three were both rejected because the size of the engines meant that either of them would result in a very tall aircraft, which would complicate maintenance.
The idea of placing the engines in underwing nacelles was also rejected because of the dangers of any thrust asymmetry during flight. Having decided on engine configuration, there was thought of giving the machine variable-sweep wings and a second crew member, a navigator. Variable geometry would improve maneuverability at subsonic speed, but at the cost of decreased fuel tank capacity. Because the reconnaissance aircraft would operate at high speed and high altitude, the idea was soon dropped. Another interesting but impractical idea was to improve the field performance using two RD36-35 lift-jets. Vertical takeoff and landing would allow for use of damaged runways during wartime and was studied on both sides of the Iron Curtain. The perennial problem with engines dedicated to vertical lift is they become mere dead weight in horizontal flight and also occupy space in the airframe needed for fuel. The MiG interceptor would need all the fuel it could get, so the idea was abandoned.
The first prototype was a reconnaissance variant, designated Ye-155-R1, that made its first flight on 6 March 1964. It had some characteristics that were unique to that prototype, and some of these were visually very evident: the wings had fixed wingtip tanks with a capacity, to which small winglets were attached for stability purposes, but when it was found that fuel sloshing around in the tanks caused vibrations, they were eliminated. The aircraft also had attachments for movable foreplanes, canards, to help with pitch control at high speed (provisions for canards had previously been installed, but not used, on the Ye-152P).
The first flight of the interceptor prototype, Ye-155-P1, took place on 9 September 1964. Development of the MiG-25, which represented a major step forward in Soviet aerodynamics, engineering and metallurgy, took several more years to complete.
On 9 July 1967, the new aircraft was first shown to the public at the Domodedovo air show, with four prototypes (three fighters and a reconnaissance aircraft) making a flypast.
Aviation records
The Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau soon realized that the performance of the new aircraft gave it great potential to set new flight records. In addition to their normal duties, the prototypes Ye-155-P1, Ye-155-R1, Ye-155-R3 were made lighter by removing some unneeded equipment and were used for these attempts. Under Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI) classification, the Ye-155 type belonged to class C1 (III), which specifies jet-powered land planes with unlimited maximum take-off weight. Records set included:
The first claim was for world speed records with no payload and payloads of . MiG OKB Chief Test Pilot Aleksandr Vasilyevich Fedotov reached an average speed of over a circuit on 16 March 1965.
For pure speed, with no payload, test pilot Mikhail M. Komarov averaged over a closed circuit on 5 October 1967. On the same day, Fedotov reached an altitude of with a payload. The MiG eventually became the first aircraft to go higher than .
Time to height records were recorded on 4 June 1973 when Boris A. Orlov climbed to in 2 min 49.8 s. The same day, Pyotr M. Ostapenko reached in 3 min 12.6 s and in 4 min 3.86 s.
On 25 July 1973, Fedotov reached with payload and with no load (an absolute world record). In the thin air, the engines flamed out, and the aircraft coasted in a ballistic trajectory by inertia alone. At the apex the speed had dropped to .
On 31 August 1977, Ye-266M again flown by Fedotov, set the recognized absolute altitude record for a jet aircraft under its own power. He reached at Podmoskovnoye, USSR in zoom climb (the absolute altitude record is different from the record for sustained altitude in horizontal flight). The aircraft was actually a MiG-25RB re-engined with the powerful R15BF2-300. It had earlier been part of the program to improve the aircraft's top speed that resulted in the MiG-25M prototype.
In all, 29 records were claimed, of which seven were all-time world records for time to height, altitudes of and higher, and speed. Several records still stand.
Technical description
Because of the thermal stresses incurred in flight above Mach 2, the Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB had difficulties choosing what materials to use for the aircraft. They had to use E-2 heat-resistant Plexiglas for the canopy and high-strength stainless steel for the wings and fuselage. Using titanium rather than steel would have been ideal, but it was expensive and difficult to work with. The problem of cracks in welded titanium structures with thin walls could not be solved, so the heavier nickel steel was used instead. It cost far less than titanium and allowed for welding, along with heat-resistant seals. The MiG-25 was constructed from 80% nickel-steel alloy, 11% aluminium, and 9% titanium. The steel components were formed by a combination of spot welding, automatic machine welding, and hand arc welding methods.
Initially, the interceptor version was equipped with the TL-25 Smerch-A (also referred to as Product 720) radar, a development of the system carried by the earlier Tu-128. While powerful and thus long-ranged and resistant to jamming, the system—due to the age of its design and its intended purpose (tracking and targeting high- and fast-flying US bombers and reconnaissance aircraft)—lacked look-down/shoot-down capability, which limited its effectiveness against low-flying targets. (This is one of the reasons why it was replaced with the Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-31, whose Zaslon radar has that capability.) By the time the MiG-25 entered service in 1969, this was a serious shortcoming, as strategic bombing doctrine was shifting towards low-level penetration of enemy territory. After Belenko's defection to Japan exposed this flaw to the West, a government decree issued on 4 November 1976 called for urgent development of a more advanced radar. This resulted in the pulse-Doppler radar Sapphire-25 system fitted to the MiG-25PD variant.
As an interceptor, typical armament includes four R-40 long-range air-to-air missiles, each fitted with either an infrared seeker (R-40T/TD) or a semi-active radar homing seeker (R-40R/RD) and a maximum range of against a high-flying target on a collision course. A fuel tank could be suspended under the fuselage. The aircraft could carry unguided gravity bombs to fulfill a rudimentary strike role. As the bombs would weigh no more and incur no more drag than its regular load of R-40 missiles, its performance was not impaired, leading to some impressive bombing feats; when released at an altitude of and a speed above Mach 2, a bomb would have a range of several tens of kilometres.
The MiG-25 was theoretically capable of a maximum speed exceeding Mach 3 and a ceiling of . Its high speed was problematic: although sufficient thrust was available to reach Mach 3.2, a limit of Mach 2.83 had to be imposed as the engines tended to overspeed and overheat at higher air speeds, possibly damaging them beyond repair.
The design cruising speed is Mach 2.35 (2,500 km/h) with partial afterburner in operation. The maximum speed of Mach 2.83 (3,000 km/h) is allowed to maintain no more than 5 minutes due to the danger of overheating of the airframe and fuel in the tanks. When the airframe temperature reaches , the warning lamp lights up, and the pilot must reduce airspeed. The use of a partial afterburner and a cruising flight altitude makes it possible to have a range only less than when flying Mach 0.9 at altitudes . The maximum altitude of flight without an afterburner in operation is . The poor fuel consumption in the subsonic regime, and hence range, is due to the engines having extremely low pressure ratio of just 4.75 at subsonic speeds. The specific fuel consumption (SFC) of the engines is 1.12 in cruise and 2.45 with afterburners. For comparison purposes, this is 50% worse in cruise than the first generation of F100 engines from the F-15 Eagle, but the SFC with afterburners is actually nearly equal, despite the F100 being a far newer engine design.
Production
Full-scale production of the MiG-25R ("Foxbat-B") began in 1969 at the Gorkii aircraft factory (Plant No. 21). The MiG-25P ("Foxbat-A") followed in 1971, and 460 of this variant were built until production ended in 1982. The improved PD variant that replaced it was built from 1978 till 1984, with 104 aircraft completed. Subsequently the Gorkii factory switched over production to the new MiG-31.
Western intelligence and the MiG-25
Inaccurate intelligence analysis caused the West initially to believe the MiG-25 was an agile air-combat fighter rather than an interceptor. In response, the United States started a new program, which resulted in the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle. NATO obtained a better understanding of the MiG-25's capabilities on 6 September 1976, when a Soviet Air Defence Forces pilot, Lt. Viktor Belenko, defected, landing his MiG-25P at Hakodate Airport in Japan. The pilot overshot the runway on landing and damaged the front landing gear. Despite Soviet protests, the Japanese invited U.S. Air Force personnel to investigate the aircraft. On 25 September, it was moved by a C-5A transport to a base in central Japan, where it was carefully dismantled and analyzed. After 67 days, the aircraft was returned by ship to the Soviets, in pieces. The aircraft was reassembled and is now on display at the Sokol plant in Nizhny Novgorod.
The analysis, based on technical manuals and ground tests of its engines and avionics, revealed unusual technical information:
Belenko's particular aircraft was brand new, representing the latest Soviet technology.
The aircraft was assembled quickly and was essentially built around its massive Tumansky R-15(B) turbojets.
Welding was done by hand. Rivets with non-flush heads were used in areas that would not cause adverse aerodynamic drag.
The aircraft was built of a nickel-steel alloy and not titanium, as was assumed (although some titanium was used in heat-critical areas). The steel construction contributed to the craft's high unarmed weight.
Maximum acceleration (g-load) rating was just 2.2 g (21.6 m/s2) with full fuel tanks, with an absolute limit of 4.5 g (44.1 m/s2). One MiG-25 withstood an inadvertent 11.5 g (112.8 m/s2) pull during low-altitude dogfight training, but the resulting deformation damaged the airframe beyond repair.
Combat radius was , and maximum range on internal fuel (at subsonic speeds) was only at low altitude, less than .
The airspeed indicator was redlined at Mach 2.8, with typical intercept speeds near Mach 2.5 in order to extend the service life of the engines. A MiG-25 was tracked flying over the Sinai Peninsula at Mach 3.2 in the early 1970s, but the flight led to the engines being damaged beyond repair.
The majority of the on-board avionics were based on vacuum-tube technology, more specifically nuvistors, not solid-state electronics. Although they represented aging technology, vacuum tubes were more tolerant of temperature extremes, thereby removing the need for environmental controls in the avionics bays. With the use of vacuum tubes, the MiG-25P's original Smerch-A (Tornado, NATO reporting name "Foxfire") radar had enormous power – about 600 kilowatts. As with most Soviet aircraft, the MiG-25 was designed to be as robust as possible. The use of vacuum tubes also made the aircraft's systems resistant to an electromagnetic pulse, for example, after a nuclear blast. They were also presumably used to provide radiation hardening for the avionics.
Later versions
As the result of Belenko's defection and the compromise of the MiG-25P's radar and missile systems, beginning in 1976, the Soviets started to develop an advanced version, the MiG-25PD ("Foxbat-E").
Plans for a new aircraft to develop the MiG-25's potential to go faster than the in-service limit of Mach 2.8 were designed as a flying prototype. Unofficially designated MiG-25M, it had new powerful engines R15BF2-300, improved radar, and missiles. This work never resulted in a machine for series production, as the coming MiG-31 showed more promise.
Operational history
Soviet Union
The unarmed 'B' version had greater impact than the interceptor when the USSR sent two MiG-25R and two MiG-25RB to Egypt in March 1971, which stayed until July 1972. They were operated by the Soviet 63rd Independent Air Detachment (Det 63), which was established for this mission. Det 63 flew over Israeli-held territory in Sinai on reconnaissance missions roughly 20 times. The flights were in pairs at maximum speed and high altitude, between . On 6 November 1971, a Soviet MiG-25 operating out of Egypt flying at Mach 2.5 was met by Israeli F-4Es and fired upon unsuccessfully. A MiG-25 was tracked flying over Sinai at Mach 3.2 during this period. The MiG-25 engines went into overspeed, which led to them being scrapped. Det 63 was sent back home in 1972. Soviet-operated reconnaissance Foxbats returned to Egypt in 19–20 October 1973, during the Yom Kippur War. Det 154 remained in Egypt until late 1974.
During the 1970s, the Soviet air force conducted reconnaissance overflights across Iran using its MiG-25RBSh aircraft in response to joint US-Iran recon operations.
The Swedish Air Force observed Soviet Air Defence MiG-25s via radar regularly performing intercepts at and behind the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird at over the Baltic Sea in the 1980s.
Syria
On 13 February 1981, the Israeli Air Force sent two RF-4Es over Lebanon as decoys for Syrian MiG-25 interceptors. As the MiGs scrambled, the RF-4Es turned back delivering chaff and using ECM pods. Two IDF/AF F-15As were waiting for the MiGs and shot one of them down with AIM-7F Sparrow missiles. The other MiG was able to escape. In a similar engagement, on 29 July 1981, a Syrian MiG-25 was again downed by an Israeli F-15A, after which a second MiG-25 launched its R-40 missiles at the F-15 and its wingman, but they missed.
The first reported activity of Syrian MiG-25 aircraft in the civil war was on 8 February 2014, when two Turkish Air Force F-16s were scrambled to intercept a Syrian MiG-25 which was approaching the Turkish border.
Iraq
Iran–Iraq War
All confirmed air-to-air kills by the MiG-25 were made by Iraq.
The MiG-25 was in service with the Iraqi Air Force during the Iran–Iraq War. Iraqi claimed their MiG-25s shot down at least 15 Iranian aircraft during the war, while only one MiG-25 were lost in air combat (one more lost by SAM)
On 19 March 1982, an Iranian F-4E was badly damaged by a missile fired by an Iraqi MiG-25.
24 November 1982 an Iraqi MiG-25PD over Eivan shot down an Iranian F-5F.
In December 1982, an Iraqi MiG-25PD over Baghdad shot down an Iranian F-5E.
Iraqi MiG-25s made another kill against Iran in February 1983, when an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian C-130.
In April 1984, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian F-5E.
On 21 March 1985, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian F-4E (Iranian pilots Hossein Khalatbari and Mohhamad Zadeh were killed).
5 June 1985 an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down a second Iranian F-4E.
17 February 1986 an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian Fokker F-27, all 53 people, crew and high ranked officers were killed.
On 23 February 1986, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian EC-130E.
10 June 1986 an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian RF-4E.
In October 1986, an Iraqi MiG-25PDS shot down a second RF-4E.
On 17 January 1987, an Iraqi MiG-25PDS shot down an Iranian F-14A with an R-40 missile. Iranian pilot Major Bahram Ghaneie was rescued, operator Lieutenant Reza Vadtalab was killed. For a long time it was believed that this air victory was won by the MiG-23ML.
The most successful Iraqi MiG-25 pilot of the war was Colonel Mohommed Rayyan, who was credited with ten kills. Eight of these were while flying the MiG-25PD from 1981 to 1986. In 1986, after attaining the rank of Colonel, Rayyan was shot down and killed by Iranian F-14s. For the majority of the air combat Iraqi pilots used R-40 missiles.
On 3 May 1981, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Algerian Gulfstream III.
On 2 October 1986, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down a Syrian MiG-21RF.
According to research by journalist Tom Cooper, Iranian claimed ten MiG-25s (nine reconnaissance and one fighter) may have been shot down by Iranian F-14s (one of them shared with an F-5) during the Iran-Iraq war. Only three MiG-25 losses (to ground fire or air combat) were confirmed by Iraq.
Confirmed MiG-25 combat losses during Iran-Iraq war:
June 1983 an Iraqi MiG-25R piloted by Colonel Abdullah Faraj Mohammad was shot down by an Iranian fighter jet F-14A.
25 February 1987 an Iraqi MiG-25RB piloted by Lieutenant Sayer Sobhi Ahmad was shot down by an Iranian SAM HQ-2, pilot was captured.
Persian Gulf War
During the Persian Gulf War, a U.S. Navy F/A-18, piloted by Lt Cdr Scott Speicher, was shot down on the first night of the war by a missile fired by a MiG-25. The kill was reportedly made with a Bisnovat R-40TD missile fired from a MiG-25PDS flown by Lt. Zuhair Dawood of the 84th squadron of the IQAF,
Two IQAF MiG-25s were shot down by U.S. Air Force F-15s on 19 January. The MiGs attempted to hide from the F-15s by using chaff and electronic jammers in order to engage the F-15s untargeted. However the F-15 pilots were able to reacquire the two Iraqi MiG-25s and shot both down with AIM-7 Sparrow missiles. In another incident, an Iraqi MiG-25PD, after eluding eight USAF F-15s at long range, fired three missiles at General Dynamics EF-111A Raven electronic warfare aircraft, forcing them to abort their mission and leave attacking aircraft without electronic jamming support.
In a different incident, two MiG-25s approached a pair of F-15s, fired missiles at long range which were evaded by the F-15s, and then outran the American fighters. Two more F-15s joined the pursuit, and a total of 10 air-to-air missiles were fired at the MiG-25s, though none reached them.
On 30 January 1991, an IQAF MiG-25 damaged a USAF F-15C by a R-40 missile in the Samurra Air Battle. Iraq claims it was shot down and fell in Saudi Arabia.
After the war, on 27 December 1992, a U.S. F-16D downed an IQAF MiG-25 that violated the no-fly zone in southern Iraq with an AIM-120 AMRAAM missile. It was the first USAF F-16 air-to-air victory and the first AMRAAM kill.
On 23 December 2002, an Iraqi MiG-25 shot down a U.S. Air Force unmanned MQ-1 Predator drone, which was performing armed reconnaissance over Iraq. This was the first time in history that an aircraft and an unmanned drone had engaged in combat. Predators had been armed with AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles and were being used to "bait" Iraqi fighter aircraft, then run. In this incident, the Predator did not run, but instead fired one of the Stingers, which missed, while the MiG's missile did not.
No Iraqi aircraft were deployed in the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, with most Iraqi aircraft being hidden or destroyed on the ground. In August 2003, several dozen Iraqi aircraft were discovered buried in the sand.
India
The MiG-25 was kept a guarded secret in India, designated Garuda named after the large mythical bird of God Vishnu from Hindu scriptures. It was used extensively in the Kargil War and Operation Parakram, conducting aerial reconnaissance sorties over Pakistan.
In May 1997, an Indian Air Force Mikoyan MiG-25RB reconnaissance aircraft created a furor when the pilot flew faster than Mach 3 over Pakistani territory following a reconnaissance mission into Pakistan airspace. The MiG-25 broke the sound barrier while flying at an altitude of around , otherwise the mission would have remained covert, at least to the general public. The Pakistani Government contended that the breaking of the sound barrier was a deliberate attempt to make the point that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) had no aircraft in its inventory that could come close to the MiG-25's cruising altitude (up to ). India denied the incident but Pakistan's Foreign Minister, Gohar Ayub Khan, believed that the Foxbat photographed strategic installations near the capital, Islamabad.
Lack of spare parts and India's acquisition of unmanned aerial vehicles and satellite imagery eventually led to its retirement in 2006.
An aerial observation of the solar eclipse of October 24, 1995 over India was conducted by a MiG-25, which took images of the eclipse at an altitude of .
Libya
Libya was a major user of the MiG-25 as it imported 96 MiG-25PD interceptor, MiG-25PU trainer and MiG-25RBK reconnaissance aircraft in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
During the 1980s, Libya confronted the United States over some claims over the extension of its territorial waters. These incidents prompted a number of encounters between the opposing forces as it happened during the Gulf of Sidra incident (1981) with the Libyan MiG-25s taking part in them.
During the following years, the Libyan MiG-25 fleet was grounded, lacking maintenance. As MiG-25s had been grounded for several years, NATO attacks spared them during the Libyan Civil War (2011).
In 2014 and 2015, the Libyan forces under the New General National Congress controlled a number of former LARAF airframes, that were retired and stored before the Libyan Civil War in 2011, among them a number of MiG-25s. Technicians started working on some of the airframes to press them back to service in the fight against the opposing internationally recognized Libyan government forces.
On 6 May 2015, a New General National Congress MiG-25PU crashed near Zintan while attacking the civilian airport controlled by the opposing internationally recognized Libyan government, the pilot ejected and was captured by opposing forces which also claimed they downed the jet. The jet may have been on one of its first flights after re-entering service.
Variants
Prototypes
Ye-155R
Reconnaissance prototypes. Two prototypes (Ye-155R-1 and Ye-155R-2) followed by four pre-production aircraft fitted with reconnaissance equipment.
Ye-155P
Interceptor fighter prototypes. Two prototypes (Ye-155P-1 and Ye-155P02) followed by nine pre-production aircraft.
Ye-266
Designation applied to prototypes and pre-production aircraft (Ye-155R-1, Ye-155R-3 and Ye-155P-1) used for record breaking purposes in official documentation supplied to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale.
Interceptors
MiG-25P
Single-seat all-weather interceptor fighter aircraft, powered by two Tumansky R-15B-300 turbojet engines, fitted with RP-25 Smerch-A1 radar and armed with four R-40 air-to-air missiles. NATO designation Foxbat-A.
MiG-25PD
Improved single-seat all-weather interceptor fighter aircraft, which entered service from 1979. Fitted with R-15BD-300 engines and new N-005 Saphir-25 (RP-25M) Pulse-Doppler radar with look-down/shoot down capability, based on the radar of the MiG-23ML. Could be fitted with four R-60 air-to-air missiles replacing outermost two R-40 missiles. Late examples fitted with an undernose IRST. NATO designation Foxbat-E.
MiG-25PDS
Upgrade of surviving MiG-25Ps to MiG-25PD standard from 1979. NATO designation Foxbat-E.
MiG-25PDSL
Single MiG-25PD modified by addition of electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment.
MiG-25PDZ
Single MiG-25PD modified with retractable in-flight refuelling probe.
MiG-25M
Two testbeds (one converted from a MiG-25RB and one from a MiG-25PD) for more powerful ( dry, with afterburner) engines.
Ye-266M
Designation applied to MiG-25M when used for record breaking in 1975 and 1977, including setting an absolute altitude record for a jet aircraft of on 31 August 1977.
Izdelye 99
Two aircraft used as testbeds for Soloviev D-30F turbofan as later used in MiG-31.
Reconnaissance and strike versions
MiG-25R
Single-seat high-altitude daylight reconnaissance aircraft, fitted with cameras and ELINT equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RB
Single-seat reconnaissance-bomber derivative of MiG-25R, fitted with improved reconnaissance systems and a Peleng automatic bombing system. The aircraft can carry a bombload of eight bombs. Entered service in 1970. NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RBV
Modernised single-seat reconnaissance-bomber with revised ELINT equipment (SRS-9 Virazh). NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RBT
Further improved reconnaissance-bomber, with Tangazh ELINT equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RBN
Dedicated night reconnaissance aircraft, carrying 10 photoflash bombs under the fuselage. Only single prototype built. NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RR
Conversion of eight reconnaissance aircraft for high-altitude radiation sampling role. Used to monitor Chinese nuclear tests between 1970 and 1980. NATO codename Foxbat-B.
MiG-25RBK
Single-seat dedicated ELINT aircraft, with Kub-3K ELINT system. Bombing capability retained but cameras not fitted. NATO codename Foxbat-D.
MiG-25RBF
Conversion of MiG-25RBK with new Shar-25 ELINT equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-D.
MiG-25RBS
Single-seat radar-reconnaissance aircraft, with Sablya-E side looking airborne radar (SLAR). Cameras not fitted but bombing capability retained. NATO codename Foxbat-D.
MiG-25RBSh
MiG-25RBS fitted with more capable Shompol SLAR. NATO codename Foxbat-D.
MiG-25BM "Foxbat-F" Single-seat defence-suppression aircraft, armed with Kh-58 or Kh-31 air-to-surface missiles.
Conversion trainers
MiG-25PU
Two-seat conversion trainer for MiG-25P interceptors. Fitted with a new nose section with two separate cockpits. It has no radar and no combat capability. NATO codename Foxbat-C.
MiG-25RU
Two-seat conversion trainer for reconnaissance versions. Fitted with MiG-25R navigation system. NATO codename Foxbat-C.
Ye-133
Designation given to single MiG-25PU used by Svetlana Savitskaya to establish a number of women's speed and height records, starting with speed over a course of on 22 June 1975.
Operators
Algerian Air Force – 13 MiG-25s in service in December 2016
Syrian Air Force – 2 in service as of December 2016; 16 MiG-25PDs, 8 MiG-25RBs and 2 MiG-25PUs trainers were received.
Former operators
Armenian Air Force
Bulgarian Air Force – Three MiG-25RBTs (#731, #736 and #754) and one MiG-25RU (#51) aircraft were delivered in 1982. On 12 April 1984, #736 crashed near Balchik Airfield. The pilot ejected successfully. They were operated by the 26th Reconnaissance Aviation Regiment at Tolbukhin Airfield (today Dobrich) until their withdrawal. In May 1991, the surviving MiG-25s were returned to the USSR in exchange for five MiG-23MLDs.
Belarus Air Force – Had up to 50 MiG-25s, including 13 MiG-25PDs; by 1995 the type had been withdrawn.
Indian Air Force – Took delivery of six MiG-25RBKs and two MiG-25RUs in 1981. They were operated by No. 102 Squadron "Trisonics" based at Bakshi Ka Talab AB in LucknowUttar Pradesh. One RBK crashed on 3 August 1994. Retired from service in May 2006. The Trishul air-base in Bareilly had Foxbats capable of flying up to .
Iraqi Air Force – Had seven MiG-25PUs, nine MiG-25RBs, and 19 MiG-25PD/PDSs as of January 1991. During the Gulf War (Operation Desert Storm) most of them were destroyed on the ground, two were shot down and seven were flown over to Iran.
Georgian Air Force
Libyan Air Force – Once operated a large number of MiG-25s.
Russian Air Force
Soviet Air Forces and Soviet Air Defence Forces – The largest combined operator historically, Soviet aircraft were passed on to its successor states in 1991.
Military of Turkmenistan
Ukrainian Air Force – Took over 79 aircraft after the breakup of the USSR. They have been withdrawn from service.
Aircraft on display
MiG-25PD Red 49 (c/n N84008895) is on display at the Central Armed Forces Museum, Moscow, Russia.
MiG-25RB (s/n 25105) is in the restoration facility at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio, US. This aircraft was found in 2003 during the opening months of Operation Iraqi Freedom by American forces, buried in the sand near Al Taqaddum Airbase, about west of Baghdad. The aircraft had been buried to prevent its destruction on the ground by coalition aircraft. When uncovered, the MiG-25RB was incomplete, as the wings could not be located. This aircraft was one of two MiG-25s transported by a Lockheed C-5A Galaxy from Iraq to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base for examination. It was donated to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in December 2006. The museum's restoration staff is currently attempting to locate a set of wings to complete the aircraft for display.
MiG-25R (s/n KP355) is on display at the Indian Air Force Museum at Palam, New Delhi, another at National Defence Academy (India), Khadakwasla, Pune (Maharashtra), and two MiG-25U trainers (s/n DS361 and DS362) are preserved at Kalaikunda Air Force Station in the Midnapore District of West Bengal, India.
MiG-25RBSh was bought by Estonian Aviation Museum in 2016 from a private owner in Finland, who had purchased it from Russia after the dissolution of Soviet Union. The aircraft is displayed as part of the museum's exposition in Tartumaa, Estonia since June 2016.
Specifications (MiG-25P / MiG-25PD)
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Aloni, Shlomo. Israeli F-15 Eagle Units in Combat. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2006. .
Atkinson, Rick. Crusade: The Untold History of the Persian Gulf War. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. .
Barron, John. MiG Pilot: The Final Escape of Lt. Belenko. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980. .
Belyakov, R.A. and J. Marmain. MiG: Fifty Years of Secret Aircraft Design. Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1994. .
Bhonsle, Brig. Rahul K. India: Security Scope 2006 The New Great Game. Delhi, India: Kalpaz Publications, 2006. .
Cooper, Tom and Farzad Bishop. Iranian F-14 Units in Combat. London: Osprey Publishing, 2004. .
Davies, Steve. Combat Legend, F-15 Eagle and Strike Eagle. London: Airlife Publishing, Ltd., 2002. .
Eden, Paul, ed. "Mikoyan MiG-25 'Foxbat'". "Mikoyan MiG-31 'Foxhound'". Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft. London: Amber Books, 2004. .
Frawley, Gerald. "Mikoyan MiG-25." The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003. Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2002. .
Gordon, Yefim. MiG-25 'Foxbat' & MiG-31 'Foxhound': Russia's Defensive Front Line. Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing Ltd., 1997. .
Gordon, Yefim. Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat: Guardian of the Soviet Borders (Red Star Vol. 34). Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing Ltd., 2008. .
Gordon, Yefim and Bill Gunston. Soviet X-Planes. Earl Shilton, Leicester, UK: Midland Publishing Ltd., 2000. .
Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. The Great Book of Fighters. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International Publishing, 2001. .
Gunston, Bill. An Illustrated Guide to Modern Fighters and Attack Aircraft. London: Salamander Books, 1980. .
Gunston, Bill and Mike Spick. "Mikoyan/Gurevich MiG-25." Modern Air Combat: The Aircraft, Tactics and Weapons Employed in Aerial Combat Today. New York: Crescent Books, 1983. .
Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces". Flight International, Vol. 188, No. 5517, 8–14 December 2015. pp. 22–53. .
Hoyle, Craig. "World Air Forces Directory". Flight International, Vol. 190, No. 5566, 6–12 December 2016. pp. 26–53. .
Jenkins, Dennis R. McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle: Supreme Heavy-Weight Fighter. Hinckley, UK: Midland Publishing, 1998. .
Lake, Jon. "Variant Briefing: MiG-25 'Foxbat' and MiG-31 'Foxhound'". World Air Power Journal, Volume 34, Autumn/Fall 1998, pp. 98–123. London: Aerospace Publishing. . ISSN 0959-7050.
Nicolle, David and Tom Cooper. Arab MiG-19 and MiG-21 Units in Combat (Osprey Combat Aircraft 044). Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2004. .
Rich, Ben and Leo Janos. Skunk Works: A Personal Memoir of My Years of Lockheed. New York: Little, Brown & Company, 1994. .
Spick, Mike. The Great Book of Modern Warplanes. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International Publishing, 2000. .
Wilson, Stewart. Combat Aircraft since 1945. Fyshwick, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2000. .
External links
MiG-25 page on Milavia.net
MiG-25 page on GlobalSecurity.org
MiG-25/31 at Greg Goebel's Air Vectors site
MiG-25 Foxbat at Russian Military Analysis
Foxhound vs Blackbird: How the MiGs reclaimed the skies
MiG-25 vs. SR-71 Blackbird discussion
Foxbat and Foxhound – Australian Aviation
Recce Incursion – Famous incident of IAF MiG-25 intruding into Pakistan airspace
Photo Russian MiG-25 in flight – 2007
Photo Russian MiG-25 in flight – 2011
MiG-25 Foxbat on hronotop2012.narod.ru
MiG-025
1960s Soviet fighter aircraft
1960s Soviet military reconnaissance aircraft
Twinjets
High-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1964 | [
-0.0914468839764595,
0.4972970187664032,
-0.3535584509372711,
0.14662180840969086,
-0.17523111402988434,
0.3308604061603546,
0.2458893060684204,
-0.2880285680294037,
-0.12339324504137039,
-0.25163549184799194,
-0.7874078154563904,
0.21258695423603058,
-0.6351253390312195,
0.6683409810066223,
0.23536667227745056,
0.28366294503211975,
0.5583900213241577,
0.3914037346839905,
0.13115862011909485,
-0.5660710334777832,
0.00001728349525365047,
0.04626954346895218,
0.3191911280155182,
-0.48446789383888245,
-0.14365068078041077,
0.29879385232925415,
0.8148806691169739,
0.5462455153465271,
0.42127111554145813,
0.6748470067977905,
-0.15848174691200256,
0.8079776167869568,
0.03781278431415558,
0.3070698082447052,
0.45940688252449036,
0.3239704966545105,
-0.0312960259616375,
0.030097248032689095,
-0.3661295473575592,
-0.7583759427070618,
0.2997572124004364,
0.15822401642799377,
-0.15363851189613342,
0.3445662260055542,
-0.0906459167599678,
-0.559827446937561,
-0.919191300868988,
0.1777493804693222,
-0.176660418510437,
-0.5354862809181213,
-0.24365973472595215,
0.4301600158214569,
0.39022380113601685,
0.0046530235558748245,
0.19073452055454254,
1.0735265016555786,
-0.5944985151290894,
-0.1746111512184143,
0.3124716877937317,
0.32914143800735474,
0.19374918937683105,
0.09840752929449081,
0.07173389196395874,
0.4792044758796692,
-0.04603707790374756,
-0.3086792230606079,
0.33821576833724976,
0.13219600915908813,
-0.0849190205335617,
-0.563096284866333,
-0.36608242988586426,
-0.2256360799074173,
0.039254121482372284,
0.34070640802383423,
-0.501446008682251,
-0.5827338099479675,
0.09638166427612305,
-0.10955370217561722,
0.16618846356868744,
0.14014898240566254,
0.07179833203554153,
0.3030172884464264,
-0.07850715517997742,
0.1617210954427719,
-0.38346782326698303,
0.20666299760341644,
0.06437193602323532,
0.4052099287509918,
-0.9191344976425171,
0.4634307622909546,
-0.03357129544019699,
-0.705987274646759,
0.5593470335006714,
0.01566128432750702,
-0.15624667704105377,
-0.1936841905117035,
-0.09892342984676361,
0.4227060079574585,
0.5328509211540222,
-0.11693799495697021,
0.1608520895242691,
0.8536139130592346,
0.32841867208480835,
-0.09445080161094666,
-0.8817365765571594,
-0.2898031175136566,
-0.6108871698379517,
-0.712414026260376,
-0.2662760019302368,
0.48104608058929443,
-0.6516128182411194,
-0.3588736653327942,
-0.18515783548355103,
-0.07791206240653992,
-0.4508735239505768,
0.1878276914358139,
-0.20443609356880188,
-0.9151433110237122,
0.31939059495925903,
0.43327653408050537,
0.31745919585227966,
1.0582298040390015,
-0.8212958574295044,
0.17662979662418365,
0.3139636218547821,
0.29718002676963806,
0.9517574906349182,
0.597104012966156,
-1.1535909175872803,
0.11354492604732513,
0.6072874069213867,
0.9703389406204224,
-0.9995965361595154,
0.3450237512588501,
-0.29626622796058655,
0.18266232311725616,
0.7280967831611633,
-0.09170906245708466,
0.13661806285381317,
0.624214231967926,
-0.9836229085922241,
-0.5472092032432556,
-0.2287045270204544,
-0.22781848907470703,
0.7423387169837952,
-0.0038655693642795086,
0.1546458899974823,
-0.48691603541374207,
-0.5954282283782959,
-0.9802038073539734,
-0.36093956232070923,
0.04149512201547623,
0.07783971726894379,
0.17392586171627045,
-0.4682454764842987,
0.0006322370027191937,
0.2578575909137726,
-0.06637046486139297,
0.6102254390716553,
0.07667078822851181,
0.11864224821329117,
0.10323017090559006,
-0.46983784437179565,
0.03431655839085579,
-0.7461320161819458,
0.23200693726539612,
0.49303674697875977,
0.3782832622528076,
0.07283003628253937,
-0.405765175819397,
-0.1323590874671936,
0.020029645413160324,
0.8783808946609497,
-0.1469019651412964,
0.11958359181880951,
0.31567296385765076,
0.5380430221557617,
0.04470138996839523,
0.42860960960388184,
-0.03565216809511185,
-0.6714780926704407,
0.04328005015850067,
-0.2694951295852661,
-0.05663171038031578,
0.18516455590724945,
0.2865115702152252,
0.09870802611112595,
0.526583731174469,
-0.06827090680599213,
-0.6475000381469727,
-0.24993227422237396,
-0.3243527114391327,
0.13259200751781464,
-0.5872790217399597,
1.328731894493103,
-0.12542957067489624,
-0.29358401894569397,
0.006733140908181667,
0.2682245075702667,
0.6594880223274231,
-0.04161393269896507,
-0.3846062123775482,
0.6352859139442444,
0.26486900448799133,
-0.31622612476348877,
-0.1824486255645752,
-0.18817955255508423,
0.1350700408220291,
-0.09394197165966034,
0.5590393543243408,
0.20133401453495026,
-0.4273361265659332,
0.12445038557052612,
-0.568531334400177,
-0.4690965414047241,
0.2717052400112152,
-0.47897574305534363,
0.6632580757141113,
-0.3145796060562134,
0.31114062666893005,
0.6136953830718994,
-0.3128889203071594,
-0.7001333236694336,
0.15623342990875244,
-0.23536422848701477,
0.19619913399219513,
0.27347490191459656,
0.12635493278503418,
-0.5063310861587524,
0.12331608682870865,
-0.3615112006664276,
-0.04709393158555031,
-0.24543380737304688,
-0.23767797648906708,
-0.8014965653419495,
0.01078109908849001,
0.14554911851882935,
-0.4442484974861145,
0.9593054056167603,
-0.25375035405158997,
-0.2422848492860794,
0.5976943969726562,
0.3301999270915985,
0.5841537714004517,
0.07856369018554688,
-0.23556643724441528,
-0.11723168939352036,
0.2366277277469635,
-0.23696354031562805,
-0.3023126721382141,
-0.3836406469345093,
0.3309873640537262,
0.2260550558567047,
-0.376036137342453,
-0.30222150683403015,
0.13663066923618317,
0.24287156760692596,
0.2897515594959259,
0.18120667338371277,
0.015152265317738056,
-0.02142186276614666,
0.15808285772800446,
0.3181662857532501,
0.3365851640701294,
-0.05661345273256302,
-0.7870544195175171,
-0.07827495783567429,
-0.350716769695282,
0.4123518168926239,
0.47228461503982544,
0.12695728242397308,
-0.4889465570449829,
-0.08259067684412003,
0.04713359475135803,
0.046985749155282974,
-0.1492367386817932,
0.28057175874710083,
0.741683304309845,
-0.7758516669273376,
-0.3099813163280487,
0.2185295820236206,
0.8694170713424683,
0.2054920792579651,
-0.13106673955917358,
-0.32512912154197693,
-0.380585253238678,
-0.1545093059539795,
-0.47884583473205566,
-0.2734126150608063,
0.31365445256233215,
-0.696783185005188,
0.23860123753547668,
-0.5508603453636169,
0.06906638294458389,
-0.8386790156364441,
0.747433066368103,
0.04250854253768921,
-0.19527950882911682,
0.70551598072052,
0.007310055196285248,
-0.31305214762687683,
0.12526389956474304,
-0.27331218123435974,
0.04886801540851593,
0.4204402565956116,
-0.42432332038879395,
-0.39400920271873474,
0.2553247809410095,
-5.578117847442627,
-0.023478465154767036,
-0.6601237058639526,
-0.5479040145874023,
0.26047080755233765,
0.1172589361667633,
-0.07433163374662399,
-0.2599838376045227,
-0.4165401756763458,
-0.29346588253974915,
-0.24342896044254303,
-0.006969026289880276,
-0.14496591687202454,
-0.170576274394989,
0.3276560306549072,
-0.09543922543525696,
0.2064003348350525,
-0.0946032702922821,
0.6975123286247253,
-0.5617547631263733,
0.46155238151550293,
0.11803839355707169,
-0.3346203863620758,
0.24190875887870789,
0.42701131105422974,
0.3656110465526581,
-0.49530455470085144,
-0.32408764958381653,
-0.6223810911178589,
0.3603237569332123,
-0.02272476628422737,
-0.3838401138782501,
-0.21938557922840118,
0.18355819582939148,
0.3234575092792511,
-0.1407957524061203,
0.40726926922798157,
0.20069584250450134,
0.47319069504737854,
0.005972570274025202,
-0.026950784027576447,
0.45765793323516846,
0.29321542382240295,
0.10255830734968185,
0.7618974447250366,
-0.24410291016101837,
-0.1772467941045761,
0.17557978630065918,
0.16308996081352234,
0.40985530614852905,
0.4025125801563263,
0.1586843729019165,
0.22444632649421692,
0.43300217390060425,
0.5217987298965454,
-0.2670152485370636,
-0.04732346907258034,
-0.4637344181537628,
0.05574288219213486,
0.4376201331615448,
0.39251118898391724,
0.18317769467830658,
-0.41147381067276,
-0.025079719722270966,
-0.03356683626770973,
-0.021752001717686653,
-0.27538520097732544,
-0.8067924380302429,
0.04916644096374512,
-0.21339420974254608,
-0.6873802542686462,
0.8537665605545044,
-0.4864940345287323,
-0.7551309466362,
0.7512729167938232,
-0.5629286170005798,
0.009899528697133064,
0.4976517856121063,
-0.4348132312297821,
0.6636892557144165,
-0.2625270485877991,
-0.5981777906417847,
-0.7594208121299744,
-0.23864930868148804,
0.025868766009807587,
-0.9288982152938843,
0.012892469763755798,
0.05946602299809456,
0.1007925420999527,
0.10445927828550339,
1.3992747068405151,
-0.9742056727409363,
0.8505865335464478,
0.01114667858928442,
0.5390633940696716,
0.184858039021492,
-0.7238940596580505,
0.3876519799232483,
0.6943744421005249,
-0.27279412746429443,
0.13530699908733368,
-0.24449175596237183,
0.27756625413894653,
-0.7334384322166443,
0.008049741387367249,
-0.4422840476036072,
0.34518444538116455,
0.029644394293427467,
1.219864845275879,
0.0747125968337059,
0.18211910128593445,
-0.507311224937439,
-0.08446992933750153,
-0.4671887159347534,
0.2412906438112259,
-0.463178813457489,
0.1994844526052475,
0.352825790643692,
-0.3234880268573761,
0.4264172613620758,
-0.1406683772802353,
0.18116043508052826,
-0.7321586608886719,
-0.23862017691135406,
-0.04700388386845589,
-0.20987825095653534,
-0.38753947615623474,
-0.04334570840001106,
-0.008148611523211002,
-0.14724993705749512,
0.38749799132347107,
0.8257008790969849,
-0.16112932562828064,
-0.047537852078676224,
0.21796688437461853,
-0.1085350513458252,
0.08232320100069046,
-0.1689363420009613,
0.35254737734794617,
-0.38687071204185486,
-0.18573668599128723,
0.06290485709905624,
-0.20934274792671204,
0.1969171017408371,
0.3139655888080597,
0.36191272735595703,
0.10561494529247284,
0.052231691777706146,
0.12735797464847565,
0.2507285177707672,
-0.045813847333192825,
-0.12657146155834198,
0.05870581418275833,
-0.22618503868579865,
-0.2643010914325714,
0.133668452501297,
0.5069122910499573,
0.15909044444561005,
-0.0804683119058609,
-0.18995170295238495,
0.4404127895832062,
-0.056264881044626236,
-0.8919426798820496,
-0.09577573090791702,
0.43462705612182617,
0.17342336475849152,
-0.36148741841316223,
-0.7374153733253479,
0.21451690793037415,
0.6703210473060608,
0.46637430787086487,
-0.741929829120636,
-1.0156232118606567,
0.046784743666648865,
0.35086503624916077,
0.4597484767436981,
-0.1464112251996994,
0.2578367292881012,
-0.15051698684692383,
0.24955832958221436,
-0.699743926525116,
0.24524331092834473,
-0.1520898938179016,
0.4611271917819977,
0.04516312852501869,
-0.7073944211006165,
-0.2548500895500183,
-0.03643035888671875,
0.11623683571815491,
-0.3587542474269867,
0.22022855281829834,
0.09541761130094528,
0.36547958850860596,
0.016604647040367126,
-0.32350361347198486,
-0.5665769577026367,
-0.35595062375068665,
1.2965071201324463,
-0.21361300349235535,
-0.018741896376013756,
0.11882895976305008,
0.6262609958648682,
-0.3272065222263336,
0.3156765103340149,
0.39392006397247314,
-0.4873211681842804,
0.27858099341392517,
0.2813703119754791,
0.202984020113945,
0.17732194066047668,
-0.7401250600814819,
-1.0408310890197754,
-0.24317537248134613,
0.5430783033370972,
-0.11730774492025375,
0.5995032787322998,
-0.4725683331489563,
0.013671907596290112,
-0.7383444905281067,
-0.36561301350593567,
-0.4239959418773651,
-0.12558430433273315,
-0.23614877462387085,
-0.4921768605709076,
-1.0615782737731934,
0.14068607985973358,
-0.1008572056889534,
-0.4149751365184784,
-0.4573805332183838,
-0.336479127407074,
-0.08892352879047394,
-0.302840918302536,
0.3310781717300415,
-0.17793002724647522,
0.1582840383052826,
-0.6274065971374512,
-0.18868497014045715,
-0.09365829825401306,
0.7416105270385742,
0.3411429822444916,
0.5065616965293884,
0.5194371342658997,
0.15727967023849487,
-0.1294497549533844,
-0.6685011982917786,
0.48755714297294617,
0.45743516087532043,
-0.8569742441177368,
-0.6469506025314331,
0.23564931750297546,
-0.39132583141326904,
-0.4488101303577423,
-0.7202907800674438,
-0.3029574751853943,
0.6716049909591675,
-0.13505902886390686,
-0.3337371051311493,
-0.2403293401002884,
-0.09020046144723892,
0.2759029269218445,
-0.13803622126579285,
0.20083867013454437,
-0.9351365566253662,
-0.16629652678966522,
-0.38309502601623535,
-0.0016530104912817478,
-0.22545509040355682,
-0.4695785641670227,
-0.2527718245983124,
-0.03792997822165489,
-0.10533718019723892,
-0.2887069582939148,
0.47082358598709106,
0.22519613802433014,
-0.21418529748916626,
0.2843264639377594,
-0.19308386743068695,
0.4315170347690582,
-0.3052297830581665,
0.6401280760765076,
-0.4423782229423523,
0.2937220335006714,
-0.21695254743099213,
-0.3338482975959778,
-0.3425063490867615,
-0.3166036903858185,
0.4434809386730194,
-0.18261133134365082,
0.1946643441915512,
0.1309773027896881,
0.11631125211715698,
0.07344728708267212,
-0.4330919682979584,
0.4419872462749481,
-0.1937512308359146,
-0.19721966981887817,
0.026569580659270287,
0.08471902459859848,
-0.037504248321056366,
0.25415003299713135,
-0.3174978196620941,
0.16876797378063202,
-0.05455827713012695,
-0.7942793369293213,
0.1255684345960617,
-0.12434027343988419,
0.26640966534614563,
0.13889209926128387,
0.14057007431983948,
0.18932627141475677,
0.4776194095611572,
0.04613890498876572,
-0.14361357688903809,
0.7050520777702332,
-0.17298297584056854,
0.21930453181266785,
0.44354867935180664,
-0.10660165548324585,
0.08401484042406082,
-0.08327928930521011,
0.2750728726387024,
0.3230985999107361,
-0.010646527633070946,
-0.22684331238269806,
-0.54835444688797,
0.32005229592323303,
-0.9257452487945557,
-0.3096732497215271,
0.046389080584049225,
0.7226443886756897,
0.3854711651802063,
-0.22184889018535614,
-0.6514363288879395,
0.5958479642868042,
0.5021103620529175,
-0.31705746054649353,
0.2899746000766754,
-0.49353843927383423,
-0.275520920753479,
0.5843440890312195,
0.21131059527397156,
0.40107595920562744,
-0.30859869718551636,
-0.35255593061447144,
-0.2061999887228012,
0.6384333968162537,
0.4003841280937195,
0.5412397384643555,
0.23183473944664001,
0.13186827301979065,
0.2280762493610382,
0.5417934060096741,
0.14795343577861786,
0.24349696934223175,
0.08233228325843811,
-0.1701088845729828,
0.018875127658247948,
-0.36713850498199463,
-0.09821177273988724,
0.2764335572719574,
0.2853405177593231,
0.2519705295562744,
0.4313996434211731,
-0.247515007853508,
0.05417218804359436,
0.3413189947605133,
-0.1304319053888321,
-0.8504868745803833,
0.6063160300254822,
-0.13962815701961517,
-0.2838550806045532,
0.4212517738342285,
-0.0641477033495903,
0.44203513860702515,
-0.18796254694461823,
0.36839964985847473,
-0.24401216208934784,
0.027510985732078552,
-0.11494684964418411,
0.26823487877845764,
-0.6970009207725525,
0.7874863743782043,
0.15522094070911407,
-0.7187879085540771,
-0.15941256284713745,
0.26323291659355164,
-0.09229421615600586,
-0.11985418200492859,
0.3624471426010132,
-0.3858591318130493,
0.3962101340293884,
-0.5327222943305969,
-0.6539386510848999,
0.18715883791446686,
-0.1482466161251068,
-0.30763402581214905,
0.07509923726320267,
0.351319819688797,
0.1317344754934311,
0.933901846408844,
-0.005836524069309235,
0.04807459935545921,
-0.2018948197364807,
0.585326075553894,
-0.4355965852737427,
-0.6628825664520264,
-0.35533103346824646,
0.018860675394535065,
-0.6520745158195496,
-0.005348327569663525,
0.31862980127334595,
-0.5331868529319763,
0.19686098396778107,
0.0780598521232605,
0.08122652769088745,
0.3132985830307007,
0.8981262445449829,
-0.510996401309967,
0.42395874857902527,
-0.9350435137748718,
0.30870485305786133,
-0.715496301651001,
0.11428848654031754,
-0.2600107192993164,
-0.09207205474376678,
-0.22542813420295715,
0.5368654727935791,
-0.3160080909729004,
-0.16300834715366364,
0.16491404175758362,
-0.47040387988090515,
0.47095736861228943,
-0.3341337740421295,
0.6752198338508606,
-0.40026456117630005,
-0.6766384243965149,
0.33507126569747925,
0.7129424214363098,
0.7248967289924622,
-0.12404215335845947,
0.14405138790607452,
-0.3526669144630432,
0.3768375515937805,
0.43614131212234497,
0.37695181369781494,
-0.2880626916885376,
-0.07436241954565048,
-0.13059018552303314,
-0.3165484368801117,
0.5614442229270935,
0.5369920134544373,
-0.1052146703004837,
0.1103244498372078,
-0.6901344656944275,
0.3286367952823639,
0.23016603291034698,
0.17469745874404907,
-0.5201283097267151,
0.13231080770492554,
-0.10825629532337189
] |
247961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Boleyn%2C%20Viscount%20Rochford | George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford | George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford (c. 1504 – 17 May 1536) was an English courtier and nobleman who played a prominent role in the politics of the early 1530s, and was the brother of Anne Boleyn, from 1533 the second wife of King Henry VIII and thus the maternal uncle of Queen Elizabeth I (whose reign he did not live to see). Following his father's promotion in the peerage in 1529 to Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, he adopted his father's junior title Viscount Rochford (created in 1525) as a courtesy title. He was accused of incest with his sister Anne during the period of her trial for high treason, as a result of which both were executed.
Early years and family
George was the son of Sir Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, the daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk and Elizabeth Tilney. George and his sisters were probably born in Norfolk at his family's home of Blickling Hall. However, they spent most of their childhood at another of the family's homes, Hever Castle in Kent, which became their chief residence in 1505 when Thomas inherited the property from his father, Sir William Boleyn.
Thomas and Elizabeth had a number of children, including two sons named Thomas and Henry who failed to reach adulthood. Three children survived: Mary, Anne and George. There has been much debate over the centuries as to the age of the three Boleyn siblings, but there is general agreement that George was born c. 1504. This stems from a number of different sources. George Cavendish says in a poem that George was about 27 when he gained a place on the Privy Council in 1529. Cavendish gives this as a maximum age in order to make his tortuous verses more rhythmic (such as "thrice nine"). In addition to Cavendish's verses, foreign diplomats believed George was too young to be appointed as Ambassador to France in October 1529. Mary's date of birth is again generally accepted as being c. 1500 but there is some disagreement as to Anne's date of birth with arguments for 1501 and others for 1507. However, following the executions of Anne and George in 1536 their father wrote to Thomas Cromwell and in his letter he stated that upon his marriage his wife gave him a child every year. As Thomas and Elizabeth were married between 1498 and 1499, if Thomas is to be believed this indicates that all five Boleyn children, including the two who failed to reach adulthood, were born between 1500 and 1504, and if we accept as the evidence suggests that George was born in 1504 this is persuasive evidence for suggesting he was the youngest Boleyn child. This is the current thinking of the vast majority of modern historians with only one notable exception.
Like his father, it was understood that George would have a career as a courtier, politician and diplomat. The monarchy was the font of all patronage and potential wealth and it was only through service to the Royal Family that a family could hope to achieve or protect their greatness and social position. With this in mind, George was introduced to Henry VIII's court at the age of ten, when he attended the Christmas festivities of 1514–15. He attended an indoor melee with his father and acted in a mummery with his father, and the much older Charles Brandon and Nicholas Carew. Thanks to his family's influence and the fact he obviously impressed Henry at an early age, he became one of the King's pageboys shortly afterwards.
Since learning was highly praised at Court and essential for a career as a diplomat, George received an excellent education, speaking fluent French together with some Italian and Latin. His two sisters are known to have been educated abroad (Mary from 1514 to 1519, Anne from the spring of 1513 to late 1521). George is thought to have remained in England throughout his early years, although George's first biographer suggests George may have spent time in France as a child when his father was on embassy from January 1519, as an explanation for how George could speak such perfect French from a young age, and why Anne and George remained so close during their formative years. However, this is pure speculation. Whatever the case, there is a long-standing tradition that George attended the University of Oxford when he was not in attendance at Court, although he does not appear in any of the University's records – a relatively frequent occurrence in the period before the English Civil War, when few of the aristocrats who attended either technically matriculated or graduated.
Personal life
Less is known about George's personal life than about his celebrated court career, but what is known is that he married Jane Parker sometime during 1524. They were certainly married by January 1526 because a note of that date in Cardinal Thomas Wolsey's hand confirms that an extra £20 a year had been awarded to "young Boleyn for him and his wife to live on".
There has always been much speculation as to whether the marriage of George and Jane was happy but there is no way to know for certain, as the state papers are virtually silent with regard to Jane. There is no mention of the couple having any children, which as the brother-in-law and sister-in-law to the king, there surely would have been had such a child existed. It had been thought that George Boleyn, Dean of Lichfield, may have been their son; but it is more likely that he was a distant cousin. There is no record of the couple having a child, and Jane makes no mention of a child for whom she is responsible when she wrote a begging letter to Cromwell following George's death.
Whether or not the marriage of George and Jane was happy, George had a reputation as a womaniser. George Cavendish, gentleman usher to Cardinal Wolsey, in his poetry entitled Metrical Visions lambastes the young man for his womanising, saying:
Yet in the same poem Cavendish, who was a staunch Catholic and hated the Boleyns and what they stood for, acknowledges George's good looks and intelligence, saying:
Likewise Thomas Wyatt in his poetry also recognises George's "Great wit" (although wit in the 16th century could suggest that a person was witty and charming, it mainly meant intelligence, and it is George's intelligence that Cavendish and Wyatt were referring to.) Wyatt's verse with respect to George reads:
Historian David Starkey recognised George's intellect when he referred to him as having "many of Anne's talents and all of her pride".
For all George's good looks and talent, as can be seen from the above verse, Wyatt, who was a friend of the Boleyns', also says that George was too proud. Although Wyatt's poem is often used to suggest George was hated for his arrogance, there is nothing to support this. Despite George's pride, Wyatt acknowledges that at his death many considered his death to be a great loss. It may also be that the allegations of George's womanising are exaggerated, since there was no scandal surrounding the Boleyns' marriage, and none of the Boleyns' enemies felt that George's behaviour towards women was base enough to comment on. Likewise, neither Cavendish nor the Imperial Ambassador, Eustace Chapuys, who was actively looking for faults in order to demonise the Boleyns, make any mention of him being particularly arrogant. Chapuys' only complaint was that George could not resist entering into Lutheran discussion whenever he was being entertained by him.
One modern historian, Retha Warnicke, believes that the men accused of being Anne's lovers were chosen because of ambiguity over their sexuality. This has led to an increasingly enduring myth that the men were charged with sodomy as well as treason. In fact, none of them was charged with sodomy, and there were no extant rumours of homosexuality relating to any of them. Warnicke's theory was put forth in her 1989 biography of Anne Boleyn, but has been criticised by many other historians for lack of evidence to substantiate it.
However, more recently Alison Weir has resurrected the theory regarding George's sexuality by using the same arguments that Warnicke used 20 years previously. In addition to this, Weir also suggests that by his use of the phrase forced widows, Cavendish was insinuating that George was a rapist. As with the theory of George's sexuality, there is no evidence to support the notion that he was a rapist. If he had been guilty of the criminal offences of rape or homosexuality, and if Cavendish knew about it, then so did the rest of the court. Yet no one ever commented on George's supposed bisexuality, or even hinted at it, not even enemies of the Boleyns, such as Chapuys.
Metrical Visions are Cavendish's interpretation of George's scaffold speech, when George said he was "a wretched sinner deserving of death". Despite the current enthusiasm for believing that Cavendish was referring to homosexuality, his 16th-century interpretation was that George was apologising for his promiscuity, of which he may or may not have been guilty. To use Metrical Visions and George's scaffold speech as the lone pieces of evidence to support an argument for homosexual behaviour is problematic. The verses in Metrical Visions are based merely on Cavendish's interpretation of George's scaffold speech, with Warnicke and Weir solely re-interpreting George's final words on the basis of Cavendish's writings.
Appointments and career
George is first mentioned as an adult in 1522 when he and his father received a joint grant of various manor houses in Kent. The grant was made in April, suggesting that George was born in April 1504 and that this grant was an 18th-birthday gift. He received the first grant in his sole name in 1524, when at the age of 20 he received from the King a country mansion, Grimston Manor in Norfolk. It is supposed that this was an early wedding present made to a young man who was rapidly coming into favour. He was a firm favourite of the King and is regularly mentioned in the Privy Purse expenses as playing the King at bowls, tennis, card games and archery. He also hunted with the King and bet large sums of money with him. He won huge sums off the King but probably lost just as much, if not more. Gambling was one of the European aristocracy's favourite pastimes in the period.
In 1525, George was appointed gentleman of the Privy Chamber, functioning as the male equivalent to the King of what a lady-in-waiting was to the Queen. As part of a reorganisation of the Court structure, known as the Eltham Ordinance, Cardinal Wolsey, an opponent of the Boleyns, ensured that George lost this position six months later when he halved the number of gentlemen in the Privy Chamber. Wolsey used the reorganisation to get rid of those whom he perceived as a threat, which was something of a backhanded compliment to the 21-year-old Boleyn whose court prominence was already being acknowledged. As compensation, George was appointed Royal Cupbearer in January 1526 in addition to his award of an additional £20 a year for him and his wife to live on.
Following her return to England in 1519, Mary Boleyn became Henry VIII's mistress. It is not known when that relationship started or when it ended or indeed for how long it lasted. It was certainly over by 1526 when the King's eyes turned to another Boleyn sibling, Anne, and by 1527 he was seeking to marry her. Much of George Boleyn's career was in furtherance to the king's desire for a divorce from his first wife to enable him to marry Anne.
In June 1528, George contracted the disease known as sweating sickness whilst with the King and Catherine of Aragon at Waltham Abbey. In a letter to Anne, who also contracted the disease while at Hever Castle, Henry told her of her brother's illness and recovery.
Later that year, George was appointed Esquire of the Body and Master of the Buckhounds in 1528. Throughout the late 1520s grants continued to be bestowed upon him. On 15 November 1528 he became keeper of the Palace of Beaulieu and on 1 February 1529 was appointed chief steward of Beaulieu (later in October 1533 he would be granted a life interest in the Palace). On 29 July 1529 he was appointed Governor of Bethlehem Hospital (Bedlam), which was a profitable sinecure.
George's diplomatic career took off in late 1529 when he was knighted and regained his former position as a member of the Privy chamber. It was also in December 1529 that he became known by the courtesy title of Viscount Rochford when his father was created Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and undertook his first assignment as a diplomat to France as ambassador. Because of his youth, (he was only 25), it is believed that Anne's influence secured him this post, although there is no evidence that he lacked the ability to undertake the role. The French ambassador, Jean du Bellay, commented that George was considerably younger than many of the other foreign diplomats and that the appointment of a man barely out of his teens would cause amusement. But he also goes on to say that George should be shown more honour than was ordinarily necessary, and that his reception would be well weighted.
Irrespective of his age, George quickly established a good relationship with King Francis I of France and did well in his first embassy. George attended a total of six foreign embassies to France. The first was between late October 1529 and late February 1530. George attended with John Stokesley, the Dean of the Chapel Royal. Their mission was to encourage the universities of France to support Henry VIII's divorce from Catherine of Aragon. The universities' response was initially negative, but George encouraged King Francis to write a strong letter in favour of the divorce, which was later used to reverse the universities' decision.
The second was in March 1533 when he informed the King of France of his sister's marriage to the King of England. George was also instructed to encourage Francis into giving Henry more support, and following a lengthy debate George succeeded in obtaining a letter from Francis asking the Pope to concede to Henry's wishes. Not everyone was happy with George's success. The Bishop of Paris, who had found George's youth so amusing, described him as "the most unreasonable young man who ever crossed the sea". Yet despite the criticism Du Bellay grudgingly gave praise for the respect George Boleyn inspired at the meeting and the strength with which he argued the case.
George's third embassy was between May and August 1533 when he travelled to France with his uncle the Duke of Norfolk to be present at a proposed meeting between the King of France and Pope Clement VII. It was during this mission that news reached them that the Pope had excommunicated Henry. It was George who returned to England to inform Henry of the Pope's actions.
On 10 September 1533, George carried the canopy over his royal niece the Princess Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth I) at her christening, along with his uncles Lord Thomas Howard and William Howard, 1st Baron Howard of Effingham as well as John Hussey, 1st Baron Hussey of Sleaford.
His fourth embassy was in April 1534 when George was again appointed to encourage the French King to give more support to Henry's cause, to pass similar legislation against the Pope as had been passed in England, and to arrange a meeting between the two Kings and Anne.
In July 1534, George once again attended the French court, this time to rearrange the meeting that had been arranged between the kings as a result of Anne's pregnancy (she later miscarried). In George's instructions is a passage stating he is one who the King "specially loveth and trustith".
George's final embassy was in May 1535 when he and his uncle were appointed by the King to negotiate a marriage contract between the King of France's third son and the baby Princess Elizabeth, George's niece.
When George was not abroad, he often escorted foreign diplomats and ambassadors into the King's presence. Chapuys in particular regularly refers in his dispatches to meeting "the ladies brother". In October 1529, immediately prior to George's first embassy abroad, he was instructed to escort Chapuys on his first audience with the King. Chapuys refers to meeting "a civil gentleman named Boleyn". Ironically, Chapuys had liked George, before he became aware of who he was.
In addition to his diplomatic career, George was an acknowledged court poet of considerable merit, and was also much admired as a talented linguist and translator. He was passionate about religious reform and translated from French into English two magnificent religious texts as presents for his sister Anne, which he dedicates "To the right honourable lady, the Lady Marchiness of Pembroke, her most loving and friendly brother sendeth greetings." The translations codify the Lutheran doctrine which both Anne and George were so immersed in, and emphasise the joint commitment of both siblings to reform of the Church. When Anne was sent a religious pamphlet by Simon Fish, "A Supplication for the Beggars", it was George, according to Fish's wife, who encouraged Anne to show it to the King. In matters of religion Anne and George Boleyn were very much a team. Though Anne had far greater influence owing to the King's infatuation with her, her brother clearly identified both of them with the new religious ideas.
George's own religious views resulted in him having an influential role in the Reformation Parliament between its conception in late 1529 and his death in 1536. Both siblings were talented debaters on the issues of religious philosophy and it was George whom Henry chose in 1531 to argue the case for royal supremacy over the Church, before the Church's advisory body, Convocation.
On 5 February 1533, George was formally called to Parliament and his attendance rate was higher than any other Lord despite his other onerous duties, clearly indicating his commitment. He obviously voted in favour of the statutes which brought to an end the Pope's powers in England, and his commitment to religious reform earned him many enemies who held true to the Catholic faith. Various peers who were opposed to the legislation were excused attendance provided they appoint a proxy. George twice held the proxy vote of Thomas West, 9th Baron De La Warr, an adherent to the old religion. Unfortunately for George, De La Warr later sat on the jury which tried him.
In 1535 he was one of the special commissioners at the trial of Sir Thomas More and at the trial of three Carthusian Monks, all of whom, because of their religious convictions, refused to swear allegiance to the Act of Succession and Supremacy which had been passed the previous year. George, his father, the King's illegitimate son Henry Fitzroy and all other courtiers of rank were present at the monks' executions, which took place on 4 May 1535.
In June 1534, George was appointed Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports and Constable of Dover Castle. These were among the highest appointments in the realm and, as usual, he committed to them with zeal. He is regularly referred to in the State Papers in his position as Warden sitting at the Warden's court at Dover. From Thomas Cromwell's point of view, George's influence as Lord Warden was a thorn in his side. On 26 November 1534, George wrote to Cromwell expressing fury that Cromwell had undermined one of his orders made as Lord Warden.
Trial and execution: 1536
In 1536, Anne Boleyn miscarried a son. Her failure to provide Henry with a male heir coincided with Henry's infatuation with Jane Seymour, one of his wife's maids-of-honour. To rid himself of his wife, Henry and his chief advisor, Thomas Cromwell, devised a plot whereby Anne was accused of adultery with five men, one of whom was her brother, George. George was charged with incest with the Queen and plotting with Anne to kill the King. During a conversation with Chapuys following the Boleyns' deaths, Cromwell boasted that he had gone to a great deal of trouble arranging the plot, suggesting he did so in order to assist an alliance with Spain. Yet despite his boasts, during the same conversation he greatly praised both Anne and her brother for their "sense, wit, and courage".
On 23 April 1536 George was expected to be chosen to receive the Order of the Garter, but the honour went to a known opponent of the Boleyns instead, Sir Nicholas Carew. The following day, Henry gave instructions to Cromwell to set up a special commission looking into various treasons.
Anne and George were arrested on 2 May 1536, the day after the May Day joust at which George was one of the principal jousters.
The four others implicated in the plot, Sir Henry Norris, Sir Francis Weston, Sir William Brereton, and Mark Smeaton were tried on Friday 12 May. Only Smeaton confessed, probably after torture, but certainly emotional pressure. Despite lack of evidence all four men were found guilty. Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk sat on the jury and effectively condemned his own niece by finding the men guilty.
Anne was pre-judged for the earlier convictions of the men found guilty of adultery with her; therefore she stood trial before her brother. George stood trial a few hours after Anne on Monday 15 May. As Anne had been found guilty before George had stood trial, he too was pre-judged because he could hardly be acquitted when his sister had already been found guilty of incest. The order of the trials had been arranged to ensure the difficult case against George could not realistically fail. Everyone who witnessed George's trial, including the Imperial Ambassador Eustace Chapuys, considered that he put up a magnificent defence and many thought that he would be acquitted. Chapuys reported that those watching were betting 10 to 1 that he would be acquitted, and the court chronicler Charles Wriothesley said that his evidence was a marvel to hear.
There was no evidence of incest save that on one occasion he had spent a long time alone with Anne. Chapuys says he was convicted merely on a presumption. George's wife has throughout history been accused of providing evidence to support the incest charge, but this is unlikely to be correct. None of the evidence relating to the trials makes any mention of George's wife as providing evidence save for the fact that she told in a letter that Anne had told her Henry was "not able to satisfy a woman and he had neither capacity nor virility". This in itself was damning because it provided a potential motive for Anne's behaviour. Yet whatever Jane Rochford may or may not have said, it seems that the majority of the courtiers believed in his innocence, as can be seen from the wagers they were making in favour of acquittal.
Irrespective of what those at court thought, he was unanimously found guilty and the sentence of the court was that he be hanged, drawn, and quartered (the sentence was later commuted to beheading). He asked for his debts be paid out of his confiscated assets so that no one would suffer from his death, and he continued to be distressed about his debts whilst awaiting death. In fact his distress was so acute that the Constable of the Tower, Sir William Kingston wrote to Cromwell twice begging him to help ease George's conscience.
George Boleyn and the other four men were beheaded on Tower Hill on the morning of 17 May 1536. George's scaffold speech was extremely long and exemplified the orator's linguistic skills. For it to have been recorded in as much detail as it was, the vast crowd who witnessed the executions must have been virtually silent, and there could have been little booing or jeering as with normal state executions. His scaffold speech was primarily concerned with defending his religious beliefs and his passion for reform. It was not the honourable thing to deny guilt once a guilty verdict had been given in a court of law, and therefore he followed the conventions of the day by admitting he was a sinner deserving of death. He begged forgiveness of anyone he may have offended and begged for God's forgiveness. He came close to denying his guilt by declaring, "beware, trust not in the vanity of the world or the flatteries of the court, or the favour and treacheries of fortune". He said he would be alive if he had not done so. By blaming fortune for his fall he came as close as he dared to denying his guilt (i.e., he was dying because luck had been against him, not because he was guilty). He then went on to speak of his religious convictions before calmly submitting his neck to the axe. Anne was beheaded two days later.
Titles
George Boleyn (1504–1529)
Sir George Boleyn (c. October 1529)
Baron Rochford (between 1530 and 1533 - May 1536)
The Rt. Hon. The Viscount Rochford (by courtesy until 5 February 1533) (8 December 1529 – May 1536)
Fictional portrayals
George Boleyn was portrayed by Michael Johnson in the 1969 film Anne of the Thousand Days and by Jonathan Newth in the 1970 television series The Six Wives of Henry VIII.
Following his prominence within The Other Boleyn Girl, the 2001 novel by Philippa Gregory, he was portrayed in the 2003 television film The Other Boleyn Girl by Steven Mackintosh and by Jim Sturgess in the 2008 cinema film The Other Boleyn Girl. Gregory portrayed George Boleyn as at least gay and possibly bisexual. However, the film adaptations of the book do not portray George as bisexual.
Boleyn was portrayed by Pádraic Delaney in the television series The Tudors. The writers of The Tudors not only portrayed George as bisexual, but also portrayed his relationship with his wife as abusive.
George Boleyn is one of two protagonists (along with sister Anne) in a play by British writer Joanna Carrick, Fallen in Love. It was originally produced in 2011 in the grounds of Gippeswyk Hall in Ipswich in Suffolk, and subsequently reprised for performances at the Tower of London and Gippeswyk Hall in May 2013, directed by Carrick as artistic director of
Red Rose Chain theatre company. In the 2013 production, George was portrayed by Scott Ellis and Anne by Emma Connell.
In the 1830 tragic opera Anna Bolena by Gaetano Donizetti, the character of Lord Rochfort is based on George Boleyn, Viscount Rochford.
In the 2015 BBC Two adaptation of Hilary Mantel's Wolf Hall, George Boleyn is portrayed by Edward Holcroft. In the 2021 Channel 5 series Anne Boleyn, he was played by Paapa Essiedu.
References
Bibliography
1500s births
1536 deaths
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
Boleyn, George
Boleyn, George
Boleyn, George
People from Blickling
Gentlemen of the Privy Chamber
16th-century English people
George
English Protestants
Howard family (English aristocracy)
Executed people from Norfolk
People from Hever, Kent
Heirs apparent who never acceded
English knights
Publicly executed people
People executed by Tudor England by decapitation
Esquires of the Body
Burials at the Church of St Peter ad Vincula
English politicians convicted of crimes
Masters of the Buckhounds
Knights Bachelor | [
-0.34134072065353394,
0.6031795144081116,
-0.30197590589523315,
-0.2192404866218567,
-0.807410478591919,
0.6282156109809875,
0.8987345099449158,
0.23994377255439758,
-0.9415333271026611,
-0.10096830874681473,
-0.1510549932718277,
-0.04451960697770119,
-0.4477024972438812,
0.4589124321937561,
0.11732982099056244,
0.14421731233596802,
-0.0978899896144867,
0.2156519591808319,
0.26295557618141174,
-0.8528578877449036,
0.47781577706336975,
-0.3295912444591522,
-0.14925053715705872,
-0.03886839374899864,
0.020423928275704384,
-0.025855209678411484,
0.05983956158161163,
0.03194671869277954,
0.0195617638528347,
-0.038084860891103745,
0.15780335664749146,
0.9938698410987854,
0.012915654107928276,
-0.4231984615325928,
-0.2638852298259735,
-0.4762624502182007,
0.4171372056007385,
-0.3042322099208832,
0.2110820859670639,
-0.28618913888931274,
0.141891211271286,
0.6025541424751282,
0.4057309925556183,
-0.13627693057060242,
-0.18637339770793915,
-0.4009265601634979,
-1.8817158937454224,
-0.4099058210849762,
-0.23480263352394104,
-0.4943563640117645,
0.4745509922504425,
0.04190351814031601,
0.6543687582015991,
0.40943023562431335,
0.26859650015830994,
0.5158496499061584,
-0.9737820029258728,
0.09365304559469223,
0.8728464245796204,
0.6020841598510742,
0.41481679677963257,
-0.14016371965408325,
0.29365289211273193,
0.3129065930843353,
-0.0040932921692729,
0.4022494852542877,
-0.3198363184928894,
0.46020111441612244,
-0.3046451508998871,
0.4941495358943939,
-0.21558324992656708,
-0.27970677614212036,
0.6288884878158569,
0.298347532749176,
-0.17324930429458618,
0.2664847671985626,
-0.19064918160438538,
0.04529828578233719,
0.44029363989830017,
-0.2309499979019165,
0.35455191135406494,
-0.08889207243919373,
0.41709932684898376,
0.19494839012622833,
0.18478238582611084,
0.725354015827179,
-0.40286725759506226,
0.033271875232458115,
-0.16837629675865173,
0.5295252799987793,
-0.6979140043258667,
0.21919895708560944,
0.0581137016415596,
0.29401105642318726,
-0.31575262546539307,
-0.07007671892642975,
-0.02280140481889248,
-0.2787722945213318,
-0.2719378173351288,
0.15049920976161957,
0.33419084548950195,
0.6687295436859131,
0.4610726237297058,
0.20757770538330078,
-0.9060686826705933,
0.25739529728889465,
-0.6898948550224304,
-0.37808653712272644,
0.1454150527715683,
-1.4029453992843628,
-0.33555760979652405,
0.36575397849082947,
-0.6450400352478027,
-0.43634480237960815,
-0.33601629734039307,
0.016124358400702477,
0.6072324514389038,
-0.26393499970436096,
-0.18731163442134857,
0.09149710088968277,
0.1312541365623474,
0.7853603959083557,
-0.7054368853569031,
0.08362947404384613,
-0.44933754205703735,
0.43359026312828064,
0.7455771565437317,
-0.5153379440307617,
0.6342477202415466,
0.9944916367530823,
0.053749632090330124,
1.6257781982421875,
-0.6020748615264893,
-0.37727344036102295,
0.004710649140179157,
-0.551787257194519,
0.5305521488189697,
0.7377467155456543,
0.11502283066511154,
0.06370106339454651,
-1.193910002708435,
-0.42409366369247437,
-2.2179079055786133,
0.4029354453086853,
0.5756611824035645,
0.6257035136222839,
-0.3820318877696991,
0.08700574934482574,
0.3113463819026947,
0.5148223042488098,
-0.23181501030921936,
-0.20856787264347076,
-0.24372102320194244,
0.19926439225673676,
-0.2830642759799957,
0.49134179949760437,
0.43760520219802856,
-0.29414767026901245,
0.4939786493778229,
0.46305444836616516,
-0.3505949378013611,
0.1192484200000763,
0.30714020133018494,
-0.013575485907495022,
0.17410969734191895,
0.2549685835838318,
0.49994003772735596,
0.10326772183179855,
-0.3909272849559784,
0.3483513593673706,
-0.7968330383300781,
0.10694228112697601,
0.0780102014541626,
-0.6228600740432739,
-0.17643265426158905,
0.5066009759902954,
0.8664136528968811,
0.4117075204849243,
0.04756114259362221,
-0.504652738571167,
-0.4071809649467468,
0.023403901606798172,
0.40070590376853943,
-0.18382997810840607,
0.5331637859344482,
0.5575821995735168,
0.3416801393032074,
-0.4255653917789459,
-0.38914766907691956,
0.2182905524969101,
0.17421111464500427,
0.01860635168850422,
0.47551751136779785,
-0.44355833530426025,
0.8881393074989319,
0.12085666507482529,
-0.22655437886714935,
0.512749969959259,
0.5035002827644348,
1.1232082843780518,
-0.11099956929683685,
0.17862273752689362,
0.3723619282245636,
0.37861230969429016,
0.07994082570075989,
2.2428038120269775,
0.31301456689834595,
0.17044201493263245,
0.7278912663459778,
1.0736013650894165,
0.3573348820209503,
-0.1260181963443756,
-0.3895914852619171,
0.22201207280158997,
-0.10966552048921585,
-0.3153541386127472,
-0.061480872333049774,
-0.04849451780319214,
-0.25068846344947815,
-0.5456563234329224,
-0.005203451961278915,
0.0935339629650116,
-0.39895135164260864,
0.6531616449356079,
-0.23700423538684845,
0.9857951402664185,
-0.36017051339149475,
0.14474821090698242,
-0.9262720346450806,
-1.2309762239456177,
0.7452710270881653,
0.3301405608654022,
-0.15956689417362213,
-0.45423948764801025,
-0.25110065937042236,
-0.0696205422282219,
-0.4001389443874359,
-0.22621427476406097,
-0.24443820118904114,
0.21396873891353607,
-0.052375223487615585,
0.7979522943496704,
0.05392012745141983,
0.3270336091518402,
-0.7482712268829346,
1.014590859413147,
-0.016382118687033653,
0.14736288785934448,
-0.0836484283208847,
-0.578480064868927,
0.9278259873390198,
0.0855524018406868,
0.2196856141090393,
-0.1924792379140854,
-0.03803696855902672,
0.014787011779844761,
0.12407955527305603,
0.25234949588775635,
-0.4194788634777069,
0.5433383584022522,
-0.2709791362285614,
0.20693857967853546,
0.2291136384010315,
0.3254421353340149,
0.12234532833099365,
-0.7477235794067383,
0.1684800237417221,
-0.5617079138755798,
0.05283663421869278,
-0.4523064196109772,
0.1047004982829094,
-0.9051831960678101,
-0.2821081876754761,
-2.369176149368286,
0.5018265247344971,
0.6074458360671997,
-0.28048935532569885,
0.548550546169281,
-0.9943453669548035,
-0.1720760464668274,
-0.0029834862798452377,
0.7571231722831726,
-0.9781316518783569,
0.28086960315704346,
-0.14121688902378082,
0.20122987031936646,
0.6483593583106995,
0.011455430649220943,
0.44664791226387024,
-0.22933603823184967,
0.05505692586302757,
0.20494309067726135,
-0.20598368346691132,
-0.11111561208963394,
-0.3323111832141876,
0.41353538632392883,
-0.4168517589569092,
-0.33852654695510864,
-0.6080795526504517,
-0.12365177273750305,
-0.4985309839248657,
0.21390023827552795,
-0.3572324216365814,
0.19978590309619904,
0.3842785656452179,
-0.07137001305818558,
-0.29126596450805664,
0.41194942593574524,
-3.5608654022216797,
0.2261095494031906,
0.11354171484708786,
0.009214503690600395,
0.24165086448192596,
-0.33566635847091675,
0.6735525131225586,
-0.6066227555274963,
-0.3218652904033661,
0.057196084409952164,
0.7855293154716492,
-0.3395440876483917,
-0.11943518370389938,
0.6723320484161377,
1.172360897064209,
0.5732492804527283,
0.9543772339820862,
-0.363917738199234,
0.7992187142372131,
-0.03229686990380287,
-0.44850146770477295,
0.13544750213623047,
-0.046988166868686676,
-0.5359103679656982,
0.92806476354599,
0.15752333402633667,
0.20966006815433502,
-0.2969505786895752,
-1.0630009174346924,
-0.0030696415342390537,
-0.14217372238636017,
0.3948477506637573,
0.625817060470581,
-0.39560461044311523,
-0.8863592147827148,
-0.08760537207126617,
0.1715283989906311,
0.5110940933227539,
0.5287784934043884,
-0.17632173001766205,
-0.13378259539604187,
0.6610867381095886,
-0.6891465783119202,
0.954419732093811,
0.3500053882598877,
-0.5204368233680725,
-1.3762991428375244,
0.5084435343742371,
0.20502160489559174,
0.6301634907722473,
-0.1264008730649948,
-0.14232423901557922,
1.1875321865081787,
0.33516448736190796,
-0.2652798295021057,
-0.3184587061405182,
0.493808776140213,
-0.49573656916618347,
-0.8411785960197449,
-0.03271760419011116,
0.8388692140579224,
-0.6630710363388062,
0.3331160247325897,
0.28315672278404236,
0.5592915415763855,
-0.7614074349403381,
0.4457002282142639,
-0.30605632066726685,
0.09964968264102936,
0.23435606062412262,
0.25212109088897705,
0.49177679419517517,
-0.07153674215078354,
-0.7787331938743591,
0.03350741043686867,
0.011543519794940948,
-0.4715627133846283,
0.3556382656097412,
0.8617571592330933,
0.2314356118440628,
0.06443469971418381,
-0.2480887621641159,
-0.8883925676345825,
1.0456701517105103,
0.4269540309906006,
-0.4684179723262787,
-0.5120115876197815,
0.34449753165245056,
-0.8567342758178711,
-0.19752570986747742,
0.08742067962884903,
-0.37923282384872437,
-0.03381192311644554,
0.7632643580436707,
0.025900963693857193,
-0.337675005197525,
0.6072132587432861,
-0.6149482727050781,
0.28394031524658203,
-0.27055585384368896,
-0.8103621006011963,
-0.7060209512710571,
-0.49704813957214355,
-0.4357592463493347,
-0.4832543730735779,
-0.5629990696907043,
-0.035200510174036026,
0.6917004585266113,
-0.29314425587654114,
0.1452828049659729,
0.3219758868217468,
-0.037467993795871735,
0.10339340567588806,
-0.10259071737527847,
0.718026876449585,
-0.396576851606369,
-0.4155223071575165,
0.3731583058834076,
0.6924343705177307,
0.25913533568382263,
-0.28353163599967957,
0.6514635682106018,
-0.0994148775935173,
-0.07950009405612946,
-0.23719553649425507,
0.38820773363113403,
0.46742579340934753,
-0.3184994161128998,
-0.7174726724624634,
-0.38823458552360535,
-0.22886031866073608,
0.38754817843437195,
-0.3364386558532715,
-0.204368457198143,
-0.0713445395231247,
-0.5751686692237854,
-0.6605589985847473,
0.21536047756671906,
0.8227762579917908,
-0.8105654120445251,
0.38771313428878784,
-0.14369376003742218,
-0.45366159081459045,
0.6654658317565918,
0.016823872923851013,
0.8001813888549805,
0.9426826238632202,
-0.1426999419927597,
-0.3107043206691742,
0.40531840920448303,
-0.6252014636993408,
-1.0386683940887451,
0.11397924274206161,
-0.6819674372673035,
-0.4403519034385681,
-0.28192195296287537,
-0.07969264686107635,
0.24133145809173584,
-0.42417627573013306,
-0.4613162875175476,
-0.3454955518245697,
0.5418866872787476,
-0.3907759487628937,
-0.13114029169082642,
0.5389789938926697,
-0.5184009075164795,
0.06404668837785721,
-0.468131422996521,
-1.6991537809371948,
0.6567134261131287,
-0.1681441068649292,
-0.41771963238716125,
-0.4104499816894531,
-0.3784104287624359,
0.3126083314418793,
-0.186554417014122,
0.22809861600399017,
0.1321287453174591,
0.3339489698410034,
-0.323508083820343,
-0.22429578006267548,
0.025690577924251556,
0.007527905981987715,
0.36115923523902893,
0.55552077293396,
-0.40826696157455444,
-0.7736254334449768,
-0.05862089619040489,
0.26922789216041565,
-0.31845253705978394,
-0.09896712005138397,
0.07816434651613235,
0.8928713202476501,
0.46279051899909973,
-0.623740017414093,
-0.4856685698032379,
0.24355153739452362,
0.30313214659690857,
0.24729782342910767,
-0.47926411032676697,
0.021664297208189964,
0.7017219662666321,
-0.01030103862285614,
0.22265751659870148,
0.7548271417617798,
-0.6427783370018005,
-0.035115305334329605,
0.05141083523631096,
-0.650057315826416,
0.7214455008506775,
0.06940736621618271,
-1.1486788988113403,
0.4043247401714325,
0.575431227684021,
-0.3238231837749481,
-0.45825934410095215,
0.6237648129463196,
0.667266845703125,
-0.07858697324991226,
-0.27305009961128235,
-0.10285554826259613,
-0.48444613814353943,
-0.5176171660423279,
-0.6518446803092957,
-0.8379130363464355,
0.9705482721328735,
0.20544783771038055,
-0.564826250076294,
0.934662401676178,
-0.22322870790958405,
-0.6993412971496582,
0.32575908303260803,
0.10140912234783173,
0.31047919392585754,
-0.31529802083969116,
0.30461493134498596,
0.16702769696712494,
-0.14598888158798218,
-0.138889342546463,
0.36220216751098633,
0.8476502299308777,
1.1991119384765625,
0.40380555391311646,
-0.39805248379707336,
-0.45217469334602356,
0.20470945537090302,
-0.29698723554611206,
-0.3324016034603119,
-0.20055653154850006,
0.2985519766807556,
-0.244232177734375,
-0.219248428940773,
-0.9019642472267151,
-0.2065856009721756,
0.33563825488090515,
0.27892476320266724,
-0.18867062032222748,
0.4255359470844269,
-0.054245077073574066,
0.384175568819046,
-0.3186367452144623,
0.9000770449638367,
0.10518146306276321,
0.5971341729164124,
0.2126838117837906,
0.6698883175849915,
0.21239672601222992,
0.018992166966199875,
0.33635467290878296,
-0.33550772070884705,
-0.713788628578186,
-0.9724368453025818,
-0.8652116060256958,
0.32978764176368713,
0.0809774175286293,
-0.025120185688138008,
0.5474805235862732,
-0.868036150932312,
0.2429206222295761,
-0.17004193365573883,
0.5488260388374329,
0.10335034877061844,
0.915739119052887,
-0.7008050680160522,
0.20281857252120972,
-0.39560428261756897,
-0.6376838684082031,
-0.06519374251365662,
-0.4450901448726654,
0.17290332913398743,
-0.3925541639328003,
-0.7108618021011353,
-0.0586884506046772,
0.26748788356781006,
0.2347276508808136,
0.30572640895843506,
-0.8602465391159058,
-0.6006773710250854,
-0.4826289415359497,
-0.10359860956668854,
-1.3532044887542725,
0.9378326535224915,
0.62857586145401,
-0.05424143746495247,
0.8193240761756897,
0.32443445920944214,
-0.13324518501758575,
-0.6164578199386597,
-0.004469709470868111,
0.13461142778396606,
0.01592366211116314,
-0.19308410584926605,
-0.18547165393829346,
0.6316698789596558,
-0.3400205969810486,
-0.30503374338150024,
0.509390115737915,
-0.8367774486541748,
-0.30975958704948425,
0.3833220601081848,
-0.2951396703720093,
-0.814581036567688,
0.3445585370063782,
-0.022388288751244545,
0.11870799213647842,
0.5778446197509766,
-0.2074013352394104,
-0.7935534715652466,
0.23914283514022827,
-0.31941068172454834,
0.10288707911968231,
-0.3711364269256592,
-1.2559956312179565,
1.0381712913513184,
-0.7723923921585083,
0.08735950291156769,
0.08709276467561722,
-0.8187934756278992,
0.13750135898590088,
0.04275156930088997,
0.2796671986579895,
0.7550184726715088,
-0.5549194812774658,
-0.4347374141216278,
-0.6219670176506042,
0.24676547944545746,
-0.4968637228012085,
0.7609291672706604,
0.3396568298339844,
-0.1475536823272705,
0.6093187928199768,
0.31026363372802734,
0.1804906576871872,
-0.5770706534385681,
0.01889987848699093,
0.47334223985671997,
0.8108429908752441,
-0.16575466096401215,
-0.5184350609779358,
-2.1674883365631104,
-0.33488842844963074,
-0.3567669689655304,
0.415086567401886,
-0.048217758536338806,
0.6515886783599854,
-0.03849918022751808,
0.2993100881576538,
0.12289082258939743,
0.02244286797940731,
0.5168929696083069,
0.31529173254966736,
-0.17256104946136475,
0.6086046695709229,
-0.26428350806236267,
0.2288867086172104,
0.11277146637439728,
0.13600167632102966,
-0.31160056591033936,
0.25585418939590454,
-0.7876377701759338,
-0.08837328106164932,
-0.19636690616607666,
-0.13775865733623505,
-0.763180673122406,
0.38793492317199707,
-0.15193748474121094,
-0.44627487659454346,
0.3208204507827759,
-0.09866166114807129,
-0.5283621549606323,
0.23274999856948853,
-0.42824795842170715,
-0.07113233953714371,
0.16840721666812897,
-0.9873233437538147,
0.04389037564396858,
-0.514035165309906,
0.77552330493927,
0.1229037269949913,
-0.6662408709526062,
-0.10532572865486145,
0.6931233406066895,
-0.1804550737142563,
0.061644915491342545,
-0.11207055300474167,
0.4975898861885071,
-0.29688408970832825,
0.45773178339004517,
-1.1871390342712402,
0.2559961974620819,
-0.48369792103767395,
0.05067093297839165,
-0.3730173110961914,
0.9476161599159241,
0.1497502624988556,
-0.07706807553768158,
0.2136460840702057,
-0.5055925846099854,
-0.5415576696395874,
0.02574278973042965,
0.4531705379486084,
0.34653162956237793,
0.17703008651733398,
-0.1782754510641098,
-0.15835896134376526,
-0.7650880217552185,
0.19319956004619598,
-0.5014352798461914,
0.09828545153141022,
0.39978519082069397,
0.17092041671276093,
0.2517617642879486,
-0.03211798891425133,
-0.8570628762245178,
-0.18466700613498688,
0.2658945620059967,
1.045732855796814,
0.9660242795944214,
0.03481592237949371,
0.19878076016902924,
-0.22269578278064728,
-0.3145183324813843,
0.6914305686950684,
0.4365185797214508,
-4.016765594482422,
-0.5752831697463989,
-0.30908694863319397,
-0.5946892499923706,
0.377448171377182,
0.17422713339328766,
0.6754065752029419,
0.35579758882522583,
-0.06679780036211014,
-0.6326283812522888,
0.35833749175071716,
-0.2923556864261627,
-0.2709232270717621,
-0.6311220526695251,
0.5213640332221985,
0.32164108753204346
] |
247964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethan%20of%20Athos | Ethan of Athos | Ethan of Athos is a 1986 science fiction novel by American author Lois McMaster Bujold. The title character is Dr. Ethan Urquhart, Chief of Biology at the Sevarin District Reproduction Centre on the planet Athos, who is sent to find out what happened to a shipment of vital ovarian tissue cultures. Set in the fictional universe of Bujold's Vorkosigan Saga, the novel mentions but does not feature her usual protagonist Miles Vorkosigan. To date, Bujold has never revisited the settings of Athos or Kline Station in her many subsequent novels, but the events of Ethan of Athos are later referred to indirectly in the novels Borders of Infinity (1989) and Cetaganda (1995).
Bujold had written her first novel Shards of Honor and its sequel The Warrior's Apprentice — both unpublished — when she wrote Ethan of Athos, a standalone work that was purposely short "because the current cargo-cult rumor amongst the wanna-be-published back then was that editors would be more likely to read a short manuscript." All three novels were subsequently sold, and published in 1986.
Bujold named Athos, a planet founded and maintained as an exclusively male-populated colony with a planetary religion and ideology supporting this single-sex structure, after the Greek Mount Athos, which has prohibited the entry of women for religious reasons since even before the ban was officially proclaimed by the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomachos in 1046.
Ethan of Athos has been reprinted several times, and appeared in the 2001 Bujold omnibus Miles, Mystery and Mayhem alongside Cetaganda and the novella "Labyrinth". The novel was released on audio cassette in September 1999 narrated by Michael Hanson and Carol Cowan, and as a digital audiobook in March 2009 narrated by Grover Gardner.
Plot summary
Dr. Ethan Urquhart, Chief of Biology at the Sevarin District Reproduction Centre on Athos, is upset to find that his long-awaited shipment of ovarian tissue cultures from off-planet consists of an unusable mixture of dead and animal tissues. An exclusively male-populated planetary colony, continuing reproduction on Athos relies on uterine replicator technology, but the centuries-old cultures introduced by the original colonists have recently begun deteriorating into senescence. With their entire shipment purchased from the planet Jackson's Whole inexplicably consisting of genetic trash, the Population Council of Athos sends a reluctant Ethan offworld in search of a fresh batch of tissue cultures and (if possible) a refund from the original supplier, House Bharaputra. This is a very daring assignment as it means contact with women, who Athosians are taught are demonic and terrifying.
Ethan arrives at the interstellar hub of Kline Station and immediately encounters his first woman, Commander Elli Quinn, a rather unorthodox intelligence officer with the Dendarii Free Mercenary Fleet (and a subordinate of Admiral Naismith's). Though she is pleasant and even helpful, Ethan is wary of her. He is soon abducted and interrogated by military agents from Cetaganda who are seeking a fugitive named Terrence Cee as well as their own lost tissue cultures. They refuse to believe that Ethan is not an opposing intelligence operative. Elli rescues Ethan from certain execution. They become reluctant allies as Elli explains that she has actually been hired by House Bharaputra to track the Cetagandans, and for her own reasons determine what their interest is in the tissue cultures and how it relates to a secret Cetagandan research project.
Terrence approaches Ethan with a request for asylum, revealing himself to be the last survivor of a Cetagandan genetic project to create telepaths. Although his telepathy is reliable, it has a small range and can only be triggered for a short amount of time by ingesting large doses of the amino acid tyramine. Terrance’s female counterpart, Janine, had been killed in their escape, but he managed to preserve her body and transport it to Jackson's Whole, where he paid House Bharaputra to splice her genes into the ovarian cultures that were intended for Athos. Terrence had planned to also emigrate to Athos with the cultures, but had been delayed on his way to Kline Station, and is now horrified to learn that the cultures were stolen and replaced by the useless material that ultimately arrived on Athos.
The Cetagandans had tracked Terrence to Jackson's Whole; arriving after his departure, they had killed the Bharaputra researchers who had worked with him and destroyed their records. They then traced the tissue shipment to Kline Station, knowing Terrence would eventually come for it, though they have no knowledge of what happened to the original cultures and are desperate to reclaim them. Elli and Ethan manage to have the Cetagandans seized by Kline Station security, just as they discover that a minor official at the station had, for petty personal reasons, "thrown out" the Bharaputran tissue cultures that contained Janine's genes and replaced them with the useless biological material. Elli attempts to recruit Terrence for the Dendarii; he refuses, but gives Elli a small genetic sample. Meanwhile, Ethan asks Elli for (and receives) one of her ovaries to create a new tissue culture. After her departure, the original Bharaputran shipment unexpectedly turns up intact and usable, not destroyed. Ethan buys a new set of ovarian cultures from Beta Colony anyway as a cover, uses their packaging to relabel the cultures with Janine's genes, and returns with them and Terrence to Athos.
Athos
In the novel, the planet Athos is an all-male colony with a self-sustaining economy that is virtually independent of interstellar trade. Called a "monastery" planet by Bujold, it had been settled some 200 years earlier as a sanctuary away from women, who have since become mythologized as "demonic" due to the "madness" they cause in men. With the planetary religion and ideology supporting this single-sex structure, all incoming information is screened so that all references to — and images of — women are removed. Athos is remote, and physical contact with the rest of human civilization is limited to an annual interstellar census courier that brings information, supplies and the rare immigrant.
The population is sustained using uterine replicator technology. Nine reproduction centers across the planet possess an assortment of ovarian tissue cultures, and by design only male children are conceived. Through military and community service, Athosians earn "Social Duty Credits" towards reproduction. Regulations also allow for a "Designated Alternate Parent" who can earn Social Duty Credits by coparenting a partner's sons. Homosexuality is generally the norm on Athos, and while partnerships are typically romantic and sexual, some are merely mutually beneficial arrangements based on finances and child-rearing.
As much as Athosians are innately misogynistic, homophobia still exists elsewhere in the universe and is sometimes casually directed at the population of Athos.
Athos is named after the Greek Mount Athos monastery where no females, including female animals, are allowed.
Critical reception
Saying that "it would be hard to imagine a more unlikely hero for an SF adventure novel than a homosexual obstetrician," Booklist called Ethan of Athos "Bujold's third remarkable novel in a year" with "a compellingly attractive protagonist", going on to declare the novel "highly recommended for all SF collections." Noting that Ethan of Athos is nothing like Bujold's previous two books, Jo Walton wrote of the novel:
Walton also writes that "I couldn't have imagined what a feminist notion a planet of men is, and how tied up with nurturing children Athos is, accounting for the costs in a way that doesn't dismiss it as 'women’s work.'" Library Journal noted that "the plot-driven story moves swiftly and will engage SF fans of all subgenres". Nicki Gerlach of SF Site wrote, "Bujold's got an uncanny ability to create multidimensional, flawed, and loveable characters in a very short space. Even though Ethan is almost painfully naïve throughout the book, it's hard not to sympathize with him and cheer for him right from the beginning." She also praises Bujold's dialogue, which blends humor and "snarky wit" with "the action, the politics, and the emotional pathos that make up the rest of the story." Gerlach also praises Bujold's deftness at "introducing more serious topics in her fiction, without having the story become entirely about The Issues." She writes:
See also
LGBT themes in speculative fiction
Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction
Sex and sexuality in speculative fiction
References
External links
1986 American novels
1986 science fiction novels
American science fiction novels
LGBT speculative fiction novels
Novels by Lois McMaster Bujold
Novels with gay themes
Single-gender worlds
Space opera novels
Vorkosigan Saga
1980s LGBT novels
American LGBT novels
Baen Books books | [
-0.9505903720855713,
0.7512308955192566,
-0.5586493611335754,
-0.1291724294424057,
0.011546152643859386,
0.5922941565513611,
0.3162877559661865,
-0.4365971088409424,
0.41874152421951294,
-0.5218824744224548,
-0.45767322182655334,
0.2732340097427368,
-0.13248704373836517,
0.31992775201797485,
0.4473029673099518,
0.06804244220256805,
0.23242536187171936,
-0.07647255063056946,
-0.4339870512485504,
-0.21927276253700256,
0.05521678924560547,
-0.3068946599960327,
0.17808473110198975,
0.08509039133787155,
0.5409069061279297,
0.274106502532959,
0.3399588167667389,
-0.15821702778339386,
0.11672545969486237,
0.16885608434677124,
-0.03256029263138771,
0.13943926990032196,
-0.4550534188747406,
-0.8443887233734131,
-0.11135233938694,
-0.24746893346309662,
-0.5906271934509277,
-0.3769327998161316,
-0.20848017930984497,
-0.3512020409107208,
-0.1332523673772812,
0.3137979507446289,
0.5332952737808228,
0.39737623929977417,
-0.030951883643865585,
-0.18622547388076782,
-1.3565398454666138,
0.23867936432361603,
-0.8473420739173889,
-0.3521212935447693,
-0.10009576380252838,
0.06997659057378769,
1.07622230052948,
-0.07713466137647629,
-0.05348796397447586,
0.9410964846611023,
-1.0091840028762817,
0.02086692675948143,
0.39655518531799316,
-0.2559160888195038,
0.3621470630168915,
0.1756957769393921,
0.486115962266922,
0.11917982250452042,
-0.30865684151649475,
0.052149951457977295,
0.26471495628356934,
-0.006736694369465113,
0.8400711417198181,
-0.1449289619922638,
-0.11513697355985641,
0.14046689867973328,
-0.06577807664871216,
0.40212342143058777,
-0.583951473236084,
-0.24035988748073578,
0.3734684884548187,
-0.20954015851020813,
0.08495555818080902,
0.3421100974082947,
-0.45729199051856995,
-0.09588085860013962,
0.25173044204711914,
-0.04884510114789009,
-0.019162872806191444,
-0.7188993096351624,
-0.08962894976139069,
0.477568119764328,
-0.290988951921463,
0.7107972502708435,
-0.3864244222640991,
-0.6753576993942261,
0.03958209604024887,
0.42523011565208435,
0.12600746750831604,
-0.8485562801361084,
-0.2691287100315094,
-0.012414987199008465,
0.18514074385166168,
0.40444260835647583,
-0.03041841834783554,
0.6062242388725281,
0.4085807502269745,
-0.11533147841691971,
-0.19652673602104187,
-0.05078120529651642,
-0.2192617654800415,
-0.10115793347358704,
0.18801075220108032,
0.3054899573326111,
0.11840489506721497,
0.6307465434074402,
-0.03270468860864639,
0.2356843501329422,
0.19580502808094025,
0.6332321763038635,
0.021901508793234825,
-0.13404588401317596,
-0.7689546346664429,
-0.3800741136074066,
0.08855023980140686,
0.5148476362228394,
0.26806914806365967,
0.42104214429855347,
-0.07059367746114731,
-0.11091379821300507,
0.4261735677719116,
0.23818811774253845,
-0.9029461741447449,
0.49282920360565186,
-0.21340979635715485,
0.16942302882671356,
-0.1825743466615677,
-0.05008750781416893,
-0.43699753284454346,
0.28917714953422546,
0.28174901008605957,
-0.21863920986652374,
0.10845103859901428,
0.2656742036342621,
-0.31783080101013184,
-0.132625550031662,
0.044308844953775406,
0.3195304870605469,
0.27743983268737793,
-0.18546251952648163,
0.4332759976387024,
-0.3220405876636505,
-0.18048952519893646,
-0.07360626012086868,
0.2318740040063858,
0.3511506915092468,
-0.28588810563087463,
0.026309363543987274,
-0.33853864669799805,
0.37615159153938293,
0.47046157717704773,
0.7168899178504944,
0.1710754632949829,
0.16410739719867706,
0.16427764296531677,
0.7144174575805664,
0.2504366338253021,
-0.13725546002388,
0.17884616553783417,
-0.09309305995702744,
0.8450746536254883,
-0.5922787189483643,
0.5742260217666626,
-0.07989285886287689,
-0.47302454710006714,
-0.05487808212637901,
0.1896078884601593,
-0.32546907663345337,
-0.12476280331611633,
-0.13427792489528656,
0.993191123008728,
0.4358232915401459,
-0.24793633818626404,
0.014670359902083874,
-0.4552057385444641,
-0.2566658556461334,
-0.22812961041927338,
-0.5838192105293274,
0.3672332167625427,
0.0769670382142067,
-0.4818202555179596,
0.20957238972187042,
0.1635507345199585,
-0.07955991476774216,
-0.9026439785957336,
-0.27217161655426025,
0.6989813446998596,
0.39691728353500366,
1.0857683420181274,
-0.3521643579006195,
-0.7083151936531067,
0.4739629030227661,
0.2421921044588089,
0.8442821502685547,
0.03748789057135582,
0.007510083261877298,
0.39987510442733765,
0.37032440304756165,
0.3909492790699005,
-0.0660642609000206,
-0.5051308274269104,
0.3125619888305664,
0.2544432282447815,
0.8974399566650391,
0.14480866491794586,
-0.3117239475250244,
0.6707891821861267,
0.40997010469436646,
-0.035186901688575745,
0.2621452510356903,
-0.007923542521893978,
0.4674023985862732,
0.4128803610801697,
-0.100040003657341,
0.8993086218833923,
0.10718484967947006,
-0.12763062119483948,
0.05865553021430969,
-0.3253781795501709,
0.24083204567432404,
0.1876031756401062,
-0.2637377977371216,
-0.08368639647960663,
-0.21757899224758148,
-0.389626145362854,
0.6680245399475098,
0.08290483802556992,
-0.9733994603157043,
0.4507907032966614,
-0.06629974395036697,
-0.12132728844881058,
-0.26180288195610046,
0.5941631197929382,
-0.1470145732164383,
0.060663070529699326,
-0.2362569123506546,
0.003793108044192195,
0.5292177796363831,
0.47956883907318115,
0.3534140884876251,
0.6983116269111633,
0.023435505107045174,
-0.12209378182888031,
-0.27156686782836914,
-0.7396573424339294,
0.27294930815696716,
0.3526151776313782,
0.37001851201057434,
0.006505198311060667,
-0.04443378001451492,
-0.2145828902721405,
-0.41383805871009827,
0.4308948516845703,
0.08005129545927048,
0.4760001301765442,
0.24383585155010223,
0.3265337347984314,
-0.2697828412055969,
0.5833280086517334,
-0.5549970865249634,
-0.23676098883152008,
-1.015954852104187,
0.5724091529846191,
0.16918690502643585,
-0.15109311044216156,
-0.5864443778991699,
-0.205502450466156,
0.5095700025558472,
-0.016732145100831985,
-0.003670954843983054,
0.23335129022598267,
-0.17040026187896729,
0.22884279489517212,
-0.26036790013313293,
0.07265187054872513,
0.6704245805740356,
-0.0761970803141594,
-0.07429718226194382,
-0.1317886859178543,
-0.8112795352935791,
0.8873946070671082,
-0.9218684434890747,
-0.12441504001617432,
-0.12329766899347305,
0.031501322984695435,
0.2459103912115097,
0.09127704799175262,
0.02974342741072178,
-0.07298455387353897,
0.9096383452415466,
-0.28161752223968506,
-0.17902719974517822,
-0.4826491177082062,
0.16007398068904877,
0.11572834849357605,
-0.03467140346765518,
-0.3502584397792816,
0.7197415232658386,
0.30410468578338623,
-0.3653485178947449,
-0.2621672749519348,
0.2655820846557617,
-5.737111568450928,
-0.07724326848983765,
0.08552969247102737,
-0.48768383264541626,
-0.157798632979393,
0.15921908617019653,
0.4990057647228241,
-0.03329777345061302,
0.06717303395271301,
-0.49677127599716187,
-0.2351274937391281,
-0.3527655601501465,
0.197081059217453,
0.33274948596954346,
0.5800380110740662,
0.434833288192749,
0.10155637562274933,
-0.40600404143333435,
-0.15640486776828766,
0.16381782293319702,
-0.17513294517993927,
-0.20509424805641174,
-0.29244545102119446,
-0.26111316680908203,
-0.2266066074371338,
0.5107125639915466,
-0.1429932713508606,
-0.27077800035476685,
-0.48491182923316956,
0.5568780303001404,
0.3032310903072357,
-0.3481873869895935,
-0.06582166254520416,
0.13775523006916046,
-0.31375259160995483,
0.2461961954832077,
0.7158316373825073,
-0.3306979835033417,
0.8412613272666931,
-0.23079438507556915,
-0.5232192873954773,
0.3410777747631073,
-0.21834509074687958,
0.06507337838411331,
0.6248403787612915,
-0.3867184519767761,
-0.5426713228225708,
0.32632628083229065,
0.024752585217356682,
1.0000799894332886,
-0.1260581761598587,
0.15479612350463867,
-0.04450929909944534,
0.21850354969501495,
-0.22976984083652496,
0.3040582537651062,
0.2157164216041565,
-0.27508020401000977,
-0.2346373051404953,
0.09532932192087173,
0.2884797751903534,
-0.2806031405925751,
0.37469568848609924,
-0.24158132076263428,
0.37905147671699524,
-0.48288634419441223,
-0.003770424984395504,
-0.16207697987556458,
-0.6117205619812012,
0.1872713714838028,
-0.4455021917819977,
0.10857772082090378,
0.07919598370790482,
-1.217666745185852,
-0.07759397476911545,
-0.2129012942314148,
-0.10166753083467484,
-0.4084506630897522,
-0.0971849337220192,
-0.4026137590408325,
-0.04628211632370949,
-0.5645239949226379,
-0.49046096205711365,
0.45864585041999817,
0.20973409712314606,
-0.6593998670578003,
-0.06982039660215378,
-0.06293874979019165,
-0.5527416467666626,
-0.8277415037155151,
0.8592404127120972,
-0.3218417763710022,
0.09442537277936935,
0.271853506565094,
0.2707306146621704,
0.531183123588562,
0.218809112906456,
0.031410060822963715,
0.925851583480835,
0.29797667264938354,
-0.05206765979528427,
-0.42576098442077637,
0.45992231369018555,
-0.1776607632637024,
-0.5091125965118408,
0.042229581624269485,
-0.41314756870269775,
0.6219845414161682,
0.8492441773414612,
-0.6399926543235779,
-0.21447445452213287,
0.24866439402103424,
-0.41137561202049255,
-0.5518417954444885,
0.43302831053733826,
-0.18375135958194733,
0.3631456792354584,
0.20432814955711365,
0.1675170361995697,
0.6368517279624939,
-0.3985534608364105,
-0.027723923325538635,
0.38557901978492737,
-0.2019844353199005,
-0.2678937017917633,
-0.3413395583629608,
0.2797459363937378,
-0.21599461138248444,
0.2852948009967804,
0.4522887170314789,
0.44879981875419617,
0.05333955958485603,
0.11157786101102829,
0.17332512140274048,
-0.7278630137443542,
-0.7031351923942566,
-0.5896734595298767,
-0.41347071528434753,
-0.2412172257900238,
0.9494824409484863,
-0.412485271692276,
-0.29852813482284546,
-0.264334499835968,
0.2299247533082962,
0.1599711924791336,
-0.4861816465854645,
0.15644079446792603,
-0.2433062195777893,
-0.36115261912345886,
0.43637436628341675,
-0.438332736492157,
0.6090130805969238,
0.8645091652870178,
-0.20203489065170288,
-0.11709962040185928,
0.15345241129398346,
0.03052753582596779,
0.47715726494789124,
-0.9440191388130188,
0.2135680615901947,
-0.12070199847221375,
-0.5541664958000183,
-1.023881196975708,
-0.16705778241157532,
-0.18937335908412933,
-0.1745034158229828,
-0.5871105194091797,
-0.9283877015113831,
-0.3127478063106537,
-0.22985345125198364,
0.18236573040485382,
-0.4942947328090668,
0.09467340260744095,
-0.2385566383600235,
0.15501844882965088,
-0.09353057295084,
-0.31879112124443054,
0.24570529162883759,
-0.12423135340213776,
-0.5646724104881287,
0.12054680287837982,
-0.050692345947027206,
-0.3875604569911957,
-0.34588873386383057,
0.8316233158111572,
-0.3457206189632416,
-0.5685921311378479,
-0.6363871097564697,
-0.15990856289863586,
0.359357625246048,
-0.0366930216550827,
0.24131259322166443,
0.4079931676387787,
0.24236053228378296,
-0.27390748262405396,
-0.3766475319862366,
0.28100213408470154,
0.015040205791592598,
-0.2981458306312561,
0.014544937759637833,
-0.10225788503885269,
0.2188609093427658,
-0.7505884170532227,
0.3087853491306305,
0.40123748779296875,
-1.0278702974319458,
0.39560559391975403,
-0.036798130720853806,
0.048119839280843735,
0.6514989137649536,
-0.521530270576477,
-0.32242316007614136,
-0.41562503576278687,
0.08417893201112747,
-0.12367506325244904,
0.3067490756511688,
-0.27489006519317627,
-0.08833380043506622,
-0.6164087653160095,
-0.1169181689620018,
0.06198703125119209,
-0.2560369372367859,
-0.13498753309249878,
-0.478972852230072,
-0.6481903195381165,
-0.0013037892058491707,
0.6133247017860413,
-0.3014630377292633,
0.18690866231918335,
0.021559642627835274,
-0.07483338564634323,
0.18432731926441193,
0.2617606222629547,
-0.1527639776468277,
-0.4821314513683319,
0.2176661193370819,
-0.26473984122276306,
-0.16602519154548645,
-0.3462764322757721,
0.6523064970970154,
0.27755019068717957,
0.5696519017219543,
0.8206077814102173,
-0.1009782999753952,
0.11658504605293274,
0.30861788988113403,
-0.5767396092414856,
-0.28851255774497986,
-0.30964964628219604,
-0.03271002322435379,
0.5181722640991211,
-0.24888357520103455,
-0.07558836042881012,
-0.8828729391098022,
0.7466448545455933,
-0.4714539051055908,
0.17570357024669647,
-0.051279932260513306,
-0.2148827761411667,
-0.22000981867313385,
0.06932719051837921,
-0.5430099964141846,
-0.5632100105285645,
-0.01523696631193161,
-0.2674426734447479,
-0.012891040183603764,
0.22360795736312866,
-0.5470266938209534,
0.16353626549243927,
-0.27721792459487915,
-0.09140440076589584,
-0.45519790053367615,
0.5137473940849304,
-0.11866378784179688,
-0.36712542176246643,
-0.03960951417684555,
-0.26932811737060547,
-0.04056274890899658,
-0.010539059527218342,
-0.5330020189285278,
-0.7615857720375061,
0.2161412239074707,
-0.382007360458374,
-0.24455969035625458,
-0.28868216276168823,
-0.5520113706588745,
0.08045711368322372,
-0.41502609848976135,
0.3958931565284729,
-0.2626006603240967,
0.0908103808760643,
-0.35916662216186523,
-0.4203758239746094,
0.1302856206893921,
0.620404839515686,
0.05871167033910751,
-0.01333694625645876,
0.5435147881507874,
-0.017361124977469444,
-0.06201046332716942,
0.00758559163659811,
1.0133037567138672,
0.48093822598457336,
-0.3509349822998047,
0.3173879384994507,
0.23493894934654236,
0.2481374591588974,
0.14177554845809937,
-0.2332051396369934,
0.29327651858329773,
0.16673193871974945,
-0.11709100008010864,
0.38856831192970276,
0.7417133450508118,
-0.6937016844749451,
-0.10169738531112671,
0.5097941756248474,
-0.6144079566001892,
0.2209547609090805,
0.46252986788749695,
-0.22423535585403442,
0.2056533694267273,
0.5275722146034241,
-0.36414188146591187,
0.061219148337841034,
0.5155007243156433,
-0.3735339939594269,
0.5538353323936462,
-0.16285476088523865,
0.08951298892498016,
0.74984210729599,
-0.11066930741071701,
-0.16122113168239594,
0.013492525555193424,
0.2914482355117798,
0.24953241646289825,
0.11700054258108139,
-0.649674117565155,
-0.12108658254146576,
0.5076460838317871,
-0.3408863842487335,
0.1719464808702469,
0.04494912922382355,
-0.255363792181015,
-0.3087337017059326,
0.39159974455833435,
0.3351752460002899,
0.7840113639831543,
-0.1131705716252327,
0.14512798190116882,
0.05579066276550293,
0.33871975541114807,
-0.11166726052761078,
-0.8118946552276611,
-0.1880171298980713,
0.23437394201755524,
0.3755917251110077,
0.1800156682729721,
-0.3165755271911621,
-0.11671540141105652,
-0.08511737734079361,
-0.7337874174118042,
0.7737339735031128,
0.28490060567855835,
0.028182942420244217,
0.18026624619960785,
0.3311556279659271,
-0.7737151384353638,
0.13397139310836792,
-0.27571529150009155,
0.19348010420799255,
0.3235478699207306,
-0.090821273624897,
0.1912243664264679,
0.6023423075675964,
0.7561445832252502,
-0.20343610644340515,
-0.07733038067817688,
-0.10545973479747772,
0.22462336719036102,
-0.6665518283843994,
-0.4048153758049011,
-0.3070599138736725,
-0.14102892577648163,
-0.1034204363822937,
0.4921899735927582,
0.1531902700662613,
0.2713608145713806,
-0.47040805220603943,
-0.34217557311058044,
0.3127730190753937,
-0.21321731805801392,
0.17652778327465057,
-0.26904335618019104,
-0.5733824372291565,
0.07692112773656845,
0.12113180011510849,
0.9243408441543579,
-0.157539501786232,
0.6173770427703857,
-0.053343627601861954,
-0.19190216064453125,
0.4822864830493927,
0.2737317383289337,
-0.41548532247543335,
0.4582063555717468,
-0.6243271827697754,
0.05949673801660538,
-0.7711949944496155,
-0.15648086369037628,
0.2259816825389862,
0.07621137797832489,
-0.0490594208240509,
-0.0006649921415373683,
-0.5450866222381592,
-0.19975973665714264,
0.31396886706352234,
0.3535008132457733,
0.584415853023529,
-0.3129761815071106,
-0.23558883368968964,
0.12901641428470612,
-0.5895134806632996,
0.6689098477363586,
-0.29645848274230957,
0.06095154583454132,
0.3722730278968811,
0.212380513548851,
0.01593986712396145,
0.4156079888343811,
0.701142430305481,
-0.6214622855186462,
-0.15238042175769806,
0.26700296998023987,
0.20112915337085724,
-0.7856363654136658,
0.6312729120254517,
0.7443923354148865,
0.29892006516456604,
-0.1994832158088684,
-0.05692848190665245,
-0.5891143083572388,
-0.24006347358226776,
0.24234996736049652,
-0.1949174702167511,
-0.14470753073692322,
-0.6633440852165222,
-0.7549416422843933,
-0.4402199983596802,
0.5522949695587158,
0.3163374364376068,
-0.27656853199005127,
-0.17451037466526031,
-0.2828983664512634,
-0.330849826335907,
0.19530069828033447,
-0.07830284535884857,
-0.8005947470664978,
0.5830129981040955,
-0.12713521718978882
] |
247968 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20operating%20systems | Timeline of operating systems | This article presents a timeline of events in the history of computer operating systems from 1951 to the current day. For a narrative explaining the overall developments, see the History of operating systems.
1950s
1951
LEO I 'Lyons Electronic Office' was the commercial development of EDSAC computing platform, supported by British firm J. Lyons and Co.
1955
MIT's Tape Director operating system made for UNIVAC 1103
1955
General Motors Operating System made for IBM 701
1956
GM-NAA I/O for IBM 704, based on General Motors Operating System
1957
Atlas Supervisor (Manchester University) (Atlas computer project start)
BESYS (Bell Labs), for IBM 704, later IBM 7090 and IBM 7094
1958
University of Michigan Executive System (UMES), for IBM 704, 709, and 7090
1959
SHARE Operating System (SOS), based on GM-NAA I/O
1960s
1960
IBSYS (IBM for its 7090 and 7094)
1961
CTSS demonstration (MIT's Compatible Time-Sharing System for the IBM 7094)
MCP (Burroughs Master Control Program)
1962
Atlas Supervisor (Manchester University) (Atlas computer commissioned)
BBN Time-Sharing System
GCOS (GE's General Comprehensive Operating System, originally GECOS, General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor)
1963
AN/FSQ-32, another early time-sharing system begun
CTSS becomes operational (MIT's Compatible Time-Sharing System for the IBM 7094)
JOSS, an interactive time-shared system that did not distinguish between operating system and language
Titan Supervisor, early time-sharing system begun
1964
KDF9 Timesharing Director (English Electric) – an early, fully hardware secured, fully pre-emptive process switching, multi-programming operating system for KDF9 (originally announced in 1960)
Berkeley Timesharing System (for Scientific Data Systems' SDS 940)
Dartmouth Time Sharing System (Dartmouth College's DTSS for GE computers)
OS/360 (IBM's primary OS for its S/360 series) (announced)
SCOPE (CDC 3000 series)
PDP-6 Monitor (DEC) descendant renamed TOPS-10 in 1970
EXEC 8 (UNIVAC)
1965
THE multiprogramming system (Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven) development
Multics (MIT, GE, Bell Labs for the GE-645) (announced)
BOS/360 (IBM's Basic Operating System)
TOS/360 (IBM's Tape Operating System)
TSOS (later VMOS) (RCA)
Pick operating system
1966
OS/360 (IBM's primary OS for its S/360 series) PCP and MFT (shipped)
DOS/360 (IBM's Disk Operating System)
MS/8 (Richard F. Lary's DEC PDP-8 system)
GEORGE 1 & 2 for ICT 1900 series
SODA for Elwro's Odra 1204
1967
CP-40, predecessor to CP-67 on modified IBM System/360 Model 40
CP-67 (IBM, also known as CP/CMS)
Michigan Terminal System (MTS) (time-sharing system for the IBM S/360-67 and successors)
ITS (MIT's Incompatible Timesharing System for the DEC PDP-6 and PDP-10)
ORVYL (Stanford University's time-sharing system for the IBM S/360)
TSS/360 (IBM's Time-sharing System for the S/360-67, never officially released, canceled in 1969 and again in 1971)
OS/360 MVT
WAITS (SAIL, Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, time-sharing system for DEC PDP-6 and PDP-10, later TOPS-10)
1968
Airline Control Program (ACP) (IBM)
THE multiprogramming system (Eindhoven University of Technology) publication
TSS/8 (DEC for the PDP-8)
1969
TENEX (Bolt, Beranek and Newman for DEC systems, later TOPS-20)
Unics (later Unix) (AT&T, initially on DEC computers)
RC 4000 Multiprogramming System (RC)
Multics (MIT, GE, Bell Labs for the GE-645 and later the Honeywell 6180) (opened for paying customers in October)
GEORGE 3 For ICL 1900 series
1970s
1970
DOS-11 (PDP-11)
1971
RSTS-11 2A-19 (First released version; PDP-11)
OS/8
1972
Data General RDOS
Edos
Operating System/Virtual Storage 1 (OS/VS1)
Operating System/Virtual Storage 2 R1 (OS/VS2 SVS)
Virtual Machine Facility/370 (VM/370), sometimes known as VM/CMS
Virtual Machine/Basic System Extensions Program Product (BSEPP or VM/SE)
Virtual Machine/System Extensions Program Product (SEPP or VM/BSE)
MUSIC/SP
PRIMOS (written in FORTRAN IV, that didn't have pointers, while later versions, around version 18, written in a version of PL/I, called PL/P)
1973
Эльбрус-1 (Elbrus-1) – Soviet computer – created using high-level language uЭль-76 (AL-76/ALGOL 68)
VME – implementation language S3 (ALGOL 68)
RSX-11D
RT-11
Alto OS
1974
CP/M
DOS-11 V09-20C (Last stable release, June 1974)
Sintran III
MONECS
Multi-Programming Executive (MPE) – Hewlett-Packard
Hydra – capability-based, multiprocessing OS kernel
Operating System/Virtual Storage 2 R2 (MVS)
1975
BS2000 V2.0 (First released version)
Version 6 Unix
1976
Cambridge CAP computer – all operating system procedures written in ALGOL 68C, with some closely associated protected procedures in BCPL
Cray Operating System
FLEX
TOPS-20
Tandem Nonstop OS v1
1977
1BSD
KERNAL
OASIS operating system
TRSDOS
Virtual Memory System (VMS) V1.0 (Initial commercial release, October 25)
1978
2BSD
Apple DOS
HDOS
PTDOS
TRIPOS
UCSD p-System (First released version)
Lisp machine (CADR)
KVM/370 – security retro-fit of IBM VM/370
KSOS – secure OS design from Ford Aerospace
MVS/System Extensions (MVS/SE)
1979
3BSD
Atari DOS
POS
NLTSS
UNIX/32V
Version 7 Unix
UCLA Secure UNIX – an early secure UNIX OS based on security kernel
MVS/System Extensions R2 (MVS/SE2)
MP/M
1980s
1980
86-DOS
CTOS
NewDos/80
OS-9
SOS
MVS/System Product (MVS/SP) V1
Virtual Machine/System Product (VM/SP)
Xenix
AOS/VS (Data General)
1981
Acorn MOS
Xinu first release
Business Operating System
Aegis SR1 (First Apollo/DOMAIN systems shipped on March 27)
PC DOS
Pilot (Xerox Star operating system)
MS-DOS
UTS
iMAX – OS for Intel's iAPX 432 capability machine
CP/M-86
1982
Commodore DOS
LDOS (By Logical Systems, Inc. – for the Radio Shack TRS-80 Models I, II & III)
QNX
Sun UNIX (later SunOS) 0.7
Ultrix
Stratus VOS
Unix System III
pSOS
1983
Lisa Office System 7/7
Coherent
GNU (project start)
Novell NetWare (S-Net)
ProDOS
SunOS 1.0
STOP – TCSEC A1-class, secure OS for SCOMP hardware
LOCUS – UNIX compatible, high reliability, distributed OS
DNIX
MVS/System Product V2 (MVS/Extended Architecture, MVS/XA)
1984
AMSDOS
Mac OS (System 1.0)
MSX-DOS
PC/IX
Sinclair QDOS
QNX
UNICOS
Venix 2.0
Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture Migration Assistance (VM/XA MA)
1985
Windows 1.0
AmigaOS
Atari TOS
DG/UX
DOS Plus
MIPS RISC/os
Oberon – written in Oberon
SunOS 2.0
Version 8 Unix
Windows 1.01
Xenix 2.0
Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture System Facility (VM/XA SF)
Graphics Environment Manager
1986
AIX 1.0
GS-OS
Genera 7.0
HP-UX
SunOS 3.0
GEOS
Version 9 Unix
GEMSOS – TCSEC A1-class, secure kernel for BLACKER VPN & GTNP
Cronus distributed OS
1987
Topaz – semi-distributed OS for DEC Firefly workstation written in Modula-2+ and garbage collected
Arthur (much improved version came in 1989 under the name RISC OS)
IRIX (3.0 is first SGI version)
MINIX 1.0
BS2000 V9.0
OS/2 (1.0)
PC-MOS/386
Windows 2.0
1988
A/UX (Apple Computer)
AOS/VS II (Data General)
RISC iX
KeyKOS – capability-based microkernel for IBM mainframes with automated persistence of app data
LynxOS
CP/M rebranded as DR-DOS
Mac OS (System 6)
MVS/System Product V3 (MVS/Enterprise Systems Architecture, MVS/ESA)
OS/2 (1.1)
OS/400
SpartaDOS X
SunOS 4.0
TOPS-10 7.04 (Last stable release, July 1988)
HeliOS 1.0
VAX VMM – TCSEC A1-class, VMM for VAX computers (limited use before cancellation)
Flex machine – tagged, capability machine with OS and other software written in ALGOL 68RS
Virtual Machine/Extended Architecture System Product (VM/XA SP)
1989
EPOC
NeXTSTEP (1.0)
OS/2 (1.2)
RISC OS (First release was to be called Arthur 2, but was renamed to RISC OS 2, and was first sold as RISC OS 2.00 in April 1989)
SCO UNIX (Release 3)
TSX-32
Version 10 Unix
Xenix 2.3.4 (Last stable release)
Army Secure Operating System (ASOS) – TCSEC A1-class secure, real-time OS for Ada applications
1990s
1990
AmigaOS 2.0
BeOS (v1)
DOS/V
Genera 8.0
OS/2 1.3
OSF/1
AIX 3.0
MVS/ESA SP Version 4
Novell NetWare 3
Windows 3.0
LOCK – TCSEC A1-class secure system with kernel & hardware support for type enforcement
Virtual Machine/Enterprise Systems Architecture (VM/XA ESA)
PC/GEOS
1991
Linux 0.01-0.1
Mac OS (System 7)
MINIX 1.5
PenPoint OS
RISC OS 3
Trusted Xenix – rewritten & security enhanced Xenix evaluated at TCSEC B2-class
Amoeba – microkernel-based, POSIX-compliant, distributed OS
1992
386BSD 0.1
BSD/386, by BSDi and later known as BSD/OS.
AmigaOS 3.0
Amiga Unix 2.01 (Latest stable release)
RSTS/E 10.1 (Last stable release, September 1992)
SLS
Solaris 2.0 (Successor to SunOS 4.x; based on SVR4 instead of BSD)
OpenVMS V1.0 (First OpenVMS AXP (Alpha) specific version, November 1992)
OS/2 2.0 (First i386 32-bit based version)
Plan 9 First Edition (First public release was made available to universities)
Windows 3.1
LGX
1993
FreeBSD
NetBSD
Newton OS
Windows NT 3.1 (First Windows NT kernel public release)
Open Genera 1.0
IBM 4690 Operating System
Novell NetWare 4
OS/2 2.1
Slackware 1.0
Spring
1994
AIX 4.0, 4.1
IBM MVS/ESA SP Version 5
OS/2 3.0
RISC OS 3.5
NetBSD 1.0 (First multi-platform release, October 1994)
SPIN – extensible OS written in Modula-3
Red Hat
1995
Digital UNIX (aka Tru64 UNIX)
OpenBSD
OS/390
Plan 9 Second Edition (Commercial second release version was made available to the general public.)
Ultrix 4.5 (Last major release)
Windows 95
1996
Mac OS 7.6 (First officially-named Mac OS)
Windows NT 4.0
Windows CE 1.0
RISC OS 3.6
AIX 4.2
OS/2 4.0
Palm OS
Debian 1.1
JN – microkernel OS for embedded, Java apps
1997
Inferno
Mac OS 8
Windows CE 2.0
SkyOS
MINIX 2.0
RISC OS 3.7
AIX 4.3
DR-WebSpyder 1.0
Nemesis
1998
Solaris 7 (first 64-bit Solaris release – names from this point drop "2.", otherwise would've been Solaris 2.7)
Windows 98
RT-11 5.7 (Last stable release, October 1998)
Novell NetWare 5
Junos
DR-WebSpyder 2.0
1999
AROS (Boot for the first time in Stand Alone version)
RISC OS 4
Mac OS 9
OS/2 4.5
Windows 98 (2nd edition)
Inferno Second Edition (Last distribution (Release 2.3, ) from Lucent's Inferno Business Unit)
2000s
2010s
2020s
See also
Comparison of operating systems
List of operating systems
Comparison of real-time operating systems
Timeline of DOS operating systems
Timeline of Linux distributions (Diagram 1992–2010)
References
External links
UNIX History – a timeline of UNIX 1969 and its descendants at present
Concise Microsoft O.S. Timeline – a color-coded concise timeline for various Microsoft operating systems (1981–present)
Full Form of Computer - Full Form and Working of Computers.
Bitsavers – an effort to capture, salvage, and archive historical computer software and manuals from minicomputers and mainframes of the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s
A brief history of operating systems
Microsoft operating system time-line
Timeline of operating systems
Operating systems
Operating systems
Real-time operating systems
Embedded operating systems | [
0.05219263583421707,
0.5102245211601257,
-0.2879103422164917,
0.02736310102045536,
0.37682971358299255,
0.16158515214920044,
0.00577012961730361,
0.6920019388198853,
-0.6249856352806091,
-0.6564687490463257,
-0.1892915815114975,
0.49272745847702026,
-0.20273317396640778,
0.47431251406669617,
-0.16972289979457855,
-0.09066455811262131,
0.22910983860492706,
0.09751532226800919,
0.018681243062019348,
0.33679434657096863,
-0.7642447352409363,
0.27838560938835144,
0.22229105234146118,
-0.26997074484825134,
-0.5318365693092346,
-0.4216395318508148,
0.10797066986560822,
-0.629292905330658,
0.13904891908168793,
0.06263052672147751,
0.01536931749433279,
0.25106319785118103,
-0.1203533336520195,
-0.06257198005914688,
-0.13978201150894165,
-0.36317774653434753,
-0.4637261927127838,
0.08670126646757126,
0.044606514275074005,
-0.4745027720928192,
-0.1278429925441742,
-0.20670264959335327,
0.6838329434394836,
0.431514710187912,
0.048053398728370667,
0.23443493247032166,
-1.613513469696045,
-0.4968695640563965,
-0.4211595356464386,
0.0923047810792923,
-0.2439306229352951,
-0.00781702809035778,
0.19407689571380615,
-0.10081573575735092,
-0.03768501430749893,
0.24988245964050293,
0.3224814832210541,
0.05112394317984581,
-0.283308207988739,
0.2748897969722748,
0.7741389870643616,
0.024319985881447792,
0.08146324753761292,
0.2246449887752533,
0.3888249695301056,
-0.30431067943573,
0.054527077823877335,
0.3257579207420349,
-0.07144220918416977,
-0.22874778509140015,
-0.16535252332687378,
-0.22839075326919556,
0.023052586242556572,
-0.03470071777701378,
-0.1977069079875946,
-0.11133034527301788,
0.42730653285980225,
0.009671763516962528,
-0.09336581826210022,
-0.395048052072525,
-0.3029133379459381,
0.4437884986400604,
0.483757883310318,
0.018599068745970726,
0.4893375337123871,
0.06845676898956299,
-0.37577980756759644,
0.20682530105113983,
-0.32111990451812744,
0.9395695924758911,
0.17781296372413635,
0.002677496522665024,
0.7454230785369873,
0.1983126550912857,
-0.45017799735069275,
-0.21893808245658875,
-0.5077894926071167,
-0.058278635144233704,
0.042665060609579086,
0.1540469378232956,
-0.02970060519874096,
0.3757550120353699,
0.0938141793012619,
-0.22838057577610016,
0.2289419025182724,
-0.24896441400051117,
0.2926742732524872,
-0.06356845051050186,
-0.11030347645282745,
-0.46533113718032837,
-0.22024701535701752,
0.09001825004816055,
0.31503379344940186,
0.5304574966430664,
-0.8284539580345154,
0.4556920528411865,
-0.15481558442115784,
-0.42673078179359436,
0.2255323827266693,
0.041709188371896744,
0.11991681903600693,
0.5300630927085876,
-0.2022377997636795,
-0.12719695270061493,
0.2575944662094116,
0.7971928715705872,
0.6866433024406433,
0.12990525364875793,
-0.2722422778606415,
-0.469946026802063,
-0.07289125770330429,
1.02812659740448,
-0.36555802822113037,
-0.17276842892169952,
0.19291992485523224,
0.3254453241825104,
0.5546308159828186,
0.3175673186779022,
0.0789664015173912,
0.2329164296388626,
0.07349222898483276,
-0.537753164768219,
-0.595120370388031,
0.22488607466220856,
0.13751845061779022,
-0.4400567412376404,
0.1776876002550125,
-0.5736075639724731,
-0.6472725868225098,
0.10107824206352234,
-0.22284793853759766,
-0.24347297847270966,
-0.6449774503707886,
0.49705734848976135,
-0.15714488923549652,
0.4985605478286743,
0.037168238312006,
-0.12821245193481445,
-0.05286737531423569,
-0.022031404078006744,
0.17736878991127014,
-0.10210566222667694,
-0.30074343085289,
-0.29051682353019714,
0.13835620880126953,
-0.11858124285936356,
0.37576496601104736,
0.28298327326774597,
0.2534807324409485,
0.19816777110099792,
-0.44470348954200745,
0.08352074772119522,
-0.19303037226200104,
-0.047685425728559494,
-0.654236376285553,
0.3614570200443268,
0.7551112771034241,
0.5289841890335083,
0.315488338470459,
0.27785035967826843,
-0.6953572630882263,
-0.3755797743797302,
0.3538397252559662,
0.23363922536373138,
0.3404785990715027,
0.10217831283807755,
0.3887942433357239,
-0.2008143663406372,
-0.2999633550643921,
-0.06734205782413483,
-0.4452172815799713,
0.17337040603160858,
0.41678130626678467,
-0.5853121876716614,
0.815474271774292,
-0.3602304756641388,
-0.5171966552734375,
0.06430266797542572,
-0.4839809834957123,
0.17123757302761078,
0.1859266608953476,
0.009058820083737373,
0.23698842525482178,
-0.25995171070098877,
0.08912324905395508,
0.34146425127983093,
0.2320675402879715,
-0.17894770205020905,
-0.22328561544418335,
0.20005099475383759,
0.2643238306045532,
-0.013227025046944618,
0.1534099280834198,
-0.024809228256344795,
0.4987570345401764,
-0.0693025067448616,
-0.7103668451309204,
0.08288978040218353,
-0.04531275853514671,
-0.5460036396980286,
0.4408324658870697,
0.16186155378818512,
0.33022943139076233,
0.6819912195205688,
0.13422316312789917,
0.25083959102630615,
0.35540395975112915,
0.06651854515075684,
0.7509986162185669,
-0.865177571773529,
0.5534160733222961,
-0.3843986988067627,
0.09454911202192307,
-0.22962932288646698,
-0.03805970400571823,
0.029117943719029427,
-0.5716919302940369,
-0.18152737617492676,
-0.48760882019996643,
-0.02561444789171219,
0.36239203810691833,
-0.028097419068217278,
-0.8797335028648376,
0.40851718187332153,
0.19824044406414032,
-0.42155277729034424,
-0.10838700830936432,
-0.05768023431301117,
-0.5398027300834656,
-0.1058616116642952,
-0.1449424773454666,
0.5447158217430115,
0.5541723966598511,
-0.3906272053718567,
-0.906438946723938,
-0.03129938244819641,
0.1008404791355133,
0.2895268201828003,
-0.17089538276195526,
0.574881911277771,
-0.07178431004285812,
-0.25257381796836853,
-0.0761859267950058,
0.37566664814949036,
0.022585595026612282,
-0.6569987535476685,
-0.3310800790786743,
-0.5934306383132935,
-0.1914377063512802,
0.18820297718048096,
0.26370659470558167,
-0.1519874632358551,
0.14263150095939636,
-0.9590990543365479,
0.3710324764251709,
-0.9399400949478149,
0.28022336959838867,
0.5552054643630981,
-0.5380772352218628,
-0.1614057421684265,
0.4747636020183563,
0.837680459022522,
0.11384589970111847,
-0.7337339520454407,
-0.2327108234167099,
0.03588549420237541,
0.2382643222808838,
-0.11400579661130905,
0.04182260483503342,
0.022489065304398537,
-0.1881428062915802,
0.08997125178575516,
-0.6101151704788208,
0.0516245998442173,
0.4831787347793579,
0.5171160697937012,
-0.13439571857452393,
0.26045116782188416,
-0.19640392065048218,
-0.4451889991760254,
-0.37302401661872864,
0.2975393533706665,
0.0081928176805377,
0.04289640858769417,
0.2594873607158661,
-0.08923209458589554,
-0.22199508547782898,
-0.021081365644931793,
-5.9080915451049805,
-0.29474395513534546,
-0.006693477742373943,
-0.9811965823173523,
0.13797013461589813,
0.4154170751571655,
0.45500248670578003,
0.1317598819732666,
0.14379075169563293,
-0.060334134846925735,
0.14043135941028595,
0.24618422985076904,
-0.156535804271698,
0.8977212905883789,
0.17329686880111694,
0.31147176027297974,
0.7412688136100769,
0.2651929557323456,
-0.1956428736448288,
-0.2092476189136505,
0.27739953994750977,
-0.8399115800857544,
0.08881556242704391,
0.3677012622356415,
-0.473055362701416,
0.33057984709739685,
-0.6361741423606873,
0.06345450133085251,
0.023532604798674583,
0.31311094760894775,
-0.3394352197647095,
-0.22053509950637817,
-0.5676549673080444,
-0.44999563694000244,
-0.03643116354942322,
-0.2699454426765442,
0.3940092921257019,
0.7338905334472656,
0.3831093907356262,
-0.46803581714630127,
0.11241332441568375,
0.39871442317962646,
-0.18032048642635345,
0.48504748940467834,
0.0374017134308815,
-0.010141776874661446,
-0.23570981621742249,
0.024828437715768814,
-0.0038602689746767282,
0.6575241684913635,
-0.6973560452461243,
0.4423679709434509,
0.8702832460403442,
-0.32424333691596985,
0.25585076212882996,
-0.2483515441417694,
0.30199766159057617,
0.2569817304611206,
0.3994063138961792,
-0.06855731457471848,
0.1102253645658493,
-0.4814338982105255,
0.43062442541122437,
-0.8951707482337952,
-0.380981981754303,
-0.23552054166793823,
-1.0334973335266113,
-0.5235376358032227,
0.2547410726547241,
0.43052446842193604,
-0.11924203485250473,
0.354402095079422,
0.009430380538105965,
-0.9491940140724182,
0.48986366391181946,
-0.13085035979747772,
0.22547957301139832,
0.26686275005340576,
0.5289608836174011,
-0.027014827355742455,
-0.04209994524717331,
0.010461382567882538,
-0.4991442859172821,
0.09422095865011215,
-0.01698697730898857,
-0.06076766923069954,
-0.4041496813297272,
-0.13519373536109924,
-0.041636377573013306,
-0.07951708883047104,
1.1807278394699097,
-0.1149451732635498,
0.2856636941432953,
0.32332196831703186,
0.7382087111473083,
-0.1607038378715515,
0.1431511789560318,
0.5435618758201599,
0.5273104310035706,
-0.5735079050064087,
-0.08612003177404404,
-0.05003676563501358,
-0.0394442118704319,
-0.6276596784591675,
-0.4572407901287079,
0.03475971892476082,
-0.1377212405204773,
0.04708509147167206,
0.15695340931415558,
-0.1970888078212738,
-0.38216763734817505,
-0.3225511312484741,
-0.09921800345182419,
-0.8968098759651184,
-0.23634900152683258,
0.2254592478275299,
-0.5091180801391602,
0.46335694193840027,
0.16176214814186096,
-0.13308918476104736,
0.010913091711699963,
-0.11436500400304794,
-0.28191637992858887,
0.11140153557062149,
-0.06236336752772331,
-0.27170753479003906,
-0.14601027965545654,
-0.06972059607505798,
0.027845442295074463,
-0.21667267382144928,
0.4341733157634735,
0.7815152406692505,
0.3754825294017792,
0.5459417700767517,
0.24253788590431213,
-0.24997448921203613,
-0.02913150191307068,
0.17462067306041718,
-0.2856300473213196,
-0.39153143763542175,
-0.008091042749583721,
0.01752653904259205,
0.05186771973967552,
-0.41528448462486267,
0.037511955946683884,
-0.08389203250408173,
0.3464016318321228,
-0.0032383722718805075,
0.29944589734077454,
0.3500858545303345,
0.16429503262043,
-0.6740581393241882,
0.1486249715089798,
0.08200762420892715,
-0.8404539227485657,
0.19564130902290344,
0.38346919417381287,
-0.14795026183128357,
-0.6022024154663086,
-0.551847517490387,
0.40196293592453003,
0.27180615067481995,
-1.1258693933486938,
-0.07535381615161896,
0.24553684890270233,
0.15964259207248688,
-0.20402368903160095,
0.04464581236243248,
0.3123836815357208,
0.4865415096282959,
0.018832935020327568,
-0.05440335348248482,
-0.37774622440338135,
-0.25580042600631714,
0.4371321499347687,
-0.02457505464553833,
0.19812922179698944,
0.028288891538977623,
-0.06387527287006378,
-0.5355044007301331,
0.6028348207473755,
0.020128978416323662,
-0.7238734364509583,
0.1852610558271408,
-0.2963690161705017,
-0.7769773006439209,
-0.12350814789533615,
0.29452037811279297,
-0.5034598708152771,
-0.41069552302360535,
0.21922390162944794,
0.1042294129729271,
0.6437469124794006,
-0.10896949470043182,
-0.2913890779018402,
-0.10140848904848099,
-0.3585107922554016,
0.4673779010772705,
0.09910968691110611,
-0.7868643403053284,
0.25237715244293213,
0.3922300934791565,
-0.21990476548671722,
-0.04304783046245575,
0.3683193325996399,
-0.1832762211561203,
0.19221995770931244,
0.1280590444803238,
0.06524191051721573,
0.6411692500114441,
-0.31111451983451843,
-0.30104994773864746,
-0.16239601373672485,
0.21561023592948914,
-0.21896108984947205,
0.007596875540912151,
0.2520279288291931,
0.1883055865764618,
-0.5423909425735474,
-0.09587185829877853,
-0.07898062467575073,
0.5108855962753296,
-0.3195790946483612,
0.18678927421569824,
-0.10288366675376892,
0.2831995189189911,
0.35407504439353943,
-0.19012878835201263,
0.20482492446899414,
-0.26791486144065857,
-0.6037817001342773,
-0.055611710995435715,
0.39318734407424927,
-0.2661949694156647,
0.07925613224506378,
-0.14199481904506683,
-0.20547597110271454,
0.2123156189918518,
-0.42257001996040344,
0.2671910524368286,
-0.05042320489883423,
0.7748398780822754,
-0.10465913265943527,
-0.32609307765960693,
-0.06975571811199188,
-0.021642278879880905,
0.8565664291381836,
-0.48038676381111145,
-0.42283502221107483,
-0.0780736654996872,
-0.1058153435587883,
-0.18591450154781342,
-0.6898694038391113,
-0.08469894528388977,
0.4772380590438843,
-0.18203207850456238,
-0.2366546094417572,
-0.126822829246521,
0.07318183034658432,
-0.17977045476436615,
-0.4440593421459198,
-0.13376471400260925,
-0.4545360505580902,
-0.09902480244636536,
0.4715537428855896,
0.5445160269737244,
-0.20603564381599426,
-0.286538690328598,
0.4113907516002655,
-0.1613689661026001,
0.3305816352367401,
0.1864119917154312,
0.5040809512138367,
0.7188130617141724,
0.4981524646282196,
-0.3952929377555847,
0.08608193695545197,
-0.12040111422538757,
0.06559102237224579,
-0.03153336048126221,
-0.2805444896221161,
-0.0627775490283966,
0.21304458379745483,
-0.43065980076789856,
0.3988104462623596,
-0.6435410380363464,
0.4398624002933502,
-0.40960097312927246,
-0.15634271502494812,
-0.2916228771209717,
-0.2476935237646103,
0.49903804063796997,
-0.098347008228302,
-0.19655795395374298,
-0.4820707142353058,
0.18540643155574799,
-0.11247242987155914,
0.11087660491466522,
0.08845449984073639,
-0.001766286906786263,
-0.21804910898208618,
0.4410288333892822,
0.5537598133087158,
-0.36677801609039307,
0.7251837849617004,
0.21716564893722534,
0.10042790323495865,
-0.04111048951745033,
-0.5349701642990112,
0.027845418080687523,
0.005186751019209623,
0.18838869035243988,
0.02521251142024994,
0.8368554711341858,
-0.36696726083755493,
-0.49888116121292114,
0.736572265625,
-0.8692759871482849,
0.316386878490448,
-0.09146426618099213,
-0.23614998161792755,
0.27437910437583923,
0.08853095769882202,
-0.5812079310417175,
-0.2607971429824829,
0.5283093452453613,
-0.18327292799949646,
-0.20984765887260437,
0.012147127650678158,
-0.0038402914069592953,
0.6176160573959351,
0.07544829696416855,
0.4163969159126282,
0.38088351488113403,
-0.3684472441673279,
-0.11518349498510361,
-0.03852688521146774,
-0.3087957799434662,
-0.2122148722410202,
0.7489330768585205,
0.7233718633651733,
0.4722304046154022,
0.390303373336792,
-0.04908813536167145,
-0.4859103858470917,
0.39234885573387146,
-0.22275306284427643,
0.4722364544868469,
-0.39443516731262207,
-0.18744589388370514,
0.3833649158477783,
-0.2647407352924347,
0.5769736170768738,
-0.05232978239655495,
0.38494402170181274,
-0.6750743985176086,
0.624896764755249,
0.0920514315366745,
0.6882218718528748,
-0.7102102637290955,
0.02488098479807377,
0.3952023684978485,
0.6326921582221985,
0.05389386788010597,
0.504662275314331,
0.45530959963798523,
-0.1047501489520073,
-0.3967169225215912,
0.0035359489265829325,
-0.057516127824783325,
-0.0893310084939003,
0.4139181673526764,
-0.09649264812469482,
0.14613835513591766,
-0.21754001080989838,
0.18227730691432953,
0.23043027520179749,
0.1091383844614029,
0.2669142186641693,
-0.16012884676456451,
-0.257632315158844,
-0.16430367529392242,
-0.06849321722984314,
-0.8294224739074707,
0.054579876363277435,
0.36247336864471436,
-0.2915944457054138,
0.3464238941669464,
0.7436672449111938,
-0.36456647515296936,
-0.21865932643413544,
-0.5400431156158447,
0.18782085180282593,
-0.09053780883550644,
-0.24468615651130676,
0.08950985223054886,
-0.564257025718689,
0.5976657271385193,
0.41156816482543945,
0.3849397301673889,
-0.05248810350894928,
0.10766962915658951,
-0.24647074937820435,
-0.03607376292347908,
-0.46578237414360046,
0.011845066212117672,
-0.22957678139209747,
0.19113187491893768,
-0.25535890460014343,
0.5202451944351196,
0.20525087416172028,
-0.35816773772239685,
0.262032151222229,
0.17452125251293182,
-0.7363649010658264,
0.07466600090265274,
0.7680612802505493,
-0.4981563985347748,
0.009094431065022945,
0.13453204929828644,
-0.2940531373023987,
-0.3547908663749695,
0.030814804136753082,
-0.14317761361598969,
-0.2914701998233795,
0.010230009444057941,
0.22978857159614563,
0.7176206111907959,
-0.23677624762058258,
0.35993310809135437,
-0.2773084342479706,
0.0034500686451792717,
-0.34552204608917236,
0.21280494332313538,
-0.35926783084869385,
0.24191822111606598,
0.575289785861969,
0.32312536239624023,
0.1724027395248413,
-0.5695607662200928,
-0.22811761498451233,
0.4170038104057312,
0.3582228124141693,
0.03773913532495499,
-1.55378258228302,
-0.6264781355857849,
-0.2861778140068054,
-0.3212829530239105,
-0.01987212523818016,
0.706859290599823,
-0.10707108676433563,
-0.18308290839195251,
-0.024393528699874878,
-0.15399238467216492,
0.08276727050542831,
-0.08120964467525482,
0.33173730969429016,
-0.6971638202667236,
0.09403057396411896,
0.46077778935432434
] |
247969 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20blue%20tit | Eurasian blue tit | The Eurasian blue tit (Cyanistes caeruleus) is a small passerine bird in the tit family, Paridae. It is easily recognisable by its blue and yellow plumage and small size.
Eurasian blue tits, usually resident and non-migratory birds, are widespread and a common resident breeder throughout temperate and subarctic Europe and the western Palearctic in deciduous or mixed woodlands with a high proportion of oak. They usually nest in tree holes, although they easily adapt to nest boxes where necessary. Their main rival for nests and in the search for food is the larger and more common great tit.
The Eurasian blue tit prefers insects and spiders for its diet. Outside the breeding season, they also eat seeds and other vegetable-based foods. The birds are famed for their acrobatic skills, as they can hold on to the outermost branches of trees and shrubs and hang upside down when looking for food.
Taxonomy
The Eurasian blue tit was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under the binomial name Parus caeruleus. Parus is the classical Latin for a tit and caeruleus is the Latin for dark blue or cerulean. Two centuries earlier, before the introduction of the binomial nomenclature, the same Latin name had been used by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner when he described and illustrated the blue tit in his Historiae animalium of 1555.
In 2005, analysis of the mtDNA cytochrome b sequences of the Paridae indicated that Cyanistes was an early offshoot from the lineage of other tits, and more accurately regarded as a genus rather than a subgenus of Parus. The current genus name, Cyanistes, is from the Ancient Greek , "dark blue". The African blue tit (Cyanistes teneriffae) was formerly considered conspecific.
Subspecies
There are currently at least nine recognised subspecies:
C. c. caeruleus – (Linnaeus, 1758): the nominate subspecies, occurring in Continental Europe to northern Spain, Sicily, northern Turkey and northern Urals
C. c. obscurus – (Pražák, 1894): found in Ireland, Britain and Channel Islands
C. c. ogliastrae – (Hartert, 1905): found in Portugal, southern Spain, Corsica and Sardinia
C. c. balearicus – (von Jordans, 1913): found on Majorca Island (Balearic Islands)
C. c. calamensis – (Parrot, 1908): found in southern Greece, Pelopónnisos, Cyclades, Crete and Rhodes
C. c. orientalis – Zarudny & Loudon, 1905: found in southern European Russia (Volga River to central and southern Urals)
C. c. satunini – Zarudny, 1908: found in the Crimean Peninsula, Caucasus, Transcaucasia and northwestern Iran to eastern Turkey
C. c. raddei – Zarudny, 1908: found in northern Iran
C. c. persicus – (Blanford, 1873): found in the Zagros Mountains
Hybrids
Pleske's tit (Cyanistes × pleskei) is a common interspecific hybrid between this species and the azure tit (Cyanistes cyanus), in western Russia. The cap is usually darker than the azure tit, and the tail is paler than the Eurasian blue tit.
Description
The Eurasian blue tit is usually , long with a wingspan of for both sexes, and weighs about .
A typical Eurasian blue tit has an azure-blue crown and dark blue line passing through the eye, and encircling the white cheeks to the chin, giving the bird a very distinctive appearance. The forehead and a bar on the wing are white. The nape, wings and tail are blue and the back is yellowish green. The underparts is mostly sulphur-yellow with a dark line down the abdomen—the yellowness is indicative of the number of yellowy-green caterpillars eaten, due to high levels of carotene pigments in the diet. The bill is black, the legs bluish grey, and the irides dark brown. The sexes are similar, but under ultraviolet light, males have a brighter blue crown. Young blue tits are noticeably more yellow.
Distribution and habitat
There are currently around 20–44 million pairs in Europe.
The Eurasian blue tit and the related hybrids are considered native species in areas of the European continent with a mainly temperate or Mediterranean climate, and in parts of the Middle East. These areas include Ireland, the United Kingdom and most of the European Union and EFTA (except Malta, where they are considered vagrant, and Iceland, where they are absent), plus: Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Georgia, Iran, Iraq, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Lebanon, Libya, the Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Morocco, Russia, San Marino, Serbia, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Vatican City and Ukraine.
In Great Britain the Eurasian blue tit can be found in a variety of environments, and is typically found in deciduous woodland, parks, gardens and even in the centre of towns.
Behaviour and ecology
Eurasian blue and great tits form mixed winter flocks, and the former are perhaps the better gymnasts in the slender twigs. A Eurasian blue tit will often ascend a trunk in short jerky hops, imitating a treecreeper. As a rule the bird roosts in ivy or evergreens, but in harsh winters will roost wherever there is a suitable small hole, be it in a tree or nesting box. They are very agile and can hang from almost anywhere.
This is a common and popular European garden bird, due to its perky acrobatic performances when feeding on nuts or suet. It swings beneath the holder, calling "tee, tee, tee" or a scolding "churr".
Breeding
The Eurasian blue tit will nest in any suitable hole in a tree, wall, or stump, or an artificial nest box, often competing with house sparrows or great tits for the site. Few birds more readily accept the shelter of a nesting box; the same hole is returned to year after year, and when one pair dies another takes possession. It is estimated by the RSPB that there are 3,535,000 breeding pairs in the UK.
During the incubation period, female blue tits perform all of the incubation, however the male feeds the female during this time. During the nestling period both female nest attendance and male feeding rate are higher in the morning, declining throughout the day.
Eggs are long and wide. Egg size appears to depend mostly on the size of individual females and secondarily on habitat, with smaller eggs found at higher altitudes. The clutch's total weight can be 1.5 times as heavy as the female bird.A study found that the timing of breeding in blue tits is related to the expression of nestling carotenoid‐based coloration, which could play a role in offspring–parent communication.
The bird is a close sitter, hissing and biting at an intruding finger. In the South West of England such behaviour has earned the Eurasian blue tit the colloquial nickname "Little Billy Biter" or "Billy Biter", originating from the UK. When protecting its eggs it raises its crest, but this is a sign of excitement rather than anger, for it is also elevated during nuptial display. The nesting material is usually moss, wool, hair and feathers, and the eggs are laid in April or May. The number in the clutch is often very large, but seven or eight are normal, clutch size varies with latitude and other geographic parameters. Some bigger clutches may be laid by two or even more hens in some locations but single hen clutches of 14 have been verified in the UK. It is not unusual for a single bird to feed the chicks in the nest at a rate of one feed every 90 seconds during the height of the breeding season. In winter they form flocks with other tit species.
In an analysis carried out using ring-recovery data in Britain, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year was 38%, while the adult annual survival rate was 53%. From these figures the typical lifespan is only three years. Within Britain, the maximum recorded age is 10 years and 3 months for a bird that was ringed in Bedfordshire. The maximum recorded age overall is 11 years and 7 months for a bird in the Czech Republic.
Diet
The Eurasian blue tit is a valuable destroyer of pests, though it is fond of young buds of various trees, especially when insect prey is scarce, and may pull them to bits in the hope of finding insects. It is a well-known predator of many Lepidoptera species including the Wood Tiger moth. No species, however, destroys more coccids and aphids, the worst foes of many plants. It takes leaf miner grubs and green tortrix moths (Tortricidae). in common with all members of the family, seeds are also eaten.
Voice
Eurasian blue tits use songs and calls throughout the year. Songs are mostly used in late winter and spring to defend the territory or to attract mates. Calls are used for multiple reasons. Communication with other Eurasian blue tits is the most important motivation for the use of calls. They inform one another on their location in trees by means of contact-calls. They use alarm-calls to warn others (including birds of other species such as the great tit, the European robin or the treecreeper) about the presence of predators in the neighbourhood. Scolding, for example, is used when a ground predator (e.g. fox, cat or dog), a low flying predator or a perched owl are noticed. Sometimes this is followed by mobbing behaviour in which birds gather together in flocks to counter a predator. The alarm-whistle warns other birds about the proximity of a Eurasian sparrowhawk, a northern goshawk, a common buzzard or other flying predators that form a potential danger in the air. A series of high-pitched '' notes are given by both partners before and during copulation. The begging-call is used by juveniles to beg for food from parents.
Learnt behaviours
Eurasian blue tits are able to culturally transmit learning to other tit species. An example of this, dating from the 1920s, is the ability to open milk bottles with foil tops, to get at the cream underneath. Such behaviour has been suppressed recently by the gradual change of human dietary habits (low-fat or skimmed milk instead of full-fat), and the way of getting them (from a supermarket in plastic containers with hard plastic lids, instead of the milkman). In addition, the instinct to strip bark from trees in search of insects has developed into a tendency to peel building materials such as thatch, wallpaper, stucco and window putty.
Predators and natural threats
The small size of the Eurasian blue tit makes it vulnerable to prey by larger birds such as jays who catch the vulnerable fledglings when they leave the nest. The most important predator is probably the sparrowhawk, closely followed by the domestic cat. Nests may be robbed by mammals such as weasels and red squirrels, as well as introduced grey squirrels in the UK.
The successful breeding of chicks is dependent on sufficient supply of green caterpillars as well as satisfactory weather. Breeding seasons may be affected badly if the weather is cold and wet between May and July, particularly if this coincides with the emergence of the caterpillars on which the nestlings are fed.
Parasites
Eurasian blue tits are known to be host to feather mites, and rarely lice and flat flies. In Europe, the only feather mite species known to live on the blue tit host is Proctophyllodes stylifer. However, this mite seems to be of no concern to the bird as, until now, it is only known to feed on dead feather tissue. P. stylifer lives all its developmental stages, i.e. egg, larva, protonymph, tritonymph and adult, within the plumage of the same host. The usual sites where P. stylifer is encountered are the remiges and the rectrices of the bird where they can be found tandemly positioned between the barbs of the rachis.
Status and conservation
The Eurasian blue tit is classified as a least concern species on the IUCN Red List (version 3.1), and as a Green Status species, since 1996, by the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the United Kingdom.
Cultural significance
The Eurasian blue tit has appeared on many stamps and ornaments. Its most recent appearance on a British stamp was the 2010 Birds of Britain series.
References
External links
Feathers of Eurasian blue tit (Parus caeruleus)
Articles containing video clips
Birds described in 1758
Birds of Europe
Eurasian blue tit
Eurasian blue tit | [
-0.19572988152503967,
-0.11555229127407074,
-0.8950928449630737,
-0.20110948383808136,
0.35457563400268555,
0.9943006634712219,
0.07957898825407028,
0.8076639771461487,
-0.18501867353916168,
-0.2971945106983185,
-0.46689221262931824,
-0.0703313946723938,
-0.7814311385154724,
-0.10570725798606873,
-0.19539310038089752,
0.7553420662879944,
0.7065788507461548,
0.22142106294631958,
-0.08088841289281845,
-0.7554107308387756,
-0.38182953000068665,
-0.36739251017570496,
0.08175671100616455,
-0.21779021620750427,
0.0519876629114151,
0.3989880084991455,
0.4282304644584656,
0.7204027771949768,
0.4560684859752655,
0.3122450113296509,
0.14362502098083496,
0.9100553393363953,
0.31105712056159973,
0.013643678277730942,
0.1346408724784851,
-0.0756249874830246,
-0.4639146029949188,
-0.31482064723968506,
-0.48378705978393555,
-0.8457222580909729,
0.3627707064151764,
-0.012401253916323185,
0.27783268690109253,
0.3412862718105316,
-0.46474143862724304,
-0.6456846594810486,
-1.3458099365234375,
0.5823175311088562,
-0.12219502031803131,
0.07174144685268402,
-0.06784180551767349,
0.42529240250587463,
-0.08912455290555954,
0.6858012080192566,
0.5920991897583008,
0.2387610822916031,
-1.0771740674972534,
-0.3570207953453064,
0.06464195996522903,
-0.21062491834163666,
-0.49082764983177185,
0.5163851380348206,
-0.05072556063532829,
0.10921396315097809,
0.009869925677776337,
0.3382534980773926,
0.1853635460138321,
0.2941153347492218,
-0.10748229920864105,
-0.25659772753715515,
0.20884235203266144,
0.22734469175338745,
0.23233388364315033,
0.719981849193573,
-0.726504385471344,
0.2754921019077301,
0.24240775406360626,
0.07997290790081024,
0.4311697483062744,
0.1254318803548813,
0.41325563192367554,
-0.002501934766769409,
1.2421369552612305,
-0.06966669112443924,
-0.16009284555912018,
0.21364977955818176,
-0.5849692821502686,
0.07835641503334045,
-0.6710302233695984,
0.19528420269489288,
-0.7800348997116089,
-0.05138948932290077,
0.20096413791179657,
0.4120021164417267,
-0.4764810800552368,
0.18956221640110016,
-0.6293490529060364,
-0.18678757548332214,
0.7056509256362915,
0.026133283972740173,
-0.30410441756248474,
0.15593841671943665,
0.30914193391799927,
0.01955452747642994,
-1.0384671688079834,
-0.09737612307071686,
-0.6499289870262146,
-0.2539132535457611,
-0.26963239908218384,
0.5543225407600403,
-0.8281409740447998,
0.09001624584197998,
0.20955897867679596,
0.38032662868499756,
0.218849778175354,
0.8759074807167053,
-0.008976630866527557,
0.036278776824474335,
-0.19791670143604279,
-0.25946125388145447,
0.4583711624145508,
0.8382003903388977,
-0.6425530314445496,
0.4293624460697174,
0.4813655614852905,
0.4612334668636322,
0.7110462188720703,
0.5071585774421692,
-0.20697914063930511,
0.11870553344488144,
0.41254526376724243,
0.8350852727890015,
-0.6108015179634094,
0.16241732239723206,
-0.22380009293556213,
-0.30554264783859253,
0.29819899797439575,
-0.28305917978286743,
0.14583232998847961,
0.6533481478691101,
-1.2796344757080078,
-0.07879531383514404,
-0.4900698661804199,
-0.18285343050956726,
0.17997899651527405,
0.7369251251220703,
-0.2776297926902771,
-0.08330223709344864,
-0.20371051132678986,
-0.4842921495437622,
0.45907148718833923,
-0.04479802027344704,
0.4316307306289673,
-0.4423123598098755,
-0.7225962281227112,
-0.6321502327919006,
0.3219975233078003,
0.04267473146319389,
0.5552011132240295,
-0.14840103685855865,
0.1951926201581955,
0.23028531670570374,
-0.23393826186656952,
-0.023469116538763046,
0.45288199186325073,
-0.01650569774210453,
0.05895722657442093,
0.24977321922779083,
-0.6889128684997559,
0.529262363910675,
0.3462650179862976,
0.37191370129585266,
0.4195772707462311,
0.3011895418167114,
-0.29317834973335266,
-0.7766696214675903,
-0.14711903035640717,
0.28823140263557434,
0.673412024974823,
-0.27960148453712463,
-0.9317800998687744,
0.22698818147182465,
0.10032553970813751,
-0.48686760663986206,
0.19646196067333221,
0.19253414869308472,
0.24297641217708588,
-0.22143152356147766,
0.05641096085309982,
-0.6335148811340332,
-0.4240666329860687,
-0.2151777297258377,
0.042813029140233994,
-0.29663097858428955,
0.3495387136936188,
-0.21837760508060455,
-0.5127490162849426,
0.07454175502061844,
-0.11182106286287308,
0.5280508399009705,
-0.46813127398490906,
-0.5345531702041626,
1.0457793474197388,
0.288163423538208,
-0.931553065776825,
0.5948959589004517,
-0.5010433793067932,
0.5339794754981995,
0.48731696605682373,
0.5880903601646423,
-0.030820617452263832,
-0.14334896206855774,
-0.2518092393875122,
0.6291857957839966,
0.062864750623703,
-0.21146050095558167,
-0.0639437809586525,
0.10599150508642197,
0.23201192915439606,
-0.027033742517232895,
0.9657104015350342,
-0.15910016000270844,
0.24484533071517944,
0.2944096326828003,
0.46734359860420227,
0.837131142616272,
0.36336612701416016,
-0.18972906470298767,
0.3177788257598877,
-0.009880054742097855,
-0.9145112037658691,
0.21079206466674805,
0.41933387517929077,
-0.5257580280303955,
-0.2038823962211609,
-0.22494857013225555,
-0.2024889886379242,
-0.4331202208995819,
0.5945965647697449,
0.3300994336605072,
0.21931695938110352,
-0.0657687708735466,
-0.3412803113460541,
0.2795601785182953,
0.6017311215400696,
0.035461779683828354,
-0.3410382866859436,
0.6020761728286743,
-0.016601894050836563,
-0.18237267434597015,
0.2685818374156952,
0.5958723425865173,
-0.0012301061069592834,
-0.5638481974601746,
-0.36746305227279663,
0.41072386503219604,
0.2523097097873688,
0.08143381774425507,
0.22390735149383545,
-0.13592180609703064,
-0.11375763267278671,
0.49309325218200684,
-0.06877942383289337,
0.34316161274909973,
0.1959073841571808,
-0.37283408641815186,
-0.844385027885437,
-0.1925390511751175,
0.5411883592605591,
0.17143617570400238,
0.8517173528671265,
-0.29723846912384033,
-0.24665039777755737,
0.14553984999656677,
-0.4018661379814148,
-0.0063299136236310005,
-0.5262317061424255,
-0.35340532660484314,
-0.6041322350502014,
-0.8296383619308472,
0.13251517713069916,
0.33247122168540955,
0.0003241824160795659,
0.07818367332220078,
-0.0801888108253479,
-0.34490418434143066,
0.10955560952425003,
-0.8165773749351501,
-0.3338785469532013,
-1.3214601278305054,
0.21584564447402954,
0.1751309037208557,
0.009367957711219788,
0.3919653296470642,
-0.8363832831382751,
-0.5313675403594971,
-0.3142724335193634,
1.1596193313598633,
0.8726404905319214,
-0.6038265824317932,
-0.11365772038698196,
0.5519165396690369,
0.6571008563041687,
0.4334452748298645,
0.4007973372936249,
-0.9504165649414062,
0.30123934149742126,
-0.017870260402560234,
-5.069037437438965,
0.6356558799743652,
-0.009978282265365124,
-0.29968324303627014,
0.017003444954752922,
0.14595814049243927,
0.18438825011253357,
-0.4441658854484558,
0.17679274082183838,
0.3234789967536926,
0.33534184098243713,
0.03873602673411369,
-0.4054838716983795,
0.28670692443847656,
0.7937249541282654,
0.1587115377187729,
-0.7096837162971497,
-0.2896605134010315,
0.3857319951057434,
-0.12005939334630966,
0.4029616415500641,
0.5156495571136475,
-0.11033347994089127,
0.6210107207298279,
0.10699298232793808,
-0.30203548073768616,
-0.21115641295909882,
-0.9376775026321411,
-0.5047802329063416,
-0.052730053663253784,
-0.3516024351119995,
-0.09621654450893402,
-0.19000834226608276,
0.16728191077709198,
0.1292048692703247,
-0.3235369324684143,
0.2051490843296051,
0.4821862280368805,
-0.08146803826093674,
-0.9074628949165344,
-0.2733370363712311,
0.35985732078552246,
0.5135784149169922,
-0.22873754799365997,
0.3905582129955292,
0.06574168801307678,
0.012512627989053726,
-0.7679296135902405,
0.12297053635120392,
0.9933730959892273,
-0.12009163945913315,
-0.17885413765907288,
0.2345171421766281,
0.5993930697441101,
0.21954107284545898,
0.0263118464499712,
0.02203345112502575,
-0.3156510889530182,
-0.7770596742630005,
0.6313087344169617,
0.5150690674781799,
-0.4612898528575897,
-0.1879345029592514,
-0.9740974307060242,
0.24426192045211792,
0.22603218257427216,
-1.058326005935669,
-0.03383518010377884,
0.01914776861667633,
0.25117191672325134,
-0.3707336485385895,
0.18009509146213531,
-0.49029260873794556,
-0.9662520885467529,
0.7007250785827637,
-0.8284121155738831,
-0.18649128079414368,
0.22363214194774628,
-0.5357667207717896,
0.08606308698654175,
0.4522336721420288,
-0.711670994758606,
0.03806503862142563,
0.49458253383636475,
0.2471841424703598,
-1.0392756462097168,
-0.6565566658973694,
-0.4361279010772705,
0.3422912061214447,
-0.38395628333091736,
0.6810498237609863,
-0.4753531813621521,
-0.29426631331443787,
0.16885681450366974,
0.6673722267150879,
0.40336477756500244,
0.22685104608535767,
0.3145769536495209,
0.21619009971618652,
-0.18945497274398804,
0.3997163474559784,
-0.2763584852218628,
-0.503239095211029,
-0.11393796652555466,
0.13433240354061127,
-0.6482794880867004,
-0.08744990825653076,
0.32089415192604065,
0.767214298248291,
-0.3557366728782654,
0.5267113447189331,
-0.6627336740493774,
-0.5656399130821228,
-0.03927679359912872,
-0.0368066169321537,
0.1697026789188385,
0.5204067230224609,
0.30304673314094543,
0.37785905599594116,
0.06181524321436882,
0.178805410861969,
-0.010766091756522655,
-0.050047531723976135,
0.3306295871734619,
-0.5769461989402771,
-0.9067729115486145,
0.10878485441207886,
0.37373340129852295,
-1.0268422365188599,
-0.17827604711055756,
-0.6164848804473877,
-0.22846482694149017,
-0.16581173241138458,
-0.3603794276714325,
0.39101922512054443,
0.37447914481163025,
-0.1003919318318367,
0.010450121015310287,
0.7079392671585083,
0.2517434060573578,
-0.7364786863327026,
-0.5838764309883118,
-0.45537903904914856,
-0.04372020810842514,
0.5827897787094116,
0.30746394395828247,
-0.4863680303096771,
-0.22596660256385803,
-0.2206461876630783,
0.9588221907615662,
0.38544318079948425,
-0.3786340355873108,
0.24964222311973572,
0.0668053850531578,
0.11558950692415237,
-0.08867575228214264,
0.13246186077594757,
0.28496524691581726,
0.23905707895755768,
-0.0901908427476883,
0.45331069827079773,
-0.41431334614753723,
-0.6850075125694275,
-0.08598380535840988,
0.7060956954956055,
-0.45346859097480774,
-0.41837000846862793,
-0.06761953979730606,
0.10559368133544922,
0.5231977701187134,
0.5884891152381897,
-0.1219693273305893,
-0.21131837368011475,
0.3136613667011261,
-0.05899874120950699,
0.07726411521434784,
-0.392079621553421,
0.15498383343219757,
-0.217398539185524,
0.16575036942958832,
-0.02418050728738308,
0.25103986263275146,
-0.0744505524635315,
0.3106323480606079,
0.6064503192901611,
-0.258893758058548,
0.013423318043351173,
0.2710944712162018,
0.220969557762146,
0.0359717532992363,
0.5839460492134094,
0.5756644010543823,
-0.0979263111948967,
0.10962488502264023,
-0.6214591860771179,
-0.3463733494281769,
-0.4777053892612457,
0.7063546180725098,
-0.1456778198480606,
-0.729198694229126,
-0.06375619769096375,
0.2419142872095108,
0.5130997896194458,
0.16601139307022095,
-0.4754088222980499,
-0.5111427307128906,
0.7036061882972717,
-0.21861237287521362,
-1.2337989807128906,
0.2538700997829437,
-0.3248884081840515,
-0.7854259610176086,
-0.09022887051105499,
0.8236725926399231,
-0.7937524914741516,
0.2340443730354309,
-0.1797793060541153,
0.3467755615711212,
-0.46235978603363037,
0.4056996703147888,
-0.3709755539894104,
-0.192257359623909,
0.42530590295791626,
-0.23917314410209656,
-0.8836713433265686,
0.13809874653816223,
0.5626814365386963,
0.07125849276781082,
0.9668806791305542,
-0.6774742603302002,
-0.3231601119041443,
-0.02526567131280899,
0.21294941008090973,
-0.15756012499332428,
-0.25927671790122986,
-0.0644422173500061,
0.1481361985206604,
-0.44061651825904846,
0.23483406007289886,
0.9060213565826416,
0.8437429666519165,
0.751429557800293,
0.32645779848098755,
-0.2492634356021881,
-0.2572399079799652,
0.3950358033180237,
0.20875249803066254,
-0.25238487124443054,
-0.9793256521224976,
-0.6018475890159607,
0.6093568801879883,
0.03575756400823593,
-0.18707293272018433,
-0.2887851297855377,
0.8405839800834656,
-0.5171968340873718,
-0.34002685546875,
-0.10138245671987534,
0.15948425233364105,
0.3645484447479248,
0.17444956302642822,
-0.48028624057769775,
-0.7235730886459351,
0.5079371929168701,
0.15158982574939728,
-0.40354692935943604,
-0.6704858541488647,
0.18310999870300293,
-0.16025151312351227,
0.17985881865024567,
0.28536298871040344,
-0.5421198010444641,
0.7517403364181519,
0.13489197194576263,
0.0017434831243008375,
-0.03734034672379494,
-0.09402117133140564,
-0.838634729385376,
0.34406179189682007,
0.54296875,
-0.37959012389183044,
-0.23619864881038666,
0.4490053653717041,
0.015970969572663307,
-0.4202084541320801,
-0.2454785853624344,
-0.17863939702510834,
-0.5187385678291321,
-0.06465540081262589,
-0.4588243365287781,
-0.5686251521110535,
-0.04720064997673035,
-0.4650074541568756,
-0.06556806713342667,
0.09115920960903168,
0.2711593508720398,
0.2682779133319855,
0.4691241681575775,
0.3426677882671356,
-0.031620513647794724,
-1.0590734481811523,
0.23955272138118744,
0.15638288855552673,
-0.5446233153343201,
-0.07078129053115845,
0.016649894416332245,
0.36815938353538513,
-0.5443722605705261,
-0.3529883623123169,
0.09485506266355515,
0.5355116128921509,
-0.20813658833503723,
0.22296343743801117,
-0.004047873429954052,
0.3761156499385834,
0.5069218873977661,
0.43616965413093567,
-0.4609074592590332,
0.33021652698516846,
0.6424271464347839,
0.5842602252960205,
0.02319597452878952,
0.888242244720459,
1.1476575136184692,
-0.5518215894699097,
0.43085044622421265,
-0.9434962868690491,
-0.27886906266212463,
0.5898357033729553,
0.6142029762268066,
0.4423242509365082,
0.11869451403617859,
0.12718048691749573,
0.0857844203710556,
0.4713451862335205,
-0.10410869121551514,
-0.22944776713848114,
-0.46358242630958557,
-0.08415167033672333,
1.0020860433578491,
0.9637231826782227,
0.3617629408836365,
0.3067851960659027,
0.27167627215385437,
-0.01365280244499445,
0.6305840015411377,
-0.49440649151802063,
0.1805010586977005,
-0.038607653230428696,
-0.30859482288360596,
0.6148585081100464,
-0.010017843917012215,
-0.09324435144662857,
-1.204075813293457,
-0.1566483974456787,
0.9225613474845886,
-0.2715415358543396,
0.15217028558254242,
-0.3676372170448303,
0.33278679847717285,
0.16462159156799316,
0.40281158685684204,
-0.21102648973464966,
-0.27293336391448975,
-1.2782219648361206,
0.5465573072433472,
-0.5769860744476318,
-0.7826754450798035,
-0.10971242189407349,
-0.12660697102546692,
-0.3031199276447296,
-0.10617271810770035,
-0.1096709743142128,
0.09047350287437439,
0.08566241711378098,
0.18416178226470947,
-0.6750457882881165,
0.49035269021987915,
-0.1358681321144104,
-0.16186822950839996,
-1.162867546081543,
0.046443160623311996,
0.3237196207046509,
-0.7641050815582275,
0.3081422746181488,
-0.014801708981394768,
-0.16401253640651703,
-0.476109117269516,
-0.44110873341560364,
-0.0905010774731636,
-0.4164060950279236,
-0.9109112024307251,
-0.11940538883209229,
-0.3377472758293152,
-0.24392226338386536,
-0.9836202263832092,
0.5079780220985413,
0.720515251159668,
-0.0010378683218732476,
-0.0538320429623127,
0.5183401107788086,
-0.3194253444671631,
-0.035516057163476944,
0.16232696175575256,
0.35446345806121826,
0.13936935365200043,
-0.6844024658203125,
0.6686704754829407,
-0.6142198443412781,
0.4489263594150543,
0.48683249950408936,
0.30542534589767456,
-0.2847523093223572,
0.28872552514076233,
0.23097257316112518,
0.27527955174446106,
0.33276790380477905,
0.19136261940002441,
-0.27408939599990845,
-0.72825688123703,
-0.1455768644809723,
-0.9949253797531128,
0.7454625964164734,
-0.26039502024650574,
0.5953460335731506,
0.036501675844192505,
0.22670131921768188,
0.47595053911209106,
-0.7635497450828552,
0.9833912253379822,
-0.04131656140089035,
0.27335771918296814,
-0.7922112941741943,
-0.15274056792259216,
-0.44127872586250305,
-0.6916428208351135,
0.14157751202583313,
0.0784728154540062,
-0.21362529695034027,
-0.10063251107931137,
0.08128020912408829,
-0.4011552929878235,
0.6384569406509399,
-0.12128846347332001,
0.207916259765625,
-0.2633759379386902,
0.19743135571479797,
-0.6164600849151611,
-1.1878995895385742,
-0.1764834076166153,
0.11760981380939484,
-0.19632644951343536,
0.3164564371109009,
-0.2167336493730545,
-0.1554226279258728,
0.0431140661239624,
0.08798068016767502,
-0.6406134963035583,
0.11898928880691528,
-0.12885650992393494
] |
247971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhpBB | PhpBB | phpBB is an Internet forum package written in the PHP scripting language. The name "phpBB" is an abbreviation of PHP Bulletin Board. Available under the GNU General Public License, phpBB is free and open-source.
Features of phpBB include support for multiple database engines (PostgreSQL, SQLite, MySQL, Oracle Database, Microsoft SQL Server), flat message structure (as opposed to threaded), hierarchical subforums, topic split/merge/lock, user groups, multiple attachments per post, full-text search, plugins and various notification options (e-mail, Jabber instant messaging, ATOM feeds).
History
phpBB was founded by James Atkinson as a simple UBB-like forum for his own website on June 17, 2000. Nathan Codding and John Abela joined the development team after phpBB's CVS repository was moved to SourceForge.net, and work on version 1.0.0 began. A fully functional, pre-release version of phpBB was made available in July.
phpBB 1.0.0
phpBB 1.0.0 was released on December 16, 2000, with subsequent improvements to the 1.x codebase coming in two more major installments. The final release in the 1.x line was phpBB 1.4.4, released on November 6, 2001. During the lifetime of the 1.x series, Bart van Bragt, Paul S. Owen (former co-manager of the project), Jonathan Haase and Frank Feingold joined the team. phpBB 1.x is no longer supported and virtually no websites continue to use it.
phpBB 2.0.x
In February 2001, phpBB 2.0.x began development entirely from scratch; the developer's ambitions for phpBB had outgrown the original codebase. Doug Kelly joined the team shortly afterwards. After a year of development and extensive testing, phpBB 2.0.0, dubbed the "Super Furry" version, was released on April 4, 2002, three days later than intended.
phpBB2 was the predecessor of the present-day phpBB3. Developed during 2001–2002, the source code was written primarily to run on PHP 3.0 and 4.0 (version 2.0.13 upped the minimum requirement to PHP 4.0.3 due to a necessary security fix), and by the time that phpBB3 was released in late 2007, the developers and other team members felt that it no longer met their quality coding standards, and announced plans for the retirement/end of support of 2.0.x within a few months of 3.0.0's release. phpBB2 was never officially supported under PHP 5. Although many users had no problems running it after making a few changes to PHP 5's default configuration settings, the teams chose not to offer support for this configuration.
Official support for phpBB2 ended on January 1, 2009, and the 2.0.x support forums have been locked. Furthermore, all development for phpBB2, including security patches, has ceased as of February 1, 2009. However, a number of unofficial support sites for phpBB2 have formed to fill the void.
Many administrators still prefer to run phpBB2 because it provides a much simpler administration interface and has a thriving ecosystem of MODs (modifications) and styles that allow admins many options for customising the software to their liking. Others still run phpBB2 because they have installed many MODs, none of which are compatible with phpBB3.
The default theme in phpBB2 is named subSilver (The predecessor to SubSilver2, the default in phpBB3), and was designed by Tom "subBlue" Beddard. At the time that it premiered in 2001, it was a revolutionary new design for bulletin boards, and many bulletin board themes since have borrowed many cues and design elements from subSilver.
Some of phpBB2's major features included the following:
A templated style system intended to simplify customisation and keep the PHP code separate from the HTML.
Support for internationalisation through a language pack system; 48 translations are available for phpBB2 as of 2007.
Compatibility with multiple database management systems including MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft SQL Server, and Microsoft Access,
Code and interface customisations, termed MODs and styles.
The last official release of the 2.0.x line is 2.0.23, released on February 17, 2008. However, the code for phpBB 2.0.24 still remains, unreleased, in the Git repository.
phpBB 3.0.x
Work on phpBB 3.0.x began in late 2002. It was originally intended to be released as phpBB 2.2, and the first planned feature list was announced on May 25, 2003. However, as development progressed, the developers realised that phpBB 2.1.x (the development release cycle for 2.2) had eliminated virtually all compatibility with the 2.0.x line, so the version number for release was changed to 3.0.0, in keeping with the Linux kernel versioning scheme, which phpBB followed at the time. In September 2005, Paul Owen resigned as the Development Team Leader and Meik Sievertsen was promoted to the role.
In March 2007, the phpBB team launched their new website, powered by phpBB3 with the new prosilver style. The prosilver style was originally not intended to be revealed until the final release of phpBB 3.0.0.
On April 30, 2007, phpBB founder and co-Project Manager James Atkinson officially resigned from his duties towards phpBB, citing personal circumstances. With the announcement also came the announcement that phpBB was now newly independent, and that the team leaders would be collectively taking charge of the decisions in the future of the project. At the end of May, an announcement was made that Jonathan "SHS`" Stanley, the other co-Project Manager, was stepping down as well for personal reasons.
The first beta of phpBB3 was released in June 2006, and the first release candidate was released in May 2007. The phpBB3 codebase received an external security audit in September, which was done by SektionEins. Finally, phpBB 3.0.0 "Olympus" (also dubbed the Gold release) was published on December 13, 2007.
On July 7, 2007, the teams announced that phpBB had been nominated as a finalist for the SourceForge.net Community Choice Awards in the category of "Best Project for Communications". At the end of the month, SourceForge.net announced that phpBB had won the award for "Best Project for Communications", and in honour of the award, SourceForge.net donated $1000 in phpBB's name to Marie Curie Cancer Care. phpBB also won a "Thingamagoop" from Bleep Labs, and "bragging rights for a full year."
In September 2007, the teams launched an official phpBB podcast. It was recorded by a rotating group of phpBB team members with occasional guests, and discussed a number of phpBB-related topics, as well as answering questions e-mailed in from listeners. However, the podcast only lasted for a few episodes and production ceased the following spring. Its successor is generally considered to be the new phpBB weblog, which launched in July 2008. The blog is written by phpBB team members (with occasional guest posts by community members) on various topics related to phpBB and provide users with a unique inside look at the activities of the phpBB teams.
The phpBB teams held their first-ever phpBB users conference in London on July 20, 2008, which was titled "Londonvasion 2008." Londonvasion featured presentations by phpBB team members on various topics important to the phpBB community, MOD authors, and developers. Londonvasion provided a unique opportunity to socialise with members of the phpBB teams. The event also represented the first time that most members of the teams had a chance to meet each other in person.
The phpBB teams underwent numerous changes in 2009. On January 1, the teams formally ended support for phpBB2. Many of the non-development teams released betas and release candidates of side projects during this time. The first beta of AutoMOD, an automatic installer of phpBB MODifications, was released by the Extensions Team (formerly known as the MOD Team) on December 22, 2008. The first release candidate of the Unified MOD Install Library (UMIL), a framework for allowing MOD authors to design simple database installation scripts, was released by the Extensions Team on January 12, 2009. The first release candidate of the Support Toolkit, a package of tools to diagnose and fix common support-related issues with phpBB, was released by the Support Team on June 24.
On June 10, 2009, the phpBB Development Team broke with their precedent of keeping future development plans under wraps and publicly previewed a series of new features that would be coming in phpBB 3.0.6. After four RC releases, phpBB 3.0.6 was released on November 17. The most notable new features included a bare-bones quick reply editor (a feature which the teams had historically been firmly opposed to), support for ACM (cache) plugins, ATOM feed support, and a plugin-based CAPTCHA system, including built-in support for reCAPTCHA among others. The modularization of phpBB's CAPTCHA also provided an API for MOD authors to write CAPTCHA plugins, allowing for greater diversification of the CAPTCHAs used in phpBB installations. The Extensions Team also ran a competition to encourage CAPTCHA plugin development.
On June 10, 2009, phpBB's Development Team revealed that the next phpBB3 release, 3.0.6, would include a significant number of new features. This is unusual for a minor release which is typically limited to bug and security fixes. New features would include support for new CAPTCHA plugins, ATOM feeds, support for new cache plugins (XCache, Alternative PHP Cache, eAccelerator, Memcache, and a "null" no-cache plugin), and quick reply (an often-requested feature by a subset of phpBB users) among other minor feature additions. phpBB 3.0.6 has had four RC releases and its final release was on November 17, 2009.
The final stable release of phpBB 3.0 was 3.0.14, released May 4, 2015. End of Life for phpBB 3.0.x was November 2015.
phpBB 3.1.x
In 2009 the phpBB Development Team had begun working on phpBB 3.1, formerly versioned as phpBB 3.2. (Before July 29, 2009, phpBB followed the original Linux kernel versioning scheme, in which the middle number represents a development version if it is odd and a stable version if it is even). The developers previewed their planned feature list at Londonvasion, and new features include a complete overhaul of the Moderator Control Panel (MCP) and moderation capabilities, implementation of AJAX where it is applicable and helpful, a trigger-based event system, a completely rewritten BBCode system, RSS feed support, enhancements to custom profile fields, enhancements to private messaging, a new authentication system with OpenID support, and numerous other small changes and features. The phpBB teams maintain a website for phpBB development named Area51. In keeping with the tradition to codename every new phpBB3 release after Martian mountains, phpBB 3.1 was code-named "Ascraeus," named after Ascraeus Mons, the second-tallest mountain on Mars. (Olympus Mons, which 3.0 was named after, is the tallest.)
On July 29, 2009, the Development Team announced "significant changes" to the phpBB's development process and release cycle. Chief among these was the decision to abandon the former Linux kernel versioning scheme, meaning that whether part of the version number was even or odd no longer was significant. As such, Ascraeus (the successor to 3.0.0 Olympus) is to become phpBB 3.1.0. (The original versioning scheme dictated that 3.1.x would be a development branch, meaning that Ascraeus would have been released as 3.2.0.) Subsequent feature releases of phpBB3 will be versioned as 3.2.0, 3.3.0, etc. phpBB 4.0.0 will represent a fundamentally redesigned version of phpBB. The strategy also committed the teams to continue supporting an older "stable" branch for at least 6–9 months after a newer "feature" branch was released. However, an exception was made for 3.0.6 which was already in development. Although it contained enough significant new features that it could have been considered a 3.1.0 release, it remained a part of the 3.0.x branch, which also meant that the teams did not have to simultaneously continue supporting 3.0.5 after 3.0.6's release.
In January 2010, Meik Sievertsen stepped down as Lead Developer, instead taking on the roles of developer and "Server Manager". Nils Adermann was then promoted to Lead Developer. Since then phpBB have been working on moving over to the Symfony web framework and released phpBB 3.1.0 on October 28, 2014
In March 2010, phpBB moved source code versioning from Subversion to Git in order to improve developer workflow and better involve the community.
On April 26, 2013, phpBB 3.1 entered the stage of feature freeze. "Ascraeus" was finalized and released on October 28, 2014 after several release candidates.
A future release "Rhea" (3.2.x) will be made January 7, 2017.
On October 12, 2016, phpBB released the latest stable "Ascraeus" version: 3.1.10. Due to the late release of 3.2, it was announced that end of maintenance for 3.1 would be extended to June 2017, and end of life for 3.1 extended to December 2017.
In addition to development of phpBB 3.1, other phpBB teams also are in the process of developing numerous other tools for use by the community. Development for these tools was followed on the phpBB Code Forge, which contained the Subversion repositories for these tools and the main phpBB development trunk.
phpBB 3.2.x
The first of two release candidates for 3.2.x "Rhea" was made available on June 27, 2016, the second on December 9, 2016. It was announced on December 25, 2016, that the official launch for phpBB 3.2.0 would be on January 7, 2017. phpBB 3.2 introduces major changes and new functionality. Among the new features are a completely revised installer including CLI (Command-Line Interface) support, a new BBCode system that adds more power to quotes and supports emojis, and full support for PHP 7.1.
phpBB 3.3.x
The first release candidate for 3.3.x "Proteus" was made available on December 23, 2019. On January 6, 2020, phpBB officially launched phpBB 3.3.0. It was built upon 3.2 "Rhea" and it's their big step towards a more modern base while maintaining a clear update path. Since 2021 with 3.3.3 version, phpBB supports PHP 8 & MySQL 8.
MODs
MODs are code modifications created by the phpBB community, often used to extend the functionality of or change the display of phpBB. The term is capitalised to distinguish code modifications from forum moderators, the latter of which is often abbreviated as "mods". Modifications referred to in this manner are not authored by the phpBB developers, and do not enjoy the same level of support as unmodified official code. The phpBB Extensions Team (formerly known as the phpBB MOD Team), headed by David Colón (known as DavidIQ in the community), accepts modifications from community sources for validation, and modifications which meet the Extensions Team's standards are made available for download from the phpBB Customisations Database. Other sites also provide phpBB2 and phpBB3 modifications for download. Some of the sites have their own standards which they validate to, and other sites do not do any validation, however the phpBB teams do not offer support for boards using MODs downloaded from sites other than phpBB.com. Documentation for phpBB3 MODding is provided by the Extensions Team. MODs are not accepted for the 3.1.x line of phpBB since Extensions have taken their place from that version forward.
MODX
MODX is an XML-based document format developed by the phpBB Extensions Team that is used to describe the steps required to modify the source code of a web application in order to install a modification. Although it can theoretically be utilised for any web application, it was developed for and is primarily used by MODs for phpBB. The phpBB Extensions Team requires that MODs submitted to its database conform to the MODX specifications and other policies. The primary purpose of using an XML-based format is to better allow automatic installation tools, such as AutoMOD, to read and complete the installation instructions. MODX files can be viewed in a web browser using an included XSLT file. The latest revision of the MODX spec is 1.2.6, released on December 15, 2012.
AutoMOD
AutoMOD is a tool developed by the phpBB Extensions Team that parses and automatically installs phpBB3 MODs distributed in the MODX format. Users simply have to upload the contents of a MOD download to their phpBB source directory and run AutoMOD, which will parse the MOD instructions and make the necessary file changes. Depending on the server configurations, it will either automatically merge the changes into place using FTP, or will create a compressed archive of the changed files for the user to copy into place. AutoMOD is also used by the MOD Team members during validation to ensure that the MODX files are valid and the MOD can be successfully installed on a vanilla phpBB installation.
The current version of AutoMOD is 1.0.2. AutoMOD can be downloaded from the AutoMOD information page and support can be obtained in the AutoMOD support forum.
AutoMOD is the successor to EasyMOD, a tool for phpBB2 which was also developed by the phpBB Extensions Team and performed essentially the same task. The last version of EasyMOD was 0.4.0, released on June 30, 2008. Support for EasyMOD is no longer provided since phpBB2 is retired.
Unified MOD Installation Library (UMIL)
The Unified MOD Installation Library is a library designed to simplify the installation and uninstallation of the database side of MODs. It is designed to be useful for configuring the forum for the new MOD, performing database actions such as adding and removing tables and columns, and purging the forum's cache. UMIL is GPL licensed and the latest version is 1.0.5. It can be downloaded from the UMIL page. To create a UMI-file automatically, a MOD author can use the Unified MOD Installation File creation tool.
Security
In December 2004, a large number of Web sites were defaced by the Santy worm, which used vulnerabilities in outdated versions of phpBB2 to overwrite PHP and HTML pages. Although these were the result of outdated versions of PHP and phpBB, incidents like these have caused the security of phpBB to be disputed. There have also been a few times where new releases of phpBB have come out a few days apart, most recently with version 3.2.7 in May 2019. However, the phpBB Team usually responds to security reports as soon as possible, and releases a new version quickly. The phpBB Group, attempting to learn from previous failures, performed a codebase security audit before the release of 2.0.18. The phpBB3 codebase received an external security audit in September 2007, which was done by SektionEins. The sixth release candidate of phpBB3 was published following the results of the security audit.
Changes were made to phpBB2 to avoid problems in the future, such as a re-authentication system for the administration panel, backported from phpBB3. This was introduced after a cookie verification issue allowed attackers to gain administrator access.
In November 2005, the phpBB Group announced a new Incident Investigation Team (IIT), a sub-team of their Support Team, which is responsible for assisting users in the cleanup and repair of an attacked phpBB installation and investigating reports of new exploits. The team announced a tracker the following January where administrators of attacked bulletin boards could report an attack and receive support from the IIT.
The CAPTCHA system in phpBB2 has proven vulnerable to automated registrations, with numerous phpBB-based forums being swamped by forum spam. phpBB3 has improved its anti-spam options available to forum administrators, including a new CAPTCHA system, suspensions, user logging and other various features. The phpBB team has published recommendations on protecting the boards from spam. Currently the best method is to use a Q&A (question-answer) challenge, which was introduced into phpBB 3.0.6. phpBB3 has a much stronger CAPTCHA system, however during the phpBB3 development/beta phase it was frequently criticised for being difficult to read. The development team has been working on improving its readability prior to phpBB3's final release.
Additionally, the teams have announced that each minor release of phpBB3 (3.0.1, 3.0.2, etc.) will be preceded by individual release candidates in an effort to prevent instances where subsequent releases would be only days apart (as happened a couple of times during the 2.0.x line).
phpBB 3 notifies the administrator of new releases via the Administration Control Panel.
phpBB community
phpBB has a community of users who contribute to the overall project with content such as Extensions, MODs and Styles. They also provide supplementary support as assistance to the phpBB Support Team. Community users are encouraged to participate in these support requests and to contribute to the overall betterment of phpBB core code.
See also
Comparison of Internet forum software
References
Further reading
Stefanov, Stoyan, Jeremy Rogers, 2006. phpBB: A User Guide, Packt Publishing.
Douglass, Robert T., Mike Little, Jared W. Smith, 2005. Building Online Communities With Drupal, phpBB, and WordPress, Apress.
Stefanov Stoyan, Jeremy Rogers, Mike Lothar, 2005. Building Online Communities with phpBB 2, Packt Publishing.
External links
Free Internet forum software
Free groupware
Free software programmed in PHP
Internet forum software
2000 software
PHP software | [
0.06548809260129929,
0.15630654990673065,
-0.20316818356513977,
0.05566715449094772,
-0.33633485436439514,
-0.4216393232345581,
0.09382129460573196,
0.34233900904655457,
-0.24151456356048584,
0.011534526944160461,
-0.17573334276676178,
0.5617767572402954,
-0.6944276094436646,
-0.2950953543186188,
0.07732737064361572,
-0.4510963261127472,
0.10979802161455154,
0.5132058262825012,
-0.14908315241336823,
-0.04958139359951019,
0.23792093992233276,
-0.36685341596603394,
-0.41067078709602356,
-0.45632025599479675,
0.014983096159994602,
0.6566619873046875,
0.5549561381340027,
0.3408159017562866,
-0.9418684244155884,
-0.12519580125808716,
-0.06491389870643616,
0.12783385813236237,
0.20925672352313995,
-0.41453084349632263,
-0.13405215740203857,
-0.09901099652051926,
0.01995125040411949,
0.2304229885339737,
0.221395343542099,
-0.2581098675727844,
0.20135779678821564,
-0.42779257893562317,
0.5951949954032898,
0.6139628887176514,
-0.1138651967048645,
-0.30520737171173096,
-1.579590916633606,
0.45487019419670105,
-0.7167181968688965,
-0.24958260357379913,
-0.8578407168388367,
0.8119068741798401,
0.23292788863182068,
-0.03658758103847504,
0.4469361901283264,
0.10169816762208939,
-0.07396407425403595,
-0.33439570665359497,
0.141548290848732,
0.1555732786655426,
0.2558155059814453,
0.05046319216489792,
-0.022334856912493706,
-0.064897321164608,
0.45096156001091003,
0.5568498373031616,
-0.49782782793045044,
0.4220065474510193,
-0.7349803447723389,
0.07848275452852249,
0.21700966358184814,
-0.35773029923439026,
-0.17419159412384033,
-0.22905519604682922,
-0.19826796650886536,
0.13704931735992432,
-0.20043902099132538,
0.36640694737434387,
0.220342218875885,
0.26090601086616516,
-0.0883692130446434,
0.7005302309989929,
0.5558643341064453,
-0.003002789570018649,
0.7739458680152893,
-0.005294410511851311,
-0.09913550317287445,
0.48699402809143066,
-0.3748621344566345,
0.2116519659757614,
-0.48387861251831055,
0.23502227663993835,
0.6100769639015198,
0.34519705176353455,
0.7123494148254395,
-0.20540499687194824,
-0.6717909574508667,
0.16117721796035767,
0.37945783138275146,
0.44942107796669006,
-0.1302729696035385,
-0.15604674816131592,
-0.14227083325386047,
-0.03884324058890343,
-0.6609657406806946,
0.038014914840459824,
-0.8243576884269714,
-0.933777391910553,
0.02952900342643261,
-0.03583948314189911,
-0.05032716318964958,
0.3119555711746216,
0.15774734318256378,
-0.4217589795589447,
-0.10853724926710129,
0.543175220489502,
0.09035623073577881,
-0.13726186752319336,
-0.03270670771598816,
0.0035183222498744726,
0.16764819622039795,
1.0527600049972534,
0.17650523781776428,
0.12254899740219116,
0.12396907806396484,
0.4586355984210968,
0.22932623326778412,
0.9773936867713928,
0.037163302302360535,
0.29586657881736755,
0.03788857161998749,
1.0559731721878052,
0.5179615616798401,
-0.24882663786411285,
0.0735170766711235,
-0.7116872668266296,
-0.1605813354253769,
-0.2547558844089508,
-0.1516389399766922,
-0.1346927434206009,
-0.3603379428386688,
-0.0648789033293724,
-1.163314700126648,
-0.05033141374588013,
0.6531017422676086,
0.18429513275623322,
-0.3529019355773926,
-0.5643385052680969,
-0.33520811796188354,
-0.3062223494052887,
-0.2501606345176697,
0.15652823448181152,
-0.46721723675727844,
0.2500421404838562,
-0.2120603621006012,
0.785277783870697,
0.5822048783302307,
-0.6172853112220764,
0.1598377376794815,
0.35174447298049927,
0.36924391984939575,
0.38800594210624695,
-0.7361297607421875,
-0.2698226869106293,
0.18688324093818665,
-0.4346064031124115,
0.14747953414916992,
0.13267743587493896,
0.7351692914962769,
0.2610463500022888,
-0.4736693501472473,
0.011274311691522598,
0.03493693843483925,
0.020549524575471878,
0.5904613137245178,
-0.25529375672340393,
0.9339099526405334,
0.025693655014038086,
0.6565595865249634,
0.09985430538654327,
-0.401250422000885,
-0.1605677455663681,
0.075827457010746,
-0.1540386974811554,
0.31032630801200867,
0.22335508465766907,
0.45698082447052,
0.029659422114491463,
0.44111883640289307,
0.22740840911865234,
-0.5722766518592834,
-0.5347978472709656,
0.06694599986076355,
-0.5093182921409607,
1.1902934312820435,
-0.1321069300174713,
-0.9020693302154541,
0.9980493187904358,
0.6986697316169739,
0.5690215826034546,
0.07579153031110764,
0.12286930531263351,
0.537053108215332,
-0.2240331619977951,
-0.3031972050666809,
0.784282922744751,
0.25737321376800537,
0.4018566906452179,
-0.5474863052368164,
0.38245847821235657,
-0.14921392500400543,
-0.17524178326129913,
0.3694547116756439,
-0.678095817565918,
0.05070147663354874,
-0.18404360115528107,
-0.17581959068775177,
0.2714027166366577,
-0.2349385917186737,
0.3777441680431366,
1.1207786798477173,
-0.23156225681304932,
-0.27287840843200684,
0.45980048179626465,
-0.6626480221748352,
0.7183696031570435,
0.5942355394363403,
-0.06613045930862427,
0.9809055924415588,
-0.020277023315429688,
0.18814101815223694,
-0.08599872142076492,
0.31381136178970337,
-0.060162708163261414,
-0.2594643831253052,
-0.058070264756679535,
0.20366257429122925,
-0.3112034499645233,
0.38073277473449707,
0.3259347975254059,
0.4257785677909851,
0.49919676780700684,
-0.7037776708602905,
-0.39045366644859314,
-0.2925824522972107,
-0.27708205580711365,
-0.07135110348463058,
0.2900290787220001,
0.021487746387720108,
0.6580614447593689,
0.6249707341194153,
0.2073940634727478,
-0.031970519572496414,
-0.47810909152030945,
0.11511953920125961,
0.26711297035217285,
-0.5364663004875183,
-0.2604943513870239,
-0.4699128270149231,
0.4904636740684509,
-0.6993500590324402,
-0.3546672761440277,
0.19282856583595276,
0.42271649837493896,
0.09363164007663727,
-0.24414478242397308,
0.21090982854366302,
-0.13544286787509918,
0.258795827627182,
0.4930618703365326,
-0.036068618297576904,
-0.1665526032447815,
-0.20866872370243073,
-0.4693138897418976,
0.28302493691444397,
-0.41036829352378845,
-0.2149227112531662,
0.23729346692562103,
-0.8507575392723083,
-0.7205326557159424,
-0.31627950072288513,
0.5646594166755676,
0.29580533504486084,
-0.3744518458843231,
-0.357932984828949,
-0.10074879229068756,
-0.020595639944076538,
-0.5598331093788147,
-0.4636252522468567,
-0.46082231402397156,
-0.36395904421806335,
0.05894335359334946,
-0.09264789521694183,
0.26314985752105713,
0.17328058183193207,
0.47137340903282166,
0.22909791767597198,
0.26763349771499634,
0.1579984426498413,
0.1313847452402115,
0.2661283314228058,
0.35318148136138916,
-0.2627699077129364,
-0.6410082578659058,
0.02145329676568508,
0.1876308172941208,
-0.32482537627220154,
-0.20835478603839874,
-5.454177379608154,
0.3092469274997711,
-0.0656089037656784,
-0.4285365641117096,
0.11304517090320587,
0.25741660594940186,
0.2202926129102707,
-0.2458215355873108,
0.41394346952438354,
0.018554965034127235,
-0.8544535636901855,
0.5288642644882202,
0.0640883818268776,
0.2986442744731903,
0.13818547129631042,
0.3984847366809845,
0.6738587021827698,
0.1187254935503006,
0.16012366116046906,
0.29232460260391235,
0.25499168038368225,
0.48455893993377686,
-0.14451877772808075,
0.21604293584823608,
0.23473306000232697,
0.092842236161232,
-0.47414395213127136,
0.285184770822525,
0.09267859160900116,
-0.05460216850042343,
0.200985386967659,
-0.23311837017536163,
-0.28686147928237915,
-0.4178263545036316,
-0.4188646376132965,
0.5022030472755432,
1.1136913299560547,
0.10299016535282135,
0.5321624875068665,
-0.2857270836830139,
0.12424419820308685,
0.213547483086586,
0.13291554152965546,
-0.39496859908103943,
0.8306030631065369,
-0.31451714038848877,
-0.6665387749671936,
0.09365072846412659,
-0.5123594999313354,
0.28323277831077576,
-0.44992703199386597,
-0.1473696082830429,
0.39131808280944824,
0.6095774173736572,
-0.003610573010519147,
-0.5139220952987671,
0.2781136631965637,
-0.09591425955295563,
-0.47041335701942444,
0.3817856013774872,
0.5762112140655518,
-0.09422104060649872,
-0.03410067781805992,
-0.5968246459960938,
-0.4901150166988373,
-0.20838205516338348,
-0.3570869565010071,
-0.10099412500858307,
-0.018919574096798897,
-0.11651384085416794,
-0.7845068573951721,
0.44031333923339844,
-0.29812267422676086,
-0.7475929856300354,
1.1859817504882812,
-0.5730602145195007,
-0.11137701570987701,
-0.08755215257406235,
-0.26131945848464966,
-0.1614513099193573,
0.13264304399490356,
-0.3095674514770508,
-0.8238778114318848,
0.26620572805404663,
-0.4665818214416504,
-0.2802436947822571,
0.25068312883377075,
0.277898907661438,
-0.13716378808021545,
-0.09231244772672653,
0.4332595765590668,
-0.19943037629127502,
0.04304106533527374,
0.43309319019317627,
0.3004930019378662,
0.41673216223716736,
0.5925023555755615,
-0.4372979402542114,
0.5402645468711853,
-0.3789275586605072,
0.8711854219436646,
-0.41573566198349,
-0.36601167917251587,
-0.9394189715385437,
-0.1438988447189331,
-0.19754935801029205,
-0.34064650535583496,
0.15973535180091858,
0.25156116485595703,
0.12028364837169647,
-0.586588442325592,
0.3622857928276062,
-0.6784728169441223,
-0.1580313742160797,
0.7125780582427979,
0.6172484159469604,
-0.486187219619751,
0.07300982624292374,
0.11169811338186264,
0.2840757668018341,
0.02538101188838482,
0.3106485605239868,
0.07781898230314255,
-0.2443544715642929,
-0.04672509804368019,
-0.25029313564300537,
0.10130015015602112,
-0.30690231919288635,
-0.1260703057050705,
-0.5741906762123108,
0.22772154211997986,
-0.049878545105457306,
-0.06625506281852722,
-0.10885067284107208,
0.0815265029668808,
-0.23555529117584229,
0.17774729430675507,
0.21061545610427856,
0.4311629831790924,
-0.6522723436355591,
0.338172048330307,
-0.0768829807639122,
-0.045478954911231995,
-0.012382089160382748,
0.3146416246891022,
0.4765535593032837,
-0.0709957629442215,
0.17019042372703552,
-0.33859556913375854,
0.5833194255828857,
-0.28438547253608704,
-0.9616881012916565,
0.42640209197998047,
-0.13785959780216217,
-0.3312266170978546,
0.35407111048698425,
0.21181118488311768,
0.9522905945777893,
0.5591163635253906,
-0.5913057923316956,
-0.023332133889198303,
-0.629833459854126,
-0.8753165006637573,
0.07336254417896271,
-0.24768058955669403,
-0.1899203211069107,
-0.354061096906662,
0.07764279842376709,
-0.5309493541717529,
0.33067718148231506,
-0.04444129392504692,
0.5958859920501709,
-0.2833276391029358,
-0.2205560803413391,
0.7926663756370544,
-0.10425068438053131,
-0.012576650828123093,
-0.35364603996276855,
0.37329381704330444,
0.5194745659828186,
-0.03550232574343681,
-0.4253232181072235,
0.20718857645988464,
0.34391242265701294,
0.7004675269126892,
-0.6598398089408875,
-0.2802191376686096,
0.2726888656616211,
-0.2962624728679657,
-0.19804677367210388,
-0.278596431016922,
0.2435787171125412,
0.9941341280937195,
-0.1510477364063263,
-0.08950681984424591,
-0.40439802408218384,
0.4041895568370819,
0.43637344241142273,
-0.5857987999916077,
-1.080672025680542,
0.035379696637392044,
0.30183520913124084,
-1.1343154907226562,
0.6758686900138855,
0.11996082216501236,
-0.284281462430954,
0.023896174505352974,
-0.495637446641922,
-0.1563769280910492,
0.1567499339580536,
0.17718543112277985,
0.04021870344877243,
-0.3351336419582367,
-0.513114333152771,
-0.10799279063940048,
0.32316115498542786,
-0.19738005101680756,
-0.011674358509480953,
-0.6076931953430176,
-0.1956646889448166,
-0.6574981212615967,
-0.6094635128974915,
-0.01434328593313694,
0.18477271497249603,
-0.7029958963394165,
0.36432942748069763,
0.06366973370313644,
-0.5531734228134155,
0.11288174986839294,
-0.010059280321002007,
0.33783137798309326,
-0.5001733899116516,
0.19977736473083496,
0.051227159798145294,
-0.2592379152774811,
-0.38829973340034485,
-0.6915201544761658,
0.602654218673706,
-0.07394295930862427,
-0.21383851766586304,
-0.39981067180633545,
0.4429614841938019,
0.14797624945640564,
-0.9290505051612854,
-0.3486363887786865,
-0.3115141689777374,
-0.16413713991641998,
0.14836886525154114,
-0.9980381727218628,
0.06817127764225006,
0.43291473388671875,
-0.6609761118888855,
-0.39963048696517944,
-0.39754047989845276,
0.8634815812110901,
-0.36154240369796753,
-0.23048925399780273,
-0.6911170482635498,
-0.09119962155818939,
0.08230489492416382,
0.5002436637878418,
-0.0744156539440155,
-0.5332210659980774,
0.6274303197860718,
0.2350860834121704,
0.10594143718481064,
0.07892630249261856,
-0.6062635183334351,
0.308748334646225,
-0.752817690372467,
-0.06977859139442444,
0.29216909408569336,
0.016027724370360374,
0.7334244251251221,
0.04196126386523247,
-0.1511439085006714,
-0.16431504487991333,
-0.5295599102973938,
0.5331337451934814,
0.4164262115955353,
0.42297911643981934,
0.195916086435318,
0.28866830468177795,
-0.5180177688598633,
0.490443617105484,
-0.7415961027145386,
0.07161931693553925,
0.36840370297431946,
0.185371533036232,
0.4725046157836914,
-1.0171231031417847,
0.5541529059410095,
-0.4623884856700897,
0.3151147663593292,
-0.01827278546988964,
0.00890122540295124,
0.1411682814359665,
-0.31541019678115845,
-0.5320104360580444,
-0.2132817804813385,
-0.33388468623161316,
0.5322452187538147,
0.6720239520072937,
-0.3359602689743042,
0.3308258354663849,
0.15915749967098236,
-0.16205810010433197,
-0.30898618698120117,
0.03824099898338318,
0.02999310940504074,
-0.2811623215675354,
-0.06690937280654907,
0.09755969792604446,
0.34639760851860046,
-0.6141576766967773,
-0.019725143909454346,
0.4690224230289459,
-0.4090198278427124,
0.34853532910346985,
0.3117735683917999,
0.17706406116485596,
-0.3740624189376831,
0.38604655861854553,
0.1935492902994156,
-0.4770527780056,
0.3363683521747589,
-0.25003305077552795,
-0.10148230940103531,
0.5956652760505676,
-0.3440116345882416,
0.6741129159927368,
-0.42659980058670044,
-0.2970390021800995,
-0.5134057402610779,
-0.30121898651123047,
-0.4276207387447357,
0.1228557601571083,
0.35133594274520874,
-0.5355565547943115,
0.49064570665359497,
0.4389948844909668,
0.308972030878067,
-0.5076519250869751,
-0.49186378717422485,
-0.29290884733200073,
0.35648471117019653,
0.1125306487083435,
0.26980119943618774,
-0.3819049298763275,
0.8856298923492432,
0.1375439614057541,
0.13589917123317719,
-0.054913848638534546,
-0.5183999538421631,
-0.008274059742689133,
-0.7252446413040161,
0.32298776507377625,
-0.15495407581329346,
0.47525548934936523,
-0.6410526037216187,
0.3085917830467224,
0.3349164128303528,
0.2301732450723648,
0.18864034116268158,
-0.6261224150657654,
0.4371117353439331,
0.5726693272590637,
0.008944958448410034,
0.2879997491836548,
0.18536804616451263,
-0.19700346887111664,
0.6512947082519531,
-0.312358558177948,
0.541778564453125,
-0.7464077472686768,
0.08030714839696884,
0.48441964387893677,
0.3841128647327423,
-0.5359265804290771,
0.37905198335647583,
0.21440038084983826,
-0.0036850981414318085,
-0.20484459400177002,
-0.10717885941267014,
0.624509871006012,
-0.31545376777648926,
0.05857951194047928,
0.4416655898094177,
0.1186443641781807,
-0.2954738438129425,
-0.1842404156923294,
-0.45948782563209534,
-0.522499144077301,
0.48482343554496765,
0.14965005218982697,
0.18365229666233063,
-0.30737602710723877,
1.1029571294784546,
0.5548270344734192,
-0.22291868925094604,
-0.23762297630310059,
0.2856855094432831,
0.506774365901947,
0.4815232753753662,
-0.3712003231048584,
0.21899859607219696,
-0.6782749891281128,
-0.3292407989501953,
-0.6413586735725403,
0.21671508252620697,
0.3319747745990753,
0.9775378108024597,
-0.12705416977405548,
-0.0340651199221611,
-0.07363821566104889,
0.5277485847473145,
0.7650691270828247,
-0.3808077275753021,
-0.19980093836784363,
0.3340475261211395,
-0.6154990792274475,
-0.4476938545703888,
0.1223638504743576,
0.2647479176521301,
0.10216835141181946,
0.19244123995304108,
-0.28014636039733887,
-0.6462354063987732,
-0.510656476020813,
-0.06637272983789444,
0.19433216750621796,
-0.6553881168365479,
-0.26833096146583557,
1.1223286390304565,
-0.16548295319080353,
0.2552458345890045,
0.014177314005792141,
0.861139714717865,
0.5697901844978333,
-0.20794449746608734,
-0.3564922511577606,
0.194171741604805,
-0.21699902415275574,
-0.045311663299798965,
-2.0256240367889404,
0.35790809988975525,
-0.3401278853416443,
-0.5390992760658264,
-0.4997885227203369,
0.2326122671365738,
0.061049457639455795,
-0.10871388763189316,
-0.08411566913127899,
-0.9266310930252075,
0.06811145693063736,
0.2616002559661865,
0.1513894498348236,
-0.6919960379600525,
-0.24123315513134003,
0.7426520586013794
] |
247977 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European%20crested%20tit | European crested tit | The European crested tit, or simply crested tit (Lophophanes cristatus) (formerly Parus cristatus), is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common resident breeder in coniferous forests throughout central and northern Europe and in deciduous woodland in France and the Iberian peninsula. In Great Britain, it is chiefly restricted to the ancient pinewoods of Inverness and Strathspey in Scotland, and seldom strays far from its haunts. A few vagrant crested tits have been seen in England. It is resident, and most individuals do not migrate.
Taxonomy and systematics
This species was formerly placed in Parus, but the distinctness of Lophophanes is well supported, and it is now recognised by the American Ornithologists' Union and the British Ornithologists' Union as a distinct genus.
The current genus name, Lophophanes, is from the Ancient Greek lophos, "crest", and
phaino, "to show". The specific cristatus is Latin for "crested".
Behaviour and ecology
It is an easy tit to recognise, for besides its erectile crest, the tip of which is often recurved, its gorget and collar are distinctive. It is, like other tits, talkative, and birds keep up a constant zee, zee, zee , similar to that of the coal tit.
It makes a nest in a hole in rotting stumps. This bird often feeds low down in trees, but although not shy, it is not always easily approached. It will join winter tit flocks with other species.
Like other tits it is found in pairs and it feeds on insects (including caterpillars) and seeds.
References
External links
Crested tit videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Song of the crested tit (Real Audio soundfile from Sveriges Radio P2)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 2.3 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Lophophanes
tit, crested
Birds described in 1758
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
-0.4118223488330841,
-0.1117226853966713,
-0.6352924108505249,
-0.5907748937606812,
0.041643716394901276,
0.8013646006584167,
0.5572889447212219,
0.4573293626308441,
-0.3102966845035553,
0.04693556949496269,
-0.25950145721435547,
0.32106152176856995,
-0.6554588675498962,
-0.5366430282592773,
-0.4106781780719757,
0.5754296779632568,
0.8759651184082031,
0.19493643939495087,
-0.06958325952291489,
-0.7281934022903442,
0.11852727830410004,
-0.2587749660015106,
0.2064962238073349,
-0.4373202621936798,
0.27088186144828796,
0.4602769613265991,
0.7524703741073608,
0.6855164170265198,
0.09873200207948685,
0.2847728431224823,
-0.09996651858091354,
1.0154690742492676,
-0.15820419788360596,
-0.24000729620456696,
-0.12142635136842728,
0.27060192823410034,
0.1299275904893875,
-0.5855624079704285,
-0.43453189730644226,
-0.8315157294273376,
0.6687381863594055,
-0.17780143022537231,
-0.12827876210212708,
0.450324147939682,
-0.9911476373672485,
-0.39400410652160645,
-1.5230175256729126,
0.6266676783561707,
-0.43136709928512573,
-0.07700615376234055,
-0.4292219579219818,
0.8386017084121704,
-0.09842414408922195,
0.7399172782897949,
0.383350670337677,
-0.035495609045028687,
-1.2549278736114502,
-0.14726151525974274,
0.036019906401634216,
-0.5251955389976501,
-0.4139159917831421,
0.6645767092704773,
-0.10970707982778549,
0.05961601436138153,
0.04742969945073128,
0.22140814363956451,
0.2823728621006012,
0.062062062323093414,
-0.5834460258483887,
-0.3390900492668152,
-0.08639901131391525,
-0.21410001814365387,
-0.030596138909459114,
0.7740396857261658,
-0.7685092687606812,
0.3095231056213379,
0.018839724361896515,
0.015573485754430294,
0.4908665716648102,
0.16888733208179474,
0.7751885652542114,
-0.08355977386236191,
1.4498227834701538,
0.04785088077187538,
-0.131226047873497,
0.23270820081233978,
-0.5088911652565002,
0.004189945291727781,
-0.5022575855255127,
-0.258776992559433,
-0.7089723348617554,
-0.44934603571891785,
0.09656701982021332,
0.5135623216629028,
0.173413947224617,
-0.1782314032316208,
-0.5102853775024414,
0.06504950672388077,
0.28011342883110046,
-0.20552825927734375,
-0.013857991434633732,
0.08292468637228012,
0.2346230298280716,
-0.3458106219768524,
-0.8267304301261902,
-0.1490059494972229,
-0.5450467467308044,
-0.05171433463692665,
-0.3681865632534027,
0.3567836284637451,
-1.2706364393234253,
-0.08113722503185272,
0.4380013644695282,
0.3225327730178833,
0.2481495887041092,
0.7403005361557007,
0.05751504376530647,
0.23201602697372437,
-0.41491106152534485,
-0.13528338074684143,
0.501593291759491,
0.809265673160553,
-0.26698386669158936,
0.6826031804084778,
0.5390198230743408,
0.6583508849143982,
0.5430553555488586,
0.568988561630249,
-0.33433157205581665,
0.1645991951227188,
0.39437440037727356,
0.9864339232444763,
-0.31202223896980286,
0.2758484184741974,
-0.15191194415092468,
-0.7247960567474365,
0.2293718159198761,
-0.3023361563682556,
0.5863045454025269,
0.8976420760154724,
-1.1076523065567017,
0.20745378732681274,
-0.30094587802886963,
-0.0781984031200409,
0.27378517389297485,
0.41132527589797974,
0.021018778905272484,
-0.009225391782820225,
0.06071993708610535,
-0.5685133934020996,
0.2519132196903229,
-0.019993070513010025,
0.264199435710907,
-0.39230796694755554,
-0.17830514907836914,
-0.32418403029441833,
0.6032682657241821,
-0.4524202048778534,
0.30852314829826355,
-0.4796037971973419,
0.010453815571963787,
0.315265953540802,
-0.3105848729610443,
0.38612738251686096,
0.5358375310897827,
-0.3559597432613373,
-0.22279438376426697,
-0.014396578073501587,
-0.28927549719810486,
0.48044946789741516,
-0.1092064157128334,
0.4113202691078186,
0.5300094485282898,
0.8639623522758484,
-0.23458531498908997,
-0.39541324973106384,
0.27640965580940247,
0.16359807550907135,
0.5544150471687317,
-0.2259020358324051,
-0.8408092856407166,
0.4723469018936157,
0.5481266975402832,
-0.6582660675048828,
0.4424215257167816,
0.5839768648147583,
0.6205079555511475,
0.09273885190486908,
0.1580190658569336,
-0.6177020072937012,
-0.2629513442516327,
-0.32258129119873047,
0.09988170117139816,
-0.6793608665466309,
0.6872001886367798,
-0.32754969596862793,
-0.6356183290481567,
-0.11071234196424484,
0.03116207756102085,
0.7028066515922546,
-0.27877891063690186,
-0.7226608991622925,
1.0557001829147339,
0.3127361834049225,
-0.5706143379211426,
0.3987751007080078,
-0.5316153168678284,
0.4077962040901184,
0.49827006459236145,
0.19554471969604492,
0.3801303505897522,
-0.2656394839286804,
-0.17437192797660828,
0.47275060415267944,
-0.4587281048297882,
-0.20464381575584412,
0.03146420791745186,
0.425082266330719,
0.05450209975242615,
-0.17033155262470245,
0.819803774356842,
-0.2701803743839264,
-0.042453717440366745,
0.11230156570672989,
0.39524149894714355,
0.4579565227031708,
-0.04015559330582619,
-0.4724329113960266,
0.45419541001319885,
-0.15425679087638855,
-0.8853635787963867,
0.3222794234752655,
0.17109860479831696,
-0.2088996022939682,
0.0006633181474171579,
-0.42344003915786743,
-0.20153246819972992,
-0.5358988046646118,
0.42916229367256165,
-0.09948734939098358,
0.20369969308376312,
0.13536317646503448,
-0.2201320379972458,
0.41217708587646484,
0.3433493375778198,
0.08273737877607346,
0.051690541207790375,
0.7524486184120178,
-0.16191446781158447,
-0.1354036033153534,
0.1210261657834053,
0.3236272931098938,
-0.2331746220588684,
-0.274913489818573,
-0.1335279494524002,
0.2770189642906189,
0.5015211701393127,
0.20876972377300262,
0.21623794734477997,
0.2753029763698578,
-0.19623707234859467,
0.17153006792068481,
-0.16009044647216797,
0.4867614507675171,
0.16513310372829437,
-0.5570346117019653,
-0.5013259053230286,
-0.04620720446109772,
0.8007079362869263,
0.2666723132133484,
0.48002079129219055,
-0.09669145196676254,
-0.30086028575897217,
0.3454590141773224,
-0.26112648844718933,
-0.26250481605529785,
-0.5103737711906433,
-0.2760810852050781,
-0.8945416808128357,
-0.618202805519104,
0.29426902532577515,
0.8176431655883789,
0.4517243206501007,
-0.13970910012722015,
-0.2656230628490448,
-0.3354683816432953,
0.3720450699329376,
-0.7019324898719788,
-0.2090790569782257,
-0.9414124488830566,
-0.13117827475070953,
-0.03471624106168747,
0.12308787554502487,
-0.06974536180496216,
-0.9453546404838562,
-0.10249178111553192,
0.05646960809826851,
0.8838810324668884,
0.5816640853881836,
-0.28057077527046204,
-0.22424615919589996,
0.42534008622169495,
0.3853757977485657,
0.12774117290973663,
0.5667548179626465,
-0.4308870732784271,
0.03867940604686737,
-0.18690581619739532,
-5.2263054847717285,
0.5150710940361023,
0.08181443065404892,
-0.41912803053855896,
-0.05021556094288826,
0.19634684920310974,
0.09236657619476318,
-0.4124503433704376,
-0.27042120695114136,
0.07174745947122574,
0.33187228441238403,
0.13588736951351166,
0.02997734397649765,
0.4457896053791046,
0.7557178735733032,
0.02150067128241062,
-0.33210617303848267,
0.23431362211704254,
0.4853111803531647,
0.2545362710952759,
0.8478509783744812,
0.21414698660373688,
-0.017764242365956306,
0.5242204070091248,
0.22753629088401794,
0.1740199327468872,
-0.06357990205287933,
-0.39363017678260803,
-0.4804915189743042,
-0.64388108253479,
0.22752131521701813,
-0.2808486521244049,
-0.1500147134065628,
0.0924481675028801,
0.1543407440185547,
-0.26060155034065247,
0.6534762978553772,
0.45337697863578796,
0.352616548538208,
-0.6707396507263184,
-0.20567375421524048,
0.24738448858261108,
0.48621633648872375,
-0.3314018249511719,
0.31307971477508545,
0.09224969893693924,
-0.10718026757240295,
-0.35396307706832886,
0.001883998978883028,
0.925501823425293,
0.022848503664135933,
-0.18862061202526093,
0.1735137701034546,
0.45663830637931824,
0.37954747676849365,
0.12032748758792877,
0.025312040001153946,
0.30826303362846375,
-0.3525688946247101,
0.6265753507614136,
0.3221420645713806,
-0.2749365270137787,
-0.5181881785392761,
-1.0860148668289185,
0.1821146458387375,
0.2044651359319687,
-0.9466937184333801,
-0.03243904560804367,
-0.0005812332965433598,
0.16162462532520294,
0.09111923724412918,
-0.047916363924741745,
-0.43249720335006714,
-0.735680341720581,
0.873170018196106,
-0.6914971470832825,
0.22513370215892792,
0.014422224834561348,
-0.4779762923717499,
0.23491251468658447,
0.01768030785024166,
-0.4554179310798645,
0.06076153740286827,
-0.048107679933309555,
0.3151276409626007,
-0.4530986547470093,
-0.762996256351471,
-0.06698544323444366,
0.17854519188404083,
-0.4571637809276581,
0.7904266715049744,
-0.6606171131134033,
-0.05312924459576607,
0.3353188633918762,
0.6088979244232178,
0.4118744730949402,
0.19490164518356323,
-0.07317256182432175,
0.7751728892326355,
0.04812368378043175,
0.015456289984285831,
-0.3295418322086334,
0.20140285789966583,
0.03804956004023552,
0.2421541064977646,
-0.8417016863822937,
-0.5473127365112305,
0.21833643317222595,
0.9150722622871399,
-0.40805429220199585,
0.7094285488128662,
-0.7026650309562683,
-0.6614670157432556,
-0.36079591512680054,
-0.26476728916168213,
0.34691154956817627,
0.4690929353237152,
-0.12347844988107681,
0.4693696200847626,
0.12193599343299866,
0.1175289899110794,
-0.33099111914634705,
-0.22822032868862152,
-0.08726157993078232,
-0.3729580342769623,
-0.6520715355873108,
-0.03499949350953102,
0.2930387258529663,
-1.056779146194458,
-0.3683469593524933,
-0.28530240058898926,
-0.06897736340761185,
-0.05495048686861992,
0.10953214764595032,
0.3657395839691162,
0.27790480852127075,
0.001384048955515027,
0.1902100145816803,
0.7515311241149902,
0.010290689766407013,
-0.5500408411026001,
-0.5713782906532288,
-0.36228442192077637,
0.02562814950942993,
0.7710826396942139,
0.2277618646621704,
-0.6796796321868896,
-0.26805344223976135,
-0.12322388589382172,
0.8796669244766235,
0.5643782615661621,
0.059900593012571335,
-0.02367851883172989,
-0.1370699256658554,
0.10661913454532623,
0.09472540766000748,
0.1301823854446411,
0.5623860359191895,
-0.1276501715183258,
-0.4900446832180023,
0.012988642789423466,
-0.3848682641983032,
-0.5239531397819519,
0.1392163336277008,
0.7470441460609436,
-0.4426766037940979,
-0.2381601184606552,
-0.5036289095878601,
0.13025140762329102,
0.2606953978538513,
0.38346967101097107,
-0.0748290941119194,
-0.3109305500984192,
-0.05113959684967995,
-0.2167864590883255,
-0.37312260270118713,
-0.5571760535240173,
0.3539464473724365,
-0.28781259059906006,
0.3925092816352844,
-0.08390437811613083,
0.31161198019981384,
-0.06840083003044128,
-0.01046163309365511,
0.45877188444137573,
-0.30351492762565613,
-0.05133967474102974,
0.42240476608276367,
0.3460310101509094,
-0.671933650970459,
0.29306715726852417,
0.257242888212204,
-0.11030363291501999,
0.06766577064990997,
-0.516676664352417,
-0.4332200288772583,
-0.2918098270893097,
0.5823608040809631,
-0.3081311583518982,
-0.6039446592330933,
-0.3182300627231598,
0.005843727383762598,
0.47231388092041016,
-0.10440307855606079,
-0.3110559582710266,
-0.5005514621734619,
0.6403453946113586,
-0.283125638961792,
-0.9892169833183289,
0.5280495882034302,
-0.2520756721496582,
-0.7694587111473083,
0.1102529913187027,
0.890518307685852,
-0.6124631762504578,
0.044790543615818024,
0.01661270298063755,
0.13594192266464233,
-0.8700641989707947,
-0.003912620712071657,
-0.22649769484996796,
-0.5867078900337219,
0.010548978112637997,
-0.10511618852615356,
-0.6406250596046448,
-0.5733293890953064,
0.6875582337379456,
0.2455667406320572,
0.7914638519287109,
-0.905924379825592,
-0.07690324634313583,
0.34555351734161377,
-0.049236539751291275,
-0.06683434545993805,
0.0916161984205246,
0.14467310905456543,
-0.17000265419483185,
-0.23303095996379852,
0.2991829216480255,
0.8798421025276184,
0.6130006909370422,
1.049454927444458,
0.5791585445404053,
-0.02687120996415615,
-0.22281034290790558,
0.2661837637424469,
0.12308748811483383,
-0.37710094451904297,
-0.9625391364097595,
-0.4260893762111664,
0.5397267937660217,
0.3674623370170593,
-0.3765076696872711,
0.22185231745243073,
0.7191974520683289,
-0.452702134847641,
-0.45157957077026367,
-0.3262334167957306,
0.16297771036624908,
0.5760500431060791,
0.415581077337265,
-0.23909011483192444,
-0.1820116937160492,
0.10519126057624817,
0.3513319492340088,
-0.4296184182167053,
-0.5893715023994446,
0.10345328599214554,
-0.06926177442073822,
-0.2511107921600342,
0.30879276990890503,
-0.08206649869680405,
0.32003259658813477,
-0.20005254447460175,
-0.14620138704776764,
0.12848782539367676,
-0.0013205033028498292,
-0.9970062971115112,
0.43648561835289,
0.46669623255729675,
-0.3731301426887512,
0.06830425560474396,
0.6848607659339905,
-0.16805900633335114,
-0.7194926738739014,
-0.11833279579877853,
-0.1307142674922943,
-0.49271970987319946,
-0.303925096988678,
-0.3011075258255005,
-0.5601537227630615,
-0.15579970180988312,
-0.4617234170436859,
-0.1141914427280426,
0.0901499018073082,
0.039523202925920486,
0.10779082030057907,
0.45746737718582153,
-0.04395826905965805,
0.18198633193969727,
-0.8584264516830444,
0.3361663222312927,
0.1032278761267662,
-0.5637794137001038,
-0.18840816617012024,
0.10736314952373505,
0.5414199829101562,
-0.46656662225723267,
-0.09273798018693924,
-0.3000504672527313,
0.5103724002838135,
-0.17484049499034882,
0.022933589294552803,
0.4657882750034332,
0.4979110062122345,
0.5479130744934082,
0.2320801019668579,
-0.26736029982566833,
0.33744579553604126,
0.667919933795929,
0.5707030892372131,
0.13104243576526642,
0.8712925314903259,
0.423486590385437,
-0.35021811723709106,
0.5804622173309326,
-0.6761676669120789,
0.001721951994113624,
0.3457140028476715,
0.4129663109779358,
0.7295562028884888,
0.5211302638053894,
-0.027648476883769035,
0.04477939382195473,
0.35734736919403076,
-0.4740356504917145,
0.10292930901050568,
-0.3111402988433838,
0.03838938847184181,
0.8889219760894775,
0.9343516230583191,
0.17102745175361633,
0.23577234148979187,
0.2534915506839752,
-0.026853162795305252,
0.4657365381717682,
-0.5628669857978821,
0.08826366066932678,
0.10537055879831314,
0.06842602789402008,
0.4481854736804962,
0.020661955699324608,
-0.0256172064691782,
-1.0148452520370483,
-0.11040811240673065,
0.2676551043987274,
0.037809040397405624,
0.1896473914384842,
-0.42385759949684143,
0.43914562463760376,
0.17604193091392517,
0.3866247832775116,
-0.46606945991516113,
-0.16185157001018524,
-1.424695372581482,
0.6661639213562012,
-0.4964355230331421,
-0.5727153420448303,
-0.27755409479141235,
0.18838250637054443,
0.2245197594165802,
0.06741330772638321,
-0.2967405319213867,
0.276245653629303,
0.0010000171605497599,
-0.31945744156837463,
0.2571142613887787,
0.3584572970867157,
0.1779763251543045,
-0.4038885831832886,
-1.06868314743042,
-0.07351547479629517,
0.29572591185569763,
-0.5019726157188416,
0.36350417137145996,
-0.45923081040382385,
-0.16012418270111084,
-0.641523003578186,
-0.40171074867248535,
-0.16272419691085815,
-0.3511107265949249,
-0.744228184223175,
-0.38844063878059387,
-0.40965309739112854,
-0.21157239377498627,
-1.1140776872634888,
0.6797692775726318,
0.7422866225242615,
0.011621621437370777,
-0.09843096882104874,
0.7454074621200562,
0.06865493953227997,
0.08819747716188431,
-0.05499274283647537,
0.381369411945343,
0.14038681983947754,
-0.5988026261329651,
0.06166107580065727,
-0.5098500847816467,
-0.06733676791191101,
0.6860582828521729,
0.01124446652829647,
-0.19386553764343262,
0.33841076493263245,
0.19305679202079773,
0.07454054802656174,
-0.0750785544514656,
0.4051893353462219,
-0.16883040964603424,
-0.7476261854171753,
0.021272199228405952,
-0.4616475999355316,
0.6924282908439636,
-0.4508756399154663,
0.48075786232948303,
0.05556619539856911,
0.6131775975227356,
0.246052086353302,
-1.1078228950500488,
0.9119729399681091,
-0.3796093463897705,
0.25892648100852966,
-0.6423047184944153,
-0.3156183660030365,
-0.5917015075683594,
-0.6248540282249451,
0.33884409070014954,
-0.18649838864803314,
-0.6600121259689331,
-0.3264748454093933,
-0.24730908870697021,
-0.16340091824531555,
0.47445499897003174,
0.11662361770868301,
-0.06393149495124817,
-0.08869148045778275,
-0.2282261848449707,
-0.7949710488319397,
-1.0148965120315552,
-0.18754759430885315,
0.14419032633304596,
0.0384829118847847,
0.2706364095211029,
-0.25044453144073486,
-0.4011397659778595,
-0.11419819295406342,
-0.01465309876948595,
-0.642719030380249,
-0.24414607882499695,
-0.3415355086326599
] |
247978 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adele%20ring | Adele ring | In mathematics, the adele ring of a global field (also adelic ring, ring of adeles or ring of adèles) is a central object of class field theory, a branch of algebraic number theory. It is the restricted product of all the completions of the global field, and is an example of a self-dual topological ring.
The ring of adeles allows one to elegantly describe the Artin reciprocity law, which is a vast generalization of quadratic reciprocity, and other reciprocity laws over finite fields. In addition, it is a classical theorem from Weil that -bundles on an algebraic curve over a finite field can be described in terms of adeles for a reductive group .
Definition
Let be a global field (a finite extension of or the function field of a curve X/Fq over a finite field). The adele ring of is the subring
consisting of the tuples where lies in the subring for all but finitely many places . Here the index ranges over all valuations of the global field , is the completion at that valuation and the valuation ring.
Motivation
The ring of adeles solves the technical problem of "doing" analysis on the rational numbers . The "classical" solution used by people before was to pass to the standard metric completion and use analytic techniques there. But, as was learned later on, there are many more absolute values other than the Euclidean distance, one for each prime number , as was classified by Ostrowski. Since the Euclidean absolute value, denoted , is only one among many others, , the ring of adeles makes it possible to have a compromise and use all of the valuations at once. This has the advantage of getting access to analytic techniques, while also retaining information about the primes since their structure is embedded by the restricted infinite product.
Why the restricted product?
The restricted infinite product is a required technical condition for giving the number field a lattice structure inside of , making it possible to build a theory of Fourier analysis in the adelic setting. This is entirely analogous to the situation in algebraic number theory where the ring of integers of an algebraic number field embedsas a lattice. With the power of a new theory of Fourier analysis, Tate was able to prove a special class of L-functions and the Dedekind zeta functions were meromorphic on the complex plane.
Another natural reason for why this technical condition holds can be seen directly by constructing the ring of adeles as a tensor product of rings. If we define the ring of integral adeles as the ringthen the ring of adeles can be equivalently defined asThe restricted product structure becomes transparent after looking at explicit elements in this ring. If we take a rational number we find . For any tuple we have the following series of equalitiesThen, for any we still have for , but for since there is an inverse power of . This shows any element in this new ring of adeles can have an element in at only finitely many places .
Origin of the name
In local class field theory, the group of units of the local field plays a central role. In global class field theory, the idele class group takes this role. The term "idele" () is an invention of the French mathematician Claude Chevalley (1909–1984) and stands for "ideal element" (abbreviated: id.el.). The term "adele" () stands for additive idele.
The idea of the adele ring is to look at all completions of at once. At first glance, the Cartesian product could be a good candidate. However, the adele ring is defined with the restricted product. There are two reasons for this:
For each element of the valuations are zero for almost all places, i.e., for all places except a finite number. So, the global field can be embedded in the restricted product.
The restricted product is a locally compact space, while the Cartesian product is not. Therefore, we can't apply harmonic analysis to the Cartesian product.
Examples
Ring of adeles for the rational numbers
The rationals K=Q have a valuation for every prime number p, with (Kν,Oν)=(Qp,Zp), and one infinite valuation ∞ with Q∞=R. Thus an element of
is a real number along with a p-adic rational for each p of which all but finitely many are p-adic integers.
Ring of adeles for the function field of the projective line
Secondly, take the function field K=Fq(P1)=Fq(t) of the projective line over a finite field. Its valuations correspond to points x of X=P1, i.e. maps over Spec Fq
For instance, there are q+1 points of the form SpecFq → P1. In this case Oν=ÔX,x is the completed stalk of the structure sheaf at x (i.e. functions on a formal neighbourhood of x) and Kν=KX,x is its fraction field. Thus
The same holds for any smooth proper curve X/Fq over a finite field, the restricted product being over all points of x∈X.
Related notions
The group of units in the adele ring is called the idele group
The quotient of the ideles by the subgroup K×⊆IK is called the idele class group
The integral adeles are the subring
Applications
Stating Artin reciprocity
The Artin reciprocity law says that for a global field K,
where Kab is the maximal abelian algebraic extension of K and means the profinite completion of the group.
Giving adelic formulation of picard group of a curve
If X/Fq is a smooth proper curve then its Picard group is
and its divisor group is Div(X)=AK×/OK×. Similarly, if G is a semisimple algebraic group (e.g. SLn, it also holds for GLn) then the Weil uniformisation says that
Applying this to G=Gm gives the result on the Picard group.
Tate's thesis
There is a topology on AK for which the quotient AK/K is compact, allowing one to do harmonic analysis on it. John Tate in his thesis "Fourier analysis in number fields and Heckes Zeta functions" proved results about Dirichlet L-functions using Fourier analysis on the adele ring and the idele group. Therefore, the adele ring and the idele group have been applied to study the Riemann zeta function and more general zeta functions and the L-functions.
Proving Serre duality on a smooth curve
If X is a smooth proper curve over the complex numbers, one can define the adeles of its function field C(X) exactly as the finite fields case. John Tate proved that Serre duality on X
can be deduced by working with this adele ring AC(X). Here L is a line bundle on X.
Notation and basic definitions
Global fields
Throughout this article, is a global field, meaning it is either a number field (a finite extension of ) or a global function field (a finite extension of for prime and ). By definition a finite extension of a global field is itself a global field.
Valuations
For a valuation of we write for the completion of with respect to If is discrete we write for the valuation ring of and for the maximal ideal of If this is a principal ideal we denote the uniformizing element by A non-Archimedean valuation is written as or and an Archimedean valuation as We assume all valuations to be non-trivial.
There is a one-to-one identification of valuations and absolute values. Fix a constant the valuation is assigned the absolute value defined as:
Conversely, the absolute value is assigned the valuation defined as:
A place of is a representative of an equivalence class of valuations (or absolute values) of Places corresponding to non-Archimedean valuations are called finite, whereas places corresponding to Archimedean valuations are called infinite. The set of infinite places of a global field is finite, we denote this set by
Define and let be its group of units. Then
Finite extensions
Let be a finite extension of the global field Let be a place of and a place of We say lies above denoted by if the absolute value restricted to is in the equivalence class of Define
Note that both products are finite.
If we can embed in Therefore, we can embed diagonally in With this embedding is a commutative algebra over with degree
The adele ring
The set of finite adeles of a global field denoted is defined as the restricted product of with respect to the
It is equipped with the restricted product topology, the topology generated by restricted open rectangles, which have the following form:
where is a finite set of (finite) places and are open. With component-wise addition and multiplication is also a ring.
The adele ring of a global field is defined as the product of with the product of the completions of at its infinite places. The number of infinite places is finite and the completions are either or In short:
With addition and multiplication defined as component-wise the adele ring is a ring. The elements of the adele ring are called adeles of In the following, we write
although this is generally not a restricted product.
Remark. Global function fields do not have any infinite places and therefore the finite adele ring equals the adele ring.
Lemma. There is a natural embedding of into given by the diagonal map:
Proof. If then for almost all This shows the map is well-defined. It is also injective because the embedding of in is injective for all
Remark. By identifying with its image under the diagonal map we regard it as a subring of The elements of are called the principal adeles of
Definition. Let be a set of places of Define the set of the -adeles of as
Furthermore if we define
we have:
The adele ring of rationals
By Ostrowski's theorem the places of are where we identify a prime with the equivalence class of the -adic absolute value and with the equivalence class of the absolute value defined as:
The completion of with respect to the place is with valuation ring For the place the completion is Thus:
Or for short
We will illustrate the difference between restricted and unrestricted product topology using a sequence in :
Lemma. Consider the following sequence in :
In product topology it converges to It doesn't converge in restricted product topology.
Proof. In product topology convergence corresponds to the convergence in each coordinate, which is trivial because the sequences become stationary. The sequence doesn't converge in restricted product topology, for each adele and for each restricted open rectangle we have: for and therefore for all As a result for almost all In this consideration, and are finite subsets of the set of all places.
Alternative definition for number fields
Definition (profinite integers). We define profinite integers as the profinite completion of the rings with the partial order i.e.,
Lemma.
Proof. This follows from Chinese Remainder Theorem.
Lemma.
Proof. We will use the universal property of the tensor product. Define a -bilinear function
This is well-defined because for a given with co-prime there are only finitely many primes dividing Let be another -module with a -bilinear map We have to show factors through uniquely, i.e., there exists a unique -linear map such that We define as follows: for a given there exist and such that for all Define One can show is well-defined, -linear, satisfies and is unique with these properties.
Corollary. Define Then we have an algebraic isomorphism
Proof.
Lemma. For a number field
Remark. Using where there are summands, we give the right side the product topology and transport this topology via the isomorphism onto
The adele ring of a finite extension
If be a finite extension then is a global field and thus is defined and We claim can be identified with a subgroup of Map to where for Then is in the subgroup if for and for all lying above the same place of
Lemma. If is a finite extension then both algebraically and topologically.
With the help of this isomorphism, the inclusion is given by
Furthermore, the principal adeles in can be identified with a subgroup of principal adeles in via the map
Proof. Let be a basis of over Then for almost all
Furthermore, there are the following isomorphisms:
For the second we used the map:
in which is the canonical embedding and We take on both sides the restricted product with respect to
Corollary. As additive groups where the right side has summands.
The set of principal adeles in is identified with the set where the left side has summands and we consider as a subset of
The adele ring of vector-spaces and algebras
Lemma. Suppose is a finite set of places of and define
Equip with the product topology and define addition and multiplication component-wise. Then is a locally compact topological ring.
Remark. If is another finite set of places of containing then is an open subring of
Now, we are able to give an alternative characterization of the adele ring. The adele ring is the union of all sets :
Equivalently is the set of all so that for almost all The topology of is induced by the requirement that all be open subrings of Thus, is a locally compact topological ring.
Fix a place of Let be a finite set of places of containing and Define
Then:
Furthermore, define
where runs through all finite sets containing Then:
via the map The entire procedure above holds with a finite subset instead of
By construction of there is a natural embedding: Furthermore, there exists a natural projection
The adele ring of a vector-space
Let be a finite dimensional vector-space over and a basis for over For each place of we write:
We define the adele ring of as
This definition is based on the alternative description of the adele ring as a tensor product equipped with the same topology we defined when giving an alternate definition of adele ring for number fields. We equip with the restricted product topology. Then and we can embed in naturally via the map
We give an alternative definition of the topology on Consider all linear maps: Using the natural embeddings and extend these linear maps to: The topology on is the coarsest topology for which all these extensions are continuous.
We can define the topology in a different way. Fixing a basis for over results in an isomorphism Therefore fixing a basis induces an isomorphism We supply the left hand side with the product topology and transport this topology with the isomorphism onto the right hand side. The topology doesn't depend on the choice of the basis, because another basis defines a second isomorphism. By composing both isomorphisms, we obtain a linear homeomorphism which transfers the two topologies into each other. More formally
where the sums have summands. In case of the definition above is consistent with the results about the adele ring of a finite extension
The adele ring of an algebra
Let be a finite-dimensional algebra over In particular, is a finite-dimensional vector-space over As a consequence, is defined and Since we have a multiplication on and we can define a multiplication on via:
As a consequence, is an algebra with a unit over Let be a finite subset of containing a basis for over For any finite place we define as the -module generated by in For each finite set of places, we define
One can show there is a finite set so that is an open subring of if Furthermore is the union of all these subrings and for the definition above is consistent with the definition of the adele ring.
Trace and norm on the adele ring
Let be a finite extension. Since and from Lemma above we can interpret as a closed subring of We write for this embedding. Explicitly for all places of above and for any
Let be a tower of global fields. Then:
Furthermore, restricted to the principal adeles is the natural injection
Let be a basis of the field extension Then each can be written as where are unique. The map is continuous. We define depending on via the equations:
Now, we define the trace and norm of as:
These are the trace and the determinant of the linear map
They are continuous maps on the adele ring and they fulfil the usual equations:
Furthermore, for and are identical to the trace and norm of the field extension For a tower of fields we have:
Moreover, it can be proven that:
Properties of the adele ring
Theorem. For every set of places is a locally compact topological ring.
Remark. The result above also holds for the adele ring of vector-spaces and algebras over
Theorem. is discrete and cocompact in In particular, is closed in
Proof. We prove the case To show is discrete it is sufficient to show the existence of a neighbourhood of which contains no other rational number. The general case follows via translation. Define
is an open neighbourhood of We claim Let then and for all and therefore Additionally, we have and therefore Next, we show compactness, define:
We show each element in has a representative in that is for each there exists such that Let be arbitrary and be a prime for which Then there exists with and Replace with and let be another prime. Then:
Next we claim:
The reverse implication is trivially true. The implication is true, because the two terms of the strong triangle inequality are equal if the absolute values of both integers are different. As a consequence, the (finite) set of primes for which the components of are not in is reduced by 1. With iteration, we deduce there exists such that Now we select such that Then The continuous projection is surjective, therefore as the continuous image of a compact set, is compact.
Corollary. Let be a finite-dimensional vector-space over Then is discrete and cocompact in
Theorem. We have the following:
is a divisible group.
is dense.
Proof. The first two equations can be proved in an elementary way.
By definition is divisible if for any and the equation has a solution It is sufficient to show is divisible but this is true since is a field with positive characteristic in each coordinate.
For the last statement note that as we can reach the finite number of denominators in the coordinates of the elements of through an element As a consequence, it is sufficient to show is dense, that is each open subset contains an element of Without loss of generality, we can assume
because is a neighbourhood system of in By Chinese Remainder Theorem there exists such that Since powers of distinct primes are coprime, follows.
Remark. is not uniquely divisible. Let and be given. Then
both satisfy the equation and clearly ( is well-defined, because only finitely many primes divide ). In this case, being uniquely divisible is equivalent to being torsion-free, which is not true for since but and
Remark. The fourth statement is a special case of the strong approximation theorem.
Haar measure on the adele ring
Definition. A function is called simple if where are measurable and for almost all
Theorem. Since is a locally compact group with addition, there is an additive Haar measure on This measure can be normalized such that every integrable simple function satisfies:
where for is the measure on such that has unit measure and is the Lebesgue measure. The product is finite, i.e. almost all factors are equal to one.
The idele group
Definition. We define the idele group of as the group of units of the adele ring of that is The elements of the idele group are called the ideles of
Remark. We would like to equip with a topology so that it becomes a topological group. The subset topology inherited from is not a suitable candidate since the group of units of a topological ring equipped with subset topology may not be a topological group. For example the inverse map in is not continuous. The sequence
converges to To see this let be neighbourhood of without loss of generality we can assume:
Since for all for large enough. However as we saw above the inverse of this sequence does not converge in
Lemma. Let be a topological ring. Define:
Equipped with the topology induced from the product on topology on and is a topological group and the inclusion map is continuous. It is the coarsest topology, emerging from the topology on that makes a topological group.
Proof. Since is a topological ring, it is sufficient to show that the inverse map is continuous. Let be open, then is open. We have to show is open or equivalently, that is open. But this is the condition above.
We equip the idele group with the topology defined in the Lemma making it a topological group.
Definition. For a subset of places of set:
Lemma. The following identities of topological groups hold:
where the restricted product has the restricted product topology, which is generated by restricted open rectangles of the form
where is a finite subset of the set of all places and are open sets.
Proof. We prove the identity for the other two follow similarly. First we show the two sets are equal:
In going from line 2 to 3, as well as have to be in meaning for almost all and for almost all Therefore, for almost all
Now, we can show the topology on the left hand side equals the topology on the right hand side. Obviously, every open restricted rectangle is open in the topology of the idele group. On the other hand, for a given which is open in the topology of the idele group, meaning is open, so for each there exists an open restricted rectangle, which is a subset of and contains Therefore, is the union of all these restricted open rectangles and therefore is open in the restricted product topology.
Lemma. For each set of places, is a locally compact topological group.
Proof. The local compactness follows from the description of as a restricted product. It being a topological group follows from the above discussion on the group of units of a topological ring.
A neighbourhood system of is a neighbourhood system of Alternatively, we can take all sets of the form:
where is a neighbourhood of and for almost all
Since the idele group is a locally compact, there exists a Haar measure on it. This can be normalised, so that
This is the normalisation used for the finite places. In this equations, is the finite idele group, meaning the group of units of the finite adele ring. For the infinite places, we use the multiplicative lebesgue measure
The idele group of a finite extension
Lemma. Let be a finite extension. Then:
where the restricted product is with respect to
Lemma. There is a canonical embedding of in
Proof. We map to with the property for Therefore, can be seen as a subgroup of An element is in this subgroup if and only if his components satisfy the following properties: for and for and for the same place of
The case of vector-spaces and algebras
The idele group of an algebra
Let be a finite-dimensional algebra over Since is not a topological group with the subset-topology in general, we equip with the topology similar to above and call the idele group. The elements of the idele group are called idele of
Proposition. Let be a finite subset of containing a basis of over For each finite place of let be the -module generated by in There exists a finite set of places containing such that for all is a compact subring of Furthermore, contains For each is an open subset of and the map is continuous on As a consequence maps homeomorphically on its image in For each the are the elements of mapping in with the function above. Therefore, is an open and compact subgroup of
Alternative characterisation of the idele group
Proposition. Let be a finite set of places. Then
is an open subgroup of where is the union of all
Corollary. In the special case of for each finite set of places
is an open subgroup of Furthermore, is the union of all
Norm on the idele group
We want to transfer the trace and the norm from the adele ring to the idele group. It turns out the trace can't be transferred so easily. However, it is possible to transfer the norm from the adele ring to the idele group. Let Then and therefore, we have in injective group homomorphism
Since it is invertible, is invertible too, because Therefore As a consequence, the restriction of the norm-function introduces a continuous function:
The Idele class group
Lemma. There is natural embedding of into given by the diagonal map:
Proof. Since is a subset of for all the embedding is well-defined and injective.
Corollary. is a discrete subgroup of
Defenition. In analogy to the ideal class group, the elements of in are called principal ideles of The quotient group is called idele class group of This group is related to the ideal class group and is a central object in class field theory.
Remark. is closed in therefore is a locally compact topological group and a Hausdorff space.
Lemma. Let be a finite extension. The embedding induces an injective map:
Properties of the idele group
Absolute value on and -idele
Definition. For define: Since is an idele this product is finite and therefore well-defined.
Remark. The definition can be extended to by allowing infinite products. However these infinite products vanish and so vanishes on We will use to denote both the function on and
Theorem. is a continuous group homomorphism.
Proof. Let
where we use that all products are finite. The map is continuous which can be seen using an argument dealing with sequences. This reduces the problem to whether is continuous on However, this is clear, because of the reverse triangle inequality.
Definition. We define the set of -idele as:
is a subgroup of Since it is a closed subset of Finally the -topology on equals the subset-topology of on
Artin's Product Formula. for all
Proof. We prove the formula for number fields, the case of global function fields can be proved similarly. Let be a number field and We have to show:
For a finite place for which the corresponding prime ideal does not divide we have and therefore This is valid for almost all We have:
In going from line 1 to line 2, we used the identity where is a place of and is a place of lying above Going from line 2 to line 3, we use a property of the norm. We note the norm is in so without loss of generality we can assume Then possesses a unique integer factorisation:
where is for almost all By Ostrowski's theorem all absolute values on are equivalent to the real absolute value or a -adic absolute value. Therefore:
Lemma. There exists a constant depending only on such that for every satisfying there exists such that for all
Corollary. Let be a place of and let be given for all with the property for almost all Then there exists so that for all
Proof. Let be the constant from the lemma. Let be a uniformizing element of Define the adele via with minimal, so that for all Then for almost all Define with so that This works, because for almost all By the Lemma there exists so that for all
Theorem. is discrete and cocompact in
Proof. Since is discrete in it is also discrete in To prove the compactness of let is the constant of the Lemma and suppose satisfying is given. Define:
Clearly is compact. We claim the natural projection is surjective. Let be arbitrary, then:
and therefore
It follows that
By the Lemma there exists such that for all and therefore proving the surjectivity of the natural projection. Since it is also continuous the compactness follows.
Theorem. There is a canonical isomorphism Furthermore, is a set of representatives for and is a set of representatives for
Proof. Consider the map
This map is well-defined, since for all and therefore Obviously is a continuous group homomorphism. Now suppose Then there exists such that By considering the infinite place we see proving injectivity. To show surjectivity let The absolute value of this element is and therefore
Hence and we have:
Since
we conclude is surjective.
Theorem. The absolute value function induces the following isomorphisms of topological groups:
Proof. The isomorphisms are given by:
Relation between ideal class group and idele class group
Theorem. Let be a number field with ring of integers group of fractional ideals and ideal class group We have the following isomorphisms
where we have defined
Proof. Let be a finite place of and let be a representative of the equivalence class Define
Then is a prime ideal in The map is a bijection between finite places of and non-zero prime ideals of The inverse is given as follows: a prime ideal is mapped to the valuation given by
The following map is well-defined:
The map is obviously a surjective homomorphism and The first isomorphism follows from fundamental theorem on homomorphism. Now, we divide both sides by This is possible, because
Please, note the abuse of notation: On the left hand side in line 1 of this chain of equations, stands for the map defined above. Later, we use the embedding of into In line 2, we use the definition of the map. Finally, we use
that is a Dedekind domain and therefore each ideal can be written as a product of prime ideals. In other words, the map is a -equivariant group homomorphism. As a consequence, the map above induces a surjective homomorphism
To prove the second isomorphism we have to show Consider Then because for all On the other hand, consider with which allows to write As a consequence, there exists a representative, such that: Consequently, and therefore We have proved the second isomorphism of the theorem.
For the last isomorphism note that induces a surjective group homomorphism with
Remark. Consider with the idele topology and equip with the discrete topology. Since is open for each is continuous. It stands, that is open, where so that
Decomposition of and
Theorem.
Proof. For each place of so that for all belongs to the subgroup of generated by Therefore for each is in the subgroup of generated by Therefore the image of the homomorphism is a discrete subgroup of generated by Since this group is non-trivial, it is generated by for some Choose so that then is the direct product of and the subgroup generated by This subgroup is discrete and isomorphic to
For define:
The map is an isomorphism of in a closed subgroup of and The isomorphism is given by multiplication:
Obviously, is a homomorphism. To show it is injective, let Since for it stands that for Moreover, it exists a so that for Therefore, for Moreover implies where is the number of infinite places of As a consequence and therefore is injective. To show surjectivity, let We define and furthermore, we define for and for Define It stands, that Therefore, is surjective.
The other equations follow similarly.
Characterisation of the idele group
Theorem. Let be a number field. There exists a finite set of places such that:
Proof. The class number of a number field is finite so let be the ideals, representing the classes in These ideals are generated by a finite number of prime ideals Let be a finite set of places containing and the finite places corresponding to Consider the isomorphism:
induced by
At infinite places the statement is obvious so we prove the statement for finite places. The inclusion ″″ is obvious. Let The corresponding ideal belongs to a class meaning for a principal ideal The idele maps to the ideal under the map That means Since the prime ideals in are in it follows for all that means for all It follows, that therefore
Applications
Finiteness of the class number of a number field
In the previous section we used the fact that the class number of a number field is finite. Here we would like to prove this statement:
Theorem (finiteness of the class number of a number field). Let be a number field. Then
Proof. The map
is surjective and therefore is the continuous image of the compact set Thus, is compact. In addition it is discrete and so finite.
Remark. There is a similar result for the case of a global function field. In this case, the so-called divisor group is defined. It can be shown, that the quotient of the set of all divisors of degree by the set of the principal divisors is a finite group.
Group of units and Dirichlet's unit theorem
Let be a finite set of places. Define
Then is a subgroup of containing all elements satisfying for all Since is discrete in is a discrete subgroup of and with the same argument, is discrete in
An alternative definition is: where is a subring of defined by
As a consequence, contains all elements which fulfil for all
Lemma 1. Let The following set is finite:
Proof. Define
is compact and the set described above is the intersection of with the discrete subgroup in and therefore finite.
Lemma 2. Let be set of all such that for all Then the group of all roots of unity of In particular it is finite and cyclic.
Proof. All roots of unity of have absolute value so For converse note that Lemma 1 with and any implies is finite. Moreover for each finite set of places Finally Suppose there exists which is not a root of unity of Then for all contradicting the finiteness of
Unit Theorem. is the direct product of and a group isomorphic to where if and if
Dirichlet's Unit Theorem. Let be a number field. Then where is the finite cyclic group of all roots of unity of is the number of real embeddings of and is the number of conjugate pairs of complex embeddings of It stands, that
Remark. The Unit Theorem is a generalisation of Dirichlet's Unit Theorem. To see this let be a number field. We already know that set and note Then we have:
Approximation theorems
Weak Approximation Theorem. Let be inequivalent valuations of Let be the completion of with respect to Embed diagonally in Then is everywhere dense in In other words, for each and for each there exists such that:
Strong Approximation Theorem. Let be a place of Define
Then is dense in
Remark. The global field is discrete in its adele ring. The strong approximation theorem tells us that, if we omit one place (or more), the property of discreteness of is turned into a denseness of
Hasse principle
Hasse-Minkowski Theorem. A quadratic form on is zero, if and only if, the quadratic form is zero in each completion
Remark. This is the Hasse principle for quadratic forms. For polynomials of degree larger than 2 the Hasse principle isn't valid in general. The idea of the Hasse principle (also known as local–global principle) is to solve a given problem of a number field by doing so in its completions and then concluding on a solution in
Characters on the adele ring
Definition. Let be a locally compact abelian group. The character group of is the set of all characters of and is denoted by Equivalently is the set of all continuous group homomorphisms from to We equip with the topology of uniform convergence on compact subsets of One can show that is also a locally compact abelian group.
Theorem. The adele ring is self-dual:
Proof. By reduction to local coordinates it is sufficient to show each is self-dual. This can done by using a fixed character of We illustrate this idea by showing is self-dual. Define:
Then the following map is an isomorphism which respects topologies:
Theorem (algebraic and continuous duals of the adele ring). Let be a non-trivial character of which is trivial on Let be a finite-dimensional vector-space over Let and be the algebraic duals of and Denote the topological dual of by and use and to indicate the natural bilinear pairings on and Then the formula for all determines an isomorphism of onto where and Moreover, if fulfils for all then
Tate's thesis
With the help of the characters of we can do Fourier analysis on the adele ring. John Tate in his thesis "Fourier analysis in number fields and Heckes Zeta functions" proved results about Dirichlet L-functions using Fourier analysis on the adele ring and the idele group. Therefore, the adele ring and the idele group have been applied to study the Riemann zeta function and more general zeta functions and the L-functions. We can define adelic forms of these functions and we can represent them as integrals over the adele ring or the idele group, with respect to corresponding Haar measures. We can show functional equations and meromorphic continuations of these functions. For example, for all with
where is the unique Haar measure on normalized such that has volume one and is extended by zero to the finite adele ring. As a result the Riemann zeta function can be written as an integral over (a subset of) the adele ring.
Automorphic forms
The theory of automorphic forms is a generalization of Tate's thesis by replacing the idele group with analogous higher dimensional groups. To see this note:
Based on these identification a natural generalization would be to replace the idele group and the 1-idele with:
And finally
where is the centre of Then we define an automorphic form as an element of In other words an automorphic form is a functions on satisfying certain algebraic and analytic conditions. For studying automorphic forms, it is important to know the representations of the group It is also possible to study automorphic L-functions, which can be described as integrals over
We could generalize even further by replacing with a number field and with an arbitrary reductive algebraic group.
Further applications
A generalisation of Artin reciprocity law leads to the connection of representations of and of Galois representations of (Langlands program).
The idele class group is a key object of class field theory, which describes abelian extensions of the field. The product of the local reciprocity maps in local class field theory gives a homomorphism of the idele group to the Galois group of the maximal abelian extension of the global field. The Artin reciprocity law, which is a high level generalisation of the Gauss quadratic reciprocity law, states that the product vanishes on the multiplicative group of the number field. Thus, we obtain the global reciprocity map of the idele class group to the abelian part of the absolute Galois group of the field.
The self-duality of the adele ring of the function field of a curve over a finite field easily implies the Riemann–Roch theorem and the duality theory for the curve.
Notes
What problem do the adeles solve?
Some good books on adeles
References
Sources
366 pages.
595 pages.
294 pages.
250 pages.
Algebraic number theory
Topological algebra | [
0.04976486787199974,
-0.14122594892978668,
-0.2683030068874359,
-0.03310661017894745,
-0.4111810624599457,
0.02815878950059414,
-0.38051891326904297,
-0.20108476281166077,
0.24086152017116547,
-0.4318642318248749,
-0.3751230239868164,
0.26688599586486816,
-0.4005788564682007,
0.16453686356544495,
0.030981210991740227,
0.4931451976299286,
0.3040420413017273,
0.6555019021034241,
-0.43131062388420105,
-0.4600658416748047,
0.13243651390075684,
0.10857248306274414,
0.03697976469993591,
0.4968140721321106,
0.5295707583427429,
-0.13284489512443542,
0.22963091731071472,
0.20194366574287415,
0.4700435400009155,
0.3288693428039551,
0.06697671115398407,
0.4033001959323883,
0.32450899481773376,
-0.0019336174009367824,
-0.093115895986557,
-0.2916245460510254,
0.02377166785299778,
-0.5273388624191284,
-0.3776032328605652,
-0.11476868391036987,
-0.0723380595445633,
-0.09331800788640976,
0.13414183259010315,
0.315866082906723,
-0.5588858723640442,
-0.297982394695282,
-1.7295019626617432,
0.138233944773674,
-0.3057993948459625,
0.04127710685133934,
-0.48061344027519226,
-0.5679646730422974,
0.4172073304653168,
0.38861605525016785,
0.11009060591459274,
0.3928941488265991,
-0.7297526597976685,
-0.5883257985115051,
0.537909984588623,
-0.46582719683647156,
0.395053893327713,
0.18004736304283142,
0.3861136734485626,
0.07209770381450653,
0.37261348962783813,
1.1400840282440186,
-0.4936022162437439,
-0.12988317012786865,
-0.8240328431129456,
-0.6067589521408081,
0.12180633097887039,
-0.5347541570663452,
-0.2694631814956665,
0.3854238986968994,
-0.22373759746551514,
-0.23503679037094116,
-0.185560405254364,
-0.34476879239082336,
0.049047648906707764,
0.23742015659809113,
-0.7721803188323975,
0.34992367029190063,
0.37975654006004333,
-0.48278072476387024,
0.3584672808647156,
-0.1278606504201889,
-0.9142282009124756,
0.7258657813072205,
-0.819765567779541,
-0.07580336183309555,
0.6881758570671082,
0.00024135869171004742,
0.7636550664901733,
0.05140017718076706,
0.12593722343444824,
0.48027369379997253,
0.29600510001182556,
-0.5031394362449646,
-0.014738207682967186,
0.2577514052391052,
-0.19538827240467072,
-0.10981716960668564,
-0.033146098256111145,
-0.9196781516075134,
-0.9023259878158569,
-0.14048241078853607,
-0.10245408117771149,
0.05894898623228073,
0.23198644816875458,
0.2546255886554718,
-0.6501713991165161,
0.47025758028030396,
-0.14866814017295837,
-0.11704502254724503,
-0.2487812340259552,
-0.17727304995059967,
0.14356225728988647,
0.6894896030426025,
-0.1297502964735031,
0.006199957802891731,
-0.047819290310144424,
0.5560498237609863,
0.09263699501752853,
0.6296000480651855,
-0.4991711378097534,
-0.030742082744836807,
-0.45774227380752563,
0.8454974889755249,
-0.6444180011749268,
0.06068993732333183,
0.1333315223455429,
0.1454409509897232,
0.4662562310695648,
0.34665822982788086,
0.07161103934049606,
-0.6840950846672058,
-0.6812544465065002,
-0.26434287428855896,
0.6765375137329102,
-0.16332970559597015,
-0.9946944117546082,
-0.6453384757041931,
-0.28937554359436035,
-0.2559919059276581,
0.1427890658378601,
-0.7196446061134338,
-0.005190742667764425,
-0.046790242195129395,
0.3293333649635315,
-0.1345774233341217,
-0.20249779522418976,
0.180205836892128,
-0.8559018969535828,
-0.20294936001300812,
-0.05069580301642418,
0.29313036799430847,
0.4982101321220398,
0.26492443680763245,
-0.0031244184356182814,
0.1458893120288849,
0.06273103505373001,
-0.3238227069377899,
-0.00826314277946949,
-0.1586579829454422,
0.8462832570075989,
-0.8211936354637146,
0.9392738342285156,
0.4971628785133362,
0.2566697895526886,
0.37772560119628906,
-0.6083719730377197,
-0.49304667115211487,
0.3982856273651123,
0.016261298209428787,
-0.43759918212890625,
-0.16481433808803558,
0.209222212433815,
-0.6324614882469177,
0.42498600482940674,
-0.10915136337280273,
-1.0842673778533936,
0.07504361867904663,
0.33047667145729065,
-0.1058313250541687,
0.24802741408348083,
0.24328182637691498,
-0.09296277910470963,
0.27109065651893616,
0.2095692902803421,
0.07089818269014359,
-0.28664085268974304,
-0.19420164823532104,
-0.08140027523040771,
-0.559367299079895,
0.8155707716941833,
0.022897550836205482,
-0.5364315509796143,
0.33141741156578064,
-0.6026830077171326,
0.06095755845308304,
0.19173045456409454,
-0.4646182358264923,
0.2483983188867569,
-0.15234608948230743,
-0.08633318543434143,
0.25336527824401855,
-0.29842960834503174,
0.03770788013935089,
-0.38782286643981934,
0.47638073563575745,
0.2661655843257904,
-0.0255254078656435,
0.9502521753311157,
-0.4447338581085205,
0.07062819600105286,
0.23175695538520813,
-0.796496570110321,
0.533861517906189,
-0.10521530359983444,
-0.21448908746242523,
1.031351089477539,
-0.024018721655011177,
-0.6407104134559631,
0.5514464378356934,
-0.40120550990104675,
0.8529179692268372,
0.7627198100090027,
0.554815411567688,
0.5535919070243835,
-0.1849493384361267,
0.3420614004135132,
-0.23425208032131195,
0.056764304637908936,
-0.309807151556015,
0.16071760654449463,
0.703734815120697,
0.5223454236984253,
-0.265512079000473,
0.5265821218490601,
-0.7604407668113708,
0.3177843391895294,
0.2755904793739319,
-0.8621746301651001,
-0.26593902707099915,
0.7502303719520569,
-0.15464185178279877,
-0.7177257537841797,
-0.17294976115226746,
-0.18481577932834625,
-0.0935259535908699,
-0.2576978802680969,
-0.3799316883087158,
0.44222360849380493,
-0.47165676951408386,
0.21190480887889862,
-0.07231108844280243,
-0.28914421796798706,
0.4835391044616699,
0.9249106645584106,
0.27487170696258545,
-0.04573463276028633,
-0.15272071957588196,
0.03351907804608345,
-0.1396113783121109,
0.25096386671066284,
0.31323739886283875,
-0.40905338525772095,
-0.07775679230690002,
0.8499504327774048,
0.06448251754045486,
0.43064427375793457,
-0.43748027086257935,
-0.6050155758857727,
-0.28994622826576233,
-1.0928846597671509,
-0.7001014947891235,
-0.23506054282188416,
-0.14917118847370148,
-0.9535502195358276,
-0.39754724502563477,
-0.05442335456609726,
0.34543073177337646,
0.2616881728172302,
-0.44561517238616943,
-0.3853382170200348,
-0.41577833890914917,
-0.13586536049842834,
-0.9023894667625427,
-0.1654701828956604,
0.07877044379711151,
-0.45465975999832153,
0.38218623399734497,
-0.4384227991104126,
0.1047046110033989,
0.8549944162368774,
0.39917248487472534,
-0.21178323030471802,
-0.3914857804775238,
-0.2340526431798935,
-0.7744720578193665,
-0.6133032441139221,
0.2896767854690552,
-0.44118544459342957,
0.16723312437534332,
-0.15877342224121094,
0.4470501244068146,
-0.2552748918533325,
0.6180775761604309,
-5.346813201904297,
0.38527432084083557,
-0.33073878288269043,
0.1732116937637329,
-0.6963251233100891,
0.3310445249080658,
0.18278774619102478,
0.3029473125934601,
0.07542140781879425,
-0.19609077274799347,
0.09630261361598969,
-0.7364996075630188,
-0.4502602815628052,
0.9183817505836487,
0.12453267723321915,
0.5637355446815491,
0.3597923815250397,
0.15081724524497986,
-0.06184040755033493,
0.5251126885414124,
-0.1657012552022934,
-0.17431175708770752,
-0.1299733966588974,
0.5102584958076477,
0.17648158967494965,
0.11024673283100128,
0.1702621430158615,
0.03938228636980057,
-0.1644122451543808,
-0.32998570799827576,
-0.028913725167512894,
-0.14229489862918854,
0.15676496922969818,
-0.33069857954978943,
-0.09735145419836044,
0.4235248565673828,
0.6223045587539673,
-0.46297693252563477,
0.10381649434566498,
-0.6670383214950562,
-0.007634312845766544,
0.8166540861129761,
0.04284738749265671,
0.06465069204568863,
0.3782118856906891,
-0.5364034175872803,
-0.4104171395301819,
-0.13441386818885803,
-0.5507316589355469,
0.667199969291687,
-0.3390507996082306,
0.23211392760276794,
-0.023753050714731216,
0.008671070449054241,
0.08819519728422165,
0.6220216751098633,
0.15878115594387054,
-0.4617055058479309,
-0.48161619901657104,
0.5185766816139221,
0.18275675177574158,
-0.37966781854629517,
0.7386218905448914,
0.06146712601184845,
-0.426720529794693,
0.40324312448501587,
-0.8482337594032288,
-0.46172061562538147,
0.3120029866695404,
0.1046278327703476,
-0.350310355424881,
0.3798562288284302,
0.021185170859098434,
-0.6315529942512512,
-0.16870073974132538,
-0.27064958214759827,
0.0807018056511879,
0.18961794674396515,
0.030482321977615356,
0.06689921021461487,
-0.2651403248310089,
0.056666649878025055,
-0.5243827104568481,
0.551719605922699,
-0.0029361427295953035,
-0.017237642779946327,
-0.22668646275997162,
-0.16903482377529144,
-0.12721437215805054,
0.4168612062931061,
0.5521592497825623,
0.332714706659317,
0.6465463638305664,
0.2492353916168213,
0.7944889664649963,
0.2661581039428711,
0.41902196407318115,
0.14139950275421143,
0.7910459637641907,
-0.450592041015625,
0.5080966949462891,
0.08783447742462158,
0.03253700211644173,
-0.001959502464160323,
0.37699875235557556,
-0.4595268964767456,
-0.4711482524871826,
0.9322232007980347,
0.7514359951019287,
-0.5433357954025269,
-0.13040125370025635,
-0.14866891503334045,
-0.5577733516693115,
-0.9872605204582214,
0.7741084694862366,
-0.007213151548057795,
-0.31003910303115845,
0.7343364357948303,
1.021144986152649,
-0.4895104765892029,
-0.5180851817131042,
0.7492513060569763,
0.010534078814089298,
-0.1453995406627655,
-0.3663182556629181,
-0.27930113673210144,
0.04413282498717308,
0.30035459995269775,
-0.47605401277542114,
-0.3265836238861084,
-0.14277124404907227,
0.621562123298645,
-0.41319137811660767,
-0.18539081513881683,
-0.02181878872215748,
-0.35923317074775696,
-0.12036362290382385,
-0.2481037676334381,
-0.5537204146385193,
-0.5451162457466125,
0.7963563799858093,
-0.129485085606575,
-0.06357089430093765,
0.006099666003137827,
0.8445813655853271,
0.008913959376513958,
-0.3319615423679352,
-0.32007867097854614,
-0.35276341438293457,
0.11195258796215057,
0.16714169085025787,
-0.22213782370090485,
1.0868555307388306,
-0.7176543474197388,
0.04369748756289482,
0.4673026204109192,
0.3025025427341461,
0.36946040391921997,
0.3191896080970764,
-0.6547801494598389,
0.6665462255477905,
0.1503753811120987,
-0.5356723070144653,
0.0026796753518283367,
-0.2865075469017029,
0.057945284992456436,
-0.8424938321113586,
-0.2596179246902466,
-0.4141087234020233,
-0.04950670897960663,
0.22670075297355652,
-0.1593269407749176,
-0.168221116065979,
-0.6948518753051758,
0.12315332144498825,
0.037092480808496475,
0.17983490228652954,
0.28659477829933167,
0.04212741553783417,
-0.1199898049235344,
0.10795223712921143,
-0.6875686049461365,
-0.5172045826911926,
0.7415899634361267,
1.237426996231079,
0.7624836564064026,
-0.22661824524402618,
0.6515021324157715,
-0.8942248225212097,
-0.13273264467716217,
0.3451649844646454,
-0.3937309682369232,
-0.35377630591392517,
-0.1367812305688858,
0.032537925988435745,
-0.3561168611049652,
0.7055245637893677,
0.11873121559619904,
-0.3568032383918762,
-0.4794933795928955,
-0.47220927476882935,
0.12465480715036392,
-0.9032474756240845,
0.3416195213794708,
0.16622397303581238,
-0.5549430251121521,
0.14485682547092438,
-0.3860597312450409,
-0.434573769569397,
0.7747753262519836,
-0.5382587909698486,
-0.36363863945007324,
0.2626821994781494,
-0.6739843487739563,
-0.03693028539419174,
1.078072190284729,
-0.04977520927786827,
-0.3463970124721527,
-0.24653814733028412,
-0.27327629923820496,
0.24973656237125397,
-0.4282234311103821,
0.6235529184341431,
0.18137049674987793,
-0.008376860991120338,
0.32801562547683716,
0.14019334316253662,
-0.5281973481178284,
-0.11059694737195969,
0.1984281688928604,
0.02236807718873024,
0.14663659036159515,
-0.12276655435562134,
0.08934249728918076,
-0.07118009030818939,
-0.8462221026420593,
-0.1390136033296585,
0.7314897775650024,
0.037767767906188965,
0.18847836554050446,
0.5885152816772461,
0.23680594563484192,
-0.21654412150382996,
0.013676988892257214,
0.46908730268478394,
0.5181064605712891,
-0.18286259472370148,
-0.6221284866333008,
-0.23452074825763702,
0.2403574287891388,
0.32820385694503784,
0.27215808629989624,
-0.35911065340042114,
-0.08820515125989914,
0.3096589148044586,
-0.11452748626470566,
0.16587506234645844,
0.11156526207923889,
-0.16547761857509613,
0.543574333190918,
-0.3917691111564636,
-0.09652403742074966,
0.43078848719596863,
-0.04831535741686821,
0.42236217856407166,
0.1148194894194603,
-0.6372426748275757,
0.07628312706947327,
0.6969670653343201,
0.08103884756565094,
0.12128259986639023,
-0.13062259554862976,
0.7854635715484619,
0.8570227026939392,
0.28134244680404663,
0.4495505094528198,
0.007150144316256046,
0.1253708451986313,
-0.6729954481124878,
0.24713020026683807,
-0.990481972694397,
-0.5365408062934875,
-0.06922808289527893,
-0.6080504059791565,
-0.04058452323079109,
-0.25899738073349,
-0.2561631202697754,
0.41250109672546387,
-0.18115100264549255,
0.04616281017661095,
-0.6512876152992249,
-0.5765991806983948,
0.05831027030944824,
-0.47258397936820984,
-0.09392359107732773,
0.7247055768966675,
0.28026553988456726,
0.353912889957428,
-0.12139042466878891,
-0.18337483704090118,
-0.5954726338386536,
0.30478429794311523,
-0.18518096208572388,
-0.44336235523223877,
0.15671087801456451,
0.624326765537262,
0.4408264756202698,
-0.2579962909221649,
-0.5129868984222412,
-0.40664908289909363,
0.32229992747306824,
0.1809222400188446,
-0.005817446857690811,
1.007054090499878,
-0.4854389429092407,
0.500249981880188,
0.08191650360822678,
-0.45608973503112793,
0.17442305386066437,
0.25492390990257263,
-0.3449016511440277,
-0.05819009989500046,
-0.11189639568328857,
-0.04264108091592789,
-0.6006296873092651,
0.10153229534626007,
-0.06345342099666595,
0.009732584469020367,
-0.19931572675704956,
0.47933223843574524,
0.6605825424194336,
0.046633001416921616,
-0.4584844708442688,
0.9434790015220642,
-0.025557229295372963,
-0.4247247874736786,
0.0986967533826828,
-0.750725269317627,
-0.13133156299591064,
0.589140772819519,
0.8814204335212708,
1.3542399406433105,
0.007474223617464304,
0.09550037980079651,
-0.25726744532585144,
0.28460362553596497,
0.01590043306350708,
0.5337330102920532,
0.08738275617361069,
0.1331995576620102,
0.1793849617242813,
-0.05398338660597801,
0.5664687752723694,
-0.2879582345485687,
-0.4226510226726532,
0.27722805738449097,
-0.07619384676218033,
-0.6138755679130554,
0.7214426398277283,
0.5861828327178955,
-0.4963693916797638,
0.2391727864742279,
-0.06180722638964653,
0.2542818486690521,
-0.2991977334022522,
0.3566032350063324,
0.14381954073905945,
0.06383202970027924,
0.09268153458833694,
0.06421233713626862,
-0.322968453168869,
-0.1309134066104889,
0.193235844373703,
0.026630824431777,
0.22036372125148773,
-0.4011065363883972,
-0.3189198672771454,
0.209417924284935,
-0.6469471454620361,
-0.15436972677707672,
-0.04143798351287842,
-0.07847849279642105,
0.21542902290821075,
-0.38819217681884766,
-0.29259246587753296,
-0.5403856039047241,
-0.230531707406044,
-0.047611087560653687,
-0.08525717258453369,
0.8868160247802734,
0.07977918535470963,
-0.16978801786899567,
-0.1611044853925705,
0.002136414870619774,
0.2814561128616333,
0.4078240692615509,
-0.9211569428443909,
0.8650445938110352,
0.7644636631011963,
-0.584084689617157,
0.028441568836569786,
0.09837451577186584,
0.6047793030738831,
-0.3166136145591736,
-0.8676851391792297,
0.05468495935201645,
-0.18251442909240723,
0.08166167885065079,
-0.3811717927455902,
0.10697673261165619,
0.577013373374939,
-0.2696949541568756,
-0.15915155410766602,
0.3631168603897095,
0.24286200106143951,
0.05742758512496948,
0.5348807573318481,
0.4065001308917999,
-0.25231537222862244,
-0.17990337312221527,
0.039941657334566116,
0.1168903335928917,
0.1438520848751068,
0.22204750776290894,
0.3864118754863739,
0.5274198055267334,
0.4880831241607666,
-0.17107969522476196,
0.008865858428180218,
0.39100396633148193,
0.1345061957836151,
-0.0399923212826252,
-0.7778400182723999,
0.27257606387138367,
-0.559661865234375,
-0.16588015854358673,
0.5712611079216003,
0.1658882200717926,
0.33187517523765564,
-0.09081678092479706,
0.008201276883482933,
0.13554690778255463,
-0.7012185454368591,
0.6625835299491882,
-0.5104733109474182,
0.7079876661300659,
-0.34111908078193665,
-0.4744255840778351,
-0.4430524408817291,
0.3388243317604065,
0.3671102523803711,
-0.5807457566261292,
0.3712769150733948,
0.37910816073417664,
-0.6747890710830688,
-0.16767843067646027,
0.5831931233406067,
-0.7110515832901001,
-0.33014923334121704,
0.5022096037864685
] |
247982 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restricted%20product | Restricted product | In mathematics, the restricted product is a construction in the theory of topological groups.
Let be an index set; a finite subset of . If is a locally compact group for each , and is an open compact subgroup for each , then the restricted product
is the subset of the product of the 's consisting of all elements such that for all but finitely many .
This group is given the topology whose basis of open sets are those of the form
where is open in and for all but finitely many .
One can easily prove that the restricted product is itself a locally compact group. The best known example of this construction is that of the adele ring and idele group of a global field.
See also
Direct sum
References
Topological groups | [
-0.5074793696403503,
-0.32318195700645447,
0.08447324484586716,
-0.25198009610176086,
-0.47139686346054077,
-0.35850805044174194,
-0.457105815410614,
0.29595741629600525,
-0.14290785789489746,
-0.49297985434532166,
-1.0073977708816528,
-0.18775998055934906,
-0.7834975719451904,
0.3310037851333618,
0.33338579535484314,
0.45796477794647217,
0.5040348768234253,
0.2884877920150757,
-0.4159652292728424,
-0.8810005187988281,
0.420566588640213,
0.4606935679912567,
-0.056159164756536484,
-0.19927097856998444,
0.8612602949142456,
0.09039322286844254,
0.2964480221271515,
0.3086460828781128,
0.4274838864803314,
0.660280704498291,
0.04932635650038719,
0.8309474587440491,
0.42012137174606323,
0.2845473885536194,
0.5607249140739441,
-0.18374986946582794,
0.4077468812465668,
-0.3350512981414795,
0.04130038991570473,
0.041115377098321915,
0.584028422832489,
0.13837967813014984,
0.2692793905735016,
0.2015189528465271,
-0.33196938037872314,
-0.18046534061431885,
-1.3938422203063965,
-0.007907120510935783,
0.22285600006580353,
-0.7510682344436646,
-0.528229296207428,
-0.3292170464992523,
0.3982865512371063,
0.5647222995758057,
0.00554044172167778,
0.45076239109039307,
-0.5522489547729492,
-0.21923284232616425,
0.46736645698547363,
-0.18000267446041107,
-0.0699303150177002,
0.7468805313110352,
0.17275600135326385,
0.07943598926067352,
0.04301309958100319,
0.9984303712844849,
-0.2786047160625458,
-0.11730736494064331,
-0.8454482555389404,
-0.928860604763031,
-0.374679297208786,
-0.5328260064125061,
-0.2023133933544159,
0.47037068009376526,
-0.228690043091774,
-0.007278332021087408,
-0.0014282520860433578,
-0.39274242520332336,
0.09146339446306229,
0.22621215879917145,
-0.2419181764125824,
1.0647637844085693,
0.4261690080165863,
-0.10765649378299713,
0.589492678642273,
-0.04705478623509407,
-0.8534803986549377,
1.0340689420700073,
-0.5768435001373291,
0.9669358730316162,
0.2886744737625122,
-0.292531281709671,
0.5953060388565063,
-0.45369064807891846,
0.25473496317863464,
0.8142518401145935,
0.6262062788009644,
-0.16353021562099457,
0.4076465666294098,
-0.0746631994843483,
-0.4149094820022583,
-0.33920907974243164,
-0.5319027900695801,
-0.7438424229621887,
-0.7758861184120178,
-0.7329548001289368,
-0.27165764570236206,
-0.02940281666815281,
-0.14237597584724426,
0.03575035184621811,
-0.8760824799537659,
0.3446182906627655,
0.1811542958021164,
-0.054344210773706436,
0.06445290148258209,
0.41878557205200195,
-0.019801674410700798,
0.4928054213523865,
-0.07266227900981903,
0.7527849078178406,
-0.27250707149505615,
0.16213680803775787,
-0.4415840208530426,
0.6966562271118164,
-0.18717707693576813,
-0.06630299240350723,
0.15926502645015717,
1.1725043058395386,
-1.133283019065857,
0.15792469680309296,
0.34903568029403687,
0.7933621406555176,
0.6941109299659729,
0.3294258713722229,
-0.13356465101242065,
-0.6746507287025452,
-0.21751239895820618,
-0.6465557813644409,
-0.2644786238670349,
-0.14470908045768738,
-0.4803115725517273,
-0.17013680934906006,
-0.4721059799194336,
-0.16816313564777374,
0.3460219204425812,
0.13386088609695435,
-0.1525663137435913,
-0.17912165820598602,
0.2777748107910156,
-0.008633044548332691,
0.2418264001607895,
-0.0575065053999424,
-0.5781854391098022,
0.17630811035633087,
-0.42725130915641785,
-0.07036132365465164,
0.6774876117706299,
0.056800391525030136,
-0.4741169810295105,
0.0523698665201664,
0.048124440014362335,
-0.28452926874160767,
-0.09005295485258102,
-0.42024892568588257,
0.23095698654651642,
-0.8132904171943665,
0.3547672629356384,
-0.14507946372032166,
-0.19806689023971558,
0.13449984788894653,
-0.4833488464355469,
-0.39432573318481445,
0.1640906184911728,
-0.10838615894317627,
0.02397690899670124,
-0.031053949147462845,
-0.04315105453133583,
-0.16291272640228271,
0.6637417674064636,
-0.10644111782312393,
-1.0475773811340332,
0.0068729533813893795,
0.6105361580848694,
-0.2606862783432007,
0.146776482462883,
0.2657034993171692,
0.6053392887115479,
-0.01419796235859394,
0.3180660009384155,
-0.24070078134536743,
-0.5855996608734131,
0.3139581084251404,
0.19395525753498077,
-0.7102516293525696,
1.4184476137161255,
0.4264998733997345,
-0.5548084378242493,
-0.018058286979794502,
-0.20356281101703644,
0.542157769203186,
-0.03496269881725311,
-0.005799688398838043,
0.4717040956020355,
-0.21799980103969574,
-0.20733577013015747,
0.8974529504776001,
-0.5833601951599121,
0.025355014950037003,
-0.2516699731349945,
0.6851928234100342,
0.11508604139089584,
0.16516807675361633,
0.9248920679092407,
0.18564480543136597,
0.3386482000350952,
-0.19130611419677734,
-0.25878193974494934,
-0.061656784266233444,
0.07444605231285095,
0.24931834638118744,
0.8665939569473267,
-0.15718285739421844,
-0.08914226293563843,
0.29379844665527344,
-0.3846758306026459,
0.5643829107284546,
0.6750990152359009,
0.7473406791687012,
0.46876123547554016,
-0.0029384286608546972,
-0.8608406186103821,
-0.23768652975559235,
0.3828323781490326,
-0.20584917068481445,
0.12940655648708344,
0.6830691695213318,
0.4661025404930115,
-0.7954472303390503,
-0.0741928219795227,
-0.8726618885993958,
0.3831125795841217,
0.29677534103393555,
-0.5507275462150574,
-0.19729775190353394,
0.05365289747714996,
0.08116430044174194,
-0.5791528224945068,
0.044078659266233444,
-0.343750923871994,
0.0206972137093544,
-0.3333825469017029,
0.17689457535743713,
-0.1523510366678238,
-0.7044760584831238,
-0.1684819906949997,
0.17568455636501312,
-0.20642811059951782,
0.05060175433754921,
0.7718362808227539,
0.30978894233703613,
0.1989019811153412,
-0.07840046286582947,
-0.38228529691696167,
-0.5587050318717957,
-0.7604559063911438,
-0.10647249221801758,
-0.7022590637207031,
0.3610040843486786,
0.7354525923728943,
0.37229645252227783,
0.15390852093696594,
-1.2365939617156982,
-0.8228789567947388,
0.16371551156044006,
-1.0746814012527466,
-0.406266987323761,
-0.04338676854968071,
-0.09388551861047745,
-0.6440233588218689,
-0.24445997178554535,
0.2620275914669037,
0.15360325574874878,
0.3391095697879791,
-0.16878095269203186,
-0.5392541885375977,
-0.403435617685318,
0.09353893995285034,
-0.5298373699188232,
0.05296991392970085,
-0.5405836701393127,
-0.24274922907352448,
0.2595527172088623,
-0.518941342830658,
-0.2525993883609772,
0.5578919053077698,
0.6889011263847351,
-0.6096009612083435,
0.1505001187324524,
0.0792507529258728,
-0.13803288340568542,
-0.8412463068962097,
0.24592246115207672,
0.19530372321605682,
-0.05039175599813461,
-0.03948555514216423,
0.08726654946804047,
-0.6126676201820374,
0.05938195064663887,
-5.2495293617248535,
0.43916934728622437,
0.14241726696491241,
0.18623661994934082,
-0.8109093308448792,
0.27099037170410156,
0.4813019037246704,
-0.17148563265800476,
-0.32302793860435486,
-0.20076525211334229,
-0.10320964455604553,
-0.29432448744773865,
-1.02935791015625,
0.628100574016571,
0.28860747814178467,
0.36469846963882446,
0.17791149020195007,
0.29468387365341187,
0.3366449475288391,
0.458881676197052,
-0.5464252829551697,
-0.14722326397895813,
-0.33513012528419495,
-0.5370745658874512,
-0.12418970465660095,
0.32244083285331726,
-0.2952498197555542,
0.2978571951389313,
-0.5442560911178589,
-0.4551645815372467,
-0.006053820718079805,
0.31789982318878174,
-0.05998852103948593,
-0.1987145096063614,
-0.5753312110900879,
0.5112022161483765,
0.3691669702529907,
-0.33805790543556213,
0.08011161535978317,
-0.8025203943252563,
-0.2478441745042801,
0.6308491826057434,
-0.14991165697574615,
0.006830809637904167,
0.7394452691078186,
-0.15203455090522766,
-0.08975684642791748,
-0.5577045679092407,
-0.46334508061408997,
0.757086992263794,
0.019332364201545715,
-0.32407984137535095,
0.07019664347171783,
-0.07038996368646622,
0.15488724410533905,
0.4407290518283844,
0.21372824907302856,
-0.3594709634780884,
-0.6333804726600647,
0.9338846206665039,
0.5264245867729187,
-0.5333417057991028,
0.6541828513145447,
0.09477853029966354,
-1.1348642110824585,
0.1782701015472412,
-1.1821268796920776,
-0.39099740982055664,
0.4109756350517273,
0.21428313851356506,
-0.4877166748046875,
0.7121759653091431,
0.25970083475112915,
-0.34053289890289307,
-0.21221213042736053,
-0.3779505789279938,
-0.012466119602322578,
-0.2748432159423828,
0.5997834801673889,
0.3711458444595337,
0.006321473978459835,
0.06627485901117325,
-0.17555175721645355,
0.5810242295265198,
-0.30918702483177185,
-0.18963491916656494,
-0.3642619848251343,
0.3959779739379883,
-0.639632523059845,
0.05724259465932846,
0.13946440815925598,
-0.03193272277712822,
0.1494070291519165,
0.5544158220291138,
0.0920267179608345,
-0.11937344819307327,
0.6429142355918884,
-0.18397203087806702,
0.0006203425582498312,
-0.5066922307014465,
0.7659293413162231,
-0.40512698888778687,
-0.2673153579235077,
-0.0019351521041244268,
0.037379100918769836,
0.1644734889268875,
-0.9059309959411621,
1.189816951751709,
0.8986700773239136,
-0.054102301597595215,
0.05061155930161476,
0.15995094180107117,
-0.3818434774875641,
-0.4577605724334717,
0.9058188796043396,
0.26766499876976013,
-0.7882881760597229,
0.3543943166732788,
1.0644636154174805,
-0.16748714447021484,
0.003114390419796109,
0.44747114181518555,
0.32676827907562256,
-0.5256735682487488,
-0.7373670935630798,
0.055517036467790604,
0.21370400488376617,
0.36090806126594543,
-0.5544252395629883,
0.04237726703286171,
-0.4517733156681061,
0.9656214714050293,
-0.08607801795005798,
-0.3696692883968353,
0.09365148842334747,
-0.6399522423744202,
-0.4362957179546356,
0.5388673543930054,
0.6787600517272949,
-0.4938806891441345,
0.6256234645843506,
0.22176890075206757,
-0.0036688658874481916,
-0.6553755402565002,
0.3905732333660126,
-0.08628971874713898,
0.08819117397069931,
-0.08541174978017807,
-0.4116102159023285,
0.3498131036758423,
-0.17734761536121368,
-0.8571422696113586,
1.0393965244293213,
-0.5497300624847412,
0.724400520324707,
0.23323699831962585,
-0.25010523200035095,
0.5708791613578796,
0.38954105973243713,
-0.6874068379402161,
0.2683145999908447,
-0.10732228308916092,
-0.4223974049091339,
0.004464601632207632,
0.03146062418818474,
0.0003991859557572752,
-0.6325389742851257,
-0.32804879546165466,
-0.3679412603378296,
0.2108759731054306,
0.183135986328125,
-0.5005672574043274,
-0.37723103165626526,
-0.32704779505729675,
0.354074627161026,
-0.12206186354160309,
0.07579129934310913,
-0.12501242756843567,
0.1353946328163147,
-0.19043266773223877,
-0.13440103828907013,
-0.8542401790618896,
-0.14608179032802582,
0.1976746916770935,
1.1243311166763306,
0.004010586533695459,
0.17843137681484222,
0.20387212932109833,
-0.6338809728622437,
0.09202729910612106,
0.17204396426677704,
-0.02108236588537693,
-0.32223832607269287,
0.18105389177799225,
-0.09489470720291138,
-0.25737467408180237,
0.5653672814369202,
-0.11145005375146866,
-0.10296870023012161,
-0.7797556519508362,
-0.472644567489624,
0.5466748476028442,
-0.6432654857635498,
0.5857337117195129,
0.4563722312450409,
-0.17228706181049347,
-0.1240968182682991,
-0.18399211764335632,
-0.3484579026699066,
0.18752236664295197,
-0.6325063109397888,
-0.7438780069351196,
-0.5441800951957703,
-0.5479661226272583,
-0.37433233857154846,
0.41918420791625977,
-0.004120497032999992,
-0.8111056089401245,
-0.4604094922542572,
-0.17192062735557556,
-0.07843855768442154,
-0.5876949429512024,
0.03650493174791336,
0.12239105254411697,
0.3156698942184448,
0.42907416820526123,
-0.08007441461086273,
-0.813424289226532,
0.6771414279937744,
0.13501356542110443,
-0.27969950437545776,
-0.10152718424797058,
-0.22096914052963257,
0.2074546068906784,
0.025695016607642174,
-0.7209118604660034,
-0.38354575634002686,
0.5425869822502136,
-0.4684450626373291,
-0.6576027274131775,
0.6025748252868652,
0.37256157398223877,
-0.0325782373547554,
-0.7468108534812927,
0.3519611656665802,
0.15412692725658417,
0.37889420986175537,
-0.5276774764060974,
-0.017148170620203018,
0.14142143726348877,
0.34863170981407166,
-0.04321378096938133,
0.09258140623569489,
-0.31693515181541443,
0.937067449092865,
0.3152158856391907,
-0.014221047051250935,
-0.20352886617183685,
0.3141765892505646,
0.45571020245552063,
0.09311359375715256,
-0.12628091871738434,
-0.3678722679615021,
0.2750975787639618,
0.18574216961860657,
0.4290738105773926,
0.06413821130990982,
0.23610417544841766,
0.24728770554065704,
0.28694215416908264,
0.2942390441894531,
-0.2492833435535431,
0.5447165369987488,
0.6383182406425476,
0.4033689498901367,
0.5921499133110046,
-0.0496014766395092,
-0.02979528158903122,
-0.5885974168777466,
-0.11967301368713379,
-0.8607146143913269,
-0.08684410899877548,
0.05792258307337761,
-0.8263472318649292,
0.2834526598453522,
-0.2305726259946823,
0.0383688323199749,
0.8037059307098389,
-0.2674817144870758,
0.13450376689434052,
-0.41471901535987854,
-0.2837778627872467,
-0.41025832295417786,
-0.19108465313911438,
-0.1360190510749817,
0.6926717162132263,
0.06363243609666824,
0.12030720710754395,
-0.2642465829849243,
-0.1945476233959198,
-1.1549322605133057,
-0.16240294277668,
-0.5250062942504883,
-0.25363749265670776,
0.10404018312692642,
0.4833958148956299,
0.1787365823984146,
-0.1818084716796875,
0.059627074748277664,
-0.1733504682779312,
0.24422787129878998,
0.3630671203136444,
-0.1919974833726883,
0.3338339030742645,
-0.7574587464332581,
-0.08712148666381836,
0.44698119163513184,
-0.3329063951969147,
0.311095267534256,
0.552035391330719,
0.04422253370285034,
0.21109071373939514,
0.22858890891075134,
0.05974927917122841,
-1.2796663045883179,
0.366839200258255,
-0.30291807651519775,
0.4050024449825287,
0.16973969340324402,
0.3135250210762024,
0.14471615850925446,
0.31719931960105896,
-0.3724185526371002,
0.8989846706390381,
0.07576779276132584,
-0.2641045153141022,
-0.1384962648153305,
-0.47409528493881226,
0.25245124101638794,
0.3031061589717865,
0.21214300394058228,
0.6381652355194092,
-0.4408506453037262,
0.31611326336860657,
0.08099205046892166,
0.3513159453868866,
0.11383665353059769,
-0.04661039635539055,
-0.01791464537382126,
0.4116070866584778,
0.3414447605609894,
-0.04200153425335884,
-0.0886601060628891,
0.3351563811302185,
-0.08810795098543167,
0.3659537136554718,
0.46962663531303406,
-0.5014438629150391,
-0.17509566247463226,
0.12814894318580627,
0.3733374774456024,
0.20726199448108673,
-0.5220145583152771,
0.26507648825645447,
-0.27223119139671326,
0.13835127651691437,
0.6526085734367371,
-0.204890638589859,
-0.023515895009040833,
0.18176528811454773,
0.06789491325616837,
0.44467130303382874,
0.14795033633708954,
0.1459973007440567,
0.46212780475616455,
-0.2934947609901428,
0.13178710639476776,
0.5297432541847229,
-0.39319679141044617,
-0.15280470252037048,
0.42419755458831787,
0.22957229614257812,
0.2910391688346863,
-0.5579148530960083,
-0.4270770251750946,
-0.22308410704135895,
0.015762267634272575,
-0.21529944241046906,
-0.33401405811309814,
0.5881643295288086,
0.5987867116928101,
-0.19704632461071014,
-0.3737885057926178,
0.013804656453430653,
0.10896287858486176,
0.5164974927902222,
-0.7889224886894226,
1.0515377521514893,
0.6119361519813538,
-0.33458948135375977,
0.07298304885625839,
-0.5031510591506958,
0.24672190845012665,
-0.011384411714971066,
-0.4585714340209961,
0.04273112118244171,
-0.7108470797538757,
0.35963958501815796,
-0.4809635579586029,
0.6508326530456543,
0.39201343059539795,
0.05426144227385521,
-0.016467496752738953,
0.5600783824920654,
0.21172435581684113,
0.13179263472557068,
0.5985426306724548,
0.21835625171661377,
-0.31700029969215393,
-0.0714227706193924,
0.22107364237308502,
-0.18029513955116272,
-0.10987413674592972,
0.5610407590866089,
0.23413580656051636,
0.16566836833953857,
0.1528322398662567,
-0.016611993312835693,
0.5277848243713379,
0.2891119122505188,
-0.02442624606192112,
-0.05318157747387886,
-1.1174191236495972,
0.36278653144836426,
-0.36830663681030273,
-0.5508334040641785,
0.2895294725894928,
0.1499822735786438,
0.4258657693862915,
-0.3089684247970581,
-0.3483157157897949,
-0.11623559892177582,
-0.47375357151031494,
0.685564398765564,
-0.2348969727754593,
0.7266806364059448,
0.043260298669338226,
-0.36644047498703003,
-0.5372944474220276,
0.20642684400081635,
0.7917294502258301,
-0.3591856062412262,
0.16912852227687836,
-0.09182257950305939,
-0.35376062989234924,
0.39299535751342773,
0.35897985100746155,
-0.7852415442466736,
-0.304447203874588,
0.7136980295181274
] |
247987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bignoniaceae | Bignoniaceae | Bignoniaceae is a family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales commonly known as the bignonias. It is not known to which of the other families in the order it is most closely related.
Nearly all of the Bignoniaceae are woody plants, but a few are subwoody, either as vines or subshrubs. A few more are herbaceous plants of high-elevation montane habitats, in three exclusively herbaceous genera: Tourrettia, Argylia, and Incarvillea. The family includes many lianas, climbing by tendrils, by twining, or rarely, by aerial roots. The largest tribe in the family, called Bignonieae, consists mostly of lianas and is noted for its unique wood anatomy.
The family has a nearly cosmopolitan distribution, but is mostly tropical, with a few species native to the temperate zones. Its greatest diversity is in northern South America. The family has been covered in some major floristic projects, such as Flora of China, Flora Malesiana, and Flora Neotropica. It has not yet been covered in some others, such as Flora of Australia, and Flora of North America.
Bignoniaceae are most noted for ornamentals, such as Jacaranda, Tabebuia and Spathodea, grown for their conspicuous, tubular flowers. A great many species are known in cultivation. Various other uses have been made of members of this family. Several species were of great importance to the indigenous peoples of the American tropics. Fridericia elegans, Tanaecium bilabiata, and Tanaecium excitosum are poisonous to livestock and have caused severe losses.
According to different accounts, the number of species in the family is about 810 or about 860. The last monograph of the entire family was published in 2004. In that work, 104 genera were recognized. Since that time, molecular phylogenetic studies have greatly clarified relationships within the family, and the number of accepted genera is now between 80 and 85.
Genera
In the last taxonomic revision of Bignoniaceae, 104 genera were described in The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Twenty-five of these genera, all in the tribe Bignonieae, were later synonymized under other genera, based on a cladistic analysis of DNA sequences, published in 2006. Roseodendron and Handroanthus were resurrected from Tabebuia in 2007. Mayodendron and Pachyptera have been resurrected.
In 2009, Six of these groups have been recognized as tribes at one time or another, and are represented by their tribal names. Two of the groups are monogeneric and are designated by their constituent genera, Argylia and Delostoma. The other two groups are given informal names, pending a formal revision of the infrafamilial classification.
Astianthus has never been sampled for DNA and its systematic position within the family remains obscure. Likewise, the placement of Romeroa in the Tabebuia alliance and the placement of Sphingiphila in Bignonieae are in doubt.
Tecomaria is not included in the list below, and its recognition is controversial. It is monotypic (Tecomaria capensis), and had been long accepted, but was returned to Tecoma in 1980. A molecular phylogenetic study resolved it as sister to another South African genus, Podranea, but with only weak bootstrap support. Tecomaria has not yet been resurrected or transferred to another genus.
The tribe Bignonieae has been the subject of considerable revision since 2006. Fischer et al. placed 46 genera in this tribe. Afterward, Perianthomega was transferred to it from Tecomeae sensu lato and Pachyptera was resurrected from Mansoa. Twenty-five of the genera of Fischer have been subsumed into other genera as follows: Gardnerodoxa into Neojobertia; Memora into Adenocalymma; Leucocalantha into Pachyptera; Pseudocatalpa, Paragonia, Periarrabidaea, Spathicalyx, and Ceratophytum into Tanaecium; Arrabidaea and Piriadacus into Fridericia; Clytostoma, Cydista, Macranthisiphon, Mussatia, Phryganocydia, Potamoganos, Roentgenia and Saritaea into Bignonia; also Distictis, Glaziovia, Haplolophium, and Pithecoctenium into Amphilophium. Thus, 23 genera are now recognized in Bignonieae.
Description
Members of this family are mostly trees or lianas, sometimes shrubs, and rarely subshrubs or herbs.
Lianas of the tribe Bignonieae have a unique vascular structure, in which phloem arms extend downward into the xylem because certain segments of the cambium cease the production of xylem at an early stage of development. The number of these arms is four or a multiple thereof, up to 32. When four, the phloem arms appear as a cross, hence, the common name "cross vine". The phloem in the arms has wider sieve tubes and less parenchyma than the ordinary phloem.
The leaves are petiolate. Leaf arrangement usually is opposite, or rarely alternate or verticillate (in whorls). Leaves are usually compound, bifoliate, trifoliate, pinnate, or palmate, or rarely simple. Stipules are absent, but persistent; enlarged axillary bud scales (pseudostipules) are often present. Domatia occur in some genera.
Flowers are solitary or in inflorescences in a raceme or a helicoid or dichasial cyme. Inflorescences bear persistent or deciduous bracts or bractlets.
The flowers are hypogynous, zygomorphic, bisexual, and usually conspicuous. The calyx and corolla are distinct. The calyx is synsepalous, with five sepals. The corolla is sympetalous, with five petals, often bilabiate. Corolla lobes are imbricate in bud, or rarely valvate, and usually much shorter than the corolla tube. Stamens are inserted on the corolla tube, alternating with corolla lobes. The four stamens are didynamous, members of each pair often connivent, the adaxial stamen is usually staminodial or absent; rarely with five fertile stamens or with two fertile and three staminodial stamens. The stigma is bilobed, and usually sensitive; a style is present. The ovary is superior, usually surrounded by a nectary disk, composed of two carpels, bilocular and with a septum, except unilocular in Tourrettia and quadrilocular in Eccremocarpus. Placentation is axile, except parietal in Tourrettia. Ovules are numerous.
The fruit is usually a bivalved capsule, often with a replum. Dehiscence is septicidal or loculicidal. The three exceptions are the genera Kigelia, Crescentia and its close relatives, and Colea and its close relatives. In these, the fruit is indehiscent, not a capsule, and the seeds are not winged. The fruit is a berry in Colea. Seeds are usually flat and winged. Aril is absent. Endosperm usually absent, and sometimes sparse.
Lapachol, a yellow, skin-irritating naphthoquinone, is often found in the wood. Other naphthoquinones, as well as anthraquinones, are also present in various parts of the plant. Jacaranone is a quinonoid from Jacaranda. True tannins are not present. Pigments are mostly flavones, anthocyanins, and carotenoids. Iridoids are usually present. Other compounds detected in Bignoniaceae include verbascosides, cornoside, quercetin, ursolic acid, and saponins.
The chromosome number does not vary much in Bignoniaceae. The haploid (base chromosome number) is 20 for nearly every species sampled, but some species have very small chromosomes, making an accurate count difficult. B chromosomes are common in Bignoniaceae.
Pollination is either entomophilous (via insects), ornithophilous (via birds), or cheiropterophilous (via bats).
Uses
Many species of Bignoniaceae have some use, either commercially or ethnobotanically, but the most important, by far, are those planted as ornamentals, especially the flowering trees. Jacaranda, Campsis, Pyrostegia, Tabebuia, Catalpa, Roseodendron, Handroanthus and Crescentia all have species of horticultural significance, at least in warm climates. Several others, including Tecoma, Podranea, Pandorea, Bignonia and Mansoa are frequently grown as ornamentals, at least in certain areas of the tropics. A great many species are known in cultivation, if only rarely.
Jacaranda mimosifolia is common as an avenue tree. The winged petiole and trifoliate leaf of Crescentia alata resembles a crucifixion cross, so is sometimes planted in the Philippines as a religious symbol.
Handroanthus and the unrelated Guaiacum (Zygophyllaceae) have the hardest, heaviest, and most durable wood of the American tropics. Important timber trees in Handroanthus include H. heptaphyllus, H. serratifolius, H. guayacan, H. chrysanthus, and H. billbergii. Tabebuia rosea (including Tabebuia pentaphylla) is harvested for lumber throughout the New World tropics. Tabebuia heterophylla, and Tabebuia angustata are important sources of lumber for some of the Caribbean islands. Several species of Catalpa are also important timber trees.
Paratecoma was once the most important timber tree of the Rio de Janeiro area, but relentless exploitation has brought it to the verge of extinction. Several of the rare species of Bignoniaceae produce excellent wood, but are often not recognized by lumberjacks.
Several uses of plants in Bignoniaceae are known locally. Parmentiera aculeata is grown for its edible fruit in Central America and southern Mexico. The powdered seeds and sometimes the fruit pulp of Crescentia cujete and Crescentia alata are used in Nicaragua to make a refresco called semilla de jicaro. Onion-scented species of Mansoa and clove-scented species of Tynanthus are used as condiments.
In northern Colombia, shavings of the stems of Dolichandra quadrivalvis are added to bait which is left overnight near the burrows of crabs. The crabs are paralyzed for a few hours after eating the bait and are picked up by crabbers in the morning. The crabs recover before they reach market, and no harm from eating them has been reported.
Tanaecium nocturnum is the source of a hallucinogenic drug. Its crushed leaves and stems are used to enervate bees while gathering honey.
Fridericia chica is the source of a red pigment used in the Amazon Basin for body paint and for dye in basketry. Cybistax antisyphilitica is the source of a blue dye commonly used in Peru. The bark of Sparattosperma leucantha is used in Bolivia to produce a brown dye for staining cotton thread.
Medical claims are innumerable and usually spurious. Gentry describes an especially ludicrous example.
Misidentification of plants, even by botanists, continues to be a big problem for ethnobotany, and it is especially severe for Bignoniaceae. Voucher specimens are often sterile and fragmentary, making them nearly impossible to identify. False medical claims are often based on mistaken identification.
The bark of several species of Handroanthus is sold in South American markets. Similar-looking bark is often fraudulently passed off as Handroanthus. It is used in various ways to relieve certain symptoms of certain cancers. No evidence shows it prevents the disease or slows its progression, as is often claimed.
Adenocalymma flavida has been used to relieve the aching of joints and muscles. A root extract from Martinella is useful in the treatment of conjunctivitis and possibly other conditions of the eye.
History
The family Bignoniaceae was first validly published in the botanical literature (as Bignonieae) by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789 in his classic work, Genera Plantarum. The type genus for this family is Bignonia, which was validated by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum in 1753. The name originated with Joseph Pitton de Tournefort, who named it for his benefactor, Jean-Paul Bignon, in 1694, in his influential Eléments de botanique ou méthode pour connaître les plantes.
Important groundwork for future study of the family was laid down from 1789 to 1837, mostly by Jussieu, Kunth, Bojer and G.Don (George Don (1798-1856) not George Don the elder (1764-1814). Bentham and Hooker surveyed the family in their Genera Plantarum in 1876. Karl Moritz Schumann wrote a monograph on Bignoniaceae in 1894 for Engler and Prantl's Die Natürlichen Pflanzenfamilien. After Schumann's monograph, no taxonomic treatment of the entire family was published until 2004.
As the number of known species gradually increased, a great deal of confusion developed over the delimitation of genera. New genera were frequently erected for species that did not clearly belong to any of the previously described genera. This resulted in a proliferation of monotypic genera. Gentry reduced the number of genera in 1973, 1976, and 1979. Nevertheless, the revision of 2004 described 104 genera, 38 of them monotypic.
This problem was especially acute in the tribe Bignonieae. In that tribe, many species of uncertain affinity were assigned to a vaguely defined Arrabidaea, turning that genus into a dumping ground of about 100 species.
Since 2004, molecular phylogenetic studies have shown a substantial revision of the genera is necessary. Much work toward this goal can be viewed online, but little of it has yet been published in scientific papers.
A detailed taxonomic history of Bignoniaceae was published in 1980. A summary of this history was published in 1999.
Taxonomy
In the APG III system of classification for flowering plants, Bignoniaceae is one of the 23 families in the order Lamiales. (Lamiales has 25 families if Mazaceae and Rehmanniaceae are accepted). Within the order, Bignoniaceae is in a group of eight families consisting of Thomandersiaceae, Pedaliaceae, Martyniaceae, Schlegeliaceae, Bignoniaceae, Verbenaceae, Acanthaceae, and Lentibulariaceae. This group is described as a polytomy, meaning no two of its members are known to be more closely related to each other than to any of the others. Statistical support for this group remains weak, indicating insufficient data have been applied, or the group is an artifact of some phylogenetic method.
The composition of Bignoniaceae has been relatively stable and has not varied at all in the 21st century. In the 20th century, the only issues of circumscription were whether Paulowniaceae and Schlegeliaceae should be merged into Bignoniaceae, or accepted as separate families. The Paulowniaceae consist of one to four genera: Paulownia, Shiuyinghua, Wightia, and Brandisia. Whatever their circumscription, Paulowniaceae are now known to be close to Phrymaceae and Orobanchaceae, rather than to Bignoniaceae. The family Schlegeliaceae has been included in Bignoniaceae, as tribe Schlegelieae, as recently as 1980. It is now accepted as a distinct family, but its relationships with several other families remain unresolved.
In molecular phylogenetic analyses, Bignoniaceae has surprisingly weak bootstrap support, given its morphological coherence. The tribe Jacarandeae (Digomphia and Jacaranda) is sister to the rest of the family, which is known as the Core Bignoniaceae. The Core Bignoniaceae is strongly supported in all molecular phylogenetic analyses, but has no known morphological synapomorphy.
No subfamilies have been proposed for Bignoniaceae in recent taxonomy, but in 2004, Fischer et al. divided the family into seven tribes: Tourrettieae, Eccremocarpeae, Tecomeae (sensu lato), Bignonieae, Oroxyleae, Crescentieae, and Coleeae. Since that time, Tourrettieae and Eccremocarpeae have been merged under the name Tourrettieae. Tecomeae sensu lato has been shown to be polyphyletic, consisting of the following groups: Astianthus, Jacarandeae, Argylia, Delostoma, Perianthomega, Catalpeae, Tecomeae sensu stricto, and all of Crescentiina except those genera placed in Crescentieae or Coleeae. All of these groups are monophyletic except Crescentiina pro parte. The whole Crescentiina is monophyletic. Crescentiina is one of a type of name with no definite taxonomic rank. Crescentiina is composed of two strongly supported clades, informally named the Tabebuia alliance and the Paleotropical clade. The tribe Crescentieae is embedded in the Tabebuia alliance and might be expanded to include Spirotecoma. Coleeae sensu Fischer et al. (2004) is polyphyletic because of the inclusion of Kigelia, and it is nested within the Paleotropical clade. Perianthomega has been transferred from Tecomeae sensu stricto to Bignonieae, where it is sister to the remainder of the tribe. Thus, Bignoniaceae can be divided into 10 monophyletic groups.
Phylogeny
The phylogenetic tree shown below is based on the results of four phylogenetic studies. For all clades, posterior probability is at least 0.95 and bootstrap support is at least 70%, except where indicated otherwise.
References
Sources
Alwyn H. Gentry. 1992. "Bignoniaceae: Part II (Tecomeae)". Flora Neotropica Monograph 25(2):1-150. (See External links below).
External links
Bignoniaceae in L. Watson and M. J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards), The families of flowering plants.
Distribution Map Genus List Bignoniaceae Lamiales Trees APweb botanical databases About Science & Conservation Missouri Botanical Garden
Crescentieae and Tourrettieae At: Flora Neotropica 25(1) At: Flora Neotropica At: Organization for Flora Neotropica
tribe Tecomeae At: Flora Neotropica 25(2) At: Flora Neotropica At: Organization for Flora Neotropica
Bignoniaceae economic botany
List of genera in family Bignoniaceae At: Dicotyledons At: List Genera within a Family At: Vascular Plant Families and Genera At: About the Checklist At: World Checklist of Selected Plant Families At: Data Sources At: ePIC At: Scientific Databases At: Kew Gardens
Bignoniaceae At: Advanced Search At: Search Tool At: iplants
section B In: A checklist of suprageneric names (Alphabetical Listing by Genera) At: Home page of James L. Reveal & C. Rose Broome
Bignonia Plant Names IPNI
CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names: A-C At: Botany & Plant Science At: Life Science At: CRC Press
Bignoniaceae Genera Plantarum vol. 2 part 2 (Bentham & Hooker) View Record Titles beginning with "G" Titles Biodiversity Heritage Library
Spangler & Olmstead (1999)
Lamiales families | [
-0.48282304406166077,
0.04917420446872711,
-0.8235622048377991,
-0.0469258688390255,
-0.13145418465137482,
0.4972566068172455,
0.517759382724762,
0.5313858985900879,
-0.8783999085426331,
-0.29089099168777466,
0.15227776765823364,
0.6905654072761536,
-0.5281368494033813,
0.539249062538147,
0.08273152261972427,
0.4682999849319458,
0.589939534664154,
0.2568019926548004,
0.6004459857940674,
-0.3536147475242615,
-0.3293648958206177,
-0.6681549549102783,
0.5381734371185303,
-0.10089195519685745,
0.3159386217594147,
-0.10563880950212479,
0.20510083436965942,
0.06350994110107422,
0.7914890050888062,
0.05515703558921814,
-0.4909707307815552,
0.9272544980049133,
0.6879809498786926,
-0.45942628383636475,
0.30549949407577515,
0.32435399293899536,
-0.27418026328086853,
-1.1525081396102905,
-0.6060235500335693,
-0.2967762053012848,
0.08420106768608093,
-0.17357710003852844,
-0.05211247131228447,
0.4544827938079834,
0.10736221820116043,
-0.07800883799791336,
-0.9747143387794495,
0.12644992768764496,
-0.5851906538009644,
-0.2083318829536438,
-0.309461385011673,
0.068327896296978,
0.9186556339263916,
-0.08455260843038559,
0.09719668328762054,
0.5148570537567139,
-1.1330488920211792,
0.3128068149089813,
0.2818688750267029,
-0.7813237309455872,
-0.7961427569389343,
0.318032830953598,
0.2498857080936432,
-0.4087379574775696,
0.5512188673019409,
0.16361765563488007,
-0.15308333933353424,
0.7898480296134949,
-1.4777710437774658,
0.2460353523492813,
-0.5732237100601196,
-0.4503820538520813,
0.13854247331619263,
0.11991234868764877,
0.11302074044942856,
0.00868894811719656,
-0.598470151424408,
-0.5532106161117554,
0.18704243004322052,
0.1529005616903305,
-0.14975988864898682,
0.14894390106201172,
-0.04212184250354767,
-0.09893432259559631,
0.15062423050403595,
0.449858695268631,
-0.7643581628799438,
-0.04153016209602356,
-0.4528804421424866,
0.4388425350189209,
-0.4280232787132263,
0.05485272780060768,
0.21799252927303314,
-0.038641076534986496,
-0.08454161882400513,
-0.2766015827655792,
-0.4801400303840637,
-0.32217517495155334,
-0.5762278437614441,
0.581884503364563,
-0.08224697411060333,
-0.09446647763252258,
0.34748125076293945,
0.25987717509269714,
-0.8405799269676208,
-0.01795869693160057,
-0.2239152193069458,
0.1781454235315323,
-0.2899014949798584,
0.01803738810122013,
-0.5838559865951538,
0.427573561668396,
-0.5764490962028503,
-0.10958530753850937,
-0.07786992192268372,
1.1286810636520386,
0.38619622588157654,
-0.5373705625534058,
-0.3198030889034271,
-0.36997517943382263,
0.22253085672855377,
0.3365544080734253,
0.09778211265802383,
0.03379092738032341,
-0.7841933965682983,
-0.04895995184779167,
0.3148519992828369,
0.4301387071609497,
-0.14120183885097504,
-0.3054009974002838,
0.03178372606635094,
0.3757902681827545,
0.2537255585193634,
-0.38031449913978577,
-0.1093476191163063,
-0.0017358491895720363,
-0.03323052078485489,
0.8133360147476196,
0.7025072574615479,
0.3512541949748993,
-0.864810049533844,
0.41318804025650024,
-0.22924667596817017,
0.021366674453020096,
-0.13428746163845062,
0.01850147545337677,
0.316558301448822,
-0.4537017345428467,
-0.06564772874116898,
-0.9479114413261414,
0.37330758571624756,
-0.2959946393966675,
0.06814106553792953,
0.3377263844013214,
-0.155096635222435,
-0.0024978620931506157,
-0.045456625521183014,
-0.23617886006832123,
0.42961743474006653,
0.06641114503145218,
0.2313021868467331,
-0.7163371443748474,
0.09472470730543137,
-0.05565185472369194,
0.4803149700164795,
0.050943534821271896,
0.1831531524658203,
0.1183779388666153,
-0.3431621789932251,
0.38499316573143005,
-0.6816807389259338,
-0.6019061803817749,
0.4673328101634979,
-0.7996799349784851,
-0.08270597457885742,
-0.5319298505783081,
0.5732936859130859,
-0.24004514515399933,
0.4124629497528076,
-0.40654993057250977,
-0.7137331366539001,
0.825698971748352,
0.5349447727203369,
-0.43345072865486145,
0.4583074748516083,
0.26328060030937195,
0.582251787185669,
0.4880163371562958,
0.4495983123779297,
-0.01023941207677126,
0.1604907512664795,
-0.24434208869934082,
0.2534698247909546,
0.38037464022636414,
0.8223448395729065,
0.5162427425384521,
0.31710541248321533,
0.000014514530448650476,
-0.2914506793022156,
-0.24170371890068054,
-0.1965763419866562,
0.1510397046804428,
-0.24687044322490692,
0.10495501011610031,
-0.8716567158699036,
-0.06922036409378052,
-0.15646368265151978,
0.17316968739032745,
0.616145670413971,
0.7473986148834229,
-0.3124024271965027,
-1.115121841430664,
0.580055296421051,
-0.1635970026254654,
0.531936526298523,
0.09644731879234314,
-0.26159632205963135,
0.24136658012866974,
-0.13441415131092072,
-0.23589615523815155,
0.3863058090209961,
0.3073682487010956,
-0.07681040465831757,
0.442117303609848,
-0.24254702031612396,
0.43249979615211487,
0.9254516363143921,
-0.27750974893569946,
0.24309587478637695,
-0.4604792296886444,
0.23189371824264526,
-0.11779642105102539,
0.15058663487434387,
-0.9846897721290588,
0.23792797327041626,
0.30833470821380615,
-0.32340916991233826,
-0.5218188166618347,
-0.10892992466688156,
-0.5553829669952393,
0.034919288009405136,
-0.2963154911994934,
-0.8258806467056274,
0.05114750936627388,
1.0316952466964722,
-0.1861686408519745,
-0.019729506224393845,
0.4737474024295807,
-0.006869120988994837,
-0.10326487571001053,
-0.23589526116847992,
0.9639314413070679,
0.6841568946838379,
-0.03336673974990845,
-0.052819836884737015,
0.07828661054372787,
0.8698301911354065,
0.1941952407360077,
0.711531400680542,
0.2492668181657791,
-0.1741037517786026,
0.49106985330581665,
-0.2980956733226776,
-0.14326374232769012,
-0.5496572256088257,
-0.3171943128108978,
-0.31467318534851074,
-0.16519016027450562,
0.3118394613265991,
-0.28558939695358276,
0.36329302191734314,
-0.3384183645248413,
-0.9175389409065247,
-0.5171806812286377,
0.09283142536878586,
-0.1953524798154831,
-0.24040108919143677,
-0.16094878315925598,
-0.3024790287017822,
-0.5068812966346741,
0.12954337894916534,
0.6541494727134705,
0.10569559037685394,
-0.4467912018299103,
-0.7911354899406433,
0.1477566510438919,
0.3499273955821991,
-0.3604625165462494,
0.5470123887062073,
-1.0017684698104858,
0.2622954249382019,
0.03235206753015518,
-0.8923618793487549,
0.42800232768058777,
-0.49890241026878357,
-0.3908008635044098,
-0.6175306439399719,
0.3267538845539093,
0.0030713039450347424,
-0.7560800313949585,
-0.5258461833000183,
0.3596535325050354,
0.2050967514514923,
-0.45441997051239014,
-0.13103026151657104,
0.3357979953289032,
0.5653077363967896,
0.03262482210993767,
-5.026398181915283,
-0.0020273246336728334,
-0.07577420026063919,
-0.3562973439693451,
-0.08723330497741699,
0.21988078951835632,
-0.127720907330513,
-0.39934027194976807,
-0.2300412654876709,
0.2250644564628601,
0.0699637308716774,
0.14643652737140656,
-0.48561227321624756,
-0.22341610491275787,
0.5872852802276611,
0.6060531735420227,
-0.16730062663555145,
-0.2462368905544281,
0.06253603100776672,
-0.05401482805609703,
0.09603184461593628,
-0.10410439968109131,
0.0706620067358017,
0.057482510805130005,
0.10797372460365295,
0.2874926030635834,
0.699260413646698,
-0.8690268397331238,
-1.0692229270935059,
0.10283102095127106,
-0.37407535314559937,
0.5677037239074707,
-0.21218226850032806,
-0.49468204379081726,
-0.44393038749694824,
-0.33950650691986084,
0.4453049898147583,
-0.2957727015018463,
0.30848631262779236,
0.059891410171985626,
-0.5060881972312927,
-0.24468256533145905,
0.4268716871738434,
0.770563542842865,
0.46048301458358765,
0.32980021834373474,
-0.7328901886940002,
-0.7624492049217224,
-0.05458654463291168,
1.4051119089126587,
0.2903299331665039,
-0.14989514648914337,
0.2532752752304077,
-0.3219047784805298,
0.09962227195501328,
0.31530651450157166,
0.8585132956504822,
-0.009103645570576191,
-0.35454508662223816,
0.34713247418403625,
0.4628760814666748,
0.21840938925743103,
-0.039625898003578186,
-0.40892869234085083,
-0.1969045251607895,
-0.3455628752708435,
-0.46313318610191345,
0.7701413035392761,
0.19574378430843353,
0.2637312114238739,
-0.1630147099494934,
0.7030597925186157,
-0.4471910893917084,
-0.7846083045005798,
-0.503576397895813,
-0.08749429136514664,
-0.7787327170372009,
0.31884852051734924,
-0.43746450543403625,
-0.013085095211863518,
0.1865997016429901,
0.08057892322540283,
-0.04915923252701759,
0.4951491951942444,
0.19619229435920715,
-0.7292142510414124,
-0.4267992079257965,
0.23105335235595703,
-0.20080476999282837,
0.03700949251651764,
-0.24017339944839478,
-0.17125315964221954,
0.5160021185874939,
0.15039004385471344,
-0.10102799534797668,
0.5244027376174927,
0.8387924432754517,
0.6313374042510986,
0.2733384370803833,
-0.2826187014579773,
-0.0023939507082104683,
-0.44590023159980774,
-0.3187316358089447,
0.21826967597007751,
-0.5019906759262085,
-0.20101602375507355,
-0.20353035628795624,
1.0807236433029175,
0.8954892754554749,
-0.39947783946990967,
0.9006450772285461,
-0.20271189510822296,
-0.5126639604568481,
-1.0480321645736694,
0.4122734069824219,
-0.05827605724334717,
-0.20896469056606293,
0.43118318915367126,
1.1431254148483276,
0.06133006513118744,
0.23173576593399048,
0.9491787552833557,
0.23868580162525177,
0.27126652002334595,
0.24206465482711792,
-0.31267911195755005,
0.322578102350235,
-0.09937304258346558,
-0.4230280816555023,
0.1434885412454605,
-0.3320237100124359,
-0.1218004822731018,
-0.31112322211265564,
0.0780591368675232,
0.11854935437440872,
0.024414407089352608,
-0.8253753185272217,
0.14402011036872864,
0.08990500122308731,
0.1960921585559845,
0.1278473138809204,
-0.01530743669718504,
-0.09020640701055527,
0.04545774310827255,
0.4573676884174347,
0.788629412651062,
-0.2861305773258209,
0.07761981338262558,
-0.3026517629623413,
0.660281240940094,
0.3304603695869446,
-0.30463916063308716,
0.6077116131782532,
-1.1311938762664795,
0.06403125077486038,
0.027533909305930138,
-0.14460179209709167,
0.2681656777858734,
0.46985626220703125,
-0.7212247848510742,
0.06949646770954132,
-0.18692366778850555,
-0.5087892413139343,
-0.2156289517879486,
0.22632260620594025,
-0.24649108946323395,
-0.2575436532497406,
-0.7267601490020752,
-0.7896440625190735,
0.7178719639778137,
0.053386297076940536,
-0.293351948261261,
-0.5075176358222961,
-0.6792627573013306,
0.514453113079071,
-0.09607632458209991,
0.2172718048095703,
0.3438192903995514,
-0.28508925437927246,
0.1282045990228653,
0.05344242602586746,
0.04558930546045303,
0.08806804567575455,
0.21716010570526123,
0.9036540985107422,
-0.5017658472061157,
-0.637661874294281,
-0.2869911789894104,
-0.888998806476593,
0.5667302012443542,
0.2273409366607666,
-0.19066643714904785,
0.3517307639122009,
0.2608628571033478,
-0.09780646860599518,
-0.006468535866588354,
-0.023632457479834557,
-0.09942860901355743,
-0.07065561413764954,
-1.1476936340332031,
-0.018836628645658493,
-0.009649202227592468,
-0.02806319296360016,
-0.0065353065729141235,
0.20879773795604706,
-0.37748855352401733,
0.8095883131027222,
-0.22836650907993317,
-1.2033683061599731,
0.6383327841758728,
0.016566121950745583,
-1.1025205850601196,
-0.37149229645729065,
0.5219078660011292,
-0.10920120030641556,
-0.045485712587833405,
0.12203499674797058,
-0.044095080345869064,
-0.5187121033668518,
-0.5484635829925537,
-0.1919686198234558,
-0.30720338225364685,
0.021039536222815514,
-0.8127867579460144,
-0.019364096224308014,
0.9551998972892761,
0.2908594012260437,
0.2746123671531677,
0.594641387462616,
-0.5947331190109253,
-0.17556147277355194,
-0.7485364675521851,
0.0299201849848032,
-0.2886389195919037,
0.005273882765322924,
0.31379270553588867,
0.5420465469360352,
0.8933306932449341,
0.4506503939628601,
0.552706778049469,
0.29365864396095276,
1.4210368394851685,
0.1365266889333725,
0.045177899301052094,
0.2610062062740326,
-0.5882448554039001,
0.5449541211128235,
-0.04452547803521156,
-0.29970231652259827,
-0.410063773393631,
0.3218946158885956,
0.24428591132164001,
-0.575969398021698,
-0.4231541156768799,
1.2495278120040894,
-0.7535741329193115,
-0.019936056807637215,
0.32654550671577454,
-0.2870725393295288,
-0.17713618278503418,
0.05498892068862915,
0.10369084030389786,
0.20221945643424988,
0.402164101600647,
0.39244329929351807,
-0.18268650770187378,
-0.711327075958252,
-0.3645104765892029,
1.0649337768554688,
-0.5495762228965759,
0.03838111087679863,
0.24457204341888428,
-0.49517562985420227,
0.7052999138832092,
-0.47353631258010864,
0.6020334362983704,
-0.3672698140144348,
-1.0351914167404175,
0.6060565710067749,
-0.26039135456085205,
-0.8300586938858032,
0.18175911903381348,
0.44024816155433655,
0.23006199300289154,
0.5752336382865906,
-0.0005417783395387232,
-1.2583565711975098,
0.18320877850055695,
0.08962597697973251,
-0.1827991008758545,
-0.3477362394332886,
-0.5839951038360596,
-0.548991858959198,
0.10886112600564957,
0.7605827450752258,
0.18617945909500122,
0.7060238718986511,
-0.005312264431267977,
-0.2391778528690338,
0.30986982583999634,
-0.31365859508514404,
0.982843816280365,
-0.09013701230287552,
-0.5565363764762878,
0.6130324006080627,
0.4313627779483795,
-0.061195939779281616,
-0.078415147960186,
-0.26907670497894287,
-0.2598735988140106,
-0.021776940673589706,
-0.1615629345178604,
0.2294047325849533,
0.5369348526000977,
0.05088551342487335,
0.6649196147918701,
0.09388560801744461,
-0.09712505340576172,
0.013438574969768524,
0.3228074908256531,
0.7346184849739075,
0.20157963037490845,
0.02119394950568676,
0.2550643980503082,
-0.16070717573165894,
1.012542486190796,
-0.9586353302001953,
-0.8122962713241577,
0.5515633225440979,
0.2584405839443207,
0.6883849501609802,
0.6186111569404602,
-1.0727277994155884,
0.8848336338996887,
-0.42672091722488403,
-0.3200704753398895,
0.1115933209657669,
-0.2873566448688507,
-0.16129939258098602,
1.0646671056747437,
0.9617049098014832,
0.10073095560073853,
0.04481565207242966,
-0.31429123878479004,
0.23526300489902496,
0.25241976976394653,
-0.39815565943717957,
-0.06832299381494522,
0.15515002608299255,
-0.041129220277071,
0.7130410075187683,
-0.08381595462560654,
0.21502982079982758,
-0.021313460543751717,
0.12501689791679382,
0.5214840173721313,
0.14515627920627594,
-0.5131747722625732,
-0.2733466625213623,
-0.3067806363105774,
-0.037153210490942,
0.38427019119262695,
0.26000210642814636,
0.45896902680397034,
-0.6780611872673035,
0.2620774805545807,
-0.13941910862922668,
0.16582629084587097,
-0.6554551124572754,
0.14842694997787476,
0.22583167254924774,
-0.2476493865251541,
0.04476933926343918,
-0.12187038362026215,
0.7486018538475037,
0.23900587856769562,
-0.3693377375602722,
0.5761721134185791,
-0.05794664844870567,
0.11401990801095963,
-0.3966221809387207,
-0.1569128930568695,
-0.5142167210578918,
-0.149367094039917,
0.001240193727426231,
-0.2020527720451355,
-0.03516257554292679,
-0.37687569856643677,
-0.04089672118425369,
0.16330251097679138,
-0.25200825929641724,
-0.3734132647514343,
-0.23825229704380035,
-0.1094624400138855,
-0.8000909090042114,
-0.0820072814822197,
-0.49871551990509033,
1.194340705871582,
0.03371158987283707,
-0.4860059320926666,
0.26208019256591797,
-0.7529870867729187,
0.11656208336353302,
-0.02633952535688877,
0.5468159914016724,
-0.06069904565811157,
0.4912184178829193,
0.21391230821609497,
-0.8321829438209534,
0.5012639164924622,
0.5380336046218872,
0.507542073726654,
-0.038867875933647156,
0.6598989367485046,
-0.4380790591239929,
0.2287122756242752,
0.6699487566947937,
-0.2556452751159668,
0.1445521116256714,
-1.048838496208191,
0.1805673986673355,
-0.7274076342582703,
0.6257436275482178,
0.4882347583770752,
-0.24220477044582367,
-0.4298307001590729,
-0.3457282781600952,
0.4660615026950836,
-0.48028501868247986,
0.13491548597812653,
0.10481666773557663,
0.3500170409679413,
-0.6908181309700012,
0.015296478755772114,
-1.0697047710418701,
-0.17823322117328644,
0.48681625723838806,
0.8369947671890259,
-0.008205567486584187,
0.24633705615997314,
0.10845954716205597,
-0.5344536304473877,
0.2575783431529999,
0.16302761435508728,
0.21274861693382263,
0.12677691876888275,
-0.32029786705970764,
-0.9149772524833679,
-0.06726814061403275,
0.09812626242637634,
-0.136799156665802,
0.06416375935077667,
0.16471517086029053,
-0.3366678059101105,
-0.46642324328422546,
-0.049556173384189606,
0.0437944270670414,
-0.6176546216011047,
0.4964527189731598,
-0.3037852644920349
] |
247989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactobacillus%20delbrueckii%20subsp.%20bulgaricus | Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus | Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (until 2014 known as Lactobacillus bulgaricus) is one of over 200 published species in the Lactobacillus genome complex (LGC) and is the main bacterium used for the production of yogurt. It also plays a crucial role in the ripening of some cheeses, as well as in other processes involving naturally fermented products. It is defined as homofermentive lactic acid bacteria due to lactic acid being the single end product of its carbohydrate digestion. It is also considered a probiotic.
It is a gram-positive rod that may appear long and filamentous. It is non-motile and does not form spores. It is also non-pathogenic. It is regarded as aciduric or acidophilic, since it requires a low pH (around 5.4–4.6) to grow effectively. In addition, it is anaerobic. As it grows on raw dairy products, it creates and maintains the acidic environment that it needs to thrive via its production of lactic acid. In addition, it grows optimally at temperatures of 40–44 °C under anaerobic conditions. It has complex nutritional requirements which vary according to the environment. These include carbohydrates, unsaturated fatty acids, amino acids, and vitamins.
First identified in 1905 by the Bulgarian doctor Stamen Grigorov by isolating what later termed Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus from a Bulgarian yogurt sample, the bacteria can be found naturally in the gastrointestinal tract of mammals living in Shopluk mesoregion of Balkan peninsula. One strain, Lactobacillus bulgaricus GLB44, is extracted from the leaves of the Galanthus nivalis (snowdrop flower) in Bulgaria. The bacterium is also grown artificially in many countries.
Use
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is commonly used alongside Streptococcus thermophilus as a starter for making yogurt. The Lb. bulgaricus 2038 strain has been used for decades for yogurt fermentation. The two species work in synergy, with L. d. bulgaricus producing amino acids from milk proteins, which are then used by S. thermophilus. This relationship is considered to be symbiotic. Both species produce lactic acid, which gives yogurt its tart flavor and acts as a preservative. The resulting decrease in pH also partially coagulates the milk proteins, such as casein, resulting in yogurt's thickness. While fermenting milk, L. d. bulgaricus produces acetaldehyde, one of the main yogurt aroma components. Some strains of L. d. bulgaricus, such as L. bulgaricus GLB44, also produce bacteriocins, which have been shown to kill undesired bacteria in vitro. The viability of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus is extremely important in that it is necessary for it to be efficient at fermentation and to effectively keep the food products it produces from spoiling. Freeze-drying is the preferred method of preserving the viability of the cells, but not all cells survive this process.
Due to its usefulness in natural fermentation processes, specifically in how it makes fermented food products out of cow's milk, it has great economic importance. Some of the biggest importers of the bacterium are Japan, the United States, and the European Union.
It has also been considered a contaminant of beer due to its homofermentative production of lactic acid, an off-flavor in many styles of beer. In other styles of beer, however, lactic acid bacteria can contribute to the overall appearance, aroma, taste, and/or mouthfeel, and generally produce an otherwise pleasing sourness.
History
Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus was first identified in 1905 by Stamen Grigorov, who named it Bacillus bulgaricus.
Ilya Metchnikoff, a professor at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, researched the relationship between the longevity of Bulgarians and their consumption of yogurt. He had the idea that aging is caused by putrefactive activity, or proteolysis, by microbes that produce toxic substances in the intestine.
Proteolytic bacteria such as clostridia, which are part of the normal intestinal flora, produce toxic substances including phenols, ammonia and indols by digestion of proteins. These compounds are responsible for what Metchnikoff called intestinal auto-intoxication, which, according to him, was the cause of the physical changes associated with old age. It was already known at that time that fermentation with lactic acid bacteria inhibits the deterioration of milk because of its low pH.
Metchnikoff's research also noted that rural populations in Southeastern Europe and the Russian steppes daily consume milk fermented with lactic acid bacteria and live relatively longer than other populations. Based on these data Metchnikoff proposed that consumption of fermented milk seeds the intestine with harmless lactic acid bacteria increasing intestinal acidity and suppressing the growth of proteolytic bacteria. His results were questioned after an 1920 study showed that the bacterium could not survive in the human intestines, but the idea nevertheless started the research into actually useful probiotics.
Lactobacillus bulgaricus is a constituent in VSL#3. This proprietary, standardized, formulation of live bacteria may be used in combination with conventional therapies to treat ulcerative colitis and requires a prescription.
In 2012 it was declared India's national microbe.
Research
Quantification in cow's milk cheese via real-time polymerase chain reaction assay
In 2017, there was a study involving the development of a real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assay for quantifying Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus as well as Streptococcus thermophilus in cow's milk cheese. The goal of this study was to create a way to identify and quantify Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus, two lactic acid producing species crucial to the fermentation and ripening of cheese, in a timely manner through the use of qPCR. Two essays using lacZ gene targeting PCR primers resulted from this study and were deemed compatible with the two lactic acid bacteria (LAB) species. This allowed for the direct quantification of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus in cheese produced from unpasteurized cow's milk.
Effects of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus on antigenicity of milk proteins
A study in 2012 posed the question of whether or not Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus had any effect on the antigenicity of four kinds of milk proteins, being α-lactalbumin (α-LA), β-lactoglobulin (β-LG), α-casein (α-CN), and β-casein (β-CN). These proteins are the main proteins found in cow's milk and are known to have antigenic properties in humans, especially young children and infants. 2–5% of young children and infants experience cow's milk protein allergy (CMPA), which has harmful effects on their development and may even result in death. This allergy is facilitated through the antigenicity of the milk proteins, which is the ability of the proteins to trigger an immune response in the body that can result in a number of possible allergic reactions. The study was performed by simulating digestion of unfermented milk and milk that was fermented through exposure to Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus to compare their antigenicities in order to see if fermentation had any effect on the antigenicity of the proteins. The antigenicities were measured through an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The results claimed that the fermentation of cow's milk by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus reduced the antigenicity of α-LA and β-CN. However, it also increased the antigenicity of α-CN while β-LG was not impacted.
Subcellular membrane fluidity of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus under cold and osmotic stress
The efficiency of lactic acid bacteria cryopreservation is not consistent and may lead to cell death. Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus has adapted to defend against cold stress. The way most cells react to the cold is by changing the fluidity of the cellular membrane, but this particular bacterium has acquired different tactics to fight against cold stress. The first way to cope with the cold is to increase viscosity by taking in compounds such as disaccharides, polysaccharides, amino acids and antioxidants. The second strategy used is performed by inducing active responses during the fermentation or post-fermentation processes. By modifying these it will change the temperature, pH and medium composition. This results in specific metabolic pathways becoming active, with the synthesis of cold shock proteins.
Effects of sorbitol, NaCl, and sodium glutamate on the survivability of Lactobacillus delbruekii subsp. bulgaricus during freeze-drying processes
In 2017, a study was done to see the effects of six different substances on the growth and freeze- drying of Lactobacillus. Using Lactobacillus as starter cultures for the dairy industry depends on the number of viable and active cells. Currently, the preferred method to preserve the bacterial cells is through freeze-drying, however this also results in some strains being killed. This is due to various complications of freeze-drying, including the formation of ice crystals, loss of membrane fluidity, and the denaturation of important macromolecules. Regardless, freeze-drying has been used for decades in microbiological research as a way to store and stabilize cultures. Six substances, being NaCl, sorbitol, mannitol, mannose, sodium glutamate, and betaine were tested to determine if they had any effect on the survivability of the cells after freeze-drying. Three of the six substances added had a positive effect on the growth and freeze-drying of Lactobacillus, being NaCl, sorbitol, and sodium glutamate. The results suggest that these substances have protective effects on Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus in small concentrations, but have little effect or even some harmful effects in higher concentrations. The optimal concentrations for sorbitol, NaCl and sodium glutamate for the desired protective effects were 0.15%, 0.6%, and 0.09% respectively. This was shown to increase cell viability drastically.
References
Bibliography
External links
Type strain of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Lactobacillaceae
Bacteria used in dairy products
Probiotics
Bacteria described in 1919
Subspecies | [
-0.4858973026275635,
0.36894336342811584,
-1.0333971977233887,
-0.6595638394355774,
-1.2107887268066406,
0.21880203485488892,
0.5554320812225342,
0.6702010631561279,
-0.11912092566490173,
-0.2634786367416382,
-0.8284963369369507,
-0.23476384580135345,
-0.46072420477867126,
0.9618734121322632,
0.655738890171051,
0.6546264886856079,
-0.7758307456970215,
1.337677001953125,
0.19746042788028717,
0.11286535114049911,
-0.029074329882860184,
-0.5756056904792786,
-0.056593094021081924,
-0.355060875415802,
-0.3177000880241394,
-0.1077309101819992,
0.40155112743377686,
0.22420531511306763,
0.5065261125564575,
-0.5222477316856384,
-0.5217482447624207,
0.9337682723999023,
0.0006315783830359578,
0.07898574322462082,
0.523473858833313,
0.029777223244309425,
0.549382746219635,
-0.24684160947799683,
0.40923699736595154,
-0.37694522738456726,
-0.4528088867664337,
0.5205415487289429,
0.7443497776985168,
0.3185015320777893,
0.14486567676067352,
-0.7509319186210632,
-1.541361927986145,
0.34572771191596985,
-1.1185890436172485,
-0.534105658531189,
0.42974016070365906,
-0.5386821627616882,
1.4025760889053345,
0.715125322341919,
-0.13311319053173065,
1.3863825798034668,
-1.5557267665863037,
-0.1134425550699234,
1.0406020879745483,
-0.054990366101264954,
-0.30556219816207886,
0.042934875935316086,
-0.10083189606666565,
-0.0011715696891769767,
0.4307743012905121,
1.006461262702942,
-0.04346412792801857,
1.2434898614883423,
-0.8351643085479736,
0.11908598989248276,
-0.553725004196167,
-0.29564613103866577,
0.8345634937286377,
0.4551646411418915,
0.1913081854581833,
0.24557112157344818,
0.13347041606903076,
-0.07068794220685959,
-0.33090466260910034,
-0.4228063225746155,
-0.6321049332618713,
0.1420964151620865,
0.7188064455986023,
0.14785772562026978,
0.8638299107551575,
0.07856813818216324,
-1.277076244354248,
-0.5861313939094543,
-0.3444100618362427,
0.9316056966781616,
-0.8483901023864746,
0.18684902787208557,
0.7067282795906067,
0.447140634059906,
0.12735643982887268,
0.027802467346191406,
-0.5056964159011841,
0.10746254026889801,
0.22582314908504486,
0.4911232590675354,
-0.02713214047253132,
0.6210343241691589,
0.33258435130119324,
0.05313277989625931,
-0.8658341765403748,
-0.3435758054256439,
-1.124575138092041,
-0.8391807675361633,
0.16801223158836365,
-0.7782340049743652,
-0.09249068796634674,
0.2662109136581421,
-0.8203591704368591,
-0.05241798982024193,
-0.223401740193367,
1.0567275285720825,
0.35160553455352783,
-0.6405265927314758,
-0.08758927881717682,
0.18738259375095367,
-0.037334904074668884,
0.7013038396835327,
-0.5148594379425049,
0.21752694249153137,
-0.5649649500846863,
0.7823595404624939,
0.09055421501398087,
0.26217392086982727,
0.08952149003744125,
0.9327582120895386,
0.001382087473757565,
1.7083243131637573,
-0.44289931654930115,
-0.4360683858394623,
-0.023346591740846634,
-0.4367203116416931,
0.7773023247718811,
0.3734058439731598,
0.5834144949913025,
-0.08537986874580383,
-1.4122341871261597,
-0.3827575147151947,
-1.803930401802063,
-0.3906773328781128,
0.778773844242096,
0.4130975604057312,
-0.3933429419994354,
0.26429784297943115,
0.042036332190036774,
-0.29513075947761536,
0.8507052063941956,
-0.1812298595905304,
-0.14970628917217255,
0.3228863477706909,
-0.7914033532142639,
0.5414956212043762,
0.39523425698280334,
-0.37283238768577576,
0.5221918821334839,
1.0950968265533447,
0.12460161745548248,
0.12222186475992203,
-0.46650341153144836,
0.11630160361528397,
-0.456188827753067,
0.3335166871547699,
0.17520242929458618,
0.0586787573993206,
0.10346721112728119,
0.6643272638320923,
-0.6132287383079529,
-0.13537144660949707,
0.5748687386512756,
-0.8808780908584595,
0.5394816398620605,
0.279157817363739,
0.18379543721675873,
0.17176102101802826,
0.29312703013420105,
-1.0194422006607056,
-0.9397723078727722,
0.6028952598571777,
0.48385170102119446,
0.2657874822616577,
0.4164036214351654,
-0.10760863870382309,
0.9376055002212524,
0.04003876447677612,
0.4022194743156433,
0.3805679380893707,
-0.2708066701889038,
-0.6150056719779968,
0.5985695123672485,
0.1908237189054489,
1.2506685256958008,
0.43139776587486267,
-0.33217230439186096,
0.20791202783584595,
0.14158694446086884,
0.5071285963058472,
-0.890417218208313,
0.13145685195922852,
-0.3062558174133301,
-0.280463308095932,
-0.7783601880073547,
2.2611680030822754,
-0.10316025465726852,
-0.31837138533592224,
0.6166319847106934,
0.8298463225364685,
0.44221949577331543,
-0.6745880842208862,
0.0881420150399208,
-0.39945515990257263,
0.19442293047904968,
-0.32120880484580994,
0.053261227905750275,
0.29176080226898193,
-0.41163429617881775,
-0.5678472518920898,
0.768767237663269,
0.06876768916845322,
-0.21291281282901764,
0.6188894510269165,
-0.5606251358985901,
0.40635788440704346,
0.2524251937866211,
0.5593487620353699,
0.38852840662002563,
-0.9530642628669739,
0.8062295317649841,
0.05282047763466835,
-0.12575945258140564,
-0.6046192049980164,
-0.7818998098373413,
-0.2172507643699646,
-0.6103118062019348,
-1.2445738315582275,
0.3713749647140503,
-0.18965564668178558,
0.13723276555538177,
0.49974325299263,
-0.4313722550868988,
-0.32993173599243164,
-0.45528727769851685,
0.0450252927839756,
0.1872178614139557,
0.37864595651626587,
0.04365112632513046,
-0.1429096758365631,
0.5858535766601562,
0.5615988969802856,
-0.07844672352075577,
-1.081260323524475,
-0.15620489418506622,
0.09505653381347656,
0.059833016246557236,
0.12445130944252014,
0.3537447452545166,
-0.19666989147663116,
-0.10931121557950974,
0.003992702811956406,
0.30535459518432617,
-0.06864090263843536,
-0.4703001081943512,
-0.6348044276237488,
-0.9783786535263062,
-0.03918341547250748,
-0.13725274801254272,
-0.23358310759067535,
0.31945866346359253,
-0.229218989610672,
-0.6778163909912109,
-1.730513334274292,
-0.22520595788955688,
0.1718100905418396,
-0.6996337175369263,
-0.0400845929980278,
-1.0464452505111694,
0.9167746305465698,
0.09323758631944656,
0.5947377681732178,
0.08778083324432373,
0.23581217229366302,
-0.7918145656585693,
0.37609466910362244,
0.6216528415679932,
0.18304386734962463,
0.07209418714046478,
-0.5798136591911316,
-0.2450253814458847,
0.1533990204334259,
-0.6678881049156189,
0.8731136322021484,
-0.7585543990135193,
0.13558611273765564,
-0.07405223697423935,
0.24450653791427612,
0.14873942732810974,
-0.17025218904018402,
-0.5086126923561096,
0.42815348505973816,
-0.6891583204269409,
-0.03296731412410736,
-0.1900985985994339,
0.2770136594772339,
-0.48220986127853394,
-0.014872271567583084,
-2.9027788639068604,
0.3352363109588623,
-0.49082067608833313,
0.6531115174293518,
-0.25830087065696716,
-0.8442098498344421,
0.7865395545959473,
-0.6543376445770264,
-0.8804793357849121,
0.3101038336753845,
-0.007968292571604252,
-0.00869726575911045,
-0.732037365436554,
0.8764423727989197,
0.9062773585319519,
0.4911283254623413,
0.699355959892273,
-0.4427569508552551,
0.47375836968421936,
-0.05079283565282822,
-0.5226770639419556,
0.10293974727392197,
0.15680807828903198,
0.08654838800430298,
0.24013537168502808,
0.6615141034126282,
0.004223864059895277,
0.21715596318244934,
-0.7861149907112122,
0.16699233651161194,
-0.4647449851036072,
-0.14272895455360413,
0.07160771638154984,
-0.5477536916732788,
-0.5186681151390076,
-0.35535284876823425,
-0.16078418493270874,
0.4250659942626953,
-0.14951977133750916,
-0.430888831615448,
-0.25509268045425415,
0.4179736375808716,
0.09742660075426102,
0.5583145618438721,
0.7281205654144287,
-0.15805913507938385,
-0.6444419026374817,
-0.13706398010253906,
-0.18610188364982605,
1.0565825700759888,
-0.09321960806846619,
-0.5473003387451172,
0.9751279950141907,
0.8577695488929749,
0.25802892446517944,
-0.2970280051231384,
0.4035652279853821,
-0.7787253856658936,
-0.4517940580844879,
0.3254578411579132,
1.029099702835083,
-0.33167117834091187,
-0.017108233645558357,
-0.21191804111003876,
0.9427078366279602,
-0.7033562064170837,
-0.16076283156871796,
-0.3035702109336853,
0.23870739340782166,
0.5287944078445435,
-0.4959414303302765,
0.6877375245094299,
-0.3808417320251465,
-0.26272010803222656,
0.09047881513834,
-0.6202828288078308,
-0.557220458984375,
0.37708601355552673,
-0.2089124470949173,
0.7514868378639221,
0.23881562054157257,
-0.11580958962440491,
-0.6104174256324768,
1.1576473712921143,
-0.16709844768047333,
-0.33355531096458435,
0.021183695644140244,
0.29415586590766907,
-1.179481863975525,
-0.20919351279735565,
-0.3230201303958893,
0.03045685589313507,
0.1047305166721344,
0.44440343976020813,
-0.6645729541778564,
0.38643935322761536,
0.5950764417648315,
-0.01441921852529049,
-0.22470353543758392,
-0.9431383013725281,
0.3756479024887085,
-0.8874017596244812,
-0.4801158010959625,
-0.30119743943214417,
0.2906043529510498,
-0.5485450029373169,
-0.10942535102367401,
0.6205711960792542,
0.010799937881529331,
-0.030297059565782547,
0.0710807517170906,
-0.05052955076098442,
-0.5585545301437378,
-0.03549500182271004,
1.0255755186080933,
0.12490037828683853,
-0.02371402643620968,
0.6431079506874084,
0.6193878054618835,
0.7310960292816162,
0.2634519040584564,
0.21120533347129822,
-0.15441279113292694,
-0.25860580801963806,
-0.027923164889216423,
-0.1411169320344925,
0.7108968496322632,
0.19310161471366882,
-0.7253479361534119,
-0.35820263624191284,
-0.7561613917350769,
-0.215349480509758,
-0.43711769580841064,
-0.7343774437904358,
-0.0985310971736908,
-0.6828675866127014,
-0.8875281810760498,
0.7545339465141296,
0.16108664870262146,
-0.3165695071220398,
0.2558925151824951,
0.4167258143424988,
-0.22270287573337555,
0.47687748074531555,
0.3144497573375702,
1.0327541828155518,
0.5269716382026672,
-0.32522672414779663,
-0.9425861239433289,
0.4263211190700531,
0.36170098185539246,
-1.087212324142456,
-0.04218452796339989,
-1.2438557147979736,
0.0877746045589447,
-0.07121125608682632,
0.3399539589881897,
0.6362731456756592,
0.361274391412735,
-1.0406887531280518,
-0.20039723813533783,
0.006732718087732792,
-0.576313853263855,
0.15879859030246735,
0.4288676679134369,
-0.5596081018447876,
0.4061105251312256,
-0.9958369135856628,
-0.9857542514801025,
0.8287690877914429,
-0.35794007778167725,
0.2578303813934326,
-0.7707175016403198,
-0.2705398499965668,
0.5906347036361694,
-0.30912283062934875,
0.3023575246334076,
-0.007847613655030727,
0.28378137946128845,
-0.4191277027130127,
-0.3546682596206665,
-0.04479175806045532,
-0.345003604888916,
-0.0694219246506691,
-0.2739824652671814,
-0.23595638573169708,
-0.2009890079498291,
-0.2541500926017761,
-0.9590590000152588,
0.45891451835632324,
0.04747367650270462,
0.6548802852630615,
0.946796178817749,
-0.39064785838127136,
-0.8597537279129028,
-0.7565261125564575,
0.276725172996521,
1.0162062644958496,
0.2989444136619568,
-1.8183459043502808,
1.1081331968307495,
0.8551075458526611,
-0.32699111104011536,
0.7802261114120483,
0.263016015291214,
-0.5542129278182983,
0.7486092448234558,
0.678982675075531,
-0.8279131054878235,
1.1235589981079102,
0.13703304529190063,
-1.2344735860824585,
-0.1712736189365387,
0.43065503239631653,
-0.5246813893318176,
-0.6640068292617798,
0.9386879205703735,
-0.14841537177562714,
-0.1340792328119278,
0.1564360111951828,
0.05148011073470116,
-0.6977750062942505,
-0.5485289096832275,
-0.9009001851081848,
-0.656838059425354,
0.9225634932518005,
0.018916409462690353,
-0.04974091053009033,
0.6175952553749084,
-0.5223152041435242,
0.22337719798088074,
-0.1849329024553299,
0.8653199076652527,
0.6145628690719604,
-0.28533726930618286,
0.4248938262462616,
-0.46408188343048096,
0.7444732189178467,
-0.14351922273635864,
0.1666615903377533,
0.4546697437763214,
0.6101449131965637,
0.9319528341293335,
-0.2670931816101074,
0.004778494592756033,
0.07823991030454636,
0.35807573795318604,
-0.05414002016186714,
-0.7765076756477356,
-0.17389941215515137,
0.657454788684845,
-0.5448238849639893,
-1.1108893156051636,
-0.42082837224006653,
1.0966216325759888,
0.2555977404117584,
0.2592827081680298,
0.47831666469573975,
-0.34326815605163574,
0.04455678537487984,
-0.10412179678678513,
0.9529172778129578,
0.045523639768362045,
0.825322687625885,
-0.10877376794815063,
0.17441758513450623,
0.14280204474925995,
0.0033952677622437477,
0.9776184558868408,
-0.1994190812110901,
-0.10282764583826065,
-0.7589219808578491,
0.32515960931777954,
-0.20957250893115997,
-0.2826528251171112,
0.23962850868701935,
0.327678918838501,
-1.3210753202438354,
-0.16471581161022186,
-0.8226310014724731,
0.3710494339466095,
0.12661805748939514,
0.8972643613815308,
-0.11139940470457077,
0.23709401488304138,
-0.8300551772117615,
-0.8779251575469971,
0.22302640974521637,
-0.4069546163082123,
0.26858285069465637,
-0.3875201642513275,
-0.2274836152791977,
-0.1843186914920807,
0.18129678070545197,
0.30100342631340027,
0.5515434741973877,
-0.4429236650466919,
-0.42932260036468506,
-0.3095734119415283,
0.11329269409179688,
-1.2315914630889893,
1.5357215404510498,
0.10038886964321136,
-0.5628241300582886,
0.821465015411377,
0.5290438532829285,
0.09075604379177094,
-0.14592821896076202,
0.30584201216697693,
0.26504644751548767,
0.2541840374469757,
0.5315762162208557,
-0.013174142688512802,
0.6693307757377625,
-0.05497946962714195,
0.7330532670021057,
-0.10062526166439056,
-0.8463124632835388,
-0.491716206073761,
0.9023346304893494,
0.014035724103450775,
-0.3300333619117737,
0.5716931819915771,
0.016985565423965454,
-0.3165737986564636,
0.5288800597190857,
-0.7061662673950195,
-0.37232330441474915,
0.9651200771331787,
0.4865390658378601,
0.2496049553155899,
0.03997068852186203,
-1.3587325811386108,
0.7789996862411499,
0.04334443062543869,
0.29392698407173157,
0.47122353315353394,
-0.8165094256401062,
-0.4735366404056549,
0.47412586212158203,
0.15134739875793457,
0.5335832238197327,
-0.1588253676891327,
-1.0341404676437378,
-0.30937284231185913,
-0.15535329282283783,
-1.0942026376724243,
0.1670808345079422,
0.26779109239578247,
0.07691387087106705,
0.7904328107833862,
-0.1802768111228943,
-0.1846003532409668,
-0.3094557821750641,
-0.21342913806438446,
0.17554987967014313,
0.37663576006889343,
-0.6839528679847717,
-0.6098951697349548,
-1.150748610496521,
-0.6361466646194458,
-0.37912553548812866,
-0.052300240844488144,
0.045388199388980865,
0.25020909309387207,
-0.0640648901462555,
0.551609456539154,
-0.18832336366176605,
-0.3058948814868927,
0.7345215678215027,
0.6075694561004639,
-0.12252664566040039,
0.869650661945343,
0.4665003716945648,
1.1503076553344727,
0.1761547327041626,
-0.5790804624557495,
-0.0807420015335083,
0.21565799415111542,
0.41755491495132446,
-0.6293621063232422,
0.5027337074279785,
-0.14678220450878143,
-0.7603012323379517,
0.30815646052360535,
-0.4466135501861572,
-0.49869653582572937,
0.09627901762723923,
0.5075962543487549,
-0.0171918086707592,
0.22804395854473114,
-0.19076018035411835,
-0.7740169167518616,
0.37922072410583496,
-0.7161433696746826,
-0.14747531712055206,
-0.40062791109085083,
0.6336970329284668,
-0.3380398750305176,
-0.978113055229187,
-0.23502503335475922,
0.3435298204421997,
-0.21267767250537872,
0.5000216960906982,
-0.08136369287967682,
0.3924495577812195,
-0.4780110716819763,
0.963291347026825,
-0.6465339064598083,
0.5672261714935303,
-0.7800071835517883,
0.0875500738620758,
-0.3530716896057129,
0.5878210067749023,
-0.04100997745990753,
0.8324220180511475,
0.24174714088439941,
-0.36308562755584717,
-0.521523118019104,
-0.7979483008384705,
0.3133060336112976,
-0.3351064920425415,
0.15203966200351715,
0.5428420901298523,
0.06238879635930061,
-0.28388023376464844,
-0.10149121284484863,
0.24758005142211914,
0.0810801237821579,
0.09762647747993469,
0.2378121167421341,
1.13214111328125,
0.10889829695224762,
-0.8987895846366882,
-0.5703065395355225,
0.14167988300323486,
0.28465619683265686,
1.1736661195755005,
0.09615983068943024,
-0.49745193123817444,
-0.3734046220779419,
-0.9270454049110413,
0.3449673652648926,
-0.03181612491607666,
-2.5550730228424072,
-0.1644926518201828,
-0.8623262047767639,
-0.9016859531402588,
-0.23760771751403809,
0.012441459111869335,
0.12886320054531097,
-0.5336993336677551,
0.04950045421719551,
0.03510696440935135,
-0.10016733407974243,
0.4029678702354431,
-0.2823207378387451,
-0.7093437910079956,
0.6800203919410706,
0.262839674949646
] |
247990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tove | Tove | Tove is a Scandinavian given name that derives from the Old Norse name Tófa. Some believe the name to be a shortening of Thorfrithr, "beautiful Thor" or "peace of Thor", though the carvings on the Sønder Vissing Runestone show the name to have come from the rune for Tyr, the ancient Norse and Germanic god of sky, justice and war. While the two middle characters suggest cattle/Aurochs, and cattle/wealth/Frey respectively, the last of the four runic characters also denotes gender. Tófa and Tófi appear to have been relatively popular names in the 10th and 11th centuries and are found in Anglo-Scandinavian court witness lists and later in the Domesday Book in their Latinised form. The personal name became a surname in medieval England, with spellings of Tovi, Tovie (16th century) and Tovey recorded in wills and church documents.
Today, Tove as a personal name is usually given to girls but occasionally to boys. It is also an alternative English spelling of the Hebrew name more commonly spelled Tovah or Tova. Famous persons named Tove include:
Women
Tove Ditlevsen, Danish poet and author.
Tove Jansson, Finnish artist and author.
Tove Edfeldt, Swedish actress.
Tove Lindbo Larsen, Danish politician
Tove Maës, Danish actress
Tove Nilsen, Norwegian writer
Tove Nielsen, Danish politician
Tove Styrke, Swedish singer
Tove Lo, Swedish singer
Men
Tove Christensen, Canadian actor and producer.
Tove (sculptor), Middle Age Scania sculptor.
Tove is also:
a legendary young woman, mistress of the Danish King Waldemar, and subject of a poem by Jens Peter Jacobsen best known for its musical setting as the Gurre-Lieder of Arnold Schoenberg.
Tove of the Obotrites a 10th-century Wendish princess.
a fictional, slithy creature created by Lewis Carroll that appears in his poem Jabberwocky.
High Tove, a mountain in the English Lake District
River Tove, tributary of the River Great Ouse in England.
TOVE Project, an ontology for modelling enterprises.
Tove (film), a biopic about Tove Jansson.
See also
Tova (disambiguation)
References
Scandinavian feminine given names
Swedish feminine given names
Danish feminine given names
Norwegian feminine given names | [
-0.318936824798584,
-0.007731623016297817,
0.11126137524843216,
-0.6746850609779358,
-0.737204909324646,
0.7223774194717407,
0.5102497339248657,
-0.17923854291439056,
-0.34712138772010803,
0.11894287168979645,
-0.014028841629624367,
0.3514503836631775,
0.1317104995250702,
0.2179654985666275,
-0.7061276435852051,
0.1159476786851883,
0.09076608717441559,
0.9497849941253662,
0.33667704463005066,
-0.32459357380867004,
0.37982481718063354,
-0.17524787783622742,
0.2658841907978058,
-0.049155764281749725,
0.451952189207077,
-0.26233869791030884,
0.4945361912250519,
0.19086854159832,
0.7533288598060608,
0.38248905539512634,
-0.013801243156194687,
0.4035719037055969,
0.15284325182437897,
-0.2866605520248413,
-0.2987622618675232,
-0.3533942997455597,
0.34576109051704407,
-0.06239761412143707,
-0.4981127083301544,
-0.19809623062610626,
-0.2819691300392151,
-0.2363698035478592,
0.3837563395500183,
-0.006569371093064547,
0.09193702042102814,
-0.19749729335308075,
-1.554996371269226,
1.0400930643081665,
-0.8727379441261292,
0.5366434454917908,
-0.6150762438774109,
-0.04056384414434433,
0.2697533667087555,
0.5694933533668518,
0.6803773641586304,
0.37794628739356995,
-0.6231299638748169,
0.20576906204223633,
0.20851989090442657,
-0.23470734059810638,
0.47150489687919617,
0.15132582187652588,
0.07543269544839859,
-0.2257450968027115,
-0.1732594221830368,
0.24966754019260406,
0.1358512043952942,
0.2955470085144043,
0.08120018988847733,
-1.2440963983535767,
-0.6485471129417419,
0.05461819842457771,
-0.17101290822029114,
-0.4354785978794098,
-0.09189870208501816,
0.030953001230955124,
-0.46110475063323975,
-0.04108139127492905,
0.25216245651245117,
-0.44875797629356384,
-0.06696003675460815,
-0.6704726219177246,
0.3777507245540619,
-0.1596674621105194,
0.2535780072212219,
0.2460683435201645,
-0.5507712960243225,
-0.12298883497714996,
-0.48857125639915466,
0.3114549219608307,
0.5597664713859558,
-0.6657983064651489,
0.05204809829592705,
-0.22525840997695923,
0.4915652573108673,
0.24206632375717163,
-0.5210558772087097,
0.42781510949134827,
0.07815543562173843,
1.0025547742843628,
-0.1949218362569809,
-0.10186036676168442,
0.38577038049697876,
-0.3173590898513794,
0.0885915532708168,
-0.1045934408903122,
-0.33720090985298157,
-0.1884707659482956,
-0.13284042477607727,
-1.091831088066101,
-0.8048003315925598,
0.13480088114738464,
0.3970433473587036,
-0.13435274362564087,
0.03499975427985191,
0.32787078619003296,
-0.1822919100522995,
-0.5131025314331055,
-0.23425060510635376,
0.075654037296772,
0.2447275072336197,
0.4178621470928192,
-0.028017815202474594,
0.21798133850097656,
0.3638002574443817,
-0.0927877277135849,
0.05062723532319069,
0.6448978781700134,
-0.3950333297252655,
0.28635379672050476,
-0.097187340259552,
0.3876899480819702,
-0.1294817179441452,
0.5230662226676941,
-0.4274052381515503,
-0.018932294100522995,
0.4721601903438568,
-0.13597100973129272,
-0.1121513843536377,
0.5881076455116272,
-0.7894061207771301,
0.3545795679092407,
-1.18694007396698,
0.24811922013759613,
0.5578471422195435,
0.4412395656108856,
-0.21639086306095123,
-0.47915709018707275,
-0.14916864037513733,
-0.3304256498813629,
0.5505303740501404,
-0.40297460556030273,
0.704559862613678,
0.9697335958480835,
-0.14654380083084106,
0.592296302318573,
0.358993798494339,
0.3338288962841034,
-0.0740724503993988,
0.3939577341079712,
-0.16038759052753448,
0.25679534673690796,
0.20871326327323914,
0.23602832853794098,
0.9967120289802551,
-0.07316870242357254,
0.3942425549030304,
0.513748824596405,
-0.06129656359553337,
0.35692286491394043,
-0.5220032334327698,
0.3002328872680664,
0.6861721277236938,
0.06062593683600426,
-0.24490807950496674,
0.3277704119682312,
0.2848242521286011,
-0.5621984601020813,
-0.015545272268354893,
-0.4545544981956482,
-0.7146708965301514,
0.5804654359817505,
0.294546902179718,
-0.34819817543029785,
0.09273336082696915,
-0.0425490103662014,
0.345582515001297,
-0.08295416831970215,
0.3188346028327942,
0.1335149109363556,
-0.2537238299846649,
-0.5015162825584412,
0.5302776098251343,
0.38021472096443176,
1.0967413187026978,
-0.3547183871269226,
-0.007720033638179302,
0.37996500730514526,
0.15430955588817596,
0.840277910232544,
-0.2933047115802765,
-0.5571066737174988,
0.551584005355835,
-0.5861695408821106,
-0.02792084775865078,
1.175447940826416,
-0.514687180519104,
0.36612552404403687,
0.42731979489326477,
0.5584319829940796,
0.16681788861751556,
-0.1898740530014038,
0.6158934831619263,
-0.07109672576189041,
-0.3431644141674042,
-0.10028411448001862,
-0.3162548542022705,
0.4602673351764679,
0.25084584951400757,
-0.2868471145629883,
0.15397512912750244,
-0.04370268061757088,
-0.5519843697547913,
-0.3921510875225067,
0.28346747159957886,
0.3957222104072571,
0.01624920777976513,
0.5278843641281128,
0.107685387134552,
-0.8242043852806091,
0.008459934033453465,
0.0639093890786171,
0.9111589193344116,
-0.4159691333770752,
0.24145309627056122,
-0.7972723245620728,
0.16624341905117035,
0.18119460344314575,
0.18743808567523956,
-0.6824852824211121,
0.010142513550817966,
0.5545943379402161,
-0.11701561510562897,
0.03495757654309273,
0.5320957899093628,
0.25030356645584106,
0.20333576202392578,
-0.19238540530204773,
0.15773211419582367,
0.0017910145688802004,
0.05622583255171776,
-0.07582779973745346,
0.25730136036872864,
-0.2212107926607132,
-0.2372768223285675,
-0.1465616077184677,
-0.017757588997483253,
0.24510739743709564,
-0.12240899354219437,
0.1054525151848793,
-0.4475957453250885,
0.2795622944831848,
0.23249396681785583,
0.18976734578609467,
0.5436670184135437,
-0.2204599827528,
-0.4289248585700989,
-0.11692879348993301,
1.005683183670044,
-0.038143496960401535,
-0.2302016317844391,
-0.2765328586101532,
-0.8667995929718018,
-1.138115406036377,
-0.19949959218502045,
-0.443636953830719,
-0.317099928855896,
-0.08135480433702469,
-0.42076948285102844,
-0.2895999848842621,
-0.10441052168607712,
1.0703434944152832,
0.2904823124408722,
-0.4576311409473419,
0.2109062522649765,
-0.09145372360944748,
0.18173269927501678,
0.11210298538208008,
-0.13942675292491913,
-0.03846852853894234,
0.3484479784965515,
-0.3181934952735901,
-0.5203104019165039,
-0.1542699784040451,
-0.03764713183045387,
-0.312582790851593,
0.18476322293281555,
0.28789788484573364,
0.18593178689479828,
-0.06408483535051346,
-0.2887509763240814,
0.35596388578414917,
-0.1564430296421051,
-0.2898786664009094,
0.1039012223482132,
0.04215540736913681,
-0.19179944694042206,
-0.33673447370529175,
-5.275095462799072,
-0.29106825590133667,
0.5788369178771973,
-0.39233505725860596,
-0.44775858521461487,
0.12796004116535187,
0.6598687767982483,
-0.19548067450523376,
0.14448346197605133,
-0.45088204741477966,
0.3408196270465851,
-0.23938331007957458,
0.03979821503162384,
0.633270800113678,
0.8228113651275635,
0.4378058612346649,
0.1716310679912567,
0.18217746913433075,
0.003651062725111842,
-0.13253290951251984,
0.11091693490743637,
0.2672836482524872,
-0.13828371465206146,
0.5154063701629639,
-0.11419975012540817,
0.6701664328575134,
0.06182411313056946,
-0.13710525631904602,
-0.44611382484436035,
0.16098718345165253,
0.2932407855987549,
0.2757733166217804,
0.38687485456466675,
-0.5321044325828552,
-0.36412313580513,
0.37416762113571167,
0.6633713245391846,
0.35819393396377563,
0.6178261637687683,
-0.2904514968395233,
0.0928027555346489,
0.5619463324546814,
0.2434769570827484,
-0.00245659495703876,
0.3664833605289459,
-0.23123279213905334,
-0.410907119512558,
0.572699248790741,
-1.1149723529815674,
1.0928705930709839,
0.37929412722587585,
-0.588286280632019,
0.5425030589103699,
-0.05245395377278328,
0.5789846181869507,
0.06129400432109833,
0.256266325712204,
-0.10514120012521744,
-0.24618543684482574,
0.12157660722732544,
-0.07484547048807144,
0.07603909075260162,
-0.023224111646413803,
-0.7319624423980713,
0.11493874341249466,
-0.5534869432449341,
-0.4474165439605713,
0.14304104447364807,
0.23238633573055267,
0.2958291471004486,
0.29724061489105225,
0.22016122937202454,
0.0187698882073164,
-1.1420036554336548,
-0.004619359504431486,
-0.6853979229927063,
-0.27306485176086426,
0.10608445852994919,
0.14580193161964417,
-0.10257090628147125,
0.23019789159297943,
-0.5372147560119629,
-0.9049940705299377,
-0.11034063249826431,
-0.11545790731906891,
-0.39442864060401917,
-0.5130519270896912,
-0.7296869158744812,
0.08289529383182526,
-0.7804471254348755,
0.5063342452049255,
-0.000742253556381911,
-0.06495720148086548,
0.3134559690952301,
-0.3453064262866974,
0.7330523729324341,
-0.048834096640348434,
-0.9842855334281921,
-0.03249058127403259,
-0.5748869776725769,
0.4399391710758209,
-0.6852561235427856,
0.6399908661842346,
0.4039416015148163,
0.004168515559285879,
-0.21725402772426605,
-0.9282260537147522,
0.19252710044384003,
0.3901827335357666,
-0.1481766253709793,
0.5169006586074829,
-0.14825323224067688,
-0.4335778057575226,
-0.5435319542884827,
0.15648715198040009,
-0.1904047131538391,
0.17004622519016266,
0.6581978797912598,
0.5844910144805908,
-0.27986037731170654,
0.018027447164058685,
0.009205610491335392,
0.05018278956413269,
-0.3672443628311157,
-0.3517700731754303,
-0.5386483073234558,
-0.49292296171188354,
-0.14390476047992706,
-0.5624897480010986,
0.8969871997833252,
-0.10147573053836823,
-0.31939414143562317,
0.07799474149942398,
0.17319908738136292,
0.0966026708483696,
-0.006694789510220289,
-0.44052594900131226,
-0.2854014039039612,
0.07881467789411545,
-0.43076592683792114,
0.14008104801177979,
-0.284695029258728,
-0.357261061668396,
-0.012476546689867973,
0.11405091732740402,
0.3659212589263916,
-0.093897745013237,
-0.16107983887195587,
-0.3244995176792145,
0.5676490664482117,
-0.46364760398864746,
0.16949507594108582,
0.2567947506904602,
-0.6916934847831726,
-0.28915247321128845,
0.35261496901512146,
-0.5024617314338684,
0.2531031370162964,
-0.46522626280784607,
0.32942503690719604,
-0.5160632133483887,
-0.3475482165813446,
-1.2995617389678955,
0.22725805640220642,
-0.14585863053798676,
-1.0117686986923218,
-0.4446583688259125,
-0.43199384212493896,
-0.051355935633182526,
0.6452828049659729,
-0.04880481958389282,
-0.7200273871421814,
-0.5165523886680603,
-0.3892292380332947,
-0.09041233360767365,
-0.384825199842453,
-0.25368309020996094,
0.2167995125055313,
-0.22717003524303436,
0.33582159876823425,
0.017031120136380196,
0.34582141041755676,
0.17281338572502136,
0.7014696598052979,
0.7899007797241211,
-0.3542887568473816,
-0.710629940032959,
-0.31988200545310974,
-0.3832778334617615,
-0.16026681661605835,
-0.3391778767108917,
0.562118411064148,
0.5671318173408508,
0.5669820308685303,
-0.4603584110736847,
-0.6214687824249268,
-0.10656904429197311,
-0.12083902209997177,
-0.07730814814567566,
-0.0471656434237957,
0.31380602717399597,
0.8954128623008728,
-0.18519987165927887,
0.43751969933509827,
-0.16803064942359924,
-0.47292283177375793,
0.9058079719543457,
0.28644877672195435,
-0.351022332906723,
0.29631680250167847,
-0.11882271617650986,
-0.6772456169128418,
-0.49907609820365906,
0.8788101077079773,
-0.21602359414100647,
-0.14992497861385345,
0.5164886116981506,
-0.03615705296397209,
0.05214249715209007,
-0.9339035749435425,
-0.11504185199737549,
-1.0138105154037476,
-0.14286303520202637,
-0.6059394478797913,
-0.12284093350172043,
0.06525702774524689,
0.011496642604470253,
-0.1711440533399582,
1.3485589027404785,
-0.0605776347219944,
0.3296748101711273,
-0.2240941822528839,
0.12100686877965927,
0.3318801522254944,
-0.4658951163291931,
0.21214203536510468,
-0.5668409466743469,
-0.22306019067764282,
0.20632274448871613,
0.4721709191799164,
0.8418653011322021,
1.2758593559265137,
0.08235862851142883,
-0.2659416198730469,
-0.30824148654937744,
-0.08499786257743835,
0.1224273294210434,
-0.7360977530479431,
-0.010001309216022491,
0.4465172588825226,
-0.22304444015026093,
-0.4621090292930603,
-0.5918306708335876,
0.022561009973287582,
1.1100736856460571,
-0.1958332508802414,
0.3256414830684662,
0.45075729489326477,
0.4402541518211365,
0.37921932339668274,
-0.05418772995471954,
0.14844554662704468,
-0.5539949536323547,
0.7243220210075378,
-0.11040274798870087,
0.14825543761253357,
-0.03455553948879242,
0.16679571568965912,
0.44918620586395264,
-0.21630793809890747,
-0.22474099695682526,
-0.6680736541748047,
0.5269635319709778,
-0.06637438386678696,
-0.3772949278354645,
-0.34445351362228394,
-0.10275077074766159,
-0.7834848165512085,
0.5533709526062012,
-0.3108472228050232,
-0.4077577590942383,
0.07076778262853622,
0.5737537145614624,
-0.015255891717970371,
-0.10995560139417648,
-0.24705398082733154,
-0.3058079779148102,
-0.22222043573856354,
-0.6209688782691956,
0.1217702254652977,
-0.1066490188241005,
0.10067398846149445,
-0.18580009043216705,
0.4413764774799347,
0.0006376924575306475,
0.4640302360057831,
0.2677372694015503,
0.860331654548645,
-0.16925397515296936,
0.37009936571121216,
-0.4799000024795532,
-0.10132402926683426,
-0.044847991317510605,
-0.455667644739151,
0.1968754082918167,
0.45748794078826904,
-0.4696146249771118,
-0.16207605600357056,
0.2460044026374817,
0.110136479139328,
-0.35567063093185425,
-0.05965632200241089,
-0.06804480403661728,
0.5686493515968323,
0.276474267244339,
0.13129515945911407,
0.4480472207069397,
-0.42469242215156555,
-0.12993772327899933,
0.09123658388853073,
0.5339890122413635,
-0.511885941028595,
0.41835644841194153,
0.6442798972129822,
0.14667300879955292,
0.7352659702301025,
-0.04036834090948105,
-0.544503390789032,
-0.2904079854488373,
-0.21676218509674072,
0.5988848805427551,
0.05961764603853226,
-0.7593361735343933,
0.2661590576171875,
-0.3896659016609192,
-0.21685414016246796,
-0.016803238540887833,
-0.048500996083021164,
-0.6607873439788818,
0.29773372411727905,
-0.06940522789955139,
0.3014966547489166,
0.5970871448516846,
-0.2929975688457489,
0.20345714688301086,
-0.4608507752418518,
-0.13396117091178894,
-0.4048347771167755,
0.28215229511260986,
-0.3209473490715027,
0.23755821585655212,
-0.5516491532325745,
0.0657709613442421,
-0.6248541474342346,
-0.2744259238243103,
0.5744134187698364,
0.20826509594917297,
-0.8539786338806152,
-0.679180920124054,
-0.6546581983566284,
0.12028598040342331,
-0.7701181769371033,
-0.06315489858388901,
0.2109808325767517,
-0.5961227416992188,
0.2514924108982086,
-0.29856303334236145,
-0.4671785235404968,
0.47864222526550293,
0.5403255820274353,
0.9016050696372986,
0.8281071782112122,
0.05765794217586517,
0.016559679061174393,
0.05498746410012245,
0.7351763248443604,
0.3009880781173706,
0.01966017857193947,
0.3159971535205841,
-0.13668163120746613,
-0.4176775813102722,
0.20423179864883423,
-0.2751314342021942,
0.06827253103256226,
-0.38623467087745667,
-0.6806365251541138,
0.2654058635234833,
0.014897662214934826,
0.03215263783931732,
0.10103867202997208,
0.7137390375137329,
-0.7481302618980408,
0.17733456194400787,
0.13326731324195862,
-0.9659618139266968,
0.5135718584060669,
-0.015806972980499268,
0.18095619976520538,
0.5663094520568848,
-0.18569140136241913,
-0.644591748714447,
0.40047499537467957,
-0.004898578394204378,
0.1811482161283493,
-0.1473485827445984,
0.4316476285457611,
0.13740168511867523,
-0.14131887257099152,
0.12236757576465607,
0.5826048254966736,
0.9956411719322205,
0.35674217343330383,
0.050162605941295624,
-0.270026296377182,
-0.49420058727264404,
-0.6562301516532898,
0.4666711688041687,
-0.13130885362625122,
-0.08841881155967712,
0.04979861527681351,
0.21878153085708618,
-0.10404568165540695,
0.161833718419075,
0.5442119240760803,
-0.07038161903619766,
-0.3642594814300537,
-0.36779680848121643,
0.30240997672080994,
-0.989200234413147,
0.4204491376876831,
-0.4244019389152527,
0.12482815980911255,
-0.41087597608566284,
0.17578142881393433,
-0.04509692266583443,
0.599152684211731,
0.07019150257110596,
0.06705139577388763,
-0.07863504439592361,
-0.31004372239112854,
0.6513227820396423,
-0.5587560534477234,
-0.4566136598587036,
0.2954972982406616,
-1.582230806350708,
0.6343114376068115,
0.4397754371166229,
-0.41562536358833313,
-0.22481714189052582,
-0.013655148446559906,
0.5529494285583496,
-0.8094227910041809,
0.7320822477340698,
-0.5282459855079651,
0.18170319497585297,
-0.4755616784095764,
0.42706507444381714,
-0.480960875749588,
0.15615689754486084,
0.627970814704895
] |
247991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Given%20name | Given name | A given name (also known as a first name or forename) is the part of a personal name that identifies a person, potentially with a middle name as well, and differentiates that person from the other members of a group (typically a family or clan) who have a common surname. The term given name refers to a name bestowed at or close to the time of birth, usually by the parents of the newborn. A Christian name is the first name which is given at baptism, in Christian custom.
In informal situations, given names are often used in a familiar and friendly manner. In more formal situations, a person's surname is more commonly used. The idioms 'on a first-name basis' and 'being on first-name terms' refer to the familiarity inherent in addressing someone by their given name.
By contrast, a surname (also known as a family name, last name, or gentile name) is normally inherited and shared with other members of one's immediate family. Regnal names and religious or monastic names are special given names bestowed upon someone receiving a crown or entering a religious order; such a person then typically becomes known chiefly by that name.
Name order
The order given name – family name, commonly known as the Western order, is used throughout most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by European culture, including North and South America; North, East, Central and West India; Australia, New Zealand, and the Philippines.
The order family name – given name, commonly known as the Eastern order, is primarily used in East Asia (for example in China, Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Malaysian Chinese, Singapore, and Vietnam, among others), as well as in Southern and North-Eastern parts of India, and as a standard in Hungary. This order is also used to various degrees and in specific contexts in other European countries, such as Austria and adjacent areas of Germany (that is, Bavaria), and in France, Belgium, Greece and Italy, possibly because of the influence of bureaucracy, which commonly puts the family name before the given name. In China and Korea, part of the given name may be shared among all members of a given generation within a family and extended family or families, in order to differentiate those generations from other generations.
The order given name – father's family name – mother's family name is commonly used in Spanish-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents. Today the order can also be changed legally in Spain and Uruguay using given name – mother's family name – father's family name.
The order given name – mother's family name – father's family name is commonly used in Portuguese-speaking countries to acknowledge the families of both parents.
The order given name - father's given name - grandfather's given name (often referred to as triple name) is the official naming order used in Arabic countries (for example Saudi Arabia, Iraq and UAE).
Compound
In many Western cultures, people often have multiple given names. Most often the first one in sequence is the one that a person goes by, although exceptions are not uncommon, such as in the cases of John Edgar Hoover (J. Edgar) and Dame Mary Barbara Hamilton Cartland (Barbara).
The given name might also be used in compound form, as in, for example, John Paul or a hyphenated style like Bengt-Arne. A middle name might be part of compound given name or might be, instead, a maiden name, a patronymic, or a baptismal name.
In England, it was unusual for a person to have more than one given name until the seventeenth century when Charles James Stuart — King Charles I — was baptised with two names. This was a French fashion which spread to the English aristocracy, following the royal example. The fashion then spread to the general population, becoming common by the end of the eighteenth century.
Some double given names for women were used at the start of the eighteenth century but these were used together as a unit: Anna Maria, Mary Anne and Sarah Jane. These became stereotyped as the typical names of servants and so became unfashionable in the nineteenth century.
Double names are also common among Vietnamese names to make repeated name in the family. For example, Đặng Vũ Minh Anh and Đặng Vũ Minh Ánh, are two-sister has the given names Minh Anh and Minh Ánh.
Legal status
A child's given name or names are usually chosen by the parents soon after birth. If a name is not assigned at birth, one may be given at a naming ceremony, with family and friends in attendance. In most jurisdictions, a child's name at birth is a matter of public record, inscribed on a birth certificate, or its equivalent. In western cultures, people normally retain the same given name throughout their lives. However, in some cases these names may be changed by following legal processes or by repute. People may also change their names when immigrating from one country to another with different naming conventions.
In certain jurisdictions, a government-appointed registrar of births may refuse to register a name that may cause a child harm, which is considered offensive or which is deemed impractical. In France, the agency can refer the case to a local judge. Some jurisdictions, such as Sweden, restrict the spelling of names. In Denmark, one does not need to register a given name for the child until the child is six months old, and in some cases, one can even wait a little longer than this, before the child gets an official name.
Origins and meanings
Parents may choose a name because of its meaning. This may be a personal or familial meaning, such as giving a child the name of an admired person, or it may be an example of nominative determinism, in which the parents give the child a name that they believe will be lucky or favourable for the child. Given names most often derive from the following categories:
Aspirational personal traits (external and internal). For example, the male names:
Clement ("merciful"); as popularised by Pope Clement I (88–98), saint, and his many papal successors of that name;
Augustus ("consecrated, holy"), first popularised by the first Roman Emperor; later (as Augustine) by two saints;
English examples include numerous female names such as Faith, Prudence, Amanda (Latin: worthy of love); Blanche (white (pure));
Occupations, for example George means "earth-worker", i.e., "farmer".
Circumstances of birth, for example:
Thomas meaning "twin";
Quintus (Latin: "fifth"), which was traditionally given to the fifth male child.
Objects, for example Peter means "rock" and Edgar means "rich spear".
Physical characteristics, for example Calvin means "bald".
Variations on another name, especially to change the sex of the name (Pauline, Georgia) or to translate from another language (for instance, the names Francis or Francisco that come from the name Franciscus meaning "Frank or Frenchman").
Surnames, Such names can honour other branches of a family, where the surname would not otherwise be passed down (e.g., the mother's maiden surname). Modern examples include:
Winston,
Harrison,
Ross.
Many were adopted from the 17th century in England to show respect to notable ancestry, usually given to nephews or male grandchildren of members of the great families concerned, from which the usage spread to general society. This was regardless of whether the family name concerned was in danger of dying out, for example with Howard, a family with many robust male lines over history. Notable examples include
Howard, from the Howard family, Dukes of Norfolk;
Courtenay, from the surname of the Earls of Devon;
Trevor, from the Welsh chieftain Tudor Trevor, lord of Hereford;
Digby, from the family of Baron Digby/Earl of Bristol;
Shirley (originally a man's forename), from the Shirley family, Earls Ferrer;
Percy, from the Percy Earls and Dukes of Northumberland;
Lindsay, from that noble Scottish family, Earls of Crawford;
Graham, from that noble Scottish family, Dukes of Montrose;
Eliot, from the Eliot family, Earls of St Germans;
Herbert, from the Herbert family, Earls of Pembroke;
Russell, from the Russell family, Earls and Dukes of Bedford;
Stanley, from the Stanley family, Earls of Derby;
Vernon, Earl of Shipbrook
Dillon, the Irish family of Dillon, Viscount Dillon
Places, for example Brittany and Lorraine.
Time of birth, for example day of the week, as in Kofi Annan, whose given name means "born on Friday", or the holiday on which one was born, for example, the name Natalie meaning "born on Christmas day" in Latin (Noel (French "Christmas"), a name given to males born at Christmas); also April, May, or June.
Combination of the above, for example the Armenian name Sirvart means "love rose".
In many cultures, given names are reused, especially to commemorate ancestors or those who are particularly admired, resulting in a limited repertoire of names that sometimes vary by orthography.
The most familiar example of this, to Western readers, is the use of Biblical and saints' names in most of the Christian countries (with Ethiopia, in which names were often ideals or abstractions—Haile Selassie, "power of the Trinity"; Haile Miriam, "power of Mary"—as the most conspicuous exception). However, the name Jesus is considered taboo or sacrilegious in some parts of the Christian world, though this taboo does not extend to the cognate Joshua or related forms which are common in many languages even among Christians. In some Spanish speaking countries, the name Jesus is considered a normal given name.
Similarly, the name Mary, now popular among Christians, particularly Roman Catholics, was considered too holy for secular use until about the 12th century. In countries that particularly venerated Mary, this remained the case much longer; in Poland, until the arrival in the 17th century of French queens named Marie.
Most common given names in English (and many other European languages) can be grouped into broad categories based on their origin:
Hebrew names, most often from the Bible, are very common in, or are elements of names used in historically Christian countries. Some have elements meaning "God", especially "Eli". Examples: Michael, Joshua, Daniel, Joseph, David, Adam, Samuel, Elizabeth, Hannah and Mary. There are also a handful of names in use derived from the Aramaic, particularly the names of prominent figures in the New Testament—such as Thomas, Martha and Bartholomew.
All of the Semitic peoples of history and the present day use at least some names constructed like these in Hebrew (and the ancient Hebrews used names not constructed like these—such as Moses, probably an Egyptian name related to the names of Pharaohs like Thutmose and Ahmose). The Muslim world is the best-known example (with names like Saif-al-din, "sword of the faith", or Abd-Allah, "servant of God"), but even the Carthaginians had similar names: cf. Hannibal, "the grace of god" (in this case not the Abrahamic deity God, but the deity—probably Melkart—whose title is normally left untranslated, as Baal).
Germanic names are characteristically warlike; roots with meanings like "glory", "strength", and "will" are common. The "-bert" element common in many such names comes from beraht, which means "bright". Examples: Robert, Edward, Roger, Richard, Albert, Carl, Alfred, Rosalind, Emma, Emmett, Eric and Matilda.
French forms of Germanic names. Since the Norman conquest of England, many English given names of Germanic origin are used in their French forms. Examples: Charles, Henry.
Slavic names may be of a peaceful character, the compounds being derived from word roots meaning "to protect", "to love", "peace", "to praise [gods]", or "to give". Examples: Milena, Vesna, Bohumil, Dobromir, Svetlana, Vlastimil. Other names have a warlike character and are built of words meaning "fighter", "war", or "anger". Examples: Casimir, Vladimir, Sambor, Wojciech and Zbigniew. Many of them derive from the root word "slava" ("glory"): Boleslav, Miroslav, Vladislav, Radoslav, Slavomir and Stanislav. Those derived from root word "mir" ("world, peace") are also popular: Casimir, Slavomir, Radomir, Vladimir, Miroslav, Jaczemir.
Celtic names are sometimes anglicised versions of Celtic forms, but the original form may also be used. Examples: Alan, Brian, Brigid, Mórag, Ross, Logan, Ciarán, Jennifer, and Seán. These names often have origins in Celtic words, as Celtic versions of the names of internationally known Christian saints, as names of Celtic mythological figures, or simply as long-standing names whose ultimate etymology is unclear.
Greek names may be derived from the history and mythology of Classical Antiquity or be derived from the New Testament and early Christian traditions. Such names are often, but not always, anglicised. Examples: Helen, Stephen, Alexander, Andrew, Peter, Gregory, George, Christopher, Margaret, Nicholas, Jason, Timothy, Chloe, Zoë, Katherine, Penelope and Theodore.
Latin names can also be adopted unchanged, or modified; in particular, the inflected element can be dropped, as often happens in borrowings from Latin to English. Examples: Laura, Victoria, Marcus, Justin (Latin Justinus), Paul (Lat. Paulus), Julius, Cecilia, Felix, Vivian, Julia, Pascal (not a traditional-type Latin name, but the adjective-turned-name paschalis, meaning 'of Easter' (Pascha)).
Word names come from English vocabulary words. Feminine names of this sort—in more languages than English, and more cultures than Europe alone—frequently derive from nature, flowers, birds, colours, or gemstones. Examples include Jasmine, Lavender, Dawn, Daisy, Rose, Iris, Petunia, Rowan, Jade, and Violet. Male names of this sort are less common—examples like Hunter and Fischer, or names associated with strong animals, such as Bronco and Wolf. (This is more common in some other languages, such as Northern Germanic and Turkish).
Trait names most conspicuously include the Christian virtues, mentioned above, and normally used as feminine names (such as the three Christian virtues—Faith, Hope, and Charity).
Diminutives are sometimes used to distinguish between two or more people with the same given name. In English, Robert may be changed to "Robbie" or Thomas changed to "Tommy". In German the names Hänsel and Gretel (as in the famous fairy tale) are the diminutive forms of Johann and Margarete. Examples: Vicky, Cindy, Tommy, Abby, Allie.
Shortened names (see nickname) are generally nicknames of a longer name, but they are instead given as a person's entire given name. For example, a man may simply be named "Jim", and it is not short for James. Examples: Beth, Ben, Zach, Tom.
Feminine variations exist for many masculine names, often in multiple forms. Examples: Charlotte, Stephanie, Victoria, Philippa, Jane, Jacqueline, Josephine, Danielle, Paula, Pauline, Patricia, Francesca.
Frequently, a given name has versions in many different languages. For example, the biblical name Susanna also occurs in its original biblical Hebrew version, Shoshannah, its Spanish and Portuguese version Susana, its French version, Suzanne, its Polish version, Zuzanna, or its Hungarian version, Zsuzsanna .
East Asia
Despite the uniformity of Chinese surnames, Chinese given names can be fairly original because Chinese characters can be combined extensively. Unlike European languages with their Biblical and Greco-Roman heritage, the Chinese language does not have a particular set of words reserved for given names: any combination of Chinese characters can theoretically be used as a given name. Nonetheless, a number of popular characters commonly recur, including "Strong" (, Wěi), "Learned" (, Wén), "Peaceful" (, Ān), and "Beautiful" (, Měi). Despite China's increasing urbanization, a great many namessuch as "Pine" (, Sōng) and "Plum" (, Méi)also still reference nature.
Most Chinese given names are two characters long anddespite the examples abovethe two characters together may mean nothing at all. Instead, they may be selected to include particular sounds, tones, or radicals; to balance the Chinese elements of a child's birth chart; or to honor a generation poem handed down through the family for centuries. Traditionally, it is considered an affront and not an honor to have a newborn named after an older relative, so that full names are rarely passed down through a family in the manner of American English Seniors, Juniors, III, etc. Similarly, it is considered disadvantageous for the child to bear a name already made famous by someone else, although Romanizations might be identical or a common name like Liu Xiang might be borne by tens of thousands.
Korean names and Vietnamese names are often simply conventions derived from Classical Chinese counterparts.
Many female Japanese names end in -ko (), usually meaning "child" on its own. However, the character when used in given names can have a feminine (adult) connotation.
In many Westernised Asian locations, many Asians also have an unofficial or even registered Western (typically English) given name, in addition to their Asian given name. This is also true for Asian students at colleges in countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia as well as among international businesspeople.
Gender
Most names in English are traditionally masculine (Hugo, James, Harold) or feminine (Daphne, Charlotte, Jane), but there are unisex names as well, such as Jordan, Jamie, Jesse, Morgan, Leslie/Lesley, Joe/Jo, Jackie, Pat, Dana, Alex, etc. Often, use for one gender is predominant. Also, a particular spelling is often more common for either men or women, even if the pronunciation is the same.
Many culture groups, past and present, did not or do not gender names strongly, so that many or all of their names are unisex. On the other hand, in many languages including most Indo-European languages (but not English), gender is inherent in the grammar. Some countries have laws preventing unisex names, requiring parents to give their children sex-specific names. Names may have different gender connotations from country to country or language to language.
Within anthroponymic classification, names of human males are called andronyms (from Ancient Greek ἀνήρ / man, and ὄνομα / name), while names of human females are called gynonyms (from Ancient Greek γυνή / woman, and ὄνομα / name).
Popularity
The popularity (frequency) distribution of given names typically follows a power law distribution.
Since about 1800 in England and Wales and in the U.S., the popularity distribution of given names has been shifting so that the most popular names are losing popularity. For example, in England and Wales, the most popular female and male names given to babies born in 1800 were Mary and John, with 24% of female babies and 22% of male babies receiving those names, respectively. In contrast, the corresponding statistics for England and Wales in 1994 were Emily and James, with 3% and 4% of names, respectively. Not only have Mary and John gone out of favour in the English speaking world, the overall distribution of names has also changed significantly over the last 100 years for females, but not for males. This has led to an increasing amount of diversity for female names.
Choice of names
Education, ethnicity, religion, class and political ideology affect parents' choice of names. Politically conservative parents choose common and traditional names, while politically liberal parents choose the names of literary characters or other relatively obscure cultural figures. Devout members of religions often choose names from their religious scriptures. For example, Hindu parents may name a daughter Saanvi after the goddess, Jewish parents may name a boy Isaac after one of the earliest ancestral figures, and Muslim parents may name a boy Mohammed after the prophet Mohammed.
There are many tools parents can use to choose names, including books, websites and applications. An example is the Baby Name Game that uses the Elo rating system to rank parents preferred names and help them select one.
Influence of popular culture
Popular culture appears to have an influence on naming trends, at least in the United States and United Kingdom. Newly famous celebrities and public figures may influence the popularity of names. For example, in 2004, the names "Keira" and "Kiera" (anglicisation of Irish name Ciara) respectively became the 51st and 92nd most popular girls' names in the UK, following the rise in popularity of British actress Keira Knightley. In 2001, the use of Colby as a boys' name for babies in the United States jumped from 233rd place to 99th, just after Colby Donaldson was the runner-up on Survivor: The Australian Outback. Also, the female name "Miley" which before was not in the top 1000 was 278th most popular in 2007, following the rise to fame of singer-actress Miley Cyrus (who was named Destiny at birth).
Characters from fiction also seem to influence naming. After the name Kayla was used for a character on the American soap opera Days of Our Lives, the name's popularity increased greatly. The name Tammy, and the related Tamara became popular after the movie Tammy and the Bachelor came out in 1957. Some names were established or spread by being used in literature. Notable examples include Pamela, invented by Sir Philip Sidney for a pivotal character in his epic prose work, The Countess of Pembroke's Arcadia; Jessica, created by William Shakespeare in his play The Merchant of Venice; Vanessa, created by Jonathan Swift; Fiona, a character from James Macpherson's spurious cycle of Ossian poems; Wendy, an obscure name popularised by J. M. Barrie in his play Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up; and Madison, a character from the movie Splash. Lara and Larissa were rare in America before the appearance of Doctor Zhivago, and have become fairly common since.
Songs can influence the naming of children. Jude jumped from 814th most popular male name in 1968 to 668th in 1969, following the release of the Beatles' "Hey Jude". Similarly, Layla charted as 969th most popular in 1972 after the Eric Clapton song. It had not been in the top 1,000 before. Kayleigh became a particularly popular name in the United Kingdom following the release of a song by the British rock group Marillion. Government statistics in 2005 revealed that 96% of Kayleighs were born after 1985, the year in which Marillion released "Kayleigh".
Popular culture figures need not be admirable in order to influence naming trends. For example, Peyton came into the top 1000 as a female given name for babies in the United States for the first time in 1992 (at #583), immediately after it was featured as the name of an evil nanny in the film The Hand That Rocks the Cradle. On the other hand, historical events can influence child-naming. For example, the given name Adolf has fallen out of use since the end of World War II in 1945.
In contrast with these anecdotal evidence, a comprehensive study of Norwegian first name datasets shows that the main factors that govern first name dynamics are endogenous. Monitoring the popularity of 1000 names along 130 years, the authors have identified only five cases of exogenous effects, three of them are connected to the names given to the babies of the Norwegian royal family.
20th century African American names
Since the civil rights movement of 1950–1970, African-American names given to children have strongly mirrored sociopolitical movements and philosophies in the African American community. Since the 1970s neologistic (creative, inventive) practices have become increasingly common and the subject of academic study.
See also
Hypocorism or pet name
List of most popular given names (in many different countries and cultures)
List of most popular given names by state in the United States
Maiden and married names
Name day
Onomastics
Personal name
Praenomen
Pseudonym
Saint's name
Calendar of saints
Slave name
Thai name - somewhat special treatment of given names
Theophoric name
Theophory in the Bible
Unisex name
Bilingual tautological given names
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Given Name Frequency Project – Analysis of long-term trends in given names in England and Wales. Includes downloadable datasets of names for people interested in studying given name trends.
NameVoyager – Visualization showing the frequency of the Top 1000 American baby names throughout history.
U.S. Census Bureau: Distribution of Names Files Large ranked list of male and female given names in addition to last names.
Popular Baby Names – The Social Security Administration page for Popular U.S. Baby Names
Muslim Names Islamic names with Audio Voice for pronunciation of Arabic names.
https://blog-en.namepedia.org/2015/11/why-most-european-names-ending-in-a-are-female/ - Why most European names ending in "a" are female
Name Design - How to make unique name design and create name art | [
-0.06870230287313461,
0.18112783133983612,
-0.13438820838928223,
-0.19583173096179962,
-0.26739200949668884,
0.1780119389295578,
0.39716675877571106,
0.3324930667877197,
-0.24662064015865326,
-0.6175497770309448,
-0.663573145866394,
-0.13840870559215546,
0.23416830599308014,
0.4566829204559326,
-0.51884925365448,
0.20631831884384155,
0.48155760765075684,
1.0239145755767822,
-0.4863791763782501,
-0.18952442705631256,
-0.5347514152526855,
-0.18185019493103027,
-0.007407853379845619,
0.04400772973895073,
0.7847157120704651,
0.21502985060214996,
0.433245986700058,
-0.24669550359249115,
-0.01300373487174511,
-0.19432330131530762,
-0.08121969550848007,
0.17146234214305878,
0.587779700756073,
0.2932131588459015,
-0.47871726751327515,
-0.43262213468551636,
-0.002603809116408229,
-0.6005760431289673,
-0.5164150595664978,
-1.1426454782485962,
-0.11548636108636856,
-0.568581223487854,
0.12335153669118881,
0.5502886772155762,
-0.5208895206451416,
-0.5500901341438293,
-1.8117341995239258,
0.6900269389152527,
-0.705528199672699,
0.154509037733078,
-0.058741915971040726,
-0.34695038199424744,
0.1873699277639389,
0.26774904131889343,
0.043143969029188156,
0.3467441201210022,
-0.03152577579021454,
-0.17324012517929077,
0.15405090153217316,
-0.2870713472366333,
0.1746125966310501,
-0.1072668805718422,
0.4479360282421112,
0.41589367389678955,
0.8094381093978882,
0.22197367250919342,
0.033901017159223557,
0.019702263176441193,
-1.0266271829605103,
-0.022253789007663727,
-0.39298754930496216,
-0.2701117694377899,
0.08952144533395767,
0.37472179532051086,
-0.7152289748191833,
-0.09092441201210022,
0.11433664709329605,
-0.16102471947669983,
-0.15889577567577362,
0.06742364168167114,
-0.48555412888526917,
0.182972252368927,
-0.22053386270999908,
-0.07947926223278046,
0.033419422805309296,
0.5926680564880371,
-0.5000026822090149,
-0.18333345651626587,
-0.4803512990474701,
0.5080346465110779,
0.43836238980293274,
-0.040984611958265305,
0.27101290225982666,
0.21389129757881165,
0.31627583503723145,
-0.12081603705883026,
0.015084490180015564,
0.010483276098966599,
0.017052190378308296,
0.19482357800006866,
0.13714499771595,
-0.31181931495666504,
0.3696940839290619,
-0.6125575304031372,
-0.703865110874176,
-0.3786446154117584,
-0.02405836433172226,
0.007618153002113104,
0.43064063787460327,
-0.14187966287136078,
-0.2928740680217743,
0.40038952231407166,
0.24213068187236786,
0.3197638690471649,
-0.26907238364219666,
-0.02152508683502674,
0.06420499831438065,
0.09333202987909317,
-0.2538384795188904,
-0.43845775723457336,
-0.8132187724113464,
0.31415095925331116,
0.04315689206123352,
-0.1868375539779663,
0.7773888111114502,
0.23238098621368408,
0.07316571474075317,
0.7740458846092224,
-0.7283423542976379,
-0.2221047282218933,
-0.22509483993053436,
0.10829120874404907,
-0.04387541487812996,
0.054306089878082275,
-0.2191963493824005,
-0.2579573392868042,
0.08772078156471252,
0.22024430334568024,
0.35759279131889343,
0.1496543139219284,
-1.1637134552001953,
-0.29874035716056824,
-0.4321027398109436,
-0.08449588716030121,
0.6757758855819702,
0.04304412379860878,
0.1784176081418991,
-0.44533059000968933,
-0.24579955637454987,
0.10137731581926346,
0.16041989624500275,
0.12401899695396423,
0.10092738270759583,
-0.07935905456542969,
0.0101242084056139,
0.35546135902404785,
0.10624901950359344,
-0.044455550611019135,
0.14095771312713623,
0.2369161695241928,
-0.1624499410390854,
-0.059526894241571426,
-0.1045306846499443,
0.12604403495788574,
0.7595111131668091,
0.18019889295101166,
-0.15066979825496674,
0.3502095937728882,
-0.14229460060596466,
0.05360085889697075,
-0.07189144194126129,
0.011497195810079575,
-0.1258184313774109,
-0.1736605316400528,
-0.5574936270713806,
0.3567390441894531,
-0.05941799655556679,
-0.5568428635597229,
0.8202562928199768,
-0.18045388162136078,
-0.5631059408187866,
0.5108494758605957,
0.24296385049819946,
-0.4292293190956116,
-0.2523149251937866,
0.1761205494403839,
-0.33782297372817993,
-0.0007684016018174589,
0.4314623475074768,
0.013134608045220375,
-0.08615557104349136,
-0.18298020958900452,
-0.2833903431892395,
-0.7519902586936951,
0.6047271490097046,
-0.4296618402004242,
-0.1891634166240692,
1.349952220916748,
-0.014008411206305027,
0.659945011138916,
0.05982823669910431,
0.016449274495244026,
0.18036679923534393,
-0.16519688069820404,
-0.5268858075141907,
0.31405872106552124,
0.2056087851524353,
0.5172440409660339,
0.26505622267723083,
-0.18891595304012299,
0.38965898752212524,
0.2248132824897766,
0.6790206432342529,
-0.2523670792579651,
0.06002115085721016,
0.15460063517093658,
-0.09628088027238846,
0.03313978388905525,
-0.0221779253333807,
0.01924300752580166,
0.7679350972175598,
-0.5728315711021423,
-0.06192897632718086,
0.4128250479698181,
-0.06124992296099663,
0.13228027522563934,
-0.3539370596408844,
0.03715738281607628,
0.00608233455568552,
-0.5180208683013916,
0.44932928681373596,
-0.1997494399547577,
0.6452624797821045,
0.1510395109653473,
-0.3992651700973511,
-0.13017022609710693,
0.06129429489374161,
-0.025905748829245567,
0.20904198288917542,
-0.02616511657834053,
-0.10306990146636963,
0.36132076382637024,
-0.3510730266571045,
0.24430187046527863,
0.6276653409004211,
-0.14263871312141418,
-0.05497664213180542,
0.05004424601793289,
0.22721588611602783,
-0.0645470917224884,
0.4974653720855713,
-0.04308224096894264,
0.7293272614479065,
0.12755367159843445,
-0.024021510034799576,
-0.33742502331733704,
-0.17157897353172302,
0.2777808606624603,
-0.01603078469634056,
0.10096669942140579,
-0.7368627190589905,
0.6211564540863037,
-0.16024090349674225,
0.08832729607820511,
-0.12328009307384491,
0.18695883452892303,
-0.1697198748588562,
-0.37221670150756836,
0.34921887516975403,
0.5458030700683594,
-0.2057267725467682,
0.14485719799995422,
-0.675823986530304,
-0.43800437450408936,
-0.15608473122119904,
-0.4695970118045807,
0.67033451795578,
0.012872622348368168,
-0.05067282170057297,
-0.6262977719306946,
-0.3522445261478424,
0.21894145011901855,
-0.06675636768341064,
-0.7046493887901306,
-0.07978010922670364,
-1.0082439184188843,
0.050775233656167984,
0.3216661810874939,
0.09340939670801163,
0.0792090892791748,
-0.2965245246887207,
0.02902439795434475,
-0.20810262858867645,
-0.020322896540164948,
0.976589024066925,
0.13684405386447906,
0.10761932283639908,
0.16019675135612488,
-0.2870567739009857,
-0.3501430153846741,
-0.6196786165237427,
-0.015944713726639748,
-0.06729742884635925,
-0.31001901626586914,
0.3171147406101227,
0.3260759115219116,
0.25301653146743774,
0.01747201755642891,
-5.827595233917236,
0.044973623007535934,
-0.30858224630355835,
-0.46255362033843994,
0.5320058465003967,
0.15088535845279694,
0.9064921736717224,
-0.43076005578041077,
-0.08951609581708908,
0.24070298671722412,
-0.05172036960721016,
-0.016539709642529488,
0.4597262144088745,
0.28322741389274597,
0.4781809449195862,
-0.016929829493165016,
-0.08021104335784912,
0.42420685291290283,
-0.5240752100944519,
0.04375240206718445,
0.5222262740135193,
0.23571710288524628,
-0.38198450207710266,
0.6183366179466248,
0.1672229915857315,
-0.07037924230098724,
-0.25421711802482605,
-0.08757699280977249,
-0.5903613567352295,
-0.3260033130645752,
0.6121161580085754,
0.4795723259449005,
0.5208395719528198,
-0.1379973143339157,
-0.4611237645149231,
-0.10795408487319946,
0.4452301859855652,
0.6417179703712463,
0.27146729826927185,
-0.23972947895526886,
-0.088968925178051,
0.39329683780670166,
0.4527250826358795,
0.06015146151185036,
-0.13689905405044556,
-0.4832122027873993,
-0.23740485310554504,
-0.37183380126953125,
-0.01575956679880619,
0.36318662762641907,
-0.4381013810634613,
0.09749389439821243,
0.3570150136947632,
-0.13938972353935242,
0.2840360999107361,
0.016095709055662155,
0.4864566922187805,
0.05080556124448776,
-0.736320972442627,
-0.14014582335948944,
0.25601738691329956,
-0.27257195115089417,
0.13647842407226562,
-0.6289481520652771,
0.25609201192855835,
-0.24209249019622803,
-0.9957602620124817,
-0.4869782328605652,
0.2119225412607193,
0.42335960268974304,
-0.40827676653862,
0.05997326225042343,
0.16305497288703918,
-0.693013608455658,
0.20265768468379974,
-0.956329345703125,
-0.1976720243692398,
0.26410791277885437,
-0.1268935203552246,
-0.1392451375722885,
0.15132920444011688,
0.23519113659858704,
-0.848042368888855,
0.13453859090805054,
0.08123467117547989,
-0.5496739745140076,
-0.3056001365184784,
-0.47978875041007996,
-0.21145087480545044,
-0.255485862493515,
0.8210985660552979,
-0.0709742084145546,
0.08563254773616791,
0.0856996476650238,
-0.09434375166893005,
0.24352559447288513,
-0.14252285659313202,
-0.30756431818008423,
0.47572195529937744,
-0.4789893329143524,
0.2312852144241333,
-0.34851130843162537,
0.01758190058171749,
0.047857750207185745,
-0.004975926596671343,
-0.23416101932525635,
-0.8616828322410583,
0.33027535676956177,
1.1257286071777344,
-0.29007214307785034,
0.434682697057724,
-0.024554064497351646,
-0.41148504614830017,
-0.5982905626296997,
-0.3513638377189636,
-0.40074002742767334,
-0.31892454624176025,
0.6528188586235046,
0.5287727117538452,
0.12121911346912384,
0.11849459260702133,
0.20393599569797516,
-0.0924699530005455,
-0.06667661666870117,
-0.3447367548942566,
-0.42792201042175293,
-0.15326789021492004,
-0.43820151686668396,
-0.11490475386381149,
-0.14441785216331482,
0.5770448446273804,
0.48993995785713196,
-0.10298473387956619,
-0.06728850305080414,
-0.0639684647321701,
0.20696014165878296,
0.196785569190979,
-0.05060538277029991,
-0.3975953161716461,
-1.0851258039474487,
-0.07306236773729324,
-0.5200816988945007,
-0.3080996870994568,
-0.18442396819591522,
0.6805901527404785,
-0.10244357585906982,
-0.6522557735443115,
0.35276949405670166,
-0.24301469326019287,
0.5579696297645569,
-0.011316071264445782,
-0.10147380828857422,
0.21222072839736938,
0.10389360040426254,
-0.42867588996887207,
-0.6580337882041931,
-0.11819202452898026,
0.18192467093467712,
-0.5936230421066284,
-0.35464224219322205,
-0.2837876081466675,
-0.6736159324645996,
-0.5527262091636658,
0.4377675950527191,
0.23027291893959045,
0.3648024797439575,
-0.7505297660827637,
0.1249549463391304,
-0.06841974705457687,
0.9578936696052551,
0.5094314813613892,
-0.009426134638488293,
-0.5774133205413818,
-0.7885539531707764,
0.20362403988838196,
0.2439875453710556,
0.2649288475513458,
0.7123393416404724,
-0.0706130787730217,
0.2583690285682678,
0.5278041362762451,
-0.3142949044704437,
0.04043307155370712,
0.550376832485199,
0.6777123808860779,
0.3249795138835907,
0.14023235440254211,
0.442617803812027,
-0.6387743949890137,
-0.3801904022693634,
-0.1952178031206131,
-0.5330362319946289,
0.11834906786680222,
-0.3198615610599518,
-0.24553999304771423,
0.15647435188293457,
0.11779314279556274,
-0.1685159057378769,
-0.23586027324199677,
0.2460709810256958,
-0.0662890300154686,
0.2333000749349594,
-0.36612024903297424,
-0.3984159231185913,
0.3230465352535248,
-0.5141578316688538,
0.48885056376457214,
-0.22530800104141235,
-0.8426386117935181,
0.6439518928527832,
-0.4985112249851227,
-0.9575440287590027,
-0.03196077048778534,
-0.08599014580249786,
0.11599859595298767,
-0.30447664856910706,
-0.006385716609656811,
-0.3502312898635864,
-0.22705917060375214,
-0.48940742015838623,
0.5886842608451843,
0.270973801612854,
0.24793511629104614,
0.2740194499492645,
0.3564687967300415,
0.2346106469631195,
0.14245694875717163,
0.1674339920282364,
1.0156054496765137,
-0.24516506493091583,
0.17731048166751862,
-0.004920718725770712,
0.04466841369867325,
-0.3105597198009491,
-0.2009757161140442,
-0.629595160484314,
0.1534958928823471,
-0.22903528809547424,
0.1495911329984665,
0.2211984544992447,
0.34211644530296326,
1.072805404663086,
0.03821391239762306,
-0.382383793592453,
0.4303702116012573,
-0.2739514112472534,
-0.028014270588755608,
-0.450993150472641,
-0.37524333596229553,
0.29043203592300415,
0.46265947818756104,
-0.34967970848083496,
-0.475193053483963,
-0.27258503437042236,
0.2809034287929535,
0.04442786052823067,
-0.4574897885322571,
-0.3246893882751465,
0.02201993018388748,
1.0013768672943115,
0.30510789155960083,
0.18619032204151154,
-0.30898013710975647,
0.028303198516368866,
0.5964199900627136,
-0.1749899685382843,
-0.6993488669395447,
0.21267162263393402,
0.6210312843322754,
-0.13398931920528412,
0.25757789611816406,
-0.06147230416536331,
0.20170095562934875,
0.3713149130344391,
0.4666229486465454,
-0.035986028611660004,
-0.02173638716340065,
-0.040990281850099564,
0.2587251365184784,
-0.148899644613266,
-0.27235838770866394,
-0.3723008632659912,
0.3143836557865143,
-0.4027034640312195,
-0.01625652424991131,
-0.6494924426078796,
0.42138180136680603,
0.1578955352306366,
-0.1715555340051651,
-0.07944831997156143,
-0.778082013130188,
0.14439430832862854,
-0.44635480642318726,
1.1955419778823853,
-0.3326440751552582,
0.076629638671875,
0.1952686607837677,
0.5287455320358276,
0.18033237755298615,
0.34035971760749817,
-0.14099843800067902,
0.5718528628349304,
0.2592528164386749,
-0.342040479183197,
0.08178862184286118,
0.7288604378700256,
0.43906983733177185,
-0.5805309414863586,
0.14006972312927246,
-0.100442074239254,
0.006361981388181448,
-0.09189701825380325,
0.861606240272522,
0.2452903538942337,
-0.06394100934267044,
-0.04183289781212807,
0.0022475000005215406,
-0.06568676978349686,
0.29351523518562317,
-0.3174377977848053,
0.550567090511322,
-0.279350608587265,
0.4879714548587799,
0.3056228458881378,
-0.14608734846115112,
0.6811846494674683,
-0.2947567403316498,
-0.5437776446342468,
-0.17465518414974213,
0.09076017141342163,
0.6214916110038757,
0.33467695116996765,
0.060124076902866364,
-0.07550634443759918,
-0.479940265417099,
-0.5656662583351135,
-0.34242165088653564,
-0.3323478400707245,
-0.3538486063480377,
1.0634775161743164,
0.4365626871585846,
-0.010415722616016865,
0.38488060235977173,
0.31666985154151917,
-0.0979781523346901,
0.35103273391723633,
0.008473669178783894,
0.5758333206176758,
0.2011595517396927,
-0.2539527118206024,
0.5795599818229675,
-0.1981286257505417,
0.06684663891792297,
-0.24230407178401947,
-0.03676516190171242,
0.24025411903858185,
0.2876626253128052,
-0.1802387833595276,
-0.159275084733963,
-0.37695640325546265,
-0.03719467297196388,
0.1942984163761139,
0.2095719277858734,
-0.2586301267147064,
0.17409072816371918,
-0.1603931337594986,
0.07216445356607437,
-0.02293757162988186,
-0.13682933151721954,
0.29002800583839417,
0.25535857677459717,
0.49841374158859253,
-0.2856886684894562,
0.11976592242717743,
0.21711447834968567,
-0.01312442496418953,
0.49279773235321045,
0.5917907357215881,
-0.09688359498977661,
-0.6404848098754883,
-0.024980703368782997,
-0.4384925067424774,
-0.655802309513092,
-0.6494432091712952,
-0.1735842525959015,
-0.36389869451522827,
0.10337308049201965,
0.232834592461586,
-0.07498833537101746,
0.2747634947299957,
0.7780243158340454,
-0.49320027232170105,
0.32528558373451233,
0.036194827407598495,
-0.6180306673049927,
0.14887337386608124,
-0.30259329080581665,
0.7637209296226501,
0.3220672011375427,
0.25155824422836304,
-0.23574857413768768,
-0.13084344565868378,
-0.30508384108543396,
0.0725269466638565,
-0.2787139415740967,
0.09897563606500626,
-0.10293638706207275,
0.011229475028812885,
-0.04930746927857399,
0.5492497086524963,
0.7340497374534607,
-0.8662527799606323,
0.09757211059331894,
0.3532528579235077,
0.040269751101732254,
-0.2929272949695587,
0.3976733684539795,
-0.037532370537519455,
0.08881520479917526,
-0.6020116806030273,
0.4422893524169922,
0.38240012526512146,
0.5949819087982178,
0.16295625269412994,
-0.09918959438800812,
0.11611880362033844,
0.029302017763257027,
0.3706498146057129,
-0.9319146275520325,
0.1581393927335739,
-0.4592389166355133,
0.6318512558937073,
-0.2906467914581299,
0.21089400351047516,
0.08542662113904953,
0.5932605266571045,
0.5458757281303406,
-0.28057971596717834,
-0.28552940487861633,
-0.05569344013929367,
-0.5453786253929138,
-0.4154050350189209,
0.3158944845199585,
0.14765934646129608,
-0.7509463429450989,
0.2910924255847931,
-0.0421692430973053,
0.2714887261390686,
-0.9464596509933472,
-0.14598745107650757,
0.31499210000038147,
0.11187642067670822,
0.8586748242378235,
0.1744088977575302,
-0.09532085061073303,
-0.20696257054805756,
-0.21822617948055267,
-0.4929385483264923,
-0.4777389168739319,
0.700847864151001
] |
247993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadden%20Sea%20National%20Parks | Wadden Sea National Parks | The Wadden Sea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands are located along the German Bight of the North Sea. In Germany and Denmark they also mark the area of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Wadden Sea. Divided from each other by administrative borders, they form a single ecological entity. The purpose of the national parks is the protection of the Wadden Sea ecoregion.
Denmark
Wadden Sea National Park (Nationalpark Vadehavet), from Blåvandshuk to Rudbøl in Denmark
Germany
Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park, comprising the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein and the North Frisian Islands
Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, extending from the mouth of the Elbe to the tiny islands of Neuwerk and Scharhörn, part of Hamburg
Lower Saxony Wadden Sea National Park, comprising the northern coast of Lower Saxony and including the East Frisian Islands
Netherlands
Lauwersmeer National Park consists of the southern and eastern parts of the Lauwersmeer in the Netherlands
Schiermonnikoog National Park covers the majority of the island Schiermonnikoog
Dunes of Texel National Park is located on the Dutch island of Texel and includes dune systems.
Gallery
See also
Wadden Sea / UNESCO Official Website
Wadden Sea
Protected areas of Hamburg
Protected areas of Lower Saxony
Protected areas of Schleswig-Holstein
Ramsar sites in Germany
Ramsar sites in Denmark
Ramsar sites in the Netherlands
Marine reserves
Transboundary protected areas | [
0.32649102807044983,
-0.13901370763778687,
0.1713900864124298,
-0.4724399149417877,
0.14346317946910858,
-0.044749487191438675,
0.8165615797042847,
-0.1335473358631134,
-0.8005216717720032,
-0.2323572039604187,
-0.5361413955688477,
-0.31528788805007935,
-0.05678774043917656,
0.6962900757789612,
-0.48331743478775024,
0.42722418904304504,
0.07517793029546738,
0.44063401222229004,
0.37454110383987427,
-0.5434094667434692,
-0.4110873341560364,
-0.7208700180053711,
0.4291660189628601,
-0.46524718403816223,
0.3898749351501465,
-0.7464891076087952,
0.4935566484928131,
0.6022602915763855,
-0.06848284602165222,
0.0064016785472631454,
-0.3982012867927551,
0.5030413866043091,
-0.6409924030303955,
0.005637246184051037,
0.30933454632759094,
-0.15437132120132446,
0.2114812582731247,
-0.5131641626358032,
-0.18252189457416534,
-0.4371025860309601,
0.19620366394519806,
-0.030741166323423386,
0.050575777888298035,
-0.10615715384483337,
-0.21042810380458832,
-0.3060646653175354,
-0.3728780746459961,
0.2098895013332367,
-0.017550095915794373,
-0.3824906051158905,
-0.59810870885849,
0.025694526731967926,
0.3468514084815979,
0.6411139965057373,
0.42583903670310974,
0.42302003502845764,
-0.8238955736160278,
0.3453822135925293,
0.07062601298093796,
-0.38620081543922424,
0.023106176406145096,
0.34822025895118713,
-0.2589896321296692,
0.4768836796283722,
0.39919912815093994,
0.3541259765625,
-0.08352277427911758,
0.6877599358558655,
0.2079707235097885,
-0.526073694229126,
0.046419594436883926,
-0.47873756289482117,
-0.16307057440280914,
-0.08634547889232635,
-0.3905209004878998,
0.07897332310676575,
0.10372907668352127,
0.020372731611132622,
-0.22396302223205566,
0.09510613232851028,
0.4877036511898041,
-0.07292424887418747,
0.8620643615722656,
-0.29549118876457214,
0.4634529650211334,
0.38009214401245117,
0.30098503828048706,
-0.15988154709339142,
-1.0552750825881958,
0.280703604221344,
0.22910405695438385,
-0.02191285789012909,
0.3441801369190216,
-0.24496257305145264,
0.49373218417167664,
-0.37276217341423035,
-0.36501675844192505,
0.41774967312812805,
0.24796868860721588,
0.3890172243118286,
-0.7334693670272827,
0.5560511350631714,
0.22690439224243164,
0.05595460906624794,
-0.4744996726512909,
-0.6096897721290588,
-0.15790124237537384,
-0.26464641094207764,
-0.1072067841887474,
0.16765820980072021,
-0.36481723189353943,
-0.020474441349506378,
0.29418450593948364,
0.3601071536540985,
-0.12870442867279053,
0.6726542711257935,
0.29446080327033997,
-0.756105899810791,
0.04979420453310013,
0.1453702598810196,
0.6688684821128845,
0.3650028109550476,
0.07093358784914017,
-0.23534412682056427,
-0.28972071409225464,
0.047304488718509674,
0.5616755485534668,
0.49710288643836975,
-0.2287464588880539,
-0.4935259521007538,
0.22176098823547363,
0.7255301475524902,
-0.24207532405853271,
0.24982313811779022,
-0.1398918777704239,
0.2538693845272064,
0.4257912039756775,
0.24813878536224365,
0.42538008093833923,
0.5558539628982544,
-0.7260743975639343,
-0.264594167470932,
-0.7363939881324768,
-0.18042780458927155,
0.3828584849834442,
-0.2906198501586914,
-0.5376163721084595,
-0.5642921328544617,
-0.3632705509662628,
0.29381662607192993,
0.24356423318386078,
0.6037320494651794,
-0.07143786549568176,
0.3891471028327942,
-0.46530699729919434,
0.1772521585226059,
0.8493831157684326,
0.17946571111679077,
1.0336458683013916,
-0.10877083241939545,
0.32880571484565735,
0.11183416843414307,
-0.041923146694898605,
0.48271113634109497,
0.3221098780632019,
-0.4132347106933594,
-0.03844458982348442,
0.5301276445388794,
-0.4469449520111084,
-0.11551636457443237,
-0.339088499546051,
-0.06819740682840347,
0.41239944100379944,
-0.12480702251195908,
0.18791289627552032,
-0.10124844312667847,
0.23601575195789337,
0.2193489372730255,
0.6738359928131104,
-0.26531657576560974,
-0.7569820284843445,
0.23345698416233063,
0.5540892481803894,
-0.006684170104563236,
0.21148191392421722,
0.09833305329084396,
-0.13312342762947083,
0.873564600944519,
-0.26414087414741516,
-0.020343702286481857,
-0.26045945286750793,
-1.0315580368041992,
0.40298616886138916,
-0.10234367847442627,
0.47836410999298096,
0.1359257996082306,
-0.30482617020606995,
1.1763304471969604,
-0.000943909224588424,
0.28970009088516235,
-0.41329818964004517,
-0.1248212531208992,
-0.2806655466556549,
-0.0074567426927387714,
-1.1655049324035645,
0.36142057180404663,
0.26630449295043945,
-0.6340139508247375,
0.46386945247650146,
-0.5934648513793945,
-0.3024609088897705,
-0.15140610933303833,
0.4495832622051239,
-0.14371921122074127,
-0.11631441116333008,
-0.10424818098545074,
-0.18269625306129456,
0.21988238394260406,
0.6415933966636658,
-0.8907016515731812,
0.30303236842155457,
0.7153701186180115,
-0.4143689274787903,
-0.01935388706624508,
0.1951177716255188,
0.19819612801074982,
-0.24250541627407074,
0.23703977465629578,
0.3530713617801666,
-0.4728660583496094,
0.33700495958328247,
-0.1166178435087204,
-0.36612188816070557,
-0.32550185918807983,
-0.13170237839221954,
-0.15096184611320496,
0.25381508469581604,
0.08313646912574768,
0.26224976778030396,
-0.17576096951961517,
0.512180507183075,
0.1533106565475464,
-0.5468989610671997,
0.6075481176376343,
0.5085168480873108,
0.48839280009269714,
0.30775579810142517,
-0.178567573428154,
-1.2893904447555542,
0.2405140995979309,
0.03746293485164642,
0.4197100102901459,
0.06714979559183121,
-0.5130279660224915,
0.008576751686632633,
-0.01251631136983633,
-0.3972039222717285,
-0.08372937887907028,
0.3547721803188324,
0.09362079203128815,
-0.19915054738521576,
-0.13338148593902588,
-0.8852304220199585,
0.9772087931632996,
-0.20729894936084747,
-0.48476243019104004,
-0.41724205017089844,
-0.9583619236946106,
0.8128785490989685,
0.19058877229690552,
0.1966918408870697,
0.355974942445755,
-0.4433513581752777,
-0.028329089283943176,
-0.10704821348190308,
-0.4062623977661133,
0.24094967544078827,
0.054072942584753036,
-0.03799368441104889,
0.054706085473299026,
0.28270116448402405,
0.5779775381088257,
-0.15933318436145782,
-1.1963655948638916,
-0.1321844458580017,
-0.2528114318847656,
0.2111341655254364,
-0.43154820799827576,
-0.31084728240966797,
0.632332444190979,
-0.025578005239367485,
-0.18201537430286407,
-0.11440544575452805,
0.14986909925937653,
-0.8814206123352051,
0.4399179518222809,
-0.17790129780769348,
-0.16640155017375946,
0.6478472948074341,
-0.056155186146497726,
-0.4013553261756897,
0.23480138182640076,
-0.1834336817264557,
-0.02561413310468197,
0.04738498479127884,
-0.4245743155479431,
-0.19332052767276764,
-0.3248186707496643,
-5.236631870269775,
-0.2085713893175125,
0.1095307469367981,
0.3782515525817871,
-0.41347137093544006,
0.3572838306427002,
0.7876160740852356,
-0.13818664848804474,
-0.09903380274772644,
0.031219352036714554,
0.3223157227039337,
-0.17487479746341705,
0.6241488456726074,
1.010582685470581,
0.7018212080001831,
0.4851059317588806,
0.4477720260620117,
-0.18304476141929626,
0.09067974984645844,
-0.2923227846622467,
-0.4340451657772064,
-0.04652398079633713,
-0.015146351419389248,
0.5555132031440735,
0.3471415936946869,
0.4528282880783081,
-0.4421924948692322,
0.004592451266944408,
-0.9466151595115662,
-0.6285454034805298,
0.522837221622467,
-0.5812469124794006,
0.44118377566337585,
0.1741384118795395,
0.0928315743803978,
-0.018312610685825348,
0.1390375792980194,
0.792127788066864,
0.3356055021286011,
-0.9540833234786987,
0.02258864790201187,
0.5023536682128906,
-0.4537554085254669,
0.10548771917819977,
0.22779351472854614,
-0.4659869968891144,
-0.42225727438926697,
0.02143201418220997,
0.09970993548631668,
0.9893143773078918,
-0.09039617329835892,
0.3228326141834259,
0.6162754893302917,
-0.3584694564342499,
-0.07118942588567734,
-0.5626927614212036,
-0.10792157799005508,
-0.11163753271102905,
-0.21035465598106384,
-0.5032952427864075,
1.0166819095611572,
-0.4758330285549164,
0.016864893957972527,
-0.7776315808296204,
0.053972624242305756,
-0.3065113425254822,
-0.7954521775245667,
-0.27134838700294495,
0.1577560007572174,
-0.17448624968528748,
-0.20706696808338165,
-0.0781138688325882,
-0.6168447136878967,
-0.8520767688751221,
-0.20499219000339508,
-0.9434733390808105,
-0.3989883065223694,
-0.3131735026836395,
0.41081470251083374,
-0.2775973081588745,
-0.579671323299408,
-0.3805481195449829,
-0.5230127573013306,
0.9831596612930298,
0.3437696695327759,
-0.9033170342445374,
0.13479752838611603,
-0.3581414520740509,
-0.043384116142988205,
-0.6712028980255127,
0.4736036956310272,
-0.039143748581409454,
0.1104256883263588,
0.03262215107679367,
-0.5279158353805542,
1.1539896726608276,
-0.13696575164794922,
-0.023783227428793907,
0.5848177075386047,
-0.6271408200263977,
1.1157186031341553,
-0.31832775473594666,
-0.144153892993927,
-0.2677236497402191,
0.19632431864738464,
0.21438898146152496,
0.5359581708908081,
0.3738824129104614,
0.738279402256012,
0.04312006011605263,
-0.14797696471214294,
0.0043756538070738316,
-0.12267068028450012,
-0.22952619194984436,
-0.013990012928843498,
-0.1631188839673996,
-0.6696433424949646,
0.9627346396446228,
0.7141237258911133,
0.05782840773463249,
0.42403295636177063,
0.8975762128829956,
-0.031959179788827896,
0.18673014640808105,
0.5314162969589233,
-0.24781379103660583,
-0.1407977193593979,
0.24484263360500336,
-0.8227320313453674,
0.31836050748825073,
0.7499648928642273,
-0.23621931672096252,
0.6904066205024719,
-0.5942142605781555,
0.5473064184188843,
-0.06508716940879822,
-0.05078772082924843,
-0.7043822407722473,
-0.3131248354911804,
-0.08097986876964569,
-0.01371915265917778,
-0.3269100487232208,
0.195467010140419,
0.8709434866905212,
-0.15664418041706085,
0.30778026580810547,
0.3006913959980011,
-0.17060641944408417,
-0.37103280425071716,
0.5166563391685486,
-0.0910402163863182,
0.268793523311615,
-0.21605058014392853,
-0.3489227890968323,
0.0625259205698967,
-0.4075835049152374,
0.29581087827682495,
0.2963172495365143,
0.06695813685655594,
-0.20439943671226501,
-0.19787879288196564,
-0.29404205083847046,
-0.8272588849067688,
-0.16164056956768036,
0.034583598375320435,
-0.5058640837669373,
-0.9768537878990173,
-0.000253042031545192,
-0.5006126761436462,
0.15329377353191376,
0.24760423600673676,
-0.7785018086433411,
-0.6755854487419128,
0.40303030610084534,
-0.4986611604690552,
0.030914446339011192,
-0.052532367408275604,
0.35958561301231384,
-0.31289124488830566,
-0.2898658812046051,
-0.08027421683073044,
0.21286195516586304,
0.06877757608890533,
0.4825676381587982,
-0.06300913542509079,
-0.14965751767158508,
-0.3738116919994354,
0.1694389283657074,
-0.313984215259552,
0.14819557964801788,
0.7688102722167969,
0.22178542613983154,
0.9354037642478943,
0.5691385269165039,
-0.257617324590683,
-0.49157968163490295,
0.2514406740665436,
0.6055201888084412,
0.30287379026412964,
-0.6184507012367249,
0.49809530377388,
0.45081254839897156,
-0.8943142294883728,
0.4491538405418396,
-0.6764810085296631,
-0.572484016418457,
0.8753610849380493,
0.3749001920223236,
-0.17090828716754913,
0.19049759209156036,
-1.091288447380066,
-0.45378220081329346,
-0.06872736662626266,
0.5099056363105774,
-1.2449111938476562,
0.1158222183585167,
0.5768967866897583,
-0.8258859515190125,
-0.2112538367509842,
0.4445856213569641,
0.016995955258607864,
-0.31033068895339966,
-0.1202034279704094,
-0.23770177364349365,
-0.39334243535995483,
0.36215996742248535,
0.21682846546173096,
-0.43362703919410706,
-0.021955663338303566,
-0.7291032671928406,
0.21575330197811127,
-0.4388016164302826,
-0.1089840978384018,
0.09013703465461731,
0.12867234647274017,
0.24805036187171936,
0.3230006992816925,
0.09141996502876282,
0.43383604288101196,
0.6376160979270935,
0.7669780254364014,
1.248486042022705,
-0.3276720643043518,
-0.8397872447967529,
-0.4010744094848633,
0.05000636354088783,
0.4911128282546997,
-0.5263577699661255,
-0.5384641885757446,
-0.01914094388484955,
0.09253589808940887,
0.08142782747745514,
-0.3721029758453369,
-0.5494098663330078,
1.097097635269165,
0.23456639051437378,
-0.42493507266044617,
0.1223410815000534,
-0.05760106444358826,
-0.3249354958534241,
0.6130915284156799,
-0.12218291312456131,
-0.6648935675621033,
0.5779435634613037,
0.6257824301719666,
-0.9611893892288208,
-0.723884105682373,
0.4037450850009918,
-0.5169693231582642,
-0.6519971489906311,
0.01100427471101284,
-0.19780097901821136,
0.2870410084724426,
-0.12242817878723145,
-0.1457606852054596,
0.015805257484316826,
0.5185994505882263,
-0.7868407964706421,
0.7630090713500977,
-0.4688611328601837,
-0.5911802053451538,
-0.26919668912887573,
-0.21392390131950378,
-0.7065485715866089,
-0.243006631731987,
-1.0829354524612427,
-0.7025809288024902,
-0.15976792573928833,
-0.4916045367717743,
-0.42928817868232727,
0.13654908537864685,
-0.8897569179534912,
-0.4640624225139618,
0.12790194153785706,
0.4325731098651886,
0.3348090648651123,
0.07070010155439377,
0.08806343376636505,
0.2765066921710968,
-0.21056325733661652,
-0.8045457601547241,
0.5345413088798523,
-0.386756956577301,
-0.6011748313903809,
0.7526008486747742,
0.2888582944869995,
0.11242405325174332,
-0.10785932838916779,
0.10549265146255493,
0.13959413766860962,
0.1605583131313324,
0.019020888954401016,
-0.11059751361608505,
1.083182692527771,
-0.0885758101940155,
0.5414289236068726,
0.5843349695205688,
-0.8018966317176819,
0.5655718445777893,
0.5225849747657776,
0.12610609829425812,
-0.45126405358314514,
0.46336784958839417,
0.2796497642993927,
0.22679546475410461,
0.6972139477729797,
0.07712230086326599,
-0.12049537897109985,
0.8322545886039734,
0.09067137539386749,
-0.11442013829946518,
-0.014195675030350685,
-0.32468658685684204,
0.18249163031578064,
-0.4331061542034149,
0.16756482422351837,
-0.171368807554245,
-0.060087647289037704,
-0.7414209246635437,
0.5534538626670837,
0.7901425361633301,
0.21257536113262177,
-0.19613948464393616,
-0.2956191599369049,
0.06035531684756279,
-0.0379631333053112,
-0.1933848112821579,
0.3218380808830261,
0.6246103644371033,
-0.07095958292484283,
0.6163404583930969,
0.025463396683335304,
0.18190766870975494,
-0.5815815925598145,
0.2396051585674286,
0.13422811031341553,
-0.018320031464099884,
-0.20673340559005737,
-0.4849933683872223,
0.022167295217514038,
0.07570914179086685,
0.17897310853004456,
-0.01013595424592495,
0.21685905754566193,
-0.09209097176790237,
-0.40880951285362244,
-0.06631790101528168,
-0.06966770440340042,
0.011533874087035656,
0.14070479571819305,
0.3659305274486542,
-0.4086969196796417,
-0.14434100687503815,
0.08978336304426193,
-0.15659049153327942,
0.16177168488502502,
0.18079538643360138,
-0.3249560594558716,
0.4029340445995331,
-0.055471260100603104,
-0.5465836524963379,
0.5947099328041077,
-0.09276730567216873,
-0.661029577255249,
0.3377528786659241,
-0.269214928150177,
-0.029528550803661346,
0.019448913633823395,
-0.4859246015548706,
0.5249780416488647,
0.20556171238422394,
-0.15645425021648407,
-0.037421368062496185,
-0.1910039186477661,
-0.8368903994560242,
-0.6768990755081177,
0.31722545623779297,
0.9610397815704346,
-0.07159947603940964,
-0.8674860000610352,
-0.0946647971868515,
0.9189202189445496,
-0.055283453315496445,
0.630808413028717,
-0.36109358072280884,
0.6369386911392212,
-0.6932734251022339,
0.08222372084856033,
0.15363843739032745,
0.24186594784259796,
0.6375067234039307,
0.21174900233745575,
-0.10383546352386475,
0.08567726612091064,
-0.34638723731040955,
0.05370200425386429,
0.547463059425354,
-0.34099477529525757,
0.20811738073825836,
-0.41841796040534973,
-0.1722024828195572,
-0.5198265910148621,
-0.004127045162022114,
0.6571423411369324,
-0.0868108943104744,
-0.40913647413253784,
0.5697364807128906,
0.5379732847213745,
-0.6753552556037903,
0.5365614891052246,
-0.17598865926265717,
-0.2521204948425293,
-0.8053222298622131,
0.4705662429332733,
-0.7638838887214661,
-0.18294291198253632,
0.3156999349594116,
0.9938732385635376,
0.2510896325111389,
-0.4279933571815491,
-0.1870490312576294,
-0.32305434346199036,
1.2789292335510254,
0.3854224681854248,
0.14531826972961426,
-0.35976386070251465,
0.11218880861997604,
0.024790404364466667,
-1.3053563833236694,
0.16850201785564423,
0.5531226396560669,
-0.5211693048477173,
0.005943410564213991,
-0.08255230635404587,
-0.4275628328323364,
0.009721125476062298,
0.6942349076271057,
-0.08229471743106842,
0.2024315446615219,
0.47864627838134766
] |
247994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein%20Wadden%20Sea%20National%20Park | Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park | The Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park () is a national park in the Schleswig-Holstein area of the German Wadden Sea. It was founded by the Parliament of Schleswig-Holstein on 1 October 1985 by the National Park Act of 22 July 1985 and expanded significantly in 1999. Together with the Lower Saxon Wadden Sea National Park, the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park and those parts of Elbe estuary which are not nature reserves, it forms the German part of the Wadden Sea.
The national park extends from the German-Danish maritime border in the north down to the Elbe estuary in the south. In the North Frisian area, it includes the mudflats around the geest-based and marsh islands and the Halligen (undyked islands). There, the mudflats are 40 km wide in places. Further south lie areas of mudflats which contain particularly large sandbanks. In addition to the plants and animals that are typical of the entire Wadden Sea, especially large numbers of porpoise, shelduck and eelgrass may be seen in the Schleswig-Holstein part.
With an area of 4410 km ² it is by far the largest national park in Germany. Some 68% of its area is permanently under water and 30% is periodically dry. The land element consists mainly of salt marshes. Since 1990, the national park, including the North Frisian Halligen, has been designated as a UNESCO recognised biosphere. Together with other German and Dutch Wadden Sea areas it became a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 26 June 2009 because of its relatively undisturbed intertidal ecosystem and its unique biodiversity.
Geography
National park area
The national park covers an area from the North Sea coast of Schleswig-Holstein by the Danish border in the north to the Elbe estuary in the south. In the northern area (roughly as far as Amrum), the national park boundary extends to the twelve mile territorial limit; to the south it reaches to about the three mile line. On the land side it runs in the sea 150 metres off the coast. Sea dykes and the foreland immediately in front of the dykes are not part of the national park; beaches are thus largely excluded from the protected zone. Also excluded from the national park are the inhabited areas in the sea, including the five German North Frisian Islands and the larger Halligen islands of Langeness, Hooge, Gröde, Oland and Nordstrandischmoor. Part of the park comprises uninhabited islands, islets and Halligen, such as Trischen, Blauort or the North Frisian Barrier Island. Under the classification of the natural regions of Germany the national park area belongs to the "Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea, Islands and Halligen" region within the Schleswig-Holstein Marshes, and to the major unit of the German Bight.
The national park can be divided into two areas. In the north, between the Danish border and the peninsula of Eiderstedt is the North Frisian part; on the south coast of Eiderstedt up to the Elbe estuary is the Dithmarschen part. The North Frisian Wadden Sea, together with the Danish Wadden Sea, belongs to the North Sea. It is screened from the open sea by the North Frisian Islands and the Halligen. The islands were mainly formed from elements of the mainland, which became separated, mainly as a result of flood disasters. The mudflats are protected and the transition between the flats and the sea is often clearer, because the former lie to the east of the large islands and the latter to the west of them. There are no major river estuaries and the tidal range is relatively low at less than two metres. In the northern Wadden Sea there are still geest cliffs formed in the ice ages, so that the highest elevations occur here on the coast in an otherwise very flat area. The Dithmarschen part and the south coast between the Elbe and Eider estuaries form the central part of the Wadden Sea. A tidal range of over three metres has largely prevented the formation of islands. Some sandbars emerge from the sea, but only Trischen is high enough and safe enough from storm surges, to allow saltwater-loving vegetation to grow. Compared to the geologically similar East Frisian Islands of the southern Wadden Sea, Trischen is considerably smaller and younger. All attempts by human inhabitants to fortify the island have failed. With several large estuaries the salinity in the central Wadden Sea is lower than in the rest of the Wadden Sea and is subject to higher fluctuations.
Protection areas of the National Park
The national park divides into two zones that correspond to different levels of protection. Zone 1 has a size of 162.000 ha and covers a third of the whole national park. The zone consists of 12 bigger units which all contain marshland, intertidal estuarine mudflat, mixed sediment mudflat, sand flat, tidal creeks as well as deep and flat areas that are permanently under water (sublittoral). Additionally there are smaller units around sensible places like breeding areas of coastal birds, sandbars of seals, places where migratory birds moult or geomorphological meaningful areas with natural surface structure. Zone 1 is principally closed for the public. Exceptions are made for the mudflat areas directly bordering the coastline, some routes for guided mudflat hiking tours and fishery. South of the Hindenburgdamm, facing the landside of Sylt, a human use of the first zone is completely prohibited (Zero use zone). This part is 12.500 ha big, whereof 3500 ha are permanently covered with water.
Zone 2 forms a ‘buffer’ around the first zone, in which a sustainable use is possible. In protection zone 2 west of Sylt´s coast locates a protection area for small whales, e.g. the common porpoise, with a size of 124.000 ha. It is an important reproduction area of the porpoise, whose population declined about 90 per cent in the North Sea during the 20th century. Activities like swimming, sailing or traditional crab fishing are still allowed in the area, while international industry fishing, jet-skis, ship velocities over 12 knots, military activities and resource exploitation (sand, grit, gas, oil) should be prevented.
Land, sea and mudflats
The North Sea coast is very flat; in places the ocean floor only descends a few centimetres per kilometre. Twice a day the high tide carries sand, clay and silt into the Wadden Sea. The tidal range in Schleswig-Holstein´s part of the Wadden Sea accounts for between 1.5 m and 3.7 m, increasing from north to south. The lowest tidal ranges occur on Sylt's north coast, the highest in southern Dithmarschen. Everywhere in the Wadden Sea the amount of time the water needs to stream in is only 85% of the time it needs to run off again. Therefore the current of the water coming in, is much stronger and the low tide does not have the power to remove the sediments the high tide accumulated.
Over 2/3 of the national park are covered with water permanently (sublittoral), 30% of mudflat that is lying dry during low tide and gets flooded with water during high tide (eulittoral). The rest is land area that only gets flooded under certain conditions (supralittoral). The water areas contain the offshore part of the park as well as huge tidal currents like the Lister Tief, the Heverstrom, the Purrenstrom, the Wesselburener Loch or the Piep. Outside the mudflat area runs a constantly strong current from south to north, coming from the southern North Sea and going on to the Norwegian Trench. Owing to the river mouths of several big European waters (like the Rhine or Elbe), the current´s salinity of 20–30 psu lies below that of the ocean, and above that of the river mouths.
Since inhabited regions are not part of the national park, the land areas are nearly completely covered with salt marshes and a small part contains sandbars and dunes. The salt marshes cover over 10.000 ha, of which 70% developed on land protected by breakwaters, 10% are situated on the downwind side of the islands and the remainder formed around the Hallig Islands. Between 1988 and 2001 the area of the salt marshes expanded about 700 ha. Widely natural and use-free salt marshes can be found around the islands and ashore around Schobüll and St. Peter-Ording.
The whole Wadden Sea is ruled by an Atlantic climate. Strong westerlies and the heat storage capacity are determining factors which often generate strong winds, but at the same time balance the temperatures. Thus occur cold summers (July: 14,5 °C) and mild winters (January: 1,8 °C).
Flora and fauna
Saltwater, tide and strong winds characterize the environment in the Wadden Sea area. Only extremely specialized organisms can cope with the conditions. Fishes, breeding birds and most of the marine mammals living in the Wadden Sea use it as nursery. Besides that, giant flocks of migratory birds visit the Wadden Sea regularly in spring and fall using it as a food source. In the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein you can find about 700 plant and 2500 animal species, of which 10% are endemic.
Plants
Eelgrass is the only flowering plant in the Wadden Sea which is capable of living under water. In 1930 most of the eelgrass in the Atlantic Ocean was killed by an epidemic. The eelgrass stocks haven't regenerated since. The plants are mainly located in the northern part of Schleswig-Holstein’s Wadden Sea and cover an area of 6000 ha. Compared to 705 ha in Lower Saxony and 130 ha in the Netherlands, it is quite large. Also in contrast to the worldwide trend of decreasing eelgrass stocks, the stocks in the Frisian Wadden Sea area are increasing. During the maximum spatial extent in August eelgrass covers up to 13% of the North Frisian Wadden Sea. Eelgrass areas provide habitats for marine organisms and are an important food source for barnacle geese (Branta leucopsis).
Salt marshes are the dominant landscape in the transition zone between open sea and inland. They are regularly flooded between 10 and 250 times a year depending on the tidal range. Salt marshes build different zones relative to the local salinity. The lower marsh zone which is flooded the most has a higher salinity than the upper marsh zone which is less frequently flooded because of the higher elevation. In total about 50 species of flowering plants can be found in the local salt marshes. In low elevation areas plants like common salt marsh grass (Puccinellia maritima), sea-aster (Hordeum marinum), sea-blite (Sueda maritima) and sea-purslane (Halimione portulacoides) are characteristic. High elevation areas are a lot more diverse in plant species. Common plants are seaside centaury (Centaurium littorale), red eyebright (Odontites rubra), see plantain (Plantago maritima) and distant sedge (Carex distans).
In the dunes small amounts of plants can be found; due to the extreme conditions only some dune heaths grow there. The rain-laden dune valleys resemble the vegetation of a marsh, with plants like cotton grass (Eriophorum angustifolium), drosera or marsh gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe).
Animals
Mammals
A great number of harbour porpoises live in the national park. The Wadden Sea is also home to harbour seals and grey seals. According to the official counting of the National park Administration, about 13.000 harbour seals are living in the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein (2017). Nearly half of the seal population died during the "Seehundstaupe" epidemic in 1988 and 2002. The National Park Administration assumed that one third of the harbour seal population was swimming or hunting during the counting so the number had to be adjusted. The grey seal population consists of 140 animals and is mainly located on the "Jungnamensand" sand bar and the "Knobsand" sand bars near the island Amrum.
Insects
The Wadden Sea only has a few places where insects are found. Nearly all of the 2000 highly specialized species which are known to live in the national park can be found in salt marshes. Due to the difficult environmental conditions (for example salinity or frequent flooding), it is hard to survive for insects, especially in the larval state. The main survival strategy is hiding in the soil or inside plants. As nutrition they prefer parts of the plants that have already released the saltwater. Relatively well-known examples are the "Halligflieder-Spitzmaus-Rüsselkäfer" or the "Strandwegerichgallrüsselkäfer" (Mecinus collaris) that live in the particular plant. In contrast the magnificent salt beetle (Bledius spectabilis) digs a tube in the mudflat.
Sea lavender serves the caterpillar of the seldom seen Salzwiesen-Kleinspanner (Scopula emutaria) as nutrition. Its existence can only be proven in the coastal area of Sylt and Amrum.
Birds
The avifauna of the national park is comparable with avifaunae of other Wadden Sea regions. With over 10 million birds in spring and autumn the trilateral Wadden Sea accommodates the most birds in Europe. The nutrition-rich area is visited by migratory birds regularly. Due to the ongoing changes in the Wadden Sea the effects of the national park on the avifauna are hard to quantify. From 1994 to 2004 only three bird species (European spoonbill, Great cormorant, common ringed plover) increased in number. In the same period, the stock of 18 other species shrank including barnacle goose, common greenshank, Eurasian curlew, black-headed gull, lesser black-backed gull, Eurasian oystercatcher, pied avocet and dark bellied brent goose.
The reason why the stocks are decreasing is unknown. It is presumed that trawling damages the food source of the birds permanently. Species which are mainly living inland seem to have advantage over species which mostly live in salt marshes. They prefer dyked areas, which are cut off from salt water intrusion (polders), so the fresh water environment is dominating. Examples for newly-dyked polders in Schleswig-Holstein are Beltringharder Koog, Hauke-Haien-Koog, Speicherkoog, Rickelsbüller Koog. Since 2000, breeding eagle pairs settled permanently in the Wadden Sea area.
The population of the northwest-European common shelduck, which numbers 180,000 birds, spends the time of moulting between July and September in the Wadden Sea, mainly around the protected island of Trischen. There gathers over 80% of the northwest-European population. This phenomenon of a "mass moulting" is unique in the world.
About 200,000 eider ducks spend their moulting time here; about 1000 eider duck couples use the mudflats of the North Sea as breeding area. Most can be found on the island of Amrum. Huge stocks of barnacle geese (about 60,000) or brant geese (about 84,000) exist solely on the islands and Halligen. It has been noted that the barnacle goose is steadily extending its stay in the Wadden Sea. Around the North Frisian Islands at water depths of 2–10 m the common scoter appears in internationally meaningful stocks.
Fishes, mussels and shellfish
The typical mussels of the Wadden Sea are the common cockle (Cerastoderma edule) and the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis). While the common cockle is omnipresent, wild growing blue mussels are less common than in the southern Wadden Sea. They suffer from the expansion of the Pacific oyster which benefit from the warmer winters. The sand gaper was probably introduced by the Vikings from America; the American piddock arrived at the end of the 19th century, while the appearance of the Atlantic jackknife clam in the Wadden Sea is known since 1976.
Of the shellfish, the common shore crab (Carcinus maenas) is of huge importance, because it devours 10% of the whole Wadden Sea´s biomass. Also, numerous brown shrimp and barnacles can be found. Besides the seal the lugworm is probably the most famous animal in the Wadden Sea.
Only some small fishes are completely domestic in the mudflat, e.g. eelpout (Zoarces viviparus), sand goby (Pomatoschistus minutus) and sea scorpion (Myoxocephalus scorpius). Many other species use the area rich in food and oxygen and protected from predatory fish as spawning grounds. Flatfish like plaice are important to name, but also the garfish (Belone belone) is active in the eastern part of the Atlantic.
The National Park
History
The protection of the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein is a target on nature conservation since the 20th century. In the 1920s, the first concerns were the protection of areas in the Wadden Sea e.g. "Sylt-Nord" and the Morsum cliff (Sylt). Since 1940, 11 conservation areas were established in North Frisia targeting mainly the protection of animal species, especially birds.
During the development of the conservation areas, protecting biotopes became more and more important. In the 1960s, plans were first made for conserving the entire area of the Wadden Sea. In 1963 the Wadden Sea Conservation Station demanded a "Großschutzgebiet Halligmeer" (protection of the area around the small undyked islands off the coast of Schleswig-Holstein). The local hunting association firstly proposed the term national park in relation to the Wadden Sea in 1972, two years after the establishment of the Bavarian Forest National Park. In 1973 the ministry of agriculture proposed a bill which was withdrawn the following year because of strong resistance by locals. In 1975, a first scientific conference about the conservation of the Wadden Sea and in 1978, a first trilateral intergovernmental conference with participants form Germany, Netherlands and Denmark took place. In 1982 a joint declaration on the protection of the Wadden Sea was signed in Den Haag by the three states. It was not until 1985 that the Wadden Sea was declared a national park due to political tensions within the local population which are caused by a strong traditional desire for freedom by Frisian people. In 1999, the Wadden Sea National Park was further extended, again accompanied by political protests. The distinction as a National Park led to protesters throwing eggs at the responsible minister and a shrimp boat demonstration in the Kieler Förde.
First National Park law
The former CDU government founded the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park. It was the third national park in Germany after the Bavarian Forest National Park and the Berchtesgaden National Park. Finally in July 1985, the Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein adopted the national park law. The declared conservation area covered 272,000 ha, divided into three different zones of protection. The National Park begins 150 m from the coastline with a seaward extent from 5 to 10 m water depth. On 1 October 1985, the national park law passed.
In 1986, the Lower Saxony, and in 1990 the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park were founded. The Wadden Sea areas in the Netherlands and in Denmark are protected by other conservation measures. The Danish Wadden Sea was declared a national park in 2010.
The national park law says:
„Die Errichtung des Nationalparks dient dem Schutz des schleswig-holsteinischen Wattenmeeres und der Bewahrung seiner besonderen Eigenart, Schönheit und Ursprünglichkeit. Seine artenreiche Pflanzen- und Tierwelt ist zu erhalten und der möglichst ungestörte Ablauf der Naturvorgänge zu sichern. Jegliche Nutzungsinteressen sind mit dem Schutzzweck im Allgemeinen und im Einzelfall gerecht abzuwägen.“The main point of the law is that the formation of the national park should protect the animals and plants within it, but also the natural processes taking place there. Any utilization of the area is to be weighed against the aim of nature conservation.
Local people who were living near the coast and were affected by the national park law felt overlooked by the government. In their mind the Wadden Sea was formed by their ancestors over centuries which somehow led to an attitude of desiring unconditional freedom and autonomy. The National Park Wadden Sea being governed by the "far away city" Kiel felt like heteronomy by politicians who have no relation to local agriculture, fisheries and had never experienced the danger of storm surges.
On the other hand, the political opposition and local nature conservation organizations were skeptical as well. They thought that the restrictions and conservation measures coming with the national park law were insufficient. They also feared the increasing masses of tourists which the distinctive national park could incur.
Ecosystem synthesis report, discussion and protests
The basis of the second national park law was the Ecosystem synthesis report, published in 1996. Within 800 pages an interdisciplinary team of scientists summarized suggestions for changes in the existing National Park law based on results of seven years of extensive monitoring in the national park. The synthesis report which was commissioned by the Environment Secretary Berndt Heydemann was discussed in over 200 local assemblies and 15 meetings of national park boards of trustees. In 1998, the cabinet of Schleswig-Holstein began to discuss proposals for the second national park law. In December 1999, it became effective.
The synthesis report provided suggestions for expanding the area classified as national park up to 349,000 ha compared to the original 237,000 ha. It also proposed to declare the "Lister Tief" and the "Wesselburener Loch" a zero use zone. Crafters in the Dithmarscher Wadden Sea during the moult of common shelducks from July to September were prohibited.
The suggestions of the synthesis report caused a great wave of political responses. Especially, North Frisian people led by the head of district administrator Olaf Bastian (CDU) were dedicated enemies of an expanding national park. Not only North Frisian people protested against the synthesis report respectively the second National Park Law but other protest movements developed among the people living at the west coast too. In Büsum 1000 people, including many local shepherds working at the dykes and shrimp fishermen, protested because they felt limited in their freedom and negatively affected in their income. On 26 August 1999, 143 shrimp fishermen travelled with their boats through the Kiel Canal to the city of Kiel to protest against the second national park law during its declaration in front of the Schleswig-Holstein Landtag. During an event in Tönning, locals threw eggs at the Secretary of environment, Rainder Steenblock. In November 1999, one month before the second national park law became effective, 160 fires were lit along the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein as a warning act.
The protests were mainly about the number and size of the zero use zones in which fishing wouldn't be allowed, and about the landside border of the park. It should, instead of the 150 m band, now border the outer edge of the dykes which includes a lot of salt marshes and especially swimming places.
Second national park law
On 17 December 1999, the Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein changed the national park law according to the proposals of the synthesis report. The protective purpose of the National Park was changed from "möglichst ungestörten Ablauf der Naturvorgänge" (that is, an undisturbed ongoing of natural processes) to „conserved as a habitat for the plant and animal species that occur in it naturally as well as for the relationships occurring between such species and their habitats". Nevertheless, coastal protection still has a higher priority than nature conservation. Additionally, it is written that the restriction of the national park shouldn’t restrain the locals in their interests and habits and that the national park should work to affect the tourism in the North Sea region positively.
The law expanded the national park area only seawards. The coastal border stayed the same, 150 m from the dyke. A zero use zone was created south of the Hindenburgdamm instead of the originally proposed zero use zones "Lister Tief" and "Wesselburener Loch", which would have been ecologically more valuable. Additionally, a whale sanctuary was established and hunting was prohibited completely, which had much effect on shellfisheries. The law also simplified the conservation zone system. Conservation zone 3 was made obsolete while conservation zone 1 was expanded drastically, especially in areas of tidal inlets. Pleasure crafters and fishermen agreed upon avoiding moulting areas of barnacle geese during moult time. The law also proposed speed limitations for ships and boats in the national park area.
To control non-official criticism and promote cooperation between locals and the National Park Administration the law created countless platforms for task forces and projects.
Administration
The National Park Administration is the nature conservation authority for the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park functioning as a higher and lower conservation authority. The administration office is located in Tönning. According to the second national park law Article 7 the National Park Administration is responsible for (1.) Informing the public about the national park, conducting educational activities and controlling movements of visitors, as well as for (2.) Carrying out and coordinating ecological monitoring, and providing the necessary relevant scientific basis for planning as well as for (3.) Regulating support provided by nature conservation associations within the meaning of Article 21 d of the state nature conservation act (Landesnaturschutzgesetz) for the national park.
Until 2007 the Wadden Sea National Park was administrated by the National Park State Office (Landesamt) which was directly assigned to the Ministry of Nature, Environment and Regional Development (Ministerium für Natur, Umwelt und Landesentwicklung). Since 1 January 2008 the National Park Administration is integrated in the newly founded Agency of Coastal Defence, National Park and Marine Conservation of Schleswig-Holstein as Department 3: National Park and Marine Conservation. The main reason to unite coastal defence and nature conservation in one agency is to provide a better coordination for overlapping responsibilities of these two departments. Head of Department 3: National Park and Marine Conservation is Dr. Detlef Hansen.
Although the national park only covers the area of Dithmarschen and North Frisia and borders 69 local communities the state administration of Schleswig-Holstein is responsible for the national park. The state administration justifies its responsibility with high efficiency, standardised administration processes and the minimisation of special local interests. Besides that the biggest part of the national park area is classified as unincorporated area. The local communities have no right for administration in these areas. The administrative districts North Frisia and Dithmarschen and the local communities are members of the boards of trustees which are instruments to pool statements and influence on the national park.
99.9% of the national park area is public property. 99% of that is property of the German Federal Republic the rest belongs to the state of Schleswig-Holstein.
The National Park Administration employs 85 people, to some extent in part-time jobs. It has a budget of seven million euros per year. With integrating the National Park administration in the Agency for Coastal Defence, National Park and Marine Conservation the "Nationalpark Service" got integrated in the National Park administration, so only one administration office is in charge of every area of responsibility concerning the National Park.
The National Park Administration tries to solve conflicts and work more efficient by making agreements with user groups to manage the details of the Park´s utilization. They negotiate treaties with fishermen, the guides for mudflat tours, the operators of excursion boats, but as well with communities like Sankt Peter-Ording, Westerhever or the Hamburger Hallig.
Other conservation measures
Since 1987 the governments of Denmark, Netherlands and Germany run the Common Wadden Sea Secretariat (CWSS) to provide better coordination of conservation measures. The secretariat is located in Wilhelmshaven. Since 1990 the area of the national park and five Hallig islands additionally own the conservation status of a Biosphere reserve. The waterways in this area are assigned to federal law. The latest act got passed in 1997 and determines the speed limitations and temporal closure of the waterways.
Internationally speaking the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein is subject to the Ramsar-Convention on Wetlands of International Importance. Since 2002 the area is also listed as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA). Additionally the national park is subject to a trilateral convention for protecting grey seals, harbour seals and Cetaceans called ‘Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic, North East Atlantic, Irish and North Seas’ as well as to the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian migratory water birds. The area is designated for the purpose of the Bird directive of the European Union (79/409/EWG) as well as the for the purpose of the Habitats Directive and therefore a part of the European Natura 2000 nature protection network. As a part of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive the ecological status of the Wadden Sea has to be protected and improved. In the purpose of the Waterframework directive the national park is partly assigned to the Flussgebietseinheit (FGE) Eider, a so called "unit of the river basin Eider", and partly to the FGE Elbe. Harbour seals are protected in the Wadden Sea by the ‘Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea’. The 26 July 2009 the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein received the Status of UNESCO World Heritage together with the Wadden Sea of Lower Saxony and the Netherlands. The adjacent Wadden Sea of Hamburg received the Status in 2011, the National Park Vadehavet in Denmark in 2014.
Human utilisation of the National Park
The national park has 70 neighbouring communities in Schleswig-Holstein with 290.000 people living there. Additionally approximately 15 Million people visit the national park every year. The area of the Wadden Sea National Park is harnessed by tourism, fishery, oil production, coastal defence, grazing, maritime traffic and air traffic, withdrawal of gravel and sand, mussel cultivation and sometimes used for military weapon testing. Most of the utilisation is located directly near or at the coast, so the seaward area is more or less unaffected by human influences. Since the amendment of the second national park law in 1999 mainly voluntary agreements coordinate the limitation in human utilisation of the Wadden Sea. The consideration of traditional usages highly increased the approval of the national park by locals. Since 1987 utilisations, which hardly affect the ecosystem Wadden Sea at all, are allowed again by law. Such utilisations are e.g. collecting small amounts of plants for science or education.
Approval of the Wadden Sea National Park by locals and tourists
The National Park Administration commissions a monitoring program called "SÖM Watt" (Sozio-ökonomisches Monitoring) regularly. In the SÖM Watt report, data about the regional economy, the demographic developments, opinions and wishes of the local population are gathered and analysed. The results of the monitoring program shows that tourists are at least as well informed about the national park as locals. In a representative survey all over Germany the Wadden Sea National Park was placed second in terms of publicity, right behind the Bavarian Forest National Park, which was the first place. Despite being famous in the public awareness, only a few people distinguish (without help) between Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park, Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park and Lower Saxony Wadden Sea National Park.
Besides being highly approved by tourists, the surveys suggest that locals have high rates of consent for the Wadden Sea National Park as well. According to the SÖM report 2017 about 85% of the population of Dithmarschen and North Frisia would vote for a continuation of the national park. Since 2009 the approval rates haven’t gone below 80%. 10% of the samples would vote for a continuation under certain circumstances. Only 2% would vote against a continuation of the Wadden Sea National Park. Locals, who would have voted against the national park, fear further limitations for example in fishery, aquatic sports and accessibility of the conservation area. However most of the samples show comprehension for specific conservation measures. In the survey of the SÖM report 2014 36% of locals said they are proud to have the Wadden Sea National Park. Additionally 52% think the existence of the national park is important. Women and young adults evaluate it more positively than men and elder persons.
It is hard to quantify the effects of the communication and education efforts of the National Park Administration with the locals. The administration has trouble in limiting the agriculture in the national park area, mainly because there hasn't been much agriculture in the first place before the Wadden Sea National Park was founded. Also, even 32 years after the creation of the national park, only 14% of the local people actually know that the Wadden Sea area which they are living adjacent to has the conservation status of a national park. The public awareness of the Wadden Sea being a biosphere reserve is < 1%.
Coastal defence
Coastal defence has a higher priority than nature conservation measurements, even in the national park area. Along the North Sea coast new dikes are being built and old dikes will be amplified according to the sea level rise. In some areas, e.g. at the west coast of Sylt eroded beach material is replaced through beach nourishment. But compared to other marine national parks coastal defence has always been a part of the Wadden Sea. The Wadden Sea wouldn't be the same today if not for coastal protection over centuries. For example drainage channels were dug in the Dark Age in salt marsh areas. Even today the channels change the originally amphibious character of the biotope.
In the past land reclamation was the number one priority for the people during the first settlements. Nowadays only small areas of land reclamation are planned (due to nature conservation) mainly for increasing the stability in foreshore areas for better flood protection.
Tourism
The national park law says that nature conservation in the national park area shall support sustainable development of living and working conditions for locals. The goal is reached by positive backlash on tourism and reputation of the region. The location of the Wadden Sea National Park is a traditionally popular destination for German tourists. The official statistics show that 1.5 million holidaymakers generate 8.4 million overnight stays in the adjacent coastal area, islands and Hallig islands. One can assume that unofficial numbers are much higher because the official statistics don’t include private renting with less than 10 beds to sleep in, long-time camping, and staying overnight in houses / flats of relatives or friends. Another number which is hard to quantify are the daily visitors. To determine a total number of tourists the researchers combine official counting with other representative surveys with topics related to tourism in the North Sea region. Over all 18.7 million overnight stays are recorded as well as 12.8 million daily visitors. Approximately 9.000 people in the North Sea region are working in the tourist sector.
North Sea tourism in the Wadden Sea National Park area
The surveillance of the national park area is hard to manage for the National Park Administration. The number of tourists is too big; the area of the national park too large and the number of employees responsible for supervising tourists is too low. Additionally tourists do not have a few main entrances as in other German national parks, but the entrances to the Wadden Sea National Park are large in number through the dike areas. The National Park Administration cooperates with local communities and nature conservation organisations to close the surveillance gap.
Most of the time tourists who are visiting the national park stay out of the park itself. Normally the groups of tourists entering the national park are guided walking tours in the mudflat areas. The number of private walking tours is unknown. On the other hand the number of guided walking tours reached a maximum of 5.900 tours with a total of 149.000 participants attending in 2016, a number which has not been reached since 1999. Around 2/3 of the tours are guided and organised by members of the Wadden Sea Conservation Station. The remainder are guided by professional mudflat guides.
National Park tourism
It is unknown to which degree the status of the national park increased the number of tourists in the North Sea region. Compared to administrative districts which are not located adjacent to the national park region, the increasing rate of tourists in administrative districts adjacent to the Wadden Sea National Park is not significantly higher.
However in 2014 17% of the people making a vacation in the North Sea area decided to go there because of the national park, suggests the SÖM report. These tourists generate a net product of 89 Million euros which is the income equivalent of 4741 people. As a part of the INTERREG IV B-project PROWAD another survey was made asking people to which degree the status of a national park influenced their decision during vacation planning to travel to the North Sea region. About 44% answered that they think the conservation of the Wadden Sea was a "very important" or an "important" factor for choosing their vacation destination.
The National Park Administration is responsible for public relation (PR) topics of the national park. A part of the PR program is their visitor information system. It consists of pavilions, information boards, maps, signs and guides. Meanwhile approximately 750 items are located in 250 places all over the coast of Schleswig-Holstein. Since 1999 the National Park Administration operates a main information centre in the town of Tönning called ‘Multimar Wattforum’. Besides that other bigger information centers are located in Wyk on Föhr Island and Husum (Nationalparkhaus) whereas 30 smaller information centers of the national park can be found all around the coast. The smaller information centers are operated by nature conservation associations or local communities. Other tourist attractions which also provide information about the national park and the World Heritage status are the "Seehundstation Friedrichskoog" and the "Erlebniszentrum Naturgewalten List" (Sylt).
National Park partner initiative of the Wadden Sea National Park
The National Park Partner Project was founded in 2003 by the National Park Administration. Since then local touristic businesses can apply for a National Park Partnership. The idea behind the project is that tourists who plan a vacation in the North Sea region get a package made of quality service, practised "regionality" and ecological awareness. They also support sustainable touristic development in the National Park region. The project promotes cooperation between local communities, nature conservation associations and the National Park Administration. The central panel of the National Park Partner Project is the "Vergaberat" deciding over which applicant gets accepted and may enter the National Park Partner Network. The "Vergaberat" consists of the representatives from the Island and Hallig Island conference (Insel- und Halligkonferenz), nature conservation associations, National Park Partners, the Nordsee-Tourismus-Service GmbH and the National Park Administration. The head of the "Vergaberat" is Anja Szczesinski (World Wide Fund for Nature), the chief executive is Matthias Kundy (National Park Administration). Companies and businesses who want to apply for a National Park Partnership have to fulfil a catalogue of criteria in the fields of identification with the idea of a national park, ecological awareness and service quality. Currently over 170 partners are part of the network. The partners are categorised for example in apartments, hotels, professional mud flat guides, shipping companies or museum. The National Park Partnership is fee-based.
At the moment there are 27 "Nationale Naturlandschaften" (German national nature reserves) partner initiatives with over 1000 partnerships. They organise themselves in a committee of the Europarc Deutschland e.V. For having a comprehensive quality standard the committee developed a harmonised catalogue of criteria for National Park Partners.
Fishery, hunting and agriculture
The coexistence of the national park and fishery has conflict potential. While only being a small part of the national product of the west coast (ca. 1%), fishery is highly important for tourism. Tourists expect a maritime flare when having a vacation at the North Sea coast. Shrimp fishery has the biggest economic importance as a part of fishery in the North Sea region because fishing common shrimps (Crangon crangon) is not limited by catch quota. On the other hand Atlantic cod, European plaice and common sole are hardly fished at all due to strict catch quota and other protection measures.
Agriculture has a higher economic importance for the North Sea coast. But most of the land used for agriculture is located outside the national park. Only grazing of saltmarshes by sheep happens inside the park and has conflict potential to some extent.
Shrimp fishery
Shrimpers support the characteristic image of the North Sea region of Schleswig-Holstein as it counts as traditional fishery. Not until 1900 shrimp boats were used for catching shrimps, prior to which a Gliep net was the standard fishing method. The shrimper stock in Schleswig-Holstein declined over the years: in 1999 about 144 shrimp boats were fishing in the North Sea. In 2016 the stock has dropped to half. Small family businesses are affected the most. Against the odds the number of big industrial shrimp boats in the North Sea region is increasing. They can stay outside longer, as well as in bad weather.
From 2010 to 2015 about 6.000 tons of common shrimps a year were caught. In 2016 the number decreased to 2.530 tons, which is unusually small.
Mussel fishery
Common blue mussels are cultivated in an area with an extension of 1.700 ha in the North Sea area. Seeds (young mussels) for cultivation can be extracted from natural spat falls and "seed collectors". Catching common blue mussels outside cultivated areas is strictly forbidden. The cultivation of common mussels in the conservation zone 2 of the national park is limited to an area of 13 ha. Since 1997 areas that dry out during low tide are closed for mussel cultivation as well. In total only 8 common mussel cultivation areas in the national park region are allowed by law. On average approximately 10.000 tons of common mussels are harvested. From the beginning of April until mid of June harvesting is generally prohibited.
Catching common cockle and common razor shells is prohibited since 1990. Even before the prohibition, it was economically unimportant due to natural stock decreases in Schleswig-Holstein during hard winter seasons. Pacific oyster (Magallan gigas) cultivations are limited to a 30 ha big area near Sylt. These oysters are kept in heated ponds during winter. About 1 million oysters are harvested and sold on Sylt annually; approximately one third is eaten local. The Pacific oyster has widely spread in the Wadden Sea during the last years. The former blue mussel beds evolved into oyssel reefs. Attempts to catch the thick trough shell (Spisula solida) were successful in the beginning of the 1990s. During the hard winter in 1995/96 all the shells fell victim to the unusual cold weather. Since the end of 2016 thick trough shell fishery is prohibited in the national park.
Aquaculture and hunting
An experimental station for marine aquaculture is located in Büsum. The plants water supply with North Sea water comes through a pipeline which begins in the national park. While hunting in the national park area is prohibited since 1999, some hunters are still active on the Hallig Islands which are surrounded by national park conservation zones.
Agriculture
Besides tourism agriculture is the most important source of income for the west coast of Schleswig-Holstein. Especially southern Dithmarschen has been and still is an important agricultural export area. While most of the agriculture happens outside of the national park area (except for sheep farming), it still has some influence on the national park, for example water travels through Grüppen (drainage channels) from the fields into the North Sea.
Only sheep grazing on salt marshes happens to be a problem with agriculture and the national park. Since the first settlements salt marshes were used for grazing and sheep farming. Since the 1980s intensive grazing got subsidised by the government of Schleswig-Holstein. Nowadays only dikes itself and the dike foreshore areas shall be intensively grazed because of coastal defence manners. Salt marshes which are located more seawards shall be spared out.
From 1991 to 1996, shepherds received compensation for relinquishing the intensive grazing of seaward salt marshes as a part of the "Küstenstreifen-Programm". In the disused salt marshes water drainage got stopped as well. Because of these measures the salt marshes stock increased up to 13.5% at the coasts of North Frisia and Dithmarschen in the years from 1988 to 2014. With a total area of 12.450 ha (2006), 47% of the salt marshes were not grazed at all, 11% were grazed extensively and 38% were grazed intensively.
Transport and infrastructure
There are some small and medium-sized harbours (Meldorf, Büsum, Husum, Nordstrand, Pellworm, Dagebüll, Wyk auf Föhr, Amrum, Hörnum and List auf Sylt) located at the coast of Schleswig Holstein. The only possibility to reach them is driving through the national park. Responsible for most of the marine traffic are ferries driving to the North Frisian Islands. The ferry traffic routes go through shipping channels in the national park area.
A special decree on moving through the Wadden Sea by the Federal Government of Germany applies to the maritime area of the national park shipping channels. The decree allows for example temporal closure of conservation zones for the protection of breeding birds and grey seals or bans on driving during low tide. The seaward part of the national park is signed as a PSSA (Particularly Sensitive Sea Area). The marking also provides extra limitations for marine traffic especially for ships with dangerous loads. These ships are forced to take other routes (more seawards) outside of the PSSA. Very important shipping routes, like the Elbe estuary route to Hamburg are an exception.
The area of the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park is located north of a strongly frequented waterway in the southern North Sea. Changing weather conditions, strong storms and limited range of sight are pretty common for the region, so naval accidents are ongoing hazards for the flora and fauna of the national park. But more common than naval accidents are oil-polluted birds due to captains illegally dumping oil into the sea close to the national park. The biggest threat the national park ever experienced happened on 29 October 1998 when the cargo ship MV Pallas, on fire and abandoned, ran aground near the island Amrum. Approximately 244 tons of oil flew into the North Sea.
Because of being completely surrounded by the national park area, the supply chain of the islands and Hallig islands goes through the national park inevitably. Besides the supply transported by ships, other essentials like energy, data or water pipes lead through the national park as well. Also civic air traffic is passing over the national park area.
Oil, offshore wind power and sand
The only operating offshore oil platform of Germany "Mittelplate A" is located adjacent to Trischen Island in the national park area. It exploits the most considerable oilfield of Germany since 1987 in up to 2000 – 3000 meter water depth. The obtained oil was originally transported by oil tankers to Brunsbüttel but since 2005 the oil is carried away by an underground pipeline. Besides the obvious disturbing factors for the environment, noise level and lighting are considerable disturbances for the breeding birds as well.
The construction of further oil platforms is prohibited by national park law and the Trilateral Wadden Sea Cooperation (TWSC). It is assumed that further oil fields are located in the south of the operated field near the Elbe River and in the salt domes around Büsum and Oldenswort. It is unknown if it's possible to exploit the oil fields from stations outside the national park area but it's pretty unlikely that they can be tapped by the Mittelplate A. The operating concern of the "Mittelplate A" RWE Dea requested 5 additional exploratory drilling in the national park area. The responsible mining authority gave the permission but according to an inspection by the Landtag of Schleswig-Holstein it is illegitimate. The political discourse still goes on today.
Wind energy in Schleswig-Holstein is only won by onshore wind parks, which are built in the coastal region bordering the national park. First economical important offshore wind farms are planned seawards outside the national park. The sea cable connection from the offshore wind farms to land might cause some disturbances while being built.
While it is generally forbidden to extract resources for commercial use from the national park, an exception is being made for coastal defence purposes. 1.1 Million Cubic meters are extracted every year for example for beach replenishment at the west coast of Sylt, for renewing the Hallig islands or to restore dikes.
Military
Since the foundation of the Wadden Sea National Park the Bundeswehr gave up its military test area at Sylt. The military testing area in the southern part of Meldorf Bay is still active but it's not used for testing bombs and napalm anymore, like in the past. In the 1960s arm manufacturers tested munitions and projectiles while aiming at the Wadden Sea during 130 days a year, heavily disturbing the local fauna. The projectiles had been salvaged with the help of helicopters. Nowadays companies are still allowed to test ammunition in the military testing area near the Wadden Sea during two days a year. Additionally military training flights are located within the national park area regularly. The aircraft aren’t allowed to come below a flying altitude of 900 m.
It is mostly unknown how much ammunition from World War 2 is still located in the Wadden Sea of Schleswig-Holstein. The German marine plunged the remaining munition mostly undocumented in the mudflats. Although most of the munition seems to be dumped in the Lower Saxony part of the Wadden Sea, it is assumed that a total mass of 400.000 – 1.300.000 tons can be found in the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea. The exact locations of the plunged munitions are mostly unknown. Only some places west of Sylt are known to be used as munition graveyards. Due to corrosion heavy pollutants might be set free in the environment. Tourists and fishermen are in great danger when they unluckily come in contact with ammunition remains.
See also
Wadden Sea National Parks
Lower Saxony Wadden Sea National Park
Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park
Literature
Common Wadden Sea Secretariat (CWSS) (Hrsg.): Nomination of the Dutch-German Wadden Sea as World Heritage Site. 2008 als PDF
Landesamt für den Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer (Hrsg.): Wattenmeermonitoring 2000 – Schriftenreihe des Nationalparks Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer, Sonderheft, Tönning 2001
Landesamt für den Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer (Hrsg.): SÖM-Bericht 2008 als pdf
Landesamt für den Nationalpark Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer / Landesamt für den Nationalpark Niedersächsisches Wattenmeer / Umweltbundesamt (Hrsg.): Umweltatlas Wattenmeer. Bd. 1 (Nordfriesisches und Dithmarscher Wattenmeer), Verlag Ulmer, Stuttgart,
Ministerium für Landwirtschaft, Umweltschutz und Ländliche Räume des Landes Schleswig-Holstein (MLUL) (Hrsg.): Bericht zur Überprüfung des Biosphärenreservats Schleswig-Holsteinisches Wattenmeer und Halligen durch die UNESCO. Berichtszeitraum 1990 bis 2005. Juni 2005 als pdf
Dirk Legler: Die Organisation deutscher Nationalparkverwaltungen. Nomos, Baden-Baden 2006,
Martin Stock et al.: Salzwiesen an der Westküste von Schleswig-Holstein 1986–2001. Boyens Buchverlag, Heide 2005,
Filmography
Im Nationalpark Wattenmeer. Documentary, 45 min., Germany, 1998, by Jens-Uwe Heins and Michael Sutor, Production: Komplett-Media-GmbH, Grünwald (), Brief description by the ARD
External links
Wadden Sea : UNESCO Official Website
Wadden Sea Conservation Station
References
National parks of Germany
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Protected areas of Schleswig-Holstein
North Frisia
Nordfriesland
Dithmarschen
Wadden Sea
Protected areas established in 1985
1985 establishments in West Germany
Ramsar sites in Germany | [
0.11212242394685745,
-0.028811950236558914,
0.40966591238975525,
-0.49610328674316406,
0.31269147992134094,
-0.1825539916753769,
0.5678619146347046,
0.009629116393625736,
-0.6790653467178345,
0.2480640709400177,
-0.37214547395706177,
-0.3885006308555603,
0.27486422657966614,
0.6745622158050537,
-0.43822991847991943,
0.8985981941223145,
0.3853082060813904,
0.12851516902446747,
0.09963595122098923,
-0.6857900023460388,
-0.08801431953907013,
-1.2177225351333618,
0.5043500065803528,
-0.2188468724489212,
-0.08075709640979767,
-0.361986368894577,
0.8329567909240723,
0.7863852381706238,
-0.00397891690954566,
0.18237069249153137,
-0.4943336248397827,
0.49470552802085876,
-0.5915703773498535,
-0.13395458459854126,
0.2990458011627197,
-0.07090377807617188,
0.36332646012306213,
-0.9285717606544495,
-0.15369313955307007,
-0.16643814742565155,
0.3569687008857727,
0.18010270595550537,
-0.3698791265487671,
-0.09368950873613358,
0.22403360903263092,
-0.6502078771591187,
-0.4114530086517334,
-0.15047504007816315,
-0.3475777804851532,
-0.7192283272743225,
-0.6534644961357117,
0.14096412062644958,
0.023626217618584633,
0.6357945799827576,
0.4807398021221161,
0.4576355814933777,
-0.7404711842536926,
0.20234280824661255,
0.1457604467868805,
-0.14206907153129578,
-0.012010554783046246,
0.46951165795326233,
-0.21219545602798462,
0.24687805771827698,
0.36460646986961365,
0.27990931272506714,
0.04559412598609924,
0.550238847732544,
0.3027336001396179,
-0.7764689922332764,
-0.2809085249900818,
0.12850061058998108,
-0.002949737710878253,
0.08010595291852951,
-0.16235817968845367,
0.3585602939128876,
0.10654430091381073,
-0.021151019260287285,
-0.10779928416013718,
0.2258547991514206,
0.5930842161178589,
-0.13328765332698822,
0.861517608165741,
-0.08121674507856369,
0.23355905711650848,
0.4869195520877838,
0.16411875188350677,
-0.4276686906814575,
-1.2556318044662476,
0.296139657497406,
-0.23475633561611176,
0.32705357670783997,
0.12018480896949768,
-0.16280929744243622,
0.4502599239349365,
-0.2254156470298767,
-0.4503536522388458,
0.6482670307159424,
0.151823490858078,
0.7583884000778198,
-0.4616234302520752,
0.6226674914360046,
0.19053728878498077,
0.30211326479911804,
-0.9240189790725708,
-0.987736701965332,
-0.3468177020549774,
-0.5538233518600464,
-0.41922566294670105,
0.4605676233768463,
-0.9272609949111938,
0.3241851031780243,
0.2505432963371277,
0.18155492842197418,
0.02328275330364704,
0.8425724506378174,
0.23316408693790436,
-0.7853274941444397,
0.20116056501865387,
0.4560518264770508,
0.7181866765022278,
0.5825962424278259,
-0.022379770874977112,
0.06749911606311798,
0.09211834520101547,
-0.11155764013528824,
0.23776191473007202,
0.6104400753974915,
-0.3845374286174774,
-0.1632101833820343,
0.27094587683677673,
0.4595724940299988,
-0.19821059703826904,
0.4309059977531433,
0.052523523569107056,
-0.020686497911810875,
0.6338644027709961,
-0.049963079392910004,
0.2329636663198471,
0.23936866223812103,
-1.1180223226547241,
-0.5370379090309143,
-0.6195990443229675,
-0.44642069935798645,
0.07253837585449219,
-0.10588525980710983,
-0.5887730121612549,
-0.09500344097614288,
-0.5229483842849731,
-0.06442636996507645,
0.31159040331840515,
0.3347960412502289,
-0.15437674522399902,
0.19216294586658478,
-0.7829488515853882,
0.13706739246845245,
0.7237380146980286,
0.1444692760705948,
1.0483503341674805,
0.2701455354690552,
0.24194738268852234,
0.15520544350147247,
-0.1955314576625824,
0.656014621257782,
0.7444319128990173,
-0.4655449688434601,
0.5579357147216797,
0.33968138694763184,
-0.25508707761764526,
-0.11657267063856125,
-0.3172699809074402,
0.02109811268746853,
0.325612872838974,
-0.1672056019306183,
0.34755223989486694,
-0.26353418827056885,
0.03938797116279602,
0.5335130095481873,
0.2929718792438507,
-0.2636314034461975,
-0.9814824461936951,
0.2992432415485382,
0.4547490179538727,
0.006317984312772751,
-0.11522413790225983,
0.13921168446540833,
-0.3384052515029907,
0.6983623504638672,
-0.3505612313747406,
0.08434627205133438,
-0.005578701850026846,
-1.1377696990966797,
0.9574739933013916,
0.2041197419166565,
0.6247613430023193,
0.2921920716762543,
-0.15269853174686432,
0.7813850045204163,
-0.2834305167198181,
0.5022551417350769,
-0.5725526213645935,
-0.512202799320221,
-0.21317707002162933,
0.025440925732254982,
-0.5426914691925049,
0.01267340686172247,
0.17773506045341492,
-0.707487165927887,
0.08517325669527054,
-0.18489354848861694,
-0.07854875922203064,
-0.05720190703868866,
0.4527865946292877,
0.055904459208250046,
-0.054022666066884995,
-0.24906092882156372,
0.1310361623764038,
0.33885428309440613,
0.24544665217399597,
-0.8406217694282532,
0.5479822754859924,
0.7582355737686157,
-0.2548649311065674,
0.5221803188323975,
-0.2546979486942291,
0.504182755947113,
0.08410046249628067,
0.5859342813491821,
0.034442782402038574,
-0.102127306163311,
0.415390282869339,
0.15087412297725677,
-0.2653954029083252,
-0.3613056242465973,
0.21171875298023224,
-0.1067282184958458,
0.02243483066558838,
0.022587798535823822,
0.3342992961406708,
-0.290185809135437,
0.39742511510849,
0.047670941799879074,
-0.6734769344329834,
0.760316789150238,
0.6938396692276001,
0.6336513757705688,
-0.07463102787733078,
0.5123142004013062,
-1.3108925819396973,
-0.08107411861419678,
0.10450377315282822,
0.32043036818504333,
0.037253547459840775,
-0.3888750970363617,
-0.17210052907466888,
0.08169108629226685,
-0.11335350573062897,
-0.16400207579135895,
-0.04246056079864502,
0.13367335498332977,
0.09034513682126999,
0.04578877612948418,
-0.8736680746078491,
0.459405779838562,
-0.2347741574048996,
-0.3909272253513336,
0.05875040963292122,
-0.88187175989151,
0.5286712050437927,
0.31688210368156433,
0.16198933124542236,
0.2958295941352844,
-0.6247217059135437,
0.13242651522159576,
-0.38594889640808105,
-0.33090436458587646,
-0.546025276184082,
0.04598911479115486,
-0.30687910318374634,
-0.20181821286678314,
0.34078532457351685,
0.40532785654067993,
0.048064932227134705,
-0.9812408685684204,
-0.44875773787498474,
-0.15020549297332764,
0.1855674386024475,
-0.13726186752319336,
-0.5158082246780396,
0.24879974126815796,
-0.05208425223827362,
0.0348508320748806,
-0.37647688388824463,
0.34696704149246216,
-0.6803036332130432,
0.4878135323524475,
-0.2243877351284027,
-0.1938512623310089,
0.7757646441459656,
0.02234869822859764,
-0.27842485904693604,
0.40928682684898376,
-0.3092908263206482,
-0.1800691932439804,
-0.32115432620048523,
-0.4348948299884796,
-0.36652928590774536,
-0.3973861634731293,
-4.879806041717529,
-0.06351704150438309,
-0.36696815490722656,
0.5476830005645752,
-0.2985199987888336,
0.21266184747219086,
0.6761821508407593,
-0.10466044396162033,
-0.22139672935009003,
0.17258813977241516,
0.1527237743139267,
-0.2825840413570404,
0.5791000127792358,
0.7683336138725281,
0.9041776657104492,
0.5079772472381592,
0.7641706466674805,
-0.03440525755286217,
0.4655936658382416,
-0.5441113710403442,
-0.1383000910282135,
-0.2653719484806061,
-0.10419303178787231,
0.008597519248723984,
0.7296749353408813,
0.7141361236572266,
-0.4480704963207245,
-0.16566620767116547,
-0.9333385825157166,
-0.31144979596138,
0.19464705884456635,
-0.2395620495080948,
0.3193685710430145,
0.11514563858509064,
0.28905221819877625,
0.28286924958229065,
0.08828529715538025,
0.6664294600486755,
0.6896026134490967,
-0.6804210543632507,
0.5900665521621704,
0.5257278680801392,
-0.35118353366851807,
0.022733397781848907,
0.18208453059196472,
-0.5854977965354919,
-0.3597589433193207,
0.203367218375206,
-0.6010324954986572,
1.068422555923462,
-0.26378101110458374,
0.17276890575885773,
0.5750337243080139,
-0.16467636823654175,
-0.162380650639534,
-0.4414936304092407,
0.18583910167217255,
-0.48496317863464355,
-0.5425423383712769,
-0.16178525984287262,
0.6164803504943848,
-0.7501355409622192,
0.05909479409456253,
-0.9589709043502808,
-0.4453991949558258,
-0.300945907831192,
-0.053351011127233505,
-0.29069381952285767,
0.38490042090415955,
-0.268634170293808,
-0.45741045475006104,
0.34994450211524963,
-0.7093815207481384,
-0.7626122236251831,
-0.17049549520015717,
-0.7166529893875122,
-1.0445342063903809,
-0.3796515464782715,
0.21585464477539062,
-0.09859912097454071,
-0.33619561791419983,
-0.5044716596603394,
-0.07462863624095917,
1.1602296829223633,
0.6163638830184937,
-0.8049706816673279,
0.19186055660247803,
-0.5851030349731445,
0.11947910487651825,
-0.7833619713783264,
0.24105077981948853,
-0.3073709011077881,
0.04177974537014961,
-0.24653181433677673,
-1.2191276550292969,
1.1556675434112549,
-0.28086501359939575,
0.1478525847196579,
0.4504719078540802,
-0.4530474841594696,
1.2754305601119995,
-0.574899435043335,
-0.1970900297164917,
-0.3026103079319,
0.2593744993209839,
-0.045781269669532776,
1.1883206367492676,
0.09056676179170609,
0.5797182321548462,
0.027899695560336113,
0.05988185107707977,
-0.281144380569458,
0.05419567972421646,
-0.6229366064071655,
0.2705105245113373,
-0.43982455134391785,
-0.9529470801353455,
1.3150635957717896,
0.6838111281394958,
-0.3616407811641693,
0.753753662109375,
0.9144019484519958,
0.21632319688796997,
-0.2465943843126297,
0.41075989603996277,
-0.484717458486557,
0.0011491880286484957,
0.17717245221138,
-0.5358331203460693,
0.7306758761405945,
0.638490617275238,
0.025758713483810425,
0.22329694032669067,
-0.47868454456329346,
0.45370596647262573,
0.13089074194431305,
-0.05397789180278778,
-1.0003983974456787,
-0.3466077148914337,
0.026107514277100563,
0.3492369055747986,
-0.42937394976615906,
0.1174917072057724,
0.636425256729126,
-0.4748556613922119,
0.4401918351650238,
0.41180622577667236,
-0.11233791708946228,
-0.6952866315841675,
0.210243359208107,
-0.467638224363327,
0.016159603372216225,
0.014799845404922962,
-0.4354470372200012,
0.19858311116695404,
-0.5264748334884644,
0.15000416338443756,
0.7053366303443909,
0.3954000771045685,
-0.22284312546253204,
-0.07348398119211197,
-0.5146836638450623,
-0.5259180068969727,
-0.21827179193496704,
0.2030172199010849,
-0.1704694777727127,
-1.326141357421875,
-0.14593829214572906,
-0.7251778244972229,
0.4479112923145294,
0.13967497646808624,
-0.5588805675506592,
-0.6620610952377319,
0.14964614808559418,
-0.15639705955982208,
-0.1777520775794983,
0.09532113373279572,
0.2907865047454834,
-0.17336349189281464,
-0.26971498131752014,
0.07367344945669174,
0.014971348457038403,
-0.17777244746685028,
0.6113677024841309,
0.3042912483215332,
-0.3912809193134308,
-0.6169013381004333,
0.1943920999765396,
-0.4073069393634796,
0.26812943816185,
0.7237604260444641,
-0.16302704811096191,
0.8608879446983337,
0.2578331232070923,
-0.03636341914534569,
-0.5555058121681213,
0.2553820013999939,
0.4220198690891266,
0.49860483407974243,
-0.7002410888671875,
0.21741758286952972,
0.5931082367897034,
-0.6454954743385315,
0.9774583578109741,
-0.471950501203537,
-0.3619125485420227,
0.8600902557373047,
0.39915552735328674,
-0.22210532426834106,
0.3178742229938507,
-1.1334998607635498,
-0.520159125328064,
0.0497698038816452,
0.5144538283348083,
-1.216780424118042,
0.23392917215824127,
0.6909968256950378,
-0.5805244445800781,
-0.5823150873184204,
0.426146000623703,
-0.3175637423992157,
-0.2991997003555298,
-0.4024631083011627,
-0.37304213643074036,
-0.960626482963562,
0.1353396624326706,
0.7572853565216064,
-0.45179373025894165,
0.11733557283878326,
-0.2520417273044586,
0.5012784004211426,
-0.4920116662979126,
0.4405907094478607,
0.23025178909301758,
0.3319268524646759,
0.11284083127975464,
-0.02948654629290104,
0.5579648613929749,
0.4808996915817261,
0.7678052186965942,
0.9124041795730591,
1.3163080215454102,
-0.0006755933864042163,
-0.6368123888969421,
-0.1975736767053604,
0.2243276983499527,
0.9027509093284607,
-0.3833096921443939,
-0.7894355654716492,
0.1648280769586563,
0.09515034407377243,
0.18113574385643005,
-0.5072455406188965,
-0.6372884511947632,
1.538583517074585,
0.14075791835784912,
-0.459900438785553,
0.6166990995407104,
0.04066546633839607,
-0.23882359266281128,
0.27018141746520996,
-0.15688572824001312,
-0.3831682503223419,
0.23452529311180115,
0.5005024075508118,
-0.7506279945373535,
-0.7533997893333435,
0.2497410625219345,
-0.28166434168815613,
-0.3273695707321167,
-0.37200477719306946,
-0.1689606010913849,
0.5080615282058716,
0.29251065850257874,
-0.3685448169708252,
0.005458439700305462,
0.39833372831344604,
-0.8882293701171875,
0.539231538772583,
-0.4133845567703247,
-0.38868749141693115,
-0.15319186449050903,
-0.029210643842816353,
-0.6969291567802429,
-0.161345437169075,
-1.0653032064437866,
-0.6200331449508667,
0.25935882329940796,
-0.6214570999145508,
0.04115280508995056,
0.04515348747372627,
-0.7133241295814514,
-0.4569774270057678,
-0.40234747529029846,
0.47525107860565186,
0.3708583414554596,
0.41315698623657227,
-0.23264925181865692,
0.1690627783536911,
-0.2288627177476883,
-0.5683527588844299,
0.6618090271949768,
-0.29326289892196655,
-0.5155617594718933,
0.6605738401412964,
0.027638673782348633,
0.020299430936574936,
-0.0883769765496254,
-0.2322608381509781,
0.28549307584762573,
0.29839080572128296,
0.0485212579369545,
-0.12535952031612396,
1.1409696340560913,
-0.10355930775403976,
0.7433453798294067,
0.8195288777351379,
-0.5170198082923889,
0.08495789021253586,
0.45454174280166626,
0.23208332061767578,
-0.2827596366405487,
0.5707497596740723,
0.275158166885376,
-0.0025421828031539917,
0.8717089891433716,
0.06803972274065018,
-0.07795874029397964,
0.8789466023445129,
0.007056908216327429,
-0.3604942262172699,
-0.21086473762989044,
-0.45525193214416504,
0.48156800866127014,
-0.4048732817173004,
0.38106366991996765,
-0.32040801644325256,
-0.03268399462103844,
-0.5943368077278137,
0.4988623857498169,
-0.015385814011096954,
0.6160006523132324,
-0.2154875099658966,
-0.29166528582572937,
-0.024505237117409706,
-0.0565543994307518,
-0.22459375858306885,
0.05847194790840149,
0.7813885807991028,
-0.27228111028671265,
0.3176676630973816,
-0.19051675498485565,
-0.40668433904647827,
-0.7981799840927124,
-0.07366425544023514,
0.16151969134807587,
-0.07807133346796036,
-0.5243637561798096,
-0.26567304134368896,
0.37345343828201294,
-0.2732718288898468,
-0.3276117146015167,
-0.07875017076730728,
0.2581450045108795,
-0.3205394744873047,
-0.43383052945137024,
-0.05870639160275459,
-0.16477973759174347,
-0.10966534912586212,
0.09589342027902603,
0.12666313350200653,
-0.7825291156768799,
0.5414196848869324,
-0.06092265620827675,
-0.056606460362672806,
-0.07072148472070694,
0.2882656455039978,
-0.21701189875602722,
0.03295975551009178,
0.20378515124320984,
-0.3796125650405884,
0.8128516674041748,
-0.1346006691455841,
-0.3241955637931824,
0.4485524892807007,
-0.37728938460350037,
0.17013031244277954,
-0.10138174146413803,
-0.053845103830099106,
0.09182339906692505,
0.20708413422107697,
-0.2412312775850296,
-0.10561371594667435,
-0.1665564924478531,
-1.023104190826416,
-0.3127443492412567,
-0.0651492103934288,
0.9132760763168335,
0.25341320037841797,
-1.216590166091919,
-0.2696390450000763,
0.5809458494186401,
-0.12090340256690979,
0.887174665927887,
-0.2822417616844177,
0.3849174976348877,
-0.8507437109947205,
0.2660035789012909,
0.2334723174571991,
0.6187552213668823,
0.5434683561325073,
0.40703755617141724,
-0.5502380728721619,
0.4279368817806244,
-0.47872501611709595,
-0.17066267132759094,
0.599571943283081,
-0.47504347562789917,
0.2144506722688675,
-0.609754741191864,
-0.16858449578285217,
-0.6626713871955872,
0.1377134472131729,
0.5528171062469482,
0.2777220606803894,
-0.691478967666626,
0.18708615005016327,
0.18930518627166748,
-0.40653911232948303,
0.2677478790283203,
0.009817566722631454,
-0.33464500308036804,
-0.829829216003418,
0.3457958400249481,
-0.9921789169311523,
-0.04631706327199936,
0.5916694402694702,
1.3569047451019287,
0.38097384572029114,
-0.49596691131591797,
-0.18565770983695984,
-0.5066851377487183,
1.0399051904678345,
-0.026797642931342125,
0.47810107469558716,
-0.20918115973472595,
-0.1429394632577896,
-0.25938403606414795,
-1.2315137386322021,
-0.013964672572910786,
0.06621457636356354,
-0.2894361913204193,
0.525715708732605,
-0.5047594904899597,
-0.41538628935813904,
0.14096805453300476,
0.43799811601638794,
-0.15868529677391052,
0.20485886931419373,
0.38346031308174133
] |
247995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamburg%20Wadden%20Sea%20National%20Park | Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park | The Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park () is the smallest of the three German Wadden Sea National Parks which protect the single ecological entity of the Wadden Sea reaching from Den Helder to Esbjerg.
It is an exclave of the city state of Hamburg in North Germany and lies 12.5 km off Cuxhaven in the estuary of the Elbe in the North Sea (German Bight) and includes the islands of Neuwerk, Scharhörn and Nigehörn. It is made up mainly of sand and mixed mudflats with shallow creeks, sand bars (Plaaten) and the dune islands. In 2011 the national park was added to the Wadden Sea World Heritage Site, highlighting its intact intertidal ecosystem, importance as a breeding area for many species of birds, and uniquely high biodiversity.
National park
In accordance with a ruling by the Hamburg Parliament on 9 April 1990 the area was reclassified as the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park. On 5 April 2001 the law was updated and the national park area expanded as a result.
The total area of the national park (Zones 1 and 2) is . The Zone 1 areas are under special protection, limiting mudflat hiking and horse and carriage rides to designated routes.
Within the national park there are about 2,000 animal species, of which about 250 are endemic to the salt marshes of the Wadden Sea. Of particular note are the common seal and the gray seal. Due to the natural influx of sediment, there is a high concentration of food for young fish and seabirds at the mouth of the Elbe. The national park is therefore an important resting and moulting area for seabirds.
For example, shelducks live on the snails that are found in hundreds of thousands on the surface of the mudflats. The approximately 180,000 birds of the north-western shelduck population spends also their moulting period from July to September in the Wadden Sea, which is protected by the three national parks in the states of Lower Saxony, Schleswig-Holstein and Hamburg. About 200,000 eider ducks also spend their moulting season here; about 1,000 pairs of eiders also use the mudflats of the North Sea as a breeding area. Most of them breed on the island of Amrum.
At the same time, the Wadden Sea is a resting place for breeding birds from northern climes that eat up the fat reserves they need for successful breeding. As a result, there are about 10-12 million waders, geese, ducks and gulls in the Wadden Sea as a whole.
The park works closely with the Jordsand Society (Verein Jordsand) especially in the area of bird conservation.
Biosphere reserve
Since 1992 the national park has also been designated as a biosphere reserve, something which increases the importance of the park, because since then it has been placed under international protection in accordance with the UNESCO programme, "man and biosphere". The national park management is responsible for the care of the biosphere reserve and its national aspects.
Addresses
Nationalpark Hamburgisches Wattenmeer
Nationalpark-Station Neuwerk, Turmwurt
D - 27499 Insel Neuwerk
Tel.: 04721 / 69271
and
Behörde für Stadtentwicklung und Umwelt
Nationalpark-Verwaltung Hamburgisches Wattenmeer
Stadthausbrücke 8
D - 20355 Hamburg
Tel.: 040 / 42840 - 3392
Sources
Filmography
Im Nationalpark Wattenmeer. Documentary, 45 min., Deutschland, 1998, by Jens-Uwe Heins and Michael Sutor, Production: Komplett-Media-GmbH, Grünwald (), Short description by ARD
See also
Wadden Sea
Lower Saxony Wadden Sea National Park
Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park
Wadden Sea Conservation Station
Mudflat hiking
References
External links
Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park
National park atlas
National parks of Germany
Biosphere reserves of Germany
Nature reserves in Hamburg
Wadden Sea
Protected areas of Hamburg
Protected areas established in 1990
1990 establishments in West Germany
Ramsar sites in Germany | [
-0.025438077747821808,
-0.10661838948726654,
0.5487536191940308,
-0.6037430167198181,
0.2331775724887848,
-0.3018858730792999,
0.5258352160453796,
-0.20186200737953186,
-0.8006001114845276,
-0.060567427426576614,
-0.29739829897880554,
-0.59236079454422,
-0.05688583478331566,
0.5919131636619568,
-0.23663648962974548,
0.9323651194572449,
0.4323268234729767,
0.28540074825286865,
-0.06861268728971481,
-0.8855899572372437,
-0.269733726978302,
-1.0010517835617065,
0.40031296014785767,
-0.2903811037540436,
-0.028490427881479263,
-0.5470718741416931,
0.5101084113121033,
0.5822725892066956,
-0.09422749280929565,
0.28179433941841125,
-0.23743923008441925,
0.5940287113189697,
-0.7352162003517151,
-0.3622821569442749,
0.4403234124183655,
-0.08601315319538116,
0.24720966815948486,
-0.602477490901947,
-0.09716390818357468,
-0.34732064604759216,
0.15230269730091095,
0.2526363432407379,
-0.010225493460893631,
0.08989592641592026,
0.14080652594566345,
-0.5524861812591553,
-0.5401996970176697,
-0.19324113428592682,
-0.40280288457870483,
-0.6519166827201843,
-0.5702801942825317,
0.18288195133209229,
0.3578088581562042,
0.9329772591590881,
0.5949754118919373,
0.5356610417366028,
-0.9149629473686218,
0.5642955303192139,
0.10095568001270294,
-0.2292720377445221,
0.039217520505189896,
0.5623576045036316,
-0.15569618344306946,
0.2331264615058899,
0.40064823627471924,
0.29439228773117065,
0.07152547687292099,
0.3491496741771698,
0.43824028968811035,
-0.4728529155254364,
-0.021683895960450172,
-0.3720147907733917,
-0.18883974850177765,
-0.25430959463119507,
-0.3326537311077118,
0.010305184870958328,
0.07450386881828308,
0.042783722281455994,
-0.23893828690052032,
0.3699638247489929,
0.5617777109146118,
-0.20372411608695984,
0.9162787795066833,
-0.35996612906455994,
0.5947383046150208,
0.3538423180580139,
0.022259002551436424,
-0.4645680785179138,
-1.1375792026519775,
0.32268887758255005,
-0.023380054160952568,
0.04966991767287254,
0.09137332439422607,
-0.008172310888767242,
0.3863787055015564,
0.01961265504360199,
-0.33250415325164795,
0.7123507857322693,
0.07536085695028305,
0.8551743626594543,
-0.3243650794029236,
0.9297633767127991,
0.49420371651649475,
0.18841417133808136,
-0.6419057846069336,
-0.7805713415145874,
-0.16280733048915863,
-0.23417815566062927,
-0.30918195843696594,
0.100970558822155,
-0.9190174341201782,
0.08934111148118973,
0.04228933900594711,
0.12665511667728424,
-0.0470544770359993,
0.5672827363014221,
0.10908512771129608,
-0.584568440914154,
0.10256372392177582,
0.20067255198955536,
0.7249148488044739,
0.8287865519523621,
0.2633679211139679,
0.25343334674835205,
-0.2269236296415329,
0.0673718973994255,
0.377178430557251,
0.7183949947357178,
-0.2039736956357956,
-0.20073595643043518,
0.32854488492012024,
0.56363844871521,
-0.41393643617630005,
0.1662852168083191,
-0.19905465841293335,
0.029667727649211884,
0.8869427442550659,
0.4985769987106323,
0.37123438715934753,
0.34047675132751465,
-1.0605075359344482,
-0.5687792897224426,
-0.8496811389923096,
-0.28840821981430054,
-0.056704286485910416,
-0.12145670503377914,
-0.526905357837677,
-0.4312279224395752,
-0.13407734036445618,
-0.16499371826648712,
0.15443861484527588,
0.45256200432777405,
-0.1652284413576126,
0.04287354648113251,
-0.761256992816925,
0.1210726946592331,
0.7659584879875183,
0.02620256505906582,
0.6967862844467163,
0.1311338096857071,
0.3539925813674927,
-0.02620845101773739,
-0.1102922186255455,
0.7133641839027405,
0.6199106574058533,
-0.27167707681655884,
0.1044355258345604,
0.13238607347011566,
0.04776579886674881,
-0.10138887912034988,
-0.15528422594070435,
0.03280981257557869,
0.07815617322921753,
-0.4644414186477661,
0.2902093827724457,
-0.10573117434978485,
0.32570892572402954,
0.3572353422641754,
0.31975656747817993,
-0.30001968145370483,
-0.9556426405906677,
0.39091184735298157,
0.4036753475666046,
-0.2720487117767334,
-0.0013306834734976292,
0.13360090553760529,
-0.3116024434566498,
0.9647168517112732,
-0.5437049865722656,
0.0011834778124466538,
-0.01999170146882534,
-1.168939232826233,
0.7056488394737244,
-0.03256433084607124,
0.4488641917705536,
0.3995794951915741,
-0.16153457760810852,
0.9422584176063538,
0.017698269337415695,
0.41995739936828613,
-0.6105012893676758,
-0.31305763125419617,
-0.06633327156305313,
0.034921545535326004,
-0.8915748596191406,
0.3296443223953247,
0.12431503087282181,
-0.5407044291496277,
0.07314082235097885,
-0.22487033903598785,
-0.10928935557603836,
-0.5092167258262634,
0.34675803780555725,
-0.13609670102596283,
0.030202047899365425,
-0.5618586540222168,
-0.06453747302293777,
0.27769535779953003,
0.36591053009033203,
-0.8195845484733582,
0.6615728735923767,
0.6748009324073792,
-0.11255412548780441,
0.2539898753166199,
-0.03596141189336777,
0.6130979657173157,
0.028269872069358826,
0.36120232939720154,
0.26844990253448486,
-0.2026849091053009,
0.6218206882476807,
0.0911206603050232,
-0.30775874853134155,
-0.4524649679660797,
0.13346907496452332,
-0.32398778200149536,
0.08102834224700928,
-0.2247995287179947,
0.1877867728471756,
-0.3234769403934479,
0.4900522828102112,
-0.28517913818359375,
-0.7990651726722717,
0.6325595378875732,
0.5946652889251709,
0.43511053919792175,
0.17860472202301025,
0.2940935790538788,
-1.2894963026046753,
-0.03325040265917778,
0.17756204307079315,
0.42977821826934814,
-0.04070897027850151,
-0.3456336259841919,
-0.08191128820180893,
0.24131034314632416,
-0.2952488958835602,
-0.16789470613002777,
0.06760387122631073,
-0.06265950947999954,
-0.11763706803321838,
-0.21732226014137268,
-0.6110603213310242,
0.606741726398468,
-0.0813889354467392,
-0.6173840761184692,
0.23545780777931213,
-1.0302485227584839,
0.746945321559906,
0.5120026469230652,
0.25054559111595154,
0.07437077909708023,
-0.6287024021148682,
-0.06368160247802734,
-0.35155725479125977,
-0.31449267268180847,
-0.3755168914794922,
0.10305348038673401,
-0.1301175355911255,
0.2668561041355133,
0.44899576902389526,
0.4331359565258026,
0.2470335215330124,
-1.4001277685165405,
-0.2665863335132599,
-0.22581367194652557,
0.2204558253288269,
-0.18893779814243317,
-0.4159286320209503,
0.13498635590076447,
0.15796983242034912,
0.004417905118316412,
-0.43663546442985535,
0.21242736279964447,
-0.6237347722053528,
0.5225873589515686,
-0.1032654270529747,
-0.10026312619447708,
0.6700289845466614,
-0.3560589551925659,
-0.032841213047504425,
0.3679528534412384,
-0.3352429270744324,
-0.2535828649997711,
-0.10871735215187073,
-0.5151392817497253,
-0.2811419367790222,
-0.3630271255970001,
-4.99846887588501,
0.2228982150554657,
-0.16115011274814606,
0.4554118812084198,
-0.5403661131858826,
-0.0009400871931575239,
0.9145137071609497,
-0.2532193064689636,
-0.11944663524627686,
-0.13954487442970276,
-0.029012298211455345,
-0.20478592813014984,
0.6486437916755676,
1.1075841188430786,
0.7880288362503052,
0.4470158517360687,
0.4018302857875824,
-0.16111978888511658,
0.434447318315506,
-0.4677128195762634,
-0.3758535385131836,
-0.30038172006607056,
0.08231861889362335,
0.20240487158298492,
0.6354054808616638,
0.4878304898738861,
-0.7023197412490845,
-0.07697402685880661,
-1.0800552368164062,
-0.3692217469215393,
0.17649491131305695,
-0.6181522011756897,
0.0419926792383194,
0.08246897906064987,
0.566230833530426,
-0.05074000358581543,
0.26543277502059937,
0.6935890316963196,
0.16406306624412537,
-0.8883765935897827,
0.28065723180770874,
0.6965696215629578,
-0.5378347635269165,
-0.026438765227794647,
0.4471745789051056,
-0.6705840826034546,
-0.42158424854278564,
0.07248222827911377,
-0.2973264753818512,
0.9405243396759033,
0.0341055653989315,
0.2068585902452469,
0.7031275629997253,
-0.03379945456981659,
0.09813755750656128,
-0.6677486896514893,
0.06743746995925903,
-0.17423038184642792,
-0.1491127908229828,
-0.09447246789932251,
0.7394553422927856,
-0.7629311084747314,
-0.03296622261404991,
-0.7597100734710693,
-0.3294127583503723,
-0.0922798439860344,
0.012094136327505112,
-0.48439881205558777,
0.3289691209793091,
-0.10711309313774109,
-0.3725855350494385,
-0.02298705279827118,
-0.3174710273742676,
-0.7484738230705261,
-0.017852479591965675,
-0.541010856628418,
-1.0074489116668701,
-0.1428016722202301,
0.35247915983200073,
-0.10311655700206757,
-0.46716853976249695,
-0.5512152910232544,
-0.13066482543945312,
0.7868143320083618,
0.813148021697998,
-0.7885811924934387,
-0.15920868515968323,
-0.19119517505168915,
-0.0363498255610466,
-0.5985761880874634,
0.053410306572914124,
-0.23097547888755798,
0.06734407693147659,
-0.2659311592578888,
-1.042282223701477,
1.2603415250778198,
-0.5314255952835083,
0.01146951224654913,
0.5913265943527222,
-0.22111459076404572,
1.2815903425216675,
-0.44840511679649353,
-0.4842551648616791,
-0.028299471363425255,
0.26472535729408264,
0.09806228429079056,
0.8114446401596069,
0.24165485799312592,
0.500505268573761,
0.0009805298177525401,
0.22262462973594666,
-0.23883765935897827,
-0.17178495228290558,
-0.26680105924606323,
0.5347702503204346,
-0.4826681315898895,
-0.7586423754692078,
1.2101871967315674,
0.4180486500263214,
-0.19063700735569,
0.8046712279319763,
0.6055558323860168,
0.11746861785650253,
0.06483199447393417,
-0.04664899408817291,
-0.49989256262779236,
-0.17786255478858948,
0.356709748506546,
-0.3602818548679352,
0.4837992489337921,
0.360842764377594,
-0.07308710366487503,
0.2769332826137543,
-0.5588755011558533,
0.5603010058403015,
0.05492294952273369,
-0.10836394876241684,
-1.0419707298278809,
0.0070131151005625725,
-0.0648924931883812,
0.26943424344062805,
-0.19308513402938843,
0.29852285981178284,
0.47912508249282837,
-0.2601102888584137,
0.4831230938434601,
0.2856380343437195,
-0.25579914450645447,
-0.5349558591842651,
0.13471168279647827,
-0.24997437000274658,
0.27848660945892334,
-0.16738788783550262,
-0.32241368293762207,
-0.10178802907466888,
-0.3781253397464752,
0.2679770588874817,
0.582044243812561,
0.08024997264146805,
-0.04702340066432953,
0.017825596034526825,
-0.6397808194160461,
-0.6051006317138672,
-0.28555813431739807,
-0.03279195353388786,
-0.5696784853935242,
-0.9153010249137878,
-0.0790383517742157,
-0.46734076738357544,
0.28964659571647644,
0.1075749471783638,
-0.533991277217865,
-0.5682886242866516,
0.12212827801704407,
-0.02610575594007969,
-0.19729799032211304,
-0.34785404801368713,
0.5738385319709778,
-0.3174995481967926,
-0.13328209519386292,
-0.08040540665388107,
0.06997937709093094,
0.21313253045082092,
0.5609267950057983,
0.2684873938560486,
-0.2865385413169861,
-0.44156619906425476,
0.20168405771255493,
-0.19130121171474457,
0.024862537160515785,
0.7225993871688843,
0.18750005960464478,
0.6462658643722534,
0.5556378960609436,
-0.14057809114456177,
-0.733975350856781,
0.6784746646881104,
0.5105060338973999,
0.5732320547103882,
-0.6048453450202942,
0.17802388966083527,
0.48525145649909973,
-0.8309770226478577,
1.048324704170227,
-0.35901451110839844,
-0.3230959177017212,
0.9297162890434265,
0.42212584614753723,
-0.37106677889823914,
0.20356592535972595,
-1.0333956480026245,
-0.5624189376831055,
0.062464095652103424,
0.453430712223053,
-1.4039061069488525,
0.13897019624710083,
0.7158021926879883,
-0.6607487797737122,
-0.37464243173599243,
0.6556060314178467,
0.0015611954731866717,
-0.23212385177612305,
-0.40572354197502136,
-0.5484799742698669,
-0.6786322593688965,
0.6353129744529724,
0.7387180924415588,
-0.2211267203092575,
-0.09469132870435715,
-0.7233304381370544,
0.5824251174926758,
-0.30923670530319214,
0.39458298683166504,
0.08586936444044113,
0.1014295145869255,
0.14013762772083282,
-0.14383943378925323,
0.11443624645471573,
0.48446324467658997,
1.0837212800979614,
0.7168656587600708,
1.0051571130752563,
-0.18699118494987488,
-0.8134961128234863,
0.05738165229558945,
0.3211292624473572,
0.8022699356079102,
-0.4860399067401886,
-0.8884143829345703,
-0.06182646378874779,
0.052809540182352066,
0.07507727295160294,
-0.39421311020851135,
-0.49932050704956055,
1.528290867805481,
0.321348637342453,
-0.47096750140190125,
0.6270545721054077,
-0.02574129030108452,
-0.3965446650981903,
0.35899630188941956,
0.03422585874795914,
-0.554224967956543,
0.24096210300922394,
0.7175151109695435,
-0.5857419967651367,
-0.9052181839942932,
-0.10469234734773636,
-0.3026830554008484,
-0.5679784417152405,
-0.21980608999729156,
-0.20951394736766815,
0.5338651537895203,
-0.012635894119739532,
-0.02950887382030487,
0.24531228840351105,
0.3509354293346405,
-0.8442986011505127,
0.1810338795185089,
-0.3649452030658722,
-0.3422025144100189,
-0.23403961956501007,
-0.03566214069724083,
-0.7434936761856079,
-0.22702914476394653,
-0.827735960483551,
-0.8364563584327698,
-0.22154034674167633,
-0.621304988861084,
-0.031711477786302567,
0.15629419684410095,
-0.5992838144302368,
-0.4049144983291626,
0.10094752907752991,
0.4668261706829071,
0.567351222038269,
0.4679732918739319,
-0.1779739409685135,
0.44390586018562317,
-0.26732712984085083,
-0.4850653409957886,
0.5652989745140076,
-0.45785388350486755,
-0.3968120515346527,
0.4902087450027466,
0.0809192955493927,
0.14339888095855713,
-0.08614657819271088,
-0.09624547511339188,
0.1708129346370697,
0.3601679801940918,
0.08958224952220917,
-0.12078011780977249,
0.9568142890930176,
-0.16916601359844208,
0.7023071050643921,
0.8241371512413025,
-0.582880973815918,
0.39871424436569214,
0.6695752143859863,
0.27744072675704956,
-0.47708165645599365,
0.612662136554718,
0.5646325349807739,
-0.2744619846343994,
0.6329746842384338,
0.28384605050086975,
-0.21284125745296478,
0.7805514931678772,
0.163585364818573,
0.1391179859638214,
-0.2277107536792755,
-0.24613052606582642,
0.5054046511650085,
-0.34447380900382996,
0.505922794342041,
-0.18981409072875977,
-0.11338463425636292,
-0.9245494604110718,
0.38503146171569824,
0.2087561935186386,
0.5753782391548157,
-0.355378657579422,
-0.11165846884250641,
0.020922347903251648,
-0.16607216000556946,
0.02770995907485485,
0.2083270102739334,
0.5583266019821167,
-0.05118337273597717,
0.34479454159736633,
-0.004877073224633932,
-0.34743064641952515,
-0.6964791417121887,
0.037053368985652924,
0.3724270164966583,
0.16273315250873566,
-0.28441718220710754,
-0.5418635010719299,
0.3511052429676056,
-0.09246273338794708,
-0.07453518360853195,
-0.024921134114265442,
0.19714269042015076,
-0.7047473192214966,
-0.40246760845184326,
-0.259691447019577,
-0.002966017462313175,
-0.31517547369003296,
0.2068224847316742,
0.06355695426464081,
-0.7643343806266785,
0.2773227393627167,
0.006884947419166565,
-0.08975996822118759,
-0.05650390684604645,
0.42757806181907654,
-0.22212062776088715,
0.3810209333896637,
0.37733781337738037,
-0.4392857253551483,
0.6902956962585449,
0.035755936056375504,
-0.12776660919189453,
0.5416399240493774,
-0.5073878169059753,
-0.08916454017162323,
-0.27155670523643494,
-0.1975245326757431,
0.1432516872882843,
0.11328458040952682,
-0.15025505423545837,
0.11313247680664062,
-0.10106822848320007,
-1.00113046169281,
-0.33835703134536743,
-0.20426957309246063,
0.9910995960235596,
-0.06980810314416885,
-1.0822211503982544,
-0.2870103716850281,
0.7615983486175537,
-0.12650257349014282,
0.8277978301048279,
-0.3728707432746887,
0.7127765417098999,
-0.9787387847900391,
0.03166936710476875,
0.30976569652557373,
0.6933416128158569,
0.37607914209365845,
0.38362666964530945,
-0.5053269863128662,
0.4747503101825714,
-0.20494778454303741,
0.1282108724117279,
0.12544985115528107,
-0.40182462334632874,
0.019520509988069534,
-0.5860683917999268,
0.14569716155529022,
-0.637474775314331,
0.15372344851493835,
0.2988263964653015,
0.449327677488327,
-0.7248874306678772,
0.022948196157813072,
0.18882139027118683,
-0.34883564710617065,
0.1657395213842392,
0.3290266692638397,
-0.033244989812374115,
-0.685926616191864,
0.2981110215187073,
-1.158643364906311,
0.09040659666061401,
0.41995754837989807,
1.2592036724090576,
0.5701131224632263,
-0.48040705919265747,
-0.30058175325393677,
-0.30704450607299805,
1.0189865827560425,
-0.0031881213653832674,
-0.11288566887378693,
-0.40727293491363525,
0.042188163846731186,
-0.22078241407871246,
-1.3513011932373047,
0.586661159992218,
0.34009647369384766,
-0.5351964235305786,
0.09078333526849747,
-0.3218442499637604,
-0.5690012574195862,
-0.16277068853378296,
0.5290626883506775,
-0.25660428404808044,
0.3167523145675659,
0.14883726835250854
] |
247998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kos | Kos | Kos or Cos (; ) is a Greek island, part of the Dodecanese island chain in the southeastern Aegean Sea. Kos is the third largest island of the Dodecanese by area, after Rhodes and Karpathos; it has a population of 33,388 (2011 census), making it the second most populous of the Dodecanese, after Rhodes. The island measures . Administratively, Kos constitutes a municipality within the Kos regional unit, which is part of the South Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Kos Town.
Name
The name Kos (, genitive Κῶ) is first attested in the Iliad, and has been in continuous use since. Other ancient names include Meropis, Cea, and Nymphaea.
In many Romance languages, Kos was formerly known as Stancho, Stanchio, or Stinco, and in Ottoman and modern Turkish it is known as İstanköy, all from the reinterpretation of the Greek expression εις την Κω 'to Kos'; cf. the similar Istanbul and Stimpoli, Crete. Under the rule of the Knights Hospitaller of Rhodes, it was known as Lango or Langò, presumably because of its length. In The Travels of Sir John Mandeville, the author misunderstands this and treats Lango and Kos as distinct islands.
In Italian, the island is known as Coo.
A person from Kos is called a "Koan" (or "Coan") in English. The word is also an adjective, as in "Koan goods".
Geography
Kos is in the Aegean Sea. Its coastline is long and it extends from west to east.
The island has several promontories, some with names known in antiquity: Cape Skandari, anciently Scandarium or Skandarion in the northeast; Cape Lacter or Lakter in the south; and Cape Drecanum or Drekanon in the west.
In addition to the main town and port, also called Kos, the main villages of Kos island are Kardamena, Kefalos, Tingaki, Antimachia, Mastihari, Marmari and Pyli. Smaller ones are Zia, Zipari, Platani, Lagoudi and Asfendiou.
Climate
Kos has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate.
Municipality
The present municipality of Kos was created in 2011 with the merger of three municipalities, which became municipal units:
Dikaios
Irakleides
Kos
The municipality has an area of 290,313 km2, and has a municipal unit of 67.200 km2.
Economy
Tourism is the main industry in Kos, the island's beaches being the primary attraction. The main port and population centre on the island, Kos town, is also the tourist and cultural centre, with whitewashed buildings including many hotels, restaurants and a number of nightclubs forming the Kos town "barstreet". The seaside village of Kardamena is a popular resort for young holidaymakers (primarily from the United Kingdom and Scandinavia) and has a large number of bars and nightclubs.
Farming is the second principal occupation, with the main crops being grapes, almonds, figs, olives, and tomatoes, along with wheat and corn. Cos lettuce (romaine lettuce) is named after the island, from where it is said to have originated.
History
Mycenaean Era
In Homer's Iliad, a contingent of Koans fought for the Greeks in the Trojan War.
In classical mythology the founder-king of Kos was Merops, hence "Meropian Kos" is included in the archaic Delian amphictyony listed in the 7th-century Homeric hymn to Delian Apollo; the island was visited by Heracles.
The island was originally colonised by the Carians. The Dorians invaded it in the 11th century BC, establishing a Dorian colony with a large contingent of settlers from Epidaurus, whose Asclepius cult made their new home famous for its sanatoria. The other chief sources of the island's wealth lay in its wines and, in later days, in its silk manufacture.
Archaic Era
Its early history–as part of the religious-political amphictyony that included Lindos, Kamiros, Ialysos, Cnidus and Halicarnassus, the Dorian Hexapolis (hexapolis means six cities in Greek),–is obscure. At the end of the 6th century, Kos fell under Achaemenid domination but rebelled after the Greek victory at the Battle of Mycale in 479.
Classical Era
During the Greco-Persian Wars, before it twice expelled the Persians, it was ruled by Persian-appointed tyrants, but as a rule it seems to have been under oligarchic government. In the 5th century, it joined the Delian League, and, after the revolt of Rhodes, it served as the chief Athenian station in the south-eastern Aegean (411–407). In 366 BC, a democracy was instituted. In 366 BC, the capital was transferred from Astypalaea (at the west end of the island near the modern village of Kefalos) to the newly built town of Cos, laid out in a Hippodamian grid. After helping to weaken Athenian power, in the Social War (357-355 BC), it fell for a few years to the king Mausolus of Caria.
Proximity to the east gave the island first access to imported silk thread. Aristotle mentions silk weaving conducted by the women of the island. Silk production of garments was conducted in large factories by female slaves.
Hellenistic Era
During the course of the Fourth War of the Diadochi Ptolemy I Soter captures Kos from Antigonus I Monophthalmus, incorporating it into his kingdom. In the Hellenistic period, Kos attained the zenith of its prosperity. Kos was valued by the Ptolemies, who used it as a naval outpost to oversee the Aegean. As a seat of learning, it arose as a provincial branch of the museum of Alexandria, and became a favorite resort for the education of the princes of the Ptolemaic dynasty. During the Hellenistic age, there was a medical school; however, the theory that this school was founded by Hippocrates (see below) during the Classical age is an unwarranted extrapolation. It was the home of the major Hellenistic poet-scholar Philitas.
Despite the incorporation of Kos to the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the island kept it political autonomy (shown thanks to a 3rd century's BC decree, found at Kos and well studied by some Greek's history specialists). The island was ruled by itself, thanks to it citizen's assembly and magistrates (the monarch, the prostates, the exegetes, etc). The fact that the city could legislate decrees and apply its own laws shows political independence regarding the Ptolemaic kingdom. The city-state stay in control of its political institution and its civil rights.
Kos also became a center of production of unrefined silk, oars and amphorae. Kos economic development during the period can further be exemplified by the 3rd and 2nd century BC construction of a theater, a new market with multiple stoas, a temple to Apollo at Alisarna, construction and expansion of the Asclepeion, fortification works at Alisarna and multiple richly decorated houses. In 240 BC, Ziaelas of Bithynia, Seleucus II Callinicus and Ptolemy III Euergetes provided guarantees for the transformation of Kos Asclepeion into an asylum. This decision made Kos a more attractive destination for merchants and pilgrims.
Diodorus Siculus (xv. 76) and Strabo (xiv. 657) describe it as a well-fortified port. Its position gave it a high importance in Aegean trade; while the island itself was rich in wines of considerable fame. Under Alexander the Great and the Ptolemies the town developed into one of the great centers in the Aegean; Josephus quotes Strabo to the effect that Mithridates I of the Bosporus was sent to Kos to fetch the gold deposited there by queen Cleopatra of Egypt. Herod is said to have provided an annual stipend for the benefit of prize-winners in the athletic games, and a statue was erected there to his son Herod the Tetrarch ("C. I. G." 2502 ). Paul briefly visited Kos according to .
Roman Era
Except for occasional incursions by corsairs and some severe earthquakes, the island's peace has rarely been disturbed. Following the lead of its larger neighbour, Rhodes, Kos generally displayed a friendly attitude toward the Romans; in 53 AD it was made a free city. It was known in antiquity for the manufacture of transparent light dresses, the . The island of Kos also featured a provincial library during the Roman period. The island first became a center for learning during the Ptolemaic dynasty, and Hippocrates, Apelles, Philitas and possibly Theocritus came from the area. An inscription lists people who made contributions to build the library in the 1st century AD. One of the people responsible for the library's construction was the Kos doctor Gaius Stertinius Xenophon, who lived in Rome and was the personal physician of the Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, and Nero.
Byzantine Era
The bishopric of Kos was a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Rhodes. Its bishop Meliphron attended the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Eddesius was one of the minority Eastern bishops who withdrew from the Council of Sardica in about 344 and set up a rival council at Philippopolis. Iulianus went to the synod held in Constantinople in 448 in preparation for the Council of Chalcedon of 451, in which he participated as a legate of Pope Leo I, and he was a signatory of the joint letter that the bishops of the Roman province of Insulae sent in 458 to Byzantine Emperor Leo I the Thracian with regard to the killing of Proterius of Alexandria. Dorotheus took part in a synod in 518. Georgius was a participant of the Third Council of Constantinople in 680–681. Constantinus went to the Photian Council of Constantinople (879). Under Byzantine rule, apart from the participation of its bishops in councils, the island's history remains obscure. It was governed by a droungarios in the 8th–9th centuries, and seems to have acquired some importance in the 11th and 12th centuries: Nikephoros Melissenos began his uprising here, and in the middle of the 12th century, it was governed by a scion of the ruling Komnenos dynasty, Nikephoros Komnenos.
Today the ecclesiastical metropolis of Kos remains under the direct authority of the Patriarchate of Constantinople, rather than the Church of Greece, and is also listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.
Genoese Era
Following the XI century, Kos passed under Genoese control, although it was retaken in ca. 1224 and kept for a while by the Empire of Nicaea, the Genoese rule last over 4 centuries In the 1320s, Kos nominally formed part of the realm of Genoese Vignolo de Vignoli but then was most likely in the hands of Turkish corsairs until ca. XVI century, when the Knights Hospitaller were hosted over the island. The last Hospitaller governor of the island was Piero de Ponte.
Ottoman Era
The Ottoman Empire captured the island in early 1523. The Ottomans ruled Kos until 1911.
According to the Ottoman General Census of 1881/82-1893, the kaza of Kos (Istanköy) had a total population of 12,965, consisting of 10,459 Greeks, 2,439 Muslims and 67 Jews.
Italian Rule
Kos was transferred to the Kingdom of Italy in 1912 after the Italo-Turkish War. The Italians developed the infrastructures of the island, after the ruinous earthquake of 23 April 1933, which destroyed a great part of the old city and damaged many new buildings. Architect Rodolfo Petracco drew up the new city plan, transforming the old quarters into an archaeological park, and dividing the new city into a residential, an administrative, and a commercial area., In World War II, the island, as Italian possession, was part of the Axis. It was controlled by Italian troops until the Italian surrender in 1943. On that occasion, 100 Italian officers who had refused to join the Germans were executed in what became known as the Massacre of Kos. British and German forces then clashed for control of the island in the Battle of Kos as part of the Dodecanese Campaign, in which the Germans were victorious. German troops occupied the island until 1945, when it became a protectorate of the United Kingdom, which ceded it to Greece in 1947 following the Paris peace treaty.
Geology
The island is part of a chain of mountains from which it became separated after earthquakes and subsidence that occurred in ancient times. The remnants of these mountains include the islands of Kalymnos and Kappari which are separated by an underwater chasm about deep, as well as the volcano of Nisyros and the surrounding islands.
There is a wide variety of rocks in Kos which is related to its geographical formation. Prominent among these are the Quaternary layers in which the fossil remains of mammals such as horses, hippopotami and elephants have been found. The fossilised molar of an elephant of gigantic proportions was presented to the Paleontology Museum of the University of Athens.
Demographics
Turkish population
In the late 1920s about 3,700 Turks lived in Kos city, slightly less than 50% of the population, who settled mainly in the west part of the city. Today, the population of the Turkish community in Kos has been estimated at about 2,000 people. A village with significant Turkish population is Platani (Kermentes) near the town of Kos.
Religion
The people of Kos are predominantly Orthodox Christians - one of the four Orthodox cathedrals in the Dodecanese is located in Kos. In addition, there is a Roman Catholic church on the island and a mosque for the Turkish-speaking Muslim community. The synagogue is no longer used for religious ceremonies as the Jewish community of Kos was targeted and destroyed by occupying German forces in World War II. It has, however, been restored and is maintained with all religious symbols intact and is now used by the Municipality of Kos for various events, mainly cultural.
Main sights
Castles
The island has a 14th-century fortress at the entrance to its harbour, erected in 1315 by the Knights Hospitaller, and another from the Byzantine period in Antimachia.
Ancient Agora
The ancient market place of Kos was considered one of the biggest in the ancient world. It was the commercial and commanding centre at the heart of the ancient city. It was organized around a spacious rectangular yard wide and long. It began in the Northern area and ended up south on the central road (Decumanus) which went through the city. The northern side connected to the city wall towards the entrance to the harbour. Here there was a monumental entrance. On the eastern side there were shops. In the first half of the 2nd century BC, the building was extended toward the interior yard. The building was destroyed in an earthquake in 469 AD.
In the southern end of the market, there was a round building with a Roman dome and a workshop which produced pigments including "Egyptian Blue". Coins, treasures, and copper statues from Roman times were later uncovered by archaeologists. In the western side excavations led to the findings of rooms with mosaic floors which showed beastfights, a theme quite popular in Kos.
Culture
The ancient physician Hippocrates is thought to have been born on Kos, and in the center of the town is the Plane Tree of Hippocrates, a dream temple where the physician is traditionally supposed to have taught. The limbs of the now elderly tree are supported by scaffolding. The small city is also home to the International Hippocratic Foundation of Kos and the Hippocratic Museum dedicated to him. Near the Institute are the ruins of Asklepieion, where Herodicus taught Hippocrates medicine.
People
Epicharmus of Kos (6th–5th century BC), comic playwright
Hippocrates (5th century BC), "father of medicine".
Philitas of Cos (4th century BC), poet and scholar.
Ptolemy II Philadelphus (4th century BC) Pharaoh of the Ptolemaic Kingdom
Michael Kefalianos, professional bodybuilder.
Marika Papagika, early 20th century singer.
Kostas Skandalidis, former Interior Minister of Greece and close associate of Prime Minister Andreas Papandreou.
Al Campanis, Major League Baseball player and executive.
Stergos Marinos, international footballer currently playing for Panathinaikos.
Şükrü Kaya, Turkish politician, who served as Minister of the Interior and Minister of Foreign Affairs of Turkey. He was one of the perpetrators of the Armenian genocide.
Transport
Kos International Airport
In popular culture
Kos is the setting of the wargaming book 'Swords of Kos Fantasy Campaign Setting', written by Michael O. Varhola with co-authors.
Gallery
See also
Coan wine
List of volcanoes in Greece
List of islands of Greece#Dodecanes islands
The disappearance of Ben Needham in 1991.
References
Sources
External links
Dodecanese
Islands of Greece
Islands of the South Aegean
Landforms of Kos (regional unit)
Landforms of the South Aegean
Municipalities of the South Aegean
Subduction volcanoes
Volcanoes of Greece
Volcanoes of the Aegean
Locations in the Iliad
New Testament places
Populated places in Kos (regional unit) | [
-0.06701435148715973,
0.02110101655125618,
-0.39729583263397217,
0.2686672508716583,
0.26140233874320984,
0.48366615176200867,
-0.33657702803611755,
0.2066504955291748,
-0.299543172121048,
0.158592090010643,
-0.341432124376297,
0.0950763002038002,
-0.5669549107551575,
-0.18951743841171265,
-0.6203793287277222,
0.26644662022590637,
0.8563136458396912,
0.23412539064884186,
0.3362877666950226,
-0.3217400014400482,
0.03522342070937157,
-0.04909411445260048,
-0.2706887423992157,
0.013140160590410233,
-0.36693471670150757,
0.07145946472883224,
-0.6080577373504639,
0.15665219724178314,
0.4374333918094635,
0.45417270064353943,
0.08541309833526611,
0.743868887424469,
-0.3268154561519623,
-0.523112952709198,
-0.007920270785689354,
0.45633113384246826,
0.4430292546749115,
-0.20390470325946808,
-0.18857425451278687,
-0.20619530975818634,
0.4680866599082947,
0.03055262565612793,
0.5905841588973999,
0.6488769054412842,
-0.17099180817604065,
-0.2849094569683075,
-0.7039793133735657,
0.7396648526191711,
-0.3030858635902405,
0.521878719329834,
-0.6050659418106079,
-0.08229775726795197,
-0.1922348141670227,
0.1392967849969864,
-0.1645451784133911,
0.6388261318206787,
-0.920608401298523,
0.1030140221118927,
0.11291197687387466,
-0.26892998814582825,
-0.07049880176782608,
0.23159675300121307,
-0.20280906558036804,
-0.2632492184638977,
-0.09483262896537781,
0.004150081425905228,
0.16085056960582733,
0.9845497012138367,
0.2908881604671478,
0.044144295156002045,
-0.15901096165180206,
0.7039992809295654,
-0.5464251637458801,
-0.20225150883197784,
-0.19962480664253235,
-0.26186954975128174,
-0.5104545950889587,
-0.18185970187187195,
0.3977508544921875,
0.7300276756286621,
0.245308056473732,
-0.12005423754453659,
0.48231151700019836,
-0.2525308132171631,
-0.009078189730644226,
-0.12596482038497925,
-0.38566306233406067,
0.6448761224746704,
-0.8883426189422607,
0.21664868295192719,
0.149142324924469,
-0.22816303372383118,
0.6438589096069336,
-0.32863858342170715,
-0.2859802544116974,
0.026926139369606972,
-0.3957728147506714,
0.3715677559375763,
0.6253759264945984,
0.08757255971431732,
-0.6901662945747375,
0.013718324713408947,
-0.24850741028785706,
-0.11616294085979462,
-0.5506722927093506,
0.03657181188464165,
-0.14550034701824188,
-0.3234522044658661,
0.04806096851825714,
-0.08054617047309875,
-0.9231577515602112,
0.16637425124645233,
0.08876003324985504,
0.42422670125961304,
-0.44997575879096985,
-0.07425947487354279,
-0.14976418018341064,
0.3190685212612152,
-0.5444284677505493,
-0.9065732955932617,
0.45202794671058655,
0.9898582696914673,
-0.32639414072036743,
0.4816306233406067,
0.3589828610420227,
-0.3522419035434723,
0.684904932975769,
-0.05473006144165993,
-0.6543874740600586,
0.2230210304260254,
0.21324805915355682,
0.5204557180404663,
-0.4423206150531769,
0.4818773865699768,
0.22291815280914307,
0.14699971675872803,
-0.4768896698951721,
0.29620054364204407,
0.4910406768321991,
0.7736787796020508,
-0.6876934170722961,
0.3995814621448517,
-0.7601577043533325,
0.4552374482154846,
-0.023674247786402702,
-0.2535635232925415,
-0.03935130685567856,
-0.17562134563922882,
-0.16696593165397644,
0.22691214084625244,
0.3397044539451599,
0.3417559862136841,
0.27008944749832153,
0.6854035258293152,
-0.6918283700942993,
-0.5772897601127625,
0.45432159304618835,
0.303651362657547,
-0.1255975216627121,
-0.2650153338909149,
0.1544264405965805,
-0.5382986664772034,
0.3664969801902771,
0.024468516930937767,
0.19988271594047546,
-0.10030019283294678,
0.3174719214439392,
0.1588156670331955,
0.22792792320251465,
0.5375927090644836,
-0.3232667148113251,
-0.23061248660087585,
0.316867470741272,
0.28405293822288513,
-0.6619164347648621,
-0.4289363622665405,
-0.06379587203264236,
0.42784467339515686,
0.13409222662448883,
0.05637095123529434,
-0.8788155913352966,
-0.36356571316719055,
-0.6752812266349792,
-0.4720575213432312,
0.15403783321380615,
0.5798611640930176,
0.05250078812241554,
0.014231480658054352,
0.08038739114999771,
-0.3947650194168091,
-0.10964052379131317,
-0.7650659084320068,
-0.1567223221063614,
-0.048120010644197464,
1.2368881702423096,
-0.12604114413261414,
-0.45222631096839905,
0.05673512443900108,
0.3700982630252838,
0.5518245697021484,
-0.7722126245498657,
-0.36989089846611023,
0.5317780375480652,
0.03911981359124184,
-0.19884708523750305,
0.7516566514968872,
-0.07408750802278519,
0.08326538652181625,
0.28034326434135437,
0.16098737716674805,
-0.6973249316215515,
-0.27068573236465454,
0.5265696048736572,
-0.2473164200782776,
-0.1267731636762619,
-0.33860743045806885,
-0.1056000292301178,
0.1603161096572876,
0.011971861124038696,
-0.20911745727062225,
0.7098528146743774,
-0.24348345398902893,
-0.14084354043006897,
0.15548844635486603,
-0.2475680559873581,
0.5965561866760254,
0.5893934369087219,
0.31166520714759827,
0.04807411879301071,
-0.03736039251089096,
-0.30186954140663147,
-0.21332211792469025,
0.19068600237369537,
-0.5373200178146362,
0.04961595684289932,
0.4387950897216797,
0.44792163372039795,
-0.3891298174858093,
0.629665195941925,
-0.6087779402732849,
0.053500838577747345,
0.15492239594459534,
-0.294619619846344,
0.19751349091529846,
0.6199372410774231,
0.572720468044281,
0.07568366825580597,
-0.2816794812679291,
-0.2971198856830597,
0.0019384134793654084,
-0.8109698295593262,
-0.14515239000320435,
0.03780602291226387,
0.13481619954109192,
0.31598958373069763,
-0.460354745388031,
0.6344646215438843,
-0.09791679680347443,
-0.03800106793642044,
-0.5896048545837402,
-0.08570482581853867,
-0.2193063199520111,
0.33745068311691284,
0.10203447192907333,
0.4015240967273712,
0.022208265960216522,
0.21598778665065765,
-0.6423184275627136,
0.826305091381073,
-0.056077487766742706,
0.7087908983230591,
-0.4301368296146393,
-0.15778939425945282,
-0.16914714872837067,
-0.4021749496459961,
0.06266362220048904,
-0.31075915694236755,
-0.24846550822257996,
-0.36584335565567017,
-0.6170147657394409,
0.07154783606529236,
0.4160609245300293,
-0.1530090570449829,
-0.22164946794509888,
0.4469902217388153,
-0.41939017176628113,
0.004507098346948624,
-0.7334707975387573,
-0.07161279767751694,
-0.5362685918807983,
0.3883971869945526,
-0.21743491291999817,
-0.057137131690979004,
-0.051660072058439255,
0.013655796647071838,
0.06758058816194534,
-0.5200979709625244,
0.49151411652565,
0.38070154190063477,
-0.8152258396148682,
-0.7076882123947144,
0.15537402033805847,
0.10350629687309265,
0.3609730005264282,
0.5877147316932678,
-0.39840832352638245,
-0.028357641771435738,
0.5288709402084351,
-5.6272783279418945,
0.3909752666950226,
-0.4911912679672241,
0.21850809454917908,
-0.026427188888192177,
0.11256397515535355,
0.27617785334587097,
-0.15203535556793213,
0.1755920648574829,
-0.097262904047966,
-0.2545475363731384,
0.23178209364414215,
-0.6743184328079224,
0.7582499980926514,
0.08919330686330795,
0.4913622736930847,
-0.14236687123775482,
0.6658438444137573,
-0.3020920753479004,
0.40165507793426514,
0.06521164625883102,
0.9252095818519592,
0.03252236172556877,
0.4160526990890503,
-0.2681838572025299,
0.3292103111743927,
-0.4213269054889679,
-0.2946435213088989,
-0.5158703327178955,
-0.6087303757667542,
-0.663266122341156,
-0.18239079415798187,
0.3101148307323456,
0.11114726215600967,
0.06484097242355347,
0.06912960112094879,
0.5226660370826721,
0.17911717295646667,
-0.12346085160970688,
-0.6213516592979431,
-0.3487473130226135,
0.09575966745615005,
-0.00015089377120602876,
-0.4472792148590088,
0.7461525797843933,
-0.23664847016334534,
-0.05743829905986786,
-0.5293014645576477,
-0.11572650820016861,
0.6146292686462402,
0.09442052990198135,
-0.3724934458732605,
0.35446488857269287,
0.003970761317759752,
0.11753100901842117,
-0.09618914127349854,
0.09642436355352402,
-0.03331365808844566,
-0.06476017087697983,
1.1352072954177856,
0.2450297623872757,
0.1072358787059784,
-0.20213522017002106,
-0.7478448152542114,
-0.025384703651070595,
-0.20994043350219727,
-0.32513901591300964,
-0.03273022174835205,
0.11740066111087799,
0.09669838845729828,
-0.3507777452468872,
0.2746311128139496,
-0.3277813196182251,
-0.9819281697273254,
-0.06648056954145432,
-0.6644611358642578,
-0.3754698932170868,
-0.21528275310993195,
-0.15742944180965424,
0.5062668323516846,
-0.5894508361816406,
-0.05016060918569565,
0.23157894611358643,
0.4773496091365814,
-0.2039945125579834,
-0.4840048551559448,
-0.27717262506484985,
-0.05237448960542679,
0.11190181970596313,
-0.41826415061950684,
0.49845457077026367,
-0.485715389251709,
0.5214766263961792,
0.7090254426002502,
0.24707597494125366,
0.5262886881828308,
-0.1074841320514679,
0.07529433816671371,
0.5315525531768799,
-0.13826817274093628,
0.32148391008377075,
0.23678027093410492,
0.08084361255168915,
0.005537738092243671,
-0.254244863986969,
-0.7907230257987976,
0.1289246380329132,
0.4233439862728119,
0.6187376976013184,
-0.3000151813030243,
0.3448779284954071,
0.29418081045150757,
-0.6672571301460266,
-0.4084598422050476,
0.20185530185699463,
-0.14689789712429047,
0.22449412941932678,
0.6527150869369507,
0.11194483935832977,
0.01645183563232422,
0.23615747690200806,
0.569754421710968,
0.2685824930667877,
-0.2305697202682495,
-1.1903108358383179,
-0.487247496843338,
-0.44497478008270264,
-0.0036749716382473707,
-0.11594024300575256,
0.4464534521102905,
0.11253456026315689,
0.10822132974863052,
0.3372938334941864,
0.04038197174668312,
0.2623014450073242,
0.008621033281087875,
-0.19932861626148224,
-0.3855825960636139,
-0.22670631110668182,
-0.16113340854644775,
0.1618547886610031,
-0.5024309754371643,
-0.7147180438041687,
0.46410295367240906,
-0.15067103505134583,
-0.0724814236164093,
-0.4516700208187103,
0.34983348846435547,
-0.3129258155822754,
0.7291961312294006,
0.21133676171302795,
-0.0189301036298275,
-0.053168393671512604,
-0.05699669197201729,
0.17094960808753967,
0.3106088936328888,
0.1935688704252243,
0.7939244508743286,
0.096952885389328,
0.32428842782974243,
-0.006252338644117117,
-0.8406198620796204,
-1.1673486232757568,
-0.3832527697086334,
0.04889962449669838,
-0.6514315605163574,
-0.5340664982795715,
-0.10037904977798462,
-0.0967399850487709,
0.1376180797815323,
0.3209082782268524,
-0.45684048533439636,
-0.3638913929462433,
-0.5346522927284241,
-0.08037859946489334,
-0.7597940564155579,
-0.4815094769001007,
0.46700555086135864,
-0.6917661428451538,
0.021959273144602776,
0.32307764887809753,
-0.35425442457199097,
-0.2083464413881302,
-0.1335858255624771,
0.44124889373779297,
-0.5477921962738037,
-0.4410410225391388,
-0.3951479494571686,
0.43107882142066956,
-0.08479057997465134,
0.08045246452093124,
-0.5770902633666992,
-0.5265728831291199,
0.3629283607006073,
0.49510249495506287,
-0.4940432012081146,
0.35067084431648254,
0.7302923798561096,
-0.19279435276985168,
-0.20493027567863464,
-0.7228789329528809,
0.039960987865924835,
-0.7921153903007507,
0.28302285075187683,
-0.45892301201820374,
-0.25538215041160583,
1.032012939453125,
0.5717648267745972,
-0.2665022313594818,
-0.2262691855430603,
-0.7950631976127625,
-0.7856455445289612,
-0.45741939544677734,
0.2826293706893921,
-0.80149906873703,
0.661267101764679,
-0.214228093624115,
-0.44909361004829407,
-0.48251986503601074,
-0.5257247090339661,
0.08860978484153748,
-0.32918426394462585,
0.3552820682525635,
-0.1398026943206787,
0.4281395375728607,
0.414365291595459,
0.1053343415260315,
0.05387302115559578,
-0.23489753901958466,
-0.04407346621155739,
0.18902279436588287,
0.25780901312828064,
0.26614460349082947,
0.00318489084020257,
0.04366704076528549,
-0.4172738790512085,
0.23601482808589935,
-0.32377755641937256,
0.0007876623421907425,
0.6888088583946228,
0.3651229441165924,
0.25489863753318787,
0.023139948025345802,
0.1659257411956787,
-0.3956851661205292,
0.46916261315345764,
0.3393577039241791,
0.05415746569633484,
-0.3180578947067261,
-0.0727774053812027,
0.26635903120040894,
0.2661699652671814,
-0.4544305205345154,
-0.7966943979263306,
0.6920963525772095,
0.16826871037483215,
0.09371086955070496,
0.16773125529289246,
0.13158541917800903,
0.3399295210838318,
0.253927081823349,
-0.2745082676410675,
0.058616071939468384,
0.7648026943206787,
0.1355878859758377,
-0.23265406489372253,
-0.9103858470916748,
-0.31263795495033264,
0.3908563554286957,
-0.29937174916267395,
-0.24835951626300812,
-0.503257155418396,
0.5231509208679199,
0.4606674015522003,
-0.04915529116988182,
0.19555358588695526,
0.2647586762905121,
0.11644895374774933,
-0.06029891595244408,
0.5293546915054321,
-0.754402220249176,
0.26118797063827515,
-0.14534395933151245,
0.4731217324733734,
-0.16408854722976685,
-0.3673652410507202,
-0.237404465675354,
-0.062194641679525375,
-0.1986178755760193,
-0.004570679739117622,
0.26596125960350037,
-0.14700020849704742,
0.047993406653404236,
-0.2788614332675934,
0.46336376667022705,
-0.26453983783721924,
-0.18301700055599213,
0.4837149381637573,
0.09981629997491837,
0.3952710032463074,
-1.253929615020752,
-0.09038175642490387,
0.057551994919776917,
-0.301324725151062,
0.014713738113641739,
0.2546200752258301,
-0.3825690448284149,
-0.29061955213546753,
-0.21818560361862183,
0.6074894666671753,
0.18620233237743378,
-0.24772575497627258,
0.14342458546161652,
0.7251651287078857,
-0.45751896500587463,
0.46793314814567566,
0.9007641077041626,
-0.7917283773422241,
0.29413339495658875,
0.5578619241714478,
0.3603668510913849,
-0.37443453073501587,
0.19467893242835999,
0.4387304484844208,
-0.1449401080608368,
0.2825809121131897,
-0.31983640789985657,
-0.03403424844145775,
0.23444877564907074,
0.7029005885124207,
0.4136439263820648,
-0.21373358368873596,
-0.016976507380604744,
0.0006231644656509161,
0.0003887987695634365,
-0.48886799812316895,
-0.04329538717865944,
0.036035533994436264,
0.2326565980911255,
0.7825100421905518,
0.35159122943878174,
0.19612504541873932,
0.03585544601082802,
0.057700369507074356,
0.1369883120059967,
0.3722907304763794,
0.087792307138443,
0.05869957432150841,
-0.3707806468009949,
-0.44635069370269775,
0.5545705556869507,
0.20815680921077728,
0.020072270184755325,
-0.08328861743211746,
-0.399740606546402,
0.8428773283958435,
0.13344863057136536,
-0.16456222534179688,
0.013581517152488232,
0.5058889389038086,
0.7899942398071289,
-0.142436221241951,
0.47079938650131226,
0.48437002301216125,
-0.23459070920944214,
-0.08068059384822845,
-0.07564214617013931,
-0.6718770265579224,
0.1850181221961975,
0.13577380776405334,
-0.12187675386667252,
0.3260439336299896,
-0.49414995312690735,
-0.031963199377059937,
-0.2967555820941925,
0.1309107393026352,
-0.27274003624916077,
0.9191780090332031,
-0.12103407084941864,
-0.1619936227798462,
-0.5244720578193665,
-0.041842035949230194,
-0.2876429557800293,
-0.4428713619709015,
0.14989596605300903,
0.1331900954246521,
0.549726665019989,
-0.1415865272283554,
-0.5035979151725769,
0.9338397979736328,
-0.31579530239105225,
-0.7103545665740967,
-0.42904406785964966,
-0.27688974142074585,
-0.12620434165000916,
-0.23873946070671082,
0.2405998259782791,
0.606802761554718,
0.2883555591106415,
0.49667757749557495,
0.14952751994132996,
-0.4213152825832367,
0.2772827744483948,
-0.024397406727075577,
0.21107515692710876,
0.2891595959663391,
-0.5610895156860352,
0.08757200092077255,
-0.07429323345422745,
-0.31342899799346924,
0.3819909393787384,
0.6084814667701721,
0.4939817190170288,
0.4552300274372101,
0.2753191590309143,
0.6242786049842834,
0.41770461201667786,
0.024368027225136757,
0.12420253455638885,
0.02530527301132679,
-0.3395599126815796,
-0.12736529111862183,
0.205736443400383,
0.18540139496326447,
0.07403535395860672,
0.18914906680583954,
0.3240506052970886,
0.44344574213027954,
-0.9105743765830994,
0.2954830527305603,
-0.033252932131290436,
0.3030550479888916,
-0.9589114189147949,
0.0739169642329216,
-0.5638861060142517,
-0.5764558911323547,
-0.041895151138305664,
-0.07724948972463608,
0.21310290694236755,
-0.329000860452652,
0.5161613821983337,
0.30728983879089355,
-0.0398850254714489,
-0.045240867882966995,
0.3316391706466675,
0.06152820214629173,
-1.1675758361816406,
-0.7588212490081787,
-0.40240275859832764,
0.08950424939393997,
0.3848123252391815,
-0.7297552227973938,
0.6243545413017273,
-0.2074500024318695,
-0.012032128870487213,
-0.5367235541343689,
0.4114491641521454,
-0.5932005047798157,
0.7004768252372742,
0.21979686617851257
] |
248001 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web%20Ontology%20Language | Web Ontology Language | The Web Ontology Language (OWL) is a family of knowledge representation languages for authoring ontologies. Ontologies are a formal way to describe taxonomies and classification networks, essentially defining the structure of knowledge for various domains: the nouns representing classes of objects and the verbs representing relations between the objects.
Ontologies resemble class hierarchies in object-oriented programming but there are several critical differences. Class hierarchies are meant to represent structures used in source code that evolve fairly slowly (perhaps with monthly revisions) whereas ontologies are meant to represent information on the Internet and are expected to be evolving almost constantly. Similarly, ontologies are typically far more flexible as they are meant to represent information on the Internet coming from all sorts of heterogeneous data sources. Class hierarchies on the other hand tend to be fairly static and rely on far less diverse and more structured sources of data such as corporate databases.
The OWL languages are characterized by formal semantics. They are built upon the World Wide Web Consortium's (W3C) XML standard for objects called the Resource Description Framework (RDF). OWL and RDF have attracted significant academic, medical and commercial interest.
In October 2007, a new W3C working group was started to extend OWL with several new features as proposed in the OWL 1.1 member submission. W3C announced the new version of OWL on 27 October 2009. This new version, called OWL 2, soon found its way into semantic editors such as Protégé and semantic reasoners such as Pellet, RacerPro, FaCT++ and HermiT.
The OWL family contains many species, serializations, syntaxes and specifications with similar names. OWL and OWL2 are used to refer to the 2004 and 2009 specifications, respectively. Full species names will be used, including specification version (for example, OWL2 EL). When referring more generally, OWL Family will be used.
History
Early ontology languages
There is a long history of ontological development in philosophy and computer science. Since the 1990s, a number of research efforts have explored how the idea of knowledge representation (KR) from artificial intelligence (AI) could be made useful on the World Wide Web. These included languages based on HTML (called SHOE), based on XML (called XOL, later OIL), and various frame-based KR languages and knowledge acquisition approaches.
Ontology languages for the web
In 2000 in the United States, DARPA started development of DAML led by James Hendler.
In March 2001, the Joint EU/US Committee on Agent Markup Languages decided that DAML should be merged with OIL.
The EU/US ad hoc Joint Working Group on Agent Markup Languages was convened to develop DAML+OIL as a web ontology language. This group was jointly funded by the DARPA (under the DAML program) and the European Union's Information Society Technologies (IST) funding project. DAML+OIL was intended to be a thin layer above RDFS,
with formal semantics based on a description logic (DL).
DAML+OIL is a particularly major influence on OWL; OWL's design was specifically based on DAML+OIL.
Semantic web standards
RDF schema
In the late 1990s, the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) Metadata Activity started work on RDF Schema (RDFS), a language for RDF vocabulary sharing. The RDF became a W3C Recommendation in February 1999, and RDFS a Candidate Recommendation in March 2000. In February 2001, the Semantic Web Activity replaced the Metadata Activity. In 2004 (as part of a wider revision of RDF) RDFS became a W3C Recommendation.
Though RDFS provides some support for ontology specification, the need for a more expressive ontology language had become clear.
Web-Ontology Working Group
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) created the Web-Ontology Working Group as part of their Semantic Web Activity. It began work on November 1, 2001 with co-chairs James Hendler and Guus Schreiber. The first working drafts of the abstract syntax, reference and synopsis were published in July 2002. OWL became a formal W3C recommendation on February 10, 2004 and the working group was disbanded on May 31, 2004.
OWL Working Group
In 2005, at the OWL Experiences And Directions Workshop a consensus formed that recent advances in description logic would allow a more expressive revision to satisfy user requirements more comprehensively whilst retaining good computational properties.
In December 2006, the OWL1.1 Member Submission was made to the W3C. The W3C chartered the OWL Working Group as part of the Semantic Web Activity in September 2007. In April 2008, this group decided to call this new language OWL2, indicating a substantial revision.
OWL 2 became a W3C recommendation in October 2009. OWL 2 introduces profiles to improve scalability in typical applications.
Acronym
OWL was chosen as an easily pronounced acronym that would yield good logos, suggest wisdom, and honor William A. Martin's One World Language knowledge representation project from the 1970s.
Adoption
A 2006 survey of ontologies available on the web collected 688 OWL ontologies. Of these, 199 were OWL Lite, 149 were OWL DL and 337 OWL Full (by syntax). They found that 19 ontologies had in excess of 2,000 classes, and that 6 had more than 10,000. The same survey collected 587 RDFS vocabularies.
In 2021 Prof. Ian Horrocks was awarded the Lovelace Medal in recognition of his work towards the standardization of OWL which is considered the leading reason for its widespread adoption. The result of this research and development was RDFox, a knowledge graph and reasoning engine. The significance of this lies in the cultural shift of the technology space, leaving behind the dismissive attitude towards reasoning technology's inability to perform at speed, as RDFox proved beyond a doubt that high-speed reasoning was not only possible, but commercially viable. Many institutions have now adopted this technology as a solution to social and industrial problems involving highly interconnected data.
Ontologies
The data described by an ontology in the OWL family is interpreted as a set of "individuals" and a set of "property assertions" which relate these individuals to each other. An ontology consists of a set of axioms which place constraints on sets of individuals (called "classes") and the types of relationships permitted between them. These axioms provide semantics by allowing systems to infer additional information based on the data explicitly provided. A full introduction to the expressive power of the OWL is provided in the W3C's OWL Guide.
OWL ontologies can import other ontologies, adding information from the imported ontology to the current ontology.
Example
An ontology describing families might include axioms stating that a "hasMother" property is only present between two individuals when "hasParent" is also present, and that individuals of class "HasTypeOBlood" are never related via "hasParent" to members of the "HasTypeABBlood" class. If it is stated that the individual Harriet is related via "hasMother" to the individual Sue, and that Harriet is a member of the "HasTypeOBlood" class, then it can be inferred that Sue is not a member of "HasTypeABBlood". This is, however, only true if the concepts of "Parent" and "Mother" only mean biological parent or mother and not social parent or mother.
Species
OWL dialects
The W3C-endorsed OWL specification includes the definition of three variants of OWL, with different levels of expressiveness. These are OWL Lite, OWL DL and OWL Full (ordered by increasing expressiveness). Each of these sublanguages is a syntactic extension of its simpler predecessor. The following set of relations hold. Their inverses do not.
Every legal OWL Lite ontology is a legal OWL DL ontology.
Every legal OWL DL ontology is a legal OWL Full ontology.
Every valid OWL Lite conclusion is a valid OWL DL conclusion.
Every valid OWL DL conclusion is a valid OWL Full conclusion.
OWL Lite
OWL Lite was originally intended to support those users primarily needing a classification hierarchy and simple constraints. For example, while it supports cardinality constraints, it only permits cardinality values of 0 or 1. It was hoped that it would be simpler to provide tool support for OWL Lite than its more expressive relatives, allowing quick migration path for systems using thesauri and other taxonomies. In practice, however, most of the expressiveness constraints placed on OWL Lite amount to little more than syntactic inconveniences: most of the constructs available in OWL DL can be built using complex combinations of OWL Lite features, and is equally expressive as the description logic . Development of OWL Lite tools has thus proven to be almost as difficult as development of tools for OWL DL, and OWL Lite is not widely used.
OWL DL
OWL DL is designed to provide the maximum expressiveness possible while retaining computational completeness (either φ or ¬φ holds), decidability (there is an effective procedure to determine whether φ is derivable or not), and the availability of practical reasoning algorithms. OWL DL includes all OWL language constructs, but they can be used only under certain restrictions (for example, number restrictions may not be placed upon properties which are declared to be transitive; and while a class may be a subclass of many classes, a class cannot be an instance of another class). OWL DL is so named due to its correspondence with description logic, a field of research that has studied the logics that form the formal foundation of OWL.
OWL Full
OWL Full is based on a different semantics from OWL Lite or OWL DL, and was designed to preserve some compatibility with RDF Schema. For example, in OWL Full a class can be treated simultaneously as a collection of individuals and as an individual in its own right; this is not permitted in OWL DL. OWL Full allows an ontology to augment the meaning of the pre-defined (RDF or OWL) vocabulary. OWL Full is undecidable, so no reasoning software is able to perform complete reasoning for it.
OWL2 profiles
In OWL 2, there are three sublanguages of the language. OWL 2 EL is a fragment that has polynomial time reasoning complexity; OWL 2 QL is designed to enable easier access and query to data stored in databases; OWL 2 RL is a rule subset of OWL 2.
Syntax
The OWL family of languages supports a variety of syntaxes. It is useful to distinguish high level syntaxes aimed at specification from exchange syntaxes more suitable for general use.
High level
These are close to the ontology structure of languages in the OWL family.
OWL abstract syntax
High level syntax is used to specify the OWL ontology structure and semantics.
The OWL abstract syntax presents an ontology as a sequence of annotations, axioms and facts. Annotations carry machine and human oriented meta-data. Information about the classes, properties and individuals that compose the ontology is contained in axioms and facts only.
Each class, property and individual is either anonymous or identified by an URI reference. Facts state data either about an individual or about a pair of individual identifiers (that the objects identified are distinct or the same). Axioms specify the characteristics of classes and properties. This style is similar to frame languages, and quite dissimilar to well known syntaxes for DLs and Resource Description Framework (RDF).
Sean Bechhofer, et al. argue that though this syntax is hard to parse, it is quite concrete. They conclude that the name abstract syntax may be somewhat misleading.
OWL2 functional syntax
This syntax closely follows the structure of an OWL2 ontology. It is used by OWL2 to specify semantics, mappings to exchange syntaxes and profiles.
Exchange syntaxes
RDF syntaxes
Syntactic mappings into RDF are specified
for languages in the OWL family. Several RDF serialization formats have been devised. Each leads to a syntax for languages in the OWL family through this mapping. RDF/XML is normative.
OWL2 XML syntax
OWL2 specifies an XML serialization that closely models the structure of an OWL2 ontology.
Manchester Syntax
The Manchester Syntax is a compact, human readable syntax with a style close to frame languages.
Variations are available for OWL and OWL2. Not all OWL and OWL2 ontologies can be expressed in this syntax.
Examples
The W3C OWL 2 Web Ontology Language provides syntax examples.
Tea ontology
Consider an ontology for tea based on a Tea class. First, an ontology identifier is needed. Every OWL ontology must be identified by a URI (http://www.example.org/tea.owl, say). This example provides a sense of the syntax. To save space below, preambles and prefix definitions have been skipped.
OWL2 Functional Syntax Ontology(<http://example.org/tea.owl>
Declaration( Class( :Tea ) )
)
OWL2 XML Syntax <Ontology ontologyIRI="http://example.org/tea.owl" ...>
<Prefix name="owl" IRI="http://www.w3.org/2002/07/owl#"/>
<Declaration>
<Class IRI="Tea"/>
</Declaration>
</Ontology>
Manchester Syntax Ontology: <http://example.org/tea.owl>
Class: Tea
RDF/XML syntax<rdf:RDF ...>
<owl:Ontology rdf:about=""/>
<owl:Class rdf:about="#Tea"/>
</rdf:RDF>
RDF/Turtle <http://example.org/tea.owl> rdf:type owl:Ontology .
:Tea rdf:type owl:Class .
Semantics
Relation to description logics
OWL classes correspond to description logic (DL) concepts, OWL properties to DL roles, while individuals are called the same way in both the OWL and the DL terminology.
Early attempts to build large ontologies were plagued by a lack of clear definitions. Members of the OWL family have model theoretic formal semantics, and so have strong logical foundations.
Description logics are a family of logics that are decidable fragments of first-order logic with attractive and well-understood computational properties. OWL DL and OWL Lite semantics are based on DLs.
They combine a syntax for describing and exchanging ontologies, and formal semantics that gives them meaning. For example, OWL DL corresponds to the description logic, while OWL 2 corresponds to the logic. Sound, complete, terminating reasoners (i.e. systems which are guaranteed to derive every consequence of the knowledge in an ontology) exist for these DLs.
Relation to RDFS
OWL Full is intended to be compatible with RDF Schema (RDFS), and to be capable of augmenting the meanings of existing Resource Description Framework (RDF) vocabulary. A model theory describes the formal semantics for
RDF. This interpretation provides the meaning of RDF and RDFS vocabulary. So, the meaning of OWL Full ontologies are defined by extension of the RDFS meaning, and OWL Full is a semantic extension of RDF.
Open world assumption
The languages in the OWL family use the open world assumption. Under the open world assumption, if a statement cannot be proven to be true with current knowledge, we cannot draw the conclusion that the statement is false.
Contrast to other languages
A relational database consists of sets of tuples with the same attributes. SQL is a query and management language for relational databases. Prolog is a logical programming language. Both use the closed world assumption.
Terminology
Languages in the OWL family are capable of creating classes, properties, defining instances and its operations.
Instances
An instance is an object. It corresponds to a description logic individual.
Classes
A class is a collection of objects. A class may contain individuals, instances of the class. A class may have any number of instances. An instance may belong to none, one or more classes.
A class may be a subclass of another, inheriting characteristics from its parent superclass. This corresponds to logical subsumption and DL concept inclusion notated .
All classes are subclasses of owl:Thing (DL top notated ), the root class.
All classes are subclassed by owl:Nothing (DL bottom notated ), the empty class. No instances are members of owl:Nothing. Modelers use owl:Thing and owl:Nothing to assert facts about all or no instances.
Class and their members can be defined in OWL either by extension or by intension. An individual can be explicitly assigned a class by a Class assertion, for example we can add a statement Queen elizabeth is a(n instance of) human, or by a class expression with ClassExpression statements every instance of the human class who has a female value to the sex property is an instance of the woman class.
Example
Let's call human the class of all humans in the world is a subclass of owl:thing. The class of all women (say woman) in the world is a subclass of human.
Then we have
The membership of some individual to a class could be noted
ClassAssertion( human George_Washington )
and class inclusion
SubClassOf( woman human )
The first means "George Washington is a human" and the second "every woman is human".
Properties
A property is a characteristic of a class - a directed binary relation that specifies some attribute which is true for instances of that class. Properties sometimes act as data values, or links to other instances. Properties may exhibit logical features, for example, by being transitive, symmetric, inverse and functional. Properties may also have domains and ranges.
Datatype properties
Datatype properties are relations between instances of classes and RDF literals or XML schema datatypes. For example, modelName (String datatype) is the property of Manufacturer class. They are formulated using owl:DatatypeProperty type.
Object properties
Object properties are relations between instances of two classes. For example, ownedBy may be an object type property of the Vehicle class and may have a range which is the class Person. They are formulated using owl:ObjectProperty.
Operators
Languages in the OWL family support various operations on classes such as union, intersection and complement. They also allow class enumeration, cardinality, disjointness, and equivalence.
Metaclasses
Metaclasses are classes of classes. They are allowed in OWL full or with a feature called class/instance punning.
Public ontologies
Libraries
Biomedical
OBO Foundry
NCBO BioPortal
NCI Enterprise Vocabulary Services
Standards
Suggested Upper Merged Ontology (SUMO)
TDWG
PROV-O, the ontology version of the W3C's PROV-DM
Basic Formal Ontology (BFO)
European Materials Modelling Ontology (EMMO)
Browsers
The following tools include public ontology browsers:
Protégé OWL
Search
Swoogle
Limitations
No direct language support for n-ary relationships. For example, modelers may wish to describe the qualities of a relation, to relate more than 2 individuals or to relate an individual to a list. This cannot be done within OWL. They may need to adopt a pattern instead which encodes the meaning outside the formal semantics.
See also
RDF
Semantic technology
Agris: International Information System for the Agricultural Sciences and Technology
Common Logic
FOAF + DOAC
Frame language
Geopolitical ontology
IDEAS Group
Meta-Object Facility (MOF), a different standard for the Unified Modeling Language (UML) of the Object Management Group (OMG)
Metaclass (Semantic Web), a featured allowed by OWL to represent knowledge
Multimedia Web Ontology Language
Semantic reasoner
SKOS
SSWAP: Simple Semantic Web Architecture and Protocol
SHACL: Shapes and Constraints Language for RDF
References
Further reading
World Wide Web Consortium standards
Resource Description Framework
Department of Computer Science, University of Manchester
XML-based standards
Declarative programming languages
Ontology languages
Semantic Web | [
0.03181907907128334,
0.11154641956090927,
0.21620941162109375,
0.3227051794528961,
-0.18828412890434265,
0.04565455764532089,
-0.16191858053207397,
0.22747302055358887,
-0.21066872775554657,
-0.5015318393707275,
-0.49981948733329773,
0.27254268527030945,
-0.7822242379188538,
0.06035090610384941,
0.4581852853298187,
0.19269192218780518,
0.11907674372196198,
0.7440803050994873,
-0.40167295932769775,
-0.6013208627700806,
-0.06637975573539734,
-0.16967414319515228,
-0.41387471556663513,
-0.5290976762771606,
0.3118988573551178,
0.06956542283296585,
0.035349372774362564,
-0.14885620772838593,
-0.10300158709287643,
-0.11525622010231018,
0.12554116547107697,
0.5105125904083252,
-0.37813204526901245,
0.09189388900995255,
-0.22970452904701233,
-0.3592055141925812,
-0.39628908038139343,
0.050541456788778305,
-0.4405650496482849,
-0.3956905007362366,
-0.08429597318172455,
-0.03478912264108658,
0.2791445255279541,
0.3314930498600006,
-0.32453885674476624,
-0.5121262073516846,
-1.1615904569625854,
-0.22428438067436218,
-0.5655346512794495,
0.23620642721652985,
-0.8907707333564758,
0.4796689748764038,
0.1253707855939865,
0.3916558027267456,
0.10286950320005417,
0.13531175255775452,
-0.21390189230442047,
-0.3934181332588196,
0.2779959440231323,
-0.13099399209022522,
0.22606772184371948,
0.172494038939476,
-0.26730021834373474,
-0.04475916177034378,
0.1535138338804245,
0.24252228438854218,
-0.5056372880935669,
0.07694283872842789,
-0.9522057771682739,
-0.04802253842353821,
0.14078198373317719,
-0.435547411441803,
-0.3910154104232788,
0.21722103655338287,
-0.20270146429538727,
0.19450226426124573,
0.03795364126563072,
-0.4220571219921112,
-0.1998305320739746,
0.49645623564720154,
-0.32994917035102844,
1.1608619689941406,
0.7184857130050659,
0.26833319664001465,
1.004494071006775,
0.4517301619052887,
-0.5128252506256104,
0.8092418313026428,
-0.2839791774749756,
0.37549179792404175,
0.5796366333961487,
-0.0958726778626442,
0.3125430941581726,
0.2402813732624054,
0.42910611629486084,
0.417682021856308,
-0.2718278467655182,
0.05449439212679863,
-0.0676727145910263,
0.4944227337837219,
-0.348964124917984,
0.08300746977329254,
0.037911269813776016,
-0.36310428380966187,
-0.6422329545021057,
0.00557214068248868,
-0.5352488160133362,
-0.4704161286354065,
-0.0688847079873085,
-0.32263803482055664,
-0.4685860872268677,
0.1101112887263298,
0.07880710065364838,
-0.30976757407188416,
0.2642194330692291,
0.3422852158546448,
0.4724169373512268,
0.028257159516215324,
0.06754131615161896,
0.018513541668653488,
0.2553254961967468,
0.9475711584091187,
0.40298470854759216,
0.4503776729106903,
0.10311919450759888,
0.38736993074417114,
-0.13616780936717987,
0.4679706394672394,
-0.3632732033729553,
-0.20389436185359955,
0.3522992730140686,
0.92596435546875,
0.3480646312236786,
0.07240331918001175,
-0.19480109214782715,
0.3630421459674835,
0.6718159914016724,
0.20038489997386932,
0.4399571120738983,
-0.05947741121053696,
-0.9088619351387024,
-0.560406506061554,
-0.6740485429763794,
-0.3246980607509613,
0.4614275395870209,
-0.2235470563173294,
-0.23307949304580688,
-0.4832473695278168,
-0.425150066614151,
-0.0936979129910469,
-0.6881949305534363,
0.44471561908721924,
-0.4409545361995697,
0.18880556523799896,
-0.20046201348304749,
1.0853291749954224,
0.6244754791259766,
-0.27042293548583984,
0.45064783096313477,
0.013449559919536114,
0.12853413820266724,
0.11000454425811768,
-0.6658040881156921,
-0.3291912078857422,
0.3907376229763031,
-0.4452364444732666,
0.23536519706249237,
0.18385206162929535,
0.6205734610557556,
0.12531493604183197,
0.020073503255844116,
-0.2487436830997467,
-0.10219691693782806,
-0.15836496651172638,
0.00001532986425445415,
-0.28936073184013367,
0.31216317415237427,
0.16661812365055084,
0.7750226855278015,
-0.24726976454257965,
-0.8322933316230774,
0.09132988750934601,
0.19900602102279663,
-0.6707972884178162,
0.14184421300888062,
0.5036987662315369,
0.7517542243003845,
-0.10002721846103668,
-0.13613012433052063,
-0.18448586761951447,
-0.48071762919425964,
-0.23015138506889343,
0.2624777853488922,
-0.701343834400177,
1.3365581035614014,
-0.24819889664649963,
-0.5345960855484009,
0.825780987739563,
-0.29996994137763977,
0.35615697503089905,
0.21620169281959534,
0.037465207278728485,
0.1603127419948578,
-0.35739877820014954,
-0.3564736843109131,
0.2720804214477539,
-0.1814832091331482,
-0.02342149242758751,
-0.7092081904411316,
0.29158902168273926,
0.3163885176181793,
0.06165066733956337,
0.5677004456520081,
-0.4888083040714264,
0.24757012724876404,
-0.2809666693210602,
-0.29984551668167114,
0.2812366485595703,
-0.28294122219085693,
-0.11108982563018799,
1.4476008415222168,
-0.5716087222099304,
0.06945003569126129,
0.6818869113922119,
-0.7539343237876892,
0.3195796310901642,
0.5113701820373535,
0.3379819989204407,
1.2994258403778076,
-0.5638866424560547,
0.07935070246458054,
-0.1548650860786438,
0.2036111056804657,
-0.3566252887248993,
-0.07694203406572342,
-0.2694910168647766,
0.10822409391403198,
0.016448980197310448,
0.12617920339107513,
-0.12733964622020721,
0.5563734173774719,
0.15771424770355225,
-0.4738132357597351,
-0.258195161819458,
0.4646536707878113,
-0.6785063743591309,
-0.09995438158512115,
0.27248284220695496,
-0.43359655141830444,
0.17501525580883026,
-0.1265946924686432,
0.26670554280281067,
0.1548474282026291,
-0.6751338243484497,
-0.598190188407898,
0.318168580532074,
-0.19623076915740967,
-0.035977307707071304,
-0.2539435029029846,
1.0284191370010376,
-0.14469988644123077,
0.07710514217615128,
-0.3053961396217346,
0.11455794423818588,
0.03162592276930809,
-0.5566229820251465,
-0.022520149126648903,
-0.5314906239509583,
0.3300224244594574,
0.7130991816520691,
0.5938042998313904,
-0.7088212370872498,
-0.21014994382858276,
-0.4895714223384857,
-0.12202058732509613,
-0.904502272605896,
0.40449991822242737,
0.0178523026406765,
-0.8655329942703247,
-0.5214943289756775,
-0.2224157452583313,
-0.047355592250823975,
0.7447137832641602,
-0.27338066697120667,
-0.3302205801010132,
-0.70534348487854,
0.16761267185211182,
-0.7702910900115967,
-0.18341785669326782,
-0.4132501482963562,
-0.05632525309920311,
0.37483832240104675,
-0.16809619963169098,
0.039819177240133286,
0.1176716685295105,
0.44911307096481323,
0.1495983600616455,
0.42367470264434814,
0.0968550443649292,
-0.37044450640678406,
-0.8333131074905396,
-0.055394235998392105,
-0.2425774782896042,
-0.0665350928902626,
0.4607277512550354,
0.1336231231689453,
0.019162774085998535,
0.35199853777885437,
-5.438347339630127,
-0.16850320994853973,
-0.26275017857551575,
-0.3340820074081421,
0.0016112354351207614,
0.27570590376853943,
0.7105158567428589,
-0.26630204916000366,
0.10176752507686615,
0.05014461278915405,
0.09995106607675552,
0.1179194524884224,
-0.38730356097221375,
0.22120121121406555,
0.24572667479515076,
0.6298719048500061,
0.4331625998020172,
0.31968510150909424,
0.3827642798423767,
0.04327373579144478,
-0.24070197343826294,
-0.13806389272212982,
0.0478278212249279,
0.3150331676006317,
0.4565146863460541,
0.13261157274246216,
-0.9957264065742493,
0.07744748145341873,
0.11001364886760712,
-0.15306061506271362,
0.0771249458193779,
-0.46923351287841797,
-0.24086065590381622,
-0.6483393907546997,
-0.3318854570388794,
-0.0732317790389061,
0.6775003671646118,
0.8502137660980225,
0.07734040170907974,
-0.6464818120002747,
0.12980157136917114,
0.4344354271888733,
0.14869555830955505,
-0.3313606381416321,
0.17110873758792877,
-0.3796127736568451,
-0.43718692660331726,
-0.41183578968048096,
-0.27437517046928406,
0.49711906909942627,
-1.2230827808380127,
-0.05184917896986008,
0.2840307354927063,
0.00964144803583622,
0.47936588525772095,
-0.11619936674833298,
0.67291259765625,
0.10938208550214767,
-0.6460025310516357,
0.0966014638543129,
0.9303856492042542,
-0.7133041024208069,
0.21378399431705475,
-1.2748868465423584,
-0.4337616562843323,
0.06268927454948425,
-0.7380135655403137,
-0.3056413233280182,
0.3152754604816437,
-0.10320933908224106,
-0.788102924823761,
0.37468454241752625,
0.07694528251886368,
-0.896375834941864,
0.6127380132675171,
-0.8617666363716125,
0.17357707023620605,
-0.3223690986633301,
-0.1830100119113922,
-0.18447549641132355,
-0.12966251373291016,
-0.20530855655670166,
-0.3357197344303131,
0.4864434599876404,
-0.22290466725826263,
-0.1445392370223999,
-0.049543801695108414,
-0.3924153745174408,
-0.4915649890899658,
0.1751980185508728,
0.34323781728744507,
0.09885533154010773,
-0.01307587418705225,
0.7076539397239685,
0.8082275390625,
0.3173619508743286,
0.6603680849075317,
0.4100245535373688,
0.4073452353477478,
-0.6885374784469604,
0.7852668762207031,
-0.1241518184542656,
-0.28645962476730347,
-0.4308895468711853,
0.05076925456523895,
0.37666618824005127,
-0.5270750522613525,
0.09855841845273972,
0.8005910515785217,
-0.1254068911075592,
-0.3833305835723877,
0.6187947392463684,
-0.10670370608568192,
-0.3183651566505432,
0.019039522856473923,
0.3942584991455078,
-0.7846346497535706,
0.4535199701786041,
0.0005172415403649211,
-0.3543466031551361,
-0.13425379991531372,
0.2892898917198181,
0.056615736335515976,
0.45154905319213867,
0.07753970474004745,
-0.748240053653717,
0.5419087409973145,
0.08103977888822556,
-0.32313072681427,
-0.511368453502655,
0.4219959080219269,
-0.32640352845191956,
-0.06534390151500702,
-0.2996198832988739,
-0.12434181571006775,
-0.3588859736919403,
-0.09705527126789093,
0.43806910514831543,
0.6269434094429016,
-0.6288653612136841,
0.49676987528800964,
-0.1267697811126709,
0.03514665365219116,
-0.011045743711292744,
0.7315725088119507,
0.2135770618915558,
0.009365852922201157,
0.247238889336586,
-0.2625381052494049,
0.5229608416557312,
0.022151248529553413,
-0.3941417634487152,
0.34554290771484375,
-0.11394581198692322,
-0.05259322375059128,
-0.1291288435459137,
0.243531733751297,
0.6295368075370789,
0.09200958162546158,
-0.5125362277030945,
0.24436920881271362,
0.09269317239522934,
-0.5763249397277832,
0.1594676375389099,
0.2687019407749176,
-0.5075564980506897,
-0.9289658665657043,
0.6295045614242554,
-0.4178420901298523,
0.36470815539360046,
0.24543637037277222,
-0.38257598876953125,
-0.19266195595264435,
-0.17058904469013214,
0.18103617429733276,
0.11328175663948059,
0.11124476790428162,
0.2560351490974426,
-0.051930639892816544,
0.31117457151412964,
0.4273759722709656,
-0.39098989963531494,
0.012582498602569103,
0.6173731684684753,
0.24647817015647888,
-0.029860705137252808,
0.3583388030529022,
0.23170210421085358,
-0.4870116710662842,
0.05559976026415825,
-0.059986576437950134,
0.5184637308120728,
0.29809385538101196,
-0.05717919394373894,
-0.36032769083976746,
-0.5344206094741821,
0.5952180027961731,
-0.08804623037576675,
0.20416578650474548,
-1.3370152711868286,
0.1683460772037506,
0.4573418200016022,
-0.45463067293167114,
0.4536905288696289,
-0.2902607321739197,
-0.6432061195373535,
0.026307348161935806,
-0.44775673747062683,
0.047101184725761414,
0.16124966740608215,
-0.21960899233818054,
-0.29438239336013794,
-0.16766272485256195,
-0.032589107751846313,
-0.3595147132873535,
0.07691886276006699,
0.45104652643203735,
-0.10123240202665329,
-0.508148193359375,
0.14115384221076965,
0.07987692207098007,
-0.06180957332253456,
-0.16312794387340546,
0.1268281191587448,
-0.5629891157150269,
0.7864557504653931,
0.289316326379776,
-0.41018739342689514,
0.2127312272787094,
-0.5145873427391052,
0.09745809435844421,
-0.34111782908439636,
-0.08165384829044342,
0.44026339054107666,
-0.1886274665594101,
-0.5544687509536743,
-0.28511691093444824,
0.19552981853485107,
0.2899310886859894,
-0.09716178476810455,
0.1620522439479828,
0.8170769214630127,
-0.3404151499271393,
-1.0171778202056885,
0.05371244624257088,
0.04900672286748886,
0.2972008287906647,
-0.764086127281189,
-0.9007589817047119,
-0.2825087308883667,
0.5957506895065308,
-0.8552977442741394,
-0.060712482780218124,
-0.5113242864608765,
1.0640943050384521,
-0.06280574202537537,
-0.3462900221347809,
0.03887958452105522,
-0.32496944069862366,
-0.03857932239770889,
-0.05958763509988785,
-0.5142442584037781,
-0.7378198504447937,
0.16785664856433868,
0.28815537691116333,
0.0859043225646019,
-0.5416606068611145,
-0.158532977104187,
0.25170353055000305,
-0.29367220401763916,
-0.08514725416898727,
-0.023490605875849724,
0.5486199259757996,
0.5431001782417297,
0.6800310611724854,
-0.5631397366523743,
0.1760854870080948,
-0.252432256937027,
0.7396440505981445,
0.4117071032524109,
-0.20644941926002502,
-0.11151129007339478,
0.40739983320236206,
-0.6524786353111267,
0.5327712893486023,
-0.5556846857070923,
0.6556707620620728,
-0.18156127631664276,
0.011354380287230015,
-0.05798397958278656,
-0.6143591403961182,
0.5778098702430725,
-0.17555508017539978,
0.19937485456466675,
-0.23563162982463837,
0.19292041659355164,
0.08082102984189987,
-0.21779118478298187,
-0.16845647990703583,
0.2564747631549835,
-0.20444031059741974,
0.8395404815673828,
0.24361993372440338,
-0.6033684015274048,
0.5478399991989136,
0.015450801700353622,
-0.033317681401968,
-0.004403783939778805,
0.1526862382888794,
-0.08628816157579422,
0.17319773137569427,
0.20844395458698273,
0.42306840419769287,
0.6167382001876831,
-0.2339715212583542,
0.15601779520511627,
0.11061067134141922,
-0.46275749802589417,
0.8857227563858032,
0.0740424245595932,
-0.05589040368795395,
0.21497803926467896,
0.28297775983810425,
-0.050615519285202026,
-0.46138209104537964,
0.5057483315467834,
-0.31122055649757385,
0.09323589503765106,
-0.10821782797574997,
0.17255665361881256,
0.736430823802948,
0.1571025550365448,
-0.37699630856513977,
-0.061141327023506165,
-0.14129482209682465,
-0.451201856136322,
-0.33778348565101624,
0.20004796981811523,
-0.44412466883659363,
0.6582123637199402,
0.9277223348617554,
0.6567810773849487,
-0.7040855288505554,
-0.3063632547855377,
-0.37794047594070435,
0.19042913615703583,
0.09036239981651306,
0.6595932841300964,
-0.2979137599468231,
0.565854549407959,
0.5874636173248291,
-0.07321761548519135,
0.6685453653335571,
-0.21723471581935883,
-0.25744232535362244,
-0.2410413920879364,
0.2866675555706024,
-0.21395862102508545,
0.3397640883922577,
0.04512692987918854,
-0.2588881254196167,
0.7684418559074402,
0.4925764203071594,
0.2913278639316559,
-0.39668238162994385,
0.3302116394042969,
0.22621363401412964,
-0.34836697578430176,
0.3214426040649414,
-0.054452721029520035,
0.06626778095960617,
0.4300568401813507,
-0.36589282751083374,
0.7984520792961121,
-0.6097661852836609,
-0.006463043391704559,
0.24183999001979828,
0.2300267368555069,
0.024632353335618973,
-0.021278781816363335,
-0.4684995710849762,
-0.2535545527935028,
0.4170289635658264,
-0.6070555448532104,
0.48198312520980835,
-0.07041095197200775,
-0.2468927949666977,
0.3439475893974304,
0.1843603253364563,
0.27370089292526245,
-0.8494564890861511,
-0.5789646506309509,
0.5205829739570618,
0.04309241473674774,
-0.09624145179986954,
0.56786048412323,
-0.6477335691452026,
0.891889214515686,
-0.039790693670511246,
-0.057458873838186264,
-0.2330915331840515,
0.28741195797920227,
0.23937402665615082,
-0.13637638092041016,
-0.4044535458087921,
0.33133038878440857,
-0.5370644330978394,
0.15396763384342194,
-0.6474995613098145,
0.24781402945518494,
0.5148915648460388,
0.4528026580810547,
-0.08528237789869308,
-0.028995642438530922,
0.00482955202460289,
0.43577316403388977,
0.46323177218437195,
-0.26694345474243164,
-0.06850220263004303,
0.170083150267601,
-0.6186704635620117,
-0.017599325627088547,
0.4016774892807007,
0.03949812799692154,
0.19306272268295288,
0.2364473193883896,
0.10671776533126831,
0.15139885246753693,
-0.03153098374605179,
0.4349832832813263,
0.11553645879030228,
-0.3780249357223511,
-0.9089580178260803,
0.6081259846687317,
-0.18495070934295654,
0.602756142616272,
-0.6425808072090149,
0.7661214470863342,
0.5750859379768372,
-0.7395035028457642,
-0.3939792811870575,
0.11833743005990982,
-0.139723539352417,
0.39427638053894043,
-1.626870036125183,
0.0036434615030884743,
-0.38580629229545593,
-0.8294677734375,
-0.6556676626205444,
0.09795131534337997,
0.5158554315567017,
-0.1893923133611679,
-0.20258677005767822,
-0.27256128191947937,
-0.14810095727443695,
0.8814409375190735,
0.7122450470924377,
-0.8410477638244629,
0.061975449323654175,
0.3895667791366577
] |
248003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armagh%20rail%20disaster | Armagh rail disaster | The Armagh rail disaster happened on 12 June 1889 near Armagh, County Armagh, in Ireland, when a crowded Sunday school excursion train had to negotiate a steep incline; the steam locomotive was unable to complete the climb and the train stalled. The train crew decided to divide the train and take forward the front portion, leaving the rear portion on the running line. The rear portion was inadequately braked and ran back down the gradient, colliding with a following train.
Eighty people were killed and 260 were injured, about a third of them children. It was the worst rail disaster in the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century, and to this day remains the worst railway disaster in Irish history. It is the fourth worst railway accident in the history of the post-independence United Kingdom.
At the time, the disaster led directly to various safety measures becoming legal requirements for railways in the United Kingdom. This was important both for the measures introduced and for the move away from voluntarism and towards more direct state intervention in such matters.
Circumstances of the accident
The excursion sets out
Armagh Methodist Sunday School had organised a day trip to the seaside resort of Warrenpoint, County Down, a distance of about . A special Great Northern Railway of Ireland (GNR(I)) train was arranged for the journey, intended to carry about eight hundred passengers.
The railway route was steeply graded and curved, and the first from Armagh railway station involved a steep continuous climb, up a gradient of 1 in 82 (1.22%) and then 1 in 75 (1.33%). Elsewhere on the line, there were gradients as severe as 1 in 70.2 (1.42%).
Asked to provide rolling stock for a special train to take 800 excursionists, the locomotive department at Dundalk sent fifteen vehicles hauled by a 'four-coupled' (2-4-0) locomotive; however, the instructions to the engine driver, Thomas McGrath, were that the train was to be of thirteen vehicles. There were more intending passengers than anticipated and, to accommodate the excursion, the Armagh station master decided to use all fifteen vehicles. McGrath, who had never driven the route before (but had been over it with excursion trains when a fireman), objected to these instructions, saying that his instructions were that the train was to be of thirteen vehicles at most. According to the driver:
Two other witnesses said that McGrath had asked for a second engine if more carriages were added and had been refused by the station master, as none were available; McGrath (in supplementary evidence given "through the railway company's officers") denied this. The station master's evidence was that the discussion was about adding further carriages to the fifteen with which the locomotive had arrived. The general manager's chief clerk was to accompany the excursion; he suggested that the engine of the routine train that would be following twenty minutes behind could assist the excursion up the bank, or that some carriages could be left to come on with the routine train. Following his conversation with the station master, however, McGrath refused the assistance.
The train therefore set off with fifteen carriages, containing about 940 passengers. The carriages were full, and some passengers travelled with the guards. Tickets were checked before setting off and to prevent people without tickets joining the excursion; once each compartment had been checked its doors were locked.
Initially the train made progress up the steep gradient at about but stalled about before the top of the gradient.
Dividing the excursion train
To prevent the train rolling back, the brakes were applied. The train did have continuous brakes, (i.e., all carriages had brakes which could be operated by the driver), but they were of the non-automatic vacuum type. They were applied by creation of vacuum in the brake pipes and released by admitting air to the pipe.
This was the opposite of the arrangement preferred by the Board of Trade ('automatic continuous brakes') in which brakes were held off by vacuum (or compressed air) generated by the engine, so that on loss of vacuum (e.g. from a leaky connection or a connection parting) the brakes came on automatically. The two brake vans, however, (one immediately behind the engine tender, the other at the rear of the train) also had hand-operated brakes, each under the control of a guard. These were applied.
The chief clerk directed the train crew to divide the train and proceed with the front portion to Hamilton's Bawn station, about away, and leave that portion there, and return for the second portion. Owing to limited siding capacity at Hamilton's Bawn, only the front five vehicles could be taken on there; so the rearmost ten vehicles would have to be left standing on the running line. Once this rear portion was uncoupled from the front portion, the continuous brakes on it would be released, and the only brakes holding it against the gradient would be the hand-operated brakes in the rear brake van.
For a goods (freight) train in a similar situation, the wheels would have been 'scotched' against roll-back, and guard's vans on goods trains carried 'sprags' with which to do this. Those on passenger trains with continuous brakes were not required to carry sprags, and the excursion train did not. The guard in the rear van having applied his handbrake then (on the instructions of the chief clerk) dismounted and scotched the wheels of his van with pieces of ballast. He then also scotched the near rearmost vehicle on its righthand wheels and intended to similarly scotch its lefthand wheels before going back down the track with flags and detonators to protect the train from the scheduled service which was to set off from Armagh 20 minutes after the excursion.
The train was screw-coupled; each carriage was first coupled by a loose chain and hook coupling to the next; the slack on this was then taken up by a turnbuckle screw arrangement, until the buffers of the two carriages were touching. To uncouple, there needed to be some slack in the coupling; as the train had stopped all the couplings were under tension. Once the vacuum brake connection to the rear portion was broken, any attempt to introduce slack into the coupling between the two portions would be defeated by the rear portion settling back to rest its weight upon the rear van brakes. To assist uncoupling the front van guard therefore scotched one of the wheels of the sixth vehicle, that is, the front vehicle of the rear portion being detached. Loosening the turnbuckle thus transferred the weight of the rear portion to the scotch on the sixth vehicle, rather than to the rear van brakes. The couplings to the rear of the sixth vehicle remained under tension, and the slack introduced remained in the coupling between the fifth and sixth vehicles, which could be unhooked.
The rear carriages run away
The uncoupling accomplished by the front van guard, the driver attempted to start the front portion away. It rolled back slightly, jolting the rear portion; which caused the wheels of the front vehicle of the rear portion to ride up over the stones underneath them. The rear portion had been standing with its couplings tight, but now only the rear two vehicles were in any way restrained, so that the leading eight vehicles of the rear portion fell back on to them.
The momentum of the eight vehicles closing on the rear two was sufficient to push them over the stones, crushing them in turn, so that now only the handbrake on the rear brake van was effective. It was overcome by the weight of ten vehicles, and the rear portion began to move downhill and gathered speed down the steep gradient back towards Armagh Station.
"..as I was putting down the last stone, I felt the carriages coming back. I went on the van, and got in, and tried, with the assistance of two passengers, to get an extra turn at the brake handle, 'and was still doing this when Mr. Elliott " (the chief clerk) "jumped up on the left step, and said Try and make the best you can without breaking it (meaning the brake handle), and I said I could make no more. He then said, Oh, my God, we will be all killed, and jumped off. The speed then gradually increased, until it became so fast that we could not see the hedges as we passed." The train crew reversed the front portion and tried to catch the rear portion and re-couple it, but this proved to be impossible.
Collision
The line was operated on the time interval system (rather than block working) so that there was no means at Armagh of knowing that the line was not clear. The required 20-minute interval before letting a fast train follow a slow one having elapsed, the following scheduled passenger train had left Armagh. With an engine of similar performance, but a much lighter train (six vehicles), it was managing about up the gradient when, at a distance of about , the driver of the ordinary train saw the approaching runaway vehicle. He braked his train, and had reduced speed to at the moment of collision.
By now, the runaways had travelled about . The pursuing driver said he did not believe they had reached more than ; the Board of Trade inspector thought a fair estimate of their speed at the collision.
The engine of the scheduled train overturned, and the connection to its tender was lost. This train was also fitted with 'simple' (non-automatic) continuous vacuum brakes, and these were lost when the engine became disconnected. The train split into two sections, both running back down the gradient towards Armagh. Application of the handbrakes on the tender and on the brake van brought the front and rear halves of the scheduled train to a stop without further incident, a witness telling the inspector "The tender was slightly damaged, but none of the vehicles, and I heard from the guard that a horse in the box next the tender was not injured".
The occupants of the rear of the excursion train were not so lucky. The two rearmost vehicles of the excursion train were utterly destroyed, and the third rearmost very badly damaged. The debris tumbled down a embankment.
Causes of the runaway
Inadequate application of brakes
As part of his investigations, the Board of Trade inspector carried out calculations which established that a train similar to the excursion train could be hauled over the Armagh bank at about by the excursion train engine, and supported this by a practical trial. However, he did criticise the allocation of an engine with only just enough power for such a duty, especially with a driver who had little knowledge of the route. A further practical trial showed that a single brake van, with the brake correctly working and correctly applied, could (without the aid of scotching) hold 10 carriages on the Armagh bank, against both their own weight and a nudge similar to that which witnesses agreed in describing as having been caused by run-back of the front portion of the divided train. Hence, the problem was not the inadequacy of the brake. The immediate cause was the want of the application of sufficient brake power to hold the rear portion of the excursion train, when this portion, consisting of nine coaches and a brake van; which had been separated from the front of the train by direction of Mr. Elliott, was slightly bumped by the front portion of the train when the driver had to set back previously to starting for Hamilton's Bawn.
Two witnesses had seen the brake working properly before the train left Armagh, and the brake apparatus had been found in the wreckage and appeared to be in good working order. Nonetheless, the rear portion had run away, and had done so with the braked wheels revolving freely. Therefore, either the brake had not been applied properly by the guard, or it had been tampered with by passengers in the brake carriage. In the circumstances, the guard should be given the benefit of the doubt.
Incorrect response to the excursion train stalling
Responsibility lay primarily with Mr Elliott, the chief clerk. He had directed a course of action which ignored Company rules. These laid down that the main guard should not leave his van until perfectly satisfied that his brake would hold the train (the train should therefore have been allowed to ease back upon the rear brake van); once he had left his brake, no attempt should be made to move the train until he was back at the brake. Meanwhile, the more junior guard should have gone back down the track to protect the train. These precautions had been omitted, to pursue a strategy (dividing the train) which, even had nothing gone wrong, would have had no advantages over awaiting the scheduled train to assist the excursion to Hamilton's Bawn.
If Mr. Elliott had therefore only had the prudence to wait where the excursion train stopped near the top of the bank and to send back one of the guards to protect his train, with instructions to ask the driver of the following ordinary train to help the excursion train up the short remaining distance, he would hardly have lost time and would, besides, have avoided the risk inseparable from the delicate operation he unwisely determined to carry out and which should have been resorted to under only most exceptional circumstances and not, as in the present case, where there was so easy a solution of the difficulty.
Other criticisms
Wrong driver, wrong engine
The excursion train (even in the 15-vehicle form in which it set off) should have been able to climb Armagh bank at about . The inspector considered that its failure to do so must have been due to some want of proper management of the engine by its insufficiently experienced driver. The locomotive shed foreman at Dundalk was criticised for want of judgment in not sending a more experienced driver and in his choice of engine. The 2-4-0 supplied would have had insufficient margins (even when hauling a 13-vehicle excursion train) to be sure of maintaining a safe speed over the more onerous gradients farther up the line. For a 15-vehicle excursion, assistance should have been given by the engine of the regular train.
Failure to provide an assisting engine
The report criticised the over-confidence of the excursion engine driver as to the capabilities of his engine and regretted that his better judgment must have been overcome by the words of the Armagh station master. The chief clerk came in for further criticism for not having persisted with his instructions for the regular train engine to provide assistance. There was no direct criticism of the station master; either for having increased the size of the train, or for persuading the engine driver to attempt Armagh bank without assistance.
The excursion train
The organisation of this was criticised on a number of points:
Passengers should not have been allowed to travel in the brake vans, a practice that should be sternly prohibited
Carriage doors should not have been locked: a wrong thing
Given the weight of the train and the gradients on the line, both brake vans should have been at the rear of the train
It should not have been so big The running of such heavily laden excursion trains as the present on lines with bad gradients, is a practice much to be deprecated; it would be far better to limit them to about 10 vehicles. This remark more especially applies when the station from which the train starts is like that of the Newry and Armagh line at Armagh, which, as at present arranged, is perfectly unsuited for dealing with long passenger trains. In the present instance, the train, owing to its length, had to be loaded on the main line partly at the up platform and partly at the down platform, and afterwards by a series of shunts to be moved on to the Newry and Armagh Line.
Findings of the inquest
The inquest was completed on Friday 21 June 1889, and made findings of culpable negligence against six of those involved; those at Dundalk responsible for selection of the engine, the driver and both guards on the train, and Mr Elliott who had taken charge. As a result, three of the accused were committed for trial for manslaughter on the following Monday. One guard had been injured in the crash and was presumably still in hospital; the Dundalk personnel were not charged, the 'practical trial' showing that the engine supplied should not have been defeated by Armagh bank if correctly handled having been carried out on Saturday 22 June. The jury are not reported to have made any findings against more senior management of the Great Northern Railway of Ireland. Elliott was tried in Dublin in August, when the jury reported they were unable to agree; on re-trial in October he was acquitted. The cases against the other defendants were then dropped.
Recommendation and consequent legislation
Recommendation triggering legislation
The key recommendation was in fact couched as a finding:
This terrible calamity would in all human probability have been prevented had the excursion train been fitted with an automatic continuous brake instead of (as it was) with only a non-automatic continuous brake. In the former case, on the dividing of the train taking place, the brake would have remained on, or (had it been previously taken off) would have been at once applied to, the rear vehicles, and these would have remained immovable, notwithstanding any possible bump they might have received from the front of the train, when the driver was setting back to make a start.
It may also be remarked that the ordinary train had a narrow escape from serious collision between the portions into which it was divided, or with buffer stops; whereas had it been supplied with an automatic brake, there would have been no risk of such collisions.
As the President of the Board of Trade has stated in Parliament his intention to
introduce a Bill to make compulsory the adoption of automatic continuous brakes,
should the report on this collision point out that it would have been avoided had the excursion train been fitted with them, it is unnecessary for me to say more upon the subject.
Regulatory background
For many years the Railway Inspectorate of the Board of Trade had been advocating three vital safety measures (among others) to often reluctant railway managements:
"lock" Interlocking of points and signals, so that conflicting signal indications are prevented;
"block" A space-interval or absolute block system of signalling, where one train is not allowed to enter a physical section until the preceding one had left it; and
"brake" Continuous brakes, to put at the command of the engine driver adequate braking power; this requirement being increased as the technology made it reasonable to 'automatic' (in modern parlance 'fail-safe') continuous brakes which had to be 'held off' by vacuum or compressed air and would be applied automatically if that supply was lost (e.g. if a train were divided).
The Board of Trade had got as far and as fast as it could by persuasion, but an inspector commented in 1880 after the Wennington Junction rail crash
It is all very well for the Midland Railway Company now to plead that they are busily employed in fitting up their passenger trains with continuous breaks, but the necessity for providing the passenger trains with a larger proportion of break power was pointed out by the Board of Trade to all Railway Companies more than 20 years since; and with the exception of a very few railway companies that recognised that necessity and acted upon it, it may be truly stated that the principal Railway Companies throughout the Kingdom have resisted the efforts of the Board of Trade to cause them to do what was right, which the latter had no legal power to enforce, and even now it will be seen by the latest returns laid before Parliament that some of those Companies are still doing nothing to supply this now generally acknowledged necessity
Questions in Parliament
In the aftermath of the accident, questions to the President of the Board of Trade Sir Michael Hicks Beach revealed that
in the whole of Ireland only one engine and six vehicles were equipped with an automatic continuous brake
in England 18% of the passenger rolling stock had no continuous brake, and a further 22% had non-automatic brakes
in Scotland 40% of the passenger rolling stock were without continuous brakes
More specifically, for the Great Northern of Ireland
in March 1888 there were 208 drivers and firemen employed and 693 occasions on which they worked a 14-hour day or longer, including two in which they worked over 18 hours
of the 518 miles of railway it worked, only 23 were worked on the block system
It had no engines or vehicles whose brakes met the requirements of the Board of Trade, furthermore:
MR. CHANNING (Northamptonshire, E.) I beg to ask the President of the Board of Trade whether 11 years ago, in reporting upon a serious collision on the Great Northern of Ireland Railway, between two portions of a train which had become separated, General Hutchinson pointed out to the Company that an automatic brake would have absolutely prevented the collision, by arresting the carriages the moment the separation occurred; whether at that time the secretary of the company informed General Hutchinson that the simple vacuum brake, whose failure caused this accident, was being merely tried experimentally on the line, and that the company had not yet come to a decision as to what brake would be finally adopted; and, whether, in spite of this recommendation, this simple vacuum brake, upon the failure of which General Hutchinson reported in 1878, has remained in use on the Great Northern of Ireland line ever since, and is the same brake that was in use in the recent disastrous collision near Armagh?
SIR M. HICKS BEACH The facts are as stated in the question
New legislation
The government was already short of Parliamentary time in which to pass legislation it was already committed to, and had promised to introduce no further controversial measures. A bill was drafted and introduced, only to be withdrawn when it became clear that some of its other provisions (most notably requiring specified improvements in couplings, so that those engaged in shunting could safely uncouple wagons without having to step into the gap between them) were sufficiently contentious as to jeopardise passage of the non-controversial portions of the Bill. For that reason, some Liberal MPs sympathetic to railwaymen's concerns on working hours and the hazards of shunting expressed disappointment that the Bill did not go far enough. On the other hand, during the Second Reading a Liberal MP made the classic argument against detailed and prescriptive regulation
It would be a very serious thing if the Government in its attempt to protect the lives of passengers by rail, and the lives of working men, should take on itself to decide what form of carriage, what form of coupling and break, is the proper form for railway companies to use. I am of opinion that the lives of passengers and railway men will be safer in the long run, if these matters are left in the hands of those who understand them best. I cordially approve of the pressure of public opinion being applied, through this House or through the Press, to railway managers, to compel them to consider both the safety of the public and the safety of their men; but if we endeavour in this matter—as we have, in my opinion, sadly too often endeavoured in the past—to give Government officials the power to decide what is the precise form of appliances which shall be used in connection with railways, we shall not be providing for the safety of the public or the safety of railway servants
Nonetheless, within 2 months of the Armagh disaster Parliament had enacted the Regulation of Railways Act 1889, which authorised the Board of Trade to require the use of continuous automatic brakes on passenger railways, along with the block system of signalling and the interlocking of all points and signals. This is often taken as the beginning of the modern era in UK rail safety.An exceptionally frightful ..[accident].. in 1889 prompted the passing of a new Regulation Act, two features of which were notable. First, Parliament rushed the Bill through all its stages at an exceptionally high speed. The accident itself occurred on 12 June; the act went into force on 30 August. And secondly, here at last the government accepted the responsibility for dictating methods of operation to the companies, requiring all lines carrying passenger trains to be worked on the block system and all such trains to be fitted with instantaneously working continuous brakes, the Board of Trade being authorised to fix time limits for completion of the work
With an ill grace and some shuffling, the companies implemented the Act. As soon as they had done so, serious accidents caused by inadequate braking ceased in Britain…Here was the most striking example of the direct intervention of the state in the working of British railways in the 19th century, and it proved entirely beneficent
Similar accidents
Round Oak rail accident – 1 in 75; 23 August 1858 – Excursion runaway; brake not applied
Abergele rail disaster – 26 August 1868 – Brake broken by rough shunting
Stairfoot rail accident – 12 September 1870 – Poorly secured wagons runaway due to rough shunting. (see also BoT accident report)
Murulla railway accident (26 killed) – 13 September 1926 – Air brake failure
Bouhalouane train crash (131 killed) – 27 January 1982 – Passenger carriage roll back after being disconnected from a locomotive on a steep slope.
13 die near Kisumu, Kenya, after a passenger train rolls back because of air brake failure – 15 August 2000
Tenga rail disaster – 25 May 2002
Igandu train disaster – 24 June 2002
See also
History of rail transport in Ireland
Lists of rail accidents
List of steepest gradients on adhesion railways
Notes and references
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Major General Hutchinson's report into the circumstances of the disaster, with original witness statements (Archive) – Railways Archive Website
1889 in Ireland
Transport in County Armagh
Railway accidents in 1889
Runaway train disasters
Armagh (city)
History of County Armagh
19th century in County Armagh
Accidents and incidents involving Great Northern Railway (Ireland)
June 1889 events
Train collisions in Northern Ireland | [
-0.4918615221977234,
0.04376000910997391,
-0.2355724722146988,
-0.6581236124038696,
0.22319158911705017,
-0.25429069995880127,
0.8110671639442444,
0.07229667156934738,
-0.4981495440006256,
0.2760612368583679,
-0.09666259586811066,
0.15993459522724152,
-0.4456334412097931,
0.8056231141090393,
-0.16480892896652222,
0.24861246347427368,
0.5465804934501648,
-0.12034767121076584,
0.21351200342178345,
-1.0606694221496582,
0.3383082151412964,
0.11771821230649948,
0.4595227539539337,
0.5503658056259155,
0.7265511155128479,
-0.5321155786514282,
-0.10717562586069107,
0.0021857561077922583,
-0.042621590197086334,
0.12583844363689423,
0.5324362516403198,
0.3926135003566742,
0.4322456121444702,
-0.043245501816272736,
-0.20695029199123383,
0.3206992745399475,
-0.07401653379201889,
-0.14204934239387512,
-0.2057064324617386,
0.18267211318016052,
-0.17961198091506958,
-0.219316303730011,
-0.7043231725692749,
0.3242947459220886,
0.14964698255062103,
0.6317949891090393,
-1.179153323173523,
-0.15920615196228027,
0.11057782918214798,
0.014565891586244106,
-0.8348871469497681,
0.4338892698287964,
0.5067655444145203,
0.11024714261293411,
-0.4796224534511566,
-0.16343480348587036,
-0.3155163526535034,
0.2721345126628876,
0.5990363955497742,
-0.714407742023468,
0.5404170751571655,
0.4387268126010895,
0.25712987780570984,
-0.22827453911304474,
-0.19428129494190216,
0.20210185647010803,
-0.04330775886774063,
1.0681397914886475,
-0.10533245652914047,
-0.3952275514602661,
0.3709961473941803,
0.10193246603012085,
0.37559640407562256,
0.23213623464107513,
-0.04971981793642044,
-0.37017300724983215,
-0.11413785070180893,
-0.4540198743343353,
-0.3519088327884674,
0.33400416374206543,
-0.2763139605522156,
-0.07473114877939224,
0.7838166356086731,
0.011604622937738895,
0.9686668515205383,
0.41343778371810913,
-0.8158538341522217,
0.3991793096065521,
-0.13964220881462097,
0.9168987274169922,
-0.23208659887313843,
-0.08755538612604141,
-0.24980320036411285,
0.31667274236679077,
-0.7405873537063599,
-0.34784817695617676,
0.34322088956832886,
0.24149413406848907,
-0.2064652442932129,
-0.11553172022104263,
0.015975018963217735,
0.31157809495925903,
0.07425204664468765,
-0.030414339154958725,
-0.2192314863204956,
-0.26486530900001526,
0.19939973950386047,
-0.34979119896888733,
0.14961844682693481,
-0.49380117654800415,
-0.33328625559806824,
-0.0100820641964674,
-0.6935208439826965,
-0.3298586308956146,
0.10425924509763718,
0.2040797919034958,
0.00039179695886559784,
-0.8673179149627686,
0.2629622519016266,
0.09965747594833374,
-0.25129103660583496,
0.3468140959739685,
-0.7206802368164062,
0.8145981431007385,
-0.18719449639320374,
0.2607092261314392,
0.4364677369594574,
0.4676046371459961,
-0.06470941752195358,
0.5232043862342834,
0.07540053874254227,
1.1497701406478882,
-0.42768576741218567,
-0.021949533373117447,
-0.4188883602619171,
0.2950848937034607,
0.23725248873233795,
0.3271405100822449,
0.20541337132453918,
0.27961015701293945,
-0.7393301725387573,
0.2601041793823242,
0.2652033567428589,
-0.5813934803009033,
0.32455727458000183,
0.33771488070487976,
-0.028695330023765564,
-0.5409048199653625,
-0.14970138669013977,
-0.9013487696647644,
0.5015139579772949,
-0.22479072213172913,
-0.6229581236839294,
-0.012547699734568596,
-0.09227193146944046,
0.5288591980934143,
0.17363707721233368,
-0.4174998700618744,
0.13719217479228973,
0.11593438684940338,
0.0923396572470665,
0.4347057044506073,
0.05124645680189133,
-0.07131229341030121,
-0.36996498703956604,
0.40336379408836365,
0.5315724611282349,
-0.1554848998785019,
0.029523244127631187,
-0.955387532711029,
-0.27623093128204346,
0.33278337121009827,
0.0620819516479969,
-0.5968178510665894,
-0.2982269525527954,
0.0026646454352885485,
0.3418782651424408,
0.2336496263742447,
0.5588067770004272,
-0.06788309663534164,
-0.6205446720123291,
0.09349866956472397,
0.6907290816307068,
0.19143617153167725,
0.42478469014167786,
0.6370676159858704,
0.37711915373802185,
-0.25797298550605774,
-0.3601857125759125,
-0.16013328731060028,
-0.3734413981437683,
-0.756554901599884,
-0.015587364323437214,
-0.41102397441864014,
1.326058030128479,
-0.8000354766845703,
0.10529918223619461,
0.05380259454250336,
0.5438644289970398,
0.6445677876472473,
0.14741605520248413,
0.33415868878364563,
0.6301977634429932,
-0.01929766871035099,
-0.26013198494911194,
-0.02047949656844139,
-0.15315461158752441,
0.11139263212680817,
-0.032702501863241196,
-0.27976518869400024,
0.0877348855137825,
-0.1904919445514679,
0.12682577967643738,
0.2145368456840515,
-0.14213308691978455,
0.20591117441654205,
-0.4088217616081238,
-0.12051259726285934,
0.6099775433540344,
-0.6208887100219727,
-0.04204306751489639,
0.13170279562473297,
0.6106545329093933,
0.2035682052373886,
-0.5886266231536865,
0.5065694451332092,
0.30168765783309937,
0.6977475881576538,
0.5537704229354858,
-1.6363847255706787,
-0.34573474526405334,
-0.06472956389188766,
-0.7226001620292664,
0.2090480774641037,
0.1938248574733734,
-0.020548958331346512,
-0.5451821088790894,
-0.3390839993953705,
-0.20167049765586853,
-0.14153003692626953,
0.191884845495224,
0.22608165442943573,
-0.5179898142814636,
0.8005674481391907,
0.0735529437661171,
0.2431773543357849,
-0.1671294867992401,
0.6119505167007446,
-0.1335621327161789,
0.1417166292667389,
0.2744201123714447,
0.5184685587882996,
-0.28248974680900574,
0.1349327564239502,
-0.3978555202484131,
-0.9806872010231018,
0.19760514795780182,
-0.35527360439300537,
0.2772343158721924,
0.15999484062194824,
0.20877112448215485,
0.13776874542236328,
-0.30818572640419006,
0.2886877954006195,
0.3266041576862335,
-0.047073397785425186,
-0.6211388111114502,
-0.3236963450908661,
0.6662964224815369,
-0.0644988864660263,
0.5168365836143494,
-0.26916053891181946,
0.21674372255802155,
0.4620679020881653,
0.061658620834350586,
-0.46674907207489014,
0.23004013299942017,
0.5316615700721741,
-0.18359661102294922,
0.16330701112747192,
-0.12712761759757996,
0.6696692705154419,
-0.13112519681453705,
-0.6186184287071228,
-0.26911431550979614,
0.6521681547164917,
0.2600252628326416,
-0.00948904175311327,
-0.35568156838417053,
-0.3532676100730896,
-0.010777894407510757,
-1.0161465406417847,
0.041756145656108856,
0.22839106619358063,
0.04784417524933815,
0.14388687908649445,
0.7150615453720093,
0.4447669982910156,
0.4151257872581482,
0.5057201385498047,
-0.7745949625968933,
0.483181357383728,
-0.7431063055992126,
-0.09304609149694443,
0.08896158635616302,
0.18622103333473206,
-0.4010431170463562,
-0.680078387260437,
-5.409442901611328,
0.6846510767936707,
-0.03731648623943329,
-0.592261791229248,
-0.31690531969070435,
0.18470627069473267,
0.4231322109699249,
-0.4015343189239502,
-0.3068377375602722,
-0.015943625941872597,
0.1576462984085083,
0.22227516770362854,
-0.3321647644042969,
-0.27357906103134155,
0.5770977735519409,
-0.49424707889556885,
1.0232832431793213,
-0.18823277950286865,
0.35535329580307007,
-0.35873931646347046,
-0.45507270097732544,
-0.4149762988090515,
0.005999197717756033,
0.31836700439453125,
0.0518755167722702,
0.4824638366699219,
0.2782345414161682,
0.07928220182657242,
-0.31265494227409363,
-0.004840785171836615,
0.6603925228118896,
-0.8107457756996155,
-0.09851798415184021,
-0.3394623398780823,
-0.5083861947059631,
-0.3881406784057617,
0.6629649996757507,
0.5713179707527161,
-0.029555832967162132,
-0.3607817590236664,
-0.11800474673509598,
-0.2893659174442291,
0.25299718976020813,
-0.46587035059928894,
0.4863651990890503,
-0.24519068002700806,
-0.4369186758995056,
0.06253793090581894,
-0.12459012866020203,
0.5397325754165649,
-0.08352214097976685,
0.11195946484804153,
0.5706543922424316,
-0.0404558964073658,
0.1644124835729599,
0.22448845207691193,
-0.1768093705177307,
-0.524989128112793,
-0.12820428609848022,
0.12025773525238037,
0.6291422843933105,
-0.16619111597537994,
-0.5303823351860046,
-0.6682256460189819,
0.18631018698215485,
0.2565600275993347,
-0.3742689788341522,
-0.021130667999386787,
0.12773574888706207,
0.018821612000465393,
-0.28851741552352905,
-0.23840904235839844,
0.27310922741889954,
-0.7302359938621521,
-0.6446431875228882,
-0.5512025952339172,
-0.016119394451379776,
0.5321032404899597,
0.2804938554763794,
-0.36233875155448914,
-0.30178770422935486,
-0.11980273574590683,
0.2977325916290283,
0.3505295515060425,
0.9802780151367188,
0.08327776193618774,
-0.7746140360832214,
0.22350367903709412,
0.02504272758960724,
-0.5144539475440979,
1.242092490196228,
0.5208297967910767,
-0.4656803011894226,
0.9261350035667419,
0.11476800590753555,
0.5681802034378052,
-0.4859457015991211,
0.6537650227546692,
0.2066892385482788,
-0.08078429102897644,
0.18326787650585175,
-0.42720919847488403,
0.5647147297859192,
-0.13828571140766144,
-0.42927488684654236,
-0.2209768146276474,
-0.9578890204429626,
0.20137612521648407,
0.23028545081615448,
0.03199581801891327,
0.14893046021461487,
-0.17047575116157532,
-0.320019394159317,
-0.19921812415122986,
0.28126561641693115,
0.046625178307294846,
0.13047488033771515,
0.0434734933078289,
0.6146827936172485,
-0.3638600707054138,
0.22767077386379242,
-0.0066229356452822685,
-0.5044005513191223,
0.4701865017414093,
0.19614237546920776,
-0.6611648797988892,
0.7231414318084717,
0.0043922108598053455,
0.03485638275742531,
-0.29982665181159973,
0.29982614517211914,
-0.056235428899526596,
0.04870864748954773,
0.23698756098747253,
-0.8287572264671326,
-0.18501536548137665,
-0.4670223593711853,
-0.6245917677879333,
0.6807640790939331,
0.8666188716888428,
-0.046370625495910645,
-0.2305593192577362,
-0.3668885827064514,
-0.16512426733970642,
0.8891783356666565,
0.7690461277961731,
0.011468234471976757,
-0.2936684489250183,
-0.5405310392379761,
0.05980463698506355,
-0.6434729099273682,
-0.41737207770347595,
-0.2744126319885254,
-0.23732970654964447,
-0.22826971113681793,
0.37338787317276,
0.24229662120342255,
0.08349213004112244,
-0.6701247692108154,
-0.13521434366703033,
0.042087577283382416,
-0.3516651690006256,
0.15817320346832275,
-0.11344686150550842,
0.2549075782299042,
-0.42126262187957764,
0.5237500071525574,
-0.5969608426094055,
-0.15442872047424316,
0.5753731727600098,
-0.004573501646518707,
0.2451883852481842,
-0.6733828186988831,
0.17682719230651855,
0.24038025736808777,
0.7448148727416992,
-0.42078089714050293,
-0.11955747753381729,
-0.05428876355290413,
-0.24128606915473938,
-0.06374520063400269,
0.5533882975578308,
0.23001021146774292,
0.780990481376648,
0.1579754501581192,
-0.7998409867286682,
-0.3715358376502991,
0.4607326090335846,
0.10585155338048935,
0.04070605710148811,
0.17785492539405823,
-0.046200159937143326,
0.1587132066488266,
0.006608446594327688,
-0.39053910970687866,
-0.6051990389823914,
-0.19822455942630768,
-0.21882307529449463,
0.05960309877991676,
-0.9375690817832947,
0.03647610545158386,
0.1606634557247162,
0.026016777381300926,
-0.22953954339027405,
-0.13763128221035004,
-1.0386511087417603,
-0.1664806753396988,
0.23746636509895325,
-1.295919418334961,
0.6985878944396973,
0.3522603213787079,
-0.6766156554222107,
-0.40226510167121887,
0.902178943157196,
-0.6080132722854614,
-0.09361559897661209,
0.0082169184461236,
-0.21760176122188568,
-0.46042174100875854,
-0.35213038325309753,
-0.9518277049064636,
-0.1126355454325676,
-0.376068651676178,
-0.41821935772895813,
-0.36999544501304626,
0.1723596155643463,
0.23699548840522766,
-0.6843529343605042,
0.5896745324134827,
-0.03546016290783882,
-0.5424796342849731,
0.3436060845851898,
0.20683524012565613,
0.12327443063259125,
0.2735918164253235,
0.39194175601005554,
0.6174741387367249,
-0.3302237093448639,
-0.029306236654520035,
0.6236218214035034,
0.48534566164016724,
0.9725670218467712,
0.7748709321022034,
-0.13715830445289612,
0.09408052265644073,
-0.19323977828025818,
0.34683483839035034,
-0.11618617922067642,
-0.4300130307674408,
0.18526491522789001,
0.37092167139053345,
0.08276654034852982,
-0.6340020298957825,
-0.301990807056427,
0.7426488399505615,
-0.2892637550830841,
-0.4872724711894989,
-0.2552647888660431,
0.48218661546707153,
0.333141565322876,
0.25907430052757263,
-0.181441530585289,
-0.0654812827706337,
0.23591846227645874,
0.8159398436546326,
0.3025934398174286,
-0.5139106512069702,
-0.8692238330841064,
0.4193471372127533,
-0.9806543588638306,
0.40535980463027954,
-0.1235114187002182,
0.35749533772468567,
-0.4607563018798828,
0.22830651700496674,
0.11154387146234512,
-0.1973186433315277,
-0.9561625123023987,
0.6807717084884644,
-0.19915424287319183,
-0.5897761583328247,
-0.11543203145265579,
0.02757403440773487,
-0.3300531804561615,
0.25977179408073425,
-0.7248342633247375,
-0.007460898719727993,
-0.6999111175537109,
-0.37234631180763245,
-0.13366319239139557,
-0.7324289679527283,
-0.26970499753952026,
-0.02073865942656994,
0.24916882812976837,
-0.0052551752887666225,
0.663171648979187,
-0.5350247025489807,
0.39796486496925354,
-0.6347053647041321,
0.07046926766633987,
-0.474735289812088,
0.5629681348800659,
-0.22146865725517273,
-0.47115159034729004,
-0.521213948726654,
0.4749799072742462,
-0.27907684445381165,
-0.8200951218605042,
-0.03598944470286369,
-0.4289080798625946,
0.6047106981277466,
0.2724142372608185,
-0.31953197717666626,
0.44312649965286255,
-0.5581987500190735,
0.006091552320867777,
0.6186476945877075,
-0.7020637392997742,
-0.10231402516365051,
0.31779393553733826,
0.3441302478313446,
0.7034715414047241,
0.41093993186950684,
0.2628724277019501,
0.09717758744955063,
0.9946810603141785,
-0.28486940264701843,
0.20899398624897003,
0.21462830901145935,
0.837546706199646,
-0.15443770587444305,
-0.029171470552682877,
-0.5141164064407349,
0.7637971043586731,
-0.41045060753822327,
-0.11861828714609146,
0.30391064286231995,
-0.6903066039085388,
-0.4253450930118561,
0.44369760155677795,
0.18701791763305664,
0.7644726037979126,
0.2001303881406784,
-0.44952771067619324,
-0.44868868589401245,
0.15870517492294312,
0.09398983418941498,
-0.2377416044473648,
0.16936758160591125,
0.704278290271759,
-0.267976313829422,
-0.0006016316474415362,
0.19933627545833588,
-0.7756481766700745,
0.23491553962230682,
0.7333905100822449,
0.07062126696109772,
0.2052338421344757,
-0.4768231511116028,
0.01196825411170721,
-0.3044138550758362,
0.22643083333969116,
0.33335426449775696,
-0.32593995332717896,
0.10547784715890884,
-0.36486753821372986,
-0.1872696727514267,
-0.20404817163944244,
0.1812063306570053,
0.6325951218605042,
0.17582622170448303,
-0.6233265995979309,
-0.011680861935019493,
-0.15576057136058807,
0.17579282820224762,
0.4253796339035034,
0.7342240214347839,
0.18744398653507233,
0.16173376142978668,
0.23254063725471497,
-0.0763363391160965,
0.4217734932899475,
-0.23996035754680634,
-0.5192433595657349,
0.13478638231754303,
-0.6880172491073608,
-0.23663899302482605,
0.2211935669183731,
-0.5091569423675537,
-0.891977071762085,
0.33756986260414124,
0.1220676377415657,
-0.36162325739860535,
-0.044876378029584885,
-0.24495887756347656,
-0.35741809010505676,
0.4073740839958191,
0.3651541471481323,
0.19127102196216583,
0.12157707661390305,
0.01911361701786518,
-0.10164608806371689,
-0.09458155930042267,
0.7564351558685303,
-0.4378342628479004,
1.3060314655303955,
-0.17396318912506104,
0.024433651939034462,
0.1288621723651886,
0.24453099071979523,
0.2051408886909485,
-0.20511139929294586,
-0.02899065986275673,
0.438094824552536,
-0.2873423397541046,
-0.47385644912719727,
0.19654397666454315,
-0.6527153253555298,
-0.6944125890731812,
-0.7741382718086243,
-0.38256996870040894,
-0.2295263111591339,
0.12461816519498825,
0.40057864785194397,
0.12048403918743134,
-0.3106090724468231,
0.12565124034881592,
0.03221447765827179,
0.08487164229154587,
0.790384829044342,
0.30660855770111084,
-0.2359384149312973,
-0.43832069635391235,
-0.24138639867305756,
0.014053170569241047,
0.18339307606220245,
-0.06194001063704491,
0.06019653379917145,
0.5540426969528198,
0.10640536993741989,
-0.08384499698877335,
-0.19577303528785706,
0.4546063244342804,
-0.189004585146904,
0.517021656036377,
-0.014907678589224815,
-0.17794941365718842,
-0.21085146069526672,
-0.33728528022766113,
0.29192474484443665,
0.39963459968566895,
-0.1320502609014511,
0.2697899341583252,
-0.32368355989456177,
0.5517301559448242,
-0.4213408827781677,
-0.09092285484075546,
-0.8183012008666992,
-0.3344225585460663,
-0.30757078528404236
] |
248004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20United%20States%20of%20America%20%28band%29 | The United States of America (band) | The United States of America was an American experimental rock band founded in Los Angeles in 1967 by composer Joseph Byrd and vocalist Dorothy Moskowitz, with electric violinist Gordon Marron, bassist Rand Forbes and drummer Craig Woodson. Their 1968 self-titled album, often cited as an early showcase for the use of electronic devices in rock music, was met with critical acclaim and minor chart success. They disbanded shortly after its release.
The group’s sound was grounded in both psychedelia and the avant-garde. Unusually, the band had no guitar player; instead, they used strings, keyboards and electronics, including primitive synthesizers, and various audio processors, including the ring modulator. Many of the songs' lyrics reflected Byrd's leftist political views. AllMusic described them as "among the most revolutionary bands of the late '60s."
History
Background and formation
Composer Joseph Byrd, and lyricist and singer Dorothy Moskowitz, first met in New York City in early 1963 when Byrd was working on a recording of Civil War period music for Time-Life. A devotee of composer Charles Ives, Byrd had already become a respected and innovative composer, involved in experimental music as part of the Fluxus movement with John Cage, Morton Feldman, La Monte Young, David Tudor, Yoko Ono and others. Moskowitz was studying music at Barnard College where she was taught by Otto Luening; she also sang in a vocal group with Art Garfunkel, and worked with David Rubinson on a musical theatre production, as well as on the Time-Life project. Byrd and Moskowitz began a relationship – he has referred to their "profound musical and personal relationship", and she has described him as being her "aesthetic guru" – and he helped her obtain a post with Capitol Records; when she left, she was replaced in turn by Rubinson.
Later in 1963, Byrd and Moskowitz moved together to Los Angeles, where Byrd started a doctorate in ethnomusicology at UCLA. According to Moskowitz: "Joe brought with him a New York avant-garde cachet... a background in electronic music... and composing skills... He attracted immediate attention. Exciting musicians, dancers and visual artists sought collaboration with him. The talent pool for what eventually became the USA was sourced from this group." Byrd co-founded the New Music Workshop in Los Angeles with jazz trumpeter Don Ellis, and, after Ellis left, began to incorporate elements of performance art into his events. Moskowitz helped stage Byrd's performances, and performed in some of them. Both Byrd and Moskowitz also contributed to an album of Indian raga music by Gayathri Rajapur and Harihar Rao, recorded in 1965 and released by Folkways Records in 1968. On one occasion in 1965, as the concluding part of a series of concerts and events called "Steamed Spring Vegetable Pie" (a title taken at random from The Alice B. Toklas Cookbook), Byrd organized a blues band fronted by his friend Linda Ronstadt, to play during a "happening". Byrd said that "the realization that rock was an access to a larger public came out of that concert, and the idea of forming a band began taking shape."
Byrd became increasingly attracted to radical politics, and became a member of the Communist Party, explaining that it was "the one group that had discipline, an agenda, and was willing to work within the existing institutions to educate and radicalize American society." He left UCLA, but continued to stage performance art events, albeit on a reduced budget. After their personal relationship broke down in 1966, Moskowitz returned to New York, but she and Byrd stayed in contact. In early 1967 Byrd started to form a rock band with another politically radical composer, Michael Agnello, together with Moskowitz, bassist Stuart Brotman (previously of Canned Heat and later of Kaleidoscope), and African drumming expert Craig Woodson who had also been involved in the New Music Workshop. Audition recordings by this version of the band, from September 1967, are included on some later CD reissues. However, Agnello left the project on a point of principle when a commercial recording contract with Columbia Records was being considered, and Brotman also left.
The first public line-up of the band included Byrd, Moskowitz, Woodson, and two contemporary classical musicians with whom Byrd had worked on earlier experimental projects in the New Music Workshop: Gordon Marron (violin) and Rand Forbes (bass). Later, for some of their recordings and performances, they added Marron's friend and writing partner Ed Bogas (keyboards). Byrd initially commissioned electrical engineer Tom Oberheim to build him a ring modulator, later replaced by electronic oscillators in a monophonic synthesizer built by aerospace engineer Richard Durrett. Among other effects, Marron used an octave divider on his electric violin, and Woodson attached contact microphones to his drum set and hung slinkies from his cymbals for a musique concrète effect.
As the group's founder and leader, Byrd stated that his aesthetic aims for the band and album were to form "an avant-garde political/musical rock group with the idea of combining electronic sound (not electronic music)... musical/political radicalism... [and] performance art." According to Moskowitz, the choice of the band name "The United States of America" was intentionally provocative: "Using the full name of the country for something so common as a rock group was a way of expressing disdain for governmental policy. It was like hanging the flag upside down." As well as crediting the influence of Dada-inspired band The Red Crayola, Byrd said:
The demo recorded by the band secured the interest of Clive Davis at Columbia. Through their friend David Rubinson - who had started working for Columbia as a record producer, for bands and musicians including Moby Grape and Taj Mahal - they gained a recording contract.
Performances and recording
The band undertook their first live performances in late 1967, at the Ash Grove in Los Angeles, when Agnello was still performing with the band. Byrd said that "the two engagements at The Ash Grove helped define us as a combination of experimental rock and performance art. Everything we did on the album we had performed live, via the addition of two tape decks on stage. We traveled with a bunch of gear, including a calliope, a 3' x 4' neon American flag (which had alternately flashing red and white stripes), and a full-size plaster nun. We may have been the first to use fog machines: the low-lying fog and the flashing flag created a striking environment. We tended to use low stage lighting when we could, with only a pin spot for the vocalist. And since we often played from written scores, we used stand lights, which also added a kind of other-worldly lit-from-below effect."
Electronic devices were used live as well as on the album, to process other instruments and Moskowitz's voice as well as providing their own musical textures. The band's performances got mixed receptions. They undertook a short tour of the East Coast, with Richie Havens and The Troggs, with their performances in Boston and Greenwich Village being especially well received. Byrd later said of their shows: "Audiences generally were positive, sort of... it was a new kind of experience, and it wasn't just the music, it was performance art."
They recorded their first and only album in December 1967, produced by Rubinson, with Byrd credited as providing electronic music, electric harpsichord, organ, calliope, piano, and Durrett Electronic Music Synthesizer. Besides Byrd, Moskowitz (lead vocals), Marron (electric violin, ring modulator), Forbes (fretless electric bass), and Woodson (drums and percussion), several of the tracks also credited Bogas. Moskowitz and Byrd collaborated in writing most of the songs, with Byrd responsible for both words and music on three tracks, "The American Metaphysical Circus", "Love Song for the Dead Ché", and "The American Way of Love". Byrd described "The American Metaphysical Circus" and "The American Way of Love" as "comments on the media as a means of thought-control, and the bourgeois sentimentality of the hippies' "Summer of Love" compared with the realities of love under capitalism."
In "Garden of Earthly Delights", Byrd wrote the lyrics for the first verse and chorus; Moskowitz came with the track's title and some of the melody and lyrics. On "Coming Down", Moskowitz contributed to the melody line as well as writing the second and third verses. On "Hard Coming Love", Byrd wrote the title and first verse, and Moskowitz contributed what she referred to as the "lame doggerel that follows". Byrd's song "Love Song for the Dead Ché" reflects his leftist views; Columbia Records originally wanted the title changed because of its political implications. Two tracks - "Where Is Yesterday" and "Stranded In Time" - were written by Marron and Bogas. Byrd later described "Stranded In Time", arranged by Marron, as "a weak Beatle-esque copy of 'Eleanor Rigby', [which] could not be performed live because it called for string quartet. It should never have been included [on the album], but Dave Rubinson loved it."
The record was released in early 1968, at a time when there was a receptive audience for “underground music” which combined musical experimentalism with radical social and/or political lyricsother examples, in their very different ways, including the Velvet Underground (who shared a common background in the New York experimental music scene; according to Moskowitz, Nico at one point tried to join the USA), Frank Zappa (whom Byrd disliked, considering him a niche-marketer "subsumed in a self-referential loop"), Love's Forever Changes, Country Joe and the Fish, and Jefferson Airplane.
The album is littered with references to Byrd's obsession with old-time American music such as the Dixieland jazz intro on "I Won't Leave My Wooden Wife for You, Sugar". "The American Metaphysical Circus" starts out with five layers of sound being heard in a collage: a calliope playing "National Emblem", a ragtime piano playing "At a Georgia Camp Meeting", two marching bands playing "Marching Through Georgia" and "The Red, White and Blue" switching between left and right channels. The other two tracks are of electronic sounds. The marching bands were arranged and conducted by Byrd, rather than being taken from existing recordings. Whether intended or not, the record took the form of a coherent "song cycle", a radical commentary on contemporary American society. The words ranged from satires on decadence ("The American Metaphysical Circus", "..Wooden Wife..", (this title being a parody of the 1905 music hall song, "I Wouldn't Leave My Little Wooden Hut for You" by Tom Mellor and Charles Collins) to lyrical expressions of longing (the pastoral "Cloud Song", the political "Love Song For The Dead Che"). Musically, the songs ranged from pseudo-classical elegance ("Stranded In Time", "Where Is Yesterday") to aggressive discordance and hard rock ("The Garden of Earthly Delights", "Hard Coming Love"), with heavy electronic distortion and collages of music such as brass bands, in line with Byrd being heavily influenced by Charles Ives. The final suite "The American Way of Love" integrates most of these elements, with a dreamlike ending containing a collage of earlier tracks. According to Lillian Roxon, the three-part suite "dealt most explicitly with the activities of homosexual prostitutes on New York's notorious 42nd Street".
Break-up
The band fell apart shortly after their album was released. One factor was disagreement between Byrd, Marron and Bogas over musical direction, with Marron's promotion of lighter "McCartney-esque" material conflicting with Byrd's original vision for the band, and conversely Marron and Bogas becoming unhappy with the priority given to Byrd's songs. Dissent led to a backstage fist fight between Marron and Byrd after the band's performance supporting the Troggs at the Fillmore East, when the English band's fans had heckled the United States of America and Byrd and Marron competed against each other in turning up the volumes on their amplifiers. At another show in Orange County, band members were busted for smoking marijuana during the show, leading to it having to be completed by just Moskowitz and Byrd, who later complained that Marron, Forbes and Woodson were "often sloppy in performance" as a result of their drug use.
There were tensions between Byrd on one side, and Moskowitz and Rubinson on the other. Byrd commented that "as I tried to make our sound harder, Dorothy was trying to go softer, perhaps responding to an unconscious influence of autobiographic women songwriters of the time: Janis Ian, Laura Nyro, and Joni Mitchell." According to Byrd, there was a lack of enthusiasm for the band from the record company, who felt challenged by both the band's music and Byrd's politics. In contrast, Moskowitz has said that the company were "just trying to market us", and "we were the ones who were being sanctimonious... [and] rigid...", also claiming that producer Rubinson lost interest in the band after Agnello left. A further factor was other band members' unhappiness with the initial mixing of the album in New York City by Byrd and Rubinson, which when played back in Los Angeles, according to Byrd, sounded "utterly wimpy and lame. The band blamed me, and they were right. My credibility with my own musicians suffered immeasurably."
Moskowitz has referred to the band's "internal conflicts, fisticuffs and power struggles." Byrd has claimed that "Columbia dumped me from the band"; specifically, that Rubinson and the band's manager Malcolm Terrence manoeuvered to remove him, and promote Moskowitz as the band's figurehead and potential solo star. Though Moskowitz disputes that claim, she also said that "although I didn't agree with David [Rubinson] aesthetically, I felt loyal to him. He was, after all, the one who had put us on the map." In any event, Byrd announced that he was leaving, and, according to Moskowitz, when he changed his mind, "the manager pleaded with me to accept him back, but I wouldn't. There was never a conspiracy towards a solo career or some 'back story' between Rubinson and myself. It was primarily intransigence and anger about band governance on my part that propelled the final train wreck."
Byrd subsequently commented: "The idea was to create a radical experience. It didn't succeed. For one thing, I had assembled too many personalities; every rehearsal became group therapy. A band that wants to succeed needs a single, mutually acceptable identity. I tried to do it democratically, and it was not successful." Rubinson said: "Joe Byrd was one of the most insane examples of control freak that I've, to this day, ever experienced... he was really bizarre, and a very, very difficult person to deal with. So there were constant personality conflicts in and among the band. People quitting, people getting replaced, arguments, yelling about intonation, and so forth. They were very talented people, and I don't think they liked being dictated to. But he had a vision of what he wanted."
Marron, Forbes and Bogas left the band after their East Coast tour in spring 1968. After Byrd also left, Rubinson and Moskowitz attempted to keep the band name alive, and Moskowitz recorded several tracks in July 1968 with a new and more conventional band of Los Angeles musicians - Jeff Marinell (guitar), Richard Grayson (keyboard), Carmie Simon (bass), and Dennis Wood (drums). Their recordings surfaced on the 2004 CD reissue of The United States of America. However, plans to continue with the band soon came to nothing.
Reception and legacy
The album was described by critic Richie Unterberger as "a near classic", "a tour de force (though not without its flaws) of experimental rock that blended surprisingly melodic sensibilities with unnerving blasts of primitive synthesizers and lyrics that could range from misty romanticism to hard-edged irony. For the relatively few who heard it, the record was a signpost to the future with its collision of rock and classical elements, although the material crackled with a tension that reflected the United States of America itself in the late '60s." Describing Moskowitz's vocals as "reminiscent of an icier Grace Slick", he also said that the electronic textures crafted by Byrd "were not simulations of strings and horns, but exhilarating, frightening swoops and bleeps that lent a fierce crunch to the faster numbers, and a beguiling serenity to the ballads."
According to Unterberger, "the very fact that the equipment was so primitive... lent a spontaneous resonance and warmth that has rarely been achieved by subsequent synthesizer technology." Producer David Rubinson commented:
According to critic Kevin Holm-Hudson, "what distinguishes the United States of America from some of its contemporaries... is the seriousness and skill with which they incorporated avant-garde and other influences into their music."
Despite the widespread support of music critics, the album sold poorly and soon disappeared - at least in the USA, although in the UK it remained fondly remembered, in part because of one track ("Wooden Wife") being used on a popular budget-price CBS sampler album, The Rock Machine Turns You On. The band was later described as an influence by several British bands, including Portishead and Broadcast. The band's album was first reissued on CD in 1997, and in an expanded edition by Sundazed Records in 2004.
Later activities
Joseph Byrd (born 1937) went on to record a second album for Columbia, The American Metaphysical Circus, credited to Joe Byrd and the Field Hippies, in 1969. Byrd also released a number of additional recordings under his own name, as well as scoring films, writing music for television and commercials, and working as a music producer. In the 1970s he founded the Yankee Doodle Society, dedicated to the popular music of the mid-19th century, and released several albums of songs of the period. He is married, lives in northern California near the Oregon border, and since 2000 has taught music-related classes at College of the Redwoods.
Dorothy Moskowitz (born 1940) later became a member of Country Joe McDonald's All-Star Band, touring and recording with them and appearing on McDonald's 1973 album, Paris Sessions. She also composed theater music, recorded commercials, and sang jazz in clubs. She married in 1978, taking the name Dorothy Falarski, and had two daughters. After a brief retirement from music she began writing music for children in the 1980s and 1990s. In 2003, she became a music teacher for elementary schools in Piedmont, California, introducing students to the basics of brass instruments and vocal techniques. She has developed a number of other music projects in the San Francisco Bay area and lives in a suburb of Oakland, California.
Gordon Marron (born 1943) became a Los Angeles studio musician on recordings by David Ackles, Carole King, Alice Coltrane, Helen Reddy and others. He co-wrote the Vic Dana song "The Love In Your Eyes", and worked on film soundtracks with composer Reid Reilich. He later moved to live in Kauai, Hawaii, where he continues to perform on violin and keyboards.
Craig Woodson (born 1943) gained a doctorate from UCLA and recorded with David Ackles, Linda Ronstadt and others before starting a small business making ethnic musical instruments in the 1970s. He also worked as a percussion teacher, lecturer and consultant, as well as presenting educational concerts and touring with the Kronos Quartet. He won several patents for musical instrument technology, and led a three-year project in Ghana producing instruments for use in local schools. He founded Ethnomusic, Inc., a world music education consultancy, in 1976. For two years, he was senior director of education at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. He later lived in Ohio. In 1998, Woodson arranged a ceremony to apologise for his white ancestors' involvement in the slavery that had oppressed members of Carter G. Woodson's family. Following the reconciliation, both sides of the family developed the Black White Families Reconciliation (BWFR) Protocol, using the creative arts, particularly drumming and storytelling, with the aim of healing racial divides within black and white families who share a surname.
Ed Bogas (born 1942) composed soundtracks for Peanuts and Garfield TV cartoon specials and for Ralph Bakshi's film Fritz the Cat.
Rand Forbes (January 28, 1947–December 23, 2020) became a software engineer. He worked as an Oracle database administrator, and owned a software development company. He later lived in the Cleveland, Ohio area, close to Craig Woodson. He died in 2020 following a lengthy illness and after contracting COVID-19.
Discography
Albums
{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" width="33"|Year
! rowspan="2" width="215"|Title
! colspan="2"|Peak chart positions
|-
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"|UK
!style="width:3em;font-size:75%"|US
|-
|align="center"|1968
|The United States of America
Released: 1968
Label: Columbia
Formats: Compact disc, vinyl
|align="center"|—
|align="center"|181
|}
Singles
"The Garden of Earthly Delights" / "Love Song For The Dead Ché" (CBS 3745, UK, 1968)
"Hard Coming Love" / "Osamu's Birthday" (Sundazed, 2004)
References
American experimental rock groups
Musical groups established in 1967
Musical groups disestablished in 1968
Musical groups from Los Angeles
Proto-prog musicians
Psychedelic rock music groups from California | [
0.2857212424278259,
0.09556788206100464,
-0.18673065304756165,
0.05974578484892845,
0.3519408106803894,
0.09808750450611115,
0.02088729478418827,
-0.18194037675857544,
-0.10317583382129669,
-0.1792471557855606,
-0.07796771079301834,
0.4134824872016907,
-0.5148845314979553,
0.43289676308631897,
-0.3342973589897156,
0.026085693389177322,
0.4374767243862152,
0.25509387254714966,
-0.31720229983329773,
-0.04480654373764992,
-0.3253357708454132,
0.1505512297153473,
0.3142124116420746,
-0.5045523643493652,
0.15966492891311646,
-0.1937493532896042,
0.24534864723682404,
-0.6157302260398865,
0.06613617390394211,
0.3814559280872345,
-0.027376046404242516,
0.2458348572254181,
0.32429105043411255,
-0.7915396690368652,
0.13316145539283752,
0.14740484952926636,
-0.21349027752876282,
0.11278083175420761,
0.1277267038822174,
-0.32632091641426086,
-0.14144396781921387,
-0.4196116328239441,
0.5359535813331604,
0.4119585156440735,
-0.1664016842842102,
-0.3182559311389923,
-1.276574730873108,
0.5895689725875854,
-0.5161522030830383,
-0.2116883546113968,
-0.11021503061056137,
-0.11319687217473984,
0.3573310077190399,
0.4801795780658722,
-0.034468479454517365,
-0.09376758337020874,
0.02118270844221115,
-0.020958581939339638,
-0.31259870529174805,
-0.8070976734161377,
0.43571168184280396,
0.21387967467308044,
0.515101969242096,
-0.48754724860191345,
0.22014136612415314,
0.21080239117145538,
0.342870831489563,
0.17072145640850067,
0.0862732082605362,
-0.10352720320224762,
-0.5155400633811951,
0.12565506994724274,
-0.48243963718414307,
-0.31858736276626587,
0.2733042240142822,
-0.3179178535938263,
0.8506056070327759,
-0.028224479407072067,
0.05179939791560173,
0.28625842928886414,
0.08032327145338058,
0.4080348610877991,
0.8268277645111084,
0.262434720993042,
-0.23912397027015686,
-0.4273011088371277,
-0.3742104172706604,
0.294623464345932,
-0.0541328527033329,
0.23638837039470673,
-0.23681911826133728,
0.05158691480755806,
0.5493561029434204,
0.026851898059248924,
0.1435776650905609,
-0.24884392321109772,
0.03711766377091408,
-0.10624180734157562,
-0.04041687771677971,
0.20244701206684113,
0.2849028408527374,
-0.33918359875679016,
0.3477487564086914,
-0.5432129502296448,
-0.10854692757129669,
0.06313014030456543,
0.2669871151447296,
-0.12489297240972519,
0.3738246262073517,
-0.042217645794153214,
0.0725129097700119,
-0.09845796972513199,
0.303684800863266,
-0.006017257459461689,
0.1925923079252243,
0.736065685749054,
0.004241444636136293,
-0.3477175533771515,
-0.3152637183666229,
-0.1986631155014038,
0.3564763367176056,
0.7931554913520813,
0.07457417994737625,
-0.18817579746246338,
-0.1645660102367401,
0.2538875341415405,
0.5590196251869202,
0.111693374812603,
-0.8064446449279785,
-0.44991299510002136,
-0.4518094062805176,
0.043954312801361084,
-0.017570652067661285,
0.04454568773508072,
0.19243569672107697,
0.05467735975980759,
0.5883101224899292,
0.06327544152736664,
0.30497705936431885,
0.7048152685165405,
0.005836034659296274,
-0.15490421652793884,
-0.3934444487094879,
-0.6770815849304199,
0.17615896463394165,
-0.4971058964729309,
-0.1592193990945816,
-0.1128007248044014,
-0.57550448179245,
0.0982029139995575,
0.31156474351882935,
-0.23870933055877686,
-0.23640401661396027,
0.3351351022720337,
-0.22416488826274872,
-0.18570536375045776,
0.6926666498184204,
-0.23756541311740875,
0.27343735098838806,
0.3504589796066284,
0.21996235847473145,
0.3615778982639313,
0.29971253871917725,
-0.0026117893867194653,
-0.44832155108451843,
0.09127538651227951,
-0.15262144804000854,
0.2433173954486847,
-0.12400251626968384,
0.003124410752207041,
0.19173116981983185,
-0.24162118136882782,
0.29048946499824524,
0.5025215148925781,
0.3335156738758087,
0.07552570849657059,
0.705655574798584,
0.2027374505996704,
-0.41434159874916077,
0.29336243867874146,
-0.32799655199050903,
-0.044494740664958954,
0.25730305910110474,
-0.35317790508270264,
-0.061224956065416336,
0.04419424757361412,
0.15723168849945068,
0.16239064931869507,
0.0005088926409371197,
-0.0003254396724514663,
-0.014388577081263065,
-0.5935580134391785,
-0.2732453942298889,
-0.15672768652439117,
1.0797579288482666,
0.6335615515708923,
-0.7208107113838196,
0.2998819649219513,
0.031575556844472885,
0.7048519849777222,
-0.0117051275447011,
0.04530762508511543,
0.8173340559005737,
0.06644117832183838,
-0.13026326894760132,
0.03792937099933624,
0.15011116862297058,
-0.08855434507131577,
0.41290897130966187,
0.5266734957695007,
-0.02124561183154583,
-0.22289033234119415,
0.1951904445886612,
0.32574743032455444,
-0.0361432209610939,
-0.3821925222873688,
-0.29788875579833984,
0.5097687840461731,
-0.14621630311012268,
-0.18258056044578552,
0.6870676875114441,
0.4108482599258423,
0.47093063592910767,
-0.19552041590213776,
0.09420318901538849,
0.5054598450660706,
-0.22216272354125977,
0.035412661731243134,
-0.2655904293060303,
0.12909609079360962,
0.22134369611740112,
0.07334626466035843,
0.015886852517724037,
-0.6002839803695679,
0.3560417890548706,
-0.0484277717769146,
0.06665629148483276,
-0.029636966064572334,
-0.18536224961280823,
-0.023529522120952606,
0.023475196212530136,
-0.025029955431818962,
-0.8100402355194092,
0.6015450358390808,
-0.04504360631108284,
0.04859159514307976,
0.276687353849411,
-0.3510361313819885,
0.11579949408769608,
0.47415393590927124,
-0.6484842896461487,
0.30724671483039856,
0.4303954541683197,
0.2546583414077759,
-0.06053270399570465,
0.12544676661491394,
0.6383064389228821,
-0.1882249414920807,
0.35747629404067993,
0.23712420463562012,
-0.27465954422950745,
-0.2158414125442505,
0.09963549673557281,
0.05692373588681221,
-0.3233675956726074,
-1.339097499847412,
-0.17018868029117584,
-0.2904147207736969,
0.4410775303840637,
0.03314513340592384,
0.247883141040802,
0.41445204615592957,
-0.051602523773908615,
0.26247096061706543,
-0.20778024196624756,
0.1035877913236618,
-0.2685430943965912,
0.006481248885393143,
-0.03609219193458557,
-0.709693193435669,
0.559571385383606,
0.5064470171928406,
0.3508950471878052,
-0.39771056175231934,
-0.1946612447500229,
0.1392127424478531,
0.3191063702106476,
-0.5344618558883667,
0.32089266180992126,
0.4117059111595154,
0.05911671370267868,
0.05652153864502907,
0.16042973101139069,
-0.287361204624176,
0.3225545585155487,
-0.10635460168123245,
0.578926146030426,
-0.11072481423616409,
-0.43748801946640015,
0.2972082197666168,
-1.1105681657791138,
0.0656343400478363,
-0.1596093624830246,
-0.43574386835098267,
0.7799790501594543,
-0.47958946228027344,
0.29749006032943726,
-0.5451180934906006,
-6.056397438049316,
-0.09531162679195404,
-0.2307782620191574,
-0.14939726889133453,
0.33168357610702515,
0.2533637285232544,
0.22196096181869507,
-0.7656382322311401,
-0.013105792924761772,
-0.4852008819580078,
-0.5373631119728088,
0.28002163767814636,
-0.34835872054100037,
0.6473104357719421,
0.09757225215435028,
-0.18725882470607758,
-0.3473636209964752,
-0.055046264082193375,
0.027541685849428177,
0.24262312054634094,
0.012759247794747353,
-0.533933699131012,
0.41752755641937256,
0.3124556243419647,
0.027429742738604546,
0.1460404396057129,
-0.048522669821977615,
-0.06304062902927399,
-0.35568708181381226,
-0.1836361140012741,
-0.39005887508392334,
0.22458511590957642,
0.4569005072116852,
-0.8295084238052368,
0.08879367262125015,
0.08989895135164261,
0.6155308485031128,
0.20578046143054962,
0.29017001390457153,
-0.24219910800457,
-0.03891555219888687,
0.2481009066104889,
0.5049471855163574,
-0.23957811295986176,
0.2583627998828888,
0.4618901312351227,
-0.02540424093604088,
-0.5363388061523438,
-0.22167237102985382,
1.1399612426757812,
0.22143559157848358,
0.12115568667650223,
0.652194619178772,
-0.8038517236709595,
-0.2864008843898773,
-0.20678411424160004,
0.06517709791660309,
0.4518856704235077,
0.4310735762119293,
-0.2829500734806061,
0.8951787948608398,
-0.1687590777873993,
-0.0221019946038723,
-0.37281063199043274,
-0.13559043407440186,
-0.7239460349082947,
-0.2163749784231186,
0.6733145713806152,
0.6405454874038696,
0.42563506960868835,
0.5011746883392334,
0.13993752002716064,
-0.49200648069381714,
-0.9055323600769043,
-0.4581799805164337,
-0.34515729546546936,
0.16328471899032593,
-0.5737528800964355,
-0.4972664415836334,
0.482349157333374,
-0.12246789038181305,
0.401170015335083,
-0.4192652702331543,
0.4649977684020996,
-0.22118088603019714,
0.13796977698802948,
-0.5494797229766846,
0.602436363697052,
-0.7742689251899719,
-0.059355925768613815,
0.2942252457141876,
-0.7737268209457397,
0.01774849183857441,
-0.08846956491470337,
0.6143167018890381,
0.2655220925807953,
0.04885196313261986,
0.7166904211044312,
0.6122570037841797,
-0.25793853402137756,
0.2655588388442993,
0.1207302138209343,
0.1495157927274704,
-0.35186901688575745,
-0.23576584458351135,
-0.2863103449344635,
-0.08702290803194046,
-0.3491767942905426,
0.9130790829658508,
-0.0864737257361412,
0.23609912395477295,
-0.3421541452407837,
0.5372046232223511,
-0.6518572568893433,
0.029774904251098633,
-0.12595462799072266,
-0.21465454995632172,
0.06759130954742432,
0.37008124589920044,
0.06477770954370499,
0.08194998651742935,
0.5308552384376526,
0.026207391172647476,
0.3476528525352478,
-0.14591668546199799,
0.19796600937843323,
-0.18170227110385895,
-0.13875621557235718,
-0.02135729417204857,
0.08763600140810013,
0.16879770159721375,
0.142984077334404,
0.12490789592266083,
0.36738452315330505,
0.950094997882843,
0.053727440536022186,
-0.3490389585494995,
0.25599372386932373,
0.08469333499670029,
0.1550627201795578,
0.05988891422748566,
-0.43188899755477905,
-0.14700037240982056,
0.45749369263648987,
0.18377681076526642,
0.44806498289108276,
-0.027270963415503502,
-0.3366033136844635,
-0.04557577520608902,
0.40060359239578247,
0.09878361225128174,
0.14435796439647675,
0.5139620304107666,
-0.49730026721954346,
-0.19361191987991333,
-0.5294919610023499,
0.4605977237224579,
-0.35892751812934875,
-0.5092108845710754,
0.011086502112448215,
0.10828404128551483,
-0.32004493474960327,
-0.7609307765960693,
-0.4981079697608948,
0.46469369530677795,
-0.07405104488134384,
-0.16465973854064941,
-1.0285429954528809,
-0.06706205010414124,
0.15970738232135773,
0.22893621027469635,
-0.19781437516212463,
0.2496381551027298,
-0.4623510539531708,
0.2125624716281891,
0.3017636835575104,
0.6505582332611084,
-0.27448463439941406,
0.08499347418546677,
-0.14700725674629211,
-0.1845480352640152,
-0.0585906095802784,
-0.6862040162086487,
-0.5165272951126099,
-0.09475332498550415,
-0.4603525400161743,
-0.7325459718704224,
-0.6820613145828247,
-0.04394068568944931,
0.00494643347337842,
-0.24761922657489777,
-0.14276404678821564,
-0.11481171101331711,
-0.14315500855445862,
-0.7088779211044312,
0.11848090589046478,
-0.5060061812400818,
0.4948793649673462,
-0.1612187922000885,
-0.14989188313484192,
0.4226711094379425,
-0.3625459671020508,
-0.2548421323299408,
-0.06232421100139618,
-0.08054041862487793,
-0.7197644114494324,
0.23060572147369385,
-0.024552570655941963,
-0.32459551095962524,
0.44914886355400085,
-0.4128378629684448,
-0.3420872688293457,
-0.04527193680405617,
0.14264193177223206,
-0.2271168828010559,
0.27749940752983093,
-0.026633882895112038,
-0.47088322043418884,
-0.12770795822143555,
-0.1914718598127365,
0.20465052127838135,
0.3752579391002655,
-0.24355123937129974,
0.372852623462677,
-0.5632704496383667,
0.5442341566085815,
-0.06901376694440842,
0.20064067840576172,
-0.4772563874721527,
-0.6721320748329163,
-0.588792085647583,
0.2006595879793167,
0.17192402482032776,
-0.4637942314147949,
-0.4476050138473511,
-0.4853731095790863,
-0.12705737352371216,
-0.16147664189338684,
0.2520013749599457,
0.8358625769615173,
0.16057638823986053,
0.08346123993396759,
-0.03999563306570053,
-0.4199686050415039,
-0.3149832785129547,
0.2942622900009155,
0.4369330108165741,
0.015162108466029167,
0.034812554717063904,
0.20549707114696503,
0.022404858842492104,
-0.34908249974250793,
-0.6156750917434692,
-0.2705730199813843,
0.18592125177383423,
0.1555393636226654,
-0.46821722388267517,
0.010013218969106674,
-0.39646008610725403,
-0.7746875882148743,
-0.16480040550231934,
-0.15838269889354706,
-0.5283535718917847,
0.07293350994586945,
-0.02513478882610798,
0.010744227096438408,
-0.12797880172729492,
-0.2697230875492096,
-0.19610612094402313,
-0.5301259160041809,
0.4002527892589569,
0.30855250358581543,
0.2888537347316742,
0.18860375881195068,
-0.029963629320263863,
-0.2481737732887268,
-0.19471032917499542,
-0.3144044876098633,
0.15674422681331635,
0.41350245475769043,
-0.27264702320098877,
0.40400949120521545,
0.010872457176446915,
-0.07909934222698212,
0.21166695654392242,
-0.3185727298259735,
-0.11954440176486969,
-0.609527051448822,
-0.25649750232696533,
-0.2514673173427582,
-0.29585787653923035,
-0.2532363533973694,
0.5150107741355896,
0.4310624897480011,
-0.4235677123069763,
-0.19663381576538086,
0.6591387987136841,
0.11164675652980804,
-0.024460656568408012,
-0.1720232516527176,
-0.5731076598167419,
-0.13482768833637238,
0.30803707242012024,
-0.06988698989152908,
0.03789560869336128,
-0.10918117314577103,
0.19371451437473297,
-0.21262578666210175,
-0.19421124458312988,
0.36163392663002014,
-0.09614913910627365,
-0.504718005657196,
0.13809458911418915,
0.10729087144136429,
-0.7098824977874756,
0.41851621866226196,
0.7151505351066589,
-0.5112989544868469,
0.3652501404285431,
0.24923177063465118,
0.0037220080848783255,
-0.030310876667499542,
-0.34310901165008545,
0.06750458478927612,
0.7687934637069702,
0.00238579954020679,
0.3862442970275879,
-0.29336056113243103,
0.0891229510307312,
0.6498569846153259,
0.351177841424942,
0.18797805905342102,
-0.12968412041664124,
0.2284959852695465,
-0.16574320197105408,
-0.5070571303367615,
-0.07837513089179993,
-0.15496264398097992,
-0.7870494723320007,
0.5990511775016785,
-0.1513693630695343,
0.031823381781578064,
0.11557050794363022,
-0.2502751350402832,
0.1870720237493515,
-0.09297206997871399,
0.3162582218647003,
0.24930113554000854,
0.48736587166786194,
-0.12702123820781708,
0.773107647895813,
0.2203279733657837,
-0.212867870926857,
-0.38854700326919556,
0.8568991422653198,
-0.017558427527546883,
0.551024854183197,
-0.11851806193590164,
0.37677302956581116,
-0.01326646376401186,
-0.41954612731933594,
0.35291552543640137,
0.9036246538162231,
0.15050768852233887,
-0.15499331057071686,
0.040000054985284805,
-0.030285310000181198,
-0.49767664074897766,
-0.49181973934173584,
0.014926783740520477,
0.20645546913146973,
-0.0928860530257225,
-0.4310606122016907,
0.020853133872151375,
-0.15977080166339874,
0.13761073350906372,
0.5356771945953369,
0.2576322853565216,
0.2859856188297272,
0.21300502121448517,
-0.5646274089813232,
-0.1655735969543457,
-0.33747029304504395,
-0.32647833228111267,
0.2709592282772064,
0.0025760589633136988,
0.13054855167865753,
0.12487812340259552,
-0.5178070068359375,
0.028190847486257553,
0.26864680647850037,
-1.15016508102417,
-0.06363417953252792,
-0.14180848002433777,
-0.19930844008922577,
-0.05315156280994415,
0.4606514573097229,
0.40862271189689636,
0.26647987961769104,
0.10936381667852402,
0.2385474443435669,
0.40833646059036255,
0.21995796263217926,
0.20146426558494568,
-0.21608293056488037,
0.27380189299583435,
-0.8442081212997437,
-0.15210923552513123,
-0.17474918067455292,
0.36236125230789185,
-0.14934200048446655,
-0.24757012724876404,
-0.2087600827217102,
0.698009729385376,
-0.22184161841869354,
0.4822767674922943,
0.6774718165397644,
-0.03582960367202759,
0.10643139481544495,
-0.19476863741874695,
-0.19925928115844727,
-0.021615374833345413,
-0.458095908164978,
0.37790027260780334,
-0.2664046287536621,
-0.013969732448458672,
0.1779974102973938,
0.18942663073539734,
-0.4819847047328949,
0.9135027527809143,
0.01452216412872076,
-0.23048637807369232,
-0.003007527207955718,
0.24757830798625946,
0.01524166576564312,
-0.31429338455200195,
0.2340509593486786,
0.30867528915405273,
-0.030420109629631042,
-0.4084663391113281,
0.18565808236598969,
-0.092110276222229,
-0.08749464154243469,
-0.3782721161842346,
-0.033256251364946365,
-0.31120920181274414,
0.017816752195358276,
-0.36586788296699524,
-0.781638503074646,
0.3885594308376312,
0.008210822939872742,
-0.9894898533821106,
-0.021431446075439453,
-0.4813629984855652,
0.06594287604093552,
-0.4894995391368866,
0.27815693616867065,
0.15523013472557068,
0.5370804071426392,
-0.527350127696991
] |
248005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20i | IBM i | IBM i (the i standing for integrated) is an operating system developed by IBM for IBM Power Systems. It was originally released in 1988 as OS/400, as the sole operating system of the IBM AS/400 line of systems. It was renamed to i5/OS in 2004, before being renamed a second time to IBM i in 2008. It is an evolution of the System/38 CPF operating system, with compatibility layers for System/36 SSP and AIX applications. It inherits a number of distinctive features from the System/38 platform, including the Machine Interface, the implementation of object-based addressing on top of a single-level store, and the tight integration of a relational database into the operating system.
History
Origin
OS/400 was developed alongside the AS/400 hardware platform beginning in December 1985. Development began in the aftermath of the failure of the Fort Knox project, which left IBM without a competitive midrange system. During the Fort Knox project, a skunkworks project was started at Rochester by engineers, who succeeded in developing code which allowed System/36 applications to run on top of the System/38, and when Fort Knox was cancelled, this project evolved into an official project to replace both the System/36 and System/38 with a single new hardware and software platform. The project became known as Silverlake (named for Silver Lake in Rochester, Minnesota).
The operating system for Silverlake was codenamed XPF (Extended CPF), and had originally begun as a port of CPF to the Fort Knox hardware. In addition to adding support for System/36 applications, some of the user interface and ease-of-use features from the System/36 were carried over to the new operating system.
Silverlake was available for field test in June 1988, and was officially announced in August of that year. By that point, it had been renamed to the Application System/400, and the operating system had been named Operating System/400.
The move to PowerPC
The port to PowerPC required a rewrite of most of the code below the TIMI. Early versions of OS/400 inherited the Horizontal and Vertical Microcode layers of the System/38, although they were renamed to the Horizontal Licensed Internal Code (HLIC) and Vertical Licensed Internal Code (VLIC) respectively. The port to the new hardware replaced IMPI and the associated microcode, which required the VLIC to be rewritten to target PowerPC instead of IMPI, and for the operating system functionality previously implemented in the HLIC microcode to be re-implemented elsewhere. This led to the HLIC and VLIC being replaced with a single layer named the System Licensed Internal Code (SLIC). The SLIC was implemented in an object-oriented style with over 2 million lines of C++ code, replacing all of the HLIC code, and most of the VLIC code. Owing to the amount of work needed to implement the SLIC, IBM Rochester hired several hundred C++ programmers for the project, who worked on the SLIC in parallel to new revisions of the VLIC for the CISC AS/400 systems. The first release of OS/400 to support PowerPC-based hardware was V3R6.
Rebranding
The AS/400 product line was rebranded multiple times throughout the 1990s and 2000s. As part of the 2004 rebranding to eServer i5, OS/400 was renamed to i5/OS; the 5 signifying the use of POWER5 processors. The first release of i5/OS, V5R3, was described by IBM as "a different name for the same operating system".
In 2006, IBM rebranded the AS/400 line one last time to System i. In April 2008, IBM consolidated the System i with the System p platform to create IBM Power Systems. At the same time, i5/OS was renamed to IBM i, in order to remove the association with POWER5 processors. The two most recent versions of the operating system at that time, which had been released as i5/OS V5R4 and V6R1, were renamed to IBM i 5.4 and 6.1.
Along with the rebranding to IBM i, IBM changed the versioning nomenclature for the operating system. Prior releases used a Version, Release, Modification scheme, e.g. V2R1M1. This was replaced with a Version.Release scheme, e.g. 6.1. Beginning with IBM i 7.1, IBM replaced the Modification releases with Technology Refreshes. Technology Refreshes are delivered as optional PTFs for specific releases of the operating system which add new functionality or hardware support to the operating system.
Architecture
When IBM i was first released as OS/400, it was split into two layers, the hardware-dependent System Licensed Internal Code (SLIC) and the hardware-independent Extended Control Program Facility (XPF). These are divided by a hardware abstraction layer called the Technology Independent Machine Interface (TIMI). Later versions of the operating system gained additional layers, including an AIX compatibility layer named Portable Application Solutions Environment (originally known as the Private Address Space Environment), and the Advanced 36 Machine environment which ran System/36 SSP applications in emulation.
IBM often uses different names for the TIMI, SLIC and XPF in documentation and marketing materials, for example, the IBM i 7.4 documentation refers to them as the IBM i Machine Interface, IBM i Licensed Internal Code and IBM i Operating System respectively.
TIMI
The TIMI isolates users and applications from the underlying hardware. This isolation is more thorough than the hardware abstractions of other operating systems, and includes abstracting the instruction set architecture of the processor, the size of the address space and the specifics of I/O and persistence. This is accomplished through two interrelated mechanisms:
Compilers for IBM i do not generate native machine code directly, instead they generate a high level intermediate representation defined by the TIMI. When a program is run, the operating system carries out ahead-of-time translation of the TIMI instructions into native machine code for the processor, and stores the generated machine code for future execution of the program. If the translation process changes, or a different CPU instruction set is adopted, the operating system can transparently regenerate the machine code from the TIMI instructions without needing to recompile from source code.
Instead of operating on memory addresses, TIMI instructions operate on objects. All data in IBM i, such as data files, source code, programs and regions of allocated memory, are encapsulated inside objects managed by the operating system (c.f. the "Everything is a file" model in Unix). IBM i objects have a fixed type, which defines the set of applicable operations which may be carried out on them (for example, a Program object can be executed, but cannot be edited). The object model hides whether data is stored in primary, or secondary storage. Instead, the operating system automatically handles the process of retrieving and then storing the changes to permanent storage.
The hardware isolation provided by the TIMI allowed IBM to replace the AS/400's 48-bit IMPI architecture with the 64-bit RS64 architecture in 1995. Applications compiled on systems using the IMPI instruction set could run on top of the newer RS64 systems without any code changes, recompilation or emulation, while also allowing those applications to avail of 64-bit addressing.
There are two different formats of TIMI instructions, known as the Original Machine Interface (OMI) and New Machine Interface (NMI) formats. OMI instructions are essentially the same as the System/38 Machine interface instructions, whereas NMI instructions are lower-level, resembling the W-code intermediate representation format used by IBM's compilers. IBM partially documents the OMI instructions, whereas the NMI instructions are not officially documented. OMI instructions are used by the original AS/400 compilers, whereas NMI instructions are used by the Integrated Language Environment compilers. During the PowerPC port, native support for the OMI format was removed, and replaced with a translator which converted OMI instructions into NMI instructions.
The storing of the TIMI instructions alongside the native machine code instructions is known as observability. In 2008, the release of i5/OS V6R1 (later known as IBM i 6.1) introduced a number of changes to the TIMI layer which caused problems for third-party software which removed observability from the application objects shipped to customers.
SLIC
The SLIC consists of the code which implements the TIMI on top of the IBM Power architecture. In addition to containing most of the functionality typically associated with an operating system kernel, it is responsible for translating TIMI instructions into machine code, and it also implements some high level functionality which is exposed through the TIMI, such as IBM i's integrated relational database. The SLIC implements IBM i's object-based storage model on top of a single-level store addressing scheme, which does not distinguish between primary and secondary storage, and instead manages all types of storage in a single virtual address space. The SLIC is primarily implemented in C++, and replaced the HLIC and VLIC layers used in versions of OS/400 prior to V3R6.
XPF
The XPF consists of the code which implements the hardware-independent components of the operating system, which are compiled into TIMI instructions. Components of the XPF include the user interface, the Control Language, data management and query utilities, development tools and system management utilities. The XPF also contains the System/36 Environment and System/38 Environment, which provide backwards compatibility APIs and utilities for applications and data migrated from SSP and CPF systems. The XPF is IBM's internal name for this layer, and as the name suggests, began as an evolution of the System/38 Control Program Facility. The XPF is mostly implemented in PL/MI, although other languages are also used.
PASE
PASE provides binary compatibility for user mode AIX executables which do not interact directly with the AIX kernel, and supports the 32-bit and 64-bit AIX Application Binary Interfaces. PASE was first included in a limited and undocumented form in the V4R3 release of OS/400 to support a port of Smalltalk. It was first announced to customers at the time of the V4R5 release, by which time it had gained significant additional functionality.
PASE consists of the AIX userspace running on top of a system call interface implemented by the SLIC. The system call interfaces allows interoperability between PASE and native IBM i applications, for example, PASE applications can access the integrated database, or call native IBM i applications, and vice versa. During the creation of PASE, a new type of single level storage object named a Teraspace was added to the operating system, which allows each PASE process to have a private 1TiB space which is addressed with 64-bit pointers. This was necessary since all IBM i jobs (i.e. processes) typically share the same address space. PASE applications do not use the hardware-independent TIMI instructions, and are instead compiled directly to Power machine code.
PASE is distinct from the Qshell environment, which is an implementation of a Unix shell and associated utilities built on top of IBM i's native POSIX-compatible APIs.
Features
Database management
IBM i features an integrated relational database currently known as IBM Db2 for IBM i. The database evolved from the non-relational System/38 database, gaining support for the relational model and SQL. The database originally had no name, instead it was described simply as "data base support". It was given the name DB2/400 in 1994 to indicate comparable functionality to IBM's other commercial databases. Despite the Db2 branding, Db2 for IBM i is an entirely separate codebase to Db2 on other platforms, and is tightly integrated into the SLIC layer of IBM i as opposed to being an optional product.
IBM i provides two mechanisms for accessing the integrated database - the so-called native interface, which is based on the database access model of the System/38, and SQL. The native interface consists of the Data Description Specifications (DDS) language, which is used to define schemas and the OPNQRYF command or QQQQRY query API. Certain Db2 for i features such as object-relational database management require SQL and cannot be accessed through the native interface. IBM i has two separate query optimizers known as the Classic Query Engine (CQE) and SQL Query Engine (SQE). These are implemented inside the SLIC alongside a Query Dispatcher which selects the appropriate optimizer depending on the type of the query. Remote access through the native interface and SQL is provided by the Distributed Data Management Architecture (DDM) and Distributed Relational Database Architecture respectively.
A storage engine for MySQL and MariaDB named IBMDB2I allows applications designed for those databases to use Db2 for i as a backing store. Other open source databases have been ported to IBM i, including PostgreSQL, MongoDB and Redis. These databases run on the PASE environment, and are independent of the operating system's integrated database features.
Networking
IBM i supports TCP/IP networking in addition to the proprietary IBM Systems Network Architecture.
IBM i systems were historically accessed and managed through IBM 5250 terminals attached to the system with twinax cabling. With the decline of dedicated terminal hardware, modern IBM i systems are typically accessed through 5250 terminal emulators. IBM provides two terminal emulator products for IBM i:
IBM i Access Client Solutions is a Java-based client that runs on Linux, macOS and Windows to provide 5250 emulation.
IBM i Access for Web/Mobile provides web-based 5250 emulation.
In addition, IBM provides a web-based management console and performance analysis product named IBM Navigator for i.
Open-source
Some of the open source applications ported to IBM i include:
Apache HTTP Server
Java
Node.js
OpenSSL
Git
gcc
nginx
PHP
Python
Ruby
Lua
R
MariaDB
MySQL
Perl
Redis
MongoDB
PostgreSQL
Vim
Open source software for IBM i is typically packaged using the RPM package format, and installed with the YUM package manager. YUM and RPM replaced the 5733-OPS product, which was previously used to install open source software on IBM i. Ports of open source software to IBM i typically target PASE instead of the native IBM i APIs in order to simplify porting.
Programming
Programming languages available from IBM for IBM i include RPG, Control Language, C, C++, Pascal, Java, EGL, Smalltalk, COBOL, BASIC, PL/I and REXX. The Integrated Language Environment (ILE) allows programs from ILE compatible languages (C, C++, COBOL, RPG, and CL), to be bound into the same executable and call procedures written in any of the other ILE languages.
When PASE was introduced, it was necessary to compile code for PASE on an AIX system. This requirement was removed in OS/400 V5R2 when it became possible to compile code using the IBM XL compiler suite inside PASE itself. Since then, other compilers have been ported to PASE, including gcc.
IBM systems may also come with programming and development software such as the Programming Development Manager. IBM provides an Eclipse-based integrated development environment for IBM i named IBM Rational Developer for i.
IBM i uses EBCDIC as the default character encoding, but also provides support for ASCII, UCS-2 and UTF-16.
Storage
In IBM i, disk drives may be grouped into an auxiliary storage pool (ASP) in order to organize data to limit the impact of storage-device failures and to reduce recovery time. If a disk failure occurs, only the data in the pool containing the failed unit needs to be recovered. ASPs may also be used to improve performance by isolating objects with similar performance characteristics, for example journal receivers, in their own pool.
By default, all disk drives are assigned to pool 1. The concept of IBM i pools is similar to the Unix/Linux concept of volume groups; however, with IBM i it is typical for all disk drives to be assigned to a single ASP.
Security
IBM i was one of the first general-purpose operating systems to attain a C2 security rating from the NSA. Support for C2 level security was first added in the V2R3 release of OS/400.
Release timeline
See also
Comparison of operating systems
Library (IBM i)
Object (IBM i)
References
External links
IBM i site
IBM i Documentation
IT Jungle - IBM i news website
MC Press Online - IBM Midrange Computer news website
1988 software
AS/400
IBM operating systems
Object-oriented operating systems
Power ISA operating systems | [
-0.1043863594532013,
-0.1186053529381752,
-0.09402384608983994,
0.0023380599450320005,
-0.04391207545995712,
0.31625089049339294,
-0.23725686967372894,
-0.13469645380973816,
0.1304396539926529,
-0.28040775656700134,
-0.1330062597990036,
0.39759644865989685,
-0.6757373809814453,
0.08456040173768997,
-0.07758297026157379,
-0.36463025212287903,
0.07336217910051346,
0.08536480367183685,
-0.24250109493732452,
-0.0679192990064621,
-0.07411951571702957,
0.0818985253572464,
0.07004312425851822,
0.2219962626695633,
-0.13726526498794556,
0.3597353398799896,
0.22997958958148956,
-0.7866736650466919,
0.23883986473083496,
-0.05292307212948799,
0.22207361459732056,
-0.09341122955083847,
0.22232478857040405,
-0.28177884221076965,
-0.6003710031509399,
-0.17815254628658295,
-0.49010762572288513,
0.01732918620109558,
-0.34722933173179626,
-0.5078585147857666,
-0.3160765767097473,
-0.4048698842525482,
0.32694363594055176,
0.5267258286476135,
-0.022403202950954437,
-0.24299809336662292,
-1.975516676902771,
-0.4878040552139282,
-0.4820217788219452,
-0.07033909857273102,
-0.7207052111625671,
0.274678111076355,
0.14440712332725525,
0.2968844771385193,
0.3077250123023987,
0.32208186388015747,
-0.11557883769273758,
-0.23778541386127472,
0.17365308105945587,
0.1600855588912964,
0.6922126412391663,
-0.07509901374578476,
0.1834845393896103,
0.06822210550308228,
0.5803529024124146,
0.38441455364227295,
-0.13091588020324707,
-0.14388908445835114,
-0.8935653567314148,
-0.07124288380146027,
-0.6724549531936646,
-0.48042574524879456,
-0.12845556437969208,
0.004930136259645224,
-0.0991874411702156,
-0.666297435760498,
-0.10079851001501083,
-0.6856474876403809,
0.017984557896852493,
0.5431315898895264,
-0.3429081439971924,
0.704477071762085,
0.7515881061553955,
0.18629860877990723,
0.4963840842247009,
0.12238729000091553,
-0.3281758427619934,
0.35227274894714355,
-0.21237121522426605,
0.3001881539821625,
-0.413298636674881,
-0.2591504156589508,
0.4801158010959625,
0.02480195462703705,
-0.4848441779613495,
-0.09019274264574051,
-0.4270060956478119,
0.334232896566391,
0.5533381104469299,
0.2008812576532364,
0.07680563628673553,
0.4787801504135132,
-0.07243471592664719,
-0.21318577229976654,
-0.4519944489002228,
-0.46777719259262085,
0.003107698168605566,
-0.32516682147979736,
-0.11640767008066177,
-0.03630245849490166,
-0.6069979071617126,
-0.3454315662384033,
0.09280172735452652,
-0.03755248337984085,
-0.24401028454303741,
0.7403140664100647,
0.20326243340969086,
-0.21904025971889496,
0.5713775753974915,
-0.006282974034547806,
0.22761677205562592,
0.8577504754066467,
-0.17033976316452026,
0.7384271025657654,
0.43449947237968445,
0.43910908699035645,
-0.048380523920059204,
0.6545948386192322,
-0.45827314257621765,
0.008370286785066128,
-0.18932616710662842,
1.1208821535110474,
0.24930395185947418,
-0.31469887495040894,
0.03647831082344055,
0.1356726437807083,
0.23180672526359558,
0.2585856020450592,
-0.47740647196769714,
0.16397997736930847,
-0.13383141160011292,
-0.38202938437461853,
-0.14490434527397156,
-0.35716432332992554,
-0.02614510804414749,
-0.11318199336528778,
0.11109676957130432,
-0.06250815093517303,
-0.0012748206499963999,
-0.23695705831050873,
-0.16079139709472656,
0.0870957225561142,
-0.6110339760780334,
0.22552841901779175,
-0.19093170762062073,
0.2550821900367737,
0.1888359785079956,
-0.036471810191869736,
0.006158886477351189,
-0.14179487526416779,
-0.3088432550430298,
0.5046209692955017,
-0.4615887999534607,
-0.2524939477443695,
-0.15033094584941864,
-0.09266581386327744,
0.6323310136795044,
-0.34178030490875244,
0.6686319708824158,
0.1800270527601242,
0.10250880569219589,
-0.4215196669101715,
-0.1517914980649948,
0.5278891324996948,
-0.5765203833580017,
0.03954272344708443,
1.2399601936340332,
0.5585898160934448,
0.29373499751091003,
-0.17164336144924164,
-0.8718106150627136,
-0.20727211236953735,
-0.13584989309310913,
0.04630425572395325,
0.43284499645233154,
0.382620245218277,
0.21668431162834167,
-0.06486983597278595,
-0.7024182677268982,
0.13809451460838318,
-0.1459241360425949,
-0.1596490740776062,
0.2569398880004883,
-0.7421882748603821,
0.5463606715202332,
-0.5847582817077637,
-0.5493951439857483,
0.27765995264053345,
-0.44913432002067566,
0.21850697696208954,
0.2216663360595703,
0.39108145236968994,
0.3450257480144501,
-0.0742192193865776,
0.1211884468793869,
0.007763624656945467,
0.054629743099212646,
-0.19802755117416382,
-0.5653833150863647,
0.31941327452659607,
0.15975598990917206,
-0.30798813700675964,
0.7958362698554993,
-0.27520790696144104,
0.24709026515483856,
-0.06391620635986328,
-0.4962027072906494,
0.01700493134558201,
0.009540325030684471,
0.2274986058473587,
1.266530990600586,
-0.25607624650001526,
0.09906315058469772,
0.5249308347702026,
-0.15238763391971588,
0.3155159056186676,
0.6524235010147095,
-0.24087928235530853,
0.5077725052833557,
-0.0019958761986345053,
-0.35020795464515686,
-0.386262983083725,
0.23448576033115387,
-0.3517860770225525,
0.11894185096025467,
0.14928212761878967,
-0.17101708054542542,
-0.37268176674842834,
0.3658711314201355,
0.3218817710876465,
0.5773662328720093,
0.5075570940971375,
-0.9104690551757812,
0.09454812109470367,
0.9802945852279663,
-0.5273071527481079,
0.08860468864440918,
-0.03815403953194618,
0.004250769503414631,
0.2643124759197235,
-0.4192051589488983,
0.007349678780883551,
0.380565881729126,
-0.19366854429244995,
-0.38632941246032715,
-0.044258229434490204,
-0.1624475121498108,
0.29874399304389954,
0.07956598699092865,
0.8757426142692566,
-0.3933861255645752,
-0.7123211622238159,
0.013787193223834038,
0.06507720798254013,
0.3779919445514679,
-0.27551180124282837,
-0.49891573190689087,
-0.04727376997470856,
0.16182982921600342,
0.06415635347366333,
0.7325141429901123,
-0.35273417830467224,
-0.31263643503189087,
-0.6715066432952881,
-0.5304977297782898,
-0.5252233743667603,
-0.151789128780365,
0.5324283838272095,
-0.8715946674346924,
-0.4045686423778534,
0.910110592842102,
0.41752591729164124,
0.1926686316728592,
-0.6293444633483887,
0.07364493608474731,
0.35304930806159973,
-0.22469821572303772,
-0.6937677264213562,
-0.41676098108291626,
-0.45092901587486267,
0.005457906052470207,
0.5270540714263916,
-0.8175123929977417,
-0.1926344931125641,
0.805879533290863,
0.5103543996810913,
-0.2029651552438736,
0.10579648613929749,
0.3130306899547577,
-0.6789196729660034,
-0.19474801421165466,
0.38553211092948914,
-0.27354681491851807,
0.18690867722034454,
0.6134138107299805,
-0.3036123216152191,
0.308855801820755,
-0.2374383956193924,
-5.701569557189941,
-0.08904849737882614,
0.026631755754351616,
0.07663369178771973,
0.28747642040252686,
-0.3319290280342102,
0.2806563079357147,
0.35103505849838257,
-0.1606546938419342,
-0.07225401699542999,
0.29413551092147827,
0.03906833380460739,
-0.08732157200574875,
-0.05462499335408211,
-0.38492631912231445,
0.9837425351142883,
0.4833446741104126,
0.3706252872943878,
0.5746017098426819,
0.0002285797818331048,
0.08523208647966385,
-0.5317989587783813,
-0.47288843989372253,
0.0696282610297203,
0.27885186672210693,
-0.4298260509967804,
-0.43818792700767517,
0.4308452308177948,
-0.6617827415466309,
0.14922022819519043,
-0.02992752566933632,
-0.31233444809913635,
-0.25535979866981506,
-0.5370211601257324,
0.05106688663363457,
-0.15590834617614746,
0.8143649101257324,
0.2587004005908966,
0.5675125122070312,
0.0468597486615181,
0.42405250668525696,
0.3882690668106079,
0.2510893940925598,
-0.4106118381023407,
0.09408263862133026,
-0.1046789363026619,
-0.6958748698234558,
-0.24058161675930023,
0.08805482089519501,
0.4831041693687439,
-0.7694200277328491,
0.33228740096092224,
0.28870275616645813,
-0.21352778375148773,
0.21165911853313446,
0.052198417484760284,
-0.07733012735843658,
0.6388231515884399,
-0.6617947816848755,
0.9037026166915894,
0.0867229774594307,
-0.2803431451320648,
-0.261528879404068,
-0.6293132305145264,
-0.28847020864486694,
-0.23179785907268524,
-0.37756890058517456,
-0.15572671592235565,
0.46119195222854614,
0.15261594951152802,
-0.017043864354491234,
0.5607241988182068,
0.11126584559679031,
-1.101792812347412,
-0.020799992606043816,
-0.10566230118274689,
0.39692795276641846,
0.250754714012146,
-0.14720255136489868,
0.04165010154247284,
-0.33817747235298157,
-0.2218635231256485,
-0.27148163318634033,
0.6278995275497437,
0.06240733712911606,
0.28097474575042725,
-0.2177499681711197,
0.4621548056602478,
-0.10287273675203323,
0.5721918940544128,
0.42824792861938477,
0.11793199926614761,
0.3661339581012726,
0.5207394957542419,
0.5145191550254822,
-0.3205093741416931,
0.3261784613132477,
0.08144910633563995,
0.37485045194625854,
-0.6954748630523682,
-0.020507019013166428,
0.04130619019269943,
-0.20244699716567993,
-0.5184903144836426,
0.015864361077547073,
-0.14789529144763947,
-0.48626384139060974,
-0.30324509739875793,
0.8088631629943848,
0.012339257635176182,
0.09587965160608292,
-0.3071742653846741,
-0.40971139073371887,
-0.7640960812568665,
0.3371884524822235,
0.047006431967020035,
-0.5944863557815552,
0.3065692186355591,
0.06489741057157516,
-0.22216182947158813,
-0.41559097170829773,
0.22769795358181,
0.2171383500099182,
-0.7340754866600037,
-0.44066300988197327,
-0.15405771136283875,
0.042042847722768784,
0.3978397250175476,
-0.1872684806585312,
-0.23014461994171143,
0.17249798774719238,
0.5716744661331177,
-0.10569914430379868,
0.4956013560295105,
-0.13870613276958466,
-0.31349724531173706,
-0.4212166368961334,
0.5230957269668579,
-0.2545396685600281,
-0.12420167773962021,
0.2378304898738861,
0.08152437210083008,
0.5695041418075562,
-0.49554112553596497,
0.3636007308959961,
0.3187289237976074,
-0.12519384920597076,
-0.5166680812835693,
-0.009517212398350239,
0.06223665550351143,
0.6426317095756531,
-0.5997487306594849,
0.6400089859962463,
0.29657578468322754,
-0.8151417374610901,
0.6053171753883362,
0.6308816075325012,
0.21456757187843323,
-0.4189208745956421,
-0.4404345452785492,
0.4707393944263458,
0.28400537371635437,
-0.8808729648590088,
-0.25618869066238403,
1.044230341911316,
0.14905200898647308,
-0.09545645862817764,
-0.5066457986831665,
0.11786358058452606,
0.496871680021286,
0.6834442615509033,
-0.3520340919494629,
-0.13706359267234802,
-0.4268507659435272,
0.31793341040611267,
0.7391487956047058,
-0.10569021850824356,
-0.25713202357292175,
0.0048536453396081924,
-0.05082143470644951,
0.4561808407306671,
-0.314849853515625,
-0.8999760746955872,
0.9050726294517517,
0.20755593478679657,
-0.8350043296813965,
-0.2767084836959839,
-0.05859873443841934,
-0.5536213517189026,
-0.7863441705703735,
0.2051815539598465,
-0.538595974445343,
0.7542012333869934,
0.3595089018344879,
-0.2823788821697235,
-0.15067051351070404,
-0.016845569014549255,
-0.04981771111488342,
-0.5803920030593872,
-0.919123113155365,
-0.3674553632736206,
0.5744194984436035,
-0.06180388852953911,
0.11781290918588638,
-0.12317242473363876,
-0.8191694021224976,
-0.10061289370059967,
-0.38255494832992554,
0.05661514773964882,
0.5380979776382446,
-0.36121949553489685,
-0.7744228839874268,
-0.39706093072891235,
0.12096130847930908,
-0.2724083364009857,
0.49854549765586853,
0.5957707166671753,
-0.2480918914079666,
-0.6061462759971619,
-0.5863490104675293,
-0.1293398141860962,
0.3049248456954956,
-0.3184261620044708,
-0.10896401852369308,
-0.6279481649398804,
0.43170657753944397,
0.7750847339630127,
-0.33873477578163147,
0.3648412823677063,
-0.27967169880867004,
-0.4528053402900696,
0.11901359260082245,
-0.03615749254822731,
0.26990267634391785,
0.05810878053307533,
-0.10742203146219254,
0.1197483092546463,
0.1354394406080246,
-0.0763927549123764,
0.1643577367067337,
-0.30022749304771423,
0.6990116238594055,
-0.18292860686779022,
-0.1958012729883194,
0.12551037967205048,
-0.0404372438788414,
0.38215872645378113,
-0.7147684097290039,
-0.5348034501075745,
0.2869400680065155,
-0.35463184118270874,
-0.6288188099861145,
-0.2179744839668274,
-0.30142736434936523,
1.0252227783203125,
-0.4869138300418854,
0.021547140553593636,
-0.2331264466047287,
-0.33165377378463745,
-0.5747045278549194,
-0.21684779226779938,
-0.4080694317817688,
-0.4649738371372223,
0.32089266180992126,
-0.09080520272254944,
0.8149756193161011,
-0.379011869430542,
-0.17479227483272552,
0.23566535115242004,
-0.4678349494934082,
-0.052876319736242294,
-0.27529969811439514,
0.06386606395244598,
0.6177277565002441,
-0.017861584201455116,
-0.12668031454086304,
-0.09212354570627213,
-0.2508813440799713,
0.3736729621887207,
0.30923905968666077,
-0.15126368403434753,
-0.14007686078548431,
0.5496487617492676,
-0.17931731045246124,
0.4589351415634155,
0.02165023423731327,
-0.09462054818868637,
-0.3377370834350586,
0.0776032954454422,
0.5264549851417542,
-0.6650028228759766,
0.12236534059047699,
0.30988752841949463,
-0.3117220997810364,
-0.6764830946922302,
-0.029868323355913162,
-0.15936394035816193,
0.34827059507369995,
-0.14753349125385284,
0.325444757938385,
0.07072412222623825,
0.6209742426872253,
0.11966878175735474,
-0.08856817334890366,
0.14664527773857117,
0.30871498584747314,
0.17956990003585815,
0.22901685535907745,
-0.3783974051475525,
-0.15463024377822876,
0.05269315838813782,
-0.25808343291282654,
0.28127536177635193,
0.2351376861333847,
-0.5977109670639038,
-0.07927631586790085,
0.6498461961746216,
-0.16525523364543915,
0.08468757569789886,
-0.4029557704925537,
-0.005542352795600891,
0.22217829525470734,
0.2568430006504059,
-0.19542041420936584,
-0.3321111798286438,
0.5011172890663147,
-0.46188122034072876,
-0.2961973547935486,
-0.5790547132492065,
0.3068389892578125,
0.6145163774490356,
-0.2909933924674988,
-0.1612502932548523,
0.2150435596704483,
-0.10142068564891815,
-0.1421583890914917,
0.08077234029769897,
-0.638360321521759,
-0.4360576868057251,
0.43620938062667847,
0.7177258729934692,
0.9559301137924194,
0.24601107835769653,
0.05738033726811409,
-0.46166908740997314,
0.5798965096473694,
0.06707148253917694,
0.2995598018169403,
0.1901523768901825,
0.45381608605384827,
0.010355500504374504,
-0.12983520328998566,
0.13841457664966583,
-0.3613192141056061,
-0.3698929250240326,
-0.2345416247844696,
0.2288074493408203,
-0.037705935537815094,
1.1380949020385742,
0.02595563977956772,
0.203805610537529,
0.7455012202262878,
0.8125128746032715,
-0.00834458414465189,
-0.6305880546569824,
0.4563133418560028,
0.33096399903297424,
-0.8520598411560059,
0.14974983036518097,
-0.01864730753004551,
0.10201814025640488,
0.39886847138404846,
-0.11443432420492172,
0.048032719641923904,
-0.054197005927562714,
-0.07020410150289536,
0.32950693368911743,
0.44301173090934753,
0.008384298533201218,
0.0699952021241188,
0.042913906276226044,
0.21446596086025238,
0.0633625015616417,
-0.8221030831336975,
-0.2862843871116638,
0.32313698530197144,
0.023764776065945625,
0.6818925142288208,
0.5660253167152405,
0.47853899002075195,
-0.3277532160282135,
-0.4984557032585144,
-0.01960739679634571,
-0.35706183314323425,
-0.040114544332027435,
0.2496943473815918,
-0.6236371994018555,
0.5402413606643677,
0.2900433838367462,
0.45516565442085266,
0.30707958340644836,
0.16942116618156433,
0.19210843741893768,
-0.018934831023216248,
-0.20013731718063354,
0.5959901213645935,
-0.2264467477798462,
0.3572273552417755,
-0.7901244759559631,
0.01658022031188011,
0.3959939479827881,
0.006375557743012905,
0.3221065104007721,
0.09973669052124023,
-0.2570136487483978,
0.1525191217660904,
0.5187990069389343,
-0.1634008139371872,
-0.5518094301223755,
0.3156542181968689,
-0.6053172945976257,
-0.2635897397994995,
0.6359071135520935,
-0.05500178411602974,
-0.075847327709198,
0.05547783151268959,
0.8435955047607422,
-0.0390046052634716,
0.1100732684135437,
0.5693549513816833,
0.1856558620929718,
0.1675456017255783,
-0.008615845814347267,
0.38675758242607117,
-0.510126531124115,
0.12285131216049194,
-0.13537895679473877,
-0.05142993479967117,
0.2874322533607483,
-0.2330092191696167,
0.1962476372718811,
0.5644020438194275,
-0.27919456362724304,
0.4244462847709656,
-0.5460819602012634,
-0.41016969084739685,
-0.5943931341171265,
-0.9837538003921509,
-0.24183084070682526,
0.3383014500141144,
0.2639372944831848,
-0.10660744458436966,
-0.12807697057724,
0.010460752062499523,
0.2041230946779251,
0.603625476360321,
0.5191623568534851,
-0.7655166983604431,
-0.04772583395242691,
-0.02168779820203781
] |
248008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairfax | Fairfax | Fairfax may refer to:
Places
United States
Fairfax, California
Fairfax Avenue, a major thoroughfare in Los Angeles, California
Fairfax District, Los Angeles, California, centered on Fairfax Avenue
Fairfax, Georgia
Fairfax, Indiana
Fairfax, Iowa
Fairfax District (Kansas City, Kansas), an industrial area
Fairfax, Minnesota
Fairfax, Missouri
Fairfax, Ohio, a village in Hamilton County
Fairfax, Cleveland, Ohio, a neighborhood
Fairfax, Highland County, Ohio
Fairfax, Oklahoma
Fairfax, South Carolina
Fairfax, South Dakota
Fairfax, Vermont, a New England town
Fairfax (CDP), Vermont, the main village in the town
Fairfax, Virginia, an independent city
Fairfax County, Virginia, surrounding the city of Fairfax
Fairfax Station, Virginia
Fairfax, West Virginia
Fairfax Stone Historical Monument State Park, West Virginia
Elsewhere
Division of Fairfax, an electoral district in the Australian House of Representatives, in Queensland
People
Fairfax (name)
Lord Fairfax of Cameron
Viscount Fairfax of Emley
Other uses
Fairfax Academy, a secondary school in Sutton Coldfield, England
Fairfax (White Pine, Tennessee), a mansion on the US National Register of Historic Places
Fairfax University, a former unaccredited distance-learning institution
University of Fairfax, an institution of higher education actually located in Vienna, Virginia, near Fairfax, Virginia
Hellespont Fairfax, the largest double-hulled supertanker
Fairfax Media, a defunct Australian-based media company focusing on newspapers
Fairfax Financial, a Canadian-based financial services holding company
General Motors Fairfax Assembly Plant, Kansas City, Kansas
Fairfax House, a Georgian town-house, now a museum, in York, England
Fairfax Christian School, a Christian school in Vienna, Virginia
Fairfax (TV series), a 2021 animation TV show
See also
Fairfax High School (disambiguation) | [
0.33832207322120667,
0.0010575323831290007,
0.46269142627716064,
0.27386966347694397,
-0.11425530165433884,
0.4328972101211548,
0.13983596861362457,
0.24319392442703247,
-0.4834442138671875,
-0.47265946865081787,
-0.6223888397216797,
-0.3090476393699646,
-0.3573320806026459,
0.4700460433959961,
-0.22175389528274536,
0.6981889009475708,
0.331275075674057,
1.0628986358642578,
-0.0750504657626152,
-0.6218816637992859,
-0.14944955706596375,
-0.4020165801048279,
0.4472341239452362,
0.08109410107135773,
0.42531758546829224,
-0.09633895009756088,
0.6675434112548828,
0.28551843762397766,
-0.30918025970458984,
0.4707528352737427,
-0.24937665462493896,
0.17202918231487274,
-0.20259228348731995,
-0.0615067295730114,
-0.28491485118865967,
-0.361686110496521,
0.13161619007587433,
-0.5329209566116333,
0.14205537736415863,
-0.3801054358482361,
-0.06940317153930664,
-0.25293657183647156,
0.45541560649871826,
-0.17167171835899353,
0.4186718463897705,
-0.07557590305805206,
-1.3832826614379883,
0.3690671920776367,
-0.8841507434844971,
0.16243676841259003,
-0.6230757236480713,
0.11817684769630432,
-0.3889961838722229,
0.5357635021209717,
0.30751851201057434,
0.4292745590209961,
-0.2646879553794861,
-0.4161269962787628,
0.8058597445487976,
-0.6769360303878784,
0.25906863808631897,
0.3703100085258484,
0.22855757176876068,
0.695176362991333,
0.5080865025520325,
-0.14009930193424225,
0.16076123714447021,
0.24626237154006958,
-0.0382024422287941,
-0.4315362870693207,
0.016338173300027847,
-0.33530133962631226,
-0.20711201429367065,
0.3847631514072418,
0.0072745890356600285,
0.20183876156806946,
-0.45761388540267944,
0.11476269364356995,
-0.10251310467720032,
0.2524139881134033,
0.09706925600767136,
-0.03156672418117523,
0.19689440727233887,
-0.15873946249485016,
0.6082071661949158,
0.3833167254924774,
-0.490266352891922,
0.011325211264193058,
0.134626567363739,
0.3825471103191376,
-0.09452774375677109,
0.12519367039203644,
0.14183378219604492,
0.4663064479827881,
-0.03349853307008743,
-0.785848081111908,
0.32531240582466125,
-0.24677877128124237,
-0.06450601667165756,
0.2291475385427475,
-0.8979642987251282,
0.25299301743507385,
0.2452075481414795,
0.09954606741666794,
-0.40120866894721985,
-0.0416804663836956,
0.06737260520458221,
0.10279947519302368,
0.6720975637435913,
0.19693157076835632,
-0.01883898675441742,
0.4089512825012207,
-0.035522546619176865,
-0.3327692747116089,
-0.2609761357307434,
-0.45324820280075073,
0.33976563811302185,
-0.641304075717926,
-0.0595516599714756,
-0.3271738290786743,
-0.03660360723733902,
0.844822108745575,
0.10890856385231018,
-0.028446407988667488,
0.23530074954032898,
-0.4487423300743103,
0.20614343881607056,
0.24451138079166412,
-0.015103590674698353,
0.08062372356653214,
0.21401973068714142,
0.19628410041332245,
0.11397766321897507,
0.22779834270477295,
0.06679128855466843,
-0.4538975656032562,
-0.4900922477245331,
0.05403410643339157,
0.40399885177612305,
-0.22974331676959991,
-0.6843854188919067,
-0.3253946900367737,
0.105631984770298,
-0.6435068249702454,
0.4863967299461365,
-0.6713024377822876,
-0.10038796812295914,
-0.24424710869789124,
-0.29588326811790466,
0.0007534297183156013,
-0.03546476364135742,
0.5803465247154236,
-0.14928530156612396,
0.24196010828018188,
-0.4107751250267029,
-0.04337193816900253,
0.9445188641548157,
0.11071134358644485,
0.32343590259552,
0.19452786445617676,
-0.2027697116136551,
0.4689520299434662,
0.4960503578186035,
-0.014759254641830921,
-0.01344358455389738,
0.2732696831226349,
0.5660093426704407,
-0.13667497038841248,
-0.20592127740383148,
0.1710759401321411,
-0.6398977041244507,
0.1663937121629715,
0.22248506546020508,
0.033353108912706375,
-0.2867569327354431,
-0.02355482615530491,
0.8104701042175293,
0.08813779056072235,
0.29751652479171753,
-0.1026616171002388,
-0.4362315237522125,
0.24799224734306335,
-0.30917054414749146,
-0.12254050374031067,
-0.016209527850151062,
0.2830548584461212,
0.012387465685606003,
0.007312390487641096,
-0.608593225479126,
-0.38493314385414124,
0.3123314678668976,
-0.6846338510513306,
-0.38212496042251587,
-0.5489179491996765,
0.8294273018836975,
-0.08895086497068405,
-0.7804949283599854,
0.9148767590522766,
0.002698191674426198,
0.4766749441623688,
-0.4480237662792206,
-0.22677357494831085,
0.5823680758476257,
-0.22278229892253876,
-0.47720423340797424,
0.1364983767271042,
0.7290933728218079,
0.213512122631073,
0.2498597651720047,
0.3667456805706024,
0.6513781547546387,
-0.5184676051139832,
-0.14379151165485382,
-0.22166523337364197,
-0.048340268433094025,
-0.3419739007949829,
-0.777604341506958,
0.09789153933525085,
0.27247941493988037,
-0.09457003325223923,
0.7978948950767517,
-0.009409029968082905,
0.20934925973415375,
0.1399674117565155,
-0.2197367548942566,
0.27097463607788086,
0.3490937650203705,
0.17855204641819,
-0.21204043924808502,
-0.38992029428482056,
0.2975615859031677,
0.05552873760461807,
-0.4408996105194092,
-1.1229451894760132,
0.0649498999118805,
-0.29337769746780396,
0.4192051887512207,
-0.24758385121822357,
0.7505817413330078,
-0.11565528064966202,
-0.35694393515586853,
0.6503239274024963,
-0.18245844542980194,
-0.10228417068719864,
0.20432157814502716,
-0.245584636926651,
-0.07781641185283661,
-0.13216698169708252,
0.13086313009262085,
-0.3026786148548126,
-0.3707677125930786,
0.2915096580982208,
0.2894228398799896,
-0.01716819405555725,
0.7227931022644043,
0.23085728287696838,
-0.22319598495960236,
0.20533031225204468,
0.13533923029899597,
-0.16517409682273865,
-0.5204693675041199,
0.13739223778247833,
-0.5867337584495544,
0.03788437321782112,
-0.1059936061501503,
0.09982423484325409,
-0.5243588089942932,
-0.678726315498352,
-0.011485894210636616,
0.7940500378608704,
0.1899758130311966,
0.0757114365696907,
-0.23722219467163086,
0.08882053941488266,
0.4096905291080475,
0.4303618371486664,
-0.045703813433647156,
0.13178911805152893,
-0.3136644661426544,
-0.5011353492736816,
-0.22594758868217468,
0.9014559984207153,
0.47239845991134644,
-0.5459330677986145,
0.004622568842023611,
-0.5451080799102783,
0.7254526615142822,
-0.10226190090179443,
-0.6093828678131104,
0.4143625497817993,
0.19944968819618225,
-0.6193134188652039,
0.31478264927864075,
0.4318084716796875,
0.39142507314682007,
0.5370745658874512,
-0.04842117428779602,
0.14403508603572845,
-0.23542019724845886,
-0.5951890349388123,
-0.8203659057617188,
0.25694337487220764,
-0.39970123767852783,
-0.010963771492242813,
0.7066167593002319,
-0.0783839151263237,
-0.29861828684806824,
-0.12132567912340164,
-5.693460941314697,
0.3736993074417114,
-0.5160552263259888,
-0.11755257099866867,
0.14696849882602692,
0.00047072776942513883,
0.1087440773844719,
-0.532948911190033,
-0.1741090565919876,
0.2578766942024231,
0.5462343096733093,
-0.18696898221969604,
0.10522478818893433,
0.44767630100250244,
0.4941102862358093,
0.04695252701640129,
1.0125176906585693,
0.004792403429746628,
0.23781780898571014,
-0.08418910950422287,
-0.20305675268173218,
-0.029627500101923943,
0.37940713763237,
0.000453359039966017,
0.6249943375587463,
0.26007434725761414,
-0.17839951813220978,
0.02605038695037365,
-0.20129530131816864,
-0.18260838091373444,
-0.3515436053276062,
0.012437925674021244,
0.045445989817380905,
0.11392792314291,
0.3887346088886261,
0.033900946378707886,
0.14460554718971252,
-0.32431086897850037,
0.37831565737724304,
-0.264095664024353,
0.3930363953113556,
0.6040072441101074,
-0.014541259966790676,
-0.6885111927986145,
0.1916983425617218,
-0.1575169712305069,
-0.8604294061660767,
0.19615089893341064,
-0.13126464188098907,
0.34185847640037537,
0.44252339005470276,
-0.08888658136129379,
0.4709382951259613,
0.1479371190071106,
-0.12415354698896408,
-0.6102766990661621,
0.8826064467430115,
-0.1810605376958847,
-0.41211727261543274,
0.4084325134754181,
0.16835233569145203,
-0.4199928641319275,
0.0787680447101593,
-0.30411848425865173,
-0.329708069562912,
-0.1376541554927826,
-0.13772264122962952,
0.1874905675649643,
0.3773294687271118,
0.2667180895805359,
-0.6837465763092041,
-0.11643778532743454,
-0.06317254155874252,
-1.0412064790725708,
-0.06457526236772537,
-0.7144665718078613,
-0.6684409976005554,
0.20265084505081177,
-0.4706207811832428,
0.032600678503513336,
-0.15936067700386047,
0.20830747485160828,
0.02385878935456276,
-0.01463551726192236,
-0.13032224774360657,
-0.5433942675590515,
-0.18615593016147614,
0.39201444387435913,
-0.06252304464578629,
-0.37968209385871887,
0.3191463351249695,
-0.23970374464988708,
0.7392926812171936,
-0.26644235849380493,
-0.194071426987648,
0.7853954434394836,
-0.12104960530996323,
-0.13934855163097382,
-0.025563973933458328,
-0.8054923415184021,
0.14113201200962067,
-0.16632969677448273,
-0.10999412834644318,
-0.4114343523979187,
-0.15522849559783936,
-0.34700676798820496,
0.06019085273146629,
-0.0035282375756651163,
0.4707317352294922,
-0.48108360171318054,
-0.2797124683856964,
-0.16206644475460052,
-0.6210973858833313,
-1.0360796451568604,
0.5160229802131653,
-0.18139609694480896,
-0.30884554982185364,
0.14907047152519226,
0.6684504747390747,
-0.4715729355812073,
-0.031864430755376816,
0.659893810749054,
-0.5575989484786987,
0.3945472240447998,
-0.6125158667564392,
-0.31929779052734375,
-0.24710269272327423,
0.49289798736572266,
-0.27904564142227173,
0.25329893827438354,
0.683900773525238,
0.13359996676445007,
0.22209106385707855,
0.11402805894613266,
-0.7737153172492981,
0.0017727395752444863,
0.5490520000457764,
-0.320675790309906,
-0.3018490970134735,
-0.0607542023062706,
0.4486282765865326,
0.3030349612236023,
-0.5601736307144165,
0.5045998692512512,
0.3499041497707367,
0.24397455155849457,
-0.41610634326934814,
0.6016291379928589,
-1.213125228881836,
-0.15656778216362,
-0.1387941688299179,
-0.4517921209335327,
0.02130589261651039,
-0.1814022809267044,
-0.3912869691848755,
-0.6963456869125366,
-0.21293312311172485,
0.7452771067619324,
0.032521020621061325,
-0.465952068567276,
0.2938017249107361,
0.17638137936592102,
-0.6914137601852417,
0.14085370302200317,
0.7774376273155212,
-0.6270590424537659,
-0.332984983921051,
-0.07706066220998764,
-0.2528414726257324,
0.24259303510189056,
0.44613343477249146,
-0.6245952248573303,
-0.44752466678619385,
-0.45241060853004456,
0.19291909039020538,
0.23906457424163818,
0.357133150100708,
0.1376245617866516,
0.09411504119634628,
0.020811734721064568,
0.25944027304649353,
-0.19678859412670135,
0.2095283418893814,
0.04612103849649429,
0.3417525291442871,
-0.3033321797847748,
-0.27054935693740845,
0.11214419454336166,
0.12301301211118698,
-0.2069357931613922,
0.011908208020031452,
-0.5316843390464783,
0.22076347470283508,
-0.028734005987644196,
0.5450619459152222,
-0.3264217674732208,
0.5728429555892944,
0.42038822174072266,
-0.9847010970115662,
-0.39837712049484253,
-0.10185591131448746,
0.6306865215301514,
-0.840436577796936,
0.6257356405258179,
0.09589440375566483,
-0.33708009123802185,
0.825320839881897,
0.2969958484172821,
-0.44488033652305603,
0.12764817476272583,
-0.05966658145189285,
0.0004357620782684535,
0.3645056188106537,
0.19309645891189575,
-0.0806470513343811,
0.5435445308685303,
0.2695770859718323,
-0.07955002039670944,
-0.5339139699935913,
-0.7462031245231628,
-0.021104449406266212,
-0.303087055683136,
-0.0027250333223491907,
-0.4089980125427246,
-0.3742213845252991,
0.3726710081100464,
0.45355793833732605,
-1.0420279502868652,
0.8020845055580139,
-0.3713979125022888,
-0.2222616970539093,
-0.09804508090019226,
-0.16902828216552734,
0.33336129784584045,
0.2187175303697586,
-0.10730930417776108,
0.008366530761122704,
-0.6868249773979187,
-0.12533727288246155,
0.3240928053855896,
0.3635660707950592,
0.7316627502441406,
0.1673373132944107,
-0.3098492920398712,
0.010766522958874702,
0.09952343255281448,
0.4788711965084076,
-0.16845084726810455,
-0.657542884349823,
0.30673298239707947,
-0.017179230228066444,
-0.28535422682762146,
-0.0570850670337677,
-0.19041284918785095,
0.6135565638542175,
-0.45521095395088196,
-0.5234550833702087,
0.3372690677642822,
0.0626475065946579,
0.8618773221969604,
-0.14008767902851105,
-0.6513330340385437,
-0.3407233953475952,
0.5957961678504944,
-0.020641015842556953,
-0.49744147062301636,
-0.22825495898723602,
-0.228044331073761,
-0.14303942024707794,
-0.5424023270606995,
0.06799168884754181,
0.706344485282898,
0.3842596113681793,
0.2530953884124756,
-0.018742281943559647,
0.05137449875473976,
0.041832368820905685,
-0.5259020328521729,
0.34949415922164917,
-0.37578272819519043,
-0.5254635214805603,
-0.2857142686843872,
-0.2637041509151459,
-0.5585784912109375,
0.4936407804489136,
-0.784501314163208,
0.040335413068532944,
0.11142532527446747,
-0.7732948660850525,
0.3327924609184265,
-0.097881980240345,
-0.277395635843277,
0.058029476553201675,
-0.5768691897392273,
-0.4659314751625061,
0.1663873791694641,
0.33981990814208984,
-0.011965104378759861,
-0.4558745324611664,
0.08549036085605621,
-1.1693663597106934,
0.40321293473243713,
-0.4630817174911499,
-0.942100465297699,
0.3219645321369171,
-0.00007679917325731367,
-0.08327220380306244,
-0.6387077569961548,
0.18011164665222168,
-0.2630389630794525,
0.5968507528305054,
-0.33269113302230835,
0.745929479598999,
1.0725879669189453,
-0.22300836443901062,
0.5863078832626343,
0.49944743514060974,
-0.23605842888355255,
-0.33309346437454224,
0.029141109436750412,
-0.3543054163455963,
0.35302233695983887,
0.27075472474098206,
0.0808558240532875,
0.08538899570703506,
0.9810108542442322,
0.06651686131954193,
-0.3140336275100708,
-0.03804425522685051,
0.589897096157074,
0.24467994272708893,
-0.3727005124092102,
-1.0690770149230957,
0.01421521045267582,
-0.3453005850315094,
-0.32539284229278564,
-0.41479557752609253,
-0.08939564228057861,
-0.8218269944190979,
0.581929624080658,
0.16030581295490265,
0.4433828294277191,
0.13828317821025848,
0.4050939977169037,
-0.33345937728881836,
0.31013253331184387,
0.37981081008911133,
0.02649025060236454,
0.30161967873573303,
0.06687747687101364,
-0.031157949939370155,
-0.24482624232769012,
0.019281767308712006,
0.023375365883111954,
-0.45296916365623474,
-0.14392046630382538,
-0.14810001850128174,
-0.03418378159403801,
-0.4284520149230957,
-0.04340127110481262,
0.11647074669599533,
0.20420116186141968,
0.47477707266807556,
-0.5127898454666138,
-0.2425106167793274,
-0.6267660856246948,
1.0395441055297852,
0.3595224916934967,
-0.31629493832588196,
0.10832855850458145,
0.08431486040353775,
0.8012047410011292,
-0.22681233286857605,
-0.11755219846963882,
0.05794756859540939,
0.41944655776023865,
0.29919692873954773,
0.6387272477149963,
-0.17445509135723114,
0.035962238907814026,
0.3790241479873657,
-0.05776271969079971,
-0.19726452231407166,
-0.6615040302276611,
0.5187484622001648,
0.3238222002983093,
0.22371144592761993,
0.14639732241630554,
-0.5439724326133728,
-0.574083685874939,
0.11280275136232376,
-0.32123878598213196,
-0.01923573948442936,
1.0281915664672852,
-0.3129907548427582,
-0.264513224363327,
-0.3598102629184723,
0.5965531468391418,
0.5904129147529602,
0.36009642481803894,
0.46862322092056274,
-0.12187592685222626,
0.16878992319107056,
0.3871854543685913,
-0.2970081865787506,
0.11179966479539871,
-0.3210006654262543,
-0.2322843223810196,
-0.9519513249397278,
0.3989531993865967,
-0.23815269768238068,
-0.16089509427547455,
-0.1004849299788475,
0.06748228520154953,
0.23224574327468872,
0.02790321409702301,
0.5426079034805298,
0.3728638291358948,
-0.034194204956293106,
-0.4709228277206421,
0.20730876922607422,
-0.0943576991558075,
0.5484797358512878,
0.5994731783866882,
0.4205811023712158,
-0.7423722147941589,
0.45294225215911865,
0.21525108814239502,
-0.4254903495311737,
0.28427374362945557,
0.29797470569610596,
-0.6427367329597473,
-0.7592322826385498,
0.9427311420440674,
-0.34102848172187805,
0.35436615347862244,
0.10505687445402145,
1.0081980228424072,
0.534673273563385,
-0.10646413266658783,
-0.2790904939174652,
-0.2822522222995758,
0.19100576639175415,
-0.1502058357000351,
0.09861781448125839,
0.48522743582725525,
-0.48624080419540405,
-0.46524325013160706,
-0.5059992671012878,
0.8455290794372559,
0.11769824475049973,
-0.06625527888536453,
0.3245929181575775,
0.23067538440227509,
0.3735337555408478,
-0.13308316469192505,
0.08624585717916489,
0.045821353793144226,
-0.14793358743190765,
0.15131527185440063
] |
248014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringed%20space | Ringed space | In mathematics, a ringed space is a family of (commutative) rings parametrized by open subsets of a topological space together with ring homomorphisms that play roles of restrictions. Precisely, it is a topological space equipped with a sheaf of rings called a structure sheaf. It is an abstraction of the concept of the rings of continuous (scalar-valued) functions on open subsets.
Among ringed spaces, especially important and prominent is a locally ringed space: a ringed space in which the analogy between the stalk at a point and the ring of germs of functions at a point is valid.
Ringed spaces appear in analysis as well as complex algebraic geometry and the scheme theory of algebraic geometry.
Note: In the definition of a ringed space, most expositions tend to restrict the rings to be commutative rings, including Hartshorne and Wikipedia. "Éléments de géométrie algébrique", on the other hand, does not impose the commutativity assumption, although the book mostly considers the commutative case.
Definitions
A ringed space is a topological space together with a sheaf of rings on . The sheaf is called the structure sheaf of .
A locally ringed space is a ringed space such that all stalks of are local rings (i.e. they have unique maximal ideals). Note that it is not required that be a local ring for every open set ; in fact, this is almost never the case.
Examples
An arbitrary topological space can be considered a locally ringed space by taking to be the sheaf of real-valued (or complex-valued) continuous functions on open subsets of . The stalk at a point can be thought of as the set of all germs of continuous functions at ; this is a local ring with the unique maximal ideal consisting of those germs whose value at is .
If is a manifold with some extra structure, we can also take the sheaf of differentiable, or complex-analytic functions. Both of these give rise to locally ringed spaces.
If is an algebraic variety carrying the Zariski topology, we can define a locally ringed space by taking to be the ring of rational mappings defined on the Zariski-open set that do not blow up (become infinite) within . The important generalization of this example is that of the spectrum of any commutative ring; these spectra are also locally ringed spaces. Schemes are locally ringed spaces obtained by "gluing together" spectra of commutative rings.
Morphisms
A morphism from to is a pair , where is a continuous map between the underlying topological spaces, and is a morphism from the structure sheaf of to the direct image of the structure sheaf of . In other words, a morphism from to is given by the following data:
a continuous map
a family of ring homomorphisms for every open set of which commute with the restriction maps. That is, if are two open subsets of , then the following diagram must commute (the vertical maps are the restriction homomorphisms):
There is an additional requirement for morphisms between locally ringed spaces:
the ring homomorphisms induced by between the stalks of and the stalks of must be local homomorphisms, i.e. for every the maximal ideal of the local ring (stalk) at is mapped to the maximal ideal of the local ring at .
Two morphisms can be composed to form a new morphism, and we obtain the category of ringed spaces and the category of locally ringed spaces. Isomorphisms in these categories are defined as usual.
Tangent spaces
Locally ringed spaces have just enough structure to allow the meaningful definition of tangent spaces. Let be locally ringed space with structure sheaf ; we want to define the tangent space at the point . Take the local ring (stalk) at the point , with maximal ideal . Then is a field and is a vector space over that field (the cotangent space). The tangent space is defined as the dual of this vector space.
The idea is the following: a tangent vector at should tell you how to "differentiate" "functions" at , i.e. the elements of . Now it is enough to know how to differentiate functions whose value at is zero, since all other functions differ from these only by a constant, and we know how to differentiate constants. So we only need to consider . Furthermore, if two functions are given with value zero at , then their product has derivative 0 at , by the product rule. So we only need to know how to assign "numbers" to the elements of , and this is what the dual space does.
-modules
Given a locally ringed space , certain sheaves of modules on occur in the applications, the -modules. To define them, consider a sheaf F of abelian groups on . If F(U) is a module over the ring for every open set in , and the restriction maps are compatible with the module structure, then we call an -module. In this case, the stalk of at will be a module over the local ring (stalk) , for every .
A morphism between two such -modules is a morphism of sheaves which is compatible with the given module structures. The category of -modules over a fixed locally ringed space is an abelian category.
An important subcategory of the category of -modules is the category of quasi-coherent sheaves on . A sheaf of -modules is called quasi-coherent if it is, locally, isomorphic to the cokernel of a map between free -modules. A coherent sheaf is a quasi-coherent sheaf which is, locally, of finite type and for every open subset of the kernel of any morphism from a free -modules of finite rank to is also of finite type.
Citations
References
Section 0.4 of
External links
Sheaf theory
Scheme theory | [
-0.10133818536996841,
0.04913858696818352,
0.057986848056316376,
-0.12111807614564896,
-0.4887985587120056,
-0.3778398036956787,
-0.27888351678848267,
-0.07205758988857269,
-0.2373221516609192,
-0.2680060863494873,
-1.1374592781066895,
0.1815449595451355,
-0.5716522932052612,
0.19066521525382996,
0.2515714168548584,
0.5636760592460632,
0.6772170662879944,
0.255056232213974,
-0.7843010425567627,
-0.8650330901145935,
0.3156334161758423,
0.06390559673309326,
0.15781405568122864,
-0.17572961747646332,
0.6400601267814636,
-0.09315136075019836,
0.1316092163324356,
0.49677059054374695,
0.6710414290428162,
0.867033839225769,
0.20587582886219025,
0.7561925649642944,
0.24892157316207886,
0.0549127534031868,
0.38435623049736023,
-0.39503979682922363,
0.347245991230011,
-0.2231600135564804,
-0.11269353330135345,
-0.33858299255371094,
0.8717501759529114,
0.46219730377197266,
0.06585436314344406,
0.5158326625823975,
-0.3587551712989807,
-0.24671770632266998,
-1.4607917070388794,
-0.022477196529507637,
0.12507028877735138,
-0.18694978952407837,
-0.10054861009120941,
-0.39038607478141785,
0.2208033800125122,
0.44697222113609314,
0.14319798350334167,
0.4488022029399872,
-0.8730822801589966,
-0.4268336594104767,
0.5777379870414734,
0.17219726741313934,
-0.46655911207199097,
0.42112496495246887,
0.07367321848869324,
-0.03865409269928932,
0.012802890501916409,
0.8960831761360168,
-0.44113972783088684,
-0.28558266162872314,
-0.4609837532043457,
-0.4866543710231781,
0.08731000870466232,
-0.3960270285606384,
0.04344375059008598,
0.5104262232780457,
-0.2231912612915039,
-0.1449335664510727,
-0.2589447796344757,
-0.5714201331138611,
0.17801479995250702,
-0.03313295543193817,
-0.7526935935020447,
0.980761706829071,
0.28606879711151123,
-0.1603705734014511,
0.5022097229957581,
0.00949713122099638,
-0.9634448289871216,
0.9424899816513062,
-0.8722635507583618,
0.8782781958580017,
0.49068352580070496,
0.09493369609117508,
0.5918384790420532,
-0.1290346086025238,
-0.04925663024187088,
0.45178961753845215,
0.5358709096908569,
-0.3386037051677704,
0.3994157016277313,
-0.007801515981554985,
-0.362551748752594,
0.06421563029289246,
-0.10568425059318542,
-0.8406634330749512,
-0.6314934492111206,
-0.637637197971344,
-0.0878114178776741,
-0.047293711453676224,
0.06285584717988968,
0.2277541607618332,
-0.6840782165527344,
0.34345507621765137,
0.21626856923103333,
-0.08242662250995636,
0.2723681628704071,
0.1115087941288948,
0.18969564139842987,
0.45784521102905273,
-0.12613891065120697,
0.3801945745944977,
-0.48346713185310364,
0.32771438360214233,
-0.06882257014513016,
0.7198101282119751,
-0.18925319612026215,
-0.11318084597587585,
-0.3078121840953827,
1.007866621017456,
-0.9296481609344482,
-0.06178276985883713,
-0.2682137191295624,
0.5679988861083984,
0.30608630180358887,
0.42261457443237305,
0.12231486290693283,
-0.3366602957248688,
-0.1984681338071823,
-0.7874204516410828,
0.17932702600955963,
0.27831152081489563,
-0.5000174045562744,
-0.21126827597618103,
-0.3309333622455597,
-0.1017255038022995,
0.4607197344303131,
-0.2932538688182831,
0.2416732907295227,
-0.3428831994533539,
-0.10699330270290375,
0.13762694597244263,
0.02443847432732582,
0.1867389976978302,
-0.5819963216781616,
0.15103192627429962,
-0.22862118482589722,
-0.1475997269153595,
0.2812296450138092,
0.5431751012802124,
-0.6170244812965393,
-0.13370686769485474,
-0.6357897520065308,
-0.28130295872688293,
-0.25728216767311096,
-0.5284898281097412,
0.31783080101013184,
-0.6802247762680054,
0.6971613168716431,
0.08127469569444656,
-0.16210997104644775,
0.5998801589012146,
-0.36584874987602234,
-0.44712138175964355,
0.34562426805496216,
0.049294110387563705,
-0.012306091375648975,
-0.029232783243060112,
0.517535924911499,
-0.10732575505971909,
0.2897350788116455,
-0.04979831725358963,
-1.1971008777618408,
0.10035692900419235,
0.4298829138278961,
-0.17264960706233978,
0.42167234420776367,
0.09313897788524628,
0.37926042079925537,
0.1272737830877304,
0.2430020570755005,
0.09472031146287918,
-0.39055201411247253,
-0.017043843865394592,
0.12834806740283966,
-0.2854914367198944,
1.330629825592041,
0.3252856135368347,
-0.26515817642211914,
-0.2587677240371704,
-0.19181260466575623,
0.6296077370643616,
0.010190024971961975,
0.024217991158366203,
0.0680040568113327,
-0.2520354688167572,
-0.13981205224990845,
0.6683563590049744,
-0.3778824210166931,
-0.17469049990177155,
-0.22310972213745117,
0.5036446452140808,
0.5913825035095215,
-0.04313242807984352,
0.9472951292991638,
-0.31713369488716125,
0.19833914935588837,
-0.06052625924348831,
-0.46979257464408875,
0.47890517115592957,
-0.24526271224021912,
-0.24304169416427612,
1.1969799995422363,
0.04719793051481247,
-0.09075789153575897,
0.3403089940547943,
-0.6256718635559082,
0.8676791191101074,
0.43233978748321533,
0.78286212682724,
0.4175415337085724,
-0.2564348876476288,
-0.4775335490703583,
-0.46720901131629944,
-0.039142001420259476,
-0.3248719274997711,
0.30695825815200806,
0.9512922167778015,
0.4965685307979584,
-0.5039573907852173,
0.2563045024871826,
-0.9910722374916077,
-0.00026631614309735596,
0.001435050624422729,
-0.8655116558074951,
-0.2633899748325348,
0.2497839778661728,
-0.09076549112796783,
-0.6962649822235107,
0.21151429414749146,
-0.5986470580101013,
-0.133713960647583,
-0.5260103940963745,
-0.5750704407691956,
-0.02159138396382332,
-0.5967811942100525,
-0.4771578013896942,
-0.1885867863893509,
-0.1321316361427307,
0.04101918637752533,
0.6610621213912964,
0.5164472460746765,
-0.06565048545598984,
-0.0549856498837471,
-0.25895699858665466,
-0.549882173538208,
-0.7572426795959473,
-0.13872109353542328,
-0.43469271063804626,
0.246423602104187,
0.7573666572570801,
0.01676172949373722,
0.12258312106132507,
-1.006801724433899,
-0.7665297985076904,
-0.10922394692897797,
-1.0113576650619507,
-0.6908899545669556,
-0.21883271634578705,
-0.2078932225704193,
-0.6568360328674316,
-0.0548730194568634,
-0.20156507194042206,
0.5253995060920715,
0.5672644972801208,
0.05017843097448349,
-0.544734001159668,
-0.07752694934606552,
-0.14407388865947723,
-1.0926793813705444,
-0.0690499097108841,
-0.5518914461135864,
-0.31355902552604675,
0.5784274339675903,
-0.21206983923912048,
-0.03897998109459877,
0.5766660571098328,
0.7843400239944458,
-0.5465232133865356,
-0.47812291979789734,
-0.37783563137054443,
-0.13602782785892487,
-0.8781176209449768,
0.16837064921855927,
-0.30679261684417725,
0.09589105099439621,
-0.15552571415901184,
0.23069728910923004,
-0.6653352975845337,
0.3698079586029053,
-5.217898845672607,
0.48249632120132446,
-0.33396872878074646,
0.15588173270225525,
-0.7032248377799988,
0.1556299477815628,
0.4690958261489868,
0.020559297874569893,
-0.06957278400659561,
-0.24316437542438507,
-0.11676570028066635,
-0.5226296186447144,
-0.6417234539985657,
0.7971414923667908,
0.23404209315776825,
0.15325133502483368,
0.1588319092988968,
0.24904188513755798,
0.10163294523954391,
0.058657512068748474,
-0.24476172029972076,
-0.323537141084671,
-0.1433485746383667,
-0.2504090964794159,
-0.2240775227546692,
0.3654530942440033,
0.08460381627082825,
0.20130662620067596,
-0.4054243564605713,
-0.37632280588150024,
-0.13597840070724487,
-0.07447271049022675,
0.14090409874916077,
-0.40547966957092285,
-0.22489547729492188,
0.48685896396636963,
0.318187415599823,
-0.2510133683681488,
0.07512791454792023,
-0.6310815811157227,
0.19237513840198517,
0.6515324711799622,
0.0888027548789978,
-0.3325900733470917,
0.5723118782043457,
-0.41963180899620056,
-0.1065315380692482,
-0.5159336924552917,
-0.2714846432209015,
0.6277055740356445,
0.2115122228860855,
-0.24436455965042114,
0.29973912239074707,
-0.12503795325756073,
0.07954815030097961,
0.23447394371032715,
0.3154972493648529,
-0.45925623178482056,
-0.5559179186820984,
0.5716078877449036,
0.25334811210632324,
-0.6074177622795105,
0.7309632301330566,
-0.2112041860818863,
-0.5256251096725464,
0.055964648723602295,
-1.1616572141647339,
-0.02040996216237545,
0.7052376866340637,
-0.08011739701032639,
-0.5588682889938354,
0.8164862394332886,
0.13726286590099335,
-0.4110546410083771,
0.098514124751091,
-0.3549201488494873,
-0.02464732713997364,
-0.22125343978405,
0.5087081789970398,
0.34917473793029785,
0.04966087266802788,
0.13282781839370728,
-0.4191109538078308,
0.8252326846122742,
-0.25630950927734375,
-0.3400534391403198,
-0.07709227502346039,
0.02652888372540474,
-0.580132007598877,
-0.09064076095819473,
0.67757648229599,
-0.1619260460138321,
0.4741227924823761,
0.6516687870025635,
0.6962182521820068,
-0.4509705603122711,
0.2198421210050583,
0.16604925692081451,
0.5630409121513367,
-0.444160133600235,
0.6632861495018005,
-0.3677928149700165,
0.23594257235527039,
0.1905953586101532,
-0.14912013709545135,
0.11942850053310394,
-0.5035992860794067,
0.9425644874572754,
0.7691221833229065,
-0.011791087687015533,
-0.2266976535320282,
0.17436596751213074,
-0.4381888210773468,
-0.6428507566452026,
0.8590301871299744,
-0.07909023016691208,
-0.5030311346054077,
0.4371677339076996,
1.0820350646972656,
-0.18205372989177704,
-0.2146289050579071,
0.5727836489677429,
0.8456746339797974,
-0.1289273202419281,
-0.5019583106040955,
-0.1945115178823471,
0.3983602821826935,
0.1805095225572586,
-0.19182534515857697,
-0.2508928179740906,
-0.07296641916036606,
0.7707501649856567,
0.07706001400947571,
-0.11193637549877167,
0.026428628712892532,
-0.40177735686302185,
-0.3408127725124359,
0.15844760835170746,
-0.16354906558990479,
-0.2840188443660736,
0.8626620173454285,
-0.041682928800582886,
0.0035582748241722584,
-0.22408245503902435,
0.4803461730480194,
0.027850894257426262,
-0.06334122270345688,
-0.019831115379929543,
-0.2111426144838333,
0.6466050744056702,
-0.20567305386066437,
-0.5406409502029419,
0.8013188242912292,
-0.7892054319381714,
0.3272421061992645,
0.39114701747894287,
-0.2621367275714874,
0.4911194443702698,
0.7922724485397339,
-1.126063346862793,
0.30213114619255066,
0.20959872007369995,
-0.5003922581672668,
-0.19221873581409454,
-0.21843862533569336,
-0.07928466796875,
-0.38647177815437317,
-0.3897153437137604,
-0.5743154287338257,
0.3067871332168579,
0.11637572944164276,
-0.17615491151809692,
-0.2834934592247009,
-0.43313154578208923,
0.07577554881572723,
-0.009450191631913185,
0.30229055881500244,
-0.2724466621875763,
0.3477071523666382,
-0.4610574245452881,
0.39958658814430237,
-0.8466903567314148,
0.1931760162115097,
0.5363954901695251,
1.2373640537261963,
0.05150561407208443,
-0.06739580631256104,
0.4011666774749756,
-0.9784007668495178,
0.17005978524684906,
0.5895687341690063,
-0.27607229351997375,
-0.37399575114250183,
0.13346707820892334,
-0.24922479689121246,
-0.13963943719863892,
0.7925602793693542,
0.16851334273815155,
-0.22843016684055328,
-0.5713847279548645,
-0.5499319434165955,
0.3032740354537964,
-0.8347073197364807,
0.7588188052177429,
0.6863148808479309,
-0.48751384019851685,
-0.05416469648480415,
-0.45931848883628845,
-0.05424664169549942,
0.17746514081954956,
-0.44143226742744446,
-0.39435964822769165,
-0.2841867208480835,
-0.6728469133377075,
-0.18099865317344666,
0.7953904271125793,
0.10556027293205261,
-0.5130292773246765,
-0.4230753481388092,
-0.34640631079673767,
0.13652580976486206,
-0.6165364384651184,
0.21624386310577393,
0.09584087878465652,
-0.10381128638982773,
0.2857436537742615,
0.0061839185655117035,
-0.5213420391082764,
-0.14682862162590027,
0.03510993719100952,
-0.23718489706516266,
-0.0756712257862091,
-0.1623358130455017,
0.1842113584280014,
-0.09660442173480988,
-0.8297935724258423,
-0.25662633776664734,
0.4583054780960083,
-0.40455329418182373,
-0.24008625745773315,
0.7434910535812378,
0.39657673239707947,
-0.11336242407560349,
-0.05204823613166809,
-0.020648375153541565,
0.4300260543823242,
0.2812708020210266,
-0.5234254598617554,
0.031954094767570496,
0.20461209118366241,
0.5858219861984253,
-0.2224108874797821,
-0.03082764521241188,
-0.5313047170639038,
0.6178260445594788,
0.5674740076065063,
0.10917851328849792,
-0.07543937116861343,
0.45130544900894165,
0.3955237865447998,
-0.14940717816352844,
-0.1921868920326233,
0.03867626562714577,
-0.10266542434692383,
0.23925642669200897,
0.10208981484174728,
-0.4570036232471466,
-0.10109220445156097,
0.9199251532554626,
-0.030081989243626595,
-0.20239032804965973,
-0.011156992055475712,
0.6939062476158142,
0.5525745749473572,
0.4268644452095032,
0.4521195888519287,
-0.1093960627913475,
-0.4175981879234314,
-0.40724027156829834,
0.3229573667049408,
-1.0294862985610962,
-0.2324737161397934,
-0.28757184743881226,
-0.6437386870384216,
0.024964336305856705,
-0.2783040702342987,
0.2902936637401581,
0.5726758241653442,
-0.12374083697795868,
0.12390223890542984,
-0.6068060398101807,
-0.6442129015922546,
-0.20433305203914642,
-0.3703940808773041,
-0.07071883231401443,
0.5066724419593811,
0.3349255323410034,
0.48566868901252747,
-0.23309224843978882,
0.008752349764108658,
-1.0659363269805908,
0.01823144033551216,
-0.36701732873916626,
-0.8250410556793213,
0.6068578958511353,
0.6600902080535889,
0.2556169331073761,
-0.07423567771911621,
-0.1125096008181572,
-0.177869975566864,
0.15508194267749786,
0.5362411737442017,
-0.29270750284194946,
0.6845681667327881,
-0.8463514447212219,
0.1563119739294052,
0.6215564012527466,
-0.37978148460388184,
0.184062659740448,
0.5429005026817322,
0.1519821137189865,
0.012453575618565083,
-0.20476137101650238,
0.13883242011070251,
-0.9808316826820374,
0.20435866713523865,
-0.39178407192230225,
-0.2690960764884949,
-0.12908394634723663,
0.5185943245887756,
0.4807511568069458,
0.337095707654953,
-0.6173453330993652,
0.6354747414588928,
0.36379674077033997,
-0.25625964999198914,
-0.09004047513008118,
-0.2853945195674896,
-0.12784221768379211,
0.6738567352294922,
0.5557476282119751,
0.8136785626411438,
-0.37760064005851746,
0.30380383133888245,
-0.17791464924812317,
0.3409016728401184,
0.2794836163520813,
0.19739991426467896,
0.04979586601257324,
0.1986156851053238,
0.35108938813209534,
-0.19841083884239197,
0.5336260795593262,
0.025129059329628944,
-0.4652654528617859,
0.47621041536331177,
0.40706267952919006,
-0.32855725288391113,
0.13620229065418243,
0.41898781061172485,
-0.2557750642299652,
0.2306699901819229,
-0.11071828007698059,
0.43387100100517273,
0.012879112735390663,
0.39668309688568115,
0.2827323079109192,
-0.18155886232852936,
0.25639310479164124,
0.20609025657176971,
-0.4750957787036896,
0.332177072763443,
0.05374108999967575,
0.07902435213327408,
0.0786236897110939,
-0.6374899744987488,
-0.026618141680955887,
0.4568832814693451,
-0.6717949509620667,
-0.20475877821445465,
0.4005967378616333,
0.025847241282463074,
0.15368877351284027,
-0.794001042842865,
-0.0751950591802597,
0.06840956211090088,
0.023769838735461235,
-0.11872516572475433,
-0.19392508268356323,
0.6450859308242798,
0.18189884722232819,
-0.3737025856971741,
-0.42428091168403625,
0.1905297338962555,
0.21019743382930756,
0.5830125212669373,
-0.9504474401473999,
1.2221649885177612,
0.8341156840324402,
-0.4237392246723175,
-0.03127096965909004,
-0.3098394274711609,
0.4875238835811615,
0.03477313742041588,
-1.1366475820541382,
-0.1100599616765976,
-0.1913996934890747,
-0.2982664108276367,
-0.5600177049636841,
0.626594066619873,
0.6016858220100403,
0.3488492965698242,
0.1259232461452484,
0.2310933917760849,
0.00857100822031498,
-0.02043684758245945,
0.8769155144691467,
-0.1253393292427063,
-0.22473259270191193,
-0.15098118782043457,
0.2179095298051834,
-0.2655264735221863,
-0.07299475371837616,
0.5302899479866028,
0.6218212842941284,
-0.24569103121757507,
0.3374403119087219,
-0.1949772983789444,
0.3096582591533661,
0.10817860811948776,
0.20833417773246765,
0.02372409775853157,
-1.1192874908447266,
0.40398919582366943,
-0.46862906217575073,
-0.4501301646232605,
0.483788400888443,
0.45058709383010864,
0.4798876643180847,
-0.5497110486030579,
-0.20584696531295776,
0.12335466593503952,
-0.9727895259857178,
0.6552941203117371,
-0.15930891036987305,
0.4725496470928192,
-0.04534916952252388,
-0.3250848650932312,
-0.9056446552276611,
0.3262302875518799,
0.29413333535194397,
-0.6509941816329956,
0.3911016881465912,
-0.1425372064113617,
-0.10788074135780334,
0.11207709461450577,
0.3825233578681946,
-0.36623939871788025,
-0.3283284306526184,
0.6767563223838806
] |
248018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folsom | Folsom | Folsom may refer to:
People
Folsom (surname)
Places in the United States
Folsom, Perry County, Alabama
Folsom, Randolph County, Alabama
Folsom, California
Folsom, Georgia
Folsom, Kentucky
Folsom, Louisiana
Folsom, Missouri
Folsom, New Jersey
Folsom, New Mexico
Folsom, Ohio
Folsom, Pennsylvania
Folsom, South Dakota
Folsom, Texas
Folsom, West Virginia
Folsom, Wisconsin
Folsom Lake
Other uses
Folsom Europe, an annual BDSM and leather subculture street fair held in September in Berlin, Germany
Folsom Field, an outdoor football stadium in Boulder, Colorado
Folsom Library, research library on the campus of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, located in Troy, New York
Folsom point, prototype of a spearpoint or arrowhead that was invented by Native Americans and widely distributed in North America. First discovered near Folsom, New Mexico
Folsom Public Library, a library in Folsom, California
Folsom tradition, name given by archaeologists to a sequence of old Paleo-Indian cultures of central North America
Folsom Site, archaeological site in northeastern New Mexico where Folsom Points were first discovered.
Folsom State Prison, a high-security penitentiary near the town of Folsom, California
Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison, a live country & western music album recorded at the prison in 1968
Folsom Street Fair, held at the end of September during San Francisco's Leather Pride Week
Folsom Lake College (FLC) is a comprehensive public community college in California | [
0.367748886346817,
0.15852467715740204,
0.22876952588558197,
-0.09340933710336685,
0.5997657775878906,
0.454694002866745,
0.09567754715681076,
0.9025838375091553,
-0.5191933512687683,
-0.4013288617134094,
-0.5963865518569946,
-0.04799680784344673,
0.09966057538986206,
0.8348666429519653,
-0.36918169260025024,
0.770211935043335,
0.2326783686876297,
0.8841066956520081,
-0.09816397726535797,
-0.1015477180480957,
-0.12661118805408478,
-0.2376512587070465,
0.5571213364601135,
-0.26822254061698914,
0.6801501512527466,
-0.2947537899017334,
0.6341539621353149,
-0.2348799854516983,
-0.11414185166358948,
0.6630246639251709,
-0.24587546288967133,
0.769032895565033,
-0.10465309768915176,
-0.2968190014362335,
-0.026893960312008858,
-0.2600662410259247,
-0.08729788661003113,
-0.5474725365638733,
-0.12289765477180481,
-0.5686295628547668,
-0.1866309642791748,
-0.2130756974220276,
0.5809033513069153,
0.036674048751592636,
-0.04128061607480049,
-0.29997849464416504,
-1.9653055667877197,
0.7590938210487366,
-0.4345494210720062,
0.4082113802433014,
-0.42360955476760864,
0.305324524641037,
-0.26718899607658386,
0.3620958924293518,
0.4238393306732178,
0.4581342041492462,
-0.5160690546035767,
-0.21489231288433075,
0.775388777256012,
-0.33640486001968384,
0.5600945353507996,
0.4207404553890228,
-0.19959251582622528,
0.7030068635940552,
0.10246376693248749,
0.07929272204637527,
-0.11597837507724762,
0.09885194897651672,
-0.5265693664550781,
-0.05444418638944626,
0.03273020684719086,
0.011464697308838367,
-0.28218233585357666,
-0.37458574771881104,
0.0367581807076931,
0.35328373312950134,
-0.44049036502838135,
0.10154105722904205,
0.032558415085077286,
0.13950219750404358,
0.1387423723936081,
0.11832038313150406,
1.062759280204773,
-0.044533468782901764,
0.2795853614807129,
0.5406565070152283,
-0.8343846201896667,
0.05413704738020897,
-0.11395201832056046,
0.34172913432121277,
0.030508797615766525,
-0.25344735383987427,
0.26297345757484436,
0.3306655287742615,
0.07003334909677505,
-0.48957762122154236,
0.08372072130441666,
0.2098802626132965,
-0.19257378578186035,
0.5573771595954895,
-0.27122437953948975,
0.13544246554374695,
0.29890814423561096,
0.20553138852119446,
-0.167365163564682,
0.37882566452026367,
-0.12092403322458267,
-0.022876277565956116,
0.5296292304992676,
-0.08962363004684448,
-0.3485332429409027,
0.2505265772342682,
0.8442199230194092,
-0.043575312942266464,
-0.08794306218624115,
0.010867361910641193,
0.5445882081985474,
0.06775517016649246,
-0.09110435843467712,
-0.19064480066299438,
0.32153797149658203,
0.3335675001144409,
-0.0881078913807869,
-0.17844241857528687,
0.5526638627052307,
-0.04961748048663139,
-0.05535237491130829,
0.796131432056427,
-0.5358259081840515,
-0.1644359976053238,
0.18379324674606323,
0.21193936467170715,
-0.3602728843688965,
-0.2260160595178604,
0.010846301913261414,
-0.171550452709198,
-0.199925497174263,
-0.23404304683208466,
0.7389282584190369,
0.3590446710586548,
-0.7714489698410034,
-0.2934119999408722,
-0.7506772875785828,
-0.5409303903579712,
0.431947261095047,
-0.8236401081085205,
0.004637060686945915,
-0.5115330815315247,
-0.30700087547302246,
0.2070121318101883,
0.17595432698726654,
0.03337782248854637,
-0.07254957407712936,
0.41393864154815674,
-0.4453413188457489,
-0.005614142864942551,
0.4683290123939514,
0.03999216482043266,
0.01653674989938736,
0.06373520195484161,
-0.38684555888175964,
0.19991213083267212,
-0.2925189435482025,
0.30319592356681824,
0.11369617283344269,
0.3286789059638977,
0.5360796451568604,
-0.25510162115097046,
-0.5073004961013794,
0.3917309045791626,
-0.027636468410491943,
0.7692888379096985,
0.8123058676719666,
-0.050697989761829376,
-0.3356568217277527,
0.6132432818412781,
0.5350902080535889,
0.20698416233062744,
0.17406748235225677,
0.4928036034107208,
-0.4742768108844757,
0.1482446789741516,
0.32121607661247253,
-0.4289112389087677,
-0.49398744106292725,
-0.3534504771232605,
0.5643937587738037,
-0.3430668115615845,
-0.10685274749994278,
-0.10881482809782028,
-0.4874025583267212,
0.06576371192932129,
0.33653050661087036,
-0.5797203183174133,
0.9981216192245483,
0.06191883981227875,
-1.1308932304382324,
1.033079743385315,
-0.5144058465957642,
0.583739161491394,
-0.2613830268383026,
-0.6241857409477234,
0.6596114039421082,
-0.05603637918829918,
-0.44380098581314087,
0.13589975237846375,
0.12873026728630066,
0.4014005661010742,
0.6313608288764954,
-0.13806664943695068,
0.6253006458282471,
-0.6750946640968323,
0.22289827466011047,
-0.04658303037285805,
0.16988995671272278,
-0.7048359513282776,
-0.267360657453537,
-0.13622574508190155,
-0.16488522291183472,
-0.3737630844116211,
0.4372352659702301,
-0.20405244827270508,
-0.558027446269989,
0.049100957810878754,
-0.37560710310935974,
0.1870921105146408,
-0.6198884844779968,
-0.3401695787906647,
0.4338752329349518,
-0.24303655326366425,
0.15153856575489044,
-0.10948960483074188,
0.18063323199748993,
-0.9147546291351318,
0.2260684221982956,
0.006768118590116501,
0.4150017499923706,
0.18661192059516907,
0.2379426211118698,
-0.3821384906768799,
0.1837855577468872,
0.7147035002708435,
-0.5205214619636536,
0.07163182646036148,
-0.03182663396000862,
0.23154111206531525,
0.2276318371295929,
0.16737042367458344,
0.2214297354221344,
-0.3603055477142334,
0.29609906673431396,
0.3829171657562256,
0.40925759077072144,
0.368939608335495,
0.4643862843513489,
0.04221472144126892,
0.14367100596427917,
0.6565399169921875,
-0.25807803869247437,
-0.217152401804924,
-0.32675981521606445,
-0.09758208692073822,
-0.3075246214866638,
0.6451550126075745,
-0.48530492186546326,
0.017815126106142998,
-0.1324922740459442,
-0.4051940143108368,
0.25664499402046204,
0.8105904459953308,
0.010603619739413261,
0.28006330132484436,
-0.5039576888084412,
0.26066315174102783,
0.2342928946018219,
0.22409065067768097,
-0.04518726468086243,
-0.34240517020225525,
-0.5230410695075989,
-0.0635775625705719,
-0.43365925550460815,
0.6172462701797485,
0.6443405747413635,
-0.9660980105400085,
0.04615461826324463,
-0.8197134137153625,
0.015315400436520576,
0.20689183473587036,
-0.47333860397338867,
0.3882773220539093,
-0.06545920670032501,
-0.23446494340896606,
-0.03330960124731064,
0.38380664587020874,
-0.03703334927558899,
-0.16535748541355133,
-0.25808364152908325,
0.14488138258457184,
-0.04866260662674904,
-0.6530016660690308,
-0.3160369098186493,
0.08276446163654327,
-0.3010099530220032,
0.3007117211818695,
0.494133323431015,
0.1741732954978943,
-0.1734539419412613,
-0.11778028309345245,
-5.622550964355469,
0.32934215664863586,
-0.26402217149734497,
-0.7124271988868713,
0.11901542544364929,
0.20765173435211182,
-0.019405409693717957,
-0.37583234906196594,
-0.009377334266901016,
-0.3760189414024353,
0.5970832109451294,
-0.44381293654441833,
-0.1544162780046463,
-0.09215589612722397,
0.26373928785324097,
0.45863887667655945,
0.385464072227478,
-0.11168349534273148,
-0.4366368353366852,
-0.13000907003879547,
0.14968076348304749,
0.08601237088441849,
0.31961628794670105,
0.2589075565338135,
0.08789016306400299,
0.12204983085393906,
-0.8953196406364441,
-0.27890920639038086,
-0.18559445440769196,
-0.2865285873413086,
-0.09262293577194214,
0.21888954937458038,
0.34833088517189026,
0.042256660759449005,
0.15733781456947327,
0.07113435864448547,
0.46812981367111206,
-0.0649653747677803,
0.12651517987251282,
-0.09681527316570282,
0.18928731977939606,
0.7124868631362915,
-0.05304958298802376,
0.0740913599729538,
0.608793318271637,
-0.3058878481388092,
-0.29530391097068787,
0.16344736516475677,
-0.27876630425453186,
0.36569467186927795,
0.4063665270805359,
-0.4599081873893738,
0.5354444980621338,
0.3566899597644806,
0.4751221537590027,
-0.41042232513427734,
0.6129131317138672,
-0.03623000159859657,
-0.19677722454071045,
-0.025310136377811432,
0.2709759771823883,
-0.3364746868610382,
0.04926212877035141,
-0.051708925515413284,
-0.5191000699996948,
-0.8953543305397034,
-0.6835939288139343,
0.5830816030502319,
0.26518410444259644,
0.23577234148979187,
-0.24913175404071808,
0.07242025434970856,
-0.2597533166408539,
-1.010074496269226,
0.22758382558822632,
-0.16849975287914276,
-0.10344848036766052,
-0.3407658040523529,
-0.060647446662187576,
0.11878278106451035,
-0.049996793270111084,
0.582929790019989,
-0.21761895716190338,
-0.0070906709879636765,
-0.1872951239347458,
-0.07296697050333023,
-0.4097983241081238,
0.2323281466960907,
-0.7689177989959717,
-0.19561165571212769,
0.4455711543560028,
0.37634173035621643,
0.5304157137870789,
-0.3456551730632782,
-0.2429109662771225,
-0.17628546059131622,
0.5720803737640381,
-0.4831158518791199,
-0.02081599086523056,
-0.6352044343948364,
0.5418604016304016,
-0.10635346174240112,
0.18096791207790375,
-0.2330400049686432,
-0.55496746301651,
-0.015101704746484756,
0.2848961353302002,
0.21508991718292236,
1.18485689163208,
-0.5616263747215271,
-0.2338031530380249,
0.5897390246391296,
-0.3449266254901886,
-0.722615122795105,
-0.12439186871051788,
-0.6223814487457275,
-0.9831839799880981,
0.2635951042175293,
0.007877341471612453,
-0.7692919969558716,
-0.004213521722704172,
0.32674482464790344,
-0.5881354212760925,
0.13500334322452545,
-0.27680113911628723,
-0.27201348543167114,
-0.02459457516670227,
-0.07160960882902145,
0.14049644768238068,
0.589397132396698,
-0.09988745301961899,
-0.011916875839233398,
-0.3629052937030792,
0.36671364307403564,
-0.3279931843280792,
-0.08089213818311691,
-0.337176650762558,
-0.587535560131073,
-0.06394192576408386,
-0.725456953048706,
0.5598787665367126,
-0.29686108231544495,
-0.19357122480869293,
0.38620346784591675,
0.449616938829422,
0.8500970005989075,
-0.21388490498065948,
0.10281595587730408,
-0.38685813546180725,
0.5705652832984924,
-0.15546786785125732,
0.45017001032829285,
-0.3242214620113373,
-0.25958359241485596,
-0.21680587530136108,
-0.733488142490387,
-0.3848705291748047,
0.770559549331665,
0.11126624047756195,
-0.5080267190933228,
0.3116653561592102,
0.11597800999879837,
-0.7255435585975647,
0.20581933856010437,
-0.1518876701593399,
-0.42228782176971436,
-0.3571610748767853,
0.20941807329654694,
-0.14636367559432983,
0.43784409761428833,
0.5562980771064758,
-0.4582396149635315,
-0.4633643329143524,
-0.5573328137397766,
0.21116594970226288,
-0.05273102596402168,
0.30535784363746643,
0.11669391393661499,
-0.12370502948760986,
-0.10567262023687363,
0.0037726114969700575,
-0.4194731116294861,
0.11146324872970581,
0.16073480248451233,
0.14977161586284637,
-0.9236792922019958,
0.083064965903759,
-0.24850396811962128,
0.07364130020141602,
-0.6411139369010925,
-0.06490251421928406,
-0.2015896439552307,
-0.17799696326255798,
0.3376936912536621,
-0.252613365650177,
-0.3563961982727051,
0.2935801148414612,
0.5285297632217407,
-0.3883117139339447,
0.0758230984210968,
-0.09648029506206512,
0.29440855979919434,
-0.8269345164299011,
0.3776216506958008,
0.2636840343475342,
-0.09407073259353638,
0.6709322333335876,
-0.3526087701320648,
-0.3085882067680359,
0.394830584526062,
-0.4892433285713196,
-0.24905402958393097,
0.40486934781074524,
0.1938159316778183,
-0.051792439073324203,
-0.11079603433609009,
0.17693127691745758,
-0.07710094004869461,
-0.5083102583885193,
-0.08783664554357529,
0.3915660083293915,
-0.26480069756507874,
-0.05924933776259422,
0.1354379653930664,
-0.26829978823661804,
1.0975736379623413,
0.05732927843928337,
-0.5065832138061523,
1.055802583694458,
-0.3178591728210449,
-0.014054274186491966,
-0.1971590220928192,
-0.3458705544471741,
0.10003627836704254,
0.4412950873374939,
0.023159334436058998,
-0.1653912514448166,
-0.7381999492645264,
0.16666270792484283,
0.532833993434906,
0.5165802240371704,
0.26170140504837036,
-0.1468561887741089,
-0.3569082021713257,
-0.3612360656261444,
-0.006391312927007675,
0.44318729639053345,
-0.4384414851665497,
-0.9456253051757812,
0.9322502613067627,
-0.10164240002632141,
-0.4027351438999176,
-0.01414401363581419,
0.11076784878969193,
0.5652866363525391,
-0.4644879698753357,
-0.5781136155128479,
0.5931923389434814,
-0.11748208850622177,
0.3884284198284149,
-0.037260908633470535,
0.20772142708301544,
-0.4511301517486572,
0.37556272745132446,
0.05832716077566147,
-0.2285318672657013,
-0.24154837429523468,
-0.412133127450943,
-0.08561599254608154,
-0.3589194118976593,
0.14900600910186768,
0.6608061194419861,
0.7000188827514648,
0.6245135068893433,
0.2612196207046509,
0.11384547501802444,
-0.04120202362537384,
-0.3401634991168976,
0.38429442048072815,
-0.12956248223781586,
-0.4286530315876007,
-0.4943118691444397,
-0.059588994830846786,
-0.6756157279014587,
0.4132058918476105,
-0.667015790939331,
0.23973728716373444,
-0.1282174289226532,
-1.0611200332641602,
-0.27715328335762024,
0.29817309975624084,
0.05079496651887894,
-0.04077170789241791,
0.13580819964408875,
-0.5373234152793884,
0.023217998445034027,
0.3973063826560974,
0.07657025754451752,
-0.3846563398838043,
0.5926237106323242,
-1.3517810106277466,
0.42524635791778564,
0.16712577641010284,
-1.1153721809387207,
-0.06064000353217125,
-0.1851789653301239,
0.0790977030992508,
-0.48694705963134766,
-0.15745194256305695,
-0.24864159524440765,
0.008061861619353294,
-0.4132768213748932,
-0.05545526742935181,
0.4845243990421295,
0.08629219233989716,
0.06856337189674377,
-0.08912570774555206,
-0.2698804438114166,
0.10870251059532166,
0.2452395260334015,
-0.1225980669260025,
-0.2223542034626007,
0.43477556109428406,
-0.15753638744354248,
0.30289244651794434,
1.07919180393219,
-0.4450095593929291,
0.11782591789960861,
0.011836792342364788,
0.27130985260009766,
0.2407556176185608,
-0.6523864269256592,
-0.8770700693130493,
0.5501181483268738,
-0.004926641006022692,
-0.4692419171333313,
-0.551964521408081,
-0.4077087640762329,
-0.6527950763702393,
0.2803691625595093,
0.4704189598560333,
0.4984447956085205,
-0.17250512540340424,
0.27105721831321716,
0.3507615327835083,
-0.14201998710632324,
0.36231887340545654,
0.14232376217842102,
0.054880306124687195,
-0.41299158334732056,
0.5846772193908691,
-0.5560993552207947,
0.3440561592578888,
0.054836515337228775,
0.3812473714351654,
-0.08929058909416199,
0.12554869055747986,
-0.16533178091049194,
-0.5689654350280762,
0.3186068832874298,
0.2192474901676178,
0.007767145521938801,
0.40732431411743164,
-0.38222187757492065,
-0.062974713742733,
-0.4994869828224182,
-0.22630861401557922,
0.10658762603998184,
-0.8105666041374207,
0.4214394986629486,
0.967258870601654,
0.686466634273529,
-0.13246816396713257,
-0.0635528713464737,
-0.12291906028985977,
0.5173302292823792,
0.7260403633117676,
0.7544916868209839,
0.1038229689002037,
-0.13355936110019684,
-0.57411789894104,
0.14167948067188263,
-0.10229150205850601,
-0.21197009086608887,
0.4058609902858734,
-0.2859325110912323,
0.2098039984703064,
0.24447058141231537,
-0.6264171004295349,
-0.17507217824459076,
-0.09939897060394287,
-0.4332141578197479,
-0.4317123591899872,
0.12795871496200562,
-0.015939461067318916,
-0.30009138584136963,
0.131949320435524,
0.5987849831581116,
0.06330893188714981,
0.8135393857955933,
0.11294051259756088,
0.11656675487756729,
0.19032472372055054,
0.22430458664894104,
-0.921769917011261,
0.22218604385852814,
0.18089723587036133,
0.21868185698986053,
-0.27033430337905884,
1.1551495790481567,
-0.14438796043395996,
-0.15068916976451874,
0.019579173997044563,
0.4793151021003723,
-0.25967931747436523,
-0.6309685707092285,
0.7668499946594238,
0.002156914444640279,
0.0494370311498642,
-1.1063978672027588,
0.4362293779850006,
-0.06996896117925644,
0.0779995545744896,
0.7158681750297546,
-0.24742774665355682,
-0.5045937895774841,
0.5012295842170715,
0.29547300934791565,
-0.5242010951042175,
0.519621729850769,
0.14888881146907806,
-0.3392104506492615,
-0.5104861259460449,
0.6038911938667297,
-0.5301769375801086,
-0.5570525527000427,
-0.13798081874847412,
0.4862794578075409,
-0.038603365421295166,
-0.1460402011871338,
0.13696010410785675,
-0.061270445585250854,
-0.36967167258262634,
0.11451219767332077,
-0.13990627229213715,
0.8802712559700012,
-0.24841594696044922,
0.15084253251552582,
-0.3249064087867737,
0.1083785742521286,
0.19401967525482178,
-0.6429619193077087,
0.07281875610351562,
0.2853981554508209,
0.47095584869384766,
-0.25652438402175903,
0.11441043764352798,
-0.3373461663722992,
0.06606359779834747,
-0.3086435794830322
] |
248019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration%20Internationale%20de%20l%27Automobile | Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile | The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA; ) is an association established on 20 June 1904 to represent the interests of motoring organisations and motor car users. To the general public, the FIA is mostly known as the governing body for many auto racing events, such as the well-known Formula One. The FIA also promotes road safety around the world.
Headquartered at 8 Place de la Concorde, Paris, with offices in Geneva and Valleiry, the FIA consists of 246 member organisations in 145 countries worldwide. Its current president is Mohammed bin Sulayem.
The FIA is generally known by its French name or initials, even in non-French-speaking countries, but is occasionally rendered as International Automobile Federation.
Its most prominent role is in the licensing and sanctioning of Formula One, World Rally Championship, World Endurance Championship, World Touring Car Cup, World Rallycross Championship, Formula E and various other forms of racing. The FIA along with the Fédération Internationale de Motocyclisme (FIM) also certify land speed record attempts. The International Olympic Committee provisionally recognized the federation in 2011, and granted full recognition in 2013.
History
The Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR, English: 'International Association of Recognized Automobile Clubs') was founded in Paris on 20 June 1904, as an association of national motor clubs. The association was designed to represent the interests of motor car users, as well as to oversee the burgeoning international motor sport scene. In 1922, the AIACR delegated the organisation of automobile racing to the Commission Sportive Internationale (CSI), which would set the regulations for international Grand Prix motor racing. The European Drivers' Championship was introduced in 1931, a title awarded to the driver with the best results in the selected Grands Prix. Upon the resumption of motor racing after the Second World War, the AIACR was renamed the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile. The FIA established a number of new racing categories, among them Formulas One and Two, and created the first World Championship, the Formula One World Drivers' Championship, in 1950.
The CSI determined the regulations and calendar of the major international championships, such as the Formula One World Championship, World Sportscar Championship and European Rally Championship. Meanwhile, the organisers of the individual races (for example local or national clubs) were responsible for accepting entries, paying prize money, and the general running of each event. In Formula One, this led to tension between the teams, which formed themselves into the Formula One Constructors Association (FOCA) founded in 1974, event organisers and the CSI. The FIA and CSI were largely amateur organisations, and FOCA under the control of Bernie Ecclestone began to take charge of various aspects of organising the events, as well as setting terms with race organisers for the arrival of teams and the amount of prize money. This led to the FIA President Prince Metternich attempting to reassert its authority by appointing Jean-Marie Balestre as the head of the CSI in 1978, who promptly reformed the committee into the autonomous Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile (FISA).
Under Balestre's leadership FISA and the manufacturer-backed teams became involved in a dispute with FOCA (named the "FISA–FOCA war"). The conflict saw several races being cancelled or boycotted, and large-scale disagreement over the technical regulations and their enforcement. The dispute and the Concorde Agreement that was written to end it, would have significant ramifications for the FIA. The agreement led to FOCA acquiring commercial rights over Formula One, while FISA and the FIA would have control over sport's regulations. FOCA chief Bernie Ecclestone became an FIA Vice-President with control over promoting the FIA's World Championships, while FOCA legal advisor and former March Engineering manager Max Mosley would end up becoming FISA President in 1991. Mosley succeeded Balestre as President of the FIA in 1993 and restructured the organisation, dissolving FISA and placing motor racing under the direct management of the FIA.
Following the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix, which saw the deaths of Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger, the FIA formed an Expert Advisory Safety Committee to research and improve safety in motor racing. Chaired by Formula One medical chief Professor Sid Watkins, the committee worked with the Motor Industry Research Association to strengthen the crash resistance of cars and the restraint systems and to improve drivers' personal safety. The recommendations of the committee led to significantly more stringent crash tests for racing vehicles, new safety standards for helmets and race suits, and the eventual introduction of the HANS device as compulsory in all international racing series. The committee also worked on improving circuit safety. This led to a number of changes at motor racing circuits around the world, and the improvement of crash barriers and trackside medical procedures.
The FIA was a founder member of the European New Car Assessment Programme, a car safety programme that crash-tests new models and publishes safety reports on vehicles. Mosley was the first chairman of the organisation. The FIA later helped establish the Latin NCAP and Global NCAP.
European Commission investigation
The Competition Directorate of the European Commission and the FIA were involved in a dispute over the commercial administration of motorsport during the 1990s. The Competition Commissioner, Karel Van Miert had received a number of complaints from television companies and motorsport promoters in 1997 that the FIA had been abusing its position as motorsport's governing body. Van Miert's initial inquiry had not concluded by 1999, which resulted in the FIA suing the European Commission, alleging that the delay was causing damaging uncertainty, and successfully receiving an apology from the Commission over the leaking of documents relating to the case. Mario Monti took over as Commissioner in 1999, and the European Commission opened a formal investigation into the FIA. The Commission alleged a number of breaches of European competition law, centred around the FIA's administration of licences required to participate in motorsport and the control of television rights of the motorsport events it authorised. In order to compete in events the FIA authorised, the competitor had to apply for a licence, which prohibited licensees from entering a series not controlled by the FIA. This provision, which also applied to racing circuits and promoters, prevented rival championships competing against the FIA championships by restricting their access to facilities, drivers, and vehicle manufacturers. In addition, the FIA also claimed the television rights to all international motorsport events, which were then transferred to International Sportsworld Communicators, a company controlled by Ecclestone. This meant organisers were forced into having their championships promoted by the same company that managed the affairs of other motorsport events, a potential conflict of interest. The combination of these requirements meant Ecclestone's Formula One Administration, which now controlled Formula One's commercial rights, was protected from competition from any rival championships.
The investigation was closed in 2001 after the FIA and FOA agreed to a number of conditions. In order to fairly regulate all international motorsport, the FIA agreed to limit its role to that of a sporting regulator, and would sell the commercial rights to its championships, including Formula One. This was to prevent a conflict of interest between the FIA's regulatory role and any commercial advantages it may gain from the success of certain championships. The FIA could no longer prevent non-FIA administered events from being established, neither could it use its powers to prevent competition to Formula One. Ecclestone and FOA would no longer handle the commercial rights to other motorsport events outside of Formula One. Ecclestone had sold the ISC company, which now only controlled the rights to rallying, and would stand down from his role as an FIA Vice-President. As a result of this ruling, the FIA sold the commercial rights to Formula One to the Formula One Group for 100 years for $360 million.
Later Mosley years
Mosley was elected unopposed to his third term as president in 2001, the first election which reduced the term from five to four years. The FIA also moved back to Paris, having been based in Geneva (outside the EU) for the previous two years during the European Commission's investigation.
The FIA Foundation was established in 2001 as the FIA's charitable arm. The Foundation received a US$300 million grant from the sale of Formula One's rights to fund research into road safety, the environmental impact of motoring, and to support sustainable motoring. In 2004 the FIA and the Foundation established the FIA Institute for Motor Sport Safety, which brought together the various safety research groups into one organisation. The Make Roads Safe campaign was set up in 2006 by the FIA Foundation, targeting the creation of safe roads across the world.
During the 2000s the FIA and its president became increasingly embroiled in controversy over Formula One, while facing threats from teams to establish a breakaway series. A grouping of the car manufacturers involved in F1, the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association, proposed a new world championship, which would allow them greater control over the regulations and revenue distribution. A new Concorde Agreement eventually ended the threat, but the breakaway series would resurface during each dispute between the FIA, teams and the Formula One Group. The FIA's handling of the tyre situation at the 2005 United States Grand Prix was criticised. Mosley had refused any modification to the circuit or the holding of a non-championship event in place of the Grand Prix, having stated that running on an untested circuit was unsafe. The FIA also threatened to punish the teams who withdrew from the event, but later cleared the teams of any wrongdoing.
Having again been re-elected unopposed in 2005, Mosley faced his first leadership challenge in a vote of confidence called in June 2008. The vote was in response to allegations concerning Mosley's sex life published by the British media. Mosley won the vote by 103 votes in support to 55 against, though he continued to face criticism from several motoring clubs and motorsport figures. In mid-2009, the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the pending implementation of a budget cap for the 2010 season. The teams again threatened a breakaway championship, with the FIA in response opening an entry process for new teams. The dispute also focused on a lack of confidence in Mosley's control over the sport, and there was a stand-off until Ecclestone negotiated a settlement to establish a new Concorde Agreement. In return for the teams joining the championship and ending the dispute, the budget cap would be replaced by a series of cost-cutting measures, and Mosley agreed to stand down at the end of his term in 2009.
Todt presidency
Former Scuderia Ferrari boss Jean Todt was elected the new President of the FIA in 2009, beating former World Rally champion Ari Vatanen. He stepped down on 17 December 2021, succeeded by Mohammed Ben Sulayem.
Event history
The true history of Formula One began in 1946 with the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile's (FIA's) standardisation of rules. Then in 1950, the FIA organised the first World Championship for Drivers. From 1958, a Constructors Championship title was introduced.
The World Sportscar Championship was created in 1953, and was the first points series for sports car racing in the world. The championship was solely for manufacturers up to 1981. In 1981, a Drivers Championship title was introduced, and in 1985, the manufacturers title was replaced by a Teams Championship.
In 1973, the FIA organised the first World Rally Championship: the 42nd Auto Rally of Monte-Carlo. In 1977, a Drivers Championship title was introduced (in 1977 and 1978 as an FIA Cup for Drivers title).
In 1987, the FIA sanctioned the first World Touring Car Championship. Initially a one-off series, the title was revived in 2005, and discontinued at the end of 2017.
After the 1992 season the World Sportscar Championship was cancelled and dissolved.
In 1993, the National Hot Rod Association was officially recognised by the FIA World Motor Sport Council and the FIA Drag Racing Commission was formed. The FISA was dissolved, and its activities placed directly under the FIA.
There were no sports car world championships until 2010. The SRO Group introduced the FIA GT1 World Championship, which was a championship consisting of one-hour sprint races. After a switch to GT3 cars in 2012 it became the FIA GT Series in 2013, and is called the Blancpain GT World Challenge Europe.
After the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) successfully organised the Intercontinental Le Mans Cup (ILMC) in 2010 and 2011, the FIA and ACO organised together the rebirth of the World Sportscar Championship from 2012 onward, now known as the FIA World Endurance Championship (WEC).
Starting in 2022, the FIA and FIM jointly sanctioned the World Rally-Raid Championship. With the Amaury Sport Organization (ASO) acting as promotor and organizer; the separate cross-country rallying series sanctioned by the FIA and FIM were dissolved and merged into the new World Championship.
FIA World Championships
Organised by the AIACR (The Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus).
The championship was officially cancelled in 1930, but in 1928-1930 no titles were awarded.
Organisational structure
The FIA General Assembly is the Federation's supreme governing body, consisting of representatives from each of the FIA's member associations. Meetings of the General Assembly are usually held once a year, though extraordinary meetings can be convened for urgent matters. The General Assembly has responsibility for amending the FIA's statutes and regulations, approving the annual budget and reports, deciding upon the membership, and electing the officers and members to the Federation's governing bodies. The FIA Senate oversees the finances and management of the FIA, and can take decisions required between meetings of the relevant committee or World Council.
The head of the FIA and chairman of the General Assembly is the President, an office currently held by Mohammed bin Sulayem. The President coordinates the activities of the Federation and proposes resolutions to the various commissions and committees. The President also acts as the representative of the FIA to external organisations. There is also a Deputy and seven Vice-Presidents for Sport and Mobility, who assist the President in managing the activities in their respective area. The President is elected to a four-year term by the General Assembly. Candidates must produce an electoral list consisting of their proposed Deputy Presidents, Vice-Presidents for Sport, and the President of the Senate, as well as demonstrate support from a number of member clubs.
The FIA has two World Councils. The Mobility and Automobile Council governs all non-sporting activities, comprising transport policy, road safety, tourism and environmental concerns. The World Motor Sport Council (WMSC) governs all sporting events regulated by the FIA, and writes the regulations for every FIA championship. It also supervises Karting through the Commission Internationale de Karting (CIK). Beneath the WMSC are a number of specialised commissions, which are either focused on individual championships, or general areas such as safety.
The FIA's judicial bodies include the International Tribunal, which exercises disciplinary powers that are not dealt with by the meeting stewards, and the International Court of Appeal. The ICA is the final appeal tribunal for international motor sport, which resolves disputes brought before it by National Sporting Authorities worldwide, or by the President of the FIA. It can also settle non-sporting disputes brought by national motoring organizations affiliated to the FIA.
Presidents
FIA Hall of Fame
The FIA Hall of Fame honours racing drivers, technicians, and engineers who have greatly contributed to motor racing. It was established by FIA in 2017.
FIA Institute Young Driver Excellence Academy
In October 2010, the FIA Institute Young Driver Excellence Academy, a new programme to develop young driver talent worldwide, was announced. After a three-day shootout in Melk, Austria, on 6–8 February, twelve drivers were selected.
Regulations and standards
Many of the Formula Student regulations also refer to FIA standards.
Criticism
In 2007 and 2008 the FIA was criticised on two issues. The 2007 Formula One espionage controversy involved accusations against McLaren, who were accused of stealing technological secrets from Ferrari. Commenting on how the FIA handled the situation, Martin Brundle wrote a column in the Sunday Times entitled "Witch-hunt threatens to spoil world title race" in which he accused the FIA of a witch-hunt against McLaren. The World Motor Sport Council responded by issuing a writ against the Sunday Times alleging libel. Brundle responded by saying "I have earned the right to have an opinion", and suggested the writ was a "warning sign to other journalists".
In 2008, accusations surfaced that FIA President Max Mosley was involved in scandalous sexual behaviour. Following a June 2008 decision of the FIA to retain Max Mosley as president, the German branch of the FIA, the ADAC (the largest European motoring body), announced, "We view with regret and incredulity the FIA general assembly's decision in Paris, confirming Max Mosley in office as FIA president". It froze all its activities with the FIA until Max Mosley leaves office. Press reports also claimed that Bernie Ecclestone was investigating creating a rival to the Formula 1 series due to the scandal.
See also
FIA Prize Giving Ceremony
List of FIA events
List of FIA member organisations
References
Autosport: 26 July 2007, pages 8–9. World Motor Sport Council.
External links
Auto racing organizations
Formula One
International organizations based in France
International sports organizations
Organizations based in Paris
Sports organizations established in 1904
1904 establishments in Europe
1904 establishments in Asia
1904 establishments in Africa
1904 establishments in North America
1904 establishments in South America
1904 establishments in Oceania
Motorsport governing bodies | [
0.7969996333122253,
0.6147224307060242,
0.12912249565124512,
0.1484716832637787,
-0.367165207862854,
-0.1960754692554474,
-0.16474032402038574,
0.06400995701551437,
-0.34584707021713257,
0.3049585223197937,
0.10120705515146255,
0.7374142408370972,
-0.16865478456020355,
0.7818160057067871,
-0.24480319023132324,
0.23374465107917786,
-0.19105924665927887,
0.4274712800979614,
0.5410944223403931,
0.125590980052948,
-0.3845357894897461,
0.16364188492298126,
0.14862267673015594,
0.3215978741645813,
0.08746249228715897,
-0.1941244751214981,
0.405327707529068,
0.15057505667209625,
0.19271308183670044,
-0.2578238546848297,
0.6750922203063965,
0.5994659662246704,
-0.19092635810375214,
-0.1672924906015396,
-0.4743973910808563,
-0.5351674556732178,
0.4443950355052948,
-0.7294488549232483,
-0.02257528156042099,
-0.2791169285774231,
-0.27786028385162354,
0.17855335772037506,
0.2773723006248474,
0.5722039341926575,
0.2631992697715759,
-0.14660868048667908,
-1.1583303213119507,
0.5148449540138245,
-0.2753296494483948,
0.19990256428718567,
-0.09409520775079727,
-0.12624303996562958,
0.3947421610355377,
1.139127492904663,
-0.1882108598947525,
0.6983361840248108,
-0.5823824405670166,
-0.8643791675567627,
-0.44699978828430176,
-0.3636806309223175,
0.6750078797340393,
0.7706049084663391,
0.5914796590805054,
0.711773157119751,
0.05876780301332474,
0.2584243714809418,
0.3818229138851166,
0.15077528357505798,
-0.6225738525390625,
-0.21728652715682983,
-0.513268232345581,
-0.5463687181472778,
-0.2832675874233246,
-0.259507954120636,
-0.13570362329483032,
-1.2939971685409546,
-0.21171864867210388,
-0.04985509812831879,
0.41254690289497375,
-0.28495073318481445,
0.5229239463806152,
-0.20876222848892212,
0.4517868161201477,
0.4424265921115875,
0.3437938988208771,
0.4347132742404938,
-0.6540489792823792,
-0.4313032329082489,
-0.051662515848875046,
0.10962667316198349,
-0.2924555540084839,
0.06710951775312424,
0.8567176461219788,
-0.6272054314613342,
0.14737659692764282,
0.08039768785238266,
0.13463467359542847,
-0.12776236236095428,
0.14449650049209595,
0.23431168496608734,
-0.03932499885559082,
0.024511104449629784,
-0.5099090933799744,
0.13563725352287292,
-0.6920034885406494,
0.3881570100784302,
-0.47529008984565735,
-0.4864184558391571,
0.33015137910842896,
0.3754783272743225,
0.11213881522417068,
-0.13075844943523407,
-0.18868736922740936,
-0.0008832634193822742,
-0.21599528193473816,
-0.39777275919914246,
-0.1270514875650406,
-0.5483707785606384,
0.5908727645874023,
0.1037004292011261,
0.20145340263843536,
-0.06245727464556694,
0.34977778792381287,
0.1133708730340004,
-0.21429377794265747,
0.6999151110649109,
-0.09177795052528381,
0.9560417532920837,
-0.718271791934967,
0.16316474974155426,
0.3041829764842987,
0.392696350812912,
-0.7829167246818542,
-0.39709439873695374,
0.07559070736169815,
0.05466364324092865,
0.0941707119345665,
-0.0008885205606929958,
0.30887725949287415,
0.4098498523235321,
-0.4789770841598511,
-0.6777592897415161,
-0.5155428647994995,
-0.20006108283996582,
-0.25156521797180176,
-0.1539384126663208,
-0.05279478430747986,
-0.18280817568302155,
-0.2890496551990509,
-0.7790020704269409,
0.07571563869714737,
-0.6273382306098938,
-0.5212109684944153,
-0.013538704253733158,
0.34133416414260864,
0.3743090033531189,
0.7460798025131226,
-0.04054192826151848,
0.20707736909389496,
0.5154886841773987,
0.09733398258686066,
-0.3844704329967499,
-0.6723176836967468,
-0.4175812602043152,
0.1302238404750824,
-0.08880244195461273,
0.2671332061290741,
0.14203442633152008,
0.07874765247106552,
0.2696983814239502,
-0.5938899517059326,
-0.4101783335208893,
0.45592382550239563,
-0.6139066219329834,
-0.6157923936843872,
-0.25802960991859436,
0.8654301166534424,
-0.14125199615955353,
0.3470862805843353,
0.5343489646911621,
-0.7609050273895264,
0.3987090587615967,
-0.06959071755409241,
0.2661936581134796,
0.5650472044944763,
0.0400315597653389,
0.23789826035499573,
-0.618034303188324,
-0.7641679048538208,
-0.08737727999687195,
0.5378881096839905,
-0.382672518491745,
-0.2923624813556671,
-0.8371722102165222,
0.9190462231636047,
-0.5030146241188049,
-0.36415907740592957,
0.791637122631073,
-0.5103002786636353,
0.2817632257938385,
-0.23384931683540344,
0.28839513659477234,
0.343738853931427,
-0.17316420376300812,
-0.4618515372276306,
0.1144833117723465,
0.5136117935180664,
0.006380151025950909,
-0.7184017896652222,
0.7598633170127869,
-0.33207762241363525,
-0.39777258038520813,
0.5454655885696411,
-0.1309913843870163,
0.2995029389858246,
-0.1936919242143631,
-0.2754591405391693,
0.9328537583351135,
-0.3000859320163727,
-0.13871745765209198,
0.705671489238739,
-0.20483988523483276,
-0.43537893891334534,
0.9408745765686035,
0.032562099397182465,
-0.2328689843416214,
-0.03446265310049057,
0.3461098074913025,
-0.18976733088493347,
-0.46617135405540466,
0.7720726132392883,
0.02933429554104805,
0.8069614171981812,
-0.4617769718170166,
-0.39315319061279297,
0.2038932740688324,
-0.09817252308130264,
-0.32177966833114624,
-0.06269369274377823,
0.09088317304849625,
0.2587311863899231,
0.680605947971344,
-0.6315052509307861,
0.5425845384597778,
-0.18677444756031036,
-0.37069860100746155,
0.18703967332839966,
0.28055936098098755,
-0.3495410084724426,
0.24811415374279022,
0.03381964936852455,
-0.3102320432662964,
0.8359743356704712,
0.1282147318124771,
-0.3773932456970215,
-0.5261896848678589,
0.7247785329818726,
0.21382997930049896,
0.6392436027526855,
0.3031708896160126,
0.18464234471321106,
-0.4689503610134125,
-0.16147857904434204,
0.3731226325035095,
0.06361296772956848,
-0.8196728825569153,
-0.39792317152023315,
-0.333599328994751,
-0.2887483239173889,
0.48443344235420227,
0.7402400970458984,
0.6738500595092773,
0.21509045362472534,
0.010166820138692856,
0.1553363800048828,
0.29112139344215393,
-0.9071794152259827,
0.8940550088882446,
-0.6073717474937439,
0.35144808888435364,
-0.5056289434432983,
-0.1254393607378006,
0.34377628564834595,
-0.5109612345695496,
-0.14582903683185577,
0.1455964595079422,
-0.2199542373418808,
-0.9893251657485962,
-0.34952718019485474,
-0.07455573230981827,
0.21038572490215302,
0.3550044894218445,
-0.5882537961006165,
-0.15825821459293365,
0.33204638957977295,
-0.31319600343704224,
-0.8606169819831848,
0.41873061656951904,
0.11161886900663376,
-0.7321041822433472,
-0.2736167311668396,
0.7525376081466675,
-0.44403037428855896,
-0.43284478783607483,
0.46158865094184875,
0.3495340645313263,
-0.16715632379055023,
-0.47668856382369995,
-5.4573235511779785,
-0.19710347056388855,
-0.2784681022167206,
0.12068331241607666,
-0.1691107153892517,
0.07526741176843643,
0.45262545347213745,
-0.034262765198946,
-0.4621070623397827,
-0.016579700633883476,
-0.0385906845331192,
-0.16797547042369843,
0.0874757319688797,
0.6070958375930786,
-0.10452134162187576,
0.7533074617385864,
0.1914457529783249,
-0.20020176470279694,
-0.29714062809944153,
0.3412907123565674,
-0.017362089827656746,
-0.8226768970489502,
0.08675079047679901,
0.32573559880256653,
0.36945006251335144,
-0.008926001377403736,
-0.581254243850708,
0.031081896275281906,
-0.06492055207490921,
0.44774797558784485,
-0.4776398539543152,
0.23198188841342926,
-0.20275232195854187,
-0.36454975605010986,
0.33590075373649597,
0.13232021033763885,
0.5350319743156433,
0.012118513695895672,
-0.17151020467281342,
-0.003077617846429348,
-0.5814306139945984,
0.42014431953430176,
0.7301814556121826,
-0.1486317217350006,
0.2474842518568039,
-0.6925403475761414,
-0.10519692301750183,
0.11700308322906494,
-0.5048975944519043,
0.7232797145843506,
0.0026069351006299257,
-0.04515501856803894,
0.12930211424827576,
0.004120407626032829,
0.32187262177467346,
-0.3223496675491333,
0.41186729073524475,
-0.3523007929325104,
0.04527392238378525,
-0.01422097161412239,
0.026356341317296028,
-0.35158368945121765,
0.2998512387275696,
0.19947998225688934,
-0.5356382727622986,
-0.007335561793297529,
-0.44426438212394714,
-0.2511938214302063,
0.2884724736213684,
0.6215280294418335,
-0.46918994188308716,
0.356626957654953,
-0.405710905790329,
-1.218233346939087,
-0.3117513358592987,
0.6053529977798462,
0.6822261810302734,
-0.2215343713760376,
0.08434159308671951,
0.7423218488693237,
-0.013097058981657028,
-0.10253638029098511,
-0.707092821598053,
0.3120918273925781,
-0.21366429328918457,
-0.26000988483428955,
0.6404882669448853,
0.24694590270519257,
-0.22873343527317047,
-0.0026947089936584234,
0.19867925345897675,
0.026173552498221397,
0.23412403464317322,
0.26701509952545166,
-0.45651695132255554,
-0.40712693333625793,
-0.032646287232637405,
-0.09465476870536804,
0.41249412298202515,
-0.5450419783592224,
-0.366917222738266,
-0.29567766189575195,
0.1292000114917755,
-0.03642626106739044,
-0.07043224573135376,
-0.7400256991386414,
0.32476145029067993,
0.3600471317768097,
0.7375649809837341,
0.3977683484554291,
-0.4988034963607788,
-0.30522704124450684,
-0.6399816274642944,
-0.2398144006729126,
0.4807252883911133,
-0.2739157974720001,
0.01950950175523758,
0.1478198915719986,
0.11113092303276062,
-0.1994253695011139,
0.04012124985456467,
0.4563004672527313,
-1.0147675275802612,
0.18967093527317047,
0.17365939915180206,
0.5448474884033203,
0.10436359792947769,
-0.221828892827034,
0.23330280184745789,
-0.2615504264831543,
-0.29566600918769836,
0.3325808346271515,
-0.22977375984191895,
0.23510217666625977,
0.3964027464389801,
0.38584068417549133,
-0.39308786392211914,
0.03216961398720741,
0.16910414397716522,
-0.3387313485145569,
0.6374368071556091,
-0.027506466954946518,
0.45535925030708313,
-0.539671003818512,
0.4409758746623993,
0.6618622541427612,
-0.1218724474310875,
0.04298920929431915,
0.07084613293409348,
0.6777635812759399,
0.18557976186275482,
-0.4946371018886566,
-0.10484752804040909,
0.5637984871864319,
-0.2264527827501297,
-0.1758115589618683,
0.5937778353691101,
0.3171218931674957,
-0.6067003607749939,
-1.165300965309143,
0.3680891692638397,
0.029117722064256668,
-0.45462238788604736,
-0.08156434446573257,
0.9105737805366516,
0.15149672329425812,
-0.2287025898694992,
-0.6171653866767883,
0.041260574012994766,
0.2629316747188568,
0.13316978514194489,
-0.5777432918548584,
-0.5625357031822205,
-0.6133871078491211,
0.010638532228767872,
-0.051908235996961594,
0.16212867200374603,
-0.23675097525119781,
-0.4990946054458618,
-0.31657886505126953,
0.14084219932556152,
-0.08463329076766968,
-0.38694965839385986,
-0.12997226417064667,
-0.1759473830461502,
-0.647171676158905,
0.2859993875026703,
0.016414104029536247,
0.22508421540260315,
0.06246189400553703,
0.1251646876335144,
0.320428729057312,
0.2862609624862671,
0.23559440672397614,
-0.12815441191196442,
-0.8247328996658325,
-0.6608256101608276,
0.13140706717967987,
-0.4223371148109436,
-0.35101866722106934,
-0.2743302583694458,
0.22446301579475403,
0.5555515885353088,
-0.37482649087905884,
-0.17048001289367676,
-0.5518401265144348,
0.4443591833114624,
0.014837285503745079,
-0.2378360629081726,
1.118196964263916,
-0.34764564037323,
-0.5968396067619324,
0.22414980828762054,
0.6045593619346619,
-0.604087233543396,
0.2779104709625244,
0.10990908741950989,
-0.019969793036580086,
-0.4803532660007477,
-0.06748509407043457,
0.1950814127922058,
0.02866288460791111,
0.005793717224150896,
-0.35469648241996765,
-0.3091066777706146,
1.3869950771331787,
0.6879191398620605,
0.2002951204776764,
0.17975234985351562,
0.20808292925357819,
-0.8235803842544556,
-0.09857163578271866,
-0.09759439527988434,
-0.13303840160369873,
-0.06027418375015259,
-0.4420131742954254,
0.24694183468818665,
0.3758361041545868,
0.11161360889673233,
-0.1911851018667221,
-0.08329513669013977,
0.7284440398216248,
0.32062727212905884,
-0.2141960710287094,
-0.1582641452550888,
0.5277678966522217,
-0.21039754152297974,
-0.10124075412750244,
-0.046891145408153534,
-0.038825757801532745,
-0.6857127547264099,
0.055600281804800034,
-1.1081559658050537,
-0.20610971748828888,
-0.12315035611391068,
0.047098610550165176,
-0.471012681722641,
0.6635448932647705,
0.0148113202303648,
-0.16114167869091034,
-0.08885645121335983,
-0.13823692500591278,
0.009443284943699837,
-0.27931174635887146,
-0.10833389312028885,
0.4118855595588684,
-0.7328147292137146,
-0.26172009110450745,
0.007642786484211683,
-0.8081833124160767,
0.45725494623184204,
-0.3066460192203522,
0.3272015452384949,
0.4369085133075714,
0.5427637696266174,
-0.20470407605171204,
-0.4424709379673004,
-0.6766800880432129,
0.032958075404167175,
0.3749503195285797,
-0.1610974371433258,
0.06529801338911057,
0.40625253319740295,
0.20586800575256348,
0.16322603821754456,
-0.6061795353889465,
-0.5861217379570007,
0.24438545107841492,
-0.18437814712524414,
-0.013323217630386353,
-0.24554018676280975,
-0.4205096662044525,
0.7271657586097717,
0.3782889246940613,
-0.20114539563655853,
-0.16829487681388855,
0.16776609420776367,
0.6506949663162231,
0.32020702958106995,
0.6194197535514832,
-0.5692670941352844,
0.6893070936203003,
0.38026735186576843,
-0.4532269537448883,
-0.5872493386268616,
0.16986417770385742,
0.029063990339636803,
0.14678901433944702,
0.053871046751737595,
0.5446414947509766,
0.5642573833465576,
-0.8141487240791321,
-0.30240747332572937,
0.6741474866867065,
-0.4064483344554901,
0.19660569727420807,
-0.0360959991812706,
-0.8125537633895874,
0.3244103789329529,
0.30434468388557434,
-0.2633667290210724,
0.3586239516735077,
-0.12073413282632828,
-0.4322052299976349,
-0.10147703438997269,
0.021205229684710503,
-0.2093481421470642,
0.49972864985466003,
-0.33815792202949524,
0.33372312784194946,
0.39807742834091187,
-0.03618968650698662,
-0.24587425589561462,
0.7143373489379883,
-0.6774954199790955,
-0.3753989040851593,
-0.24716387689113617,
-1.0368517637252808,
-0.13752086460590363,
0.031798314303159714,
0.5084835886955261,
0.63761305809021,
-0.3062606453895569,
-0.5752947330474854,
0.012189746834337711,
0.28114375472068787,
-0.0646507665514946,
-0.07460828870534897,
-0.31985756754875183,
0.23745402693748474,
0.5694019794464111,
-0.14209027588367462,
0.5437241792678833,
0.17586559057235718,
0.01196005567908287,
-0.22007249295711517,
0.3837389349937439,
0.05189328268170357,
0.08770334720611572,
0.24066032469272614,
0.06977806985378265,
0.5311756134033203,
0.8388404846191406,
0.1581471860408783,
0.1014704629778862,
0.5165596008300781,
0.48803094029426575,
-0.4034099280834198,
0.05362289771437645,
-0.18106432259082794,
0.2557845413684845,
-0.06827495992183685,
-0.2451421022415161,
-0.059866536408662796,
-0.040945835411548615,
0.2792966961860657,
0.25850751996040344,
0.2669691741466522,
-0.17110690474510193,
0.22881188988685608,
-0.4688814878463745,
-0.030873194336891174,
-0.029345396906137466,
-0.9841217398643494,
-0.4344925284385681,
-0.22707347571849823,
-0.020088404417037964,
0.42001181840896606,
0.6311900019645691,
0.34564098715782166,
-0.44215723872184753,
-0.3696860373020172,
-0.1536676436662674,
-0.053666576743125916,
-0.36218011379241943,
-0.910944938659668,
-0.16490162909030914,
0.3798459470272064,
0.8211852312088013,
-0.015683485195040703,
-0.10507096350193024,
-0.022466307505965233,
-0.4974125325679779,
-0.28067445755004883,
0.23234230279922485,
0.25306782126426697,
0.04329885542392731,
0.16795937716960907,
0.14781533181667328,
0.3458169996738434,
-0.1371912956237793,
-1.0153660774230957,
-0.09811623394489288,
0.5012215971946716,
-0.3513670563697815,
-0.13483849167823792,
0.6170190572738647,
-0.49440744519233704,
-0.1622997522354126,
-0.2178785651922226,
-0.052130114287137985,
0.21448853611946106,
0.20701222121715546,
-0.006544091738760471,
0.16763141751289368,
0.2447989583015442,
0.5838370323181152,
-0.566709578037262,
0.5432834029197693,
0.6984322667121887,
-0.527620792388916,
-0.3789993226528168,
-0.688322901725769,
0.3803495466709137,
-0.55185866355896,
-0.7093533873558044,
0.5700168609619141,
0.26958131790161133,
0.025787021964788437,
0.2121274769306183,
0.3781299293041229,
0.33726221323013306,
0.3952912986278534,
-0.26878732442855835,
1.1247047185897827,
-0.08658871054649353,
-0.5976123809814453,
-0.04788798466324806,
0.0066426536068320274,
0.323133647441864,
0.49190402030944824,
-0.048467013984918594,
-0.12084674835205078,
-0.271443247795105,
0.618490993976593,
-0.671534538269043,
0.5876212120056152,
-1.230521321296692,
0.6048661470413208,
-0.051212359219789505
] |
248021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athelney | Athelney | Athelney is a village located between the villages of Burrowbridge and East Lyng in the Sedgemoor district of Somerset, England. The name is believed to be derived from the Old English æþeling meaning "prince" + -ey meaning "isle". The village is best known for once being the fortress hiding place of King Alfred the Great, from where he went on to defeat the Great Heathen Army at the Battle of Edington in May 878.
Isle of Athelney
The area is known as the Isle of Athelney, because it was once a very low isolated island in the 'very great swampy and impassable marshes' of the Somerset Levels. Much of the Levels are below the level of high tide. They are now drained for agricultural use during the summer, but are regularly flooded in the winter.
Archaeological excavations and written evidence indicate that at the time of Alfred the island was linked by a causeway, known as Balt Moor Wall, to East Lyng, with either end protected by a semi-circular stockade and ditch, the ditch on the island is now known to date from the Iron Age. It is therefore presumed that the Isle was known by Alfred to have been an ancient fort, and that its existing defences were strengthened by him. Evidence of metalworking on the site suggests that he also used the island to equip his army. When translated from the Anglo-Saxon, the name of the isle, Æthelinga íeg, is often thought to mean the Island of Princes; if correct this might suggest that the island had royal connections prior to Alfred.
To give thanks for his victory, Alfred founded a monastery, Athelney Abbey, on the Isle in 888, which lasted until the Dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII in 1539, when the value of the rubble was put at £80.
After Athelney Abbey was dissolved, the monks built the church in the neighbouring village of East Lyng.
There are no remains of the monastery above ground, but investigations were carried out in the first episode of television archaeology programme Time Team in 1993. A decade later, in the one-hundredth episode, excavations were carried out. These revealed it as one of the only known Anglo-Saxon metalworking sites in the UK.
The monastery's location was shown by a small monument on top of the isle in 1801 built by Sir John Slade, 1st Baronet of the Slade Baronets, on the site of a stone vault. It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument (Somerset County No 367) and Grade II listed building. The monument is now on private land belonging to Athelney Farm and is accessible via a permissive path past the farm.
Athelney is around from North Petherton, where the Alfred Jewel (an Anglo-Saxon ornament dating from the late 9th century) was discovered in 1693.
See also
List of hill forts and ancient settlements in Somerset
References
External links
A History of the County of Somerset: Volume 2: (1911) at British History Online Athelney
The Somerset Urban Archaeological Survey: Lyng and Athelney by Miranda Richardson
Villages in Sedgemoor
Somerset Levels
Hill forts in Somerset
Former islands of England | [
-0.2854137122631073,
0.17258034646511078,
-0.07909386605024338,
-0.5611522793769836,
0.1979093849658966,
0.8524762988090515,
0.5779123306274414,
-0.16986796259880066,
0.13931988179683685,
-0.08311376720666885,
0.057466454803943634,
0.3410193920135498,
-0.3387262523174286,
0.4310992658138275,
-0.5442982316017151,
0.17059867084026337,
0.16916735470294952,
0.5354865193367004,
0.2678312659263611,
-0.7928314805030823,
0.23156780004501343,
-1.0055046081542969,
-0.4509510099887848,
0.22290576994419098,
0.0019330116920173168,
-0.15036311745643616,
0.49146372079849243,
-0.20190756022930145,
-0.013370923697948456,
-0.04921949282288551,
-0.30335333943367004,
0.6381886601448059,
-0.10367173701524734,
-0.9050989747047424,
-0.1508718580007553,
-0.581696093082428,
0.6373299956321716,
-0.1296909600496292,
-0.16876302659511566,
-0.3073052763938904,
-0.3515312075614929,
-0.39850106835365295,
0.10064874589443207,
-0.15604713559150696,
-0.7479265928268433,
-0.4954298734664917,
-1.0794146060943604,
-0.06471700966358185,
-0.7100238800048828,
0.32678112387657166,
-0.4576079249382019,
0.36183255910873413,
0.3504891097545624,
-0.04683110490441322,
0.7379462718963623,
0.3950026333332062,
-0.3287619948387146,
-0.18136119842529297,
0.9918358325958252,
0.34228190779685974,
0.26427870988845825,
0.009648401290178299,
-0.08332926779985428,
0.016182485967874527,
-0.48012644052505493,
0.39026516675949097,
-0.2221844643354416,
0.21804431080818176,
-0.335100382566452,
-0.18992188572883606,
-0.23344716429710388,
-0.5155286192893982,
-0.35263118147850037,
0.4397464990615845,
-0.488027423620224,
0.4414566159248352,
-0.3795822858810425,
0.0163151565939188,
0.681835412979126,
0.15458430349826813,
0.45510393381118774,
0.029197825118899345,
0.4413025975227356,
0.3824872672557831,
0.25157561898231506,
-0.21595829725265503,
-0.31027713418006897,
0.28331050276756287,
-0.3598373532295227,
0.7155164480209351,
-0.43580162525177,
-0.10135021805763245,
-0.4399143159389496,
0.15345783531665802,
0.13919968903064728,
-0.5093551874160767,
-0.4250345826148987,
0.13307438790798187,
0.07090414315462112,
0.3881131410598755,
-0.04087241366505623,
0.3762246370315552,
0.5794677734375,
-0.03010719083249569,
-0.32099753618240356,
0.18264546990394592,
-0.7187007665634155,
-0.4026889503002167,
0.4422546923160553,
-0.5227901339530945,
-0.5144762396812439,
0.4984521269798279,
-0.16717779636383057,
-0.21171683073043823,
-0.31435632705688477,
0.4432179033756256,
0.33775845170021057,
-0.1354130655527115,
-0.1905117779970169,
0.022892436012625694,
0.17612096667289734,
1.0378518104553223,
0.1965184062719345,
-0.07660458236932755,
-0.40287986397743225,
0.25163114070892334,
0.28156760334968567,
0.32378295063972473,
0.13858911395072937,
0.6742166876792908,
0.17815281450748444,
0.7024598717689514,
-0.06915165483951569,
-0.06451305747032166,
0.5356295704841614,
-0.5527239441871643,
-0.2133253812789917,
-0.19569769501686096,
0.8539080023765564,
0.7529208064079285,
-0.3613131046295166,
0.2838183045387268,
-0.49102267622947693,
0.17360521852970123,
-0.01842520944774151,
0.05972318723797798,
-0.27374446392059326,
-0.4772316813468933,
-0.2948434054851532,
0.12678246200084686,
0.42299124598503113,
0.0811978280544281,
0.20736047625541687,
-0.23623627424240112,
-0.5358811020851135,
-0.28531116247177124,
0.4590807259082794,
0.03682553768157959,
0.004316356033086777,
0.09301336854696274,
-0.19145037233829498,
0.0916495993733406,
0.7807124853134155,
-0.30318671464920044,
0.5430670380592346,
-0.12041966617107391,
0.3171343505382538,
-0.5147182941436768,
-0.3340328633785248,
0.7673590183258057,
-0.8108367919921875,
-0.2423926442861557,
1.1042522192001343,
-0.2016727775335312,
0.4202016592025757,
-0.5764273405075073,
0.9710486531257629,
0.3874218165874481,
0.4684145748615265,
-0.3398618996143341,
-0.801669180393219,
0.24080251157283783,
0.7388278841972351,
-0.2559219300746918,
-0.1254289299249649,
0.2270708829164505,
0.09882465749979019,
-0.009747589007019997,
-0.03514691814780235,
-0.2118712067604065,
-0.03978399559855461,
-0.8771215677261353,
0.7392640113830566,
0.13258783519268036,
0.6980268955230713,
-0.14764143526554108,
-0.5876474976539612,
0.6252250671386719,
-0.10954288393259048,
0.6166477203369141,
0.3027627766132355,
-0.22044536471366882,
0.6610667109489441,
-0.46022453904151917,
-0.4784732460975647,
-0.0433049313724041,
-0.002418966731056571,
-0.18694500625133514,
-0.31549161672592163,
0.4425073266029358,
-0.04502837359905243,
-0.31757310032844543,
-0.13420741260051727,
0.4049738347530365,
0.3102388381958008,
-0.31447073817253113,
0.0931519940495491,
0.48612621426582336,
0.37411850690841675,
-0.8183572888374329,
0.19142386317253113,
-0.278384268283844,
-0.14829063415527344,
-0.007603631820529699,
0.03844575211405754,
0.7977910041809082,
-0.29287973046302795,
-0.15680620074272156,
-0.007982602342963219,
-0.7066549062728882,
-0.33273962140083313,
0.49878019094467163,
0.2212076634168625,
-0.4385032057762146,
0.15030093491077423,
-0.25778383016586304,
-0.13401496410369873,
-0.21401897072792053,
0.6671971082687378,
-0.508894145488739,
-0.07112817466259003,
0.123243547976017,
-0.6934823989868164,
0.23664680123329163,
0.35977450013160706,
0.7605631351470947,
0.24396510422229767,
0.9470713138580322,
-0.02529069595038891,
-0.8208786845207214,
0.2903258204460144,
-0.2168874442577362,
0.5727506875991821,
0.026622489094734192,
-0.12396720051765442,
-0.49533236026763916,
0.18963521718978882,
0.5991578102111816,
0.42983654141426086,
0.3691627085208893,
-0.7725968956947327,
0.054932236671447754,
0.24721117317676544,
0.6919206380844116,
0.5736648440361023,
-0.8960660099983215,
-0.06910617649555206,
-0.9316246509552002,
0.9849738478660583,
-0.22692276537418365,
0.4232407510280609,
-0.17467860877513885,
0.1556967794895172,
0.01253278087824583,
0.05072316899895668,
0.10866036266088486,
-0.06244058534502983,
0.09209142625331879,
-0.7737978100776672,
-0.34386444091796875,
0.6155756711959839,
0.6686213612556458,
-0.060749687254428864,
0.28999564051628113,
0.2230663299560547,
-0.35744747519493103,
0.5865135788917542,
-0.3936486840248108,
-0.4204773008823395,
-0.1575232595205307,
-0.24977344274520874,
0.5893140435218811,
-0.407925009727478,
0.6691430807113647,
-0.13208463788032532,
0.36645156145095825,
-0.6710598468780518,
-0.12097157537937164,
-0.19671915471553802,
-0.4125208258628845,
0.03516672924160957,
0.8157215714454651,
-0.6479394435882568,
0.12688417732715607,
-0.6128999590873718,
-0.3918546438217163,
-0.15032942593097687,
-0.8447977304458618,
-5.295276641845703,
0.5546167492866516,
-0.2175435870885849,
-0.11873442679643631,
0.22685617208480835,
-0.03565792366862297,
0.1021147221326828,
-0.3654218316078186,
-0.47189846634864807,
0.45856213569641113,
-0.31148090958595276,
-0.12121151387691498,
0.057500679045915604,
0.5994197130203247,
1.3988196849822998,
0.7125917077064514,
0.20172515511512756,
-0.36785557866096497,
0.4270428717136383,
0.43766433000564575,
-0.3264339566230774,
0.2620650827884674,
-0.32122981548309326,
0.6732305884361267,
0.084532730281353,
0.33203649520874023,
-0.41857099533081055,
-0.23780308663845062,
-0.9988318085670471,
-0.34657347202301025,
0.3097383677959442,
0.21759048104286194,
0.19828972220420837,
0.2417236864566803,
-0.3521110415458679,
0.5966713428497314,
-0.05649026110768318,
-0.11736272275447845,
0.8612741231918335,
-0.7574533224105835,
-0.23515653610229492,
0.3039102554321289,
-0.2759007215499878,
-0.15276479721069336,
0.48720353841781616,
-0.43190476298332214,
-0.5445609092712402,
0.03418407589197159,
0.21844810247421265,
0.7392714023590088,
-0.37334302067756653,
0.19980129599571228,
0.47709524631500244,
-0.16159991919994354,
-0.1318703144788742,
-0.1358713060617447,
0.40533918142318726,
-0.21808336675167084,
0.13923542201519012,
0.7100993990898132,
0.11181554943323135,
-0.35962995886802673,
-0.11378543823957443,
0.0032681594602763653,
-0.2630167007446289,
-0.5718483924865723,
0.4028088450431824,
0.22640423476696014,
0.13607679307460785,
0.08669811487197876,
-0.15379659831523895,
0.28048551082611084,
-0.0803738385438919,
-0.8628939986228943,
-0.06303431838750839,
-0.6543799042701721,
-0.1474413424730301,
0.2712377905845642,
-0.037309154868125916,
0.19862772524356842,
0.05708356946706772,
-0.19546782970428467,
0.5130614638328552,
0.8891516327857971,
-0.14430834352970123,
-0.8488115072250366,
-0.4804857671260834,
-0.12052334100008011,
-0.38538625836372375,
-0.9643425941467285,
0.4737805128097534,
-0.3311878442764282,
0.18133464455604553,
-0.02861296571791172,
-0.10717424750328064,
-0.02507406659424305,
0.3634362518787384,
-0.04226339980959892,
0.04411139711737633,
0.031174270436167717,
-0.11773676425218582,
0.06722424179315567,
0.2764754593372345,
-0.293664813041687,
-0.45489373803138733,
-0.5968550443649292,
-0.372256875038147,
0.6499024629592896,
0.7704039812088013,
-0.2815627157688141,
0.15576839447021484,
0.05670331045985222,
-0.5489828586578369,
-0.07763435691595078,
-0.21682685613632202,
-0.30550849437713623,
-0.3609131872653961,
0.5854104161262512,
-0.4910028874874115,
0.2512780725955963,
-0.5328682065010071,
-0.0676581934094429,
-0.22483067214488983,
-0.1491062194108963,
-0.1454576700925827,
0.08443645387887955,
0.8620487451553345,
0.48694413900375366,
-0.7868583798408508,
0.40242481231689453,
-0.3285001814365387,
-0.2109755277633667,
-0.2303878366947174,
-0.49503493309020996,
-0.28963467478752136,
-0.6463274359703064,
-0.5311667919158936,
-0.33528682589530945,
0.05833249166607857,
0.8750494718551636,
0.5972005128860474,
0.02139592356979847,
-0.33728745579719543,
0.2538702189922333,
0.3016235828399658,
0.24994820356369019,
0.5202275514602661,
0.47216108441352844,
-1.0550637245178223,
0.29502081871032715,
-0.2910843789577484,
0.10964857041835785,
0.003271309658885002,
-0.7163755297660828,
0.2978249192237854,
-0.08550418168306351,
-0.18260887265205383,
-0.1315026432275772,
-0.3937752842903137,
0.21644598245620728,
-0.4447162449359894,
0.5757720470428467,
-0.907783031463623,
0.630447506904602,
0.2442173808813095,
0.09736418724060059,
-0.29936572909355164,
-0.1211637556552887,
-0.45071807503700256,
0.32756131887435913,
0.24984492361545563,
-0.7261787056922913,
0.05363982543349266,
0.0022055755835026503,
0.2633220851421356,
-0.4209394156932831,
-0.07903529703617096,
0.8321977257728577,
-0.17968524992465973,
-0.05091540887951851,
0.22947029769420624,
-0.2082861065864563,
-0.4053351581096649,
-0.2585354745388031,
0.6910924911499023,
-0.6235740780830383,
-0.865023672580719,
-0.19114436209201813,
-0.18104718625545502,
-0.5360687971115112,
0.05598871409893036,
-0.06934422999620438,
0.5772663354873657,
0.4531749486923218,
-0.15584945678710938,
-0.11509480327367783,
0.6062103509902954,
-0.4116405248641968,
-0.06219816580414772,
-0.6421220302581787,
-0.013681969605386257,
0.03992382436990738,
-0.5118352174758911,
0.8183639645576477,
0.4331570267677307,
-0.5471447706222534,
0.2996426820755005,
0.40309906005859375,
-0.4286442697048187,
0.7833271622657776,
-0.06689117103815079,
-1.0966781377792358,
0.7601377367973328,
0.3480246365070343,
-0.30809468030929565,
0.09606283158063889,
-0.03415616229176521,
0.35468536615371704,
-0.08678276836872101,
-0.22578896582126617,
-0.0425415001809597,
-0.40753939747810364,
-0.2590494453907013,
0.075617216527462,
-0.9487101435661316,
0.05906573683023453,
0.6620475053787231,
-0.537882924079895,
0.8090208768844604,
0.30066928267478943,
-0.2797400951385498,
0.3408068120479584,
0.5253612399101257,
0.6444956064224243,
0.03813573345541954,
-0.34988027811050415,
-0.30416449904441833,
-0.13898679614067078,
0.3439364731311798,
0.18738530576229095,
0.34140998125076294,
0.9418708086013794,
0.433736115694046,
-0.2094361037015915,
-0.43060195446014404,
0.3599572479724884,
0.053459253162145615,
-0.4350922703742981,
-0.9508392214775085,
0.7885842323303223,
0.4366587698459625,
-0.2558549642562866,
-0.30187296867370605,
-0.29608020186424255,
0.5370506644248962,
-0.012066347524523735,
0.3023219108581543,
0.576533317565918,
-0.1328495591878891,
0.6793941259384155,
0.34105226397514343,
-0.4516799747943878,
-0.3061022460460663,
0.6797386407852173,
-0.014378982596099377,
-0.47635170817375183,
0.0934423953294754,
-0.26912298798561096,
0.7908168435096741,
-1.0387941598892212,
-0.618929386138916,
-0.4404647946357727,
-0.3093620836734772,
0.023591091856360435,
0.4223630726337433,
-0.44764453172683716,
0.23906119167804718,
-1.0504454374313354,
0.14071409404277802,
-0.11997050046920776,
-0.4851853847503662,
-0.20240163803100586,
0.8552219271659851,
-0.32383206486701965,
-0.27986380457878113,
-0.44107598066329956,
-0.19469226896762848,
0.07572578638792038,
-0.45669442415237427,
-0.17475742101669312,
-0.28358790278434753,
-0.4806981384754181,
-0.16713567078113556,
-0.0807228684425354,
-0.14392554759979248,
0.28739145398139954,
0.1219828873872757,
0.03378930315375328,
0.0027731002774089575,
-0.6983327865600586,
-1.2071176767349243,
1.1265829801559448,
0.010309974662959576,
-0.014865171164274216,
-0.08544199168682098,
0.39292123913764954,
0.013238566927611828,
-0.3347741961479187,
0.08547710627317429,
0.5962885618209839,
-0.674350917339325,
0.195656880736351,
0.3147578835487366,
1.1623165607452393,
0.09151453524827957,
-0.15595395863056183,
-0.08966581523418427,
-0.7084486484527588,
0.4095604419708252,
0.7651947736740112,
-0.3295011818408966,
-0.19214530289173126,
0.37188324332237244,
0.6064832210540771,
-0.4881194233894348,
0.8837910294532776,
-0.53237384557724,
-0.42423754930496216,
0.1018083393573761,
0.04854019731283188,
0.09683551639318466,
-0.6078039407730103,
-0.30200549960136414,
0.5504705309867859,
-0.3330499529838562,
-0.5273134112358093,
-0.5227890610694885,
-0.355491578578949,
0.15615053474903107,
0.029971227049827576,
0.27950790524482727,
0.40678635239601135,
0.44856125116348267,
-0.1714826077222824,
-0.4250940978527069,
0.23676858842372894,
0.2797466218471527,
-0.04273518547415733,
0.13343928754329681,
-0.23185944557189941,
0.36343514919281006,
-0.14186222851276398,
-0.10991288721561432,
-0.9129749536514282,
-0.272124320268631,
0.796875,
0.44718754291534424,
-0.16929303109645844,
-0.3176862895488739,
0.2517322599887848,
0.4449034035205841,
0.09735041856765747,
-0.07313783466815948,
-0.13502316176891327,
-0.374449759721756,
-0.6838688254356384,
0.4810855984687805,
-0.5776002407073975,
-0.4361635148525238,
0.8129730820655823,
0.22916725277900696,
0.312101811170578,
0.3721500635147095,
-0.24675938487052917,
0.052741020917892456,
-0.007939745672047138,
0.056439079344272614,
0.3539455235004425,
0.010575873777270317,
-0.2675628364086151,
-0.18124857544898987,
-0.3133655786514282,
-0.04640112817287445,
-0.7540098428726196,
0.6536630392074585,
-0.42276492714881897,
-0.31552964448928833,
0.23266611993312836,
-0.8506642580032349,
-0.30720895528793335,
-0.1854669153690338,
0.21876859664916992,
0.03480931743979454,
-0.03531915694475174,
-0.8066263794898987,
-0.14362642168998718,
-0.1206178218126297,
1.294097661972046,
0.48292458057403564,
0.20300298929214478,
-0.3605033755302429,
0.17429165542125702,
-0.41941970586776733,
0.24573145806789398,
-0.2300003468990326,
0.30307021737098694,
-0.5420993566513062,
-0.38564199209213257,
-0.12495337426662445,
0.8592174053192139,
1.2707760334014893,
0.3664664030075073,
0.15422676503658295,
1.0145671367645264,
-0.4260787069797516,
-0.18920102715492249,
-0.03891579806804657,
0.06744182109832764,
0.12890784442424774,
0.14575964212417603,
0.579895555973053,
0.09998723119497299,
-0.08566804975271225,
0.14749683439731598,
0.09599979221820831,
-0.22719576954841614,
0.4943696856498718,
0.14774394035339355,
-0.3776896893978119,
0.6744587421417236,
-0.089389368891716,
-0.0076882503926754,
-0.6453606486320496,
0.041558168828487396,
-0.3367561101913452,
0.019438330084085464,
-0.1388128399848938,
0.9740972518920898,
0.25440046191215515,
0.2770363390445709,
-0.16553418338298798,
-0.5046575665473938,
0.26664963364601135,
0.4325137436389923,
0.062220197170972824,
0.005734582897275686,
-0.6159656047821045,
-0.5834943652153015,
-0.5567463040351868,
0.33658716082572937,
0.12887267768383026,
-0.20714671909809113,
-0.024752503260970116,
0.24947671592235565,
-0.38742750883102417,
-0.3515990078449249,
0.08539675921201706,
-0.7332278490066528,
-0.19109711050987244,
0.11121023446321487
] |
248022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fonda | Fonda | Fonda may refer to:
People
Fonda (surname)
Fonda Metassa, an Australian rugby league footballer
Places
United States
Fonda, Iowa, in Pocahontas County
Fonda, New York, in Montgomery County
Fonda, North Dakota, an unincorporated community
Other uses
Fonda (band), an American indie pop band
Fonda (U.S. Supreme Court case), an 1886 case (117 U.S. 516) | [
0.5573031306266785,
0.2032473385334015,
-0.360441118478775,
-0.05223304405808449,
0.02365422062575817,
0.7126535177230835,
0.11481888592243195,
0.4668833911418915,
-0.44039222598075867,
-0.43335583806037903,
-0.09623327106237411,
-0.3950920104980469,
0.12532562017440796,
0.6416946649551392,
-0.41034069657325745,
0.3604726493358612,
-0.5936765074729919,
1.1343295574188232,
0.3733132779598236,
-0.15410096943378448,
-0.4049035310745239,
-0.10075237601995468,
0.49046406149864197,
-0.22144749760627747,
0.21497566998004913,
0.2382536679506302,
0.5645646452903748,
-0.23811353743076324,
-0.27235865592956543,
0.5203579664230347,
-0.16472391784191132,
0.604806125164032,
0.6734903454780579,
-0.22840261459350586,
0.02986692078411579,
-0.5455000400543213,
-0.054399989545345306,
-0.04302779957652092,
0.19249214231967926,
-0.42654794454574585,
0.17680157721042633,
-0.21240460872650146,
0.4325202405452728,
0.23399904370307922,
-0.1010817363858223,
0.4359669089317322,
-1.9232903718948364,
0.6830645203590393,
-0.5715382099151611,
-0.25778383016586304,
-0.11545367538928986,
-0.32033586502075195,
0.1716809868812561,
0.24378317594528198,
0.23292706906795502,
0.22250156104564667,
-0.6959820985794067,
-0.41263440251350403,
0.5305234789848328,
-0.5516754388809204,
0.48480305075645447,
0.21734054386615753,
0.36614730954170227,
-0.12228494882583618,
0.29869014024734497,
-0.33435216546058655,
0.15038679540157318,
0.4938371181488037,
-0.30959224700927734,
-0.4096112847328186,
-0.1526973843574524,
-0.2890810966491699,
-0.28889337182044983,
0.1959391087293625,
0.16036483645439148,
-0.08813917636871338,
-0.4426564872264862,
0.3833455443382263,
0.02833675593137741,
0.8066690564155579,
0.04922297224402428,
-0.4004024267196655,
0.3737933337688446,
0.2265612781047821,
0.46228843927383423,
0.047140661627054214,
-0.7321962118148804,
-0.07238829135894775,
-0.4842449426651001,
0.5930725336074829,
-0.2904397249221802,
-0.24486254155635834,
0.46797552704811096,
-0.23750735819339752,
0.008111897855997086,
-0.24729275703430176,
0.12930122017860413,
0.5063168406486511,
0.24350105226039886,
0.3158426284790039,
-0.7065302729606628,
-0.34902775287628174,
0.33003875613212585,
-0.08844093978404999,
-0.6020450592041016,
-0.09645417332649231,
-0.1036667749285698,
0.4119243621826172,
0.5565494894981384,
-0.7774930596351624,
0.2250388264656067,
0.03366651013493538,
0.08487079292535782,
-0.02664443664252758,
0.041482970118522644,
0.12955334782600403,
0.23584310710430145,
-0.6728566884994507,
-0.4566357433795929,
-0.05798357352614403,
-0.08132591843605042,
0.6180953979492188,
-0.02765520103275776,
-0.15290062129497528,
0.044258035719394684,
0.3021758198738098,
0.421632319688797,
0.020397238433361053,
-0.3696487545967102,
-0.1115773618221283,
-0.012954995967447758,
0.46108633279800415,
-0.41694843769073486,
0.1422407329082489,
-0.11909184604883194,
-0.48731496930122375,
-0.5458105802536011,
-0.3723445534706116,
0.31220921874046326,
-0.16447338461875916,
-0.6575192809104919,
-0.04841284453868866,
-0.6839323043823242,
-0.022859549149870872,
0.7497619390487671,
0.00658594211563468,
-0.1764993965625763,
-0.06318406015634537,
0.0924733579158783,
-0.18857631087303162,
0.2315140664577484,
-0.06372655928134918,
0.20211073756217957,
0.37245532870292664,
-0.08549091219902039,
-0.1271573007106781,
0.3412608504295349,
-0.23657627403736115,
0.3230988085269928,
0.41264456510543823,
-0.388141006231308,
0.801345705986023,
-0.04423694685101509,
0.16297808289527893,
0.5433496832847595,
0.13243921101093292,
-0.21009594202041626,
0.025303535163402557,
-0.7008355259895325,
0.2774915099143982,
-0.3612649738788605,
0.4196866750717163,
0.6679682731628418,
0.01685265451669693,
-0.23771348595619202,
0.33422496914863586,
0.32222384214401245,
-0.08598033338785172,
0.3906800448894501,
-0.15184138715267181,
-0.2847321927547455,
0.2146003246307373,
-0.08115377277135849,
-0.052667342126369476,
-0.2582663595676422,
0.01354498416185379,
0.12048020213842392,
-0.2595750689506531,
0.1941487044095993,
-0.0349578782916069,
-0.020827805623412132,
-0.6292569637298584,
0.4174083173274994,
-0.4379691779613495,
0.6086019277572632,
0.05075021833181381,
-0.2888953387737274,
0.6535372138023376,
0.6482746005058289,
0.3901987373828888,
-0.3388654887676239,
-0.6542718410491943,
0.5587714314460754,
-0.21466751396656036,
-0.5386701822280884,
0.5871955752372742,
0.44961288571357727,
-0.022995030507445335,
0.5469114780426025,
0.3362337052822113,
0.5687035918235779,
-0.31197041273117065,
0.4276729226112366,
-0.15457643568515778,
-0.5056806206703186,
-0.5001275539398193,
-0.09429126977920532,
0.11243421584367752,
0.04561106488108635,
-0.40746429562568665,
0.5939012169837952,
-0.0914996862411499,
0.31676772236824036,
-0.28322041034698486,
0.23394130170345306,
0.6546297669410706,
-0.1580144166946411,
-0.32263123989105225,
0.18737904727458954,
-0.36963018774986267,
0.36397093534469604,
0.0314750000834465,
-0.11517762392759323,
-0.4235835075378418,
0.49688243865966797,
-0.06695812940597534,
0.6227185726165771,
-0.19937321543693542,
0.021484164521098137,
-0.01860828697681427,
-0.3578577935695648,
0.5941337943077087,
-0.04811273515224457,
-0.24668914079666138,
0.13767634332180023,
0.07843863219022751,
0.20941129326820374,
-0.20617148280143738,
-0.08419936150312424,
-0.10143120586872101,
-0.002998218173161149,
0.20309840142726898,
0.2137739360332489,
0.1322994977235794,
0.015073520131409168,
0.11760377883911133,
-0.020795846357941628,
0.16541224718093872,
-0.1968633085489273,
-0.22751037776470184,
-0.7547770738601685,
0.09890781342983246,
-0.36967527866363525,
0.2665696144104004,
0.3285503089427948,
-0.2767201364040375,
-0.572908878326416,
-0.4953570067882538,
0.408856600522995,
0.3196907043457031,
0.4466656744480133,
0.25199833512306213,
-0.4682673215866089,
-0.09991785883903503,
-0.022002888843417168,
0.3508046269416809,
-0.5377863645553589,
-0.013138136826455593,
-0.20570635795593262,
-0.42353272438049316,
-0.26543083786964417,
0.6588920950889587,
-0.0667504221200943,
-1.1500736474990845,
-0.22337767481803894,
-0.21727120876312256,
0.3888244926929474,
-0.020440304651856422,
-0.24162819981575012,
-0.007571369409561157,
-0.091970294713974,
-0.05604581907391548,
-0.10052160173654556,
0.29661449790000916,
0.14320753514766693,
0.1906440705060959,
0.10499341040849686,
0.05549042671918869,
-0.04997960105538368,
-0.6403343081474304,
-0.7292569875717163,
0.11939112097024918,
-0.04165686294436455,
-0.3393007218837738,
0.920477032661438,
0.2912689745426178,
-0.026198938488960266,
-0.31967830657958984,
-6.0307159423828125,
0.35457444190979004,
-0.321029931306839,
-0.1695822924375534,
0.6347616910934448,
-0.07140845060348511,
0.40546101331710815,
-0.21807585656642914,
-0.2123933881521225,
-0.32745495438575745,
0.22906911373138428,
0.07154098153114319,
0.1207980066537857,
-0.13968028128147125,
0.4720070958137512,
-0.03934432566165924,
0.3430599570274353,
0.11151834577322006,
0.059787243604660034,
-0.01618475839495659,
-0.3762129247188568,
0.6135612726211548,
-0.0048182192258536816,
0.478503555059433,
0.11467688530683517,
0.5509142875671387,
-0.3290497064590454,
0.20087487995624542,
-0.7746323347091675,
-0.492664635181427,
-0.01835397072136402,
0.2813745141029358,
0.28949272632598877,
-0.35421818494796753,
-0.2990814447402954,
-0.312897264957428,
-0.14342938363552094,
0.25727561116218567,
0.04939045011997223,
-0.12384036183357239,
0.031570419669151306,
0.5673226714134216,
-0.2786147892475128,
-0.6938579678535461,
0.3702066242694855,
-0.022213706746697426,
-0.6436036825180054,
0.13366194069385529,
-0.08677790313959122,
0.3734731674194336,
0.4372696876525879,
-0.062228333204984665,
0.3384503126144409,
0.46844398975372314,
0.3412066102027893,
-0.1272992193698883,
0.8065865635871887,
0.12161112576723099,
-0.5308297872543335,
0.0852046012878418,
0.593950092792511,
-0.4256363809108734,
0.3039695620536804,
-0.46988043189048767,
-0.8490331172943115,
-0.5648027658462524,
-0.07240188866853714,
-0.0009014678653329611,
-0.21161812543869019,
0.0829635038971901,
-0.27262118458747864,
-0.020501229912042618,
-0.34969672560691833,
-1.145769476890564,
-0.10195455700159073,
-0.537588357925415,
-0.3028707504272461,
0.37960395216941833,
-0.5564458966255188,
0.45153793692588806,
-0.01586494781076908,
0.3600369691848755,
-0.40370863676071167,
0.4570613205432892,
0.008592360652983189,
0.15689115226268768,
-0.1425054967403412,
0.48977962136268616,
-0.7965304255485535,
-0.3764968812465668,
-0.04111674800515175,
0.0322272852063179,
0.5740888714790344,
-0.061842575669288635,
-0.11639698594808578,
0.12413027882575989,
0.010273502208292484,
0.062398072332143784,
0.06301192939281464,
0.22532425820827484,
0.5243372321128845,
-0.2587525546550751,
-0.1846160739660263,
-0.36914995312690735,
0.32870620489120483,
0.07339395582675934,
0.3772529363632202,
0.10949619859457016,
0.8521912693977356,
-0.15263795852661133,
-0.007806704379618168,
0.005831797607243061,
-0.2651430666446686,
-0.8713419437408447,
0.19925840198993683,
-0.17249581217765808,
-0.0158928781747818,
-0.19076979160308838,
0.8158919215202332,
-0.08855410665273666,
0.09023188054561615,
0.1489916890859604,
-0.28682148456573486,
0.09674586355686188,
0.12139216810464859,
-0.4370492398738861,
0.16100643575191498,
-0.28785741329193115,
-0.2194225788116455,
0.6559679508209229,
0.26344993710517883,
0.5185614228248596,
0.19396735727787018,
0.25070393085479736,
0.12899427115917206,
0.5156041979789734,
-0.24476933479309082,
-0.551724910736084,
0.1486874222755432,
-0.6085222959518433,
0.33684027194976807,
-0.15658047795295715,
-0.2882889211177826,
0.19174286723136902,
0.287312388420105,
0.5367688536643982,
-0.14151175320148468,
-0.04760391637682915,
-0.058172114193439484,
0.6423839330673218,
-0.043147142976522446,
-0.048598140478134155,
-0.1189262717962265,
-0.275736927986145,
-0.32162442803382874,
-0.24082520604133606,
0.03714607283473015,
0.3053378462791443,
-0.3909597396850586,
-0.01931920275092125,
0.046163372695446014,
-0.5613445043563843,
-0.9072099328041077,
0.15489403903484344,
-0.22154171764850616,
-0.6391257047653198,
-0.17801497876644135,
-0.2591076195240021,
-0.3695457875728607,
0.3712311089038849,
0.2953334450721741,
-0.5680651664733887,
-0.1033705621957779,
-0.055239394307136536,
0.13033023476600647,
0.08149953186511993,
0.3063977062702179,
0.015428331680595875,
-0.157119482755661,
-0.03912443667650223,
-0.1519082933664322,
0.2637992799282074,
-0.30612605810165405,
0.1448751538991928,
0.011477828957140446,
-0.0737685114145279,
0.006524953525513411,
0.3615843653678894,
-0.2045113742351532,
0.016397185623645782,
-0.7707921266555786,
-0.01790456846356392,
0.3993913531303406,
0.448320209980011,
-0.13599112629890442,
0.008378647267818451,
0.2847205698490143,
0.31867843866348267,
-0.29518887400627136,
0.15625324845314026,
0.49902546405792236,
0.5352427363395691,
-0.5186289548873901,
-0.2728440761566162,
-0.03052464686334133,
-0.2097204327583313,
0.4569293260574341,
-0.08686048537492752,
-0.359101802110672,
-0.04961816221475601,
-0.1244998350739479,
-0.6314681768417358,
-0.0015878393314778805,
0.347438782453537,
0.12297500669956207,
0.10864975303411484,
0.3711016774177551,
0.4512893557548523,
-0.09985379874706268,
-0.43270817399024963,
0.05547565594315529,
0.10697902739048004,
0.095731720328331,
-0.4811660349369049,
-0.24204334616661072,
1.2433253526687622,
0.06182686984539032,
-0.6039093136787415,
0.5463227033615112,
0.07286302000284195,
-0.0417194589972496,
-0.19410116970539093,
-0.12797170877456665,
0.17771610617637634,
0.152530699968338,
-0.008367776870727539,
0.25163593888282776,
-0.280428946018219,
-0.06558144092559814,
0.23386017978191376,
0.437370628118515,
0.9236390590667725,
0.04210517182946205,
-0.6448947787284851,
-0.49017804861068726,
-0.1115121841430664,
0.35094913840293884,
-0.02461916208267212,
-0.5779559016227722,
0.6085155010223389,
-0.23801639676094055,
-0.8698081970214844,
-0.5493156313896179,
-0.10484158247709274,
0.5343273282051086,
-0.1430792212486267,
-0.26910027861595154,
0.09619350731372833,
0.3475058078765869,
0.3528415262699127,
0.09379799664020538,
-0.13389573991298676,
-0.14657890796661377,
0.7083315253257751,
-0.058767661452293396,
0.11650598049163818,
-0.20217359066009521,
-0.07222535461187363,
-0.24262477457523346,
-0.6857015490531921,
0.03529087454080582,
0.6521816849708557,
0.4914170801639557,
0.513762354850769,
-0.16523724794387817,
-0.19084542989730835,
0.1668996661901474,
-0.4818095564842224,
0.18089520931243896,
-0.6646716594696045,
-0.5167034268379211,
-0.13051573932170868,
0.10510103404521942,
-0.28453579545021057,
0.23773030936717987,
-0.5276799201965332,
-0.35602977871894836,
0.08074706047773361,
-0.5847490429878235,
0.138004332780838,
-0.13389481604099274,
-0.036931559443473816,
-0.07714245468378067,
0.18158027529716492,
-0.34954285621643066,
0.1608521044254303,
-0.060920599848032,
0.11331425607204437,
0.13900107145309448,
0.1836542934179306,
-0.8263146877288818,
0.4802584946155548,
-0.27378877997398376,
-0.5878193378448486,
0.2546965777873993,
0.07707597315311432,
-0.13256937265396118,
-0.4371758997440338,
0.21655835211277008,
-0.2986983358860016,
0.5356524586677551,
-0.5002456307411194,
0.37552064657211304,
0.6614366173744202,
0.0585365854203701,
0.33779311180114746,
0.2096668779850006,
-0.7349510192871094,
-0.3635985553264618,
0.12181506305932999,
-0.1563611924648285,
-0.4933690130710602,
0.7397292852401733,
0.233063742518425,
0.7238923907279968,
0.46030768752098083,
-0.04882168024778366,
-0.025829734280705452,
0.37029194831848145,
0.34699955582618713,
0.38841408491134644,
-0.4185236394405365,
-0.5601987242698669,
0.12311483174562454,
-0.08875474333763123,
-0.12414013594388962,
-0.3670502305030823,
-0.47924935817718506,
-0.5789806842803955,
0.820833146572113,
0.02762170322239399,
-0.030851958319544792,
-0.07239769399166107,
-0.15173743665218353,
0.11167451739311218,
-0.11834684759378433,
-0.30715250968933105,
0.14323356747627258,
0.5169444680213928,
-0.05797508731484413,
-0.3601139187812805,
-0.002821779577061534,
-0.30298587679862976,
-0.20427408814430237,
0.041253767907619476,
-0.12352903187274933,
0.15161892771720886,
-0.7908780574798584,
-0.6466251015663147,
-0.3856649696826935,
0.0450475849211216,
-0.17292216420173645,
0.47832244634628296,
-0.20426999032497406,
0.07885907590389252,
-0.7018371224403381,
-0.1025238037109375,
-0.40740343928337097,
-0.30251285433769226,
0.2942667305469513,
0.4140509366989136,
0.36967119574546814,
-0.5264958143234253,
0.34019795060157776,
0.08406132459640503,
0.4145175516605377,
0.33606505393981934,
0.27732741832733154,
-0.056199729442596436,
-0.4279625713825226,
-0.4859493672847748,
-0.30703166127204895,
-0.0261253472417593,
-0.3699325621128082,
0.16775916516780853,
-0.3212200105190277,
0.22438600659370422,
0.2000887393951416,
0.0488380566239357,
-0.12535372376441956,
0.6243237257003784,
-0.22246846556663513,
0.12426143139600754,
0.09482380747795105,
-0.30010315775871277,
-0.1460697054862976,
-0.44157084822654724,
0.30303144454956055,
0.7240263223648071,
0.14288194477558136,
0.18234269320964813,
0.03576090186834335,
0.3602033257484436,
-0.18613292276859283,
-0.07832537591457367,
0.05993306636810303,
-0.0673065260052681,
-0.1438034176826477,
-0.39173272252082825,
0.7814338207244873,
0.6344161629676819,
-0.3166438937187195,
-0.4136084020137787,
0.0978236198425293,
-0.022113144397735596,
-0.15467222034931183,
0.6636949777603149,
0.19836239516735077,
-0.3830612301826477,
-0.5795344710350037,
0.6784102916717529,
0.0025007931981235743,
0.5924426913261414,
0.3330623209476471,
-0.2275790572166443,
-0.19091370701789856,
0.024579240009188652,
0.17617951333522797,
-0.5901826024055481,
0.0968237817287445,
-0.11538033932447433,
0.083614282310009,
-0.4169021248817444,
0.3987964987754822,
-0.3323189318180084,
0.11398058384656906,
0.44254979491233826,
0.7725913524627686,
0.03616571053862572,
-0.3415060341358185,
0.158747598528862,
-0.18936507403850555,
0.13886712491512299,
-0.24479801952838898,
0.06384813785552979,
0.5714942812919617,
0.06254025548696518,
-0.540211021900177,
-0.7230996489524841,
0.4609479606151581,
0.0026278106961399317,
-0.02138231322169304,
0.49717551469802856,
0.029694316908717155,
0.3150496482849121,
-0.20138749480247498,
-0.2970835864543915,
-0.31988030672073364,
0.08738594502210617,
0.601919412612915
] |
248024 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West%20Chester%20Township%2C%20Butler%20County%2C%20Ohio | West Chester Township, Butler County, Ohio | West Chester Township is one of the thirteen townships of Butler County, Ohio, United States, located in the southeastern corner of the county. It is situated between Sharonville and Liberty Township, about north of Cincinnati, and is included in the Cincinnati Metropolitan Area. Exits 19, 21 and 22 off Interstate 75 serve West Chester. It is the most populous township in Ohio, with a population at the 2010 census of 60,958.
History
The thirteenth and last in order of creation, it was erected from Liberty Township by the Butler County Commissioners on June 2, 1823, upon petitions from residents of the township. No boundaries were given in the resolution passed by the commissioners, but it originally contained 35 square miles (91 km), just short of a full survey township. The new township was given the name "Union." Because Union Township was familiarly known as West Chester [reference], plus the abundance of other townships in Ohio called Union, the name was changed to West Chester Township effective June 28, 2000, after being ratified by the township's voters at the March 9 primary election. Many census and government records, including the 2000 census, refer to Union Township. Today, it is the only West Chester Township statewide.
Historic population figures
1900—1,743
1910—1,534
1920—1,583
1930—1,988
1940—2,109
1950—2,545
1960—6,236
1970—12,795
1980—23,553
1990—37,894
2000—54,895
2010—60,958
Climate
Geography
Located in the southeastern corner of the county, it borders the following townships and cities:
Liberty Township - north
Mason - east
Deerfield Township, Warren County - east
Sharonville - southeast
Springdale - southwest
Fairfield - west
Fairfield Township - northwest
The southeastern corner of the township has been annexed by the city of Sharonville and a small portion in the west has been annexed by Fairfield.
The unincorporated communities of Maud, Port Union, and Tylersville are located in central, western, and western West Chester Township respectively.
Government
The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, Mark Welch, Lee Wong, and Ann Becker, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it. There is also an elected township fiscal officer, who serves a four-year term beginning on April 1 of the year after the election, which is held in November of the year before the presidential election. Vacancies in the fiscal officership or on the board of trustees are filled by the remaining trustees. Historically, West Chester Township has leaned heavily toward the Republican Party but in recent years that advantage has narrowed. Barack Obama only won 35.2% of the vote against John McCain's 63.5% in 2008, but in 2020 Joe Biden claimed 44% against Donald Trump's 54.5%.
Three times voters have rejected the incorporation of the township as a city. On February 2, 1988, the vote was 4,097 to 3,956 against incorporation; 5,816 to 4,972 against on August 8, 1989, and 5,054 to 4,679 against on August 3, 1993.
Public services
Formed in 1967, the township police department employs approximately 100 individuals. Led by Police Chief Joel Herzog, it is organized into three distinct bureaus: the Patrol Bureau, the Support Bureau, and the Administration Bureau.
The township was home to the Voice of America's Bethany Relay Station, a facility covering 625 acres (2.5 km) in the northeast corner of the township that broadcast American propaganda overseas from 1943 to 1994. The property owned by the Voice of America Station has now been converted into Voice of America MetroPark. This park consists of a 1.42-mile walking trail around a lake. The Miami University Voice of America Learning Center was opened in 2009. The township is home to several parks in addition to Voice of America MetroPark, including Keehner Park. The township is also home to the Islamic Center of Greater Cincinnati, which is one of the largest mosques in the area.
In 2006 ground was broken for The Square at Union Centre which will serve as the town square for West Chester hosting events surrounded by class A office space and restaurants. The West Chester library will be part of the square and a bell-tower constructed by the famous and historic Verdin Bell Company of Cincinnati already serves as the centerpiece to the square.
Some of the township is in the West Chester post office (45069) and the southeastern corner is served by the Sharonville office (45241). Fairfield (45014) and Hamilton (45011 or 45015) also serve the township.
Education
Most of the township is in the Lakota Local School District, but portions are also in the Princeton City School District and a tiny part on the eastern border is in the Mason City School District. The largest single school building in the township is the Lakota West High School Main Campus. The Lakota West High School Main Campus has about 2,000 students and 145 staff members. The principal at Lakota West High School is Ben Brown. Lakota West is classified by OHSAA as a Division 1 school. Lakota West High School is home to the 2007 Ohio State Baseball Champions, led by Coach Bill Dreisbach.
Economy
Top employers
According to West Chester's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the township are:
Household Income
Notable current and former residents
John A. Boehner, 61st Speaker of the United States House of Representatives
Fr. Anthony Cekada, traditional Catholic priest
Bill Coley, former Ohio Senator
John Conner, former fullback for the New York Giants
Bp. Daniel Dolan, traditional Catholic bishop
Rich Franklin, mixed martial arts fighter
Andre Frazier, former linebacker for the Pittsburgh Steelers and Cincinnati Bengals.
Ken Griffey Sr., former baseball player for the Cincinnati Reds
Ken Griffey Jr., Hall of Fame baseball player for the Seattle Mariners and the Cincinnati Reds
Jorge Gurgel, mixed martial arts fighter
Jordan Hicks, linebacker for the Philadelphia Eagles
Ryan Kelly, center for the Indianapolis Colts
E.W. Scripps, newspaper publisher (Scripps-McRae League, Scripps-Howard), April–November each year
References
Further reading
Bert S. Barlow, W.H. Todhunter, Stephen D. Cone, Joseph J. Pater, and Frederick Schneider, eds. Centennial History of Butler County, Ohio. Hamilton, Ohio: B.F. Bowen, 1905.
Jim Blount. The 1900s: 100 Years In the History of Butler County, Ohio. Hamilton, Ohio: Past Present Press, 2000.
Butler County Engineer's Office. Butler County Official Transportation Map, 2003. Fairfield Township, Butler County, Ohio: The Office, 2003.
A History and Biographical Cyclopaedia of Butler County, Ohio with Illustrations and Sketches of Its Representative Men and Pioneers. Cincinnati, Ohio: Western Biographical Publishing Company, 1882.
Ohio. Secretary of State. The Ohio municipal and township roster, 2002-2003. Columbus, Ohio: The Secretary, 2003.
Virginia I. Shewalter. A History of Union Township, Butler County, Ohio. [West Chester, Ohio?]: The Author, 1979.
External links
County website
Townships in Butler County, Ohio
Townships in Ohio
1823 establishments in Ohio
Populated places established in 1823 | [
-1.228998064994812,
0.3273806571960449,
-0.6718406081199646,
0.3179302513599396,
0.30484670400619507,
-0.291058748960495,
0.7941552400588989,
0.3444194495677948,
0.21551494300365448,
-1.1039894819259644,
-0.7331923246383667,
0.08223229646682739,
-0.40257298946380615,
0.3968905210494995,
-1.296878695487976,
1.0212819576263428,
-0.08623988926410675,
1.4292628765106201,
-0.23395143449306488,
-1.029953956604004,
-0.5724669098854065,
-0.59736168384552,
0.0236723180860281,
0.6273343563079834,
0.01201329380273819,
-0.23398509621620178,
0.8930055499076843,
-0.15692029893398285,
0.2486787736415863,
0.03613698109984398,
-0.10505281388759613,
0.5319441556930542,
-0.07930618524551392,
-0.3549289405345917,
0.9072709083557129,
-0.9455762505531311,
0.4071354269981384,
-0.5419138669967651,
0.25812265276908875,
-0.6429843306541443,
-0.41367605328559875,
0.0829329863190651,
-0.13805343210697174,
0.14792943000793457,
0.6613541841506958,
-0.3259921073913574,
-0.819537878036499,
0.601872444152832,
-0.9153475761413574,
-0.13499586284160614,
-0.7835621237754822,
-0.017824508249759674,
0.1626802235841751,
0.2813098132610321,
0.15471051633358002,
0.3280573785305023,
-0.7791700959205627,
0.734347939491272,
1.1875319480895996,
0.7219168543815613,
0.11574025452136993,
0.8993188142776489,
-0.11242920160293579,
-0.030361713841557503,
-0.18000230193138123,
-0.07739750295877457,
-0.3226960599422455,
0.6650282144546509,
-0.21284325420856476,
-0.5611442923545837,
-0.01248509157449007,
-0.25927457213401794,
-0.023240581154823303,
0.6368300914764404,
0.6642985343933105,
0.2640323042869568,
-0.08086846768856049,
-0.6526956558227539,
-0.3313978314399719,
-0.015877092257142067,
-0.9648011326789856,
0.41174593567848206,
0.6630972027778625,
0.02412678301334381,
0.2717039883136749,
0.0693131536245346,
-1.0066351890563965,
-0.4660106897354126,
-0.01046905480325222,
1.305153727531433,
-0.29604873061180115,
0.04538826271891594,
-0.2927605211734772,
0.0501941554248333,
-0.26899170875549316,
0.30281075835227966,
-0.003910318948328495,
0.454534113407135,
0.3520139455795288,
1.1436717510223389,
-0.8321934342384338,
0.8682042360305786,
1.2020013332366943,
-0.3054283559322357,
-0.9843023419380188,
-0.24276499450206757,
-0.0012506407219916582,
-0.8143109083175659,
0.7712140083312988,
-0.39478129148483276,
-0.45388177037239075,
0.3007740080356598,
0.5025534629821777,
-0.5152133703231812,
-0.6194648146629333,
-0.04406682774424553,
-0.02698090858757496,
-0.38837677240371704,
-0.3156380355358124,
-0.2549479007720947,
-0.3249538540840149,
0.7231676578521729,
-0.08954857289791107,
0.23301351070404053,
0.04474038630723953,
0.6120697259902954,
0.6442030072212219,
-0.1889313906431198,
0.30289173126220703,
-0.022888613864779472,
0.2287752777338028,
0.9103273153305054,
-0.1269519180059433,
-0.029098859056830406,
-0.04756413400173187,
-0.24328236281871796,
-0.09521397948265076,
0.18058405816555023,
0.21574696898460388,
0.24077026546001434,
-0.37886467576026917,
-0.09841861575841904,
-0.5137693285942078,
0.5571221709251404,
-0.1730659008026123,
-0.602412223815918,
0.17887303233146667,
0.12089690566062927,
0.41777944564819336,
0.28286877274513245,
0.900556206703186,
-0.3744696378707886,
0.27982616424560547,
0.407040536403656,
-0.6277108788490295,
0.20211216807365417,
0.3801904022693634,
0.38291385769844055,
0.14921912550926208,
0.0802040696144104,
0.06329339742660522,
0.21492908895015717,
0.4241599142551422,
-0.4362424910068512,
0.29587864875793457,
0.6122641563415527,
0.8101372718811035,
-0.052645355463027954,
0.1274976134300232,
0.2257230579853058,
-0.36349281668663025,
-0.21017210185527802,
0.2460695058107376,
-0.6735492944717407,
0.7081541419029236,
-0.19957338273525238,
0.478712260723114,
0.5700339078903198,
0.19938701391220093,
-0.6414857506752014,
-1.1130120754241943,
-0.08307264745235443,
0.5321323275566101,
0.17214354872703552,
0.10131709277629852,
0.23954367637634277,
-0.2554594874382019,
0.006928718648850918,
-0.6016986966133118,
-0.35547518730163574,
-0.7199248671531677,
-1.00308096408844,
0.3839570879936218,
-0.4854155480861664,
0.7630836963653564,
0.5281984806060791,
-0.48835164308547974,
-0.1245436742901802,
-0.5568935871124268,
-0.041903648525476456,
-0.30238422751426697,
-0.8039112091064453,
0.6372790336608887,
0.09861190617084503,
-0.5393561720848083,
0.4621208608150482,
-0.3111611604690552,
-0.18018856644630432,
0.218016117811203,
0.4073714315891266,
0.18524177372455597,
-0.5747016668319702,
-0.08417078107595444,
0.7262607216835022,
-0.4770626425743103,
-0.5816130638122559,
0.38201904296875,
0.1946934312582016,
-0.06195233389735222,
0.01765911839902401,
0.8143991231918335,
0.32423877716064453,
0.5445182919502258,
-0.00022535509197041392,
0.10738328844308853,
0.7495172619819641,
0.5368230938911438,
0.9006447196006775,
0.12342581152915955,
0.7194555401802063,
0.24810561537742615,
0.002459293929859996,
0.12427068501710892,
-1.0900559425354004,
-0.05456693470478058,
-1.0492912530899048,
-0.09420375525951385,
-1.0816829204559326,
0.5969896912574768,
-0.8692183494567871,
-0.773137092590332,
0.18855328857898712,
-1.3177763223648071,
-0.1439104527235031,
0.6678926944732666,
0.5994443893432617,
-0.8585718870162964,
-0.6614242792129517,
0.022375870496034622,
-0.7005535960197449,
0.3856034576892853,
0.6274381875991821,
0.9392567276954651,
-0.617487907409668,
-0.11999263614416122,
0.16483964025974274,
0.6488889455795288,
0.42838481068611145,
0.1899658888578415,
0.13316799700260162,
-0.050669748336076736,
0.09136388450860977,
-0.14952020347118378,
-0.10571687668561935,
-0.04678770899772644,
-1.1818913221359253,
-0.7343224883079529,
-0.16956575214862823,
-0.18942368030548096,
0.01648682728409767,
0.9560287594795227,
-0.7831509113311768,
-0.046549681574106216,
0.2503429651260376,
0.3857760429382324,
0.08421396464109421,
-0.7206529974937439,
-0.553395688533783,
-1.3358216285705566,
-0.05793919041752815,
-0.13217280805110931,
0.9240783452987671,
-0.09565053880214691,
0.2647548317909241,
0.12458813190460205,
-0.07657404243946075,
1.2871603965759277,
-0.12005281448364258,
-0.41251039505004883,
0.3408730924129486,
-0.09151222556829453,
0.15453766286373138,
-0.17114917933940887,
0.997515082359314,
0.4581654667854309,
0.2069884091615677,
-0.13897621631622314,
-0.5043541193008423,
-0.009446307085454464,
-0.8170647025108337,
-0.3827188014984131,
0.45355555415153503,
-0.46880653500556946,
0.16340257227420807,
0.021171733736991882,
-0.7230138182640076,
-0.2171924114227295,
-0.4187050759792328,
-3.536271095275879,
0.7698889970779419,
-0.7697205543518066,
-0.19463865458965302,
0.22809487581253052,
-0.19242152571678162,
0.14609408378601074,
-0.7236139178276062,
-0.69818514585495,
0.23403972387313843,
0.7207431793212891,
-1.0069862604141235,
0.3017885386943817,
0.3006855547428131,
0.10997588187456131,
0.0750168189406395,
0.1669105738401413,
-0.2752484679222107,
0.8851973414421082,
0.06773691624403,
-0.764102578163147,
0.1360298991203308,
-0.2764630913734436,
-0.17708028852939606,
0.6559372544288635,
-0.04364296793937683,
0.13496850430965424,
-0.2178187370300293,
-0.799569308757782,
-0.36947545409202576,
0.5836127400398254,
0.15758588910102844,
-0.10299602150917053,
-0.2361668050289154,
-0.12165588140487671,
-0.8129163980484009,
0.22458414733409882,
-0.14277710020542145,
0.5121128559112549,
-0.4124299883842468,
0.16427913308143616,
0.9858530163764954,
-1.0164391994476318,
-0.3433187007904053,
0.4479988217353821,
-0.6618584394454956,
-0.515092670917511,
0.3164588212966919,
0.4714422821998596,
1.4482394456863403,
0.29191192984580994,
0.7553480267524719,
0.8838474750518799,
0.30701425671577454,
-0.05469192937016487,
-0.6675998568534851,
0.6099136471748352,
-0.2864426076412201,
-0.6523358225822449,
0.6689347624778748,
0.29636308550834656,
-0.7362247705459595,
-0.1468426138162613,
-0.6326801180839539,
-0.011410858482122421,
-0.992573082447052,
0.08330494910478592,
-0.1845036745071411,
0.08201313763856888,
0.3621557950973511,
-0.1071794405579567,
0.357074499130249,
0.0031888068187981844,
-0.6334710717201233,
0.24358202517032623,
-0.575822651386261,
-0.7723159193992615,
0.08994857221841812,
-0.1988193243741989,
-0.23279879987239838,
-0.08536189049482346,
0.08771529793739319,
0.2638116478919983,
1.141802430152893,
0.12676610052585602,
-0.5729014873504639,
-0.1622730791568756,
0.15095362067222595,
0.06877389550209045,
-0.5782985091209412,
0.7069821357727051,
-0.42987385392189026,
0.4107920527458191,
-0.24526731669902802,
-0.15095140039920807,
-0.43637794256210327,
0.6969655752182007,
0.4697490334510803,
-0.2218182533979416,
-0.33210110664367676,
0.5068331956863403,
-0.21137596666812897,
-0.3472757339477539,
0.45673131942749023,
-0.7863675355911255,
-0.31402847170829773,
-0.1771325021982193,
-0.01713891699910164,
0.9641784429550171,
-0.1546982377767563,
-0.650216281414032,
-1.1332299709320068,
-0.8311037421226501,
-0.7080771327018738,
-0.06497340649366379,
-1.043634295463562,
0.32801663875579834,
0.31579211354255676,
0.6654523611068726,
0.10149291902780533,
0.6736426949501038,
0.1681654155254364,
-0.048151470720767975,
0.22553059458732605,
-0.3465566337108612,
-0.10440191626548767,
0.8268986940383911,
0.20631615817546844,
-0.037093352526426315,
0.8376582860946655,
0.04142991825938225,
-0.08191835880279541,
-1.0229582786560059,
0.0061172484420239925,
-0.4433499574661255,
-0.14133542776107788,
-0.25594663619995117,
-0.3742346167564392,
-0.4639720916748047,
0.1466842144727707,
0.6944463849067688,
0.37759163975715637,
-1.017806053161621,
0.15056587755680084,
-0.10321702063083649,
0.6056969165802002,
0.45722484588623047,
0.12923216819763184,
-1.6103754043579102,
0.17377182841300964,
-0.9837393760681152,
-0.5920482873916626,
0.057245295494794846,
-0.9093719720840454,
0.14660289883613586,
0.09462659806013107,
-0.39410200715065,
0.2361452579498291,
-0.16744813323020935,
-0.6396017670631409,
0.5511925220489502,
0.4518626630306244,
-0.5886512398719788,
0.40397557616233826,
0.11992635577917099,
0.010955428704619408,
-0.25610214471817017,
-0.11809787899255753,
-1.303074836730957,
0.3383038341999054,
0.6998704671859741,
0.20643392205238342,
-0.23592396080493927,
-0.7288879752159119,
0.5199631452560425,
0.11153536289930344,
0.4230284094810486,
0.38405531644821167,
0.3213995695114136,
-0.3164590001106262,
-0.3848758637905121,
-0.04888206720352173,
-0.4647185802459717,
-0.14576929807662964,
0.1915733814239502,
-0.672821581363678,
-0.0764971375465393,
0.2022218108177185,
-0.06442296504974365,
-0.6176890730857849,
0.4505322277545929,
-0.3087978959083557,
-0.2188999056816101,
-0.04603349417448044,
0.07435167580842972,
-0.9841127991676331,
1.238727331161499,
-0.16104134917259216,
-0.6405104398727417,
-1.108456015586853,
0.48766669631004333,
0.6477616429328918,
-0.46218883991241455,
1.4082517623901367,
-0.20038877427577972,
-0.2931425869464874,
0.4900805354118347,
0.7466591596603394,
-1.2601174116134644,
1.4106980562210083,
-0.5909383893013,
-1.4762513637542725,
1.0144468545913696,
-0.036210235208272934,
-0.15415319800376892,
0.1938691884279251,
0.7960488796234131,
0.08598840236663818,
-0.026008201763033867,
-0.17421342432498932,
-0.5188769698143005,
-0.0104536022990942,
-0.09615988284349442,
-0.6922410130500793,
-0.311857670545578,
0.3928147256374359,
0.2930638790130615,
-0.3354242146015167,
1.041074514389038,
-1.0917414426803589,
-0.4184257388114929,
0.3609471321105957,
0.7423171997070312,
-0.24836662411689758,
0.543764591217041,
-0.05264689028263092,
-0.35516557097435,
-0.33461275696754456,
-0.22338895499706268,
0.42970359325408936,
0.9268198013305664,
0.32183969020843506,
0.07660450041294098,
-0.4896974265575409,
0.1341969519853592,
-0.7890573740005493,
1.0946629047393799,
0.07203779369592667,
-1.1358582973480225,
0.2545233368873596,
0.6658541560173035,
-0.8449521660804749,
-0.447009414434433,
-0.1701578050851822,
1.335022211074829,
-0.7900607585906982,
-0.5860421061515808,
0.5402023196220398,
0.7005453109741211,
-0.09750054776668549,
0.5071703195571899,
-0.1844155490398407,
0.7417646050453186,
-0.12884306907653809,
1.0729573965072632,
-0.24015386402606964,
0.19076135754585266,
-0.6100236177444458,
1.0244457721710205,
-0.2612612247467041,
-0.36870354413986206,
-0.6416663527488708,
0.3098066449165344,
-0.048279523849487305,
-0.6999315023422241,
0.2956324815750122,
-0.1232696920633316,
-1.0118533372879028,
0.40581783652305603,
-0.5016480088233948,
-0.28065988421440125,
-0.4500642716884613,
-0.5457821488380432,
0.02860417775809765,
0.4849807322025299,
-0.6454485058784485,
-0.35281503200531006,
0.3754020929336548,
-0.5403874516487122,
0.10430064797401428,
-0.24560914933681488,
0.17269489169120789,
-0.5456151366233826,
-0.27010881900787354,
0.2680540382862091,
0.6892550587654114,
-0.17970168590545654,
0.15249620378017426,
-0.20788119733333588,
0.2850055694580078,
-0.8219784498214722,
1.3047056198120117,
-0.22175028920173645,
-0.6601073741912842,
0.459977388381958,
0.8101298213005066,
-1.0432542562484741,
0.343376100063324,
0.3411717712879181,
0.09441997110843658,
0.11122668534517288,
-0.5419862866401672,
1.2456058263778687,
0.78497314453125,
-0.6410594582557678,
-0.2251489907503128,
0.7596142292022705,
-0.8294612169265747,
-0.5136387348175049,
0.3091427683830261,
-0.24308046698570251,
-0.15254166722297668,
0.7345820665359497,
0.9188940525054932,
-0.8369752168655396,
1.1803884506225586,
0.0783156082034111,
0.37927350401878357,
0.11956484615802765,
0.29541394114494324,
0.3558317720890045,
-0.6460866928100586,
-1.0292614698410034,
0.4176320433616638,
-0.18533684313297272,
-0.05079279839992523,
-0.42181283235549927,
-0.34525924921035767,
-0.6150123476982117,
1.0178759098052979,
0.30286478996276855,
0.22404618561267853,
0.23762789368629456,
0.15849101543426514,
-0.18131045997142792,
-0.2729617953300476,
-0.21163606643676758,
0.5707934498786926,
0.6369333863258362,
-0.8202348947525024,
0.58660489320755,
0.6804936528205872,
0.15200087428092957,
-0.30850231647491455,
-0.5535290241241455,
0.46346622705459595,
0.1940605491399765,
0.2681814432144165,
-0.5305685997009277,
0.05624859780073166,
0.30236372351646423,
-0.4315985441207886,
0.6654860973358154,
-0.8813241720199585,
0.029975393787026405,
-0.024164976552128792,
-0.043292026966810226,
0.22074246406555176,
-0.7350624203681946,
0.7800292372703552,
-0.05922645702958107,
0.20768135786056519,
-0.06741870194673538,
-0.2906167507171631,
0.7994268536567688,
0.8674148321151733,
-0.12853758037090302,
0.7710262537002563,
-0.03209991753101349,
0.6650647521018982,
-0.3832469582557678,
0.538395881652832,
-0.5021917819976807,
-0.7623615264892578,
0.056878622621297836,
0.04572868347167969,
0.14662109315395355,
0.22543610632419586,
0.15498852729797363,
-0.9813794493675232,
0.323889821767807,
0.12052719295024872,
-0.6200193762779236,
-0.25632810592651367,
-0.5139541625976562,
-0.2871071994304657,
-0.3309799134731293,
1.0105053186416626,
0.9314330220222473,
0.17702259123325348,
0.6959435343742371,
-0.07315666228532791,
0.033529944717884064,
0.06351090967655182,
-0.6786860823631287,
0.29865920543670654,
-0.5299133062362671,
0.7203360795974731,
-1.0939980745315552,
0.4309929609298706,
-0.11356642097234726,
1.0289442539215088,
0.13765555620193481,
0.7101167440414429,
-0.2456103265285492,
-0.3739628493785858,
0.855962336063385,
-0.20718030631542206,
-0.7627406716346741,
-0.5066741108894348,
1.2080172300338745,
-0.2752038240432739,
0.6067589521408081,
0.5516346096992493,
-0.2150288075208664,
-0.4852113425731659,
0.14572449028491974,
0.03809651732444763,
0.029156852513551712,
0.432950884103775,
-0.18942876160144806,
-0.9977227449417114,
-0.5981405973434448,
-0.29057952761650085,
-0.4696601331233978,
0.7724289298057556,
-0.5518231987953186,
0.6492162942886353,
0.6520546674728394,
-0.2405693680047989,
-0.14119957387447357,
-1.1468195915222168,
-0.02106153406202793,
0.6193417310714722,
-0.21428221464157104,
0.2503271996974945,
-0.5540186166763306,
-0.7418482899665833,
-0.6373469233512878,
1.193871021270752,
-0.23316369950771332,
-0.3275171220302582,
0.571301281452179,
-0.5505260825157166,
0.06998070329427719,
0.23761561512947083,
0.23492442071437836,
-1.0821694135665894,
0.38205263018608093,
0.2107744961977005
] |
248032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankford | Frankford | Frankford may refer to:
Frankford, Tasmania, Australia
Frankford, Ontario, Canada
United States
Frankford, Delaware
Frankford, Baltimore, Maryland
Frankford Township, Mower County, Minnesota
Frankford Village, Minnesota, a ghost town which was in this township
Frankford, Missouri
Frankford Township, New Jersey
Frankford, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Frankford, West Virginia
See also
Frankfort (disambiguation)
Frankfurt (disambiguation)
Frank Forde (1890–1983), Australian politician | [
-0.15308330953121185,
0.05649937689304352,
-0.0742621049284935,
-0.20477677881717682,
0.06788022071123123,
0.4013594388961792,
0.2132638841867447,
0.3411129117012024,
-0.5901392698287964,
-0.45751914381980896,
-0.40010228753089905,
0.11740326136350632,
-0.4790203869342804,
0.3422389328479767,
-0.3253588080406189,
1.0084309577941895,
-0.15619641542434692,
0.5052486062049866,
0.01106943842023611,
-0.7128108143806458,
-0.06619568914175034,
-0.023624835535883904,
0.7365540862083435,
0.47346237301826477,
0.5289031863212585,
0.0646451935172081,
1.1193063259124756,
-0.05206916853785515,
-0.0003954233543481678,
0.3956752121448517,
-0.2505944073200226,
0.2067641019821167,
0.1526588797569275,
-0.10800646990537643,
0.017024297267198563,
-0.3137390613555908,
-0.11945393681526184,
-0.1793680191040039,
0.22266757488250732,
-0.4323081374168396,
0.06795331090688705,
-0.30438461899757385,
0.22492676973342896,
0.12412263453006744,
0.5456146001815796,
0.15611761808395386,
-1.7281992435455322,
0.2140384465456009,
-0.4488604962825775,
-0.37812039256095886,
-0.47899308800697327,
0.2837458550930023,
0.36783382296562195,
0.7499032616615295,
0.14218854904174805,
0.22000360488891602,
-0.738038957118988,
-0.18575569987297058,
1.1469076871871948,
0.17201760411262512,
-0.015037041157484055,
0.2661776840686798,
-0.1350519210100174,
0.23783157765865326,
-0.3234395384788513,
-0.2706669867038727,
0.11126244068145752,
0.35920125246047974,
-0.13125038146972656,
-0.21090392768383026,
-0.17206768691539764,
-0.4367675185203552,
-0.15562517940998077,
-0.0006924516055732965,
0.26762649416923523,
0.44899576902389526,
-0.3396706283092499,
-0.20391130447387695,
-0.14491932094097137,
0.1525002121925354,
-0.06765098124742508,
-0.5939134955406189,
0.6965337991714478,
-0.4638233780860901,
0.4517122805118561,
0.450741171836853,
-0.9057273864746094,
-0.15022462606430054,
-0.138796865940094,
0.5153460502624512,
-0.23343276977539062,
-0.1327124387025833,
-0.11408456414937973,
0.15878133475780487,
-0.5143267512321472,
-0.39816567301750183,
-0.16194705665111542,
0.5111421942710876,
-0.3506341576576233,
0.5375520586967468,
0.08535630255937576,
0.07409247756004333,
0.760034441947937,
0.18803176283836365,
-0.5219520926475525,
0.03203559294342995,
0.06439945846796036,
0.24330277740955353,
0.6659104824066162,
-0.2346535623073578,
-0.008348196744918823,
-0.0733916312456131,
0.5650601387023926,
-0.4853297472000122,
-0.024329423904418945,
-0.4093632400035858,
-0.061082515865564346,
-0.34567853808403015,
-0.2129143476486206,
0.1493929922580719,
-0.20675398409366608,
1.1367281675338745,
-0.12665823101997375,
-0.000775912485551089,
-0.13750731945037842,
0.07971259951591492,
0.6332213878631592,
0.19021126627922058,
-0.30737805366516113,
0.21128948032855988,
0.0967281237244606,
0.6272848844528198,
-0.09438014775514603,
0.4296211898326874,
0.3236812651157379,
-0.4788418114185333,
-0.6272541880607605,
-0.1848989874124527,
0.16716615855693817,
0.1912735551595688,
-0.31747007369995117,
-0.629065215587616,
-0.17390403151512146,
-0.3094046115875244,
-0.021732738241553307,
-0.3912188708782196,
-0.08560914546251297,
-0.5347403883934021,
0.3150649964809418,
0.09132074564695358,
-0.13650056719779968,
0.3485012948513031,
-0.04494538530707359,
-0.14207087457180023,
-0.44106870889663696,
0.08699509501457214,
0.0038926396518945694,
-0.05287429317831993,
0.6262139678001404,
0.06099608913064003,
-0.7396809458732605,
0.1641446202993393,
0.45290252566337585,
-0.25758329033851624,
0.37381353974342346,
-0.03603186085820198,
0.191438227891922,
-0.37885114550590515,
-0.18292057514190674,
-0.17210310697555542,
-0.5827734470367432,
0.22768540680408478,
0.4575936198234558,
0.05081989988684654,
-0.08627291023731232,
0.010271826758980751,
1.0449992418289185,
0.0948953628540039,
-0.0736549124121666,
-0.5547019839286804,
-0.3512198328971863,
0.35858118534088135,
-0.09968432784080505,
-0.1585620939731598,
-0.1373843550682068,
0.5805827975273132,
0.10990196466445923,
-0.3295678496360779,
-0.27772459387779236,
0.06002046540379524,
0.5489696264266968,
-0.21395589411258698,
0.45547017455101013,
-0.5311282873153687,
0.8500741720199585,
-0.3864699602127075,
-0.4594988524913788,
0.5758268237113953,
-0.08920157700777054,
0.2520502209663391,
-0.08108939230442047,
-0.5381061434745789,
0.7024809122085571,
0.022824937477707863,
-0.38303425908088684,
0.15551221370697021,
0.3241141736507416,
-0.05013658106327057,
0.12870746850967407,
0.5901294350624084,
0.7641599178314209,
-0.7515074014663696,
-0.42997440695762634,
0.2747993767261505,
-0.11020640283823013,
-0.21992844343185425,
-0.44864577054977417,
0.07988900691270828,
-0.26767054200172424,
-0.3921060860157013,
0.26997196674346924,
0.03520582988858223,
-0.1387147605419159,
-0.07208045572042465,
0.36969926953315735,
0.49105802178382874,
-0.0526459738612175,
0.042664412409067154,
-0.18550994992256165,
-0.6301281452178955,
0.5677797794342041,
-0.09113286435604095,
-0.17039670050144196,
-0.9487862586975098,
0.26259103417396545,
-0.23754757642745972,
0.207383930683136,
0.19196996092796326,
0.1354951709508896,
-0.04552421718835831,
-0.1902570128440857,
0.05840443819761276,
-0.09223425388336182,
-0.47159045934677124,
0.5027655363082886,
0.48519566655158997,
-0.004823511000722647,
-0.04724431782960892,
-0.31243038177490234,
-0.31097686290740967,
0.7399910688400269,
0.128065288066864,
0.615707516670227,
-0.10384143888950348,
0.3208044171333313,
-0.21844153106212616,
0.12091335654258728,
0.039830561727285385,
0.21951423585414886,
0.2131633758544922,
-0.5702040195465088,
-0.3908765912055969,
-0.4360075294971466,
-0.05852856859564781,
-0.18836718797683716,
-0.1892695128917694,
-0.5254844427108765,
-0.6870669722557068,
-0.45131203532218933,
0.7276188731193542,
0.18262611329555511,
0.16858834028244019,
-0.23164810240268707,
0.018886689096689224,
0.5597347617149353,
0.6674298644065857,
-0.45235675573349,
0.21040724217891693,
-0.4713626801967621,
0.10072411596775055,
-0.29920026659965515,
1.02983820438385,
-0.15356576442718506,
-0.6522616147994995,
-0.2422889918088913,
-0.4033305048942566,
0.56861412525177,
0.010490047745406628,
-0.21299917995929718,
0.4394742548465729,
0.18488748371601105,
-0.22782717645168304,
-0.14747242629528046,
0.5748162269592285,
0.29876765608787537,
-0.2855110168457031,
-0.036105431616306305,
0.44341516494750977,
-0.30675333738327026,
-0.2826255261898041,
-0.6427269577980042,
0.6802043914794922,
-0.7093598246574402,
0.13531537353992462,
0.43389031291007996,
-0.4015341103076935,
-0.5012483596801758,
-0.16540278494358063,
-5.588476657867432,
0.5704163312911987,
-0.16693399846553802,
-0.5297268033027649,
-0.0012017263798043132,
0.024630509316921234,
-0.279302179813385,
-0.45578616857528687,
0.039108410477638245,
0.6162962317466736,
0.8264590501785278,
-0.6315091848373413,
0.12770606577396393,
-0.015996767207980156,
0.4476243853569031,
-0.058470938354730606,
0.5654450058937073,
-0.3451928198337555,
0.15603430569171906,
-0.03790346533060074,
-0.22936274111270905,
-0.13856787979602814,
0.5561667084693909,
0.05528593808412552,
0.5275005102157593,
0.3042917847633362,
-0.035997167229652405,
-0.02711574174463749,
-0.2964667081832886,
-0.11486697196960449,
-0.3210103511810303,
0.27148085832595825,
0.4745769202709198,
0.09228461235761642,
0.04171108454465866,
-0.20851948857307434,
0.08556269854307175,
0.14124038815498352,
0.5666061639785767,
-0.41653791069984436,
0.32930347323417664,
0.9371821284294128,
-0.5895707011222839,
-0.8107531666755676,
0.36405622959136963,
-0.01905067078769207,
-0.3400886058807373,
0.5075949430465698,
-0.5255326628684998,
0.5080831050872803,
0.6481602191925049,
-0.46468880772590637,
0.5327014923095703,
0.4731624722480774,
0.3999336063861847,
-0.530412495136261,
0.8736366629600525,
0.06574591994285583,
-0.5976542830467224,
0.36835551261901855,
-0.03214844688773155,
-0.18754969537258148,
-0.5041027069091797,
0.37332427501678467,
-0.45112213492393494,
-0.5181761980056763,
-0.3415602147579193,
0.2398758828639984,
0.3855780065059662,
0.030236225575208664,
-0.005942760966718197,
-0.0009057841380126774,
0.1730606108903885,
-0.855329692363739,
-0.27974367141723633,
-0.19268225133419037,
-0.8421120047569275,
0.36103948950767517,
-0.3129212558269501,
0.26475390791893005,
-0.23301081359386444,
0.46531376242637634,
0.625457227230072,
0.4089292883872986,
0.7197101712226868,
-0.06302488595247269,
-0.5988427400588989,
0.7252882122993469,
-0.21089577674865723,
-0.6262392997741699,
-0.025303980335593224,
0.021174224093556404,
0.6110328435897827,
-0.32305386662483215,
-0.5017989277839661,
0.4411575496196747,
0.3905574679374695,
-0.2851313352584839,
0.46342456340789795,
-0.49824851751327515,
0.7546195387840271,
0.052963778376579285,
0.09565149247646332,
-0.44755667448043823,
-0.5436474680900574,
0.13785313069820404,
-0.1912842094898224,
0.18656252324581146,
0.718939483165741,
-0.632445216178894,
-0.6330236196517944,
-0.4142126441001892,
-0.7493752837181091,
-0.5417126417160034,
0.20710979402065277,
-0.6789615154266357,
-0.5785645246505737,
-0.15140730142593384,
0.7671368718147278,
-0.02865917608141899,
0.11282329261302948,
0.43200498819351196,
-0.4687732458114624,
0.554961621761322,
-0.2753567695617676,
-0.03888646513223648,
0.07543522864580154,
0.1807631105184555,
-0.3369363248348236,
0.6666185855865479,
0.06427072733640671,
0.01775558851659298,
-0.11826319247484207,
0.19639240205287933,
-0.4180365204811096,
-0.04050356522202492,
-0.46147212386131287,
-0.6898543834686279,
0.222616508603096,
0.2675812244415283,
0.8321992754936218,
0.033396124839782715,
-0.25324976444244385,
0.01823386736214161,
0.5169175863265991,
0.4492429792881012,
0.2792757451534271,
-0.0322088859975338,
-0.7265691161155701,
0.10100968927145004,
-0.3629099130630493,
-0.254726380109787,
-0.18378345668315887,
-0.22778314352035522,
-0.26633450388908386,
-0.3463946282863617,
-0.23353341221809387,
0.3435070216655731,
0.30711936950683594,
-0.43295377492904663,
0.42340224981307983,
-0.14831627905368805,
-0.517068088054657,
0.1722484827041626,
0.3188081979751587,
-0.04919851943850517,
-0.40398454666137695,
0.26370686292648315,
-0.4188697934150696,
0.301669716835022,
0.27321985363960266,
-0.45650359988212585,
-0.7131471633911133,
0.05800786241889,
0.4517243206501007,
0.08806974440813065,
-0.20373688638210297,
0.22131747007369995,
0.31611350178718567,
0.14591199159622192,
0.39166152477264404,
-0.47507181763648987,
-0.10903771966695786,
0.5536062121391296,
0.21034304797649384,
-0.17021310329437256,
0.03889749199151993,
0.4092075824737549,
-0.24146513640880585,
-0.24842770397663116,
0.30897021293640137,
-0.4603203237056732,
0.07841965556144714,
0.4931435286998749,
0.2576040029525757,
-0.8358592391014099,
0.5463913679122925,
-0.5115218162536621,
-0.5058602094650269,
0.15200649201869965,
0.09513155370950699,
0.3678079843521118,
-0.5850740671157837,
0.10750123113393784,
0.3545962870121002,
-0.2929454445838928,
0.1184864342212677,
-0.338500440120697,
-0.5269231796264648,
0.3553084433078766,
-0.19572687149047852,
-0.2931171953678131,
0.6120570302009583,
0.26885712146759033,
-0.05382523685693741,
0.42572909593582153,
0.5013952255249023,
0.013305449858307838,
-0.3447737991809845,
-0.5786623358726501,
-0.22003930807113647,
0.16790719330310822,
0.24725809693336487,
-0.018254168331623077,
-0.14781689643859863,
0.9194369316101074,
0.5345882773399353,
-0.5386328101158142,
0.7925113439559937,
-0.2426413893699646,
-0.4502408802509308,
0.08869970589876175,
-0.1647474616765976,
0.04573206603527069,
0.6340972781181335,
-0.19871091842651367,
0.3454396724700928,
-0.5488696694374084,
-0.27147355675697327,
0.09632262587547302,
0.6320816874504089,
0.6266731023788452,
-0.03860374167561531,
-0.07255624234676361,
-0.4470389187335968,
-0.4324706792831421,
0.9300523996353149,
-0.30610403418540955,
-0.8041959404945374,
0.32101309299468994,
-0.027736613526940346,
-0.4409407079219818,
-0.28745242953300476,
0.021557698026299477,
0.8178048133850098,
-0.5756112933158875,
-0.2650856673717499,
0.9014945030212402,
0.24192792177200317,
0.48213088512420654,
0.03009791672229767,
0.239858478307724,
0.37966710329055786,
0.2655694782733917,
0.5309262871742249,
-0.15486085414886475,
-0.17165732383728027,
-0.2876676321029663,
0.25876879692077637,
-0.25248846411705017,
-0.3270972669124603,
0.12626464664936066,
0.31533050537109375,
0.11962440609931946,
0.20313821732997894,
0.1334540843963623,
-0.2212173342704773,
-0.8264784216880798,
0.15131011605262756,
-0.3184969425201416,
-0.40593454241752625,
-0.22604869306087494,
-0.4209772050380707,
-0.5250700116157532,
0.8005116581916809,
-0.7213733196258545,
-0.3434479832649231,
0.1062915250658989,
-0.4791392683982849,
-0.1016843244433403,
-0.20508983731269836,
-0.3517853021621704,
0.030029168352484703,
-0.08192820101976395,
-0.4836917221546173,
0.09969325363636017,
-0.3295407295227051,
0.2658698260784149,
-0.12244393676519394,
0.14802375435829163,
-1.106587529182434,
0.7533996105194092,
-0.4665411710739136,
-0.9504269361495972,
0.2628929913043976,
-0.3508596122264862,
-0.2123720496892929,
-0.6289269328117371,
0.03327913582324982,
-0.3711972236633301,
0.5444797277450562,
-0.5402939915657043,
0.5068114399909973,
0.736723005771637,
-0.19166700541973114,
0.3665215075016022,
0.32004958391189575,
-0.5591674447059631,
-0.46455568075180054,
-0.16016659140586853,
-0.23265986144542694,
0.5810110569000244,
0.809816300868988,
0.5731936097145081,
-0.045786742120981216,
1.3295739889144897,
0.3166067898273468,
-0.1854640543460846,
-0.14748264849185944,
0.3830628991127014,
0.29811885952949524,
-0.3007517457008362,
-1.2407491207122803,
0.4615510106086731,
-0.46144989132881165,
0.053670305758714676,
0.12649647891521454,
-0.4699413776397705,
-0.7524933218955994,
0.4234687089920044,
0.44272381067276,
0.8421029448509216,
0.07651057094335556,
0.43792009353637695,
0.08100366592407227,
0.059233106672763824,
0.20050287246704102,
-0.28921449184417725,
0.7215901017189026,
-0.5378254055976868,
0.11461842060089111,
-0.11265259236097336,
-0.1364535540342331,
-0.14369149506092072,
-0.629052996635437,
0.032336097210645676,
-0.13846205174922943,
-0.12060067057609558,
-0.4834069609642029,
-0.5214095115661621,
0.13592009246349335,
-0.25672900676727295,
0.8450251817703247,
-0.7480068206787109,
-0.06103765219449997,
-0.2924044132232666,
0.3790068030357361,
0.5153324604034424,
-0.6850929856300354,
0.49729591608047485,
0.2343250811100006,
0.5148693919181824,
0.03254915401339531,
-0.7363471388816833,
0.03246873989701271,
0.13854774832725525,
0.12516163289546967,
0.8157472610473633,
-0.2131163775920868,
0.2641657590866089,
0.15216125547885895,
0.03367452695965767,
-0.17818589508533478,
-0.4000082015991211,
-0.06516779959201813,
-0.3040676414966583,
0.35492369532585144,
0.05603992938995361,
0.008258629590272903,
-0.5631111264228821,
-0.05856289342045784,
-0.04359563812613487,
-0.30455151200294495,
0.7393735647201538,
-0.054325081408023834,
-0.8100792169570923,
-0.3214090168476105,
0.6067125797271729,
0.67656409740448,
0.689109742641449,
0.47016772627830505,
-0.16907599568367004,
-0.4488062858581543,
-0.49948662519454956,
-0.3974654972553253,
0.4438900649547577,
-0.07270293682813644,
0.25451093912124634,
-1.0110825300216675,
0.8006989359855652,
0.3626292049884796,
0.2447812408208847,
-0.40226879715919495,
0.08016438782215118,
-0.5300912261009216,
-0.07538048923015594,
0.600109875202179,
-0.20353171229362488,
-0.3826177716255188,
-0.7633621692657471,
0.8369258642196655,
0.12598831951618195,
0.5815390944480896,
0.0744100958108902,
-0.17738166451454163,
-0.36451077461242676,
0.23463109135627747,
-0.28003713488578796,
-0.01968672126531601,
0.3596550524234772,
0.09899691492319107,
-0.45933815836906433,
-0.24107520282268524,
0.4081276059150696,
-0.6005516648292542,
0.4220821261405945,
0.3434138596057892,
0.27235475182533264,
0.20489275455474854,
-0.18776512145996094,
-0.17285530269145966,
-0.0719238743185997,
-0.39656952023506165,
0.1426818072795868,
-0.638247013092041,
0.49875643849372864,
-0.028975563123822212,
-0.2479182630777359,
-0.306706964969635,
0.6808049082756042,
-0.2683080732822418,
-0.24037067592144012,
0.1060953140258789,
0.29323020577430725,
0.5331718325614929,
0.03622295707464218,
-0.052345454692840576,
-0.6339490413665771,
-0.03000011295080185,
-0.33798331022262573
] |
248038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20War%20Museum | Canadian War Museum | The Canadian War Museum (; CWM) is a national museum on the country's military history in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. The museum serves as both an educational facility on Canadian military history, in addition to serving as a place of remembrance. The museum building is situated south of the Ottawa River in LeBreton Flats. The museum houses a number of exhibitions and memorials, in addition to a cafeteria, theatre, curatorial and conservation spaces, as well as storage space. The building also houses the Military History Research Centre, the museum's library and archives.
The Canadian War Museum was formally established in 1942, although portions of the museum's collections originates from a military museum that operated from 1880 to 1896. The museum was operated by the Public Archives of Canada until 1967, when the National Museums of Canada Corporation was formed to manage several national institutions, including the war museum. In the same year, the war museum was relocated from its original building to the former Public Archives of Canada building. Management of the museum was later assumed by the Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation (later renamed the Canadian Museum of History Corporation) in 1990. Plans to expand the museum during the mid-1990s resulted in the construction of a new building at LeBreton Flats. Designed by Moriyama & Teshima Architects and Griffiths Rankin Cook Architects, the new Canadian War Museum building was opened to the public in 2005.
The museum's collection contains over 500,000 pieces of materials related to military history, including over 13,000 pieces of military art. In addition to its permanent exhibition, the museum has hosted and organized a number of travelling exhibitions relating to Canadian military history.
Background
The collections of the Canadian War Museum originated from the collections of the Cartier Square Military Museum, established through a general order on 5 November 1880. Established with the intention to be a museum of national interest, the institution sought to preserve historical records and materials relating to the Canadian Militia, and any of its colonial predecessors. A proposal to establish a library operated by the museum was made in 1882, although these plans never came to fruition. As the museum continued to solicit donations for its collection the museum quickly outgrew its space in the drill hall, and appeals for a new facility were made by 1886. The museum was eventually closed in 1896, with militia units that used the drill hall requiring more space, and to make room to accommodate a new shipment of Lee-Enfield rifles.
The militia office originally planned to relocate the museum, storing its collections in an old military warehouse below Parliament Hill (present location of the Bytown Museum). In July 1901, the Department of Militia and Defence negotiated a lease to house the museum in another building in Ottawa. However, little effort was put into re-establishing the museum, with the department opting to not renew the building's lease in 1905. On 26 January 1907, the Militia Council was informed by Eugène Fiset, the Quartermaster-General of the Canadian Militia, that there was "no interest being taken by the officers of the garrison" for a museum, and that he did not recommend reopening one.
The collection from the Cartier Square Military Museum remained at the warehouse until Dominion Archivist, Arthur Doughty, requested the transference of the items to the archives for the purposes of displaying some of them. The militia approved the request, and transferred 105 items to the Dominion Archives between 1910 and 1919; although in doing so, the militia believed the archives had assumed responsibility for establishing any future military museum. By the 1910s, the militia began to redirect potential donors of military artifacts to the Dominion Archives.
These artifacts, in addition to captured German weapons from the First World War, were exhibited for the first time in a travelling exhibition in 1916. In December 1918, the Commission on War Records and Trophies was established to distribute the materials to memorials across Canada. However, the Commission retained a number of pieces at the Dominion Archives with the hope they would eventually be exhibited in a national museum. In 1924, the War Trophy Building was built adjacent to the original Dominion Archives building to house the military collection. In 1935, Doughty struck a deal with General Andrew McNaughton, the Chief of General Staff, for the militia to support the establishment of the museum. A War Trophies Review Board was established between the archives and militia, charged with selecting the best items to preserve for a future museum.
History
The Canadian War Museum was formally opened at the War Trophies Building in January 1942; initially operated by the Dominion Archives, and partially funded by the Department of National Defence. In 1958, management of the Canadian War Museum was assumed by the National Museum of Canada (predecessor to the Canadian Museum of History and the Canadian Museum of Nature).
The museum relocated to the original Dominion Archives building, adjacent to the War Trophies building in June 1967; after the Public Archives of Canada moved its operations to a new facility. However, the museum continued to use the War Trophies building as a storage facility. In the same year, management of the war museum was assumed by the National Museums of Canada Corporation; a crown corporation which managed several national institutions, including the war museum.
In 1983 the museum relocated its storage facilities from the War Trophies building to Vimy House; with the former building demolished to make way for the National Gallery of Canada's new building. In 1990, the Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation (later renamed the Canadian Museum of History Corporation) was formed through The Museum Act, and assumed management of several national museums of Canada, including the war museum. By this time, the museum's staff had voiced the space in the building was inadequate, with some areas of the building deemed environmentally hazardous for the exhibition of certain artifacts. In 1991, the government established the Task Force on Military History Museum Collections in Canada, whose final report called for more resources to be given to the museum, referring to its shape in the original Dominion Archives building as "embarrassing," and a "national disgrace." Although the Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation invested C$1.7 million for new exhibit designs as a result of the report; funds remained limited for expansion, with the federal government implementing a number of austerity measures during the mid-1990s. A museum's supporter's group, the "Friends of the Canadian War Museum" was established in 1995 to assist the museum in fundraising efforts.
Between 1996 to 1997, the museum considered opening a large Holocaust exhibition within the museum. In addition to the exhibition, the architectural expansion plans released in November 1997 included enhanced exhibit spaces, a theatre, and a memorial chamber. However, the proposed exhibit was opposed by Canadian veterans, who felt a sense of neglect from the museum, and believed an exhibition on the Holocaust would further marginalize them; in addition to some historians who believed the museum was an inadequate space for such an exhibition. Following events commemorating the 50th anniversary of the end of the Second World War passed, public debate over the museum's future intensified; with the Senate Subcommittee on Veterans Affairs convening a hearing in February 1998 to determine the future of the exhibition and the museum itself. Following the Senate Subcommittee hearings, the chair of the Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation, Adrienne Clarkson announced the museum would abandon its plans for a Holocaust exhibition, although proceed with its plans to expand the museum. Barney Danson was later appointed to the board of trustees and the war museum advisory committee; who increased the museum's research capacity, and the establishment of the Centre of Military History. Danson later secured for the museum the acquisition of property near CFB Rockcliffe.
In March 2000, the Government of Canada formally announced plans to build a new museum building at CFB Rockcliffe. However, in 2001, Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien intervened to have the proposed location changed to LeBreton Flats, a formerly industrial area of the city. LeBreton Flats was initially rejected as a site for the new museum building during the planning stages of the project as the site was contaminated. However, Chrétien proposed to decontaminate the site, with the museum serving as the centrepiece for the area's revitalization efforts. In 2001, a design submitted by Moriyama & Teshima Architects and Griffiths Rankin Cook Architects was selected for the design of the new building. Groundbreaking for the new building took place in November 2002, followed by a major decontamination effort of the property by the National Capital Commission.
By 2004 the museum began to move its larger artifacts from its exhibits, as well as its storage facility into the new building. By the end of 2004, the museum closed its storage facility in Vimy House, and closed its facility in the original Dominion Archives building in January 2005. The new building was opened on 8 May 2005, coinciding with the 60th anniversary of Victory in Europe day. On the same day the new building was opened to the public, Canada Post issued a 50¢ stamp to commemorate the opening of the new museum. The total cost to build a new building for the museum, and the exhibitions was approximately C$135 million.
Shortly after its opening the museum became the centre of controversy over its interpretation of the Combined Bomber Offensive during World War II, in which some 20,000 Canadians participated. Much of the controversy stemmed from two assertions made on a museum label, that the bombing offensive was largely ineffective until later in the war, and that its morality and value of strategic bombings remained contested. Complaints from Canadian veterans prompted another Senate Subcommittee to be launched. Museum staff eventually removed the offending museum label, replacing it with another label with text three times in length that "glossed over the salient facts;" although the offending images remained.
Site
The property is situated within LeBreton Flats, a neighbourhood within Ottawa, the capital city of Canada. The property is situated southwest of Parliament Hill and the National War Memorial. The property is bounded by roadways to the east and south, and by the Capital Pathway, and the southern banks of the Ottawa River to the west and north. Water from the Ottawa River is drawn into the building for mechanical cooling, and ground irrigation of the larger property.
Directly south of the museum building is an urban park called The Commons, used for various events hosted by the museum. A wheelchair accessible pathway built around the building's green roof connects The Commons with the parkland to the north of the museum.
Building
The was designed by Moriyama & Teshima Architects & Griffiths Rankin Cook Architects; with Raymond Moriyama and Alex Rankin as the principal architect. Stantec was contracted as the civil engineering consultant, whereas PCL Construction was contracted as the project's construction manager. The cost to construct the building was approximately C$96 million.
Regeneration served as the primary theme for the architectural design team of the building, with the design intended to showcase war's impact on nature; and nature's ability to regrow and "regenerate" from war. Tilted and jagged planes, along with roughhewn materials are used throughout the building in a form of "controlled imperfection," intended to create the impression of trauma and disequilibrium. The building's massing largely remains low to the ground, with only the building's eastern portions only rising high above. A significant portion of the building is made out of concrete, with of cast in place concrete used throughout the building; in addition to 3,750 tonnes of reinforced steel. Many of the exterior and interior walls of the building are placed on a variety of angles, from 90 degrees to 31 degrees, with eight different angles in all used throughout the building.
Exterior
With regeneration being the primary theme the architectural design, the external lines of the building were designed to evoke the "devastations of war," with the building appearing to emerge from a "scarred landscape". The angular building was designed to appear as if it was "emerging from the Ottawa River. The highest point of the building rises off the ground, and faces towards the Canadian Parliament Buildings, and Peace Tower.
A self-seeding green roof, which connects to the surrounding parkland and riverfront, is also situated on the rooftop of the building. The green roof was designed into the museum building in order to reflect the building's larger theme of regeneration; with green rooftop intended to appear as nature fusing with ruins, showcasing the process of regeneration. The green roof also provides the building with some sustainability benefits; being an economical and efficient solution for stormwater management in the area, providing energy savings, and providing air pollution remediation. The roof was designed to mimic the urban development of the area, with the western portions of the rooftop closer to the rural areas of Ottawa designed to blend in with the surrounding parkland, while the eastern portion closer to downtown Ottawa features sloped concrete slopes that provide visitors a view into the museum from the rooftop.
Nearly the entire southeastern façade of the building is covered in glass, providing people outside the museum a view of some of its items on display in the LeBreton Gallery, an open-storage exhibition space in the building. Near the top of the building's walls are a series of small windows that spell out "lest we forget/n'oubilons jamais" in Morse code. The exposed concrete board-form exterior is fitted with cast-in-place insulated concrete wall panels. Conversely, the entrance of the building is fitted with aluminum frames; with the canted curtain wall facing Parliament Hill.
Interior
The interior walls of the building are primarily made out of concrete that incorporates up to 15 per cent recycled fly ash, making the walls of the building a large energy-conserving mass. The walls are designed to emerge sharply from the ground, in an unusual fashion; whereas the floors were designed with slight slopes within them. Together, these design features are intended to evoke the feeling of instability with the museum's visitors. All the galleries within the building includes ramps and slopes, making all exhibits in the museum wheelchair accessible.
Concrete is a major material used in the museum's lobby; with posttensioned concrete beams extending throughout the foyer, in addition to 596 tonnes of exposed structural steel. One side of the lobby's walls are textured and patterned like rough-hewn wooden planks, whereas the other side is patterned to resemble large blocks of quarried stone. In addition to concrete, cooper that was originally used in the roof of the Library of Parliament is used on the walls of the museum lobby and the LeBreton Gallery. However, most of the building's interior space remains austere, in an effort to provide visitors with a solemn space for reflection. A audio-visual presentation of what is contained inside the exhibits is situated at the access point from the main foyer to the exhibition areas.
Other educational facilities within the building includes the Military History Resource Centre, a museum library and archive; and the 236-seat Barney Danson Theatre. The war museum's theatre is named in honour of Barney Danson, in recognition of his efforts in supporting the Canadian War Museum. The building also includes a dedicated group entrance; and a sunlit cafeteria along the riverfront portion of the building, with a seasonal terrace; dedicated climate-controlled vaults; and laboratories for on-site repairs of artifacts. Including all areas of the museum, the total gross floor area of the museum building is .
Exhibitions
The Canadian War Museum functions as a history museum, and as a "palace of memory". As a result, many of the museum's permanent exhibitions function as both educational exhibits, and as a memorial. Permanent exhibitions at the museum include the Canadian Experience Galleries, Memorial Hall, Regeneration Hall, and the Royal Canadian Legion Hall of Honour. The Canadian Experience Galleries are a series of four Canadian military history galleries arranged chronologically. Memorial Hall is the only exhibition that is free to the public, with Memorial Hall being accessible through the lobby.
The permanent exhibitions at the museum were designed by Haley Sharpe Design, based in Leicester, UK, and Origin Studios, based in Ottawa. The design team, together with museum historians, crafted its exhibits in which the themes of brutality, geography, politics, and survival are woven throughout most of the exhibitions in the museum. The museum permanent exhibitions are divided into seven zones, and further sub-divided into 25 themed clusters. Graphic interpretive information is spread throughout the exhibits in order to convey textual and visual information to visitors.
Exhibition design teams worked in conjunction with the architectural team for the new museum building, providing the exhibition design team with greater influence in how the exhibitions were arranged, positioned, and shaped; a degree of architectural influence not available to exhibition design teams working to fit exhibits in a pre-existing space. The exhibit structures, like the building itself, is angular and trapezoidal, reflecting the museum's theme of regeneration, in addition to enhancing the themes of the exhibits. The exhibition areas in the museum feature austere lines of galvanized steel, concrete, wood, and other hard surfaces with strong, and deep colours. The exhibition areas' design was intended to provide visitors with "little comfort or respite," with the "fragmented structure of the exhibits," intended to the story of war. Although angular lines are prevalent throughout the design of the building and exhibitions, coloured curved structures are strategically placed throughout the galleries, acting as a counterpoint to the angular design of the building.
In addition to permanent exhibitions the museum also organizes and hosts special and travelling exhibitions.
Canadian Experience galleries
The Canadian Experience galleries are a collection of four galleries that take up of space. The four galleries document the military history of Canada, with the four galleries being Early Wars in Canada, South African and the First World War, Second World War, and From the Cold War to the Present. Although some galleries are centred around individual conflicts, events involving Canadians serve as the focus for the galleries, with other events during these conflicts only being briefly addressed.
The galleries were intended to "enhance the human experiences of war," documenting moments in Canadian military history that helped shaped the country; with many of the exhibits drawing links to the events with larger themes of nationhood and a national identity. Many of the exhibits were designed to simulate the "collective perspective" of Canadian service members, and Canadians in the homefront to a lesser extent. The galleries are themed after four "intertwined principles," geography, brutality, politics, and survival; with each principle serving as the leading themes for a gallery. Visitors are introduced to these principles prior to entering the galleries, with conceptual phrases relating to these principles printed on the walls of the rotunda outside the entrance of the Canadian Experience galleries.
The Early Wars in Canada gallery explores First Nations conflicts, as well as conflicts in New France and British North America, and post-confederated Canada in the 19th century. Many of the exhibits showcase how early conflicts in Canada were shaped by geography, and centred around lakes, streams, and rivers. Conflicts covered in this exhibit include the Beaver Wars, Anglo-French conflicts to the Seven Years' War, the American Revolutionary War, War of 1812, and the North-West Rebellion.
The South African and the First World War gallery explores Canadian participation in the Second Boer War and the First World War. The South African and the First World War gallery is styled to resemble Canada during Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee in 1897; intended to mimic the imperialistic fervour that existed during that period. In 2015, the museum opened a new portion of the gallery on the homefront during the First World War, highlighting the Conscription Crisis of 1917, the suffragette movement, and stories from individuals during the war.
The Second World War gallery explores the causes of the Second World War, as well as Canada's participation during the conflict. Most of the Second World War exhibit focuses on Canada's role in the Battle of the Atlantic, the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, the European theatre, the homefront and the internment of Japanese Canadians. Small portions of the exhibit are also dedicated to Canadian participation in the Asian and Pacific theatre, and the Holocaust. Objects from the museum's collection exhibited in the Second World War portion of the Canadian Experience galleries includes a Mercedes-Benz 770K previously owned by Adolf Hitler, entitled Hitler's Car: A Symbol of Evil at the exhibit. The museum acquired the Mercedes Benz 770K in 1970, under the assumption that the car formerly belonged to Hermann Göring; although a research report published in 1982 revealed that the vehicle belonged to Hitler. The gallery also houses an M4 Sherman tank named Forceful III, and is dedicated to the members of the Governor General's Foot Guards killed during the Second World War. A memorial plaque to Captain Thomas G. Fuller of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve is also present in the gallery.
The final gallery, From the Cold War to the Present, explored Canada's role during the Cold War, and the threat of nuclear war in the public eye. In 2017, the concluding portion of the fourth gallery was updated to include post-Cold War conflicts involving members of the Canadian Armed Forces. The final portion of the gallery was designed to confront visitors with the problematic nature of warfare; and features an interactive space for visitors to leave their own reflections on war, peace, and remembrance.
LeBreton Gallery
The LeBreton Gallery: The Military Technology Collection is an open-space gallery housing a number of items of military equipment used by Canadian, or other military forces. Situated along the eastern portion of the museum, its eastern walls are made of glass, allowing natural sunlight to illuminate the gallery.
Equipment is organized into several sections, land, air, sea, field artillery, armoured fighting vehicles, cannon or mortar, and tanks. Most of the equipment in the gallery has been restored and cleaned, arranged and organized with museum labels which provide details on the equipment. The museum labels accompanying the pieces are focused primarily on the technical aspects of the equipment. The equipment housed in LeBreton Gallery are among the largest items in the museum's collections, and includes a McDonnell CF-101 Voodoo, 19th century artillery pieces, tanks, and other military vehicles. The majority of the lighter wheeled and tracked transport vehicles on display date back to the Second World War or the Cold War era.
Memorial Hall
Situated within the lobby of the museum, Memorial Hall serves as a place for sombre reflection and remembrance. The exhibit's access point is angled upwards; with its doorway designed to provide an illusion of narrowness. The walls surrounding the access point is cladded in copper, and is illuminated only by light fixtures installed in the floor, and a light mounted on the ceiling. The portion of the museum where Memorial Hall is situated is also aligned on an axis with the Peace Tower of the Canadian Parliament Buildings.
Conversely, the walls inside Memorial Hall are made out of smooth concrete, with only a grid pattern resembling the headstones used for Canadian First World War soldiers etched into the walls. The exhibit is illuminated by a skylight which extends beyond from the building's rooftop; while a glass-enclosed pool of water sits on the south side of Memorial Hall. The design of the exhibit was intended to provide visitors with the feeling of weightlessness. The exhibit contains a single artifact, the original headstone for the soldier eventually reburied at the Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. The hall was designed so that sunlight that passes through the hall's only window illuminates directly onto the headstone once a year, on 11 November at precisely 11 a.m., the time that the armistice that ended the First World War went into effect.
Regeneration Hall
Regeneration Hall is an exhibition located in the highest point of the museum building serving as a "physical representation of hope for a better tomorrow". The walls of Regeneration Hall are angled in a manner similar to the buildings on Parliament Hill, with the Peace Tower visible through the eastern glass façade of the exhibition. The exhibition holds several artworks, including the original models for the Canadian National Vimy Memorial, and the painting Sacrifice by Charles Sims.
Royal Canadian Legion Hall of Honour
The Royal Canadian Legion Hall of Honour is a oval-shaped exhibit which explores how Canadian military history has been commemorated and honoured throughout recorded history. The original plaster model that was submitted and later chosen in the National War Memorial design competition is exhibited in the centre of the Hall of Honour.
Floor-to-ceiling display cases containing certificates of service, letters, medals, models, paintings, photographs, rolls of honour, scrapbooks, and souvenirs are situated along the walls of the exhibit. The exhibits are displayed chronologically, and include items relating to First Nations, New France, British North America, and confederated Canada. However, the majority of the displays are dedicated towards exhibiting items from the 20th century. Items in these displays, along with the individual stories corresponding to each chronological period are exhibited in an attempt to convey the various forms of commemorating the war dead throughout Canadian history.
Collection
As of 2015, the museum's collection includes over 500,000 pieces. The collection includes correspondences, documents, equipment, maps, medals, military art, military vehicles, and military uniforms. On average, the museum receives 700 offers for donations a year, including individual items or large collections; although, the museum only accepts 100 to 150 of these offers annually. However, Canadian service medals and medals of valour are accepted by the museum unconditionally, as an "act of honouring". Approximately 2,000 artworks and photographs from the museum's collection are used throughout the museum exhibits; although 500 of these images are enlarged versions of originals.
Items from the museum's collection are either displayed in the museum's exhibits, on tour with travelling exhibitions, loaned out to other institutions, or housed in the museum storage area. From 1967 to 2004, items not on display were stored in off-site facilities; with the Dominion Archives' Trophy Building used as storage from 1967 to 1983, and Vimy House used as storage from 1983 to 2004. During the 20th century, archival materials belonging to the war museum were also held in a warehouse in ByWard Market. In 2004, the museum ceased operating these off-site storage facilities, after it relocated items held there to a new storage space within the new museum building.
The museum's collection originated from the artifacts and archival materials originally held at Cartier Square Military Museum in 1880; including an assortment of weapons; a bell from , the flagship for Admiral Charles Saunders during the 1759 siege of Quebec; and the colours for the Royal Highland Emigrants, and various units from the War of 1812. The collection grew in size during the First World War, with materials from the war transported back to Canada. Following the end of World War II in Europe, the museum dispatched its first collections acquisition team to the Netherlands and Allied-occupied Germany to acquire a large number of German military equipment. During the Cold War, the museum's collection continued to expand with the Canadian Armed Forces transferring its obsolete equipment, as well as examples of enemy equipment to the museum. During the 1990s, the museum also began to acquire a number of materials as gifts from several post-Soviet states.
In 1994, the museum's collection held approximately 6,550 posters; with 3,770 posters originating from Canada, 692 from the United Kingdom, 612 from the United States, and the remaining from a variety of countries in Europe, and Australia. In 2019, 39 of the 99 original Victoria Crosses that were awarded to Canadians are held in the collections of the Canadian War Museum.
War art
As of 2015, the museum's Beaverbrook Collection of War Art contained over 13,000 pieces of military art. The majority of the war art works in the collection are on paper, although these works are less often used in museum exhibits than their on canvas counterparts. The museum has been invested in several Canadian war art programs since 1971, after the National Gallery of Canada handed over management of the Canadian War Memorial Fund, and over 5,000 works from its Canadian War Records Collections to the war museum; including all of its war art from the Second World War. The museum's military art collection takes its name from Max Aitken, 1st Baron Beaverbrook, who established the art collection that later became the Canadian War Records. Although the museum's war art collection included over 13,000 works, only 64 of these pieces depicted a dead body as of 2017.
The museum's collection of war art includes over 400 works by Alex Colville. Other artists featured in the collection includes Caroline Armington, Alfred Bastien, Charles Comfort, Alma Duncan, Colin Gill, Bobs Cogill Haworth, Robert Stewart Hyndman, Richard Jack, Frank Johnston, Manly E. MacDonald, Pegi Nicol MacLeod, Mabel May, Jack Nichols, Charles Sims, and Frederick Varley. The collection also includes several models and statues, including the plaster model by Vernon March that was later selected as the design for the National War Memorial. The museum's collection also includes the original scale plaster models by Walter Seymour Allward for the Canadian National Vimy Memorial. From 1937 to 2000, the models were held in storage, before they were exhibited in an exhibition in 2000. The models are now used in the Regeneration Hall exhibition.
Major travelling exhibitions of war art organized by the Canadian War Museum include A Terrible Beauty: The Art of Canada at War (1977), curated by the Canadian War Museum and Heather Robertson; and Canvas of War: Masterpieces from the Canadian War Museum, which toured Canada between 1999 and 2004 and was seen by nearly half a million visitors.
In 2007, the Canadian War Museum highlighted contemporary women's perspectives on war in the exhibitions War Brides: Portraits of an Era (an installation by Calgary artist Bev Tosh) and Stitches in Time (the work of London, Ontario artist Johnnene Maddison).
Selected works
Library and archives
The Military History Research Centre is a facility in the museum that houses the Hartland Molson Library Collection, and the George Metcalf Archival Collection. The Hartland Molson Library Collection serves as the museum's reference collection on Canadian military history, materials, and rare books; whereas George Metcalf Archival Collection serves as an archive for blueprints, daguerreotypes, films, journals, logbooks, maps, photographs, scrapbooks, and tapes. The research centre includes a general reading area that overlooks the adjacent river, and a specialized reading room for more fragile materials.
Although the War Trophies Review Board initially planned for the museum to include an archives, the museum did little archival work until 1967. The archiving of war-related documents was primarily undertaken by Public Archives of Canada up until that point; although the Public Archives voluntarily turned over war materials sent to the archives to the war museum. After the closure of the Public Archive's history museum in 1967, materials and documents from the museum were split between the National Museum of Man (now the Canadian Museum of History), and the Canadian War Museum. As a result of the closure of the Public Archive's history museum, the Public Archives began to regularly transfer archival documents to the war museum. In 1982, the museum's archival collection was reorganized into several categories, souvenirs, museum, manuscripts, maps, plans and blueprints, and Canadian War Museum records.
The Military History Research Centre's oral history archive contained nearly 400 interviews in 2007. The oral history collection was started by the museum in 1999. The program devised topic lists to guide interviews towards certain areas of interests; although the framing of the topics are designed to allow for in-depth conversation, one free of bias. Interviews were either conducted by the museum's research team, or ex-military officers, and averaged 90 minutes in length. Subjects of interviews includes service members who served in the Second World War, United Nations Emergency Force, Canadian Forces Europe, Yugoslav Wars, and the War in Afghanistan. Specific subjects interviewed include Airborne Intercept Navigators in NATO and NORAD, deputy commanders of NORAD, and all former Canadian commanders of STANAVFORLANT.
In 2000, the museum's photographic archives contained over 600 photograph collections or fonds; holding more than 17,000 individual photographs, and more than 250 photo albums. The collection was largely obtained through private sources, most of whom had taken the photo as participants in these conflicts.
See also
Lest We Forget Project
List of museums in Ottawa
National museums of Canada
National War Memorial (Canada)
Organization of Military Museums of Canada
Victor Suthren, former director general of the museum
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Friends of the Canadian War Museum
Buildings and structures completed in 2005
Cold War museums in Canada
Cultural infrastructure completed in 2005
Military and war museums in Canada
Museums established in 1942
Museums in Ottawa
War
Raymond Moriyama buildings
Tank museums
World War I museums in Canada
War_Museum
1942 establishments in Ontario | [
0.5481319427490234,
0.4704791307449341,
-0.4066111445426941,
0.1306307166814804,
0.23117989301681519,
0.49562564492225647,
0.7541561722755432,
0.5308613181114197,
-0.7844887971878052,
-0.3713790476322174,
-0.5135844349861145,
0.04272709786891937,
0.45444256067276,
0.5813183188438416,
-0.24446415901184082,
0.5994278788566589,
-0.27527716755867004,
0.10943246632814407,
0.6465904712677002,
-0.2192603349685669,
-0.42835551500320435,
-0.8691398501396179,
0.27467215061187744,
0.4031347632408142,
-0.006542067043483257,
0.07975498586893082,
1.0978479385375977,
-0.16487975418567657,
-0.5506153106689453,
-0.16448993980884552,
-0.1825835406780243,
-0.02021496370434761,
0.18892411887645721,
-0.29735440015792847,
0.0516313761472702,
-0.10785093903541565,
-0.09090428054332733,
-0.4393652081489563,
-0.1054018884897232,
-0.7315274477005005,
0.44036993384361267,
-0.7700580954551697,
0.17692962288856506,
0.22246050834655762,
-0.1523529589176178,
0.0041747004725039005,
-0.9786193370819092,
0.282721608877182,
-1.08460533618927,
0.30135276913642883,
-0.9023635983467102,
0.2789400815963745,
0.5010350942611694,
0.010807469487190247,
0.40638282895088196,
0.5195586085319519,
-0.48629051446914673,
0.04568774625658989,
0.19609519839286804,
-1.1581817865371704,
0.2958729565143585,
0.8827207088470459,
0.6191152930259705,
0.06793428212404251,
0.2502150535583496,
-0.1651383936405182,
0.3057662546634674,
0.10862477868795395,
0.425290048122406,
-0.01358215231448412,
0.26299065351486206,
0.15102697908878326,
0.08987173438072205,
0.6063756346702576,
-0.08125610649585724,
-0.035780154168605804,
0.5509970784187317,
-0.294049471616745,
-0.05170268192887306,
0.22653979063034058,
0.21011832356452942,
0.001523021375760436,
0.6622164845466614,
-0.34515219926834106,
0.4907661974430084,
0.6628775000572205,
-0.7707694172859192,
-0.47787943482398987,
-0.5314770340919495,
-0.0779692679643631,
-1.2457680702209473,
0.1020885482430458,
0.3203594982624054,
0.018087582662701607,
-0.033567268401384354,
0.0924370139837265,
0.290767639875412,
-0.2184770256280899,
0.6280395984649658,
0.348263680934906,
0.06031690165400505,
-0.27123430371284485,
0.2978319227695465,
0.187509223818779,
-0.812884509563446,
-0.5173586010932922,
-0.6023642420768738,
-0.19656212627887726,
-0.0964454784989357,
-0.03947337716817856,
-0.20031042397022247,
-0.21456275880336761,
-0.6629645824432373,
0.1297193020582199,
0.1642482429742813,
0.24243111908435822,
0.32113125920295715,
-0.4571327865123749,
-0.14699915051460266,
0.22837327420711517,
-0.23556892573833466,
0.20435620844364166,
-0.2510533034801483,
-0.23207737505435944,
-0.16741444170475006,
0.06177063286304474,
0.2828044593334198,
-0.20559875667095184,
-0.4094572067260742,
-0.040482260286808014,
0.31361129879951477,
0.5623370409011841,
-0.20554736256599426,
-0.46524763107299805,
0.10851922631263733,
-0.3739352226257324,
-0.1951666623353958,
-0.15299049019813538,
-0.02005589008331299,
0.4158691465854645,
-0.7402519583702087,
-0.9825748205184937,
-0.11062899231910706,
-0.7194253206253052,
0.35492387413978577,
-0.3847029209136963,
-0.936201274394989,
-0.3704724609851837,
-0.1379728615283966,
-0.16852767765522003,
0.15831784904003143,
-0.3008449375629425,
0.08923809975385666,
-0.5377573370933533,
-0.6801518201828003,
0.33521556854248047,
0.6365754008293152,
0.2856173813343048,
0.6607000231742859,
0.3883216679096222,
0.43726181983947754,
0.04365774616599083,
0.06259076297283173,
-0.1265379786491394,
0.0926155298948288,
0.2648259401321411,
-0.04556654021143913,
0.05690859630703926,
-0.3831181228160858,
-0.6065203547477722,
0.024486588314175606,
-0.04340411350131035,
0.6553556323051453,
0.1353447288274765,
-0.29598715901374817,
-0.22185954451560974,
0.4646393358707428,
0.2947715222835541,
0.1410515457391739,
0.0124486880376935,
-0.5451513528823853,
-0.013460534624755383,
0.4776751697063446,
-0.3091420829296112,
0.2547420263290405,
0.22795939445495605,
0.273755818605423,
-0.4940603971481323,
-0.28028035163879395,
0.26979678869247437,
-0.44925227761268616,
-0.5805066227912903,
0.38761723041534424,
-1.0312799215316772,
1.1613757610321045,
0.002860972424969077,
-0.5434876680374146,
1.039320468902588,
-0.7168986797332764,
0.5092751383781433,
0.10314366966485977,
-0.30304643511772156,
0.7601636052131653,
0.1708383411169052,
-0.33400410413742065,
0.0969933271408081,
0.014506328850984573,
0.16873715817928314,
0.49315640330314636,
-0.19242307543754578,
0.4269005358219147,
-0.41053301095962524,
-0.15260572731494904,
0.9292033910751343,
0.21127866208553314,
-0.537541925907135,
-0.5037266612052917,
-0.40331536531448364,
-0.44138631224632263,
-0.5810176730155945,
0.5681356191635132,
0.15843409299850464,
-0.049902912229299545,
0.21333466470241547,
-0.8227964639663696,
-0.0029650137294083834,
-0.13007168471813202,
0.3217014968395233,
0.47854042053222656,
-0.8893958330154419,
0.27209529280662537,
0.14114685356616974,
0.13402676582336426,
-0.22192524373531342,
0.031728293746709824,
-0.2993637025356293,
0.37326133251190186,
0.25568822026252747,
0.511117160320282,
0.07907577604055405,
-0.21050192415714264,
-0.25854313373565674,
-0.2073984444141388,
0.15916775166988373,
0.3969368040561676,
-0.12238863855600357,
0.0851273387670517,
0.4064198136329651,
0.31073644757270813,
-0.5316547155380249,
0.6049593091011047,
0.5053488612174988,
0.5042517781257629,
0.3776319921016693,
0.45835626125335693,
-0.18144772946834564,
0.7093930244445801,
-0.486420601606369,
-0.3920139968395233,
0.31970641016960144,
-0.09093577414751053,
-0.44451746344566345,
-1.154470682144165,
0.5565335154533386,
0.33519992232322693,
-0.37519094347953796,
-0.1245628297328949,
-0.6179510951042175,
-0.1694718450307846,
0.5910983681678772,
0.1932993084192276,
-0.18050186336040497,
0.0808364525437355,
0.3187403380870819,
0.9701004028320312,
0.45580795407295227,
-0.18916864693164825,
0.26220670342445374,
-0.3158678114414215,
-0.4204699993133545,
0.14806607365608215,
0.44572871923446655,
-0.08063233643770218,
-0.36838069558143616,
-0.06117882952094078,
0.37679487466812134,
-0.47749945521354675,
-0.19180835783481598,
-0.19324247539043427,
0.05269936844706535,
-0.16459618508815765,
-0.3410194516181946,
0.1792810559272766,
0.12317132949829102,
-0.022872187197208405,
0.0828171968460083,
0.1543404906988144,
-0.2164306491613388,
0.43709608912467957,
-0.062211498618125916,
-0.3448149561882019,
0.7034741044044495,
-0.16329075396060944,
0.0894477441906929,
0.07205545157194138,
-0.05177668482065201,
0.08431506901979446,
-0.377194881439209,
-5.571450233459473,
-0.32015207409858704,
-0.423036128282547,
-0.7437378764152527,
0.09198884665966034,
-0.10705326497554779,
0.07403101772069931,
-0.07137126475572586,
-0.2366851270198822,
-0.46255606412887573,
0.6717392206192017,
-0.08566027879714966,
0.22282534837722778,
0.5285022258758545,
0.2612948715686798,
0.3056519329547882,
0.15369179844856262,
0.0705656185746193,
0.15230941772460938,
-0.1267269104719162,
0.2641529142856598,
0.5269762873649597,
0.251383900642395,
0.17711886763572693,
0.31834128499031067,
0.6182280778884888,
-0.8072645664215088,
0.3238106071949005,
-0.6134398579597473,
0.16235195100307465,
0.2182006984949112,
-0.1581297069787979,
0.19219167530536652,
-0.4591183364391327,
-0.47210514545440674,
-0.20004676282405853,
-0.21642561256885529,
0.4153011441230774,
0.36902424693107605,
-0.6149269938468933,
-0.08929838985204697,
0.0034545999951660633,
0.16617858409881592,
0.17810912430286407,
0.48986005783081055,
-0.45582592487335205,
-0.7740601897239685,
-0.14605765044689178,
0.08131738752126694,
0.4810459613800049,
-0.30096739530563354,
0.6400963664054871,
0.6978939175605774,
0.07812491059303284,
-0.32828477025032043,
-0.555939257144928,
0.48589324951171875,
0.008414938114583492,
-0.4421374797821045,
-0.19243405759334564,
-0.15081442892551422,
-0.24470268189907074,
-0.03523488715291023,
-0.222469300031662,
-0.47262075543403625,
-0.5965763926506042,
-0.45191413164138794,
0.18691004812717438,
0.33354246616363525,
0.18062391877174377,
-0.3874305188655853,
0.3120599389076233,
-0.6316483616828918,
-0.8419487476348877,
0.008647789247334003,
-0.4697141647338867,
0.15800610184669495,
0.1394583135843277,
0.22254899144172668,
-0.05648037791252136,
-0.25044313073158264,
-0.03346528112888336,
-0.2166508436203003,
0.27362167835235596,
-0.09393103420734406,
-0.05881795659661293,
0.06864168494939804,
0.49494466185569763,
0.10996851325035095,
-0.18900583684444427,
-0.20153504610061646,
-0.03704236447811127,
-0.020850177854299545,
0.14121317863464355,
0.20047800242900848,
-0.5201368927955627,
0.8820083141326904,
0.41914796829223633,
0.4941076934337616,
-0.98807293176651,
0.33672571182250977,
-0.4087616801261902,
-0.0070455013774335384,
-0.5067233443260193,
-0.45158955454826355,
-0.5032802820205688,
-0.001399264787323773,
-0.10672495514154434,
0.42755863070487976,
0.10789234936237335,
-0.5012129545211792,
-0.31890660524368286,
-0.08883193135261536,
-0.18100778758525848,
0.2922046482563019,
-0.06464049220085144,
0.02807893231511116,
0.581864058971405,
1.316172480583191,
0.18640978634357452,
0.22591637074947357,
0.0369502454996109,
0.23682734370231628,
0.5711939334869385,
0.06000667065382004,
0.022243916988372803,
0.2572895884513855,
-0.17424818873405457,
-0.5772191882133484,
-0.5179957151412964,
-0.07863012701272964,
-0.007398722693324089,
0.4841442406177521,
0.7379530072212219,
0.2860778570175171,
-0.058905228972435,
0.10060887783765793,
-0.3984033465385437,
0.4380206763744354,
0.23954395949840546,
0.36049559712409973,
-0.1362418383359909,
-0.32306957244873047,
0.7996872663497925,
-0.27312198281288147,
0.8403765559196472,
-0.07543028146028519,
0.6124952435493469,
-0.4188697636127472,
0.5488747954368591,
-0.4704928398132324,
-0.3322063684463501,
0.5434461832046509,
-0.19080492854118347,
0.2697071433067322,
-0.11667682230472565,
-0.058717288076877594,
0.4511789381504059,
-0.000852278433740139,
-0.4039072096347809,
0.8763267397880554,
0.24609708786010742,
-0.4627024233341217,
-0.32235291600227356,
-0.13430587947368622,
-0.14995747804641724,
-0.4345511794090271,
-0.1286582350730896,
-0.2014993280172348,
0.5207549929618835,
0.5904374718666077,
-0.32459068298339844,
-0.6072335243225098,
0.06585942953824997,
0.8812716603279114,
-0.06573422998189926,
0.04221927002072334,
-0.08050424605607986,
0.7654298543930054,
0.4996337294578552,
0.09971215575933456,
-0.010970395989716053,
0.06712399423122406,
0.37392303347587585,
-0.16304445266723633,
0.37510156631469727,
-0.276070237159729,
-0.14447982609272003,
0.16203197836875916,
0.08493196219205856,
0.4846275746822357,
-0.2875239849090576,
-0.07109867036342621,
-0.05341039225459099,
-0.3641555607318878,
0.043600115925073624,
0.07770722359418869,
0.1533402055501938,
0.04308284446597099,
-0.11728830635547638,
0.4043598771095276,
0.46838662028312683,
-0.7286486625671387,
0.3406183123588562,
-0.04195520654320717,
-0.4086010158061981,
0.6335387229919434,
-0.15284298360347748,
-0.07810033857822418,
0.6429035663604736,
-0.4935877323150635,
-0.0442890040576458,
0.25588709115982056,
0.410805344581604,
-0.723441481590271,
-0.06617333739995956,
-0.022193418815732002,
0.0743623822927475,
-0.12138973921537399,
0.2737670838832855,
-0.5426480174064636,
0.14188873767852783,
-0.35926008224487305,
-0.08395761251449585,
-0.7235390543937683,
0.8117730617523193,
0.6311677098274231,
-0.45761051774024963,
0.06926915794610977,
-0.2411242425441742,
-0.37590670585632324,
-0.252725750207901,
0.22832241654396057,
-0.31915557384490967,
0.4830259382724762,
0.2483578473329544,
0.13121257722377777,
0.16606181859970093,
0.4938044548034668,
0.7249153256416321,
0.20380224287509918,
0.5815039277076721,
0.38978609442710876,
-0.7879078388214111,
-0.04568157345056534,
0.48814696073532104,
0.5622146725654602,
-0.4591427147388458,
-0.45355919003486633,
0.21567387878894806,
0.07531046867370605,
-0.8509752154350281,
-0.2963167726993561,
-0.4747689664363861,
1.0328490734100342,
-0.41815727949142456,
0.1333843469619751,
0.4467070996761322,
-0.08112956583499908,
-0.5158683657646179,
0.14245019853115082,
-0.44417500495910645,
-0.5379189848899841,
0.5408897995948792,
0.23052947223186493,
-0.1932743787765503,
-0.39024943113327026,
-0.16697576642036438,
-0.30518651008605957,
-0.4429413378238678,
-0.1440647691488266,
-0.028680948540568352,
0.6956858038902283,
0.8998661041259766,
0.02980710193514824,
-0.6652612686157227,
0.054326433688402176,
-0.2116931527853012,
0.30475175380706787,
-0.4469071328639984,
-0.2165714055299759,
-0.044496089220047,
-0.0024363696575164795,
-0.30279240012168884,
0.8563987612724304,
-0.977471113204956,
-0.02307959832251072,
0.4056852459907532,
-0.13663221895694733,
-0.17863747477531433,
-0.5298213958740234,
-0.25955942273139954,
0.17092478275299072,
-0.14794805645942688,
-0.32753878831863403,
0.04844791069626808,
-0.2660106420516968,
0.6002752780914307,
0.22026222944259644,
0.6308380961418152,
-1.1632475852966309,
0.699802815914154,
-0.22434720396995544,
-0.3786885142326355,
0.2843689024448395,
-0.2946398854255676,
-0.18702061474323273,
-0.14146123826503754,
-0.6825984716415405,
0.24264408648014069,
0.01689012348651886,
-0.1340649127960205,
0.39898544549942017,
-0.3130718767642975,
-0.2924976944923401,
-0.19190238416194916,
0.32378003001213074,
-1.2252146005630493,
-0.06823651492595673,
-0.012664941139519215,
-0.3529893159866333,
0.6742386221885681,
0.932898223400116,
0.24995581805706024,
-0.19403311610221863,
0.8616385459899902,
-0.044212810695171356,
-0.43829479813575745,
-0.08124510943889618,
0.12703870236873627,
-0.19243529438972473,
-0.09164383262395859,
-0.6249427795410156,
0.6743474006652832,
-0.5456677675247192,
-0.34072574973106384,
0.1300525963306427,
0.10715991258621216,
0.02043978124856949,
0.7203922271728516,
-0.16793698072433472,
0.11462162435054779,
-0.5558158159255981,
0.22985319793224335,
-0.49780216813087463,
0.6986489295959473,
0.12231750041246414,
0.17973563075065613,
0.26628679037094116,
0.03071279078722,
0.24559645354747772,
0.05248928815126419,
0.389975905418396,
-0.05962575972080231,
-0.0980338603258133,
0.13991650938987732,
0.06881371140480042,
-0.31692901253700256,
-0.055498138070106506,
0.29004430770874023,
-0.31202179193496704,
-0.0363592691719532,
0.2480754405260086,
0.07066123932600021,
-0.22519612312316895,
0.2497287392616272,
0.36410194635391235,
-0.39019325375556946,
-0.09600724279880524,
-0.0006194805609993637,
-0.11932279169559479,
0.34412145614624023,
-0.38043680787086487,
0.013668691739439964,
-0.13994643092155457,
-0.026182156056165695,
-0.24236850440502167,
0.06657949090003967,
-0.10808226466178894,
0.2355852872133255,
-0.2867441177368164,
0.4773500859737396,
0.0038216416724026203,
-0.517002284526825,
0.7184132933616638,
-0.3121762275695801,
0.09273576736450195,
0.6385185718536377,
-0.328775554895401,
-0.16269740462303162,
0.11353102326393127,
-0.6281175017356873,
-0.21434062719345093,
0.13478921353816986,
-0.2346191257238388,
-0.6171878576278687,
-0.23151646554470062,
-0.2872451841831207,
0.1833806037902832,
0.2235339879989624,
-0.23090419173240662,
0.3922326862812042,
-0.1182200089097023,
0.0019462606869637966,
-0.38346293568611145,
0.3600327670574188,
-0.19189423322677612,
-0.1337186098098755,
-0.7544929385185242,
0.03068036586046219,
-0.6437095403671265,
-0.23347485065460205,
-0.5269637107849121,
-0.13189956545829773,
-0.8875376582145691,
-0.16682209074497223,
0.6570287942886353,
-0.28203123807907104,
-0.11995892226696014,
-0.6429354548454285,
-0.11719946563243866,
-0.8983789086341858,
0.7816754579544067,
0.614389955997467,
-0.40938854217529297,
-1.0175573825836182,
0.20899111032485962,
0.17471691966056824,
0.11077018827199936,
0.24298007786273956,
-0.02772076427936554,
-0.755869448184967,
-0.7007660865783691,
0.6180057525634766,
-0.28040510416030884,
-0.14624440670013428,
0.6628842949867249,
0.9608374238014221,
0.4457499384880066,
-0.39720386266708374,
0.17139214277267456,
-0.484428733587265,
0.9571979641914368,
-0.6016890406608582,
0.30538415908813477,
0.32596102356910706,
-0.04931023716926575,
-0.2561046779155731,
-0.507895290851593,
0.47921881079673767,
0.2885020673274994,
0.07937481254339218,
0.5246486067771912,
-0.6306812167167664,
-0.32359209656715393,
-0.2320222705602646,
0.2677310109138489,
0.2973031997680664,
0.31140515208244324,
0.6700747013092041
] |
248042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weissenberg%20number | Weissenberg number | The Weissenberg number (Wi) is a dimensionless number used in the study of viscoelastic flows. It is named after Karl Weissenberg. The dimensionless number compares the elastic forces to the viscous forces. It can be variously defined, but it is usually given by the relation of stress relaxation time of the fluid and a specific process time. For instance, in simple steady shear, the Weissenberg number, often abbreviated as Wi or We, is defined as the shear rate times the relaxation time . Using the Maxwell model and the Oldroyd-B model, the elastic forces can be written as the first Normal force (N1).
Since this number is obtained from scaling the evolution of the stress, it contains choices for the shear or elongation rate, and the length-scale. Therefore the exact definition of all non dimensional numbers should be given as well as the number itself.
While Wi is similar to the Deborah number and is often confused with it in technical literature, they have different physical interpretations. The Weissenberg number indicates the degree of anisotropy or orientation generated by the deformation, and is appropriate to describe flows with a constant stretch history, such as simple shear. In contrast, the Deborah number should be used to describe flows with a non-constant stretch history, and physically represents the rate at which elastic energy is stored or released.
References
Dimensionless numbers of fluid mechanics
Fluid dynamics
Non-Newtonian fluids
Rheology | [
-0.40138158202171326,
0.05311765894293785,
0.4011557996273041,
-0.12798938155174255,
-0.6009156107902527,
0.31411251425743103,
0.37571877241134644,
-0.5297703146934509,
-0.3941962718963623,
-0.4151555299758911,
-0.3526622951030731,
0.043103478848934174,
-0.02512184903025627,
0.841468095779419,
0.4367945194244385,
0.19673332571983337,
0.22481150925159454,
0.47328805923461914,
0.1893509179353714,
-0.9694908857345581,
0.22712773084640503,
-0.4373987913131714,
0.6038394570350647,
-0.17979128658771515,
-0.03345303609967232,
0.06698848307132721,
-0.3978235423564911,
-0.22341901063919067,
0.46986761689186096,
0.2800319194793701,
-0.4922022223472595,
1.4683177471160889,
-0.10989321023225784,
0.21437318623065948,
0.1809818148612976,
0.228594109416008,
0.06288010627031326,
-0.3524875342845917,
-0.23037275671958923,
0.06381461024284363,
0.3811890482902527,
-0.47170546650886536,
0.540541410446167,
0.5695596933364868,
-0.643581748008728,
-0.9518880248069763,
-1.5078321695327759,
0.18097957968711853,
-0.7217230200767517,
-0.23464882373809814,
-0.3926819860935211,
0.32353654503822327,
0.5708342790603638,
0.5355163216590881,
-0.2513521611690521,
0.1332399696111679,
-0.9493932723999023,
-0.10765489190816879,
0.8643671870231628,
-0.6212658286094666,
0.33522486686706543,
-0.5049874186515808,
0.023051977157592773,
0.023309072479605675,
0.20124082267284393,
0.4398012161254883,
0.11054615676403046,
0.7067115306854248,
-0.3492636978626251,
0.0381474643945694,
0.5001698136329651,
-0.22533029317855835,
0.33585017919540405,
-0.25380679965019226,
-0.11342905461788177,
-0.04720629006624222,
-0.11539118736982346,
-0.26568958163261414,
0.05490947142243385,
0.286975234746933,
-0.6095585823059082,
0.23114173114299774,
0.4287881553173065,
-0.2915383279323578,
0.5377057194709778,
0.49303966760635376,
-0.6303370594978333,
0.5493345856666565,
-0.6190703511238098,
0.2822439968585968,
0.07888886332511902,
-0.19697652757167816,
0.5679212808609009,
-0.21576794981956482,
0.09888941794633865,
0.4992569386959076,
-0.03420169651508331,
-0.39082249999046326,
0.5769367814064026,
-0.08934058248996735,
0.3141828775405884,
-0.002769598038867116,
-0.10256943851709366,
-0.16471713781356812,
-0.33693379163742065,
-0.022089142352342606,
-0.27150726318359375,
-0.7081595063209534,
0.4370878338813782,
-1.2376890182495117,
-0.5882225036621094,
-0.08259724825620651,
-0.3755747079849243,
-0.1865510195493698,
0.011584808118641376,
0.2600599527359009,
0.1988387107849121,
-0.1591208428144455,
0.10893095284700394,
0.42150378227233887,
-0.3721356689929962,
0.7461596131324768,
-0.19108273088932037,
0.5790314078330994,
-0.13127869367599487,
0.3596189320087433,
0.036253396421670914,
0.8683286309242249,
-0.5455268621444702,
0.13006503880023956,
0.06208406016230583,
1.1992206573486328,
0.5467961430549622,
0.07424372434616089,
-0.1204136535525322,
-0.09589678049087524,
-0.45594754815101624,
0.22754605114459991,
-0.40586817264556885,
0.2911289930343628,
-0.8622819781303406,
-0.3347509205341339,
-1.367820143699646,
0.163441002368927,
0.48033612966537476,
-0.1161828562617302,
-0.7723582983016968,
-0.4917003810405731,
0.027465999126434326,
-0.4828771948814392,
-0.004631451331079006,
0.10942831635475159,
-0.6139258146286011,
0.3160688281059265,
0.038159020245075226,
0.20022541284561157,
0.37975504994392395,
0.20495647192001343,
0.33132949471473694,
0.3204876780509949,
-0.04561842605471611,
0.27586546540260315,
-0.2530284821987152,
-0.020369593054056168,
0.08835271000862122,
-0.8128587007522583,
0.8347572088241577,
0.26803457736968994,
-0.4939594268798828,
0.27524322271347046,
-0.19189855456352234,
-0.22567960619926453,
0.19750596582889557,
0.25336578488349915,
0.41993147134780884,
-0.12684082984924316,
0.5370994806289673,
-0.12492167204618454,
0.6022827625274658,
-0.18385574221611023,
-0.7706015110015869,
0.17823278903961182,
0.4458576738834381,
-0.23132894933223724,
0.4995303153991699,
0.5569785833358765,
0.09757338464260101,
0.17048236727714539,
-0.21783962845802307,
-0.34748783707618713,
0.004168638959527016,
0.005668798461556435,
0.865596354007721,
-0.8252893686294556,
1.2485753297805786,
0.6532569527626038,
0.03395729511976242,
0.35922661423683167,
-0.09377258270978928,
0.2601267993450165,
-0.17378245294094086,
-0.08625175058841705,
0.22406019270420074,
-0.088887520134449,
-0.5284481048583984,
1.6730363368988037,
0.3645837903022766,
0.07591624557971954,
-0.33955320715904236,
-0.1350070685148239,
0.6227724552154541,
-0.5732122659683228,
0.30053195357322693,
-0.5831422805786133,
-0.27803176641464233,
-0.2903175950050354,
-0.28700095415115356,
0.49440526962280273,
0.12867622077465057,
0.2993457615375519,
1.213537573814392,
-0.25060683488845825,
-0.1921338140964508,
0.06544491648674011,
0.02212596870958805,
0.3728877305984497,
0.6933375000953674,
0.15461574494838715,
0.49486440420150757,
-0.6369693279266357,
-0.07879509776830673,
-0.3780643939971924,
0.07251141965389252,
0.27064982056617737,
-0.4258602261543274,
0.24720486998558044,
0.41615426540374756,
-0.17130358517169952,
0.6458346843719482,
-0.9476407170295715,
0.05897312983870506,
0.5670863389968872,
-0.2978319823741913,
0.7226953506469727,
0.01072370819747448,
-0.08614347130060196,
0.6516542434692383,
-0.04023594781756401,
-0.05164126679301262,
-0.19587752223014832,
0.013146571815013885,
0.6775450706481934,
-0.013220824301242828,
-1.0230712890625,
0.21041260659694672,
0.14985164999961853,
0.35952240228652954,
0.14229720830917358,
0.6526930332183838,
0.6375206708908081,
-0.21807287633419037,
-0.39292579889297485,
0.039815034717321396,
-0.1113634705543518,
-0.41155922412872314,
-0.8093804121017456,
-0.5756550431251526,
-0.37938302755355835,
0.6594122052192688,
-0.08512471616268158,
0.14066177606582642,
-0.3339093327522278,
-0.07827285677194595,
-1.0399889945983887,
-0.18910793960094452,
-0.5865964293479919,
0.1015019565820694,
0.05019838362932205,
-1.194671392440796,
-0.007321816869080067,
0.05846880003809929,
1.1442680358886719,
0.3478378653526306,
-0.2802179157733917,
0.43270593881607056,
0.050300657749176025,
-0.519476056098938,
0.44812172651290894,
0.5698456764221191,
-0.8775120973587036,
-0.573058545589447,
-0.4079764187335968,
0.05394474044442177,
-0.10585741698741913,
-0.02666541561484337,
0.4268837869167328,
-0.05419908091425896,
-0.11996087431907654,
0.3288609981536865,
-0.09592002630233765,
-0.6274992823600769,
0.29020676016807556,
-0.16248443722724915,
-0.32691946625709534,
-0.05027369037270546,
0.5134382247924805,
-0.2980368435382843,
0.6552963852882385,
-5.084855079650879,
0.40492376685142517,
-0.26985257863998413,
-0.06879961490631104,
0.17035800218582153,
0.14323359727859497,
0.7198984026908875,
0.1205882877111435,
-0.14564473927021027,
-0.3668228089809418,
-0.20412957668304443,
-0.1352885216474533,
-0.5264484882354736,
0.895028829574585,
0.1026773750782013,
-0.11415045708417892,
0.49656420946121216,
-0.04177284613251686,
0.5114178657531738,
-0.23608779907226562,
-0.26747819781303406,
0.32370439171791077,
-0.3379013240337372,
-0.009385698474943638,
-0.17301665246486664,
0.327515184879303,
-0.07996207475662231,
0.4257846474647522,
-1.0304220914840698,
-0.03586902096867561,
-0.13301345705986023,
-0.7209372520446777,
-0.2735958397388458,
-0.38713064789772034,
-0.23805908858776093,
-0.3263202905654907,
0.425229549407959,
0.10887952893972397,
0.2872418463230133,
-0.258259654045105,
-0.44843295216560364,
0.72300124168396,
-0.06726234406232834,
-0.3377764821052551,
0.5959688425064087,
-0.11525442451238632,
-0.23066063225269318,
-0.06773018836975098,
0.0600338876247406,
0.6064666509628296,
-0.41851434111595154,
-0.4259147346019745,
0.41481682658195496,
-0.3632371127605438,
0.1683618575334549,
-0.0818985104560852,
0.29128384590148926,
0.2569287121295929,
-0.6082812547683716,
0.46507760882377625,
0.3986411988735199,
-0.22617752850055695,
0.4216495454311371,
-0.0036068011540919542,
-0.2568126618862152,
-0.1240415871143341,
-0.7934353947639465,
0.07023929059505463,
0.01776488497853279,
-0.6130608916282654,
0.4163793623447418,
0.5739351511001587,
0.12327905744314194,
-0.6501622796058655,
-0.04878085106611252,
-0.7832888960838318,
0.43208247423171997,
-0.03236720338463783,
-0.045393116772174835,
0.2524682283401489,
-0.40239188075065613,
-0.2771786153316498,
-0.8097828030586243,
0.020441709086298943,
0.515230119228363,
0.0494733490049839,
0.25046902894973755,
-0.30093950033187866,
-0.11076284945011139,
-0.05885729193687439,
0.2862115502357483,
0.18054404854774475,
0.39017796516418457,
0.36587822437286377,
0.17687490582466125,
0.4357765018939972,
-0.012830321677029133,
0.5659630298614502,
0.06596971303224564,
-0.24191898107528687,
0.23553067445755005,
-1.0832643508911133,
0.10137394815683365,
-0.5487417578697205,
0.06484518945217133,
0.41755956411361694,
-0.14577889442443848,
0.7242583632469177,
0.6726917624473572,
0.27048033475875854,
0.05466926470398903,
-0.21827825903892517,
-0.28686395287513733,
-0.35976070165634155,
0.9017236828804016,
0.25744569301605225,
-0.5795870423316956,
0.5773675441741943,
0.8290048241615295,
0.12881974875926971,
0.5166271924972534,
0.5040950775146484,
-0.022335417568683624,
-0.12217899411916733,
0.02282271534204483,
0.25779005885124207,
-0.007670045364648104,
0.16688263416290283,
-0.726460337638855,
-0.3680786192417145,
-0.4822777807712555,
0.4944440722465515,
0.20440146327018738,
0.21375133097171783,
0.5277132987976074,
-0.12942849099636078,
-0.35953524708747864,
0.23358649015426636,
-0.09813638776540756,
-0.5773248672485352,
0.8601009249687195,
0.17237700521945953,
-0.7549649477005005,
0.06914263218641281,
0.3294990658760071,
0.8078054189682007,
-0.29780930280685425,
-0.15168260037899017,
-0.8799825310707092,
1.084529995918274,
0.1609758734703064,
-0.5489442348480225,
0.1952447146177292,
-0.699870228767395,
-0.10785386711359024,
0.7374706864356995,
0.4299781918525696,
0.2751961946487427,
0.5609365701675415,
0.07413321733474731,
0.38008761405944824,
0.33426815271377563,
-0.7537041902542114,
-0.3871060013771057,
0.01886535808444023,
-0.6899452209472656,
-0.6764808297157288,
-0.024429721757769585,
-0.36719805002212524,
0.89549320936203,
-0.31046009063720703,
0.11644472181797028,
-0.6238161325454712,
-0.5826662182807922,
0.35883134603500366,
0.22129575908184052,
0.09394308924674988,
0.3303258717060089,
0.1743462234735489,
-0.16635169088840485,
0.1393038034439087,
0.08024320006370544,
-0.28751787543296814,
0.924940288066864,
0.47058337926864624,
-0.272638738155365,
-0.24459631741046906,
0.1820671111345291,
-0.5228545665740967,
0.12322854995727539,
0.36644652485847473,
0.19924843311309814,
-0.024401359260082245,
0.07461633533239365,
0.01544717513024807,
-0.7200689911842346,
0.03037400171160698,
0.44313058257102966,
-0.5674228668212891,
-0.2747865617275238,
0.31091585755348206,
0.5157174468040466,
-0.6607139110565186,
0.5034570693969727,
0.09034241735935211,
-0.6295086145401001,
-0.2799610495567322,
-0.24872879683971405,
-0.1674954891204834,
-0.006138058379292488,
-0.354510098695755,
-0.8316596746444702,
-0.3858621418476105,
0.13987021148204803,
-0.027988256886601448,
-0.1242075115442276,
0.3301335573196411,
-0.5088028311729431,
0.11977126449346542,
-0.19476889073848724,
-0.40294039249420166,
-0.09773477166891098,
0.03718569129705429,
-0.6058112382888794,
-0.09418140351772308,
-0.22024880349636078,
-0.6667449474334717,
-0.26284849643707275,
0.5361607670783997,
-0.22357958555221558,
-0.218793123960495,
-0.41507866978645325,
-0.06882142275571823,
0.0907912477850914,
-0.11391863971948624,
-0.14548513293266296,
-0.731863796710968,
0.10658541321754456,
-0.25789904594421387,
-0.050989486277103424,
0.06209095939993858,
0.5443477034568787,
0.12570227682590485,
-0.8222023844718933,
-0.033241983503103256,
-0.29642295837402344,
0.5534546971321106,
-0.19803795218467712,
-0.18314969539642334,
-0.1090545654296875,
0.23902787268161774,
-0.3991386592388153,
-0.6537368297576904,
-0.4669784903526306,
1.17586088180542,
0.2432618886232376,
0.35887154936790466,
-1.099616289138794,
0.5729587078094482,
0.02472906932234764,
-0.4749070405960083,
-0.0887279286980629,
-0.030392859131097794,
0.35647088289260864,
-0.13117070496082306,
0.5482648611068726,
-0.5872896313667297,
-0.5846381783485413,
0.28385552763938904,
-0.6464757323265076,
0.2693306803703308,
-0.08949414640665054,
-0.20431959629058838,
0.112031951546669,
-0.04245623201131821,
0.8289113640785217,
-0.1636623740196228,
-0.49341869354248047,
-0.12193725258111954,
-0.42745280265808105,
-0.10848496854305267,
-0.0031919965986162424,
-0.25663354992866516,
0.19669820368289948,
-0.06534969806671143,
0.20504996180534363,
0.12820382416248322,
-0.21480609476566315,
-0.6218247413635254,
0.6704012155532837,
-0.6395056843757629,
0.17463432252407074,
-0.5743006467819214,
0.27085188031196594,
0.21314731240272522,
0.19880644977092743,
-0.07790248841047287,
0.49887552857398987,
-0.5995330810546875,
-0.040491845458745956,
-0.8415437936782837,
0.4179209768772125,
-0.40328484773635864,
-0.41037386655807495,
0.30913543701171875,
-0.11281353235244751,
-0.02756723202764988,
0.09585259854793549,
0.10792557150125504,
-0.21823284029960632,
0.08546619862318039,
0.19780659675598145,
-0.5638696551322937,
0.3570960462093353,
0.11730273067951202,
-0.04302729666233063,
0.5414409041404724,
-0.7053669095039368,
0.4410603642463684,
0.4566708207130432,
0.026177696883678436,
-0.1630696803331375,
0.5217693448066711,
-0.16752047836780548,
-0.655911922454834,
0.9984833598136902,
-0.20242342352867126,
0.09981156140565872,
-0.5467394590377808,
0.3867301642894745,
0.779386043548584,
0.20894280076026917,
-0.9571021199226379,
0.32504749298095703,
-0.2989237606525421,
0.21638718247413635,
0.2734571099281311,
-0.06679478287696838,
-0.2115778774023056,
0.6868700385093689,
0.22130221128463745,
1.0075334310531616,
-0.01583675481379032,
0.2169187068939209,
0.2919031083583832,
0.26840391755104065,
-0.7371259331703186,
0.15724505484104156,
0.1712002158164978,
-0.3040632903575897,
0.3701501786708832,
-0.2226787656545639,
0.05071459710597992,
-0.5468851923942566,
-0.06308381259441376,
-0.20188532769680023,
0.1914464831352234,
-0.5734554529190063,
0.19008769094944,
-0.5290682911872864,
0.1653592586517334,
0.04114975780248642,
0.37784191966056824,
-0.09843318164348602,
-0.00754184927791357,
-0.30286240577697754,
0.296908974647522,
-0.048594970256090164,
-0.4682295620441437,
0.05054004490375519,
0.23889705538749695,
0.2898441553115845,
-0.319312185049057,
0.872923731803894,
0.18931621313095093,
0.1543755829334259,
-0.3616103529930115,
0.6179625988006592,
-0.1179732009768486,
-0.12264624238014221,
-0.5409826636314392,
0.6230009198188782,
-0.19860847294330597,
0.10996682196855545,
-0.010725532658398151,
-0.31680309772491455,
-0.14336806535720825,
-0.017261331900954247,
0.08885006606578827,
0.17601151764392853,
0.5812476873397827,
-0.4311893582344055,
-0.2524164021015167,
0.3276371657848358,
-0.5022758841514587,
0.04084441065788269,
-0.4929892420768738,
0.9697263836860657,
0.6145305633544922,
0.15157313644886017,
0.26022788882255554,
-0.019608819857239723,
0.060695089399814606,
0.30390796065330505,
-0.5138221979141235,
0.4076346755027771,
-0.059775106608867645,
0.9307728409767151,
-0.4808691143989563,
0.30763158202171326,
0.6121915578842163,
0.06122107803821564,
-0.1559331864118576,
0.39183756709098816,
-0.08303601294755936,
0.007924591191112995,
0.7559964060783386,
-0.3549080789089203,
0.11877968162298203,
-0.7744333148002625,
-0.7856922745704651,
-0.352717787027359,
0.5110306739807129,
-0.014302884228527546,
-0.10974400490522385,
0.16231027245521545,
0.3729848563671112,
-0.3998001515865326,
0.020681878551840782,
-0.22267410159111023,
-0.7365326285362244,
0.5909892320632935,
-0.7892762422561646,
1.1109223365783691,
-0.5855334401130676,
-0.08192954212427139,
0.5059317946434021,
0.36274680495262146,
0.6228651404380798,
-0.2798544764518738,
0.29366806149482727,
-0.14200598001480103,
-0.5793069005012512,
0.5530841946601868,
-2.4551339149475098,
0.8441734313964844,
-0.14949069917201996,
-0.5066900253295898,
-0.35607263445854187,
0.00845574401319027,
0.30682864785194397,
-0.5427523851394653,
0.22171659767627716,
-0.7686756253242493,
-0.20790372788906097,
-0.3491148054599762,
-0.1831797957420349,
-0.44300997257232666,
-0.22882558405399323,
0.36470484733581543
] |
248043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bickley | Bickley | Bickley is a district and a local government electoral ward in South East London, within the London Borough of Bromley and the historic county of Kent. It is located 10.4 miles (16.7 km) south east of Charing Cross, bordering Elmstead to the north, Chislehurst to the north-east and east, Petts Wood to the south-east, Southborough to the south, Bromley to the south-west and west and Widmore to the north-west.
History
The area's name is first recorded in 1279, the 'ley' or 'lea' referring to a forest clearing, and 'Bicca' either meaning a pointed ridge, or else a personal name. The area remained rural, save for a small hunting lodge belonging to the Wells family dating to 1759. The Lodge was gradually enlarged to become Bickley Hall, a classical house designed by Robert Mylne, FRS, for John Wells, shipbuilder, in 1780 (demolished 1963). His brother William, shipbuilder and a director of Greenwich Hospital, inherited the estate, and his son John commissioned additions by Robert Smirke in 1810. John Wells began selling part of his lands in 1841 following due to financial difficulties, and by the late 1850s a few large houses had been built in the area, aided by the opening of Bickley railway station (formerly named Southborough Road) in 1858 and Chislehurst station in 1865. Much of the area was purchased and developed by George Wythes, who commissioned numerous large houses for the wealthy classes, most of them designed by Richard Norman Shaw and Ernest Newton. St George's Church was built in 1865, and a cricket ground in 1868. Smaller-scale development continued throughout the early 20th century and several of the older, larger properties were demolished or sub-divided. The area today remains a wealthy one, characterised by large detached housing.
Parks in Bickley
Jubilee Country Park
With entrances in Thornet Wood Road and Blackbrook lane, there are 62 acres (25 hectares) of wildflower meadows, hedgerows and semi-natural ancient woodland. There is a cycle route through this park to Petts Wood. The London LOOP footpath also goes through Jubilee Park and it is linked to National Trust countryside at Petts Wood and beyond that to Scadbury Park Nature Reserve.
Whitehall Recreation Ground
A large play area on Southlands Road with a children's playground.
Widmore Recreation Ground
A small local park with a children's playground which has entrances in Pembroke Road, Lewes Road and Tylney Road.
Education
Schools in Bickley
Bickley Park (Independent)
Bickley Primary School
Breaside Preparatory School (Independent)
Bromley High School (Independent)
Bullers Wood School for Boys
Scotts Park Primary
St. George's Bickley Primary
Transport
Bickley station serves the area with services to London Victoria, Kentish Town, Orpington and Sevenoaks via Swanley. Bickley is also served by several Transport for London buses, connecting it with areas including Beckenham, Bexleyheath, Bromley, Catford, Chislehurst, Eltham, Locksbottom, Orpington, Petts Wood and Sidcup.
Places of worship
St George's Church
St. Augustine's Church
Southborough Lane Baptist Church
Notable residents
David Bowie (1947-2016), musician, lived at 106 Canon Road from 1953 to 1954.
Colin Cowdrey, Baron Cowdrey of Tonbridge (1932–2000) Cricket player, lived on Hawthorne Road until about 1965.
Florence Farr (1860–1917), religious writer and playwright, was born in Bickley.
Evelyn Hellicar (1862–1929), architect.
Gertrude Hermes (1901–1983) wood engraver, print maker and sculptor, born in Bickley.
Ethel Hurlbatt, principal of Bedford College, London, born in Bickley.
Pixie Lott (born 1991), singer-songwriter, spent part of her childhood in Bickley.
Ernest Newton (1856–1921), architect who designed many houses in the area.
Charles Henry Bourne Quennell (1872–1935), architect of the Bickley development and writer, lived at 9 The Avenue.
Marjorie Quennell née Courtnay (1884–1972), artist, writer and museum curator, wife of CHB Quennell.
Peter Quennell (1905–1993), biographer, literary historian, editor, essayist, poet, and critic, son of CHB Quennell.
John Wells (1761–1846), of Bickley Hall, High Sheriff of Kent. MP for Maidstone.
Gallery
References
External links
Chislehurst, Petts Wood & Bickley Village News
Bickley Park Cricket Club
Bromley Councillors
162 bus timetable
208/N47 bus timetable
269 bus timetable
314 bus timetable
336 bus timetable
R7 bus timetable
Areas of London
Districts of the London Borough of Bromley | [
-0.3857777416706085,
0.09579319506883621,
0.7314040064811707,
-0.8465584516525269,
-0.12320462614297867,
0.28313106298446655,
0.06996564567089081,
-0.3328087329864502,
-0.27896416187286377,
-0.009132342413067818,
0.05814056470990181,
-0.34358566999435425,
-0.09037845581769943,
0.4986688792705536,
-0.5630213022232056,
0.06430085003376007,
0.13909512758255005,
0.47835052013397217,
0.31917521357536316,
-0.6278008818626404,
0.433566689491272,
-0.44774535298347473,
-0.5099363327026367,
0.21366770565509796,
0.29939088225364685,
-0.16641651093959808,
0.6196972131729126,
-0.153364896774292,
0.1615072339773178,
-0.16666841506958008,
0.2763574421405792,
0.3227559030056,
-0.33263641595840454,
-0.6285979151725769,
0.1147264763712883,
0.030867796391248703,
0.055873554199934006,
-0.527588427066803,
-0.2948914170265198,
-0.4038906991481781,
-0.29119884967803955,
0.11378149688243866,
-0.4242021143436432,
0.04245448485016823,
-0.2901275157928467,
-0.9938374757766724,
-1.234912633895874,
0.11801756173372269,
-0.6037522554397583,
-0.24926041066646576,
-0.990993320941925,
0.11195281147956848,
0.22452709078788757,
-0.08788082003593445,
0.3593719005584717,
-0.03728460147976875,
0.029687954112887383,
-0.17160777747631073,
0.8513729572296143,
0.41289636492729187,
0.37276777625083923,
-0.1862543672323227,
-0.052211448550224304,
-0.13980890810489655,
0.41821178793907166,
0.40194928646087646,
-0.11212866008281708,
0.4948005676269531,
-0.4530250132083893,
-0.392242431640625,
0.04533768072724342,
-0.6319471597671509,
-0.01726013980805874,
0.3141341507434845,
-0.6223423480987549,
0.6855102181434631,
-0.10974401235580444,
0.03918395936489105,
0.4421631693840027,
0.41564199328422546,
-0.017304426059126854,
-0.14751403033733368,
0.6800321340560913,
0.06878886371850967,
0.8507949113845825,
-0.10850514471530914,
-0.9579296708106995,
0.6588901281356812,
-0.5108036994934082,
0.5812708735466003,
-0.4299471080303192,
-0.22753401100635529,
0.2636614143848419,
-0.09857910871505737,
-0.042990993708372116,
-0.5963490009307861,
0.18916724622249603,
0.030862754210829735,
-0.023743558675050735,
0.46549728512763977,
-0.27890118956565857,
0.6525216698646545,
0.7301880717277527,
0.005494957789778709,
-0.6736133098602295,
-0.41918787360191345,
-0.4898039698600769,
-0.6060948967933655,
0.2121502012014389,
-0.04613981023430824,
-0.33188435435295105,
-0.15016795694828033,
-0.058841414749622345,
0.050969596952199936,
-0.14007481932640076,
0.5189337134361267,
0.4773422181606293,
-0.40710777044296265,
0.13660810887813568,
0.15401558578014374,
0.15354543924331665,
0.9017704725265503,
-0.23575997352600098,
0.10055536776781082,
0.16123497486114502,
-0.1075996533036232,
0.4006993770599365,
0.5224213004112244,
-0.03959180414676666,
0.5769495368003845,
0.39787575602531433,
0.9680495262145996,
-0.2398853302001953,
-0.10061812400817871,
0.15531085431575775,
-0.6568030714988708,
-0.5091705918312073,
0.8765044212341309,
0.8416418433189392,
0.08940456807613373,
-0.04240923747420311,
0.22537271678447723,
-0.15456588566303253,
-0.18500861525535583,
-0.07006704807281494,
-0.44655224680900574,
-0.8127314448356628,
-0.5081748962402344,
-0.2752993404865265,
-0.6135707497596741,
0.016502805054187775,
0.5906255841255188,
-0.04143047705292702,
-0.23774927854537964,
-0.5634821057319641,
-0.17547893524169922,
0.26072627305984497,
-0.20403200387954712,
0.47729143500328064,
0.20898263156414032,
-0.4654567539691925,
-0.35822203755378723,
0.8044620752334595,
-0.41977179050445557,
0.2814411520957947,
0.017165768891572952,
0.7115169167518616,
-0.36321401596069336,
0.2554425597190857,
0.33954286575317383,
-0.6690179109573364,
-0.24637190997600555,
1.0021723508834839,
-0.22169199585914612,
0.14520958065986633,
-0.6630021333694458,
0.8895934820175171,
0.5817703604698181,
0.031092442572116852,
-0.5209388136863708,
-0.2131834477186203,
-0.08304545283317566,
-0.023657837882637978,
0.09506506472826004,
-0.12217652052640915,
0.3998253643512726,
-0.42938822507858276,
0.2384885549545288,
-0.04265321046113968,
0.4391123652458191,
0.6428579688072205,
-0.43917763233184814,
0.4009079039096832,
-0.2515052556991577,
0.5220496654510498,
0.16614951193332672,
-0.17741838097572327,
0.7056245803833008,
-0.28600582480430603,
0.09623914957046509,
-0.06576421111822128,
-0.16635781526565552,
0.47679418325424194,
0.08316133171319962,
-0.17736394703388214,
-0.1180964931845665,
0.7035475969314575,
0.7174524664878845,
-0.40442341566085815,
0.4391649067401886,
0.19599677622318268,
-0.6812941431999207,
-0.2645203769207001,
0.21763238310813904,
0.2152298390865326,
-0.7191476821899414,
-0.35377436876296997,
-0.08888757973909378,
0.37726980447769165,
-0.8787496089935303,
0.5408846139907837,
0.2806570827960968,
0.24351666867733002,
0.066708505153656,
0.02562222070991993,
0.6595275402069092,
0.2712392210960388,
0.26610589027404785,
0.15197211503982544,
-0.6136278510093689,
-0.14651647210121155,
0.4254942536354065,
0.33535006642341614,
0.13417012989521027,
-0.38331273198127747,
-0.5527756214141846,
-0.49425604939460754,
-0.3319264054298401,
0.4628583788871765,
-1.019882082939148,
-0.06709002703428268,
0.15910664200782776,
-0.6811277866363525,
-0.00728684663772583,
0.5908358693122864,
0.5303292274475098,
-0.008314723148941994,
0.48706796765327454,
-0.5561444163322449,
-0.350984662771225,
0.25535574555397034,
0.7603663206100464,
0.6058313846588135,
-0.15242329239845276,
0.961955189704895,
-0.3668826222419739,
-0.12451191991567612,
0.9814378023147583,
0.550889790058136,
0.5750015377998352,
-0.01685921661555767,
0.1340707540512085,
0.35669419169425964,
0.23178879916667938,
-0.4805335998535156,
-0.32648965716362,
-0.39795637130737305,
-0.9016695022583008,
0.38090547919273376,
0.20236819982528687,
0.39897069334983826,
-0.20454591512680054,
-0.2939892113208771,
0.2278040647506714,
0.19811929762363434,
0.09834308177232742,
0.6277190446853638,
0.05201992392539978,
-0.7561805248260498,
-0.38319239020347595,
0.21331512928009033,
0.5268548727035522,
-0.21160827577114105,
-0.4369036853313446,
0.2608164846897125,
-0.07806111127138138,
-0.013152594678103924,
0.11977861076593399,
-0.2694755792617798,
-0.6080554127693176,
-0.7381967306137085,
0.38920682668685913,
0.3204892873764038,
0.47135448455810547,
-0.4272095561027527,
0.30174607038497925,
-0.5444854497909546,
0.1911698579788208,
0.3851303458213806,
-0.15308310091495514,
-0.33138903975486755,
0.6562840938568115,
-0.31583818793296814,
0.04693366214632988,
-0.4299274981021881,
-0.11577273905277252,
-0.2893845736980438,
-0.40996861457824707,
-5.372888565063477,
0.21667645871639252,
-0.13944515585899353,
0.016673840582370758,
0.5518495440483093,
-0.08188332617282867,
-0.23219048976898193,
-0.5574649572372437,
-0.43913036584854126,
0.5199273228645325,
0.15254352986812592,
-0.22328081727027893,
-0.021767735481262207,
-0.04262061044573784,
0.8641148805618286,
0.3060702383518219,
0.16637320816516876,
0.24841848015785217,
0.5041537880897522,
-0.3445517420768738,
-0.812142550945282,
0.49332940578460693,
-0.1154109314084053,
0.35044533014297485,
0.006638198625296354,
-0.0814204290509224,
-0.2874331474304199,
-0.09613415598869324,
-0.8414459824562073,
-0.42493847012519836,
0.36503303050994873,
0.08568083494901657,
-0.1606963723897934,
0.6199641227722168,
-0.11441082507371902,
0.4218544065952301,
0.3608321249485016,
0.2978766858577728,
0.46512338519096375,
-0.3558008670806885,
0.2936517000198364,
1.3447716236114502,
-0.1797483265399933,
-0.5622708797454834,
0.8302079439163208,
-0.5876659750938416,
-1.1455087661743164,
0.11264128983020782,
-0.8725772500038147,
0.5069882869720459,
0.20959852635860443,
0.05246937647461891,
0.5518157482147217,
0.27868470549583435,
-0.05991309508681297,
0.1459825336933136,
0.5316296815872192,
-0.35616040229797363,
-0.4635641276836395,
0.2550005316734314,
0.9569538235664368,
0.12721991539001465,
-0.4648881256580353,
0.24185225367546082,
-0.36661091446876526,
-0.7046634554862976,
-0.14061355590820312,
0.24718314409255981,
0.47531551122665405,
-0.19219647347927094,
-0.30868569016456604,
-0.204961359500885,
0.5070310235023499,
-1.0028119087219238,
0.2679379880428314,
-0.6506492495536804,
-0.14802545309066772,
0.02915494330227375,
0.0026341176126152277,
-0.30844229459762573,
0.3715376555919647,
-0.34131181240081787,
0.09747779369354248,
0.2542296350002289,
-0.19557373225688934,
-0.950495183467865,
-0.6449150443077087,
0.2196010947227478,
-0.2425137460231781,
-0.6697239875793457,
0.027144694700837135,
-0.2192201316356659,
0.1388314664363861,
0.3794221878051758,
-0.3512670695781708,
0.3761717677116394,
0.12340056896209717,
0.2665487825870514,
-0.13245557248592377,
0.08055542409420013,
0.8139467835426331,
-0.30761075019836426,
-0.7125234603881836,
-0.5973964929580688,
-0.31038162112236023,
0.0533895380795002,
-0.17579050362110138,
0.518060564994812,
0.5273246765136719,
-0.6725926995277405,
0.03583167865872383,
0.2702556848526001,
-1.0089819431304932,
-0.355845183134079,
0.3548087179660797,
-0.56807941198349,
-1.1133416891098022,
0.5112051963806152,
-0.5535959601402283,
0.4209534525871277,
0.44635677337646484,
0.12357211112976074,
-0.07549505680799484,
0.12540985643863678,
-0.5156050324440002,
0.6103942394256592,
0.3389427363872528,
0.40925082564353943,
-0.6576829552650452,
0.3286163806915283,
-0.18233385682106018,
0.12236050516366959,
-0.5109180212020874,
-0.29084548354148865,
-0.5681296586990356,
0.15475986897945404,
-0.8892316222190857,
-0.35241228342056274,
-0.3539603352546692,
0.6882115006446838,
1.1453334093093872,
-0.06685534864664078,
0.054026857018470764,
0.13471448421478271,
0.11202985048294067,
0.13193413615226746,
0.15845966339111328,
0.23155565559864044,
-1.2925044298171997,
0.3803161680698395,
-0.6198897957801819,
-0.2836083769798279,
-0.34676864743232727,
-0.28017857670783997,
-0.03716306760907173,
-0.2531563937664032,
0.4092453420162201,
0.5446310639381409,
0.18216471374034882,
-0.008402769453823566,
-0.6754323840141296,
0.01178933959454298,
-0.5835843682289124,
0.36139222979545593,
0.21079601347446442,
-0.38298138976097107,
-0.24963341653347015,
0.4871481955051422,
-0.5476711988449097,
0.5510547757148743,
0.07810837030410767,
0.09349076449871063,
-0.7475500702857971,
0.2582392990589142,
-0.06922641396522522,
0.03497334569692612,
-0.5309203267097473,
0.33124223351478577,
-0.35452473163604736,
0.024538077414035797,
0.03217097371816635,
-0.005193231627345085,
-0.12185093015432358,
0.16942012310028076,
0.4744989275932312,
-0.631830632686615,
-0.3198173940181732,
-0.7814530730247498,
-0.1530701220035553,
-1.0688472986221313,
0.7011186480522156,
-0.37908634543418884,
0.6680309176445007,
0.507961630821228,
-0.09940023720264435,
-0.7208197712898254,
0.30031290650367737,
-0.3362935781478882,
-0.221467524766922,
-0.6681954860687256,
0.15509890019893646,
0.09725746512413025,
-0.56423419713974,
0.17301760613918304,
0.6939641237258911,
-0.9036243557929993,
0.19543559849262238,
-0.20258550345897675,
-0.33480122685432434,
0.37822285294532776,
-0.35401278734207153,
-1.029739499092102,
0.6259727478027344,
0.32708585262298584,
-0.7474006414413452,
-0.15637746453285217,
-0.02566777542233467,
-0.31057465076446533,
-0.25416800379753113,
-0.21535296738147736,
-0.17962177097797394,
-0.5733579993247986,
0.1066301241517067,
0.11369927227497101,
-0.7699008584022522,
0.11088516563177109,
0.04713184013962746,
-0.3003844916820526,
0.8478922843933105,
-0.19701434671878815,
-0.04287922382354736,
-0.16900068521499634,
0.2727935314178467,
0.43537187576293945,
0.3491863012313843,
-0.04907703027129173,
-0.7825391292572021,
-0.2844736874103546,
0.22162292897701263,
0.7096199989318848,
0.4914058446884155,
0.876109778881073,
-0.01155928522348404,
-0.7597329020500183,
-0.3374660909175873,
-0.10417771339416504,
0.9684664607048035,
-0.29133710265159607,
-0.9920046925544739,
0.5592154860496521,
0.12774306535720825,
-0.31913405656814575,
0.28317323327064514,
0.12073146551847458,
0.503535270690918,
-0.04298057407140732,
0.0952928364276886,
0.14110606908798218,
0.1797773241996765,
0.10091933608055115,
0.040422603487968445,
0.07585567981004715,
0.22770068049430847,
0.4514472484588623,
0.3143004775047302,
-0.3032554090023041,
-0.0019370221998542547,
-0.04303489252924919,
-0.028463950380682945,
-0.8527884483337402,
-0.3767516613006592,
0.38902518153190613,
-0.07381776720285416,
-0.3353731036186218,
0.45541179180145264,
0.22362065315246582,
-0.11056187748908997,
-0.5800007581710815,
0.36986836791038513,
-0.027018608525395393,
-0.15732504427433014,
0.010495009832084179,
0.37888380885124207,
-0.6844584941864014,
0.12906625866889954,
-0.07349123060703278,
0.05291120335459709,
0.024342691525816917,
-0.741978645324707,
0.14332105219364166,
-0.6048200130462646,
-0.1900520920753479,
-0.6203593611717224,
0.4740581512451172,
0.08296898752450943,
-0.19090713560581207,
-0.5417332649230957,
0.5558992624282837,
0.14033003151416779,
-0.051297783851623535,
-0.6688491702079773,
0.4849105179309845,
-0.10006888955831528,
-0.14563950896263123,
0.1466107815504074,
0.015576801262795925,
-0.26689067482948303,
-0.15515771508216858,
-0.1950794756412506,
0.33770158886909485,
-0.26056385040283203,
0.4034042954444885,
0.43716615438461304,
0.768356204032898,
0.020422890782356262,
0.07964969426393509,
0.8935523629188538,
-0.3669201135635376,
0.28711891174316406,
0.5054278373718262,
-0.03596722334623337,
-0.10838158428668976,
0.6967106461524963,
0.6202210187911987,
-0.555086612701416,
0.6530012488365173,
-0.022668207064270973,
0.07093483954668045,
-0.10355972498655319,
0.4876839220523834,
0.26802945137023926,
-0.19313447177410126,
-0.29749226570129395,
0.42417997121810913,
-0.4745297133922577,
-0.16353780031204224,
-0.005391101352870464,
-0.048428114503622055,
-0.20167064666748047,
-0.0020564147271215916,
0.3310272693634033,
0.6005362868309021,
-0.4425292909145355,
-0.07885318994522095,
0.3988608419895172,
0.0024278240744024515,
0.5369047522544861,
-0.5308528542518616,
0.5032684206962585,
0.292101114988327,
0.1724792718887329,
-0.040189992636442184,
0.1553381383419037,
-0.15768606960773468,
-0.2706570029258728,
0.08127482980489731,
0.4528259336948395,
0.064789779484272,
-0.7009134292602539,
0.3611442744731903,
-0.021093493327498436,
-0.18203122913837433,
-0.020988833159208298,
-0.3067978620529175,
-0.011203638277947903,
-0.5710101127624512,
0.025229880586266518,
-0.09699200093746185,
-0.8832703232765198,
0.8944100737571716,
0.38839903473854065,
0.35743099451065063,
0.17005063593387604,
-0.48272502422332764,
-0.4119359850883484,
0.28776803612709045,
0.0008184345788322389,
0.683520495891571,
0.035642411559820175,
-0.11074783653020859,
0.3708871304988861,
0.06127307936549187,
0.1560562252998352,
-0.33943578600883484,
0.16796426475048065,
-0.7475340366363525,
-0.18428274989128113,
0.002766417572274804,
-0.766400933265686,
-0.416491836309433,
-0.05441265553236008,
-0.24339549243450165,
-0.47929710149765015,
0.10554365813732147,
-0.613088846206665,
-0.18189607560634613,
0.6816191077232361,
0.8011605143547058,
1.0575624704360962,
0.1207025870680809,
0.19214020669460297,
0.6879991292953491,
-0.5736741423606873,
0.32894885540008545,
0.23092439770698547,
0.965115487575531,
-0.7122258543968201,
0.20123226940631866,
-0.13329853117465973,
0.3701796233654022,
0.7930418252944946,
0.5090951323509216,
-0.08383802324533463,
0.45544666051864624,
-0.8525629043579102,
0.04673892259597778,
-0.1086650937795639,
-0.07631471753120422,
-0.0444791205227375,
-0.15113447606563568,
0.21401548385620117,
0.3595004975795746,
0.1361064910888672,
-0.396208256483078,
-0.05074441060423851,
-0.10201852768659592,
0.10743840038776398,
-0.6373427510261536,
-0.5245910882949829,
0.5407293438911438,
-0.19630275666713715,
-0.06867855042219162,
0.09400779753923416,
0.20561163127422333,
-0.10666332393884659,
0.8877089023590088,
-0.26010391116142273,
0.8359532356262207,
0.4780322313308716,
0.02214815467596054,
-0.0878501608967781,
0.1922091692686081,
0.11502490937709808,
0.020960915833711624,
-0.011146210134029388,
0.3506622016429901,
-0.33811232447624207,
-0.26196300983428955,
-0.28042247891426086,
0.24396754801273346,
0.3144211769104004,
-0.4429040253162384,
0.15242300927639008,
-0.1596664935350418,
0.48004770278930664,
0.060832079499959946,
-0.45279547572135925,
-0.23014479875564575,
-0.08630220592021942,
0.14286752045154572
] |
248044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20John%20A.%20Moore | USS John A. Moore | USS John A. Moore (FFG-19), eleventh ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Commander John Anderson Moore (1910–1944). Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, John A. Moore was laid down on 19 September 1978, launched on 20 October 1979, and commissioned on 14 November 1981.
John A. Moore was the first ship of that name in the US Navy. The namesake was commanding officer of the submarine in 1943 and 1944. Cdr. Moore received three awards of the Navy Cross during his command, the last posthumously after Grayback was sunk in February 1944.
TCG Gediz (F 495)
Decommissioned and stricken on 1 September 2000, she was transferred to Turkey as that nation's TCG Gediz (F 495). As of 2015, she is still active in the service of the Turkish Navy.
In other media
On the TV show MacGyver Season 1, Episode 11, the ship is visible in the opening scene, at the outfitting pier of Todd Pacific shipyard, along with two other FFG 7 ships under construction.
On the TV show JAG the ship was used multiple times. It was used in season 3 episode "Tiger, Tiger", where the ship played the part of a fictional frigate USS Stockdale (FFG-62). In the season 5, episode 7 "Rogue" the ship played the fictional frigate USS Ellyson (FFG-19).
In the TV show NCIS Episode 24 in Season 3 the ship is seen listed on a video monitor as FFG-19 when the Cape Fear Container Ship blows up.
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS John A. Moore FFG-19 pages
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Los Angeles
1979 ships
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy | [
-0.337820827960968,
0.4932286739349365,
-1.0603816509246826,
0.189375102519989,
0.027257442474365234,
0.33451175689697266,
0.663879930973053,
-0.16319319605827332,
-0.8781400918960571,
0.08858875930309296,
0.29030120372772217,
0.3000008761882782,
-0.5235259532928467,
0.7656770348548889,
-0.0009246704867109656,
0.3264072835445404,
-0.06479686498641968,
0.6014596819877625,
-0.1015787124633789,
-0.5893353223800659,
-0.05919447913765907,
-0.7033443450927734,
0.13313685357570648,
-0.26524269580841064,
0.1696654111146927,
0.09689153730869293,
-0.024399667978286743,
-0.004965048748999834,
0.637740433216095,
0.26197198033332825,
0.0020201541483402252,
0.5497390627861023,
0.5092551708221436,
-0.275875061750412,
-0.48422595858573914,
-0.4018181562423706,
0.141225665807724,
-0.144423246383667,
0.3411395251750946,
0.059983279556035995,
-0.47970667481422424,
-0.029872490093111992,
0.3685400187969208,
-0.06931483000516891,
0.0021541393361985683,
-0.21360576152801514,
-2.213888645172119,
-0.12309657782316208,
0.2752547562122345,
0.047933436930179596,
0.04324762523174286,
0.05964508280158043,
0.4989423453807831,
0.5168691873550415,
-0.2659595012664795,
0.7200926542282104,
-0.7075202465057373,
0.2560475170612335,
-0.16515329480171204,
-0.312906950712204,
0.3499520719051361,
0.31307533383369446,
1.0247280597686768,
0.08176024258136749,
-0.15913501381874084,
0.3249293565750122,
-0.4762483239173889,
0.8567530512809753,
0.16786310076713562,
0.3965524733066559,
0.3299718499183655,
-0.5966227650642395,
0.3468358516693115,
0.34950342774391174,
-0.15782904624938965,
-0.16056197881698608,
0.2674199342727661,
-0.17712964117527008,
-0.08776409178972244,
-0.014339793473482132,
0.04482415318489075,
-0.14776654541492462,
0.7227166295051575,
0.40922385454177856,
-0.20698964595794678,
0.4754025340080261,
-0.6771645545959473,
-0.20466245710849762,
-0.325751930475235,
0.3340316116809845,
-0.7215282320976257,
0.24791578948497772,
-0.18304212391376495,
0.7241309285163879,
0.35827958583831787,
-0.012982630170881748,
-0.6645246744155884,
0.20210403203964233,
0.31843653321266174,
0.30646008253097534,
-0.5228281021118164,
0.6117948889732361,
0.726080060005188,
0.2912290394306183,
-0.1417926847934723,
0.266188383102417,
0.13449877500534058,
-0.474483460187912,
-0.03054218366742134,
-1.6594738960266113,
-0.13510820269584656,
0.1714942455291748,
-0.35474276542663574,
-0.19268888235092163,
-0.649148166179657,
0.7438144087791443,
0.6724761724472046,
-0.33853182196617126,
-0.46750375628471375,
-0.3774922490119934,
0.38403165340423584,
1.2951735258102417,
-0.7297694683074951,
-0.07944248616695404,
0.008212202228605747,
0.6045867204666138,
0.29427576065063477,
0.24309563636779785,
-0.2762686014175415,
0.8336554765701294,
0.001019517076201737,
0.8429805040359497,
-0.36989620327949524,
0.3019798696041107,
-0.47191232442855835,
-0.882353663444519,
0.2398689091205597,
0.45373764634132385,
-0.07356933504343033,
0.26967892050743103,
-0.8389383554458618,
-0.2664826810359955,
-2.1401963233947754,
0.010972491465508938,
0.5882696509361267,
0.08813448250293732,
-0.18299497663974762,
0.5382904410362244,
-0.24887432157993317,
0.4251222312450409,
0.1591394692659378,
-0.6916870474815369,
-0.0076333037577569485,
0.49832114577293396,
-0.004316524602472782,
-0.2998674809932709,
0.38700932264328003,
-0.07347847521305084,
0.2936566174030304,
0.8805462121963501,
-0.6332362294197083,
0.16365376114845276,
0.0609603151679039,
0.13469812273979187,
0.3255668878555298,
0.30535373091697693,
0.5333976149559021,
-0.2320372313261032,
-0.06791476160287857,
-0.11926264315843582,
0.020169686526060104,
-0.22097650170326233,
0.2798120081424713,
-0.2984442412853241,
0.5671588778495789,
0.571698009967804,
0.5068954825401306,
0.24621036648750305,
0.3096452057361603,
-0.7016996145248413,
-0.36170145869255066,
-0.10026902705430984,
0.37005797028541565,
0.37695345282554626,
0.17777444422245026,
-0.12709097564220428,
0.40953338146209717,
-0.04251845180988312,
0.029395420104265213,
0.4897898733615875,
0.05135437101125717,
0.21245355904102325,
-0.4181366562843323,
0.1627376526594162,
0.9977574348449707,
0.49812912940979004,
-0.3587096333503723,
-0.11359573155641556,
0.5480368137359619,
0.11588189750909805,
0.5641012787818909,
-0.21085084974765778,
0.11844303458929062,
-0.03945630043745041,
-0.49181094765663147,
2.2061007022857666,
-0.06748978793621063,
0.5217217803001404,
0.15495406091213226,
0.8555795550346375,
0.36620861291885376,
-0.49595656991004944,
-0.12134093791246414,
0.09713157266378403,
0.040923088788986206,
0.19572141766548157,
0.34531280398368835,
-0.6606829166412354,
0.14804691076278687,
-0.15462040901184082,
0.46398627758026123,
0.3115989863872528,
-0.30875733494758606,
-0.04076455160975456,
0.0891883596777916,
0.7814563512802124,
-0.417757511138916,
0.4345457851886749,
-0.47531211376190186,
-0.6571736931800842,
0.2584707736968994,
0.15861496329307556,
-0.5702071189880371,
-0.2789609134197235,
0.12620766460895538,
0.17174109816551208,
-0.6072961091995239,
-0.5278024673461914,
0.596720814704895,
-0.018260538578033447,
0.16622260212898254,
0.31075820326805115,
-0.4487069249153137,
0.04001518711447716,
-0.3854450285434723,
-0.5132685303688049,
0.09617478400468826,
-0.6113948225975037,
0.35051655769348145,
-0.26804566383361816,
0.45429643988609314,
-0.2181679755449295,
0.24275194108486176,
-0.3976956009864807,
-0.32386213541030884,
-0.06433811783790588,
-0.03156488016247749,
-0.2512948513031006,
-0.09119267016649246,
-0.11973093450069427,
-0.13063587248325348,
0.30290672183036804,
-0.184715136885643,
0.15222874283790588,
0.24870514869689941,
-0.38015297055244446,
-0.3333131968975067,
-0.07276476174592972,
0.21929214894771576,
-0.39825382828712463,
0.20872370898723602,
-0.15897870063781738,
0.5888481736183167,
-2.9595072269439697,
0.36838409304618835,
0.29776498675346375,
-0.29147133231163025,
0.8427484631538391,
-0.6048563718795776,
-0.523723304271698,
0.8005655407905579,
0.6140429973602295,
-0.5737742781639099,
-0.25606709718704224,
-0.21177738904953003,
-0.19674189388751984,
-0.13310597836971283,
-0.08336978405714035,
-0.46429622173309326,
-0.04981565475463867,
0.12811017036437988,
-0.49446892738342285,
-0.10381118953227997,
0.5305984616279602,
-0.13457632064819336,
0.703545868396759,
-0.29174667596817017,
-0.21089918911457062,
-0.21058301627635956,
-0.35763922333717346,
-0.8409819602966309,
0.5332170128822327,
-0.48348766565322876,
0.05769723653793335,
-0.0029868646524846554,
-0.33410611748695374,
-0.48301947116851807,
0.6442954540252686,
-4.269670486450195,
-0.01727130636572838,
0.134517103433609,
0.31189554929733276,
-0.1648033857345581,
0.3823349177837372,
0.04799940064549446,
-0.4300961494445801,
-0.27209901809692383,
-0.10137172043323517,
0.552650511264801,
0.0996665358543396,
-0.2097001075744629,
0.27251091599464417,
0.4446740448474884,
0.6516624689102173,
0.9222603440284729,
-0.34049510955810547,
0.6948679685592651,
-0.2758502960205078,
-0.10025300085544586,
-0.2341894954442978,
-0.33816197514533997,
-0.4333503246307373,
0.2817367613315582,
0.25238969922065735,
-0.4269258677959442,
0.4845482110977173,
-0.5925551652908325,
0.0702250674366951,
-0.23675209283828735,
-0.21410171687602997,
-0.16855138540267944,
-0.4419046640396118,
-0.30031856894493103,
-0.15952427685260773,
0.2830009460449219,
0.2864513397216797,
0.23352988064289093,
-0.5028198957443237,
-0.35511934757232666,
0.31960731744766235,
-0.3152684271335602,
0.23132099211215973,
0.282588928937912,
-0.12100239843130112,
-0.6268070340156555,
0.4437618553638458,
0.6688126921653748,
0.6353889107704163,
0.08228173851966858,
-0.18501900136470795,
0.8766423463821411,
0.12219442427158356,
0.2931654751300812,
-0.12778522074222565,
0.4145207703113556,
-0.19588209688663483,
-0.7017773985862732,
-0.3863295912742615,
0.5809088349342346,
-0.20211295783519745,
0.3103903532028198,
-0.32770979404449463,
0.2859170734882355,
-0.6807906627655029,
0.34446272253990173,
-0.001267197891138494,
0.27487269043922424,
-0.17306630313396454,
-0.02288902923464775,
1.2860238552093506,
0.1775556355714798,
-0.7686092257499695,
0.13212382793426514,
0.15465013682842255,
-0.575558602809906,
0.16733784973621368,
-0.1160745918750763,
-0.0029487640131264925,
-0.4532495141029358,
-0.1807640641927719,
0.22969143092632294,
0.977445662021637,
0.006952683441340923,
0.04369393736124039,
-0.3710116446018219,
0.16443927586078644,
-0.43390756845474243,
0.014887507073581219,
-0.3683858811855316,
-0.48049095273017883,
0.18696065247058868,
0.5020830035209656,
-0.11929788440465927,
-0.2526540458202362,
0.5879151225090027,
-0.22298431396484375,
0.4807453751564026,
-0.3053549826145172,
-0.17565572261810303,
-1.1794216632843018,
0.027470944449305534,
-0.39741605520248413,
-0.10309446603059769,
-0.20803113281726837,
-0.3466735780239105,
-0.05759018287062645,
-0.0770886093378067,
0.30104514956474304,
-0.3521853983402252,
-0.43487581610679626,
0.1513882726430893,
0.15335604548454285,
1.257724404335022,
-0.05227413401007652,
0.5089223980903625,
0.5677976012229919,
0.6922826766967773,
0.2550107538700104,
0.0006963813793845475,
0.8591274619102478,
-0.11304360628128052,
-0.21648719906806946,
0.10616349428892136,
-0.7815994024276733,
0.3761197328567505,
-0.1900196373462677,
-0.8297983407974243,
-0.14743058383464813,
0.3585052192211151,
0.14892946183681488,
-0.41215479373931885,
0.061129018664360046,
-0.028939543291926384,
-0.6719793081283569,
-0.11968370527029037,
-0.02548779547214508,
0.28913187980651855,
-0.08058295398950577,
-0.302224725484848,
0.09319491684436798,
-0.9318811893463135,
-0.021853957325220108,
0.6589379906654358,
0.6043240427970886,
0.7595020532608032,
-0.5335719585418701,
-0.012860890477895737,
0.35081660747528076,
-0.9418029189109802,
-1.2749614715576172,
-0.07716162502765656,
-0.537408709526062,
-0.10197826474905014,
0.36991986632347107,
0.4423139691352844,
-0.024913795292377472,
-0.15548567473888397,
0.23929336667060852,
-0.29729926586151123,
0.5583201050758362,
-0.9397928714752197,
-0.6718348264694214,
0.40726521611213684,
-0.16226093471050262,
0.058145929127931595,
-0.22079244256019592,
-0.26490452885627747,
0.6678175330162048,
-0.009048454463481903,
-0.014289275743067265,
-0.6280074119567871,
-0.19924665987491608,
0.43387743830680847,
0.4630577266216278,
-0.30764129757881165,
-0.5833116769790649,
0.2948896586894989,
-0.015667742118239403,
0.2335994988679886,
0.028266336768865585,
-0.5387418866157532,
0.5471259355545044,
-0.024586427956819534,
-0.04938337951898575,
-0.557826042175293,
-0.12254355102777481,
0.013578117825090885,
0.3500378727912903,
-0.43907400965690613,
-0.40743833780288696,
0.9067676067352295,
0.27935099601745605,
-0.7236729860305786,
0.17380686104297638,
0.04774792492389679,
-0.2878885865211487,
0.53981614112854,
-0.31581100821495056,
0.023669054731726646,
0.6927356123924255,
-0.6367570161819458,
0.675160825252533,
-0.04545566439628601,
-0.9195728302001953,
0.1115889698266983,
-0.060703158378601074,
-0.1587635576725006,
0.0686425045132637,
0.21936526894569397,
-1.081691026687622,
-0.04927319288253784,
0.565178394317627,
-0.07176591455936432,
-0.32370930910110474,
0.5194956064224243,
0.4552396833896637,
-0.37187567353248596,
-0.8124497532844543,
-0.30416974425315857,
-0.611466646194458,
-0.14749658107757568,
-0.5050238370895386,
-0.6953579783439636,
0.5510910749435425,
0.2340257465839386,
-0.14402203261852264,
0.4597012400627136,
-0.2688714861869812,
-0.7721538543701172,
0.11159386485815048,
-0.1881943643093109,
0.6490114331245422,
0.30671095848083496,
-0.6559007167816162,
-0.12571753561496735,
0.05465031415224075,
0.05515123903751373,
0.05874428153038025,
0.6347362995147705,
0.6878993511199951,
0.25606870651245117,
-0.1617169827222824,
-0.1594248116016388,
0.12117686122655869,
-0.19928887486457825,
-0.18456697463989258,
0.004432982765138149,
0.29632335901260376,
0.16174043715000153,
-0.7257468700408936,
-0.6716251373291016,
-0.8986101150512695,
1.1764652729034424,
-0.40038931369781494,
-0.23114345967769623,
0.34806498885154724,
0.16949760913848877,
-0.45154136419296265,
-0.28439226746559143,
0.34987130761146545,
-0.7314101457595825,
0.459138959646225,
0.3333045542240143,
0.09824945032596588,
-0.3073195219039917,
-0.0698101818561554,
0.5892594456672668,
-0.08918479830026627,
-0.3926313519477844,
-0.030738066881895065,
-0.04668494313955307,
0.3210715055465698,
-0.06572872400283813,
0.37697702646255493,
0.2004249542951584,
-0.46743860840797424,
0.945100724697113,
-0.1459360122680664,
0.6276878118515015,
0.11188672482967377,
-0.12057525664567947,
-0.24521960318088531,
-0.2588459551334381,
-0.6959556937217712,
-0.29685601592063904,
-0.49202626943588257,
-0.5935295224189758,
0.2778148949146271,
0.26302653551101685,
0.004237746819853783,
0.32046765089035034,
-0.22534579038619995,
0.25847578048706055,
0.4767336845397949,
-0.8195977210998535,
0.11921942979097366,
0.13919496536254883,
0.5742132067680359,
-0.9748136401176453,
0.759041965007782,
0.2367696911096573,
0.10467028617858887,
0.24468086659908295,
0.18111054599285126,
0.21073170006275177,
-0.22016628086566925,
-0.30849429965019226,
0.3394940495491028,
-0.04632871598005295,
-0.5225980877876282,
-0.008722087368369102,
0.22935616970062256,
-0.43376970291137695,
0.1310499906539917,
0.6838918328285217,
-0.6284181475639343,
-0.21968071162700653,
-0.21792182326316833,
-0.16233715415000916,
-0.8192400336265564,
0.5073204636573792,
0.42892199754714966,
0.635068416595459,
0.5967136025428772,
-0.9800175428390503,
-0.5063310265541077,
0.007762199267745018,
0.26325350999832153,
0.35543331503868103,
-0.5660532116889954,
-0.2841116487979889,
0.3372194170951843,
0.06467363238334656,
0.4553007185459137,
0.3670436143875122,
-0.6804289221763611,
-0.6926702260971069,
0.2109612077474594,
0.10983571410179138,
0.38585609197616577,
0.3437637686729431,
-0.3289821147918701,
0.03408985957503319,
-0.47049573063850403,
-0.3178929090499878,
0.5325118899345398,
0.22200363874435425,
0.09788108617067337,
0.1486169993877411,
0.4738333523273468,
-0.019577357918024063,
-0.29406338930130005,
0.027252022176980972,
0.3042612075805664,
1.0356959104537964,
-0.13357341289520264,
-0.3673265278339386,
-2.0263471603393555,
-0.2326202094554901,
-0.034955523908138275,
0.7579715251922607,
0.18383392691612244,
0.013248530216515064,
-0.2097761183977127,
0.11571015417575836,
0.3899533152580261,
-0.17224672436714172,
0.626670777797699,
0.6349750757217407,
-0.240133136510849,
-0.032859478145837784,
0.37564903497695923,
0.6617110371589661,
0.23701900243759155,
0.18498460948467255,
-0.38346153497695923,
0.26973527669906616,
-0.017763013020157814,
0.06838224083185196,
0.41745513677597046,
-0.2629029154777527,
-0.8239777684211731,
0.16176584362983704,
0.1275692880153656,
-0.21229776740074158,
0.2612074315547943,
0.3145189583301544,
-0.16223590075969696,
0.10209982097148895,
-0.06708826869726181,
-0.19123591482639313,
0.38738811016082764,
0.2118890881538391,
0.4426816403865814,
-0.05425373837351799,
0.2964198887348175,
0.2855430841445923,
0.2433171570301056,
0.010983148589730263,
0.23154334723949432,
0.023522762581706047,
0.11096632480621338,
-0.27809399366378784,
-0.04627561569213867,
-0.7920383810997009,
0.29107406735420227,
-0.33058929443359375,
0.09488337486982346,
-0.469359427690506,
0.30140772461891174,
-0.812258243560791,
0.06938105821609497,
-0.37599411606788635,
0.26472583413124084,
0.5708323121070862,
-0.9792298674583435,
-0.4322260916233063,
0.027128955349326134,
0.13425900042057037,
-0.025071769952774048,
-0.23304316401481628,
0.38329365849494934,
-0.39932331442832947,
-0.5804453492164612,
-0.03341767191886902,
-0.4814082384109497,
0.4594234228134155,
0.019229069352149963,
0.2839776277542114,
0.066179059445858,
-0.2030092477798462,
0.00907869916409254,
-0.07597754150629044,
-0.16865231096744537,
0.33566999435424805,
0.6109135150909424,
0.6368324756622314,
-0.04910454526543617,
-0.05657527968287468,
-0.5945705771446228,
0.3847537934780121,
-0.460496723651886,
-4.270732879638672,
-0.2946489751338959,
-0.0955032929778099,
-0.6383751034736633,
0.7983303666114807,
0.7500773668289185,
0.18174412846565247,
-0.27411577105522156,
0.025759752839803696,
-0.1377190798521042,
0.4958883225917816,
0.02693692035973072,
0.362942636013031,
-0.420854389667511,
0.02288212813436985,
0.09800968319177628
] |
248045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Mexico | Music of Mexico | The music of Mexico is very diverse and features a wide range of musical genres and performance styles. It has been influenced by a variety of cultures, most notably the culture of the Europeans and Natives. Music was an expression of Mexican nationalism, beginning in the nineteenth century.
History of Mexican music
The foundation of Mexican music comes from its indigenous sounds and heritage. The original inhabitants of the land used drums (such as the teponaztli), flutes, rattles, conches as trumpets and their voices to make music and dances. This ancient music is still played in some parts of Mexico. However, much of the traditional contemporary music of Mexico was written during and after the Spanish colonial period, using many old world influenced instruments. Many traditional instruments, such as the Mexican vihuela used in Mariachi music, were adapted from their old world predecessors and are now considered very Mexican.
There existed regional and local musical traditions in the colonial period and earlier, but a national music began to develop in the nineteenth century, often with patriotic themes of national defense and against foreign invaders. Conservative general and president Antonio López de Santa Anna brought a Catalan music master, Jaime Nunó, from nearby Cuba to create a network of military bands on a national scale. He composed the music to the Mexican national anthem. During the French Intervention in Mexico, which placed Maximilian of Habsburg on the throne of the French empire in Mexico, many musicians accompanied his entourage and he established the National Conservatory of Music in 1866.
Liberal President Benito Juárez saw the need to create military bands. Village brass bands proliferated in the late nineteenth century, with concerts in town squares, often on a central kiosk. During the Porfiriato, musical styles expanded, with Mexican national music, cosmopolitan music brought by foreign elites, and European regional music such as polkas, mazurkas, and waltzes, as well as opera overtures. Musicians had access to and used sheet music, indicating musical literacy. In some indigenous regions, new music and bands helped bring a level of unity. In Oaxaca, a waltz, "Dios nunca muere" (God never dies) became the state's anthem, linking regional patriotism with God.
A variety of musical styles from elsewhere were incorporated into Mexican popular music in the nineteenth century, including Afro-Caribbean rhythms from Cuba and Haiti. Music, dance, and poetry flourished in the Porfiriato. Mexico's National Conservatory of Music was strongly influenced by Italian masters, who gave way to French influence at the turn of the twentieth century.
Following the Revolution, Venustiano Carranza, leader of the winning Constitutionalist faction of the Revolution, mandated that the National Conservatory "recover the national" in its musical education, abandoning rather than privileging foreign music. Younger Mexican composers emerged, including Carlos Chávez, Silvestre Revueltas, and Luis Sandi, who developed Mexican "art music." Chávez was a prolific composer and one who embraced creating Mexican orchestral music drawing on revolutionary corridos, and composed an Aztec-themed ballet. He became the director of the National Conservatory of Music, which became affiliated with the Ministry of Education (SEP). Revueltas composed music for the new, emerging Mexican cinema, and Sandi created choral works, creating music for civic events, as well as incorporating indigenous music from the Yaqui and Maya regions in his compositions. Chávez is seen as the driving force behind the split between of Mexican art music and traditional styles, privileging art music. However, traditional or folkloric music continues to be popular, and the Ballet Folklórico de México, established in 1952, performs regularly at Bellas Artes.
Traditional folk music
Música típica
The música típica or typical music is performed by an orchestra made up of orchestral instruments and the inclusion of typical Mexican instruments such as the salterio, the bandolón, the guitar, the bajo sexto and the marimba.
The cultivated genres are light traditional music, and to a lesser extent regional sones.
Instrumental: Waltz, dance, march, fox, chottis
Vocal: Song, sentimental (dance)
Composers: Macedonio Alcalá, Juventino Rosas, Genaro Codina, Miguel Lerdo de Tejada
Northern Mexican folk music
Northern traditional music or Norteño was highly influenced by immigrants from Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic to northern Mexico and the southwestern United States in the mid 1800s, the instruments and musical styles of the central european immigrants were adopted to mexican folk music, the accordion and becoming especially popular and is still frequently used.There are many styles of northern mexican folk music, among the most popular being Ranchera, Corrido, Huapango, Chotís, Polka, Redova and Banda. Norteño folk music is some of the most popular music in and out of Mexico, with Corridos and Rancheras being specifically popular in Chile, Colombia, United States, Central America and Spain.
Northern Mexican folk music genres
Corrido: Corrido music is a popular narrative song of poetry form, a ballad. Various themes are featured in Mexican corridos, and corrido lyrics are often old legends (stories) and ballads about a famed criminal or hero in the rural frontier areas of Mexico. Some corridos may also be love stories there are also corridos about women (La Venganza de Maria, Laurita Garza, La tragedia de Rosita, and la adelita) and couples, not just about men.
Banda: Banda music was made with the imitation of military bands that were imported during the Second Mexican Empire, headed by emperor Maximilian I of Mexico in the 1860s. Polish and German immigrants established themselves in the state of Sinaloa. It was further popularized during the Mexican Revolution when local authorities and states formed their own bands to play in the town squares. Revolutionary leaders like Pancho Villa, also took wind bands with them wherever they went. Banda has to this day remained popular throughout the central and northern states. It has, however, diversified into different styles due to regions, instruments and modernization. Today people associate banda with Sinaloense. Although banda music is played by many bands from different parts of Mexico, its original roots are in Sinaloa, made popular by bands from Sinaloa.
Central Mexican folk music
The folklore in central Mexico retains strong spanish Influence which can be seen in the amount of colonial cities in this region like Guanajuato, San Miguel de Allende and Zacatecas and also the instruments utilized in the folk music such as guitars, violins and vihuelas.The most iconic figure from central Mexico is the Mexican charro, a kind of horseman originated in Jalisco in the early 1900s. In Central Mexico, The most characteristic style of folk music is Mariachi, a style which is played by a group consisting of five or more musicians who wear charro suits and play various instruments such as the violin, the vihuela, guitar, a guitarrón and a trumpet with lyricism usually being about love, betrayal, death, politics, revolutionary heroes and country life.
Central Mexican folk music genres
Mariachi: Mariachi is an ensemble that consists of guitarrón, vihuela, guitar, violins and trumpets. Between 1940 and 1960 mariachi and rancheras originated in the western states of the country. This folk ensemble performs ranchera, son de mariachi, huapango de mariachi, polka, corrido, and other musical forms. It originated in the southern part of the state of Jalisco during the 19th century. The city of Guadalajara in Jalisco is known as the "Capital of Mariachi". The style is now popular throughout Mexico and the Southwestern United States, and is considered representative of Mexican music and culture.
Tamborazo Zacatecano: Tamborazo Zacatecano ("drum-beat from Zacatecas") is a banda style traditionally played by two trumpets, two saxophones, and the al bass drum. Tamborazo is closely related to traditional brass Banda. However, Tamborazo uses saxophones instead of clarinets. Another difference from banda is that Tamborazo uses its drum consistently, as opposed to banda which distributes the use of the other instruments throughout a song. Tamborazo originated in Villanueva in the state of Zacatecas.
Southern Mexican folk music
The south of Mexico is often characterized by a strong mixture of different cultures since this region has some of the most important port cities of the country like Veracruz and Acapulco which functioned as an entry way for immagrants from Europe, the Middle East, Africa, South America, the Caribbean and Asia. Some of the most known folk music in southern Mexico are Son Jarocho from Veracruz, Chilena from the Costa Chica regions in Guerrero and Oaxaca, Jarana Yucateca from the Yucatan Peninsula, Bolero from Yucatan and Veracruz and Abajeño from Michoacán.
Southern Mexican folk music genres
Son Jarocho: Son Jarocho music comes from the Veracruz area, and is distinguished by a strong African influence. International acclaim has been limited, including the major hit La Bamba. The most legendary performer is Graciana Silva, whose releases on Discos Corason made inroads in Europe. Southern Veracruz is home to a distinct style of Jarochos that is characteristically lacking a harp, is played exclusively by requinto or jarana guitars, and is exemplified by the popular modern band Mono Blanco.
Chilena: Chilena is a musical genre from the Costa Chica region, an area along the Pacific Ocean between the Mexican states of Oaxaca and Guerrero, although its influence extends to other nearby regions. It originated from the Chilean cueca, hence its name, a dance that was carried by Chilean sailors in 1821 and then by Chilean immigrants between 1848 and 1855, during the height of the California gold rush.
Popular music of folk roots
Grupera
Grupera (or onda grupera) is a genre of Mexican popular music. It is influenced by the styles of cumbia, norteño, and ranchera, and reached the height of its popularity in the 1980s, especially in rural areas.
The music has roots in the rock groups of the 1960s but today generally consists of five or fewer musicians using electric guitars, keyboards and drums. Artists in this genre include Los Yonics, Los Temerarios, Los Bukis, La Mafia, Ana Bárbara, Alicia Villarreal, Mariana Seoane, Grupo Bryndis, Los Freddy's, Lidia Ávila, Los Caminantes, Los Humildes, La Migra, Liberación, Pegasso, and Grupo Mojado. The music increased in popularity in the 1990s and became commercially viable, and is now recognized in some Latin music awards ceremonies such as Lo Nuestro and the Latin Grammy Awards.
The original wave of Mexican rock bands got their start mostly with Spanish covers of popular English rock songs. After this initial stage they moved on to include in their repertoire traditional ranchera songs, in addition to cumbia, and ballads. Thus the 1970s saw the rise of a number of grupera bands that specialized in slow ballads and songs that up to that point had only been sung with mariachi. Among these we can include Los Muecas, Los Freddys, Los Babys, etc.
Popular music
Pop
During the 1960s and 1970s most of the pop music produced in Mexico consisted of Spanish-language versions of English-language rock-and-roll hits. Singers and musical groups like Angélica María, Johnny Laboriel, Alberto Vázquez, Enrique Guzmán or Los Teen Tops performed cover versions of songs by Elvis Presley, Paul Anka, Nancy Sinatra and others.
The Mexican music market serves as a launching pad to stardom for many non-Mexican artists who are interested extending the market-range of their music.
For the last thirty years, Mexican pop music has been led by teen pop bands and their former members. Specially teen pop bands of the last decades have been Timbiriche, OV7, Sentidos Opuestos and RBD. Unlike teen pop bands elsewhere, the Mexican audience tends to prefer mixed-gender combos over boys or girls bands.
In 2000, the century saw the crossover of some of Mexican recording artist like Paulina Rubio and Thalía into the English music industry, with bilingual albums, compilation album, that included hit songs in English and Spanish language, and the firsts solo English-language albums by the Mexican pop artist. The best recording crossover artist has been Paulina Rubio with her first English-language album being Border Girl released on June 18, 2002. Thalia has collaborated with U.S. singer of traditional pop standards Tony Bennett in a duet for the song "The Way You Look Tonight". Viva Duets is the studio album by Tony Bennett, released in October 2012. It consists of electronically assembled duets between Bennett and younger singers from various genres like Frank Sinatras "Duets II". In Duets II, Sinatra personally invited Luis Miguel to participate on a duet in the album for the song "Come Fly with Me". Luis Miguel has been dubbed several times by the press and the media as the "Latin Frank Sinatra".
The best-known Mexican pop singers are José María Napoleón, Juan Gabriel, Lucía Méndez, Ana Gabriel, Daniela Romo, Marco Antonio Solís, Yuri, Gloria Trevi, Lucero, Angélica María, Luis Miguel, Sasha Sokol, Thalía, Paulina Rubio, Alessandra Rosaldo, Reyli, Bibi Gaytán, Edith Márquez, Fey, Aracely Arámbula, Irán Castillo, Lynda Thomas, Natalia Lafourcade, Paty Cantú, Anahí, Maite Perroni, Dulce María, Ximena Sariñana, Yuridia, Daniela Luján, Belinda Peregrín, Sofía Reyes, Kika Edgar, Carlos Rivera and groups like Camila, Sin Bandera, Ha*Ash, Jesse & Joy, Belanova, Playa Limbo, and Jotdog.
Rock
The Mexican rock movement started in the late 1940s and early 1960s, rapidly becoming popular, and peaking in the 1969 and 1990s with real authentic sounds and styles. One of the early Mexican rock bands came out of the predominantly Mexican barrio community of East Los Angeles, "Los Nómadas" (The Nomads). They were the first ethnically integrated rock and roll band of the 1950s, consisting of three Mestizo boys, Chico Vasquez, Jose 'J.D.' Moreno, Abel Padilla, and a Caucasian boy Bill Aken (Billy Mayorga Aken).
The adopted son of classical guitarist Francisco Mayorga and Mexican movie actress Lupe Mayorga, Aken was mentored by family friend, jazz guitarist Ray Pohlman and would later become rocker Zane Ashton, arranging music and playing lead guitar for everybody from Elvis to Nina Simone. His association with the other three boys would be a lifelong one and they stayed together as a band for more than thirty years. Mexican Rock combined the traditional instruments and stories of Mexico in its songs. Mexican and Latin American rock en español remain very popular in Mexico, surpassing other cultural interpretations of rock and roll, including British rock.
In the 1960s and 1970s, during the PRI government, most rock bands were forced to appear underground, that was the time after Avándaro (a Woodstock-style Mexican festival) in which groups like El Tri, Enigma, Los Dug Dug's, Javier Bátiz and many others arose. During that time Mexican Carlos Santana became famous after performing at Woodstock. During the 1980s Nar Mattaru formed in 1995 in Monterrey, N.L., and 1990s many Mexican bands went to the surface and popular rock bands like Santa Sabina, Café Tacuba, Caifanes, Control Machete, Fobia, Los de Abajo, Molotov, Maná, Ely Guerra, Julieta Venegas and Maldita Vecindad achieved a large international following.
The latter are "grandfathers" to the Latin ska movement. Mexico City has also a considerable movement of bands playing surf rock inspired in their outfits by local show-sport lucha libre. In the late 1990s, Mexico had a new wave "resurgence" of rock music with bands like Jumbo, Zoé, Porter, etc., as well as instrumentalists Rodrigo y Gabriela and Los Jaigüey the band of Santa Sabina's bass player, Poncho Figueroa, along with brothers Gustavo Jacob and Ricardo Jacob in the late 2000s.
Extreme metal has been popular for a long time in Mexico, with bands such as Dilemma, Exanime formed in 1985 in Monterrey, N.L. The Chasm, Xiuhtecuhtli, Disgorge, Brujeria, Transmetal, Hacavitz, Sargatanas, Mictlayotl, Yaoyotl, Ereshkigal, Xibalba, and Calvarium Funestus. The Mexican metal fanbase is credited with being amongst the most lively and intense, and favorites for European metal bands to perform for.
Alejandra Guzmán's 26 years of artistic career, with more than 10 million albums sold, 16 released albums and 30 singles in radio's top 10 hits, has earned her the title of La Reina del Rock (The Queen of Rock). She is the daughter of two Latin entertainment legends: movie icon Silvia Pinal and rock and roll legend Enrique Guzmán, from whom she inherits her talent and passion for arts, music, dance and constant spiritual growth, but in the real Mexican vision her as seen like a pop singer, not real rock.
Latin alternative
An eclectic range of influences is at the heart of Latin alternative, a music created by young players who have been raised not only on their parents' music but also on rock, hip-hop and electronica. It represents a sonic shift away from regionalism and points to a new global Latin identity.
The name "Latin alternative" was coined in the late 1990s by American record company executives as a way to sell music that was -literally—all over the map. It was marketed as an alternative to the slick, highly produced Latin pop that dominated commercial Spanish-language radio, such as Ricky Martin or Paulina Rubio.
Artists within the genre, such as Rodrigo y Gabriela, Carla Morrison, Café Tacuba, Hello Seahorse!, Porter, Juan Son, Austin TV, Lila Downs, Maria jose, Paté de Fuá, Julieta Venegas and Jenny and the Mexicats have set out to defy traditional expectations of Latin music.
Mexican ska
Ska entered Mexico in the 1960s, when both small bands like Los Matemáticos and big orchestras like Orquestra de Pablo Beltrán Ruíz recorded both original ska tunes and covers of Jamaiacan hits. After early new wave bands of the early 1980s like Ritmo Peligroso and Kenny y los Eléctricos incorporated ska into their post-punk sound, a more punk-influenced brand of Ska started being produced in Mexico City in the late eighties, and the genre enjoyed its highest popularity during the early 2000s, even though it is still very popular today. Mexican Ska groups include Panteón Rococó (Mexico City), Inspector (Nuevo Leon), Control Machete, La Maldita Vecindad (Mexico City), Mama Pulpa (Mexico City) and Tijuana No! (Tijuana, Baja California; originally named Radio Chantaje).
Electronic
Some of the best Mexican composers for electronic and electroacoustic media are Javier Torres Maldonado, Murcof and Manuel Rocha Iturbide, the later conducting festivals and workshops of experimental music and art, in Mexico City and Paris. Some exponents are 3Ball MTY, Nortec Collective, Wakal, Kobol (band), Murcof, Hocico & Deorro and Mexican Institute of Sound.
Other music of Latin-American roots
Other popular forms of music found in various parts of Mexico – mostly with origins in other parts of the Caribbean and Latin America include rumba, mambo, Cha cha chá, Danzón, and bolero. Rumba came from the black Mexican slaves in Veracruz, Mexico City, and Yucatán. The style began in Cuba and later became famous in the black community of Mexico. From the beginning of the 20th century, bolero arrived to Yucatán, and Danzón to Veracruz. Both styles became very popular all over the country, and a Mexican style of both rhythms was developed.
In the 1940s, the Cubans Pérez Prado, Benny Moré emigrated to Mexico, they brought with them the mambo, which became extremely popular especially in Mexico City, later on mambo developed into Cha cha chá, which was also popular.
Bolero
The Cuban bolero has traveled to Mexico and the rest of Latin America after its conception, where it became part of their repertoires. Some of the bolero's leading composers have come from nearby countries, most especially the prolific Puerto Rican composer Rafael Hernández; another example is Mexico's Agustín Lara. Some Cuban composers of the bolero are listed under Trova. Some successful Mexican bolero composers are María Grever, Gonzalo Curiel Barba, Gabriel Ruiz, and Consuelo Velázquez which song Verdad Amarga (Bitter Truth) was the most popular in Mexico in the year 1948.
Another composer Armando Manzanero widely considered the first Mexican romantic composer of the Post-war era and one of the most successful composers of Latin America has composed more than four hundred songs, fifty of which have given him international fame. His most well-known songs include Voy a apagar la luz (I'm Going to Turn Off the Lights), Contigo Aprendí (With you I Learnt... ), Adoro (Adore), No sé tú (I don't know if you...), Por Debajo de la Mesa (Under the Table) Esta Tarde Vi Llover (English version "Yesterday I Heard the Rain"), Somos Novios (English version "It's Impossible"), Felicidad (Happiness) and Nada Personal (Nothing Personal).
Some renowned trios románticos were Trio Los Panchos, Los Tres Ases, Los Tres Diamantes and Los Dandys. Trio Bolero, a unique ensemble of two guitars and one cello. Other singers in singing boleros in Mexico are Óscar Chávez, José Ángel Espinoza and Álvaro Carrillo.
Included among the acclaimed interpreters of the bolero on the radio and the international concert stage were the Mexican tenors Juan Arvizu and Nestor Mesta Chayres. The brother of Aida Cuevas, "the Queen of the Ranchera," Carlos Cuevas has been equally successful as an interpreter of the bolero and Eugenia León in Mexico's contemporary music scene.
Romantic ballad or Latin ballad
The Latin or romantic balled has its origin in the Latin American bolero in the 1950s (Lucho Kitten, Leo Marini), but also in the romantic song in Italian (Nicola Di Bari) and French (Charles Aznavour) in the 1960s and 1970s.
The ethnomusicologist Daniel Party defines the romantic ballad as "a love song of slow tempo, played by a solo singer accompanied by an orchestra usually".
The ballad and bolero are often confused and songs can fall in one or the other category without too much precision. The distinction between them is referring primarily to a more sophisticated and more metaphorical language and subtle bolero, compared with a more direct expression of the ballad.
In Mexico, the first ballad that is registered as such is "Sonata de Amor" (Sonata of Love) of Mario Alvarez in 1961. In 1965, bolero singer-songwriter Armando Manzanero recorded his first ballad, "Pobres besos míos" (My Poor Kisses).
The heyday of the ballad was reached in the mid-1970s, where artists such as José José, Camilo Sesto, Raphael, Roberto Carlos, Rocío Dúrcal and others released many hits. The main hist of José José were "El triste" (The Sad One) by Roberto Cantoral, "La nave del olvido" (The ship of the forgotten), "Te extraño" (I Miss You), "Amar y querer" (Love and want), or "Gavilán o Paloma" (Hawk or Dove), "Lo Pasado Pasado" (The Past is Past), "Volcán" (Volcano) or "Lo que no fue no será" (What Never Was Will Never Be). In the course of their existence the genre merged with diverse rhythms to form several variants, such as romantic salsa and cumbia aside others. Manolo Muñoz was one of the first soloists in Latin America to sing romantic ballads, Víctor Yturbe considered one of the best interpreters of this genre in Mexico and Lupita D'Alessio is one of the great female singers in the ballad genre of the '80s in Latin America.
From the 1990s on, globalization and media internationalization contributed to the ballad's international spread and homogenization.
Tropical
Sonora Santanera is an orchestra playing tropical music from Mexico with over 60 years of history.
Cumbia
The history of Cumbia in Mexico is almost as old as Cumbia in Colombia. In the 1940s Colombian singers emigrated to Mexico, where they worked with the Mexican orquestra director Rafael de Paz. In the 1950s they recorded what many people consider to be the first cumbia recorded outside of Colombia, La Cumbia Cienaguera. He recorded other hits like Mi gallo tuerto, Caprichito, and Nochebuena. This is when Cumbia began to become popular Mexico, with Tony Camargo as one of the first exponents of Mexican Cumbia. In Mexico D.F., most people who dance to it are called "Chilangos"—which means people born in the main district.
In the 1970s Aniceto Molina emigrated to Mexico, where he joined the group from Guerrero, La Luz Roja de San Marcos, and recorded many popular tropical cumbias like El Gallo Mojado, El Peluquero, and La Mariscada. Also in the 70s Rigo Tovar became very popular with his fusion of Cumbia with ballad and Rock.
Today Cumbia is played in many different ways, and has slight variations depending on the geographical area like Cumbia sonidera, Cumbia andina mexicana, Cumbia Norteña, Tecno-cumbia. Popular Mexican Cumbia composers and interpreters include Rigo Tovar y su Costa Azul, Celso Piña, Pilar Montenegro, Ninel Conde, Los Caminantes, and Selena.
Los Ángeles Azules play the cumbia sonidera genre, which is a cumbia subgenre using the accordion and synthesizers. This results in a fusion of the sounds of cumbia from the 1950-1970s with those of 1990s-style electronic music.
Art music
Operas
The first opera by a Mexican-born composer was Manuel de Zumaya's La Parténope, performed in 1711 before a private audience in the Viceroy's Palace in Mexico City. However, the first Mexican composer to have his operas publicly staged was Manuel Arenzana, the maestro de capilla at Puebla Cathedral from 1792 to 1821. He is known to have written at least two works performed during the 1805-06 season at the Teatro Coliseo in Mexico City — El extrangero and Los dos ribales en amore. Both were short comic pieces. The first Mexican opera seria was Paniagua's Catalina de Guisa (composed in 1845 and premiered in 1859). With its story about the Huguenots in France and an Italian libretto by Felice Romani, contemporary critics noted that the only thing Mexican about it was the composer.
Although the traditions of European opera and especially Italian opera had initially dominated the Mexican music conservatory and strongly influenced native opera composers (in both style and subject matter), elements of Mexican nationalism had already appeared by the latter part of the 19th century with operas such as Aniceto Ortega del Villar's 1871 Guatimotzin, a romanticised account of the defense of Mexico by its last Aztec ruler, Cuauhtémoc. Later works such as Miguel Bernal Jiménez's 1941 Tata Vasco (based on the life of Vasco de Quiroga, the first bishop of Michoacán) incorporated native melodies into the score. Ángela Peralta was an operatic soprano of international fame, known in Europe as "The Mexican Nightingale", who sang in the premieres of operas by Paniagua, Morales, and Ortega del Villar. Mexican tenors include Rolando Villazon, Ramón Vargas, Francisco Araiza, Arturo Chacón Cruz, Fernando de la Mora, Javier Camarena, José Mojica, José Sosa Esquivel, and Alfonso Ortiz Tirado. Mexican soprano include Marta Domingo, Maria Katzarava, Irma González, Olivia Gorra, Irasema Terrazas, and singer Susana Zabaleta.
Spanish opera singer, conductor and arts administrator Plácido Domingo (in the 1990s part of The Three Tenors), started his career in Mexico and continued to do charitable work and presentations in Mexico.
Classical
Mexico has a long tradition of classical music, as far back as the 16th century, when it was a Spanish colony. Music of New Spain, especially that of Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla and Hernando Franco, is increasingly recognized as a significant contribution to New World culture.
Puebla was a significant center of music composition in the 17th century, as the city had considerable wealth and for a time was presided over by Bishop Juan de Palafox y Mendoza, who was an enthusiastic patron of music. Composers during this period included Bernardo de Peralta Escudero (mostly active around 1640), and also Juan Gutiérrez de Padilla, who was the most well-known composer of the 17th century in Mexico. The construction of the cathedral in Puebla made the composition and performance of polychoral music possible, especially compositions in the Venetian polychoral style. Late in the century, Miguel Matheo de Dallo y Lana set the verse of poet Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.
In the 18th century, Manuel de Sumaya, maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City, wrote many cantadas and villancicos, and he was the first Mexican to compose an opera, La Partenope (1711). After him, Ignacio Jerusalem, an Italian-born composer, brought some of the latest operatic styles as well as early classical (galant) styles to Mexico. His best-known composition is probably the Matins for the Virgin of Guadalupe (1764). Jerusalem was maestro de capilla at the cathedral in Mexico City after Sumaya, from 1749 until his death in 1769.
In the 19th century the waltzes of Juventino Rosas achieved world recognition. Manuel M. Ponce is recognized as an important composer for the Spanish classical guitar, responsible for widening the repertoire for this instrument. Ponce also wrote a rich repertoire for solo piano, piano and ensembles, and piano and orchestra, developing the first period of modernistic nationalism, using Native American and European resources, but merging them into a new, original style.
In the 20th century, Carlos Chávez is a notable composer who wrote symphonies, ballets, and a wide catalog of chamber music, within varied esthetic orientations. Chávez's "Sinfonía India" ("Indian Symphony") uses three themes based on indigenous songs from northern Mexico. Another recognized composer is Silvestre Revueltas who wrote such pieces as The Night of the Mayas, an homage to García Lorca (tribute to García Lorca), Sensemayá based on a poem by Nicolás Guillén, and orchestral suites like Janitzio and Redes originally written for motion pictures. José Pablo Moncayo with compositions such as Huapango, and Blas Galindo with Sones de Mariachi, are also recognized as adapters of Mexican sons into symphonic music. A later contributor to this tradition, Arturo Márquez is also internationally known by his orchestral mastery and melodic vivacity like Danzón No. 2.
In 1922, Julián Carrillo (violinist, composer, conductor, theoretician and inventor), created the first microtonal system in the history of classical music. During subsequent years, he also developed and constructed harps and pianos able to play music in fragments of tone, like fourths, sixths, eighths and sixteenths. His pianos are still manufactured in Germany and are used to play Carrillo's music, mainly in Europe and Mexico.
Another contemporary Mexican composer was Conlon Nancarrow (of U.S. birth), who created a system to play pianola music, using and developing theories of politempo and polimetrics. Other noted contemporary composer include Benjamín Juárez Echenique and Eduardo Diazmuñoz.
Some avant-garde composers leading Mexican music during the second half of the 20th century were Alicia Urreta, Manuel Enríquez, Mario Lavista, Juan Antonio Rosado Rodriguez, Julio Estrada and Lucía Álvarez. Some of them also contributed to the academic development of music teaching in U.S. universities, a work also enriched by Gabriela Ortiz, Daniel Catán, Carlos Sanchez-Gutierrez, Guillermo Galindo, Carlos Sandoval, Ignacio Baca-Lobera, Hebert Vázquez, Ricardo Zohn-Muldoon and Samuel Zyman. In the other side of the Atlantic the composers of a new generation,** Javier Álvarez, Ana Lara, Víctor Rasgado, Juan Trigos, Hilda Paredes, Javier Torres Maldonado, Gabriel Pareyon, and Georgina Derbez, also have contributed to the academic and artistic life. Alondra de la Parra is also an official cultural ambassador of Mexico.
Jazz
Some major exponents are Juan García Esquivel, Eugenio Toussaint, Arturo Castro, Rafael Méndez, Richard Lemus, Leo Acosta, Tino Contreras, Luis Ocadiz, J. J. Calatayud, Chilo Morán, and Popo Sánchez.
Antonio Sánchez is also a very well-known jazz drummer and composer from Mexico City who has been performing with some of the best-known U.S. musicians since he moved to America in the early 1990s including Pat Metheny, Chick Corea, Michael Brecker and Gary Burton besides leading his own bands and ensembles. Arturo O'Farrill son of Latin jazz musician, arranger and bandleader Chico O'Farrill, is known for his contributions to contemporary Latin jazz. His music is described as stylistically "pan-Latin" by critic Dan Bilawsky. Teatro Metropólitan is a sponsor of Mexico City's National Jazz Festival. Also playing Latin jazz are the Villalobos Brothers,
Table (traditional music ensembles)
See also
National Conservatory of Music
List of music artists and bands from Mexico
Regional styles of Mexican music
List of Mexican operas
:Category:Mexican composers
Billboard Top Latin Albums
Hot Latin Songs
Regional Mexican Airplay
Mambo de Mexico
Danzon de Mexico
CHA CHA De Mexico
Flamenco
References
Further reading
Bosquero Foster, Jerónimo, La canción popular de Yucatán, 1850–1950. Mexico City: Editorial Magisterio 1970.
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Garrido, Juan S. Historia de la música popular en México. Mexico City: Editorial Extemporámeps 1094.
Grandante, William. "Mexican Popular Music at Mid-century: The role of José Alfredo Jiménez and the Canción Ranchera," Studies in Latin American Popular Culture 2(1983): 99–114.
Grial, Hugo de Geijertam. Popular Music in Mexico. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1976.
Moreno Rivas, Yolanda. Historia de la música popular mexicana. Mexico City: Alianza Editorial Mexicana, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, 1979.
Pedelty, Mark. "The Bolero: The Birth, Life, and Decline of Mexican Modernity," Latin American Music Review 20, no. 1 (1999), 31–43.
Thomson, Guy P.C. "The Ceremonial and Political Roles of Village Bands, 1846–1974" in Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance, eds. William Beezley, Cheryl Martin, and William French. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources 1974.
Velázquez, Marco and Mary Kay Vaughan. "Mestizaje and Musical Nationalism in Mexico" in The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940. Durham: Duke University Press 2006, pp. 95–118.
External links
BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Son Jarocho and the Malinto choir. Accessed November 25, 2010.
CENIDIM
[ Norteño music AllMusic Guide]
History and description of Duranguense
The Saxophone in Norteño music
Texan-Mexican conjunto music | [
-0.07495519518852234,
0.561690092086792,
-0.19648544490337372,
0.2429620623588562,
0.25167518854141235,
0.053341954946517944,
-0.030718600377440453,
1.0036565065383911,
-0.6213705539703369,
-0.515383243560791,
0.25653061270713806,
0.47041061520576477,
0.5603315830230713,
0.6180466413497925,
-0.992151141166687,
0.5453298687934875,
0.8015037775039673,
0.35271039605140686,
0.04224572330713272,
0.08442767709493637,
-0.49098455905914307,
-0.3755289912223816,
0.6404324769973755,
0.1827957034111023,
-0.2183789759874344,
-0.5979216694831848,
-0.6877778172492981,
0.2137533724308014,
-0.4146830439567566,
0.2597636282444,
-0.7108895778656006,
0.6585159301757812,
-0.15760016441345215,
-0.1519925743341446,
-0.22005558013916016,
0.17031757533550262,
-0.295468807220459,
-0.8059725761413574,
0.1118045374751091,
-0.7158907651901245,
0.438799649477005,
-0.4203227162361145,
0.5296558141708374,
0.44752007722854614,
-0.14978459477424622,
-0.45687147974967957,
-0.9190202951431274,
0.4720565676689148,
-0.6909736394882202,
-0.0794147327542305,
-0.2997595965862274,
0.34938812255859375,
0.4524299204349518,
0.505109429359436,
-0.008560242131352425,
0.07439025491476059,
-1.0418143272399902,
0.30585524439811707,
-0.2629261016845703,
0.5533685684204102,
0.9100924134254456,
0.7946712970733643,
-0.12833917140960693,
-0.8320267200469971,
0.14881744980812073,
-0.15432526171207428,
0.38250407576560974,
-0.28300872445106506,
-0.0403030700981617,
-0.08278443664312363,
-0.47285881638526917,
0.05486658588051796,
-0.11226999014616013,
-0.3682432770729065,
-0.6254298090934753,
-0.813829779624939,
0.506519615650177,
0.10955021530389786,
-0.11265583336353302,
0.29765480756759644,
0.16271424293518066,
0.336884468793869,
1.1388335227966309,
0.19378885626792908,
0.34205982089042664,
-0.22604618966579437,
-0.13024717569351196,
0.03863269090652466,
-0.2709938883781433,
-0.08575203269720078,
-0.556506872177124,
-0.36017265915870667,
0.7276283502578735,
0.6058692336082458,
-0.11032259464263916,
0.17292964458465576,
0.3486011028289795,
-0.08963578194379807,
-0.277605265378952,
0.42298176884651184,
0.2591128945350647,
0.19898520410060883,
0.2228543609380722,
0.2596287131309509,
-0.46005862951278687,
-0.280927836894989,
-0.6220027804374695,
0.40244680643081665,
-0.028040025383234024,
-0.003064108081161976,
-0.33810797333717346,
0.07304227352142334,
-0.09024409204721451,
0.47042015194892883,
0.7064148187637329,
0.184361070394516,
0.346136212348938,
-0.42885422706604004,
-0.30861127376556396,
-0.1117374524474144,
0.14965108036994934,
0.3145512044429779,
-0.264632910490036,
-0.08595451712608337,
-0.3818970024585724,
0.29767701029777527,
0.7092537879943848,
0.5003446936607361,
0.0390794575214386,
-0.2633880376815796,
0.31076788902282715,
0.25475260615348816,
0.3822360336780548,
-0.25835660099983215,
0.3302794396877289,
-0.9486225247383118,
0.5281492471694946,
0.199930801987648,
0.16106358170509338,
0.4759807288646698,
-0.38290607929229736,
-0.7512755393981934,
-0.28176507353782654,
-0.3764396905899048,
0.09017466753721237,
-0.7297102808952332,
-0.14107052981853485,
-0.11442486941814423,
-0.2784976661205292,
-0.009785997681319714,
0.2902214229106903,
-0.1850493848323822,
-0.33477964997291565,
0.24657969176769257,
-0.2607969045639038,
-0.5922713279724121,
0.07072186470031738,
-0.42745357751846313,
0.6982367634773254,
0.43947798013687134,
-0.10140064358711243,
-0.08051490783691406,
0.30136388540267944,
-0.5244516730308533,
-0.44660890102386475,
-0.20583918690681458,
0.26852157711982727,
0.9777455925941467,
-0.28760844469070435,
0.37810155749320984,
-0.5302767157554626,
0.3947393298149109,
0.03016420640051365,
-0.08645429462194443,
-0.48736903071403503,
-0.6303550004959106,
0.2470775693655014,
0.6510686278343201,
-0.21784551441669464,
0.7171814441680908,
-0.7056896090507507,
0.5135844349861145,
0.364197701215744,
0.08707841485738754,
-0.3795783519744873,
-0.079161636531353,
0.19753995537757874,
0.2828267514705658,
0.32377180457115173,
-0.37456145882606506,
-0.3419480323791504,
0.2619830071926117,
-0.10338904708623886,
-0.13755226135253906,
0.4118925631046295,
0.20831133425235748,
-0.7243123650550842,
0.4720425307750702,
-0.31507569551467896,
0.3499167263507843,
0.03352212533354759,
0.24001821875572205,
0.5830321907997131,
0.5362191796302795,
-0.5009282231330872,
-0.7005242705345154,
0.34821826219558716,
-0.05961776524782181,
0.711093544960022,
0.23120205104351044,
-0.03281471133232117,
-0.4071745276451111,
0.015194568783044815,
0.5001776218414307,
-0.3530214726924896,
-0.11280675232410431,
-0.5083991289138794,
0.0076970187947154045,
0.21359117329120636,
-0.6194425821304321,
0.7780792117118835,
-0.09918418526649475,
-0.17522968351840973,
-0.0070123509503901005,
-0.42114460468292236,
0.596615731716156,
-0.564054548740387,
-0.07374713569879532,
0.6146566271781921,
-0.2682505249977112,
0.11339454352855682,
0.22066906094551086,
0.08592799305915833,
-0.651641845703125,
-0.12870490550994873,
0.31039878726005554,
-0.03769785910844803,
-0.18978673219680786,
0.13844509422779083,
-0.20310069620609283,
-0.039498280733823776,
0.04142243042588234,
-0.5107436776161194,
0.497139573097229,
-0.020384391769766808,
-0.042909469455480576,
-0.42796945571899414,
-0.06298954039812088,
-0.46470338106155396,
0.11445331573486328,
0.3693341016769409,
0.5543000102043152,
0.07476971298456192,
-0.11022114753723145,
-0.3936100900173187,
-0.1414967030286789,
0.11046881973743439,
-0.6876740455627441,
0.07102504372596741,
0.096544049680233,
0.06941036134958267,
-0.4791991114616394,
0.45967480540275574,
0.07838249951601028,
-0.5068264007568359,
-1.1437784433364868,
0.06900902837514877,
-0.39810213446617126,
-0.39826810359954834,
-0.12033189833164215,
0.36391493678092957,
0.22566798329353333,
-0.18737848103046417,
-0.1548069268465042,
-0.008082046173512936,
0.07498721033334732,
-0.2958437204360962,
-0.22159335017204285,
-0.6648394465446472,
-0.64821457862854,
0.014859269373118877,
0.9459677934646606,
0.12674015760421753,
-0.966221809387207,
-0.8983193039894104,
-0.30225419998168945,
-0.023614978417754173,
-0.7624666094779968,
0.13871946930885315,
-0.3864790201187134,
-0.0028437175787985325,
-0.03842702507972717,
-0.23195160925388336,
0.307301789522171,
-0.02508600614964962,
-0.3297867476940155,
0.44896021485328674,
0.23636415600776672,
0.12165622413158417,
-0.45036008954048157,
-0.7278003692626953,
0.04964623972773552,
0.08609303086996078,
-0.15947571396827698,
0.06026376038789749,
-0.1982930451631546,
-0.24176566302776337,
-0.06935250014066696,
-5.499727725982666,
-0.12058889865875244,
-0.4980165958404541,
-0.41795453429222107,
0.218070387840271,
0.12882430851459503,
0.08467558771371841,
-0.19413191080093384,
0.07858520746231079,
-0.5345892906188965,
-0.19658499956130981,
0.5444185137748718,
-0.32125043869018555,
0.8056955933570862,
-0.02095712721347809,
0.5694831013679504,
-0.17968760430812836,
-0.3107990622520447,
-0.16499698162078857,
0.14092862606048584,
-0.20874856412410736,
-0.41452887654304504,
0.16976326704025269,
0.8622099757194519,
0.49574166536331177,
-0.0638495683670044,
-0.46909981966018677,
-0.15325143933296204,
-0.9246382117271423,
0.4616890251636505,
-0.33800724148750305,
0.2245020866394043,
0.013147772289812565,
-0.4763723611831665,
0.6121644377708435,
0.7954747080802917,
0.11749478429555893,
0.20573104918003082,
0.01502406969666481,
-0.5047041177749634,
-0.3781585693359375,
-0.14396081864833832,
0.27939701080322266,
-0.33321821689605713,
0.5533084869384766,
0.27940046787261963,
-0.221297949552536,
-0.19019080698490143,
-0.4721378684043884,
0.6070016622543335,
0.4021425247192383,
-0.618466854095459,
0.4508647918701172,
-0.45179203152656555,
0.20747151970863342,
-0.1807812601327896,
1.039837121963501,
-0.3686537444591522,
-0.0631222128868103,
0.24193358421325684,
0.6988828778266907,
-0.5835994482040405,
-0.09599614888429642,
-0.4021015465259552,
-0.132060244679451,
-0.0012357369996607304,
-0.19271178543567657,
-0.0496327206492424,
0.8106940388679504,
0.4631224274635315,
0.0872662141919136,
0.14990711212158203,
-0.042272765189409256,
-0.7236208319664001,
-0.22564907371997833,
-0.39424338936805725,
-0.7312290072441101,
-0.2528532147407532,
-0.08877753466367722,
0.15566004812717438,
-0.19606296718120575,
-0.1754835695028305,
-0.534521758556366,
-0.27143436670303345,
0.16212765872478485,
0.02072480134665966,
-0.24109938740730286,
0.3580406904220581,
-0.2794862389564514,
0.45158809423446655,
0.7904314398765564,
-0.5491171479225159,
0.1641390025615692,
-0.15874013304710388,
0.39054110646247864,
0.39934346079826355,
0.5282624959945679,
-0.011519037187099457,
0.07838870584964752,
-0.4007922112941742,
0.9072404503822327,
-0.6154916882514954,
-0.16055920720100403,
-0.01119576022028923,
0.39845773577690125,
-0.22516940534114838,
0.08094970136880875,
0.04733440279960632,
0.748526930809021,
-0.7588798403739929,
0.12484226375818253,
-0.04573432728648186,
-0.5367438197135925,
-0.6131992340087891,
0.2477090209722519,
-0.27647897601127625,
-0.21308808028697968,
0.50572669506073,
0.525321900844574,
-0.16528719663619995,
0.5771957635879517,
0.5059511661529541,
0.4353305697441101,
0.2539065480232239,
0.26650458574295044,
-0.11750348657369614,
0.05616059526801109,
0.813325822353363,
-0.2815783619880676,
0.21167753636837006,
-0.3372863829135895,
0.05362821742892265,
0.13346676528453827,
0.2948146164417267,
-0.04949009045958519,
0.8896081447601318,
-0.025620289146900177,
-0.5324862003326416,
0.12335432320833206,
-0.6255432963371277,
0.5248419642448425,
-0.2803720235824585,
0.24837490916252136,
0.23546525835990906,
0.6777403950691223,
0.5939620733261108,
-0.2850951850414276,
-0.798307478427887,
-0.8643577098846436,
0.6037047505378723,
1.0068546533584595,
0.20293283462524414,
-0.029363542795181274,
0.215556800365448,
-0.028274565935134888,
-0.20497795939445496,
0.344251424074173,
0.11625584214925766,
-0.19561657309532166,
-0.15629935264587402,
0.548812747001648,
-0.4158882200717926,
-0.5871196985244751,
0.19168053567409515,
0.11852234601974487,
-0.3981582224369049,
-0.7908033728599548,
0.14415845274925232,
-0.19152933359146118,
0.7172423005104065,
0.5620048642158508,
-0.7001802921295166,
-0.18279320001602173,
-0.1869627982378006,
0.7140526175498962,
-0.7330614328384399,
0.2771129310131073,
0.317034512758255,
-0.1660134494304657,
0.1586320698261261,
0.07126517593860626,
-0.1586059033870697,
0.27460160851478577,
0.047102078795433044,
0.11014381796121597,
-0.14389383792877197,
-0.1329958736896515,
-0.39556676149368286,
-0.1962096244096756,
0.04508711397647858,
0.13518060743808746,
0.4811154305934906,
-0.2767457962036133,
-0.2805473804473877,
-0.28040027618408203,
-0.42270606756210327,
-0.2751592695713043,
0.1918978989124298,
-0.2740951180458069,
-0.8514238595962524,
0.6474355459213257,
0.36013078689575195,
-0.18406611680984497,
0.5129856467247009,
0.4368470013141632,
-0.7418206930160522,
0.3859309256076813,
-0.1067361906170845,
-1.2632218599319458,
-0.6689359545707703,
-0.3133871555328369,
-0.5099065899848938,
-0.4064539074897766,
0.024789417162537575,
0.08572310209274292,
-0.23377245664596558,
0.27288126945495605,
-0.18193863332271576,
-0.40200939774513245,
0.5508095622062683,
0.46117720007896423,
0.13843880593776703,
0.07322920113801956,
0.3525482416152954,
-0.6573108434677124,
0.7619513273239136,
0.01783297024667263,
-0.4643985629081726,
-0.06516083329916,
-0.830440104007721,
0.7301397919654846,
-0.2994109094142914,
-0.04074164479970932,
-0.20860354602336884,
-0.5135210156440735,
0.13687722384929657,
-0.4596536159515381,
0.00095462950412184,
0.09149760752916336,
0.7458159327507019,
0.6181229948997498,
0.19122587144374847,
-0.3705185055732727,
-0.2403581142425537,
-0.6565132141113281,
0.597747266292572,
0.21270865201950073,
0.25476571917533875,
-0.5211359262466431,
-0.00949497427791357,
-0.20853197574615479,
-0.92445969581604,
-0.23812855780124664,
-0.46643656492233276,
0.7249670624732971,
-0.7073137760162354,
-0.012532422319054604,
0.1520414501428604,
0.020014099776744843,
0.12935130298137665,
-0.0589861236512661,
-1.056555986404419,
-0.719052255153656,
-0.4515088200569153,
0.26644980907440186,
-0.2895287275314331,
0.32770371437072754,
0.03285918012261391,
0.09400440007448196,
-0.06516866385936737,
-0.3533574044704437,
-0.26265749335289,
0.33533191680908203,
0.24322369694709778,
0.24154923856258392,
-0.3406451642513275,
-0.3078478276729584,
-0.17353300750255585,
0.6261971592903137,
0.5934662818908691,
-0.05838022753596306,
-0.44628915190696716,
0.18301954865455627,
-0.020305627956986427,
0.5866759419441223,
-0.3817075490951538,
-0.49517545104026794,
-0.05325101315975189,
-0.09917871654033661,
-0.48637405037879944,
0.04885680973529816,
0.1315843164920807,
0.9242544770240784,
1.0323385000228882,
0.26392075419425964,
0.24863947927951813,
0.6919659376144409,
-0.09765534102916718,
-0.18657998740673065,
0.3089996576309204,
-0.3884737193584442,
0.5658994317054749,
0.04766806587576866,
-0.12840139865875244,
0.21304203569889069,
0.10563905537128448,
0.5756406784057617,
-0.07574139535427094,
-0.5557618141174316,
-0.1202545166015625,
-0.2925036549568176,
0.4872625768184662,
0.12547549605369568,
0.4862131178379059,
-0.2635974586009979,
0.3931456208229065,
0.6288807988166809,
-0.32636258006095886,
0.33262574672698975,
0.6735281944274902,
0.2740386426448822,
-0.7636286616325378,
0.7540814876556396,
0.2671048641204834,
0.7688068747520447,
-0.22442544996738434,
-0.3901953101158142,
-0.8213008046150208,
-0.10807216167449951,
-0.0430230051279068,
0.3088839650154114,
0.4165748655796051,
-0.3845154345035553,
0.05899493768811226,
-0.4605805277824402,
-0.10021401941776276,
-0.4585723578929901,
0.1978103667497635,
-1.0359388589859009,
0.7569706439971924,
0.6866686940193176,
0.052584655582904816,
-0.5105538964271545,
0.18700268864631653,
0.5190355777740479,
0.2982598841190338,
-0.1752031445503235,
-0.114583820104599,
0.2197597324848175,
-0.2641824185848236,
0.7785317301750183,
0.14713498950004578,
0.1481507271528244,
-0.3147963285446167,
0.5552408695220947,
-0.21241971850395203,
0.20814403891563416,
0.07727067917585373,
-0.210164412856102,
0.03999748080968857,
0.2649189829826355,
0.3451072871685028,
0.5082293152809143,
-0.42629382014274597,
-0.6904028058052063,
0.17025677859783173,
-0.23211929202079773,
-0.011474843136966228,
-0.6845488548278809,
0.02324066497385502,
-0.1503279060125351,
0.27413246035575867,
-0.7608078718185425,
0.4061131179332733,
0.535842776298523,
0.5510907769203186,
0.5087766051292419,
0.3737868368625641,
0.14918844401836395,
-0.28448233008384705,
0.10787642747163773,
0.27547594904899597,
-0.612503170967102,
-0.586605429649353,
0.20424607396125793,
0.43414029479026794,
-0.08535098284482956,
0.3457728326320648,
-0.3505198657512665,
0.1676403284072876,
0.30115288496017456,
-0.23197853565216064,
0.56891930103302,
0.3069094717502594,
-0.4429568648338318,
-0.30886197090148926,
-0.297054648399353,
0.6601789593696594,
-0.15016967058181763,
-0.8110353350639343,
0.619922399520874,
0.21340329945087433,
0.27456405758857727,
0.2485952079296112,
-0.7452882528305054,
0.31644514203071594,
-0.733641505241394,
0.07551594078540802,
-0.1160922572016716,
0.5850103497505188,
0.027702735736966133,
-0.1572841852903366,
-0.6326424479484558,
-0.36360257863998413,
-0.3766305148601532,
-0.025188440456986427,
0.43473172187805176,
-0.48700785636901855,
-0.11285177618265152,
-0.9305019378662109,
0.14882273972034454,
-0.46753883361816406,
0.428867369890213,
0.7153351902961731,
0.3172762095928192,
-0.3533564507961273,
0.3396114110946655,
0.4227425456047058,
-0.2575252652168274,
0.2712409198284149,
-0.05689555034041405,
0.3972710072994232,
-0.11255183815956116,
0.3480621874332428,
-0.12206068634986877,
-0.22935651242733002,
0.5961235761642456,
0.6203467845916748,
-0.0384342223405838,
-0.3262588083744049,
-0.03780746832489967,
-0.08367522060871124,
0.604012131690979,
-0.3690125346183777,
0.34593361616134644,
-0.4474732577800751,
-0.17298559844493866,
0.4197477400302887,
-0.9956942200660706,
0.2995292544364929,
0.24793247878551483,
0.299161821603775,
0.5608989000320435,
-0.345098614692688,
-0.2186078280210495,
0.025095509365200996,
0.6811637282371521,
-0.22726808488368988,
0.35087427496910095,
-0.4390677213668823
] |
248049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen%20B.%20DuMont | Allen B. DuMont | Allen Balcom DuMont, also spelled Du Mont, (January 29, 1901 – November 14, 1965) was an American electronics engineer, scientist and inventor best known for improvements to the cathode ray tube in 1931 for use in television receivers. Seven years later he manufactured and sold the first commercially practical television set to the public. In June 1938, his Model 180 television receiver was the first all-electronic television set ever sold to the public, a few months prior to RCA's first set in April 1939. In 1946, DuMont founded the first television network to be licensed, the DuMont Television Network, initially by linking station WABD (named for DuMont; it later became WNEW and is now WNYW) in New York City to station W3XWT, which later became WTTG, in Washington, D.C. (WTTG was named for Dr. Thomas T. Goldsmith, DuMont's Vice President of Research, and his best friend.) DuMont's successes in television picture tubes, TV sets and components and his involvement in commercial TV broadcasting made him the first millionaire in the business.
Biography
Early life
DuMont was born in Brooklyn, New York City, the son of Lillian Felton (Balcom) and William Henry Beaman DuMont. At the age of 10, he was stricken with polio and was quarantined at his family's Eastern Parkway apartment for nearly a year. During his quarantine, his father brought home books and magazines for the young DuMont to read while bedridden. At this time, DuMont developed an interest in science, specifically wireless radio communication, and taught himself Morse code.
His father bought him a crystal radio receiver, which he assembled, took apart, reassembled and rebuilt several times. He improved his set each time he rebuilt it and later built a transmitter, while his father obtained the landlord's permission to erect a transceiving antenna on the roof.
While recuperating from polio, DuMont was advised to swim to regain the use of his legs. In 1914, the family moved to Montclair, New Jersey, where there was an indoor year-round pool available at the local YMCA. He graduated from Montclair High School in 1919, and went to Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New York, where he was part of the Alpha chapter of the Theta Xi fraternity.
Radio and early interest in television
In 1915, DuMont became the youngest American to obtain a first class commercial radio operator's license at age 14. The following summer, he worked as a radio operator aboard a coastal steamer making runs from New York to Providence, Rhode Island. As the summers went by, he made his way to the Caribbean, South America and, after World War I, to Europe, where, during the summer of 1922, he was stuck in Copenhagen for months because of a dock workers' strike.
After graduating from Rensselaer in 1924, DuMont worked at the Westinghouse Lamp Company in Bloomfield, New Jersey, in charge of radio tube production. While there, he increased production from 500 tubes per day to an astounding 50,000 tubes per day. Management decided to give him a $500 bonus, a small raise, and the "Westinghouse Award", an award devised to recognize his accomplishments. The "Westinghouse Award" was later presented as a scholarship award to high school seniors showing promise in a field of science (later the Intel Science Talent Search) and continues to this day as the Regeneron Science Talent Search).
By 1928, DuMont was searching for new opportunities and was wooed by Dr. Lee de Forest, a radio pioneer who developed the audion tube, the original voice amplifier for radio reception. De Forest had a checkered career as an inventor and had several failed business ventures. DuMont was hired to the de Forest Radio Telephone & Telegraph Company as vice president and production manager for radio tubes. He revamped the factory with newly designed machinery: "a high speed sealing machine, automatic grid winding and welding machine, base branding machine, basing and wire cutting machine, high-frequency bombarder and numerous tube-characteristic test sets and life racks." Factory capacity was increased to 30,000 tubes per day.
When De Forest took over the mechanical television system of C. Francis Jenkins, DuMont turned his attention to television. He was involved in the first television transmissions from W2XCD in Passaic. But DuMont realized that clear images would need the development of scanning in a cathode ray tube. DuMont worked to improve television transmission and reception and went to De Forest asking for funds to build a long-lasting cathode ray tube for television reception. De Forest denied DuMont's request as De Forest's investors were demanding better returns. Subsequently, DuMont resigned at the same time that De Forest sold his radio manufacturing business to David Sarnoff at RCA.
Cathode ray tube (CRT) and oscillograph
DuMont had developed an improved version of the cathode ray tube which was both cheaper to produce and was longer-lasting than the German tubes used at that time; the imported tubes had a life of 25 to 30 hours. DuMont's invention of the first long-lasting cathode ray tube would later make commercially viable television possible. He started his own company, Allen B. DuMont Laboratories, in the basement of his Upper Montclair home, building long-lasting cathode ray tubes. In 1931, he sold two tubes to two college science laboratories for $35 each.
Since DuMont was a leader in cathode ray tube or CRT design and manufacturing, it was a natural step to use the CRT as a visual measuring instrument or oscilloscope. The production of CRT's and oscilloscopes was part of DuMont Laboratories located in Upper Montclair, NJ. Needing more space he moved to a larger location in Passaic, NJ in 1934. Although not the inventor of the oscilloscope, DuMont designed and mass-produced practical oscilloscopes (he called them oscillographs) for all types of laboratory, automotive/equipment servicing and manufacturing applications. By the 1940s DuMont was the leader in the oscilloscope equipment market. DuMont was one of the earliest designers of the trigger sweep oscilloscope using a gas thyratron vacuum tube (forerunner to the silicon controlled rectifier or SCR). This allowed the oscilloscope to show a visual trace at a preset input signal level. In addition the sweep (trace across the CRT screen) could be regulated by the sweep speed or sweep frequency. This design allowed the oscilloscope to provide better visual detail of the measurement being studied. The trigger was a frequency synchronizing type which provided stability in viewing.
The profits from the oscillographs helped him invest in television design and his DuMont TV Network. Unfortunately the time spent on his TV ventures proved to be the end of his profitable oscillograph business. In 1947, a young equipment manufacturer called Tektronix produced the model 511 Time Base Trigger and Sweep Oscilloscope for $795. The use of time instead of frequency to measure a sweep across the CRT was Tektronix's big selling point. Time measurements are easier to interpret pulses and complex waveforms. It has been mentioned informally that Allen DuMont saw the model 511 demonstrated at an electronics show. He tried it and was impressed, but commented to Howard Vollum and Jack Murdock, co-founders of Tektronix that it was too expensive and they would be lucky to sell any. Tektronix's time base trigger and time sweep generator design would become the standard in the 1950s and into the 21st century. Tektronix would replace DuMont Oscillographs as the leading selling oscilloscope brand.
When Fairchild Camera and Instrument acquired DuMont Laboratories in 1960, oscilloscopes were still being made with the DuMont name brand. Allen DuMont became Group General Manager of the DuMont Division, until his death in 1965. All DuMont oscilloscopes in the late 1950s and after the Fairchild acquisition were using the time base trigger and time sweep generator method introduced by Tektronix. The DuMont line of oscilloscopes continued to be produced into the 1980s.
During the early years of World War II, DuMont received special government contracts to provide large wide cathode ray tubes. These special tubes allowed scientists working on the Manhattan Project to study the action of accelerated electrons.
Other achievements
In 1932, DuMont proposed a "ship finder" device to the United States Army Signal Corps at Fort Monmouth, New Jersey, that used radio wave distortions to locate objects on a cathode ray tube screen, a type of radar. The military asked him, however, not to take out a patent for developing what they wanted to maintain as a secret, and so he is not often mentioned among those responsible for radar.
In 1932, DuMont invented the magic eye tube also known as the Electron Ray Tube, used as a tuning accessory in radios and as a level meter in mono and stereo home reel-to-reel tape recorders. In the 1930s the manufacture of mechanical panel meters were labor-intensive and expensive. Magic eye tubes provided radio designers with a less expensive and more profitable way to add a feature usually found in higher price equipment. The general public reception was a success as customers like the green glow and the seemingly magical way it worked. He released information on his invention the following year. He sold the patents and rights to RCA for $20,000 to help fund his other projects.
DuMont produced black and white televisions in the late 1930s, 1940s and 1950s that were generally regarded as offering highest quality and durability. Many of these premium sets included a built in AM/FM radio and record player.
DuMont sold his television manufacturing division to Emerson Radio in 1958, and sold the remainder of the company to Fairchild Camera in 1960. Fairchild later developed semiconductor microchips. Robert Noyce, a co-founder of Intel, originally worked for DuMont as an engineer.
DuMont Television Network
The DuMont Television Network was not an unqualified success, being faced with the major problem of how to make a profit without the benefit of an already established radio network as a base. After ten years, DuMont shuttered the network and sold what remained of his television operations to John Kluge in 1956, which Kluge renamed Metromedia. DuMont's partner, Thomas T. Goldsmith (for whom the Washington, D.C. station WTTG was named), remained on Metromedia's board of directors from this time all the way until Kluge sold the stations to the Fox Television Stations Group in 1986, when the Fox network was formed.
Awards, family and later life
DuMont was the first to provide funding for educational television broadcasting. He was the recipient of numerous honorary degrees and awards, among them the Cross of Knight awarded by the French Government, the Horatio Alger Award, the Westinghouse Award, and the DeForest Medal. He is also a holder of over 30 patents in cathode ray tubes and other television equipment.
DuMont enjoyed sailing. He owned a cruiser, the Hurricane III. He would participate in boat races and compete in navigation skills competition, winning three national championships. He died in 1965 and is buried in Mount Hebron Cemetery in Montclair, New Jersey. He was survived by his wife Ethel and their two children, Allen Jr. and Yvonne. The television center at Montclair State University bears his name and produces programs for the NJTV system (formerly New Jersey Network).
Notes
References
"DuMont, Allen Balcom", Current Biography Yearbook 1946, pages 162–4.
External links
Allen B. Dumont helps U.S. Army develop Countermeasure by reproducing a critical vacuum tube in a captured WW2 Nazi radar. Results is the sparing of thousands of U.S. and British flyers lives.
Allen B. DuMont and Thomas D. Goldsmith, Jr. in 1954 on the DuMont network series, "What's the Story?" - discussing the future of color TV
People from Brooklyn
Radio pioneers
Television pioneers
1901 births
1965 deaths
Montclair High School (New Jersey) alumni
People from Cedar Grove, New Jersey
People from Montclair, New Jersey
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute alumni
History of television
Burials at Mount Hebron Cemetery (Montclair, New Jersey)
History of radio
Engineers from New York City
Engineers from New Jersey
20th-century American engineers | [
0.41179540753364563,
0.17300903797149658,
-0.058610692620277405,
0.6736712455749512,
0.11352407187223434,
-0.14073839783668518,
0.14249029755592346,
-0.5042083859443665,
0.09401142597198486,
-0.4923737347126007,
-0.15638814866542816,
1.0318938493728638,
-0.4014780521392822,
0.3055202066898346,
-0.12059749662876129,
-0.12288650125265121,
0.013806205242872238,
-0.38272520899772644,
-0.598907470703125,
-0.21087424457073212,
-0.5301264524459839,
-0.16331608593463898,
0.044634245336055756,
-0.04870354384183884,
-0.47812360525131226,
0.41907843947410583,
-0.27005431056022644,
0.01793699525296688,
0.5345412492752075,
0.6349776983261108,
0.45029255747795105,
-0.23009122908115387,
-0.13481257855892181,
0.011291597038507462,
-0.6553483009338379,
0.4450017809867859,
-0.14367765188217163,
-0.4582919180393219,
-0.29989442229270935,
0.2950209379196167,
-0.11157570034265518,
0.1286766678094864,
0.2528599202632904,
0.2550884187221527,
-0.3367270529270172,
-0.5172523260116577,
-1.6580045223236084,
-0.03946322947740555,
-0.740861713886261,
0.11971322447061539,
-0.35245031118392944,
0.12036493420600891,
-0.12310821563005447,
0.843586802482605,
-0.019907161593437195,
0.4178950786590576,
-0.055242493748664856,
-0.04692571610212326,
-0.09956014156341553,
-0.12224342674016953,
0.017233340069651604,
-0.3675411641597748,
0.6381282806396484,
-0.005923209246248007,
-0.1317933052778244,
0.09186135232448578,
0.09664466977119446,
0.02119080163538456,
0.25501304864883423,
0.020677050575613976,
0.13504327833652496,
0.05085967108607292,
0.04461054876446724,
-0.3838168680667877,
0.7001539468765259,
0.11299397796392441,
0.26969826221466064,
-0.3683874011039734,
0.24445246160030365,
-0.054298847913742065,
-0.17030173540115356,
0.09178392589092255,
0.11664587259292603,
0.16758842766284943,
-0.1744798719882965,
0.18685829639434814,
-0.6102370619773865,
0.506155252456665,
-0.7206062078475952,
0.5943314433097839,
-0.5441716909408569,
-0.6636407375335693,
0.4147978723049164,
0.06732551753520966,
-0.005062052048742771,
-0.501844048500061,
0.24486248195171356,
-0.3578784167766571,
-0.02010241150856018,
-0.3083879053592682,
0.29887038469314575,
-0.17331698536872864,
0.3392578661441803,
-0.4299791753292084,
0.0984213650226593,
0.24296066164970398,
0.3412630558013916,
-0.7808071970939636,
-0.6763754487037659,
0.15273688733577728,
-0.42955824732780457,
-0.37988030910491943,
0.20601171255111694,
0.012991192750632763,
-0.5362453460693359,
0.32619521021842957,
0.7172932028770447,
-0.08223771303892136,
-0.4099479913711548,
0.15925449132919312,
0.5391450524330139,
0.05466543510556221,
0.001296166330575943,
-0.3391661047935486,
-0.5137006044387817,
0.3323797583580017,
0.19482366740703583,
0.5616262555122375,
-0.28450557589530945,
0.1481553465127945,
0.3738081455230713,
0.6317179203033447,
0.0317406952381134,
-0.2644270658493042,
-0.11012047529220581,
0.16410665214061737,
0.1451110690832138,
-0.1882701814174652,
-0.7154431939125061,
0.42726582288742065,
-0.33432626724243164,
-0.04422060027718544,
-0.9461192488670349,
0.11545875668525696,
0.007661865558475256,
-0.042381223291158676,
-0.26003193855285645,
0.2734687924385071,
-0.3845079243183136,
0.18726901710033417,
-0.22383743524551392,
-0.27901118993759155,
0.48215919733047485,
-0.24454525113105774,
-0.41405829787254333,
-0.08970274776220322,
0.3224560022354126,
0.47948557138442993,
-0.047958649694919586,
0.09864701330661774,
0.546273410320282,
-0.37299132347106934,
-0.6255305409431458,
0.26935088634490967,
-0.12790754437446594,
0.15870487689971924,
0.31082552671432495,
-0.10540110617876053,
0.14920631051063538,
0.578299880027771,
0.3205775022506714,
-0.14076167345046997,
0.2636766731739044,
-0.46806925535202026,
-0.6008902788162231,
0.8911027312278748,
0.9211036562919617,
0.3054109215736389,
0.0741080716252327,
-0.1252783238887787,
-0.5808267593383789,
-0.8490403294563293,
0.22492820024490356,
-0.2874157726764679,
0.23926487565040588,
-0.18854469060897827,
0.5518006682395935,
-0.16902801394462585,
0.1989167332649231,
-0.6763769388198853,
-0.45027485489845276,
-0.2518644332885742,
-0.47385212779045105,
-0.683393657207489,
1.0884860754013062,
-0.25572043657302856,
-0.46257105469703674,
0.5086417198181152,
0.34545278549194336,
0.0337546207010746,
-0.6290240287780762,
-0.28289487957954407,
0.49699077010154724,
-0.1867673248052597,
-0.3654502332210541,
0.3228863775730133,
0.5126895308494568,
0.030823925510048866,
0.05395965278148651,
0.5241807103157043,
0.6801771521568298,
-0.5117732286453247,
0.10072623193264008,
0.38885506987571716,
-0.11578408628702164,
-0.41094329953193665,
-0.8099188804626465,
-0.17694878578186035,
0.2096949815750122,
-0.07444342970848083,
0.3047858476638794,
0.4656025767326355,
-0.358824759721756,
0.7158785462379456,
0.3906514346599579,
1.1536307334899902,
-0.05092326179146767,
-0.29941582679748535,
0.41986212134361267,
-0.13499192893505096,
-0.09621799737215042,
-0.2444881945848465,
0.7790188193321228,
-0.5682156085968018,
-0.04593507945537567,
0.032713111490011215,
0.21613319218158722,
-0.3681531548500061,
0.05996664613485336,
-0.42355358600616455,
0.43405118584632874,
0.34356215596199036,
-0.37526243925094604,
0.20518043637275696,
0.06155448406934738,
-0.08579123020172119,
0.3057335615158081,
-0.04866575822234154,
0.1744527965784073,
0.2028125822544098,
-0.08707477152347565,
0.7607601284980774,
0.4479486048221588,
0.09433712810277939,
0.5613927841186523,
0.009748199954628944,
0.46063485741615295,
0.2088187336921692,
0.8065436482429504,
0.26056981086730957,
0.6445996165275574,
0.2918156683444977,
0.2941226065158844,
0.1919955313205719,
-0.29942959547042847,
-0.8202620148658752,
0.04008219763636589,
0.054157186299562454,
-0.2825574576854706,
0.12555187940597534,
0.33396828174591064,
-0.04213043674826622,
-0.01942509226500988,
0.34249719977378845,
0.4914371073246002,
-0.1882893145084381,
0.010838493704795837,
0.8513938784599304,
-0.24375805258750916,
-0.8456929922103882,
0.538523256778717,
0.47506335377693176,
-0.1483832448720932,
0.4722371995449066,
0.10337887704372406,
-0.07701293379068375,
-0.25819942355155945,
-0.7280889749526978,
0.2667279839515686,
-0.38561609387397766,
-0.572569727897644,
1.1447789669036865,
-0.3927221894264221,
0.08372266590595245,
-0.5886739492416382,
0.4728602170944214,
-0.09228284657001495,
-1.0342135429382324,
0.28555285930633545,
-0.6717844605445862,
-0.40802040696144104,
0.05647197738289833,
-0.1875583976507187,
0.03607787936925888,
0.09286334365606308,
0.20398923754692078,
0.6858327388763428,
-0.21151593327522278,
-5.423860549926758,
0.34118151664733887,
0.3554692268371582,
-0.963485598564148,
0.7057839632034302,
0.08533308655023575,
0.42361128330230713,
-0.2358865588903427,
0.19610688090324402,
-0.22467683255672455,
0.3137989044189453,
-0.3165629804134369,
-0.2901739180088043,
0.4793407917022705,
0.23810595273971558,
0.14302335679531097,
0.2464476227760315,
-0.12618516385555267,
0.27442649006843567,
0.29338714480400085,
0.43837738037109375,
-0.6275585889816284,
0.4210851788520813,
-0.13751338422298431,
-0.2950999438762665,
-0.6599752306938171,
-0.535428524017334,
0.3865223526954651,
-0.15382032096385956,
-0.2764397859573364,
0.30660203099250793,
-0.1917588710784912,
-0.37719014286994934,
0.14169536530971527,
0.028554141521453857,
-0.03497157245874405,
1.1243712902069092,
-0.11602771282196045,
0.10728554427623749,
-0.2606731057167053,
0.5382792353630066,
0.5283031463623047,
-0.401981383562088,
-0.17251160740852356,
0.09086950868368149,
-0.17216840386390686,
-0.28023451566696167,
0.6684621572494507,
0.20141375064849854,
0.18856222927570343,
0.5512359738349915,
0.5704609751701355,
0.34275582432746887,
-0.35157909989356995,
-0.12603016197681427,
-0.5474518537521362,
-0.018256014212965965,
0.33966097235679626,
-1.1684348583221436,
0.36074674129486084,
0.08125737309455872,
0.15658600628376007,
-0.4060579836368561,
-0.19520379602909088,
0.015921343117952347,
-0.4227251708507538,
-0.31616759300231934,
0.16898025572299957,
0.5071766972541809,
-0.387241393327713,
-0.4470458924770355,
0.9982168078422546,
0.39046233892440796,
-1.090593934059143,
0.024482663720846176,
0.04310676082968712,
0.04569387808442116,
-0.49805235862731934,
-0.5352886319160461,
-0.144083634018898,
0.019652437418699265,
-0.9912918210029602,
-0.039384569972753525,
0.43124669790267944,
0.42185071110725403,
-0.474032998085022,
-0.5663371682167053,
0.20681607723236084,
-0.2241860032081604,
-0.267564058303833,
0.688148558139801,
-0.15023387968540192,
0.1795332133769989,
0.1837969273328781,
-0.1343090534210205,
-0.22611992061138153,
-0.4247184097766876,
0.8166415095329285,
0.7339489459991455,
0.518732488155365,
-1.1211915016174316,
0.17685391008853912,
0.4575508236885071,
-0.6185781955718994,
-0.3210636079311371,
-0.04984108731150627,
-0.02687889337539673,
-0.3072749376296997,
0.7999054193496704,
0.26299604773521423,
-0.15307584404945374,
0.9041610956192017,
-0.6866486668586731,
0.3529956638813019,
0.818962574005127,
-0.37594014406204224,
-0.5038772225379944,
-0.20575948059558868,
0.15608660876750946,
-0.3391568064689636,
0.018001461401581764,
0.012783047743141651,
-0.06578736007213593,
-0.25649064779281616,
-0.0786985382437706,
-0.261394739151001,
-0.26537346839904785,
-0.20805177092552185,
-0.3812190890312195,
-0.08700066804885864,
-0.3343300223350525,
0.8153833746910095,
0.4596695899963379,
0.5879643559455872,
-0.14718033373355865,
-0.5733327865600586,
-0.6980191469192505,
0.287500262260437,
-0.3850778639316559,
-0.2716335654258728,
-0.10839104652404785,
-0.36880141496658325,
0.10814861953258514,
0.25707295536994934,
0.4439737796783447,
0.11045189201831818,
0.23451317846775055,
-0.06153596565127373,
0.01347398292273283,
0.2030743956565857,
0.12819509208202362,
-0.8202544450759888,
0.02648395299911499,
-0.22209256887435913,
-0.5154850482940674,
0.32444486021995544,
-0.49198123812675476,
-0.4451446831226349,
-0.3001667261123657,
-0.4488111138343811,
-0.12316938489675522,
0.44732731580734253,
-1.6031080484390259,
-0.008873220533132553,
0.28544890880584717,
0.6322892308235168,
-0.11944259703159332,
-0.21864359080791473,
0.3792431354522705,
0.08029303699731827,
-0.01643214374780655,
-0.1812446266412735,
-0.5680771470069885,
-0.42788487672805786,
-0.22546645998954773,
0.8442612886428833,
-0.18547652661800385,
-0.2541649341583252,
-0.16901931166648865,
-0.1026228740811348,
0.5636292695999146,
0.5969025492668152,
-0.6723924875259399,
-0.0060594514943659306,
0.26701322197914124,
-1.3581196069717407,
-1.0651062726974487,
-0.392691969871521,
-0.06616680324077606,
-0.057880699634552,
0.10834163427352905,
0.36861652135849,
0.012032885104417801,
0.7177428007125854,
-0.28133097290992737,
0.09508592635393143,
-0.47148242592811584,
-0.08400657027959824,
-0.1568617969751358,
-0.3876574635505676,
-0.46484971046447754,
-0.10283252596855164,
-0.2650272250175476,
-0.15883077681064606,
0.14279301464557648,
-1.1064727306365967,
-0.2649722695350647,
0.7726550698280334,
0.11913561075925827,
0.8048505783081055,
-0.2999003231525421,
-0.6704184412956238,
-0.059433694928884506,
0.08549167960882187,
-0.030439849942922592,
0.14809554815292358,
0.18998925387859344,
0.3875572681427002,
-0.04272018000483513,
-0.8690211176872253,
-0.4394609332084656,
0.4015607237815857,
0.015267303213477135,
-0.28846845030784607,
-0.2314920872449875,
-0.15837633609771729,
0.19500789046287537,
0.560308039188385,
0.8433858156204224,
-0.17632493376731873,
-0.4176143407821655,
-0.0028743743896484375,
0.16903206706047058,
0.5670683979988098,
-0.09824316948652267,
-0.04285262152552605,
0.17720384895801544,
0.6337461471557617,
-0.10629929602146149,
-0.11963433772325516,
0.3222161829471588,
0.6986591219902039,
-0.02990235574543476,
0.21849489212036133,
-0.22230276465415955,
0.45466676354408264,
0.8469870686531067,
-0.19608868658542633,
-0.13662081956863403,
0.27732154726982117,
-0.2054602950811386,
-0.18553729355335236,
-0.7145369648933411,
0.24024598300457,
0.5690528750419617,
-0.6256275177001953,
-0.26672258973121643,
0.1088327020406723,
0.10178066045045853,
-0.253131240606308,
-0.551039457321167,
0.2213280349969864,
-0.1454554796218872,
0.21829651296138763,
-0.6240732073783875,
0.21835164725780487,
-0.24124200642108917,
-0.22094906866550446,
0.009146097116172314,
-0.16845256090164185,
0.09590251743793488,
-0.31962233781814575,
-0.4553520083427429,
0.4989907145500183,
-0.48663851618766785,
0.2738920748233795,
0.336399644613266,
-0.21248668432235718,
-0.1019105538725853,
-0.584357738494873,
-1.0690561532974243,
-0.1713258922100067,
0.33691534399986267,
-0.12442444264888763,
-0.3376416265964508,
-0.085330069065094,
0.24590103328227997,
-0.3206653594970703,
0.02361428365111351,
0.11910185217857361,
-0.4824652671813965,
0.3916220963001251,
-0.3888327181339264,
0.23548318445682526,
-0.2674251198768616,
-0.03946652263402939,
0.05645498260855675,
1.1979485750198364,
-0.13113801181316376,
0.07181666791439056,
-0.013766192831099033,
0.007087401580065489,
0.963613748550415,
-0.08086833357810974,
0.35466843843460083,
-0.28437671065330505,
0.19147813320159912,
-0.28974902629852295,
-0.2972196042537689,
0.45453310012817383,
0.12028127163648605,
0.19364513456821442,
0.010028697550296783,
0.5641279220581055,
-0.866951048374176,
-0.33838024735450745,
0.6704064607620239,
0.2256646305322647,
-0.06026415526866913,
0.2293025106191635,
-0.07395566999912262,
0.803955078125,
0.2846556305885315,
-0.620327889919281,
-0.3967147767543793,
0.7196405529975891,
0.07889372110366821,
0.13185103237628937,
-0.1677851378917694,
0.34849584102630615,
0.6234869956970215,
-0.19544640183448792,
0.10553016513586044,
0.9386720657348633,
-0.16550658643245697,
-0.24750690162181854,
0.2053455412387848,
-0.4420520067214966,
-0.1104416474699974,
0.07686629146337509,
-0.26494503021240234,
1.0512852668762207,
0.196441188454628,
0.05498024821281433,
-0.20243364572525024,
0.3453344404697418,
0.04724525660276413,
0.5548664331436157,
-0.3509904444217682,
-0.3835369348526001,
0.6212790608406067,
-0.23508675396442413,
0.43917688727378845,
-0.0017673330148681998,
0.1763942390680313,
-0.008729786612093449,
0.8044241666793823,
-0.043282680213451385,
0.058381084352731705,
-0.06306551396846771,
-0.04154567793011665,
0.030647089704871178,
0.8935405015945435,
-0.24180935323238373,
-0.05674918368458748,
-0.2902644872665405,
-0.09444142132997513,
-0.8350834846496582,
0.43227168917655945,
0.38521096110343933,
0.22299176454544067,
0.24809567630290985,
-0.3345867097377777,
0.6923936605453491,
-0.21105298399925232,
0.2967768609523773,
0.5307971835136414,
-0.27788272500038147,
-0.09761843085289001,
-0.23785518109798431,
-0.34717679023742676,
-0.14072564244270325,
-0.3401103913784027,
-0.15665072202682495,
-0.8689753413200378,
0.05999721586704254,
-0.28862911462783813,
0.2536439001560211,
-0.04568859189748764,
-0.31411686539649963,
0.18622806668281555,
-1.0167720317840576,
-0.05618508160114288,
0.08429381996393204,
-0.07728049904108047,
0.4185000956058502,
0.1122627854347229,
0.07543818652629852,
0.22737064957618713,
0.39728373289108276,
-0.4790389835834503,
0.6237953305244446,
0.21150904893875122,
-0.45810991525650024,
0.05131544545292854,
0.23539616167545319,
0.19157418608665466,
0.5114263892173767,
-0.7088906168937683,
0.25843358039855957,
0.14029726386070251,
0.15012460947036743,
-0.0979803204536438,
-0.15445519983768463,
-0.1598493903875351,
-0.15613804757595062,
0.571854829788208,
0.13969635963439941,
-0.4165997803211212,
-0.0862279161810875,
-0.013577897101640701,
-0.8148303627967834,
-0.43400663137435913,
0.029953639954328537,
-0.05666889622807503,
0.15874670445919037,
0.48919984698295593,
-0.07887004315853119,
-0.3507513999938965,
0.33306634426116943,
0.06275624781847,
-0.4167362153530121,
-0.4271181523799896,
0.018033962696790695,
-0.4401535093784332,
-1.3820194005966187,
-0.11715612560510635,
0.8994945287704468,
0.47063642740249634,
-0.6663635969161987,
0.6859230995178223,
0.17659080028533936,
-0.22625304758548737,
-0.021113120019435883,
0.20562954246997833,
0.0975704938173294,
0.10759104788303375,
-0.13901960849761963,
0.0889844298362732,
0.46252697706222534,
-0.35057955980300903,
-0.927134096622467,
0.2047363966703415,
-1.1020357608795166,
0.40232792496681213,
-0.33224672079086304,
0.6462125182151794,
0.4606300890445709,
0.9927489757537842,
0.1848616749048233
] |
248051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Antrim%20%28FFG-20%29 | USS Antrim (FFG-20) | USS Antrim (FFG-20) was the twelfth ship of the of guided-missile frigates. She was named for Rear Admiral Richard Nott Antrim (1907–1969). Ordered from Todd Pacific, Seattle, Washington on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Antrim was laid down on 21 June 1978, launched on 27 March 1979, and commissioned on 26 September 1981.
History
On 10 February 1983, USS Antrim was conducting a live fire exercise off the east coast of the United States using the Phalanx CIWS against a target drone. Although the drone was successfully engaged at close range, the target debris bounced off the sea surface and struck the ship, causing significant damage and fire from the drone's residual fuel which killed a civilian instructor;
Decommissioned on 8 May 1996, she was transferred to Turkey on 27 August 1997. She was stricken from the U.S. Naval Vessel Register on 4 September 1997.
TCG Giresun (F 491)
The ship serves in the Turkish Navy as TCG Giresun (F 491).
On 16 March 2009, TCG Giresun, along with successfully prevented a pirate attack on the Vietnamese cargo ship from succeeding in capturing the target ship.
On 6 March 2011, she aided the destroyer in the capture of 4 pirates who had attacked the tanker . The pirates were later flown to Tokyo for trial.
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS Antrim FFG-20
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Los Angeles
1979 ships
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy
Piracy in Somalia | [
-0.8491580486297607,
0.04815054312348366,
0.33018848299980164,
-0.2303629219532013,
-0.1964300125837326,
0.4271691143512726,
0.48920026421546936,
-0.8680117130279541,
-0.5772299766540527,
-0.16651885211467743,
-0.0936521515250206,
0.2619629204273224,
-0.06377904117107391,
-0.06434055417776108,
0.8542593717575073,
0.9908013343811035,
0.12164304405450821,
0.5766044855117798,
0.09309272468090057,
-0.8879234194755554,
0.007674798835068941,
-0.09819328784942627,
0.560207724571228,
0.23300157487392426,
0.16864971816539764,
0.27452316880226135,
0.8808271288871765,
0.12815579771995544,
0.5795878171920776,
-0.015419116243720055,
-0.10129402577877045,
0.48424747586250305,
-0.09230650216341019,
0.14519579708576202,
0.6577379107475281,
0.11389222741127014,
-0.13664840161800385,
-0.25103887915611267,
-0.11833340674638748,
-0.11232100427150726,
-0.8911813497543335,
-0.47283414006233215,
0.04574693366885185,
0.3836863040924072,
-0.036642711609601974,
-0.270905077457428,
-1.208489179611206,
0.2820620834827423,
0.4322410523891449,
0.26161694526672363,
-0.5931090116500854,
0.18967881798744202,
0.5035157203674316,
0.02356312796473503,
0.1381138265132904,
0.6149226427078247,
-0.9519336223602295,
0.23212888836860657,
-0.029049066826701164,
-0.4420686960220337,
0.5597181916236877,
0.3563978374004364,
0.3204173743724823,
0.08562570065259933,
0.008433845825493336,
0.24681402742862701,
-0.5824912190437317,
0.41836223006248474,
-0.37160801887512207,
-0.019553011283278465,
0.6935561299324036,
0.04429217800498009,
0.031313229352235794,
0.3193477988243103,
-0.3318358063697815,
0.050406426191329956,
-0.22364380955696106,
-0.795006513595581,
0.25550752878189087,
0.789909303188324,
0.15714895725250244,
0.46875885128974915,
0.6090949177742004,
0.36285191774368286,
0.1626933366060257,
0.27817919850349426,
-0.4685205817222595,
-0.04382006451487541,
-0.5461689233779907,
1.077734351158142,
-0.7545114159584045,
-0.4134077727794647,
0.12144328653812408,
0.8267069458961487,
0.46087124943733215,
0.6056401133537292,
-0.5139662623405457,
0.37655964493751526,
0.2567828595638275,
0.6052770018577576,
0.3240295946598053,
0.47384098172187805,
0.3681992292404175,
-0.4248357117176056,
-0.6367708444595337,
0.06413456052541733,
-0.693041205406189,
-0.70755535364151,
-0.5421289205551147,
-0.566927433013916,
-0.21479423344135284,
-0.13385263085365295,
-0.5362831354141235,
-0.12214144319295883,
-0.016294319182634354,
0.34698939323425293,
0.48651614785194397,
-0.4390108585357666,
0.14820469915866852,
0.5678793787956238,
0.42336520552635193,
1.2443803548812866,
-0.6069933176040649,
0.4154117703437805,
0.336742639541626,
0.05500127375125885,
0.4940183758735657,
0.5007591843605042,
-0.747755765914917,
0.3967571258544922,
0.25514036417007446,
1.0061731338500977,
-1.0469220876693726,
0.2725982964038849,
-0.5574856400489807,
-0.24863965809345245,
-0.048922158777713776,
0.43709897994995117,
0.6107733249664307,
0.458631694316864,
-1.2524678707122803,
-0.3393334448337555,
0.06910285353660583,
-0.5455154776573181,
0.5848848819732666,
0.13368740677833557,
0.0713067352771759,
-0.09937001764774323,
-0.4813564419746399,
-0.18049108982086182,
0.2833758294582367,
-0.6024406552314758,
0.19627808034420013,
0.34965449571609497,
-0.8379856944084167,
0.3497205972671509,
0.3247554898262024,
0.09608665108680725,
0.35410159826278687,
0.5232774615287781,
-0.3398185074329376,
0.1985166370868683,
-0.24394269287586212,
0.24886491894721985,
0.18359233438968658,
0.6526433229446411,
0.5504010915756226,
-0.36087766289711,
0.5077061057090759,
-0.390458345413208,
-0.5007318258285522,
0.04532019421458244,
0.6361790299415588,
-0.7730730772018433,
0.2737120985984802,
-0.13228560984134674,
0.2160843163728714,
0.10113666951656342,
0.06028151139616966,
-0.9188436269760132,
-0.3184908628463745,
-0.10925895720720291,
0.5143939852714539,
-0.17161469161510468,
0.602510392665863,
0.225867360830307,
0.33731165528297424,
0.037647560238838196,
0.16125759482383728,
0.6920560598373413,
-0.2720603048801422,
-0.44968748092651367,
0.5912303924560547,
0.01408329140394926,
1.4018410444259644,
-0.42192697525024414,
-0.4389602243900299,
0.45157793164253235,
0.3125717341899872,
0.6617396473884583,
0.47409337759017944,
-0.2165973037481308,
0.758446991443634,
-0.4643459618091583,
-0.6893650889396667,
-0.014319611713290215,
-0.03872913122177124,
0.5666247010231018,
-0.006884485017508268,
0.5827697515487671,
-0.12694168090820312,
-0.9247686266899109,
0.044846776872873306,
0.15645095705986023,
0.04921649768948555,
-0.17833778262138367,
0.13168001174926758,
-0.7219526767730713,
-0.009735338389873505,
0.22229842841625214,
0.7345907092094421,
0.11436834931373596,
0.027223503217101097,
0.2955518066883087,
-0.05404498800635338,
-0.10801327973604202,
-0.09266075491905212,
0.5841403007507324,
-0.04628764092922211,
-0.4489200711250305,
0.1273120492696762,
-0.11449450254440308,
-0.6561031937599182,
-0.47243186831474304,
0.04846572503447533,
0.104826919734478,
-0.09675703942775726,
-0.40337878465652466,
0.5211508870124817,
-0.22968018054962158,
-0.12432911992073059,
0.7423948645591736,
-0.5533415079116821,
0.029083285480737686,
0.05150049179792404,
-0.05586167052388191,
0.3809795081615448,
0.37230417132377625,
0.43828028440475464,
-0.5033139586448669,
0.6173459887504578,
0.4599582552909851,
0.09160123765468597,
-0.5794999003410339,
-0.22619251906871796,
0.34930551052093506,
-0.20215202867984772,
-0.05501546710729599,
0.08330179750919342,
-0.057394906878471375,
-0.12224007397890091,
-0.06198154389858246,
0.17128589749336243,
0.30316007137298584,
0.10458498448133469,
-0.3965975344181061,
-0.7616074085235596,
-0.11585444957017899,
0.6724631786346436,
-0.15865619480609894,
0.6210097670555115,
-0.34110227227211,
0.5332358479499817,
-0.5080147385597229,
0.5628461241722107,
0.14695978164672852,
-0.10538403689861298,
0.3386631906032562,
-1.0314260721206665,
-0.5982372760772705,
0.8076087832450867,
0.43432891368865967,
0.26433613896369934,
-0.3841056227684021,
-0.545104444026947,
0.26215705275535583,
0.34390899538993835,
0.1862439662218094,
-0.4554653763771057,
-0.27276915311813354,
-0.15720601379871368,
-0.5683376789093018,
0.05524715408682823,
0.16418232023715973,
0.37657901644706726,
0.44830963015556335,
0.024500517174601555,
-0.10288456082344055,
0.3776301145553589,
0.30181261897087097,
-0.5674616694450378,
0.5453886985778809,
-0.460642009973526,
0.02848401851952076,
0.13295792043209076,
-0.46728670597076416,
-0.3203740417957306,
0.48282110691070557,
-5.166549205780029,
-0.11183451116085052,
-0.40402522683143616,
0.19217802584171295,
0.047157444059848785,
0.16539539396762848,
0.03160789608955383,
-0.6768699884414673,
-0.3995697498321533,
-0.6055341958999634,
0.22131207585334778,
0.12824419140815735,
0.30018162727355957,
0.061123136430978775,
0.18428702652454376,
0.5512619018554688,
1.1101486682891846,
-0.5224525928497314,
0.6307021379470825,
-0.22526869177818298,
-0.11184835433959961,
0.25149714946746826,
-0.5653678178787231,
-0.23737972974777222,
-0.0596606470644474,
0.05670371651649475,
-0.1575019657611847,
-0.041150517761707306,
-0.4749131500720978,
-0.38929176330566406,
0.06393186748027802,
-0.29766571521759033,
0.0980440005660057,
-0.05807627737522125,
-0.07457654178142548,
-0.46563923358917236,
0.7423958778381348,
0.24187014997005463,
0.22729262709617615,
-0.9860622882843018,
-0.37644174695014954,
-0.4565467834472656,
0.10131989419460297,
0.43334680795669556,
0.5275025367736816,
-0.4659186601638794,
-0.34270960092544556,
0.029241757467389107,
0.4870022237300873,
1.286678433418274,
0.11491118371486664,
-0.03981766849756241,
0.6156910061836243,
0.48235946893692017,
0.5051546096801758,
0.09649138897657394,
-0.34433993697166443,
-0.32317054271698,
-0.43242213129997253,
0.12623989582061768,
0.15684545040130615,
-0.3458864986896515,
-0.14142349362373352,
-0.7063849568367004,
0.327851265668869,
0.06705984473228455,
-0.13744910061359406,
-0.38531360030174255,
0.4740636646747589,
0.02481864206492901,
-0.46958935260772705,
0.9113316535949707,
-0.3246053159236908,
-0.9136430621147156,
0.19066643714904785,
-0.5845856666564941,
0.10128968954086304,
0.24083301424980164,
-0.486733615398407,
-0.028882324695587158,
0.16447091102600098,
0.10761996358633041,
-0.28315818309783936,
0.7136312127113342,
-0.18750376999378204,
-0.41875749826431274,
-0.19900454580783844,
0.07004188001155853,
-0.0238274447619915,
0.1964859515428543,
0.14623914659023285,
-0.6998940110206604,
0.2722111940383911,
0.47867488861083984,
0.30427873134613037,
-0.550282895565033,
-0.1159498319029808,
0.3225347697734833,
0.5792064666748047,
-0.8339396715164185,
0.4159799814224243,
-0.513196587562561,
0.4724125266075134,
-0.176030233502388,
-0.7965145111083984,
-0.09846886992454529,
-0.28810861706733704,
-0.07151716202497482,
0.38702428340911865,
-0.06300655007362366,
-0.14416487514972687,
-0.7738528847694397,
-0.10312967747449875,
-0.18661218881607056,
0.8348356485366821,
-0.252579927444458,
-0.04748537763953209,
0.48095813393592834,
0.3565436899662018,
0.4554825723171234,
-0.062282923609018326,
0.4040304124355316,
-0.004724213853478432,
-0.5351889729499817,
-0.44688326120376587,
-0.8744571208953857,
0.48395296931266785,
-0.3713103234767914,
-0.8426163196563721,
-0.0482233501970768,
0.5072371959686279,
0.43200233578681946,
-0.2593492567539215,
0.37787336111068726,
-0.08801905065774918,
-0.5958330631256104,
-0.4193384349346161,
0.1296854466199875,
0.7775672078132629,
0.1306968778371811,
-0.013204086571931839,
-0.14071562886238098,
-0.5343275666236877,
0.19915065169334412,
0.8344143629074097,
0.6667234897613525,
0.21143394708633423,
0.3688181936740875,
-0.478771448135376,
0.4463609457015991,
-0.4382328987121582,
-0.9980258941650391,
0.5881190896034241,
-1.229945421218872,
-0.0704248920083046,
0.2799037992954254,
0.054191719740629196,
-0.16151180863380432,
0.014614654704928398,
-0.2477274388074875,
0.022460561245679855,
0.1737043708562851,
-0.19266821444034576,
-0.2815636992454529,
0.07676204293966293,
0.27524328231811523,
-0.3332686424255371,
-0.574637234210968,
-0.01172107458114624,
0.38349881768226624,
-0.20705722272396088,
-0.32728537917137146,
-1.2065296173095703,
-0.5082367062568665,
0.3728724420070648,
0.2768625020980835,
-0.7755368947982788,
-0.16288135945796967,
-0.17054927349090576,
0.1345871090888977,
-0.40143513679504395,
0.3335053026676178,
0.0714157372713089,
0.6870461106300354,
0.6470434069633484,
0.18497470021247864,
-0.6884449124336243,
0.19275735318660736,
-0.2294733077287674,
0.3278658092021942,
0.13271662592887878,
-0.2634274363517761,
0.38532593846321106,
-0.027504976838827133,
-0.8274398446083069,
0.08738691359758377,
0.42116233706474304,
0.14306800067424774,
0.30763500928878784,
-0.8107393383979797,
0.4998330771923065,
0.8595438599586487,
-0.7773427963256836,
0.7303812503814697,
-0.01177389919757843,
-0.5363065600395203,
-0.041265152394771576,
-0.15465839207172394,
-0.14211517572402954,
0.780989408493042,
0.38784098625183105,
-1.098613977432251,
0.17488980293273926,
0.6782291531562805,
-0.3280212879180908,
0.0007289896020665765,
-0.1976899951696396,
-0.15985073149204254,
-0.3110125660896301,
-0.7566950917243958,
-0.9997988939285278,
-0.7041874527931213,
0.06893666833639145,
-0.04377508535981178,
-1.165587067604065,
-0.09434552490711212,
0.04449295997619629,
-0.7406168580055237,
0.269228458404541,
-0.12799158692359924,
-0.7590299248695374,
-0.04024899750947952,
0.39713627099990845,
-0.11249103397130966,
0.48056796193122864,
-0.3040940761566162,
-0.23627395927906036,
0.10861444473266602,
-0.1745789498090744,
0.5612794160842896,
0.2232123464345932,
0.8424545526504517,
0.47972333431243896,
-0.9582531452178955,
-0.3557080030441284,
-0.2623353898525238,
0.5734766125679016,
-0.5994759798049927,
-0.2552797794342041,
0.13048750162124634,
0.570993959903717,
-0.9442622065544128,
-0.483176052570343,
-0.347879022359848,
1.2186782360076904,
-0.48913508653640747,
-0.019398847594857216,
-0.4196726381778717,
0.026838406920433044,
-0.054571717977523804,
-0.041579220443964005,
0.38792258501052856,
-0.8817558884620667,
-0.08225902915000916,
0.7293714284896851,
0.38752469420433044,
-0.08237119764089584,
-0.879409909248352,
0.2491111308336258,
0.08365604281425476,
-0.04785003140568733,
0.2140779197216034,
0.4397558569908142,
0.36836549639701843,
-0.30274319648742676,
0.4930916428565979,
-0.11998651921749115,
-0.4094102382659912,
1.1811201572418213,
-0.24966277182102203,
-0.20653079450130463,
0.49030420184135437,
-0.09234341979026794,
-0.6210120916366577,
0.2451263964176178,
-0.4786185026168823,
-0.29021063446998596,
-0.5971579551696777,
0.11125359684228897,
0.3449290096759796,
0.7945802211761475,
-0.4374616742134094,
-0.9502018690109253,
-0.23727625608444214,
0.12804852426052094,
0.47687211632728577,
-0.08441788703203201,
-0.43108510971069336,
-0.38346418738365173,
0.6899921894073486,
-0.712429940700531,
0.8471954464912415,
-0.44704604148864746,
-0.03881730139255524,
-0.2610887289047241,
0.014505802653729916,
0.14362028241157532,
-0.6397179365158081,
-0.12243738025426865,
-0.13359542191028595,
-0.23659750819206238,
-0.4782100021839142,
0.3477083742618561,
0.7240356802940369,
-0.6120203733444214,
-0.10307247191667557,
0.4358412027359009,
-0.4035183787345886,
-0.21104973554611206,
-0.02118263579905033,
-0.04043520241975784,
-0.0001895214809337631,
0.32642000913619995,
0.7579436898231506,
-0.06386306136846542,
1.096653699874878,
-0.820689857006073,
-0.09227707237005234,
0.375345915555954,
0.6086190938949585,
0.1379060298204422,
-0.5997236371040344,
-0.6893088817596436,
0.8454605937004089,
0.04579780623316765,
0.4258705973625183,
0.48208239674568176,
-0.4071931838989258,
-0.16243715584278107,
0.540973961353302,
-0.2466166615486145,
0.49825575947761536,
-0.32412001490592957,
-0.2339702993631363,
-0.08488266915082932,
0.039203912019729614,
-0.302953839302063,
0.06004248559474945,
0.3304905295372009,
-0.00702273054048419,
0.2936435043811798,
0.044834598898887634,
0.2520785331726074,
-0.43536612391471863,
-0.5964897274971008,
0.7111152410507202,
0.11815458536148071,
-0.9462205767631531,
-0.05295044556260109,
0.1885194033384323,
-0.22081907093524933,
0.06686516851186752,
0.3683473467826843,
-0.13661792874336243,
-0.3707219362258911,
-0.6705809235572815,
0.3151976466178894,
0.37153953313827515,
-0.18962028622627258,
0.44584813714027405,
0.21399973332881927,
0.2942536175251007,
-0.1500547081232071,
-0.22166752815246582,
0.14745305478572845,
-0.027442898601293564,
-0.12239442020654678,
-0.7027042508125305,
-0.19635280966758728,
0.5059711933135986,
-0.6151444315910339,
0.5774457454681396,
-0.18741004168987274,
-0.8068571090698242,
-0.07235720008611679,
-0.08226069062948227,
-0.40712887048721313,
0.40942659974098206,
0.4825783967971802,
0.14758867025375366,
0.5874306559562683,
-0.34714946150779724,
-0.9747609496116638,
0.36295685172080994,
-0.353300541639328,
0.20575325191020966,
-0.11162874847650528,
0.3379184901714325,
0.6136565208435059,
0.876880407333374,
-0.2796560525894165,
0.13717931509017944,
-0.08305683732032776,
0.4997290372848511,
-0.4549100697040558,
0.09964435547590256,
-0.42977288365364075,
0.5684976577758789,
-0.2639436721801758,
-0.3306366205215454,
0.15529954433441162,
0.20813985168933868,
-0.29313477873802185,
0.2455168068408966,
-0.22940902411937714,
0.03270220384001732,
0.8563755750656128,
-1.0727684497833252,
-0.24437391757965088,
0.003862619400024414,
0.1689901500940323,
-0.2795132100582123,
0.32755187153816223,
0.6513419151306152,
-0.5456886291503906,
-0.21359974145889282,
-0.31215429306030273,
-0.3587580919265747,
0.06121800094842911,
0.18233975768089294,
-0.09466302394866943,
-0.31473323702812195,
-0.4613998532295227,
0.45223307609558105,
-0.2876630127429962,
0.3233126401901245,
-0.6072068810462952,
0.2914943993091583,
0.5022038817405701,
0.09886576980352402,
-0.04610707610845566,
-0.5879395008087158,
0.48909175395965576,
0.0452314130961895,
-0.4092422425746918,
-0.10587268322706223,
-0.4198535978794098,
-0.6086913347244263,
0.2629477083683014,
0.3440020680427551,
0.17942406237125397,
-0.8712108731269836,
0.5080659985542297,
-0.13818670809268951,
-0.08661490678787231,
-0.16476385295391083,
-0.03063543327152729,
-0.5720266103744507,
-0.24712099134922028,
-0.21369019150733948
] |
248052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Edington | Battle of Edington | At the Battle of Edington, an army of the kingdom of Wessex under Alfred the Great defeated the Great Heathen Army led by the Dane Guthrum on a date between 6 and 12 May 878, resulting in the Treaty of Wedmore later the same year. Primary sources locate the battle at "Eðandun". Until a scholarly consensus linked the battle site with the present-day village of Edington in Wiltshire, it was known as the Battle of Ethandun. This name continues to be used.
Events before the battle
The first Viking raid on Anglo-Saxon England is thought to have been between 786 and 802 at Portland in the Kingdom of Wessex, when three Norse ships arrived; their men killed King Beorhtric's reeve. At the other end of the country, in the Kingdom of Northumbria, during 793 the holy island of Lindisfarne was raided. After the sacking of Lindisfarne, Viking raids around the coasts were somewhat sporadic until the 830s, when the attacks became more sustained. In 835, "heathen men" ravaged Sheppey. In 836, Ecgberht of Wessex met in battle a force of 35 ships at Carhampton, and in 838 he faced a combined force of Vikings and Cornishmen at Hingston Down in Cornwall.
The raiding continued and with each year became more intense. In 865–866 it escalated further with the arrival of what the Saxons called the Great Heathen Army. The annals do not report the size of the army, but modern estimates suggest between five hundred and a thousand men. It was said to have been under the leadership of the brothers Ivar the Boneless, Ubba, and Halfdan Ragnarsson. What made this army different from those before it was the intent of the leaders. These forces began "a new stage, that of conquest and residence". By 870, the Northmen had conquered the kingdoms of Northumbria and East Anglia, and in 871 they attacked Wessex. Of the nine battles mentioned by the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle during that year, only one was a West Saxon victory. In this year, Alfred succeeded his brother Ethelred, who died after the Battle of Merton.
Mercia had collapsed by 874, and the Army's cohesion went with it. Halfdan went back to Northumbria and fought the Picts and the Strathclyde Welsh to secure his northern kingdom. His army settled there, and he is not mentioned after 876, when "[the Danes] were engaged in ploughing and making a living for themselves". Guthrum, with two other unnamed kings, "departed for Cambridge in East Anglia". He made several attacks on Wessex, starting in 875, and in the last nearly captured Alfred in his winter fortress at Chippenham.
By 878, the Danes held the east and northeast of England; their defeat at the Battle of Ashdown had paused but not halted their advance. Alfred the Great had spent the winter preceding the Battle of Edington in the Somerset marsh of Athelney, protected somewhat by the natural defences of the country. In the spring of 878, he summoned his West Saxon forces and marched to Edington, where he met the Danes, led by Guthrum, in battle.
Alfred's position before the battle
Guthrum and his men had adopted the usual Danish strategy of occupying a fortified town and waiting for a peace “treaty”, involving money in return for a promise to leave the kingdom immediately; Alfred shadowed the army, trying to prevent more damage than had already occurred. This started in 875 when Guthrum's army “eluded the West Saxon levies and got into Wareham”. They then gave hostages and oaths to leave the country to Alfred, who paid them off. The Danes promptly slipped off to Exeter, even deeper into Alfred's kingdom, where they concluded in the autumn of 877 a "firm peace" with Alfred, under terms that entailed their leaving his kingdom and not returning. This they did, spending the rest of 877 (by the Gregorian calendar) in Gloucester (in the kingdom of Mercia). Alfred spent Christmas at Chippenham (in Wessex), from Gloucester . The Danes attacked Chippenham "in midwinter after Twelfth Night", probably during the night of 6–7 January 878. They captured Chippenham and forced Alfred to retreat "with a small force" into the wilderness. (It is to this period that the story of Alfred burning the cakes belongs.)
Alfred seems at this time to have ineffectually chased the Danes around Wessex, while the Danes were in a position to do as they pleased. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle attempts to convey the impression that Alfred held the initiative; it is "a bland chronicle which laconically charts the movements of the Danish victors while at the same time disingenuously striving to convey the impression that Alfred was in control", although it fails. Even if Alfred had caught up with the Danish force, it is unlikely that he could have accomplished anything. The fact that his army could not defend the fortified Chippenham, even in "an age... as yet untrained in siege warfare" casts great doubt on its ability to defeat the Danes in an open field, unaided by fortifications. There was little that Alfred could do about the Danish menace between 875 and the end of 877, beyond repeatedly paying the invaders off.
Battle
[[File:King Alfred's Tower, Stourhead, Somerset.jpg|thumb|left| upright=1.4 |King Alfred's Tower (1772) on one supposed site of Egbert's Stone, the mustering place before the battle.
The location of the battle accepted by most present-day historians is at Edington, near Westbury in Wiltshire. However, the location has been much debated over the centuries. In 1904 William Henry Stevenson analysed possible sites and said "So far, there is nothing to prove the identity of this Eðandun [as named in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle] with Edington" but then goes on to say that "there can be little reason for questioning it".
The reasoning to support the Eðandun of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and the Ethandun of Asser's Life being Edington in Wiltshire is derived from a trail of information from ancient manuscripts. Edington, Wiltshire, is known to have been part of Alfred's family estate. He left a manor called Eðandun to his wife in his will. A charter records a meeting of the king's council at Eðandun, although a later scribe has annotated the same document with Eðandune. In 968, another charter reported that King Edgar had granted land at Edyndon to Romsey Abbey. The Domesday book has an entry for Romsey Abbey holding land at Edendone in the county of Wiltshire at the time of Edward the Confessor (before 1066) and also in 1086, and this is known to be at Edington, Wiltshire.
Alternatives to Edington, Wiltshire, have been suggested since early times. The Tudor historian Polydore Vergil appears to have misread the ancient texts for the battle site, as he places it at Abyndoniam (Abingdon) instead of Edington. In the 19th century there was a resurgence in interest of medieval history and King Alfred was seen as a major hero. Although most early historians had sited the battle as in the Edington area, the significant interest in the subject encouraged many antiquarians to dig up Alfredian sites and also to propose alternatives for the location of the battle. Arguments for the alternative sites were generally name-based, although with the large interest in everything Alfredian in the 19th century, any site that had an Alfredian connection could be guaranteed large numbers of tourists, so this was also a driving force to find a link.
Consequences
Three weeks after the battle, Guthrum was baptised at Aller in Somerset with Alfred as his sponsor. It is possible that the enforced conversion was an attempt by Alfred to lock Guthrum into a Christian code of ethics, hoping it would ensure the Danes' compliance with any treaties agreed to. The converted Guthrum took the baptismal name of Athelstan.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Wedmore, the converted Guthrum was required to leave Wessex and return to East Anglia. Consequently, in 879 the Viking army left Chippenham and made its way to Cirencester (in the kingdom of Mercia) and remained there for a year. The following year the army went to East Anglia, where it settled.
Also in 879, according to Asser, another Viking army sailed up the River Thames and wintered at Fulham in Middlesex. Over the next few years this particular Danish faction had several encounters with Alfred's forces. However, Alfred managed to contain this threat by reforming his military and setting up a system of fortified cities, known as burhs.
In 885 Asser reports that the Viking army that had settled in East Anglia had broken in a most insolent manner the peace they had established with Alfred, although Guthrum is not mentioned. Guthrum reigned as king in East Anglia until his death in 890, and although this period was not always peaceful he was not considered a threat.
In 886, the Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum defined the boundaries of their two kingdoms. The kingdom of Mercia was divided up, with part going to Alfred's Wessex and the other part to Guthrum's East Anglia. The agreement also defined the social classes of Danish East Anglia and their equivalents in Wessex. It tried to provide a framework that would minimise conflict and regulate commerce between the two peoples. It is not clear how seriously Guthrum took his conversion to Christianity, but he was the first of the Danish rulers of the English kingdoms to mint coins on the Alfredian model, under his baptismal name of Athelstan. By the end of the 9th century, all of the Anglo-Danish rulers were minting coins too. By the 10th century, the Anglo-Saxon model of kingship seems to have been universally adopted by the Anglo-Danish leadership.
After the defeat of Guthrum at the Battle of Edington, Alfred's reforms to military obligations in Wessex made it increasingly difficult for the Vikings to raid successfully. By 896 the Vikings gave up with some going to East Anglia and others going to Northumbria. It was under Alfred that the Viking threat was contained. However, the system of military reforms and the Burghal Hidage introduced by Edward the Elder enabled Alfred's successors to retake control of the lands occupied in the North of England by the Danes.
The Battle in Fiction
The battle features in several historical novels and dramas:
The Marsh King, by C. Walter Hodges
The Raven and the Cross, a children's television serial
The Ballad of the White Horse, by G. K. Chesterton (who also wrote about the battle in Ethandune, collected in Alarms and Discursions)
The Pale Horseman, by Bernard Cornwell pages 315-346
The Last Kingdom, Season 1, Episode 8 in the television series based on Bernard Cornwell's novels
Sarum by Edward Rutherfurd
Flesh and Bones of Frome Selwood and Wessex, by Annette Burkitt, pages 361-379, Hobnob Press 2017
The Titus Chronicles: Eagle and Wyvern, by R.W. Peake
Wulfgar and the Vikings, by Christina Eastwood, John Ritchie 2019
See also
Viking Siege of Paris (885–86)
Notes
References
External links
BBC Radio 4 Archive Programme - In Our Time: Alfred and the Battle of Edington
870s conflicts
Battles involving Wessex
Battles involving the Vikings
Military history of Wiltshire
Battles involving the Anglo-Saxons
878
9th century in England | [
-0.3843545615673065,
-0.19731004536151886,
0.11420279741287231,
-0.6462982892990112,
-0.25639668107032776,
0.5260923504829407,
0.49495670199394226,
-0.5860233902931213,
0.06649376451969147,
-0.11942107230424881,
0.578981876373291,
0.7151644229888916,
-0.09586141258478165,
0.17230568826198578,
-0.5261759757995605,
0.38343721628189087,
0.572660505771637,
0.09850111603736877,
0.763325572013855,
-0.6300620436668396,
0.32273343205451965,
-1.0085583925247192,
-0.5923396944999695,
0.986878514289856,
1.3090883493423462,
-0.36429792642593384,
0.48357531428337097,
-0.6654878854751587,
0.14798039197921753,
-0.4501311480998993,
0.09430467337369919,
0.601613461971283,
0.4800390601158142,
-0.5563316345214844,
-0.15009012818336487,
0.10954690724611282,
0.17262601852416992,
-0.3186406195163727,
-0.4287550151348114,
-0.2600286602973938,
-0.3267665505409241,
0.19874675571918488,
-0.5378140807151794,
0.041569218039512634,
-0.2428198605775833,
0.27104127407073975,
-0.9542498588562012,
-0.36457669734954834,
-0.7622928023338318,
0.1331642121076584,
-0.33035507798194885,
0.49921610951423645,
-0.25414061546325684,
0.38846105337142944,
0.40811848640441895,
0.372566282749176,
-0.32841047644615173,
-0.3623071312904358,
0.5955497622489929,
0.07706284523010254,
0.6691694855690002,
-0.5133426189422607,
0.07182733714580536,
-0.27094703912734985,
-0.4402506649494171,
0.22551481425762177,
0.22546103596687317,
0.3286876678466797,
-0.10165081173181534,
-0.5731348991394043,
-0.17772436141967773,
-0.15312297642230988,
-0.6890988349914551,
0.44368305802345276,
-0.454016774892807,
-0.38878610730171204,
-0.1011275127530098,
-0.05909270420670509,
0.478943794965744,
-0.23252460360527039,
0.2160388082265854,
-0.1983518749475479,
0.5628756880760193,
-0.32246434688568115,
0.4825245440006256,
-0.02396981231868267,
-0.34717223048210144,
0.6566230058670044,
-0.3041181266307831,
0.07391519844532013,
0.5043213367462158,
-0.503801703453064,
-0.718695342540741,
-0.17468474805355072,
-0.23941479623317719,
-0.16103331744670868,
0.19866293668746948,
-0.3273397982120514,
0.02214261144399643,
-0.2501002550125122,
0.45569685101509094,
0.3572123646736145,
0.1936243176460266,
-0.047572098672389984,
-0.7321875095367432,
-0.16582967340946198,
-0.12616123259067535,
-0.7120612263679504,
0.21899190545082092,
-0.4609733819961548,
-0.16062475740909576,
0.49327367544174194,
-0.4381521940231323,
-0.4924026131629944,
-0.07912302017211914,
0.42406222224235535,
0.4891393482685089,
-0.37008532881736755,
-0.05198061466217041,
0.6379909515380859,
0.13656768202781677,
0.5203002095222473,
-0.07024580240249634,
0.8400834798812866,
-0.2419690638780594,
-0.23461143672466278,
-0.14229880273342133,
0.14177002012729645,
-0.6071665287017822,
0.13528014719486237,
0.03375224024057388,
0.4757070541381836,
0.11298142373561859,
0.0022606700658798218,
0.25283879041671753,
-0.2724173963069916,
0.0504293218255043,
0.33431532979011536,
0.6053734421730042,
0.6666068434715271,
-0.46834737062454224,
-0.13804790377616882,
-0.07001611590385437,
0.211850106716156,
0.42579713463783264,
-0.04606059193611145,
0.13837268948554993,
-0.7985095977783203,
0.5458998084068298,
0.16545163094997406,
0.21722650527954102,
0.16083912551403046,
-0.3394853174686432,
-0.26647642254829407,
0.21255359053611755,
1.0058255195617676,
0.22807948291301727,
-0.48422470688819885,
0.1450471729040146,
0.5555252432823181,
0.3792630136013031,
0.3219093382358551,
0.3237171173095703,
-0.14538970589637756,
-0.0748266875743866,
-0.4159516394138336,
0.31564760208129883,
-0.3051077127456665,
0.27034395933151245,
-0.3696156442165375,
-0.759164035320282,
-0.3055693507194519,
0.5261863470077515,
-0.1581941694021225,
0.017168091610074043,
0.10622037947177887,
1.4491221904754639,
0.35069739818573,
0.08335233479738235,
-0.1671333760023117,
-0.8107023239135742,
0.6463280320167542,
0.4753459095954895,
-0.31952235102653503,
0.5217094421386719,
0.8989852070808411,
-0.18728457391262054,
-0.02532048150897026,
0.7750522494316101,
0.7072389125823975,
0.5588560700416565,
-0.40997955203056335,
0.3423598110675812,
-0.17826442420482635,
1.08406662940979,
-0.05218115448951721,
-0.2061426043510437,
0.16414320468902588,
-0.11919675767421722,
0.5881178975105286,
0.28792011737823486,
-0.15887479484081268,
0.41319459676742554,
-0.1352161467075348,
-0.3957425653934479,
-0.810758650302887,
-0.20073050260543823,
-0.3517325222492218,
-0.005240379832684994,
0.41088852286338806,
0.3324715793132782,
0.3426514267921448,
-0.4417305290699005,
0.14035466313362122,
-0.01581190526485443,
-0.059504326432943344,
-0.18394014239311218,
0.5190560221672058,
0.5046601891517639,
-1.1730785369873047,
-0.2253183275461197,
0.2665700912475586,
-0.31291550397872925,
-0.0496419295668602,
0.5228976011276245,
0.7834143042564392,
-0.15845273435115814,
-0.0018033537780866027,
-0.15939342975616455,
-1.0854706764221191,
-0.21346226334571838,
1.1599358320236206,
-0.03797437250614166,
-0.014569954015314579,
0.2502341568470001,
-0.543967604637146,
-0.1294003129005432,
-0.4132721722126007,
0.4919131398200989,
-0.2810268998146057,
0.25161492824554443,
-0.021250776946544647,
-0.5915117859840393,
0.6145113110542297,
0.38495320081710815,
0.45959922671318054,
0.555903971195221,
0.6256346106529236,
-0.17575018107891083,
-0.5376080870628357,
-0.03339444845914841,
0.04593484103679657,
0.16598054766654968,
-0.005951687693595886,
0.5102635025978088,
-0.6454418897628784,
-0.038247913122177124,
0.3698829114437103,
0.17258566617965698,
0.437528520822525,
-0.026054205372929573,
0.17879550158977509,
-0.09137916564941406,
0.08074765652418137,
0.8040432333946228,
-0.37016502022743225,
-0.5476878881454468,
-0.33628612756729126,
0.19355344772338867,
-0.5254406332969666,
0.30634093284606934,
0.41963985562324524,
-0.19741320610046387,
-0.3621959388256073,
0.2600906193256378,
-0.5077382922172546,
0.301815003156662,
0.30433258414268494,
-0.014716705307364464,
-0.48980066180229187,
0.5097452998161316,
0.9415681958198547,
-0.22993603348731995,
-0.35499316453933716,
0.20091845095157623,
0.2646232843399048,
0.083096943795681,
-0.5065448880195618,
0.07232436537742615,
0.10751734673976898,
0.10398008674383163,
0.1930987685918808,
-0.4818817973136902,
-0.11581572890281677,
-0.1091468557715416,
0.6274417638778687,
-0.42394495010375977,
0.15843714773654938,
0.1783616840839386,
-0.14379410445690155,
-0.3294886350631714,
0.4376209080219269,
-0.9492266774177551,
0.20639735460281372,
0.23628713190555573,
-0.684952437877655,
-0.050999537110328674,
-0.6720018982887268,
-5.300131797790527,
0.2973058223724365,
0.16316315531730652,
0.43190157413482666,
0.09398801624774933,
0.32501330971717834,
-0.19063700735569,
0.2562313675880432,
0.062181927263736725,
-0.25740569829940796,
-0.20126567780971527,
-1.0050288438796997,
-0.16277733445167542,
-0.26625269651412964,
1.0731955766677856,
-0.053998492658138275,
1.2177742719650269,
-0.13874752819538116,
-0.03410952165722847,
-0.05178649351000786,
-0.2576165795326233,
-0.0010917786275967956,
-0.29061219096183777,
0.4368443489074707,
0.17504721879959106,
-0.35674700140953064,
-0.31251391768455505,
-0.2762167453765869,
-0.38846176862716675,
-0.15568220615386963,
0.39752164483070374,
0.053463321179151535,
0.5633054375648499,
0.44276317954063416,
-0.7866135239601135,
0.4513716697692871,
0.41935059428215027,
0.45746129751205444,
0.7003852128982544,
-0.6897645592689514,
0.046847060322761536,
-0.11026843637228012,
-0.5051105618476868,
0.009983415715396404,
0.29005080461502075,
-0.46093326807022095,
-0.08452077955007553,
0.4173409044742584,
-0.8490151762962341,
0.46052423119544983,
0.003327819751575589,
0.3047178387641907,
0.35454046726226807,
-0.2874579131603241,
-0.15930862724781036,
0.294555127620697,
-0.5425898432731628,
0.04981434717774391,
-0.01726722903549671,
0.12876206636428833,
0.1978578418493271,
-0.5822376608848572,
-0.1143738254904747,
-0.004996632691472769,
0.2187529355287552,
-0.2619127035140991,
-0.018185244873166084,
-0.030727293342351913,
0.7002193927764893,
0.33523300290107727,
-0.2763739824295044,
0.5052536129951477,
-0.2073889821767807,
-0.8715361952781677,
-0.17081192135810852,
-0.5733075737953186,
0.20979246497154236,
0.29487407207489014,
0.6106830835342407,
-0.46771103143692017,
-0.09594361484050751,
-0.7808168530464172,
0.2018372267484665,
0.1787463277578354,
0.37030577659606934,
0.009032582864165306,
-0.5933235287666321,
-0.30238163471221924,
0.02116289921104908,
-0.5752989649772644,
0.6697599291801453,
0.11042769253253937,
-0.16112744808197021,
0.17376811802387238,
-0.17517206072807312,
0.2256017029285431,
-0.38345012068748474,
-0.2526889443397522,
0.4062323570251465,
0.07294397056102753,
-0.08802585303783417,
0.4825815260410309,
0.07344609498977661,
-0.651935875415802,
-0.7674253582954407,
-0.2591378092765808,
-0.901824414730072,
0.3984524607658386,
0.2437605857849121,
-0.2190706729888916,
0.041510116308927536,
-0.0458691343665123,
-0.48712700605392456,
-0.24822144210338593,
-0.4485248327255249,
-0.05997456982731819,
-0.14787442982196808,
0.32507506012916565,
1.0348310470581055,
0.1078076884150505,
-0.17815083265304565,
0.31294289231300354,
-0.1303437501192093,
-0.32833030819892883,
0.43288716673851013,
0.13502062857151031,
0.009225877933204174,
0.37787190079689026,
-0.4638902544975281,
0.41788607835769653,
0.30834710597991943,
-0.3650261163711548,
-0.4529324173927307,
0.000878470775205642,
-0.6002267003059387,
-0.4827618896961212,
-0.5265406966209412,
-0.7512231469154358,
-0.41403213143348694,
0.4726014733314514,
0.8005128502845764,
-0.05067284032702446,
0.3780798316001892,
0.25564828515052795,
0.08680493384599686,
-0.3497406542301178,
0.5667163133621216,
-0.5778577327728271,
-0.3066244125366211,
0.10280749946832657,
0.0037348757032305002,
0.2757711708545685,
0.29854443669319153,
-0.5728530287742615,
-0.09443848580121994,
0.13965041935443878,
0.2493482530117035,
0.07768431305885315,
-0.38017454743385315,
-0.2260352224111557,
-0.5038477182388306,
0.5241690874099731,
-0.3634350895881653,
0.08158745616674423,
0.10137153416872025,
-0.24793501198291779,
-0.43052613735198975,
-0.31031355261802673,
-0.27408531308174133,
0.3872610926628113,
0.4136587679386139,
-0.2795920968055725,
-0.8043355345726013,
0.033780135214328766,
0.21751198172569275,
-0.058837614953517914,
0.32806435227394104,
0.05679045990109444,
0.00917138997465372,
-0.20297320187091827,
-0.17415517568588257,
-0.22541964054107666,
-0.5170139074325562,
0.18265731632709503,
1.0847257375717163,
-0.8402256965637207,
-0.6605458855628967,
-0.45189356803894043,
-0.6122007369995117,
-0.49205559492111206,
-0.1347431093454361,
-0.5220293402671814,
0.579633891582489,
0.25077295303344727,
-0.3410477042198181,
-0.1066531240940094,
0.18186946213245392,
-0.4812212288379669,
-0.21052515506744385,
-0.24322651326656342,
-0.22309553623199463,
0.7666556239128113,
-0.7807063460350037,
-0.44318997859954834,
-0.19450746476650238,
-0.9483630657196045,
0.05762471631169319,
-0.13830186426639557,
-0.6013759970664978,
0.8568399548530579,
0.1819916069507599,
-1.0541481971740723,
-0.2842378616333008,
0.5003510117530823,
-0.027655137702822685,
0.020252082496881485,
-0.4040497839450836,
-0.052483901381492615,
0.08580226451158524,
-0.4914975166320801,
0.1339893490076065,
-0.3566831648349762,
-0.17723509669303894,
-0.04627098888158798,
-0.4049592614173889,
0.1657540649175644,
0.753610372543335,
-0.5273016691207886,
0.4925842881202698,
-0.17993779480457306,
-0.2680867314338684,
0.3471812605857849,
-0.7445095777511597,
0.93458092212677,
0.411983460187912,
0.34173908829689026,
0.2930837571620941,
-0.6044382452964783,
0.07589064538478851,
0.4211103022098541,
0.4593876302242279,
1.700121521949768,
0.5991859436035156,
-0.45642757415771484,
-0.20602726936340332,
0.205560103058815,
-0.04785224422812462,
-0.408659964799881,
-0.43193337321281433,
0.2670530676841736,
-0.18088391423225403,
0.34494727849960327,
-0.20687918365001678,
-0.28182387351989746,
0.25314581394195557,
-0.3436271846294403,
0.02659245952963829,
0.11315762251615524,
-0.18462616205215454,
0.28795963525772095,
0.10311854630708694,
0.3993656039237976,
-0.7552222609519958,
-0.0242451261729002,
0.6776678562164307,
-0.3510820269584656,
-0.13361407816410065,
-0.13043436408042908,
0.1781318187713623,
-0.9263843894004822,
-0.7322443723678589,
-0.7923288345336914,
-0.24352110922336578,
-0.13124693930149078,
1.134686827659607,
-0.30658358335494995,
0.14536000788211823,
-0.7885075807571411,
0.6552723050117493,
-0.018023662269115448,
-0.28497910499572754,
0.0072289444506168365,
0.23086640238761902,
-0.051953382790088654,
0.584010124206543,
-0.19882646203041077,
-0.5561378002166748,
-0.23472648859024048,
-0.029401211068034172,
-0.26274600625038147,
-0.007304287049919367,
-0.3191925883293152,
0.3436763882637024,
-0.14563150703907013,
-0.01083818357437849,
0.8954315185546875,
-0.16771408915519714,
0.3003554344177246,
-0.253733366727829,
-0.5815513730049133,
-0.7241843342781067,
0.9756235480308533,
0.15778130292892456,
-0.5004950761795044,
-0.26867735385894775,
0.691705584526062,
-0.46866437792778015,
0.09769493341445923,
-0.22861456871032715,
0.44072166085243225,
0.15064604580402374,
0.220957413315773,
-0.2885873019695282,
0.9232357740402222,
-0.5974571108818054,
-0.327368825674057,
0.13220106065273285,
-0.6404873132705688,
0.22130146622657776,
-0.16487637162208557,
-0.2891152501106262,
-0.24475444853305817,
-0.0649600625038147,
0.4499640166759491,
-0.13249202072620392,
0.8762858510017395,
-0.11717122793197632,
0.010515145026147366,
0.03502316772937775,
0.7824143171310425,
0.07416456937789917,
-0.40319758653640747,
-0.9124266505241394,
0.6266137361526489,
-0.5544710755348206,
-0.3383778929710388,
-0.010791473090648651,
-0.334372341632843,
-0.04335547238588333,
0.8631142973899841,
0.41508573293685913,
0.7827292680740356,
-0.030449163168668747,
-0.30110400915145874,
-0.26543036103248596,
0.18248330056667328,
0.1380445510149002,
-0.625704288482666,
0.5374473929405212,
-0.16943204402923584,
0.38368555903434753,
0.232526034116745,
0.16770879924297333,
-0.7007594704627991,
-0.1445648968219757,
-0.035756371915340424,
0.0926201194524765,
0.13206076622009277,
0.03480163961648941,
-0.3211320638656616,
0.2769436836242676,
-0.264253169298172,
0.23082385957241058,
0.011195017956197262,
-0.047133635729551315,
-0.2403995394706726,
-0.13774779438972473,
0.22823353111743927,
-0.11252599954605103,
0.8424391150474548,
0.6951034665107727,
0.20124346017837524,
0.006190695334225893,
-0.9743679761886597,
-0.06209561973810196,
-0.04793589189648628,
0.395059734582901,
0.026908541098237038,
0.5682255029678345,
-0.18725603818893433,
-0.28768041729927063,
0.10225731879472733,
-0.71788090467453,
-0.5044714212417603,
0.08448844403028488,
-0.6046226024627686,
0.022571565583348274,
0.5468264818191528,
-0.4007050395011902,
-0.9422710537910461,
0.05227251723408699,
-0.28593772649765015,
0.0014108881587162614,
-0.2358219176530838,
-0.9262807369232178,
0.5302708745002747,
0.21793586015701294,
1.0181820392608643,
0.6524878740310669,
0.08644377440214157,
-0.012852691113948822,
0.2905155420303345,
-0.26241418719291687,
0.8282044529914856,
0.03617139160633087,
0.6777772307395935,
-0.6761441826820374,
-0.04444747418165207,
-0.28452205657958984,
0.6463041305541992,
0.6711001396179199,
-0.08375060558319092,
-0.05786678567528725,
0.45383769273757935,
-0.6194804906845093,
-0.9617777466773987,
0.3286054730415344,
0.09307913482189178,
-0.2634018659591675,
-0.2392818182706833,
0.2411312311887741,
0.7507952451705933,
-0.6876064538955688,
-0.06064586713910103,
0.4456213414669037,
-0.32377350330352783,
0.7997408509254456,
-0.3451114594936371,
-0.4688095152378082,
0.7748245000839233,
-0.23988077044487,
-0.254883348941803,
-0.442825585603714,
-0.3326769769191742,
-0.2724418342113495,
-0.10235553234815598,
0.15268458425998688,
0.4557860791683197,
-0.5166890621185303,
0.3812994360923767,
0.31694191694259644,
-0.23155716061592102,
0.5774613618850708,
0.22024451196193695,
0.5062485337257385,
-0.11881981790065765,
0.12490084767341614,
0.04225568473339081,
-0.19193626940250397,
0.7329356074333191,
1.1019355058670044,
0.05282379314303398,
0.06281700730323792,
0.19086392223834991,
-0.25800177454948425,
-0.4599834680557251,
-0.2407551407814026,
-0.23100785911083221,
-0.05938125401735306,
0.01758989691734314
] |
248053 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Flatley | USS Flatley | USS Flatley (FFG-21) was the thirteenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates. She was the first ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for Vice Admiral James H. Flatley (1906–1958), a leading Naval Aviation tactician from World War II who flew the Grumman F4F Wildcat in the Battle of Coral Sea and subsequently commanded the VF-10 Grim Reapers taking them into combat for the first time.
Ordered from Bath Iron Works on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Flatleys keel was laid down on 13 November 1979. She was launched on 15 May 1980, and commissioned on 20 June 1981. Decommissioned on 11 May 1996, she was sold to Turkey on 27 August 1998.
TCG Gemlik (F 492)
The ship immediately underwent conversion into a Turkish . She serves in the Turkish Navy as TCG Gemlik (F 492).
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS Flatley FFG-21 pages
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
1980 ships
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Turkish Navy
Ships built in Bath, Maine
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States | [
-0.8736854195594788,
-0.1680971086025238,
0.15350937843322754,
0.18779337406158447,
-0.022985389456152916,
0.6805143356323242,
0.361558198928833,
-0.0844368189573288,
-0.49415284395217896,
-0.046327147632837296,
0.2567330300807953,
0.5840710401535034,
0.04558497667312622,
0.16327449679374695,
0.3000406324863434,
0.46360790729522705,
0.271375447511673,
0.05076481029391289,
-0.27420473098754883,
-0.6357789039611816,
-0.007342612836509943,
-0.2776153087615967,
0.5600579380989075,
-0.2544195055961609,
0.009734920226037502,
0.43047207593917847,
0.48554250597953796,
-0.0757046490907669,
0.2828105390071869,
0.2896256446838379,
-0.26127809286117554,
0.6943708658218384,
0.4515237510204315,
0.0015295742778107524,
0.3618839979171753,
-0.06227050721645355,
-0.027800947427749634,
0.08319678157567978,
-0.2788042724132538,
-0.14776165783405304,
-0.6337626576423645,
-0.5157030820846558,
0.2385150045156479,
-0.038377102464437485,
-0.45273539423942566,
0.06807127594947815,
-1.4047162532806396,
-0.1991395801305771,
0.08578656613826752,
-0.06613444536924362,
-0.27230313420295715,
0.24882878363132477,
0.29331153631210327,
0.5223759412765503,
0.5868918895721436,
0.5246700644493103,
-0.7030988931655884,
-0.0032047275453805923,
-0.15859399735927582,
-0.2318359911441803,
0.3102949857711792,
0.21252039074897766,
0.6084378361701965,
0.2392612099647522,
-0.06818566471338272,
0.15030546486377716,
-0.49960774183273315,
0.02164374478161335,
-0.3213884234428406,
0.04629725590348244,
0.4187115728855133,
-0.18321652710437775,
0.33346813917160034,
0.5036841034889221,
-0.24266470968723297,
0.23412036895751953,
-0.35849708318710327,
-0.44732943177223206,
-0.05856460705399513,
0.7342957854270935,
0.1632256656885147,
0.35554397106170654,
1.011282205581665,
0.10374318063259125,
0.046123553067445755,
0.1500483602285385,
-0.46643927693367004,
0.29082146286964417,
-0.680915892124176,
1.0436054468154907,
-0.5570247173309326,
-0.38347962498664856,
-0.08653157949447632,
0.7938036918640137,
0.18372388184070587,
-0.09514189511537552,
-0.5526769161224365,
0.17102263867855072,
0.37651804089546204,
0.6227921843528748,
0.15225425362586975,
0.6148658990859985,
0.846706211566925,
0.35750600695610046,
-0.7924965023994446,
-0.10137548297643661,
-0.4717758893966675,
-0.6298519968986511,
-0.6753628849983215,
-0.1606719046831131,
-0.41633087396621704,
0.2219637781381607,
-0.2942139506340027,
-0.2342202067375183,
-0.4872877895832062,
0.7055439352989197,
0.18223179876804352,
-0.4410226345062256,
0.47705015540122986,
-0.11017368733882904,
0.6142200827598572,
0.9942774772644043,
-0.03553149476647377,
-0.2776850461959839,
0.31457382440567017,
-0.04603307321667671,
0.6056872606277466,
0.34043413400650024,
-0.7731438875198364,
0.5465583801269531,
0.3255237638950348,
0.9142217040061951,
-0.09625206142663956,
0.3737916946411133,
-0.41514459252357483,
-0.4618208706378937,
0.11693766713142395,
0.19461913406848907,
0.30999818444252014,
0.5732377171516418,
-1.0278294086456299,
0.18256621062755585,
-0.3387864828109741,
-0.5739464163780212,
0.5611945390701294,
-0.3887578248977661,
0.23540131747722626,
-0.22243906557559967,
-0.6930971145629883,
-0.17960770428180695,
0.4564085304737091,
-0.818630039691925,
0.5427875518798828,
-0.1720646470785141,
-0.7074729800224304,
-0.315957635641098,
0.6112242341041565,
0.26374438405036926,
0.5311539173126221,
0.3694329559803009,
-0.5135002136230469,
0.03588533774018288,
0.14974844455718994,
-0.09357978403568268,
0.3729517161846161,
0.3462914526462555,
0.5765751600265503,
-0.27100059390068054,
0.028325719758868217,
-0.33744823932647705,
-0.27554744482040405,
-0.0734134241938591,
0.7714930176734924,
0.007223257329314947,
0.08740687370300293,
-0.2592338025569916,
0.5967988967895508,
0.1636994630098343,
0.2536460757255554,
-0.7589999437332153,
-0.3175768554210663,
-0.22740836441516876,
0.6637694239616394,
-0.21128319203853607,
0.30075618624687195,
0.06658896803855896,
0.21769694983959198,
0.2560484707355499,
0.1259828805923462,
0.1979600340127945,
-0.18002429604530334,
-0.36617231369018555,
0.5960177779197693,
-0.03322089463472366,
1.0121536254882812,
0.14261291921138763,
-0.5173904895782471,
0.1721743792295456,
0.47481638193130493,
0.4460572600364685,
0.4204157590866089,
-0.39854833483695984,
0.9486880302429199,
0.06833589822053909,
-0.24309709668159485,
0.30253735184669495,
-0.106864333152771,
0.6691924333572388,
-0.2252577692270279,
1.1219884157180786,
-0.2692429721355438,
-0.76915442943573,
-0.011898846365511417,
0.8337132334709167,
0.01138203963637352,
-0.5233854651451111,
0.08912308514118195,
-0.6552212834358215,
0.08494675904512405,
-0.24389131367206573,
0.3461707830429077,
0.053858499974012375,
-0.029968079179525375,
0.1840331107378006,
-0.3189364969730377,
-0.21329225599765778,
-0.5476805567741394,
0.4245243966579437,
-0.10247358679771423,
-0.0666377916932106,
-0.2406328320503235,
-0.05306499823927879,
0.3250077962875366,
-0.25943344831466675,
0.407064825296402,
0.3291833698749542,
0.04161973297595978,
-0.2562958896160126,
0.6762962341308594,
-0.3845544457435608,
-0.024884505197405815,
0.4904071092605591,
-0.5125447511672974,
0.21490398049354553,
-0.3243584632873535,
-0.4692877233028412,
0.5013566613197327,
0.15495352447032928,
0.1397412121295929,
-0.5047697424888611,
1.1437125205993652,
0.28399857878685,
0.09906606376171112,
-0.6746841669082642,
-0.7289555668830872,
0.3360499441623688,
-0.06955257803201675,
0.2710140347480774,
0.5632489323616028,
0.09452372789382935,
-0.18107660114765167,
0.14595875144004822,
0.5134866237640381,
0.24140779674053192,
0.13641643524169922,
-0.68138188123703,
-0.4869101941585541,
0.07542052119970322,
0.6394317746162415,
-0.009461347945034504,
0.47891080379486084,
0.01917138695716858,
0.4412822723388672,
-0.3265634775161743,
0.562977135181427,
-0.05830535665154457,
-0.5093069672584534,
0.5422889590263367,
-0.8577212691307068,
-0.7087488770484924,
0.8718728423118591,
0.8527255058288574,
0.2469136267900467,
-0.4205508232116699,
-0.0851573646068573,
-0.315105676651001,
0.2842895984649658,
-0.07669209688901901,
-0.48696693778038025,
-0.4983827471733093,
-0.10063351690769196,
-0.5775761604309082,
-0.1841670423746109,
0.1771082580089569,
-0.006125485524535179,
0.8542604446411133,
-0.007005247287452221,
-0.5256705284118652,
0.2787538170814514,
0.11850146949291229,
-0.05712432041764259,
0.5894808173179626,
-0.13746188580989838,
-0.13030511140823364,
0.04169458895921707,
-0.2863227128982544,
-0.2744832932949066,
0.25039243698120117,
-5.41827392578125,
0.15056636929512024,
-0.06955082714557648,
-0.28269851207733154,
0.1291668862104416,
0.5152044892311096,
0.02952638454735279,
-0.3996637165546417,
-0.41926342248916626,
-0.4765525162220001,
0.411384254693985,
0.13250164687633514,
0.03783854469656944,
0.1366371065378189,
0.7353947162628174,
0.04370817914605141,
1.160492181777954,
-0.3020384907722473,
0.7386402487754822,
-0.1535392701625824,
0.20208533108234406,
-0.18958690762519836,
0.17329378426074982,
-0.11004064232110977,
0.1516740322113037,
0.31690526008605957,
-0.42255899310112,
0.1978304088115692,
-0.541110634803772,
0.06136666238307953,
-0.17464610934257507,
-0.2301693558692932,
-0.39932987093925476,
0.14368532598018646,
-0.10371671617031097,
-0.6162781715393066,
0.47945311665534973,
-0.02798355370759964,
0.6131149530410767,
-0.7073569297790527,
-0.14383062720298767,
0.1867600381374359,
-0.2446017861366272,
0.25913316011428833,
0.3596360683441162,
-0.15678642690181732,
-0.14759115874767303,
0.07031267881393433,
0.9159017205238342,
0.8582913279533386,
0.0338701568543911,
0.12853926420211792,
0.39717546105384827,
0.45903459191322327,
0.4525592029094696,
-0.15133659541606903,
-0.20383907854557037,
-0.17937560379505157,
-0.703288197517395,
0.10667825490236282,
-0.012299984693527222,
-0.2716534435749054,
0.1350991129875183,
-0.6660791039466858,
0.06026817858219147,
-0.39067259430885315,
-0.18920251727104187,
-0.026697443798184395,
0.6833891868591309,
-0.23674292862415314,
-0.019088540226221085,
0.560139536857605,
0.10421875864267349,
-0.820231556892395,
0.6722351312637329,
-0.4805065393447876,
-0.15987277030944824,
-0.29627561569213867,
-0.3125002384185791,
0.033608660101890564,
-0.058943141251802444,
0.050989437848329544,
0.1486920565366745,
0.20403936505317688,
-0.2197493463754654,
-0.8425673842430115,
-0.72615647315979,
0.06632429361343384,
-0.0242919959127903,
-0.3373587727546692,
0.20386819541454315,
-0.9875699281692505,
0.6354960799217224,
0.31965988874435425,
0.3012886047363281,
-0.738506555557251,
-0.03323126956820488,
0.6513615250587463,
0.4489716589450836,
-0.4681074321269989,
0.23310743272304535,
-0.7531009912490845,
0.44507548213005066,
-0.2633530795574188,
-0.6979174017906189,
-0.4143921732902527,
-0.342054158449173,
-0.13832944631576538,
0.18274423480033875,
-0.19707658886909485,
-0.14982429146766663,
-0.1499280333518982,
0.1671064794063568,
-0.7385541796684265,
0.7281116247177124,
0.18828484416007996,
-0.40471354126930237,
0.3538060486316681,
0.31490975618362427,
0.5226687788963318,
0.06580854952335358,
0.2541128098964691,
-0.32996582984924316,
-0.2129412144422531,
-0.34867000579833984,
-0.655400276184082,
0.5407917499542236,
-0.5640214681625366,
-1.0322877168655396,
-0.20491813123226166,
0.17303089797496796,
0.2431316077709198,
-0.1677762120962143,
0.07032861560583115,
0.22884917259216309,
-0.7369126081466675,
-0.5028544664382935,
0.2089005410671234,
0.296694815158844,
0.17330271005630493,
-0.188668355345726,
-0.010527266189455986,
-0.5640972852706909,
0.1376410275697708,
0.6218904256820679,
0.4935893416404724,
0.574176013469696,
0.37734559178352356,
-0.3533537685871124,
0.5471915006637573,
-0.3593318462371826,
-0.9506773948669434,
0.6189182996749878,
-0.9550890922546387,
-0.06964169442653656,
0.357266366481781,
0.03957099840044975,
-0.023556571453809738,
-0.3728258013725281,
-0.10378864407539368,
-0.31956371665000916,
0.31618714332580566,
-0.46407172083854675,
-0.3033888339996338,
0.30250540375709534,
0.006534058600664139,
-0.14231783151626587,
-0.3234698176383972,
-0.16892868280410767,
0.15755364298820496,
0.2949473559856415,
-0.19902604818344116,
-0.41091084480285645,
0.08124452084302902,
0.33041566610336304,
0.23187187314033508,
-0.7764745354652405,
-0.28979334235191345,
0.040474001318216324,
0.3595552444458008,
-0.3283469080924988,
0.08971621096134186,
-0.37720605731010437,
0.6677501797676086,
-0.008579886518418789,
-0.038391515612602234,
-0.6576270461082458,
0.30433493852615356,
-0.567797064781189,
0.03439924865961075,
0.0634632334113121,
-0.3458051383495331,
0.40557438135147095,
0.2076282650232315,
-0.9612318277359009,
0.2667207717895508,
0.23718371987342834,
0.5373092889785767,
-0.012616264633834362,
-0.5857279896736145,
0.10577873885631561,
0.43613186478614807,
-0.7058650851249695,
0.6192740797996521,
0.5718830823898315,
-0.6569386720657349,
0.040312156081199646,
-0.44816911220550537,
0.2627026438713074,
0.6630797982215881,
-0.03158086910843849,
-0.7087553143501282,
0.5720413327217102,
0.39140191674232483,
0.1635897159576416,
-0.6321209669113159,
-0.05077027529478073,
0.06224096938967705,
-0.3924209475517273,
-0.6470166444778442,
-0.8060837388038635,
-0.2724737524986267,
-0.12430086731910706,
-0.6052773594856262,
-1.1288175582885742,
0.18823733925819397,
0.03364799916744232,
-0.5508017539978027,
0.32690244913101196,
-0.2684057950973511,
-0.4081437587738037,
0.018521588295698166,
0.19716079533100128,
0.3230246603488922,
0.3649025559425354,
-0.35852691531181335,
-0.09812930971384048,
-0.24340149760246277,
-0.08926118165254593,
0.21262960135936737,
0.6221567392349243,
0.23949222266674042,
0.6838428974151611,
-0.9127520322799683,
-0.3194533884525299,
-0.05365816876292229,
0.5906108021736145,
-0.6692438125610352,
-0.06542521715164185,
0.23926571011543274,
0.2797189950942993,
-0.5769561529159546,
-0.756239652633667,
-0.5789550542831421,
1.3759433031082153,
-0.5996711254119873,
-0.1194697916507721,
-0.4968731999397278,
0.2311577945947647,
0.23733702301979065,
-0.15369179844856262,
0.4255879521369934,
-1.1987836360931396,
0.32969924807548523,
0.5129251480102539,
0.17310656607151031,
0.020185040310025215,
-0.0722258910536766,
0.29643237590789795,
0.08409647643566132,
-0.29093486070632935,
0.26402750611305237,
-0.18390542268753052,
0.1729465276002884,
-0.29160571098327637,
0.16476722061634064,
-0.12862661480903625,
-0.4148792624473572,
0.6073157787322998,
0.04455907642841339,
-0.6318485736846924,
0.16329267621040344,
-0.26692748069763184,
-1.0155175924301147,
-0.36828991770744324,
-0.5056141018867493,
-0.3577316999435425,
-0.7506850957870483,
-0.15560179948806763,
0.300226092338562,
0.7528306841850281,
-0.36097440123558044,
-0.9993183016777039,
-0.5851759910583496,
-0.09713180363178253,
0.4284205734729767,
-0.06717228144407272,
0.1165989339351654,
-0.2299099713563919,
1.0488020181655884,
-0.5171838998794556,
0.6138532161712646,
-0.4159080982208252,
-0.20753489434719086,
-0.010010836645960808,
-0.2657157778739929,
0.17659001052379608,
-0.5269006490707397,
-0.3134002089500427,
-0.04139863699674606,
-0.4893999397754669,
-0.6513662338256836,
0.2481706738471985,
0.6065679788589478,
-0.44527140259742737,
-0.2810784578323364,
0.8614280819892883,
-0.04410718008875847,
-0.1747448742389679,
0.03529961034655571,
0.17018136382102966,
-0.7811650633811951,
0.2838946580886841,
0.8318803906440735,
-0.5006420016288757,
1.157426118850708,
-0.9598163366317749,
-0.3943924009799957,
0.2203088253736496,
0.4664241671562195,
0.3550975024700165,
-0.5411386489868164,
-0.5973719954490662,
0.3779338300228119,
-0.23108185827732086,
0.01635253056883812,
0.11898668855428696,
-0.12313933670520782,
-0.23977656662464142,
0.5109279155731201,
0.031420476734638214,
0.44388994574546814,
-0.33613184094429016,
-0.22498023509979248,
-0.2957020401954651,
0.02438190020620823,
-0.10163267701864243,
0.49469253420829773,
0.18635083734989166,
-0.10358394682407379,
0.26831546425819397,
0.24167613685131073,
0.5886532068252563,
-0.04215957224369049,
-0.22026751935482025,
0.17517828941345215,
0.4578191637992859,
-0.5833789706230164,
-0.38114047050476074,
-0.0280781090259552,
-0.4322028160095215,
0.2203976809978485,
0.27316519618034363,
0.14072191715240479,
-0.04971497133374214,
-0.14277403056621552,
0.07372841984033585,
0.07799013704061508,
-0.1320021003484726,
0.5340911149978638,
0.48455649614334106,
0.4871699810028076,
-0.09821804612874985,
0.029177896678447723,
0.03627952188253403,
0.05439995974302292,
-0.00807273481041193,
-0.8303162455558777,
0.28317615389823914,
0.19948036968708038,
-0.4204255938529968,
-0.005815525073558092,
-0.03539743274450302,
-0.8324456214904785,
0.2232969105243683,
0.16419734060764313,
-0.17336052656173706,
0.3440589904785156,
0.2230222523212433,
0.26930198073387146,
0.7361078858375549,
-0.47625014185905457,
-0.9845839738845825,
0.479717880487442,
-0.42721545696258545,
0.21722926199436188,
0.0329602025449276,
0.17850510776042938,
0.36866745352745056,
0.8085172772407532,
-0.027368972077965736,
-0.017736418172717094,
0.4473806619644165,
0.3570609986782074,
-0.6157019734382629,
-0.4293890595436096,
-0.3431895077228546,
0.3672279119491577,
-0.8891841769218445,
-0.20054203271865845,
0.005076434463262558,
0.06910861283540726,
-0.2606624960899353,
0.08034992963075638,
-0.6389626264572144,
-0.5746266841888428,
0.5046297907829285,
-0.8152859210968018,
0.23134303092956543,
0.20533861219882965,
0.18323558568954468,
-0.2154153287410736,
-0.37087759375572205,
0.752521812915802,
-0.5969175100326538,
-0.3728707432746887,
-0.30102255940437317,
-0.7381243109703064,
-0.20855456590652466,
0.37439286708831787,
0.1436823606491089,
-0.3329311013221741,
-0.1523316204547882,
0.3350384533405304,
-0.037181466817855835,
0.08302764594554901,
-0.252281129360199,
0.35211625695228577,
0.4226658344268799,
0.35268181562423706,
0.27724188566207886,
-0.16132628917694092,
0.03770097345113754,
-0.08732753992080688,
-0.13195645809173584,
0.2520858943462372,
-0.24556498229503632,
-0.7575159668922424,
0.6004034876823425,
0.5701476335525513,
0.6115507483482361,
-0.167459174990654,
0.2342953234910965,
-0.09945682436227798,
0.15883122384548187,
-0.46662500500679016,
0.31509697437286377,
-0.21407048404216766,
-0.04154855012893677,
0.14805874228477478
] |
248054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oar | Oar | An oar is an implement used for water-borne propulsion. Oars have a flat blade at one end. Rowers grasp the oar at the other end.
The difference between oars and paddles is that oars are used exclusively for rowing. In rowing the oar is connected to the vessel by means of a pivot point for the oar, either an oarlock, or a thole. The oar is placed in the pivot point with a short portion inside the vessel, and a much larger portion outside. The rower pulls on the short end of the oar, while the long end is in the water. By contrast, paddles, are held in both hands by the paddler, and are not attached to the vessel.
Rowers generally face the stern of the vessel, reach towards the stern, and insert the blade of their oar in the water. As they lean back, towards the vessel's bow, the blade of their oars pivots in the oarlock, and the end in the water moves towards the stern, providing forward thrust.
For thousands of years vessels were powered either by sails, or by the mechanical work of rowers, or by paddlers. Some ancient vessels were propelled by both oars and sail, depending on the speed and direction of the wind.
History
Rowing oars have been used since the early Neolithic period. Wooden oars, with canoe-shaped pottery, dating from 5000–4500 BC have been discovered in a Hemudu culture site at Yuyao, Zhejiang, in modern China. In 1999, an oar measuring 63.4 cm (2 ft) in length, dating from 4000 BC, was unearthed in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan.
Construction
Oars have traditionally been made of wood. The form is a long shaft (or loom) with a flat blade on the end. Where the oar connects to the boat there is a "collar" (or button), often made of leather, which stops the oar slipping past the rowlock. Oars usually have a handle about 150mm long, which may be a material sleeve or alternatively an ovoid shape carved to fit the hands.
Physics
Oars are levers. Which class of lever depends on the frame of reference. From the rower's perspective, the oar can be seen as a Class I lever. The oar is fixed in the oarlock, the rower pulls on the handle, and the blade moves in the opposite direction to propel the boat. The blade is further from the oarlock than the rower's hands. So, the heavy force of a short rowing motion becomes a smaller force over a greater distance.
From an observer on the shore, the oar is instead a Class II lever. Here, the fulcrum is the blade, planted in the water. The rower pulls on the handle and the boat moves along with them. The "Class II" perspective is important to competitive rowing. Effective rowers learn to lever the boat past the end of the blade, rather than pulling the blade through the water. The World Rowing Federation rulebook defines oars as Class II.
Both the Class I and Class II perspectives can be used to calculate the forces on the rower, boat, and water, with equivalent results. The calculations are simpler for the Class I perspective. The mechanical advantage of the oar depends on the length of the oar from the oarlock to the blade, compared to the length from the oarlock to the rower's hand(s). The further away from the oarlock the blade is, the more difficult it is to row and the more distance each stroke will move.
Balanced oar
This is a normal, usually wooden oar to which weight has been added at the inboard end so that the blade end is noticeably lighter and easier for a rower to operate without fatigue. The two methods of adding weight are to either have a much larger section in the oar immediately next to the handle for a distance of about or to drill an hole inside the handle for a distance of about and add about 12 oz of lead secured by epoxy resin glue. For a oar the balance point is about 12 inches outboard of the rowlock. Often surplus wood is removed from the blade's width and thickness and at the neck between the blade and the shaft to further reduce outboard weight. This type of oar is much better for long-range rowing.
Oars used for transport
The oars used for transport come in a variety of sizes. The oars used in small dinghies or rafts can be less than 2 metres long. In classical times warships were propelled by very long oars that might have several oarsmen per oar. These oars could be more than a dozen metres long.
Oars used for competitive rowing
The oars used in competitive rowing are long (250–300 cm) poles with one flat end about 50 cm long and 25 cm wide, called the blade. The part of the oar the oarsman holds while rowing is called the handle. While rowing, the oars are supported by metal frames attached to the side of the boat called riggers, while the oar fits into the oarlocks at the ends of each rigger. Classic oars were made of wood, but modern oars are made from synthetic material, the most common being carbon fibre.
Oars used as trophies
The sport of competitive rowing has developed a tradition of using an oar as a memento of significant race wins. A 'trophy oar' is not presented at the end of the race as a more familiar precious metal cup might be, but rather given by the club, school or university that the winning crew or rower represented.
A trophy oar is a competition oar that has been painted in the club colours and has then had the details of the race signwritten on the face of the blade. The most common format would have the coat of arms or crest of the club or school positioned in the centre, with the crew names and the race details arranged around this.
Many older universities (Oxford and Cambridge would be prime examples, as well as Yale and Harvard) and their colleges have long histories of using the trophy oar and many examples are on display in club houses around the world.
In culture
The Norwegian municipalities of Fedje and Herøy both have oars in their coat-of-arms.
Oars have been used to describe various animals with characteristics that closely resemble the said rowing implement. The members of the Family Regalecidae, elongated deep-sea fishes, are called oarfish because their body shape is similar to that of an oar. The hawksbill turtle's genus of Eretmochelys is derived from the Greek root eretmo, which roughly translates to oar. The turtle was so-named because of the oar-like shape of its front flippers.
See also
Oar (sport rowing)
Sculling
Steering oar
Paddle
References
External links
Oar positions, 1775 – 1783 British Navy
Chinese inventions
Marine propulsion
Rowing equipment
Water sports equipment | [
0.029269417747855186,
0.1691305786371231,
0.21121743321418762,
0.3242877125740051,
-0.1522579789161682,
0.4668583869934082,
-0.5651973485946655,
-0.09813092648983002,
-0.4844265282154083,
-0.16662462055683136,
-0.024637874215841293,
0.3159763216972351,
-0.043061189353466034,
0.18630222976207733,
-0.008896413259208202,
0.042722735553979874,
0.28591203689575195,
0.2279939353466034,
-0.06436184048652649,
0.0072893425822257996,
-0.29146498441696167,
-0.20281369984149933,
0.5033674240112305,
0.05938015505671501,
0.29767099022865295,
-0.2973850965499878,
-0.020748745650053024,
0.1475277841091156,
-0.029095672070980072,
-0.12471229583024979,
0.1781664341688156,
1.0217546224594116,
-0.006680878344923258,
-0.1539381593465805,
-0.19681963324546814,
-0.32019031047821045,
-0.5209799408912659,
-0.5991842150688171,
-0.39787545800209045,
-0.2990008294582367,
-0.4401398003101349,
-0.10302209854125977,
0.47676876187324524,
0.49462273716926575,
0.11163603514432907,
-0.21931661665439606,
-1.3259049654006958,
0.15164980292320251,
-0.6774361729621887,
0.7771914601325989,
-0.7151048183441162,
-0.19393908977508545,
0.11279352009296417,
0.210077702999115,
-0.03450848534703255,
0.7352706789970398,
-0.07198253273963928,
0.05513953045010567,
0.23355555534362793,
-0.5855774283409119,
0.008980143815279007,
0.3126066029071808,
-0.259999543428421,
0.2806535065174103,
0.4866778552532196,
-0.22962138056755066,
-0.12851320207118988,
0.10696213692426682,
-0.3448103070259094,
-0.19308002293109894,
-0.017368871718645096,
0.16412055492401123,
-0.17083509266376495,
0.10231944173574448,
-0.29844579100608826,
-0.6407865881919861,
0.14467690885066986,
-0.19253122806549072,
0.08305267244577408,
-0.07031356543302536,
0.33205121755599976,
0.5542982220649719,
0.2876809537410736,
0.5030118227005005,
0.30162569880485535,
0.16996316611766815,
-0.8061179518699646,
0.6319973468780518,
-0.4879498779773712,
0.6189579367637634,
-0.16513222455978394,
-0.7222765684127808,
0.4299587309360504,
0.4346655607223511,
-0.18997091054916382,
-0.025051701813936234,
0.15721914172172546,
0.019198747351765633,
0.5219484567642212,
0.05933995544910431,
-0.04410475119948387,
-0.20929403603076935,
0.8698133230209351,
0.2435598224401474,
0.04790957644581795,
-0.11895610392093658,
-0.5600558519363403,
-0.5111531615257263,
-0.0773039385676384,
0.22784964740276337,
-0.3837329149246216,
0.5159053206443787,
-0.11538270860910416,
-0.07844100892543793,
0.358187198638916,
0.2861919403076172,
0.12270708382129669,
0.03105870634317398,
-0.23834235966205597,
-0.11879720538854599,
0.5035405158996582,
0.46520882844924927,
-0.027490833774209023,
-0.036325931549072266,
-0.1676708161830902,
-0.059250608086586,
0.22077158093452454,
0.7122440338134766,
-1.0639469623565674,
-0.2592869997024536,
0.3957434296607971,
0.8869963884353638,
-0.3125063180923462,
0.008544632233679295,
-0.6385878920555115,
0.30315864086151123,
0.25081199407577515,
-0.12766258418560028,
0.5268251299858093,
0.47718995809555054,
-1.1313804388046265,
-0.3907797634601593,
-0.2076442539691925,
-0.20561006665229797,
0.19835150241851807,
0.06408526003360748,
-0.22995872795581818,
-0.25347447395324707,
-0.634059488773346,
-0.34226173162460327,
-0.025540824979543686,
0.2877865731716156,
-0.39229723811149597,
0.16107845306396484,
-0.2644614577293396,
-0.04569780081510544,
0.11888420581817627,
-0.3712780773639679,
0.4494558870792389,
0.26739370822906494,
-0.08278520405292511,
0.049402110278606415,
-0.5922611355781555,
0.0991581380367279,
-0.011195339262485504,
-0.43499627709388733,
0.5360118746757507,
0.16699013113975525,
0.13706515729427338,
0.10848590731620789,
-0.0915650725364685,
-0.06351141631603241,
0.4651113450527191,
0.05073768272995949,
-0.17541879415512085,
-0.824882984161377,
0.49392664432525635,
0.21312357485294342,
0.996041476726532,
-0.02428370527923107,
-0.6486185193061829,
0.049658726900815964,
0.4238114356994629,
-0.1016714945435524,
0.004271987359970808,
-0.20965084433555603,
0.2569202184677124,
-0.3405982553958893,
0.11014936119318008,
-0.12154010683298111,
-0.20274384319782257,
-0.7792271375656128,
0.1400531828403473,
-0.3618139326572418,
1.1329268217086792,
-0.15956208109855652,
-0.4407366216182709,
0.7927168011665344,
-0.021714305505156517,
0.1518332064151764,
-0.1844572275876999,
0.34359440207481384,
0.261019766330719,
-0.1356218457221985,
-0.7869464755058289,
0.4364355206489563,
0.8805920481681824,
-0.034899745136499405,
0.0841037854552269,
-0.2560589611530304,
0.14586471021175385,
0.03668731451034546,
0.5752500891685486,
-0.5603651404380798,
-0.0411996953189373,
-0.30028337240219116,
-0.2218378782272339,
0.2522554099559784,
-0.23228691518306732,
0.21536770462989807,
1.3087599277496338,
-0.12033862620592117,
-0.461942583322525,
0.49269217252731323,
-0.03926234692335129,
0.42492690682411194,
0.5708214044570923,
0.1762203723192215,
0.1339954137802124,
-0.06492652744054794,
-0.020780164748430252,
-0.10624290257692337,
-0.18370676040649414,
-0.029481571167707443,
-0.4538682997226715,
0.05853763222694397,
0.24122388660907745,
-0.0665314793586731,
0.5573406219482422,
0.052417296916246414,
0.14373181760311127,
0.5190461874008179,
-0.7942141890525818,
0.34420767426490784,
0.6466812491416931,
-0.18815745413303375,
0.13908731937408447,
0.37026435136795044,
-0.0004530972510110587,
-0.3283825218677521,
-0.042338669300079346,
0.0535750575363636,
0.834226131439209,
-0.6299793124198914,
0.046347521245479584,
-0.15460695326328278,
-0.20114409923553467,
0.04759431257843971,
0.3591417968273163,
0.07873523980379105,
-0.21723626554012299,
0.04399481415748596,
0.2839215099811554,
-0.39226722717285156,
-0.157411590218544,
-0.17414043843746185,
-0.014704969711601734,
-0.3304612338542938,
0.2969835698604584,
0.6609735488891602,
0.3823626935482025,
0.5300359725952148,
-0.030162565410137177,
-0.509323239326477,
-0.32791781425476074,
-0.17325931787490845,
0.4328595995903015,
-0.24611854553222656,
-0.6771930456161499,
-0.5187621712684631,
0.1705418825149536,
0.49520260095596313,
-0.06872998178005219,
-0.6758716702461243,
0.24901731312274933,
0.013158387504518032,
-0.251707524061203,
0.19699367880821228,
-0.26147016882896423,
-0.8401498198509216,
-0.11891204863786697,
-0.341819167137146,
0.050349120050668716,
0.4479919672012329,
0.3440011143684387,
0.5836887359619141,
-0.18287451565265656,
-0.16630439460277557,
0.48610833287239075,
-0.3044651448726654,
-0.24348184466362,
-0.3275391459465027,
0.06960617750883102,
-0.22920957207679749,
-0.3884013891220093,
-0.04049569368362427,
0.10234291851520538,
0.3306210935115814,
-5.901453495025635,
-0.5104816555976868,
-0.5713818073272705,
0.1439700871706009,
0.45124372839927673,
0.09867000579833984,
0.25399887561798096,
-0.21418176591396332,
0.18210658431053162,
0.07198362052440643,
-0.24739600718021393,
0.42745232582092285,
-0.11024582386016846,
0.21904683113098145,
0.47287896275520325,
0.42254897952079773,
0.606246292591095,
0.2579267919063568,
-0.1912132203578949,
-0.3732530176639557,
-0.02194850519299507,
0.09536411613225937,
-0.51053386926651,
0.12291165441274643,
0.1799197942018509,
-0.8614391088485718,
-0.18656125664710999,
-0.07139651477336884,
-0.3669336438179016,
-0.030782554298639297,
-0.217451810836792,
-0.17043203115463257,
-0.1848716288805008,
-0.2874983251094818,
0.4917207956314087,
-0.1757531464099884,
0.5699435472488403,
0.4299640357494354,
0.5453442335128784,
-0.4081483483314514,
-0.6611579656600952,
0.3079555928707123,
0.19393134117126465,
-0.24692495167255402,
0.5596026182174683,
-0.6100783348083496,
-0.12808577716350555,
-0.1001572385430336,
0.18780115246772766,
0.7463610172271729,
0.07944969832897186,
0.1300322711467743,
0.8198139071464539,
-0.04930538311600685,
0.4603477120399475,
-0.1185358315706253,
0.49468329548835754,
0.016416192054748535,
-0.07647451013326645,
-0.044123269617557526,
0.6980754733085632,
-0.5337764024734497,
-0.3276321589946747,
-0.4109690189361572,
-0.29396921396255493,
-0.18576499819755554,
-0.10036040097475052,
-0.29809170961380005,
0.11735451221466064,
-0.32709982991218567,
-0.354696124792099,
0.8448305726051331,
0.35084545612335205,
-0.6451718211174011,
0.4122740924358368,
-0.2711424231529236,
0.09376472234725952,
-0.1444251388311386,
0.06627499312162399,
0.0047907112166285515,
-0.7863208055496216,
-0.3542737364768982,
-0.6779024600982666,
0.40267083048820496,
-0.08213651180267334,
-0.5832932591438293,
-0.06762931495904922,
-0.5157871246337891,
-0.10520335286855698,
-0.14194364845752716,
1.218955397605896,
0.09965916723012924,
0.3463984727859497,
0.36125949025154114,
0.4931996762752533,
0.37374645471572876,
-0.2604862451553345,
-0.08547846972942352,
0.672515332698822,
-0.23141922056674957,
0.03866666182875633,
0.3410834074020386,
-0.07679278403520584,
0.004048943519592285,
0.35575437545776367,
-0.34407827258110046,
-0.02675972692668438,
0.04136558994650841,
0.5916584730148315,
0.32390162348747253,
0.08025383949279785,
0.2675272226333618,
-0.04057658836245537,
-0.00841102097183466,
-0.01691379025578499,
0.4407535195350647,
-0.42332354187965393,
0.5820341110229492,
0.48145240545272827,
-0.21283279359340668,
0.14370429515838623,
0.2858245074748993,
-0.2615562677383423,
-0.3873268961906433,
-0.21031849086284637,
-0.20039647817611694,
0.23873674869537354,
0.08724430948495865,
-0.1903606355190277,
-0.05841952934861183,
0.6105182766914368,
0.6563858389854431,
0.39675191044807434,
-0.38975298404693604,
-0.4365915060043335,
-0.49249348044395447,
-0.32402995228767395,
0.1016102284193039,
-0.2307845652103424,
-0.5347808599472046,
-0.07944143563508987,
-0.47235509753227234,
0.1101648360490799,
-0.5823019742965698,
0.4133770167827606,
0.6756927371025085,
-0.18994149565696716,
0.5987024903297424,
-0.3666880130767822,
1.0194225311279297,
-0.4587729573249817,
-0.7217838168144226,
-0.13770514726638794,
-0.19883573055267334,
0.29710981249809265,
-0.27908197045326233,
0.14528340101242065,
0.22240608930587769,
0.021400809288024902,
-0.20460587739944458,
0.6262649297714233,
0.034491442143917084,
-0.6265532374382019,
-0.23733948171138763,
-0.38297706842422485,
0.41763001680374146,
-0.47442662715911865,
-0.11745352298021317,
0.07232054322957993,
0.2280636429786682,
-0.1789442002773285,
-0.44020259380340576,
-0.9339103698730469,
-0.19399388134479523,
0.2896203398704529,
-0.17804297804832458,
0.061209797859191895,
0.21476240456104279,
-0.13396362960338593,
-0.7017764449119568,
-0.1744656264781952,
0.15816643834114075,
0.16986125707626343,
0.27082738280296326,
0.23905296623706818,
-0.7639029622077942,
-0.4486454129219055,
0.09849551320075989,
-0.19753099977970123,
-0.079231396317482,
-0.26692917943000793,
0.3785511553287506,
0.6357111930847168,
-0.08140242099761963,
-0.5652564764022827,
0.26671862602233887,
-0.06047535687685013,
0.32332643866539,
-0.526485025882721,
-0.3486737608909607,
-0.252539724111557,
0.08474867790937424,
-0.5513594150543213,
-0.008372530341148376,
0.05345859006047249,
-0.31585171818733215,
0.3394249677658081,
-0.19051572680473328,
0.296229749917984,
0.1943664848804474,
-0.14940372109413147,
-0.5662277936935425,
0.019234219565987587,
0.5488190054893494,
-0.7108327746391296,
0.23727041482925415,
0.06578345596790314,
-0.12521930038928986,
-0.03869975358247757,
-0.08450900763273239,
-0.011314311064779758,
-0.2529918849468231,
-0.042627058923244476,
-0.14881184697151184,
-0.7393728494644165,
0.30316317081451416,
-0.12316763401031494,
0.03707227483391762,
0.3632303476333618,
-0.18500672280788422,
-0.4795393645763397,
-0.38046693801879883,
-0.06901001930236816,
-0.032696519047021866,
0.522315502166748,
0.14997366070747375,
-0.24304929375648499,
0.10253889858722687,
-0.4024428129196167,
-0.09086020290851593,
0.6502739787101746,
1.132132649421692,
0.12526535987854004,
0.0960303321480751,
-0.15880624949932098,
0.501447319984436,
-0.3664183020591736,
-0.36740434169769287,
-0.7618325352668762,
-0.17848171293735504,
0.7131622433662415,
-0.2762490212917328,
-0.5072588920593262,
-0.41563448309898376,
0.3718704283237457,
-0.09420598298311234,
0.01267317309975624,
-0.23090459406375885,
0.06227815896272659,
0.5444932579994202,
0.2577824890613556,
-0.06660176813602448,
-0.6824301481246948,
-0.15849235653877258,
-0.08778620511293411,
0.043226514011621475,
-0.5573102831840515,
-0.3084542453289032,
0.2940363883972168,
-0.12485302984714508,
0.41313305497169495,
0.2303675413131714,
0.24324530363082886,
0.3413879871368408,
0.5440047383308411,
0.2457921952009201,
-0.12508565187454224,
-0.30770307779312134,
0.6153979301452637,
0.10169792175292969,
-0.42174017429351807,
0.5808587074279785,
0.1760050356388092,
-0.3380241394042969,
-0.05773050710558891,
0.5548137426376343,
0.3746521770954132,
-0.125331848859787,
0.048575129359960556,
-0.13084833323955536,
0.04027527570724487,
-0.24361173808574677,
-0.33320486545562744,
0.8129791617393494,
0.05548527091741562,
0.2982327342033386,
0.1630147099494934,
0.5704250335693359,
-0.47362348437309265,
0.2067718654870987,
-0.7919238805770874,
0.4631810784339905,
0.45133572816848755,
-0.8238821029663086,
0.3778393268585205,
0.13858284056186676,
-0.08604885637760162,
-0.37823060154914856,
0.2832517623901367,
0.09975117444992065,
0.5752843618392944,
0.08258122205734253,
-0.5858671069145203,
1.013453483581543,
-0.3061656653881073,
0.024805091321468353,
0.6471202373504639,
-0.4979788064956665,
0.041831955313682556,
0.37813863158226013,
-0.2676766514778137,
-0.35270965099334717,
-0.4052501916885376,
-0.1516740620136261,
-0.2561505138874054,
-0.2990361750125885,
-0.36069539189338684,
-0.6080199480056763,
0.16146785020828247,
0.8733125925064087,
0.39046037197113037,
-0.05417448654770851,
-0.20101763308048248,
0.35414695739746094,
-0.44912731647491455,
0.020749645307660103,
-0.07063788920640945,
-0.3590497374534607,
-0.147193044424057,
0.7240602970123291,
0.08082208037376404,
0.36172568798065186,
-0.12525664269924164,
-0.2792796790599823,
-0.08641574531793594,
0.2958553433418274,
-0.061660829931497574,
0.45813894271850586,
-0.7110164165496826,
0.3477931320667267,
-0.23861175775527954,
-0.1185670793056488,
0.23698778450489044,
-0.442580908536911,
-0.44091078639030457,
-0.6422036290168762,
0.22435607016086578,
-0.20237275958061218,
0.3229745626449585,
0.18600602447986603,
0.3756680488586426,
0.40756380558013916,
0.19824358820915222,
-0.7316398620605469,
0.17217516899108887,
-0.2684425115585327,
0.23175428807735443,
-1.1154741048812866,
0.09665162116289139,
0.2612159252166748,
-0.01584636978805065,
0.9469299912452698,
-0.5005987286567688,
-0.054677508771419525,
-0.2217571884393692,
0.5302286148071289,
-0.030840381979942322,
0.13726337254047394,
-0.12347741425037384,
-0.42855149507522583,
-0.3637607991695404,
0.14702683687210083,
-0.2342141717672348,
-0.3855269253253937,
-0.5657599568367004,
-0.12609981000423431,
0.214723601937294,
0.43779993057250977,
0.3910571336746216,
0.0502421110868454,
-0.225592240691185,
-0.4794050455093384,
0.2549278140068054,
0.14225177466869354,
-0.14037621021270752,
-0.2909559905529022,
0.014365287497639656,
0.5975280404090881,
0.5221672654151917,
0.3340965211391449,
0.19475746154785156,
0.4615878760814667,
0.21065081655979156,
0.1932017058134079,
0.046999018639326096,
0.14890338480472565,
-0.2964804172515869,
0.060501545667648315,
-0.036036595702171326,
0.2044445425271988,
0.7972835302352905,
-0.4440627694129944,
-0.09443870931863785,
0.23937760293483734,
0.2366417497396469,
0.5351149439811707,
0.5115858912467957,
-0.4806908369064331,
0.25024235248565674,
-0.04476403445005417,
-0.5035285949707031,
0.23394668102264404,
-0.5183369517326355,
0.06829708069562912,
-0.4115249812602997,
0.09235996752977371,
0.0688336044549942,
-0.5737599730491638,
-0.47978487610816956,
0.2417048066854477,
-0.4398147761821747,
0.655005156993866,
-0.9524609446525574,
0.47850897908210754,
-0.10812025517225266,
-0.05326385051012039,
-0.12883731722831726,
0.19620954990386963,
0.36148539185523987,
-0.09777837246656418,
0.08962299674749374,
0.2836126387119293,
0.1643231064081192,
0.1060541644692421,
-0.7230488061904907,
-0.13604387640953064,
-0.26389580965042114,
0.04607084020972252,
-0.31895092129707336,
0.026834212243556976,
0.2657906413078308,
-0.6055492162704468,
0.17987537384033203,
0.16337648034095764,
0.034244898706674576,
0.10960423946380615,
0.2892307639122009,
-0.9299257397651672,
-0.6406635046005249,
0.055220507085323334
] |
248056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule%2C%20Britannia%21 | Rule, Britannia! | "Rule, Britannia!" is a British patriotic song, originating from the 1740 poem "Rule, Britannia" by James Thomson and set to music by Thomas Arne in the same year. It is most strongly associated with the Royal Navy, but is also used by the British Army.
Alfred
The song was originally the final musical number in Thomas Arne's Alfred, a masque about Alfred the Great, co-written by James Thomson and David Mallet and first performed at Cliveden, the country home of Frederick, Prince of Wales, on 1 August 1740.
Lyrics
This version is taken from The Works of James Thomson by James Thomson, Published 1763, Vol II, p. 191, which includes the entire text of Alfred.
"Married to a Mermaid"
In 1751 Mallet re-used the text of "Rule, Britannia!", omitting three of the original six stanzas and adding three new ones by Lord Bolingbroke, to form the repeated chorus of a comic song "Married to a Mermaid". This became extremely popular when Mallet produced his masque Britannia at Drury Lane Theatre in 1755.
Symbolism
"Rule, Britannia!" soon developed an independent life of its own, separate from the masque of which it had formed a part. First heard in London in 1745, it achieved instant popularity. It quickly became so well known that Handel quoted it in his Occasional Oratorio in the following year. Handel used the first phrase as part of the Act II soprano aria, "Prophetic visions strike my eye", when the soprano sings it at the words "War shall cease, welcome peace!" The song was seized upon by the Jacobites, who altered Thomson's words to a pro-Jacobite version.
According to Armitage "Rule, Britannia" was the most lasting expression of the conception of Britain and the British Empire that emerged in the 1730s, "predicated on a mixture of adulterated mercantilism, nationalistic anxiety and libertarian fervour". He equates the song with Bolingbroke's On the Idea of a Patriot King (1738), also written for the private circle of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in which Bolingbroke had "raised the spectre of permanent standing armies that might be turned against the British people rather than their enemies". Hence British naval power could be equated with civil liberty, since an island nation with a strong navy to defend it could afford to dispense with a standing army which, since the time of Cromwell, was seen as a threat and a source of tyranny.
At the time it appeared, the song was not a celebration of an existing state of naval affairs, but an exhortation. Although the Dutch Republic, which in the 17th century presented a major challenge to English sea power, was obviously past its peak by 1745, Britain did not yet "rule the waves", although, since it was written during the War of Jenkins' Ear, it could be argued that the words referred to the alleged Spanish aggression against British merchant vessels that caused the war. The time was still to come when the Royal Navy would be an unchallenged dominant force on the oceans. The jesting lyrics of the mid-18th century would assume a material and patriotic significance by the end of the 19th century.
"Rule, Britannia!" is often written as simply "Rule Britannia", omitting both the comma and the exclamation mark, which changes the interpretation of the lyric by altering the punctuation. Richard Dawkins recounts in his 1976 book The Selfish Gene that the repeated exclamation "Rule, Britannia! Britannia, rule the waves!" is often rendered as "Rule, Britannia! Britannia rules the waves!", changing the meaning of the verse. This addition of a terminal 's' to the lyrics is used as an example of a successful meme.
Maurice Willson Disher notes that the change from "Britannia, rule the waves" to "Britannia rules the waves" occurred in the Victorian era, at a time when the British did rule the waves and no longer needed to be exhorted to rule them. Disher also notes that the Victorians changed "will" to "shall" in the line "Britons never shall be slaves".
The song assumed extra significance in 1945 at the conclusion of World War II when it was played at the ceremonial surrender of the Japanese imperial army in Singapore. A massed military band of Australian, British and American forces played as Supreme Allied Commander Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma arrived.
"Rule, Britannia!" (in an orchestral arrangement by Sir Malcolm Sargent) is traditionally performed at the BBC's Last Night of the Proms, normally with a guest soloist (past performers have included Jane Eaglen, Bryn Terfel, Thomas Hampson, Joseph Calleja, and Felicity Lott). It has always been the last part of Sir Henry Wood's 1905 Fantasia on British Sea Songs, except that for many years up until 2000, the Sargent arrangement has been used. However, in recent years the inclusion of the song and other patriotic tunes has been much criticised—notably by Leonard Slatkin—and the presentation has been occasionally amended. For some years the performance at the Last Night of the Proms reverted to Sir Henry Wood's original arrangement. When Bryn Terfel performed it at the Proms in 1994 and 2008 he sang the third verse in Welsh. The text is available at Rule Britannia .
Musical derivatives
Arne's tune has been used by, or at least quoted by, a great many composers of which the following are a few examples.
The melody was the theme for a set of variations for piano by Ludwig van Beethoven (WoO 79) and he also used it in "Wellington's Victory", Op. 91, and in extracted and varied form in the second movement of his Piano Sonata No. 24, Op. 78, "À Thérèse".
Richard Wagner wrote a concert overture in D major based on the theme in 1837 (WWV 42). He subsequently made it the basis of his "Große Sonata" for piano, Op. 4.
Ferdinand Ries quotes from it in "The Dream" (also known as "Il sogno") for piano, Op. 49, and wrote Variations on Rule Britannia for orchestra, Op. 116.
Johann Strauss I quoted the song in full as the introduction to his 1838 waltz "Huldigung der Königin Victoria von Grossbritannien" (Homage to Queen Victoria of Great Britain), Op. 103, where he also quotes the British national anthem "God Save the Queen" at the end of the piece.
The French organist-composer Alexandre Guilmant included this tune in his Fantaisie sur deux mélodies anglaises for organ Op. 43, where he also makes use of the song "Home! Sweet Home!". Likewise, the French composer Alexandre Goria used the tune as part of his Salut à la Grande Brétagne - Six airs anglese transcrite et variée, 1re. Suite No. 8, Op. 44.
Arthur Sullivan, perhaps Britain's most popular composer during the reign of Queen Victoria, quoted from "Rule, Britannia!" on at least three occasions in music for his comic operas written with W. S. Gilbert and Bolton Rowe. In Utopia Limited, Sullivan used airs from "Rule, Britannia!" to highlight references to Great Britain. In The Zoo (written with Rowe) Sullivan applied the tune of "Rule, Britannia!" to an instance in which Rowe's libretto quotes directly from the patriotic march. Finally, to celebrate the jubilee of Queen Victoria in 1887, Sullivan added a chorus of "Rule, Britannia!" to the finale of HMS Pinafore, which was playing in revival at the Savoy Theatre. Sullivan also quoted the tune in his 1897 ballet Victoria and Merrie England, which traced the "history" of England from the time of the Druids up to Victoria's Diamond Jubilee, an event the ballet was meant to celebrate.
The part of the tune's refrain on the word "never" (often corrupted to "never, never, never"), is among those claimed to have provided the theme on which Edward Elgar's 1899 Enigma Variations are based. Elgar also quotes the opening phrase of "Rule, Britannia!" in his 1912 choral work The Music Makers, based on Arthur O'Shaughnessy's Ode at the line "We fashion an empire's glory", where he also quotes "La Marseillaise".
Noël Coward began his 1931 song "Mad Dogs and Englishmen" with the first 10 notes of "Rule Britannia".
Stan Freberg used the first 10 notes of "Rule Britannia" a couple of times in his 1961 album History of the America: The Early Years.
In the 1963 film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World, the Algernon theme quotes the chorus of "Rule Britannia".
References
Bibliography
Thomas Augustine Arne: Alfred. Musica Britannica vol. XLVII, editor: Alexander Scott, Stainer & Bell, London 1981, (full score, Urtext edition)
External links
Rule, Britannia!: Scores at International Music Score Library Project
Married To A Mermaid
Band version (121KB, MP3 file)
BBC Symphony Orchestra, Bryn Terfel, Last Night of the Proms, Live 1994 copyright BBC and Teldec Classics GmbH, (4:27 min, ca 4 MB, MP3 file, which has four verses, the third sung in Welsh)
Beethoven Haus Bonn, Variationen über das englische Volkslied "Rule Britannia" für Klavier (D-Dur) WoO 79
"Rule, Britannia!" Sarah Connolly at the Last Night of the Proms 2009
British patriotic songs
Compositions by Thomas Arne
National symbols of the United Kingdom
Rangers F.C. songs
1740 songs
Songs about the United Kingdom
Works about the British Armed Forces
Sea shanties
Songs based on poems
Britannia | [
-0.022039681673049927,
0.4080061614513397,
0.5478659272193909,
-0.3859303593635559,
-0.017544258385896683,
0.005397467873990536,
0.513056218624115,
0.10001832246780396,
-0.318319708108902,
-0.09123404324054718,
-0.4722263813018799,
0.14916548132896423,
-0.4250621497631073,
0.7065497040748596,
-0.27016717195510864,
0.6901102066040039,
0.10706575214862823,
0.35246673226356506,
0.005303095560520887,
-0.3269244432449341,
-0.06291411817073822,
-0.10976669192314148,
0.40621131658554077,
0.06916577368974686,
0.011102104559540749,
-0.3435939848423004,
0.9413575530052185,
0.21479663252830505,
-0.5714885592460632,
0.21642333269119263,
-0.01976076327264309,
0.017340265214443207,
-0.14910343289375305,
0.19984671473503113,
-0.557093620300293,
0.28756004571914673,
-0.17517274618148804,
0.09643496572971344,
-0.30613401532173157,
-0.9560724496841431,
0.21974879503250122,
-0.8205838203430176,
0.9235491156578064,
-0.32209599018096924,
-0.33201757073402405,
-0.12694349884986877,
-1.0907657146453857,
0.34136873483657837,
-0.42378517985343933,
-0.6807070374488831,
0.02404242940247059,
0.9492396116256714,
-0.34425443410873413,
0.11927471309900284,
-0.11961554735898972,
-0.3228914439678192,
-0.7421789169311523,
0.22916151583194733,
-0.10024113953113556,
-0.6578558087348938,
0.611014723777771,
0.5252686738967896,
0.49438273906707764,
0.19442325830459595,
0.5363221764564514,
0.2964065372943878,
-0.5925613045692444,
0.3512188494205475,
-0.06403666734695435,
-0.4261888563632965,
-0.21368291974067688,
0.05799626186490059,
0.1102498471736908,
0.2878177762031555,
-0.3756936490535736,
-0.277264267206192,
0.3139044940471649,
0.5571152567863464,
0.5378215312957764,
0.18642649054527283,
0.019190559163689613,
-0.46189823746681213,
0.7513473629951477,
0.6846029162406921,
-0.1309756338596344,
-0.008024496026337147,
0.026848649606108665,
-0.1845487654209137,
-0.5172289609909058,
0.09020385891199112,
-0.5650339722633362,
-0.018141712993383408,
0.3353377878665924,
0.06388203054666519,
-0.03867467865347862,
-0.513857364654541,
-0.08104803413152695,
0.7305589318275452,
-0.33954745531082153,
-0.25035560131073,
0.05141063034534454,
-0.09269329160451889,
0.23638802766799927,
-0.046833500266075134,
-0.991032063961029,
0.0022960801143199205,
-0.11012464761734009,
-0.4421938359737396,
0.31767189502716064,
0.4617141783237457,
0.23319053649902344,
-0.3471059203147888,
0.05962635576725006,
-0.1752951592206955,
0.2796836793422699,
0.0255650132894516,
0.21597330272197723,
-0.4011441767215729,
-0.0915285125374794,
-0.21305455267429352,
-0.06562618166208267,
0.14277613162994385,
0.3562573492527008,
-0.25071775913238525,
-0.05473184585571289,
0.5213228464126587,
0.07672721147537231,
0.3809531033039093,
-0.14796793460845947,
0.24875785410404205,
0.3222792446613312,
0.7743563055992126,
-0.6781541705131531,
-0.20727530121803284,
-0.20154182612895966,
-0.3648774027824402,
0.4314550757408142,
-0.4297163784503937,
0.41296762228012085,
0.0030354722402989864,
-0.16283057630062103,
-0.2811887562274933,
-0.779934287071228,
0.019501835107803345,
0.6867523193359375,
-0.6518348455429077,
-0.5782279968261719,
0.10761566460132599,
-0.4181922972202301,
-0.1473357379436493,
-0.015711845830082893,
-0.3546091318130493,
0.16473501920700073,
-0.058941200375556946,
-0.22429387271404266,
-0.46741530299186707,
0.13478145003318787,
0.3309812545776367,
0.703471302986145,
0.3568066656589508,
-0.2635490298271179,
0.4345465898513794,
0.33137789368629456,
-0.40156838297843933,
0.05245758220553398,
-0.5900644063949585,
0.725186824798584,
0.7773213982582092,
-0.30449625849723816,
-0.5673655867576599,
-0.5294078588485718,
0.3865743577480316,
0.43353497982025146,
0.6973507404327393,
0.1477392315864563,
0.7024743556976318,
1.0156428813934326,
0.2738610506057739,
0.4745366871356964,
-0.0615634024143219,
-0.7350353002548218,
0.024708664044737816,
0.7884889245033264,
-0.06744136661291122,
0.5218281149864197,
0.40750813484191895,
0.6510271430015564,
-0.4396567642688751,
-0.19800667464733124,
-0.09424528479576111,
-0.25155070424079895,
-0.49528515338897705,
0.6493104696273804,
-0.16170869767665863,
0.11265398561954498,
0.27673396468162537,
-0.4479556083679199,
0.7630334496498108,
0.19256901741027832,
0.9764774441719055,
0.3708404004573822,
0.5797922611236572,
0.8303632140159607,
-0.019456366077065468,
-0.18146955966949463,
0.4005517065525055,
-0.3729996383190155,
0.5317966938018799,
0.04736488312482834,
-0.007054613903164864,
-0.43360093235969543,
-0.4201069176197052,
0.5278595089912415,
0.08012828975915909,
-0.6790822744369507,
-0.6378411054611206,
-0.020655039697885513,
0.18690632283687592,
-0.0305535476654768,
-0.48359522223472595,
-0.1793220341205597,
0.08721624314785004,
-0.013863938860595226,
-0.02868879958987236,
0.4014228880405426,
-0.11950401216745377,
-0.1422906517982483,
-0.06832050532102585,
-0.1883586347103119,
-0.0023095111828297377,
-0.6185116767883301,
0.023334862664341927,
-0.23605689406394958,
0.2720968723297119,
0.534326434135437,
-0.06124775484204292,
0.4311138689517975,
-0.2072330266237259,
-0.18977229297161102,
0.20919246971607208,
0.29018089175224304,
-0.2681333124637604,
-0.24849949777126312,
0.640855073928833,
-0.057861145585775375,
-0.1304563283920288,
0.23273321986198425,
-0.3431416451931,
0.1876707375049591,
0.22052672505378723,
0.6272055506706238,
0.04591425135731697,
-0.08487491309642792,
0.3693057596683502,
-0.3571799397468567,
-0.35032325983047485,
-0.10322845727205276,
-0.1764010190963745,
-0.3760795295238495,
0.1957828253507614,
-0.5641529560089111,
-0.455371230840683,
0.15525922179222107,
-0.0996166542172432,
0.13105414807796478,
-1.1865519285202026,
-0.6463379859924316,
-0.15939970314502716,
-0.23785893619060516,
-0.02897876501083374,
0.034368161112070084,
0.1598992794752121,
0.08158592134714127,
0.4431687295436859,
0.49912136793136597,
-0.3130919933319092,
0.0899357870221138,
-0.3847874701023102,
-0.7591996192932129,
-1.220526099205017,
0.3183002769947052,
0.872033417224884,
-0.019062871113419533,
-0.7969608902931213,
0.03146545961499214,
-0.5706362128257751,
0.7712517976760864,
-0.45288509130477905,
-0.2601238787174225,
0.40742620825767517,
0.14566297829151154,
-0.007002694066613913,
-0.47173094749450684,
-0.36833855509757996,
0.18816962838172913,
0.22400715947151184,
0.499870240688324,
0.16689138114452362,
-0.5784447193145752,
0.22671274840831757,
-0.22131812572479248,
0.17406241595745087,
0.14611095190048218,
-0.01670249179005623,
0.7760918140411377,
-0.7583949565887451,
0.06706009805202484,
0.09777455031871796,
-5.414242744445801,
-0.08748501539230347,
0.5263098478317261,
-0.3383605480194092,
-0.052892737090587616,
0.28812605142593384,
0.578294038772583,
0.1932590901851654,
-0.31566259264945984,
-0.42303434014320374,
0.22169560194015503,
-0.13149937987327576,
-0.15378257632255554,
0.38359200954437256,
0.6732888221740723,
-0.10930751264095306,
0.6595323085784912,
-0.5795587301254272,
0.2066935896873474,
0.30892765522003174,
0.43672630190849304,
-0.3134942054748535,
0.5539047122001648,
0.38698819279670715,
0.2708939015865326,
0.19153591990470886,
0.7760798335075378,
-0.03026079759001732,
-0.6176333427429199,
-0.040759168565273285,
0.0354171097278595,
0.1040661484003067,
0.45289701223373413,
-1.0544437170028687,
-0.09273765981197357,
0.1399003118276596,
0.31581002473831177,
0.1150464341044426,
0.4337562620639801,
-0.4236990809440613,
-0.10358483344316483,
-0.2904635965824127,
0.3261059820652008,
-0.212776780128479,
-0.29074615240097046,
-0.23640939593315125,
-0.3926571011543274,
0.5023832321166992,
-0.3625726103782654,
0.6179524064064026,
-0.20142661035060883,
0.003934020176529884,
0.5863681435585022,
-0.5721071362495422,
-0.7031638026237488,
-0.004242826718837023,
-0.3094056248664856,
0.19278991222381592,
0.05873570218682289,
-0.13873548805713654,
0.5939282178878784,
-0.09276463836431503,
-0.2841236889362335,
0.27784061431884766,
0.22611424326896667,
-0.4725956320762634,
-0.46288001537323,
0.21910493075847626,
-0.026647064834833145,
0.8447582125663757,
0.4650624990463257,
-0.05598394572734833,
0.2797219455242157,
-0.858323335647583,
-0.45484301447868347,
-0.4668292701244354,
-0.10433073341846466,
-0.4675033688545227,
0.2668460011482239,
-0.08242403715848923,
-0.13607527315616608,
-0.3735210597515106,
-0.5275401473045349,
0.43502748012542725,
-0.29313924908638,
-0.8577783703804016,
-0.2945214509963989,
0.6230964064598083,
-0.17645342648029327,
-0.3139052093029022,
0.39734524488449097,
-0.5866222381591797,
-0.1832108348608017,
0.6890000700950623,
0.581669807434082,
0.29616495966911316,
0.004254806321114302,
-0.4557552933692932,
0.685685396194458,
-0.09837070107460022,
0.06950763612985611,
-0.07758211344480515,
0.5531412959098816,
-0.09182627499103546,
0.3662686347961426,
-0.04821360111236572,
-0.6025062203407288,
-0.0035934126935899258,
0.44367125630378723,
0.29535365104675293,
-0.03012733906507492,
-0.1407034695148468,
-0.2155095487833023,
-0.30100542306900024,
-0.10006225109100342,
-0.9372720122337341,
0.17798100411891937,
0.05453990027308464,
0.5905704498291016,
0.07169840484857559,
-0.2878435552120209,
0.6221773624420166,
-0.4473111629486084,
0.4792396128177643,
-0.4864175021648407,
0.3024294078350067,
1.0016728639602661,
0.2277136594057083,
-0.1639232635498047,
-0.7101733088493347,
-0.019215116277337074,
-0.8811225295066833,
0.3126739263534546,
0.06872343271970749,
0.0718454122543335,
-0.24427182972431183,
-0.2432636171579361,
-0.07084053009748459,
-0.2819505035877228,
-0.056741863489151,
-0.8802800178527832,
-0.3841851055622101,
0.2551542818546295,
0.2809053659439087,
0.7917612791061401,
0.6343690156936646,
0.28302767872810364,
0.33360666036605835,
-0.4033723771572113,
0.6750068068504333,
0.02366548404097557,
-0.44567519426345825,
1.1857823133468628,
-1.1845189332962036,
-0.4542256295681,
-0.10312613844871521,
0.25105559825897217,
0.01480760145932436,
0.3157421946525574,
-0.5193682312965393,
-0.14841049909591675,
-0.4575595259666443,
-1.215529441833496,
-0.032177165150642395,
-0.34741055965423584,
0.38299036026000977,
-0.3224557042121887,
-0.41542312502861023,
-0.07358481734991074,
0.11719902604818344,
0.19099706411361694,
-0.08566254377365112,
0.12664499878883362,
-0.13299208879470825,
-0.005090306978672743,
0.16338708996772766,
-0.44753384590148926,
-0.20749637484550476,
0.24826325476169586,
-0.34303703904151917,
-0.7421085238456726,
0.0829525887966156,
-0.7549295425415039,
0.24313859641551971,
-0.07784203439950943,
-0.1280207633972168,
-0.35703569650650024,
0.07967004179954529,
-0.10111337900161743,
-0.21701285243034363,
0.04553857445716858,
0.30516865849494934,
0.08972688019275665,
-0.44544467329978943,
-0.7060319781303406,
-0.15767529606819153,
0.152685284614563,
0.6549719572067261,
-0.0997544452548027,
-0.23710912466049194,
0.33569416403770447,
0.08091115206480026,
-0.2157338261604309,
0.009427204728126526,
-0.03200585022568703,
-0.37371206283569336,
0.7980586886405945,
-0.2437725067138672,
-1.0173968076705933,
1.0622650384902954,
-0.4021880030632019,
-0.8944346904754639,
0.1188582107424736,
0.6454086899757385,
-0.7092233896255493,
-0.9101272821426392,
-0.2740660309791565,
-0.5093379020690918,
0.05337706580758095,
-0.39428186416625977,
-0.22614723443984985,
-0.4534680247306824,
-0.3822554647922516,
0.8742649555206299,
-0.9760485887527466,
0.08191950619220734,
-0.3434317708015442,
-0.15183240175247192,
0.4186141788959503,
-0.9163920879364014,
-0.2984797954559326,
0.4993029534816742,
0.3532778322696686,
0.4272178113460541,
-0.7306638956069946,
0.12773707509040833,
-0.31757795810699463,
0.2774702310562134,
-0.40312492847442627,
0.5463096499443054,
0.6028780341148376,
0.6695837378501892,
0.4133547246456146,
-0.4935464859008789,
-0.07074970752000809,
-0.19747667014598846,
0.24443086981773376,
0.27016520500183105,
-0.3040134608745575,
-0.0246441513299942,
0.10224999487400055,
0.07691874355077744,
-0.49619051814079285,
-0.04359610378742218,
0.580268383026123,
-0.9556532502174377,
0.45930445194244385,
0.35318300127983093,
0.35888782143592834,
0.19607268273830414,
0.16565172374248505,
0.7424204349517822,
-0.5006429553031921,
-0.023570002987980843,
0.18394827842712402,
0.5573943853378296,
0.15696537494659424,
-0.18036243319511414,
0.0026301511097699404,
0.4627697765827179,
0.223677396774292,
-0.7536475658416748,
-0.024983497336506844,
0.015300665982067585,
0.2479270100593567,
0.07750125974416733,
0.01592906564474106,
-0.1358589231967926,
0.849888026714325,
0.47131434082984924,
-0.576088011264801,
0.5302444100379944,
-0.2683034837245941,
-0.8710046410560608,
0.11733541637659073,
-1.0712056159973145,
-0.32934674620628357,
0.20701485872268677,
-0.07928624749183655,
0.27315276861190796,
-0.6900438070297241,
0.44985949993133545,
0.6215564608573914,
0.07890831679105759,
-0.03919282555580139,
0.19858181476593018,
-0.39324066042900085,
-0.24911044538021088,
-0.3129422068595886,
-0.16660049557685852,
-0.6927818655967712,
0.4535573124885559,
0.22092947363853455,
-0.017641687765717506,
0.49400725960731506,
-0.44416069984436035,
0.4489628076553345,
-0.12165369093418121,
-0.580107569694519,
0.2805723547935486,
0.23542377352714539,
-0.32624879479408264,
0.4728127717971802,
0.722710132598877,
-0.23174265027046204,
-0.028658922761678696,
0.9283610582351685,
-0.40802377462387085,
0.2074722945690155,
0.5196802616119385,
0.090569406747818,
-0.5487108826637268,
0.6840692758560181,
0.7189412117004395,
0.13407696783542633,
-0.44682618975639343,
-0.3564642071723938,
-0.4753369987010956,
0.5018606781959534,
0.24141709506511688,
0.18679913878440857,
-0.08093849569559097,
-0.8511413931846619,
1.1262861490249634,
-0.8482846021652222,
-0.50660240650177,
0.49656662344932556,
-0.5353435277938843,
-0.5545868277549744,
0.45045194029808044,
0.11257743835449219,
-0.49593043327331543,
0.06677262485027313,
-0.6024166941642761,
-0.08395330607891083,
-0.19608105719089508,
-0.3334786295890808,
-0.000745448749512434,
0.2779800593852997,
-0.4645320773124695,
0.13298825919628143,
0.6173542141914368,
0.4210675358772278,
-0.6445049047470093,
1.126410722732544,
-0.41715362668037415,
0.1612790822982788,
-0.0949995294213295,
0.14682260155677795,
0.22437749803066254,
-0.5708868503570557,
-0.008641221560537815,
0.4851967692375183,
-0.5098118782043457,
-0.4146168828010559,
0.6950433850288391,
0.7544180750846863,
0.04221430420875549,
-0.24271449446678162,
0.3022272288799286,
0.517065167427063,
-0.00042999148718081415,
0.2845906615257263,
0.3916938304901123,
0.13713443279266357,
-0.10411854833364487,
-0.5127370357513428,
0.4574085474014282,
0.4674913287162781,
0.025957491248846054,
-0.5087196826934814,
0.4118998348712921,
0.32880258560180664,
-0.5452467799186707,
0.5092601776123047,
-0.33450689911842346,
-0.2895715832710266,
-0.35306698083877563,
-0.22744858264923096,
0.11195027083158493,
0.2564060091972351,
-0.6568107604980469,
-1.060207486152649,
-0.450758695602417,
-0.4170800745487213,
-0.5092073678970337,
-0.0017853667959570885,
1.1598682403564453,
-0.06154937297105789,
0.24914216995239258,
1.0519487857818604,
0.5234904885292053,
0.39568692445755005,
-0.06434688717126846,
0.35856708884239197,
0.5957437753677368,
-0.3568514287471771,
0.3358261287212372,
-0.34272727370262146,
0.12303470820188522,
-0.2847713828086853,
0.2162214070558548,
-0.12489795684814453,
0.49884599447250366,
-0.5863932967185974,
-0.5660210847854614,
0.3213736116886139,
-0.19696445763111115,
-0.035910893231630325,
-0.6818569302558899,
0.10837351530790329,
0.1668119728565216,
0.009706766344606876,
0.17059148848056793,
-0.38328367471694946,
0.46188923716545105,
-0.12879574298858643,
-0.16054312884807587,
-0.6493467092514038,
0.6649177074432373,
0.13748404383659363,
-0.28984320163726807,
0.1765913963317871,
0.08498354256153107,
-0.09749361127614975,
0.5593929886817932,
0.3111813962459564,
-0.3032194972038269,
-0.7867900133132935,
-0.687039852142334,
0.4841107130050659,
-0.2579774856567383,
0.4605594873428345,
0.056999631226062775,
-0.003297114511951804,
-0.08331675082445145,
0.09173706918954849,
0.23895025253295898,
-0.35857412219047546,
0.5716683268547058,
0.39342406392097473,
0.2895248234272003,
0.3670508563518524,
-0.6969237923622131,
0.3675166070461273,
-0.38760295510292053,
0.08441070467233658,
-0.38245701789855957,
-0.12849745154380798,
0.5948399901390076
] |
248058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Fahrion | USS Fahrion | USS Fahrion (FFG-22), fourteenth ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Admiral Frank George Fahrion (1894–1970).
Ordered from Todd Pacific, Seattle, WA on 28 February 1977 as part of the FY77 program, Fahrion was laid down on 1 December 1978, launched on 24 August 1979, and commissioned on 16 January 1982. Transferred to Egypt on 15 March 1998 as ENS Sharm El-Sheik (F901), she was formally decommissioned and stricken on 31 March 1998. , Sharm El-Sheik remained in active service with the Egyptian Navy.
Fahrion (FFG-22) was the first ship of that name in the US Navy.
Operations and Missions
Multinational Peacekeeping Force Beirut Lebanon - Oct. 1983 - March 1984
Operation Earnest Will -MEF 2–86
Operation Earnest Will -MEF 2–88 (May 1988 – Sept 1988)
Baltops 89 (June 1989 – Sept 1989)
Great Lakes Cruise (June 1990 – September 1990)
Operation Abel Vigil (June 1994 – August 1994)
UNITAS 36–95 (27 June 1995-December 1995)
Great Lakes Cruise (June 1997 – September 1997)
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS Fahrion FFG-22 pages
GlobalSecurity.org FFG-22
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Seattle
1979 ships
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States
Mubarak-class frigates
Frigates of Egypt | [
-0.407183974981308,
0.465586394071579,
-0.10488713532686234,
0.00945278163999319,
-0.5027251243591309,
1.0020846128463745,
0.6922860145568848,
-0.8941380381584167,
-0.46946051716804504,
-0.16103214025497437,
-0.20214413106441498,
0.21617598831653595,
-0.37228360772132874,
0.3821638226509094,
0.41843608021736145,
0.49373844265937805,
-0.131558358669281,
0.5608807802200317,
0.07835445553064346,
0.09924010932445526,
-0.2350870668888092,
-0.2183883935213089,
0.5885998010635376,
0.05437213182449341,
0.10316818207502365,
0.3714461326599121,
0.6476643681526184,
-0.09125210344791412,
0.42085686326026917,
0.21685868501663208,
0.1225031390786171,
0.4946284592151642,
-0.02438698709011078,
-0.4182586371898651,
0.24889330565929413,
0.2315470576286316,
0.010853053070604801,
-0.15669642388820648,
-0.16691547632217407,
-0.3753374516963959,
-0.6316918134689331,
-0.4634590446949005,
-0.0026237918063998222,
-0.2978281080722809,
-0.7842930555343628,
-0.13539664447307587,
-1.4769997596740723,
0.35625529289245605,
-0.1706032007932663,
-0.09343716502189636,
-0.6722599267959595,
-0.16598840057849884,
0.5492295622825623,
-0.20369145274162292,
0.23866868019104004,
0.8329277038574219,
-0.8089959621429443,
0.006576491054147482,
-0.21598541736602783,
-0.7136233448982239,
0.9740930795669556,
0.4007681906223297,
0.6029749512672424,
0.18550805747509003,
0.03602266684174538,
0.22884564101696014,
-0.5292174816131592,
0.1448572427034378,
-0.6703969836235046,
-0.0013238915707916021,
0.15502996742725372,
-0.021359913051128387,
-0.11277372390031815,
0.3525899350643158,
-0.05775092542171478,
-0.19505414366722107,
-0.07205882668495178,
-0.33043429255485535,
-0.14996322989463806,
0.5788794755935669,
0.5792530179023743,
0.24392935633659363,
0.9870927333831787,
0.3041294515132904,
-0.1474340409040451,
0.343537300825119,
-0.7234106659889221,
0.07226044684648514,
-0.581087589263916,
0.27913039922714233,
-0.6059852838516235,
-0.4550226628780365,
0.3359898030757904,
0.7285279035568237,
0.2096107453107834,
0.06530946493148804,
-0.346958726644516,
0.2063531130552292,
0.11335233598947525,
0.5948100686073303,
0.5042521357536316,
0.16028250753879547,
0.4002428352832794,
0.15843336284160614,
-0.48105087876319885,
-0.05041644349694252,
-0.39886218309402466,
-0.6038156747817993,
-0.2333729863166809,
-0.5857554078102112,
-0.3791482150554657,
-0.2714548110961914,
-0.21658508479595184,
-0.522448718547821,
-0.31846562027931213,
0.3813927471637726,
0.38062018156051636,
-0.6574116945266724,
-0.09668625891208649,
0.02463405579328537,
0.5507907867431641,
1.080338478088379,
-0.10518046468496323,
-0.1484963744878769,
0.05585725978016853,
0.18651770055294037,
0.4219551682472229,
0.4343763291835785,
-1.3325339555740356,
0.11328959465026855,
0.4179309606552124,
0.7758458852767944,
-0.521913468837738,
0.6170172095298767,
-0.8797041177749634,
-0.3600769340991974,
-0.042458366602659225,
0.7880147099494934,
0.23980073630809784,
0.564064085483551,
-0.7513909935951233,
-0.39908820390701294,
-0.56158447265625,
-0.6389528512954712,
0.3235785663127899,
-0.3130200207233429,
0.03564267233014107,
0.354496031999588,
-0.246745765209198,
-0.2608240246772766,
0.25095516443252563,
-0.681738555431366,
0.43911421298980713,
0.4425359070301056,
-0.47851988673210144,
0.43570786714553833,
0.4245122969150543,
-0.0037293650675565004,
0.5981423258781433,
0.4721531271934509,
-0.3805203437805176,
0.13729287683963776,
-0.36443033814430237,
0.5311309099197388,
0.30207309126853943,
0.4547993540763855,
0.3956722021102905,
-0.34445473551750183,
0.5239880084991455,
-0.5148007869720459,
0.0919467955827713,
-0.16146647930145264,
0.680423378944397,
-0.14321735501289368,
-0.07539438456296921,
0.0124285276979208,
0.4702274799346924,
0.00022672426712233573,
0.26126497983932495,
-1.043911337852478,
-0.15196268260478973,
-0.1350276917219162,
0.29469919204711914,
-0.0729619711637497,
0.33773666620254517,
0.16977311670780182,
0.2339613139629364,
-0.09025402367115021,
-0.011713073588907719,
0.331800252199173,
-0.02355591021478176,
-0.5643602013587952,
0.3411461114883423,
-0.18954312801361084,
1.5351184606552124,
0.09902390092611313,
-0.8484578132629395,
0.46192362904548645,
-0.0030609332025051117,
0.5316972136497498,
0.384867399930954,
-0.36725911498069763,
0.7202513813972473,
-0.09579173475503922,
-0.22820128500461578,
0.30228304862976074,
0.18851019442081451,
0.576668918132782,
-0.033325765281915665,
0.45808202028274536,
0.7115625739097595,
-1.0240293741226196,
-0.2507041096687317,
0.12585192918777466,
0.09816469997167587,
-0.35225236415863037,
-0.2001885324716568,
-0.449712872505188,
-0.1992112100124359,
-0.13504762947559357,
0.43104302883148193,
-0.11334402114152908,
-0.3817095458507538,
0.46487492322921753,
0.018147088587284088,
-0.10398588329553604,
-0.17493899166584015,
0.28758254647254944,
-0.140708789229393,
-0.03446517512202263,
0.3721381425857544,
0.005576703231781721,
0.018130069598555565,
-0.32152676582336426,
0.028945868834853172,
-0.5238421559333801,
0.015166424214839935,
-0.12005201727151871,
0.6652010083198547,
-0.4291662573814392,
-0.33496856689453125,
0.687620222568512,
-0.39582687616348267,
-0.12116614729166031,
0.3503701984882355,
-0.6600967645645142,
0.49160507321357727,
0.12507745623588562,
0.5587116479873657,
-0.4240306615829468,
0.4633788764476776,
0.5399072170257568,
0.547803521156311,
-0.2707696855068207,
-0.04836292564868927,
0.7358487844467163,
0.09039570391178131,
0.31911343336105347,
0.10596267133951187,
0.1788042038679123,
-0.2694752812385559,
0.20116476714611053,
0.5303149223327637,
0.12792165577411652,
0.2735784351825714,
-0.2636040151119232,
-0.08297622203826904,
-0.2672296464443207,
0.606592059135437,
0.04680098593235016,
0.4754760265350342,
-0.34430351853370667,
0.44893014430999756,
-0.5944515466690063,
-0.07312926650047302,
-0.11182300746440887,
-0.4221184253692627,
0.16320863366127014,
-0.8801000714302063,
-0.5403746366500854,
0.5751786828041077,
1.085567593574524,
0.0719953402876854,
-0.13139793276786804,
-0.20278982818126678,
-0.2500874102115631,
-0.05371169373393059,
0.027331851422786713,
0.044881533831357956,
-0.4488242566585541,
-0.286358118057251,
-0.06485198438167572,
-0.6701053977012634,
0.09534311294555664,
-0.10687290132045746,
0.3442949950695038,
-0.30155935883522034,
-0.49506875872612,
0.5113258957862854,
0.12135721743106842,
-0.6848660707473755,
0.36229124665260315,
-0.39289093017578125,
0.02146260254085064,
0.0031268808525055647,
-0.3960821330547333,
-0.29419180750846863,
0.5916321873664856,
-5.440032958984375,
-0.479027658700943,
-0.01990961842238903,
0.006795929279178381,
0.5319233536720276,
0.6363868713378906,
0.017129844054579735,
-0.4876280725002289,
-0.24313513934612274,
-0.5043672919273376,
0.42368802428245544,
0.4420829713344574,
-0.1845100224018097,
0.610090434551239,
0.6750577092170715,
0.3357395827770233,
0.7697857618331909,
-0.37675273418426514,
0.6869717240333557,
-0.05972591042518616,
0.1548517942428589,
-0.024002637714147568,
-0.253658652305603,
-0.05799160525202751,
0.1245196983218193,
-0.003440094878897071,
-0.7846344113349915,
0.5682627558708191,
-0.9289997816085815,
-0.2259368598461151,
0.043175503611564636,
0.14326968789100647,
-0.2784119248390198,
-0.3583146333694458,
0.04335489124059677,
-0.4830803871154785,
0.5949926376342773,
0.1645088940858841,
0.09066177904605865,
-0.807867169380188,
-0.17679332196712494,
-0.005114103201776743,
0.1033068597316742,
0.2671070098876953,
0.44112297892570496,
-0.17947609722614288,
-0.5489831566810608,
0.3225772976875305,
0.5741010308265686,
0.8477370738983154,
0.4325855076313019,
0.22875721752643585,
0.6028566956520081,
0.6627336144447327,
0.45035555958747864,
-0.028978103771805763,
-0.09212092310190201,
-0.04504567012190819,
-0.4607699513435364,
0.049575045704841614,
0.003174691228196025,
-0.20098941028118134,
-0.1296585649251938,
-0.2798154354095459,
-0.24940136075019836,
-0.48419755697250366,
-0.02260645478963852,
-0.478785902261734,
0.17984238266944885,
-0.03861115500330925,
-0.36607861518859863,
1.03125,
-0.3789062798023224,
-0.952648401260376,
0.48382818698883057,
-0.4294034540653229,
0.04689273610711098,
0.01461496576666832,
-0.2631697356700897,
0.11116950213909149,
-0.29457908868789673,
-0.2895810306072235,
-0.4353397488594055,
0.7642064094543457,
0.24822546541690826,
-0.28091296553611755,
-0.0015596243320032954,
0.24324066936969757,
-0.030070096254348755,
0.18577098846435547,
-0.18456372618675232,
-0.8632243871688843,
0.3360014259815216,
0.25253796577453613,
-0.020079679787158966,
-0.544812798500061,
-0.4644249975681305,
0.6630502343177795,
0.9789590835571289,
-0.5801392793655396,
0.03179323673248291,
-0.6730373501777649,
0.2873093783855438,
-0.3759213089942932,
0.07123284786939621,
-0.38389045000076294,
-0.5367404222488403,
-0.17687982320785522,
0.3090455234050751,
0.13605591654777527,
-0.19442157447338104,
-0.4244360625743866,
0.17270967364311218,
-0.21930906176567078,
0.8224451541900635,
-0.22687405347824097,
0.008912764489650726,
0.8580577969551086,
0.4121790826320648,
0.6311100721359253,
-0.5370798110961914,
0.2993100583553314,
-0.47598695755004883,
-0.21960945427417755,
0.3129846155643463,
-0.36563417315483093,
-0.22134403884410858,
-0.6541141271591187,
-0.832983136177063,
0.06946112215518951,
0.2633172869682312,
0.4468015134334564,
-0.3886137306690216,
0.27836138010025024,
0.4265860915184021,
-0.9805028438568115,
-0.4148845076560974,
-0.007922518998384476,
0.2861344516277313,
-0.35870763659477234,
-0.004003820009529591,
-0.09477759897708893,
-0.3487972319126129,
0.3044445812702179,
0.7179527282714844,
0.5104748010635376,
0.5108264088630676,
0.40085649490356445,
-0.07800542563199997,
0.41665029525756836,
-0.1445820927619934,
-0.6102449297904968,
0.6261986494064331,
-0.6440976858139038,
-0.16533057391643524,
0.22439807653427124,
0.784831166267395,
0.28902146220207214,
-0.5692910552024841,
0.02844429202377796,
-0.17051827907562256,
0.3665616512298584,
-0.9387781023979187,
-0.4175873398780823,
-0.04800625890493393,
0.29025304317474365,
-0.38250696659088135,
-0.38543298840522766,
-0.10753344744443893,
0.08652431517839432,
0.15296894311904907,
-0.2828379273414612,
-1.1654188632965088,
-0.06343036144971848,
0.1557321399450302,
0.5617603063583374,
-0.5407813787460327,
-0.44497916102409363,
0.058648161590099335,
0.4386488199234009,
-0.5054295659065247,
0.3950924575328827,
-0.07067128270864487,
0.7254098653793335,
0.2880863845348358,
0.37117868661880493,
-0.8580676913261414,
-0.3893120288848877,
-0.664928674697876,
-0.21765640377998352,
0.1652473509311676,
-0.5369638204574585,
0.34156253933906555,
-0.2846105992794037,
-0.9474853873252869,
0.21671628952026367,
0.040463484823703766,
0.5627056360244751,
0.3957172930240631,
-0.48357677459716797,
0.2765257954597473,
0.6995682716369629,
-0.5212748646736145,
0.5476364493370056,
0.17147311568260193,
-0.744610607624054,
-0.16050918400287628,
-0.11865794658660889,
0.08211015909910202,
0.8194844722747803,
-0.19953875243663788,
-0.8316641449928284,
0.5051054358482361,
0.5462409853935242,
-0.4674129784107208,
-0.10306167602539062,
-0.2505742609500885,
0.15518300235271454,
-0.12414611876010895,
-0.623164176940918,
-0.8073240518569946,
-0.24354590475559235,
0.1422112137079239,
-0.5921850204467773,
-0.9909464120864868,
0.2811569273471832,
0.09716089814901352,
-0.21918366849422455,
0.2908843457698822,
-0.03416803851723671,
-0.1589711606502533,
-0.27048876881599426,
0.04383043944835663,
0.28440338373184204,
0.40783289074897766,
-0.4914025664329529,
-0.5928197503089905,
-0.03430858626961708,
-0.1727299839258194,
0.3359505534172058,
0.19504156708717346,
0.2081613689661026,
0.18858753144741058,
-0.8157265782356262,
-0.2432691752910614,
-0.09183996915817261,
0.8530316948890686,
-0.5287479162216187,
-0.05954376980662346,
0.27241241931915283,
-0.02002859115600586,
-0.11669354885816574,
-0.8461114764213562,
-0.3961908221244812,
1.3586609363555908,
-0.1393512338399887,
-0.0049043376930058,
0.011018093675374985,
0.0447864755988121,
0.07559649646282196,
-0.5503519177436829,
0.6798821091651917,
-1.03860604763031,
0.32072141766548157,
-0.044789522886276245,
0.5227043628692627,
-0.2102772295475006,
-0.22191791236400604,
0.3062884211540222,
-0.23904301226139069,
-0.4448859691619873,
0.16153934597969055,
0.24213945865631104,
0.5137200951576233,
-0.7453664541244507,
0.37415045499801636,
0.127114400267601,
0.07791764289140701,
0.9802729487419128,
0.07643885910511017,
-0.36769482493400574,
0.27136123180389404,
-0.019962109625339508,
-0.5410301685333252,
0.3640299141407013,
-0.6957896947860718,
-0.4483080506324768,
-0.3626972734928131,
-0.16032060980796814,
0.21721075475215912,
0.22041192650794983,
0.0245419479906559,
-0.9325348138809204,
0.0260584969073534,
-0.3566419780254364,
0.2839195132255554,
-0.16093753278255463,
0.2924017310142517,
-0.4466051757335663,
0.5664404034614563,
-0.5132740139961243,
0.5363112688064575,
-0.10535896569490433,
-0.2718357443809509,
-0.1749311089515686,
0.1698985993862152,
0.5401830673217773,
-0.04165863245725632,
-0.0715315043926239,
0.3498758375644684,
-0.2158968597650528,
-0.8244208693504333,
0.06943885236978531,
0.22124238312244415,
-0.43854644894599915,
0.1652374416589737,
1.0385982990264893,
-0.22495479881763458,
0.18797333538532257,
0.08563258498907089,
0.06474403291940689,
-0.06906430423259735,
0.2094690203666687,
0.1776810586452484,
-0.4380563795566559,
0.8230311274528503,
-0.1709468513727188,
-0.46087291836738586,
-0.21937820315361023,
0.4182315766811371,
0.12728512287139893,
-0.6692788600921631,
-0.5885469317436218,
0.2327198088169098,
-0.0715099647641182,
0.042792774736881256,
0.2469554990530014,
-0.324468731880188,
-0.3069366216659546,
0.32383742928504944,
0.08625590056180954,
0.6376469135284424,
-0.08788304030895233,
-0.2598375678062439,
0.13922344148159027,
0.32346150279045105,
-0.3260645568370819,
0.5963613986968994,
0.5976876616477966,
-0.025739209726452827,
-0.03476420044898987,
0.40615102648735046,
0.35037481784820557,
-0.19655916094779968,
-0.15984421968460083,
0.366735577583313,
0.6634238958358765,
-1.1836118698120117,
0.29221171140670776,
-0.023815099149942398,
-0.0005830282461829484,
-0.12959089875221252,
0.02859489805996418,
0.16788531839847565,
-0.0015999155584722757,
-0.10069773346185684,
0.043438080698251724,
-0.022404978051781654,
-0.07195311784744263,
0.2889045476913452,
0.3253483176231384,
0.2586491107940674,
-0.36439937353134155,
0.1118985265493393,
0.18014775216579437,
-0.13940250873565674,
0.5176170468330383,
-0.6094059944152832,
-0.05877336487174034,
0.46654370427131653,
-0.22787432372570038,
0.294159859418869,
-0.19835969805717468,
-0.7043224573135376,
-0.11749830096960068,
0.08701413869857788,
0.041879426687955856,
0.3196727931499481,
0.5555703639984131,
0.16597683727741241,
0.8397222757339478,
-0.3806917667388916,
-0.4483758509159088,
-0.08814385533332825,
-0.29207292199134827,
0.03385688364505768,
-0.10350681841373444,
0.0641685500741005,
0.3891569674015045,
0.527716875076294,
-0.09631993621587753,
0.04580022022128105,
0.13927993178367615,
-0.10465765744447708,
-0.3896578252315521,
-0.43678298592567444,
-0.25082167983055115,
0.4948579967021942,
-0.4653867185115814,
0.03485367074608803,
-0.04968280345201492,
-0.016359657049179077,
-0.448918879032135,
-0.02673345059156418,
-0.2810664176940918,
-0.5215975642204285,
0.26456549763679504,
-1.0471864938735962,
-0.15306240320205688,
-0.006057980470359325,
0.3945046067237854,
0.3740250766277313,
-0.37834885716438293,
0.41583746671676636,
-0.730421781539917,
-0.2385196089744568,
-0.3015921115875244,
-0.21600341796875,
-0.07823486626148224,
0.1528552919626236,
0.16452841460704803,
-0.4021974802017212,
-0.36955752968788147,
0.06231556832790375,
-0.042838696390390396,
-0.26932719349861145,
-0.2420751005411148,
0.5630538463592529,
0.2772412598133087,
0.00499994121491909,
0.5046322345733643,
-0.28915733098983765,
0.3167729079723358,
-0.2736399471759796,
0.039319898933172226,
0.3287287950515747,
-0.7101680636405945,
-0.8740436434745789,
0.6765317320823669,
0.8302742838859558,
0.4425063133239746,
-0.2639227509498596,
0.15159708261489868,
-0.17716465890407562,
0.3409583270549774,
-0.07223621010780334,
-0.12376609444618225,
0.18217280507087708,
0.17255771160125732,
0.01931452564895153
] |
248061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Londonderry%20Air | Londonderry Air | The "Londonderry Air" is an Irish air that originated in County Londonderry, Ireland. It is popular among the American Irish diaspora and is well known throughout the world. The tune is played as the victory sporting anthem of Northern Ireland at the Commonwealth Games. The song "Danny Boy" uses the tune, with a set of lyrics written in the early 20th century.
History
The title of the air came from the name of County Londonderry, and was collected by Jane Ross of Limavady in the county.
Ross submitted the tune to music collector George Petrie, and it was then published by the Society for the Preservation and Publication of the Melodies of Ireland in the 1855 book The Ancient Music of Ireland, which Petrie edited. The tune was listed as an anonymous air, with a note attributing its collection to Jane Ross of Limavady.
For the following beautiful air I have to express my very grateful acknowledgement to Miss J. Ross, of New Town, Limavady, in the County of Londonderry—a lady who has made a large collection of the popular unpublished melodies of the county, which she has very kindly placed at my disposal, and which has added very considerably to the stock of tunes which I had previously acquired from that still very Irish county. I say still very Irish, for though it has been planted for more than two centuries by English and Scottish settlers, the old Irish race still forms the great majority of its peasant inhabitants; and there are few, if any counties in which, with less foreign admixture, the ancient melodies of the country have been so extensively preserved. The name of the tune unfortunately was not ascertained by Miss Ross, who sent it to me with the simple remark that it was 'very old', in the correctness of which statement I have no hesitation in expressing my perfect concurrence.
This led to the descriptive title "Londonderry Air" being used for the piece.
The origin of the tune was for a long time somewhat mysterious, as no other collector of folk tunes encountered it, and all known examples are descended from Ross's submission to Petrie's collection. In a 1934 article, Anne Geddes Gilchrist suggested that the performer whose tune Ross heard, played the song with extreme rubato, causing Ross to mistake the time signature of the piece for common time (4/4) rather than 3/4. Gilchrist asserted that adjusting the rhythm of the piece as she proposed produced a tune more typical of Irish folk music.
In 1974, Hugh Shields found a long-forgotten traditional song which was very similar to Gilchrist's modified version of the melody. The song, "Aislean an Oigfear" (recte "Aisling an Óigfhir", "The Young Man's Dream"), had been transcribed by Edward Bunting in 1792 based on a performance by harper Donnchadh Ó Hámsaigh (Denis Hempson) at the Belfast Harp Festival, and the tune would later become well known far outside of Ireland as The Last Rose of Summer. Bunting published it in 1796. Ó Hámsaigh lived in Magilligan, not far from Ross's home in Limavady. Hempson died in 1807. In 2000, Brian Audley published his authoritative research on the tune's origins. He showed how the distinctive high section of the tune had derived from a refrain in "The Young Man's Dream" which, over time, crept into the body of the music. He also discovered the original words to the tune as we now know it, which were written by Edward Fitzsimmons and published in 1814; his song is "The Confession of Devorgilla", otherwise known by its first line "Oh Shrive Me Father".
The descendants of blind fiddler Jimmy McCurry assert that he is the musician from whom Miss Ross transcribed the tune but there is no historical evidence to support this speculation. A similar claim has been made regarding the tune's 'coming' to the blind itinerant harpist Rory Dall O'Cahan in a dream. A documentary detailing this version was broadcast on Maryland Public Television in the United States in March 2000; reference to this was also made by historian John Hamilton in Michael Portillo's TV programme "Great British Railway Journeys Goes to Ireland" in February 2012.
Music score
The melody appears thus in the first edition:
Lyrical settings
Danny Boy
The most popular lyrics for the tune are "Danny Boy" ("Oh Danny Boy, the pipes, the pipes are calling"), written by English lawyer Frederic Edward Weatherly in 1910, and set to the tune in 1913.
The Confession of Devorgilla
The first lyrics to be sung to the music were, "The Confession of Devorgilla", otherwise known as "Oh! shrive me, father".
'Oh! shrive me, father – haste, haste, and shrive me,
'Ere sets yon dread and flaring sun;
'Its beams of peace, – nay, of sense, deprive me,
'Since yet the holy work's undone.'
The sage, the wand'rer's anguish balming,
Soothed her heart to rest once more;
And pardon's promise torture calming,
The Pilgrim told her sorrows o'er.
The first writer, after Petrie's publication, to set verses to the tune was Alfred Perceval Graves, in the late 1870s. His song was entitled "Would I Were Erin's Apple Blossom o'er You". Graves later stated "that setting was, to my mind, too much in the style of church music, and was not, I believe, a success in consequence."
Would I were Erin's apple-blossom o'er you,
Or Erin's rose, in all its beauty blown,
To drop my richest petals down before you,
Within the garden where you walk alone;
In hope you'd turn and pluck a little posy,
With loving fingers through my foliage pressed,
And kiss it close and set it blushing rosy
To sigh out all its sweetness on your breast.
Irish Love Song
The tune was first called "Londonderry Air" in 1894 when Katherine Tynan Hinkson set the words of her "Irish Love Song" to it:
Would God I were the tender apple blossom
That floats and falls from off the twisted bough
To lie and faint within your silken bosom
Within your silken bosom as that does now.
Or would I were a little burnish'd apple
For you to pluck me, gliding by so cold,
While sun and shade your robe of lawn will dapple,
Your robe of lawn and your hair of spun gold.
Hymns
As with a good many folk tunes, Londonderry Air is also used as a hymn tune; most notably for "I cannot tell" by William Young Fullerton.
I cannot tell why He Whom angels worship,
Should set His love upon the sons of men,
Or why, as Shepherd, He should seek the wanderers,
To bring them back, they know not how or when.
But this I know, that He was born of Mary
When Bethlehem’s manger was His only home,
And that He lived at Nazareth and laboured,
And so the Saviour, Saviour of the world is come.
It was also used as a setting for "I would be true" by Howard Arnold Walter at the funeral of Diana, Princess of Wales:
I would be true, for there are those that trust me.
I would be pure, for there are those that care.
I would be strong, for there is much to suffer.
I would be brave, for there is much to dare.
I would be friend of all, the foe, the friendless.
I would be giving, and forget the gift,
I would be humble, for I know my weakness,
I would look up, and laugh, and love and live.
"Londonderry Air" was also used as the tune for the southern gospel hit "He Looked Beyond My Fault", written by Dottie Rambo and first recorded by her group, The Rambos, in 1968.
Other hymns sung to this are:
"O Christ the same through all our story’s pages" – Timothy Dudley-Smith
"O Dreamer Leave Thy Dreams For Joyful Waking"
"I Love Thee So"
"My Own Dear Land"
"We Shall Go Out With Hope of Resurrection"
"Above the Hills of Time the Cross Is Gleaming"
"Lord of the Church, We Pray for our Renewing" – Timothy Dudley-Smith
"Above the Voices of the World Around Me"
"What Grace is Mine" – Kristyn Getty
"O Son of Man our hero strong and tender"
"Since Long Ago" – Watchman Nee
"O Loving God" – Paulette M. McCoy
In Derry Vale
W. G. Rothery, a British lyricist (1858-1930) who wrote the English lyrics for songs such as Handel's "Art Thou Troubled", wrote the following lyrics to the tune of "The Londonderry Air":
In Derry Vale, beside the singing river,
so oft' I strayed, ah, many years ago,
and culled at morn the golden daffodillies
that came with spring to set the world aglow.
Oh, Derry Vale, my thoughts are ever turning
to your broad stream and fairy-circled lee.
For your green isles my exiled heart is yearning,
so far away across the sea.
In Derry Vale, amid the Foyle's dark waters,
the salmon leap, beside the surging weir.
The seabirds call, I still can hear them calling
in night's long dreams of those so dear.
Oh, tarrying years, fly faster, ever faster,
I long to see that vale belov'd so well,
I long to know that I am not forgotten,
And there in home in peace to dwell.
Far Away
George Sigerson wrote a poem that T. R. G. Jozé set to this tune in 1901. This setting was popularized in the early 20th century by the Glasgow Orpheus Choir under Sir Hugh S. Roberton.
As chimes that flow o'er shining seas
When morn alights on meads of May,
Faint voices fill the western breeze,
With whisp'ring song from far away.
O dear the dells of Dunavore
A home in od'rous Ossory,
But sweet as honey running o'er,
The golden shore of Far Away.
There sings the voice whose wondrous tune
Falls like a diamond shower above,
That in the radiant dawn of June,
Renew a world of youth and love.
Oh fair the founts of Farranfore
And bright is billowy Ballintrae,
But sweet as honey running o'er,
The golden shore of Far Away.
Other
The tune is used by Alfred Perceval Graves for Emer's Farewell to Cuchullain.
The melody is given by Julian May as the anthem of the Tanu and Firvulag in her Saga of Pliocene Exile science fiction series.
The song has been adapted into "You Raise Me Up" by Secret Garden, and also Ne Viens Pas by Roch Voisine.
The melody was used to words in Irish and sung by the Bunratty Castle chorus during the 1970s. The title used was "Maidín i mBéara". The words are from a poem of the same title by Irish poet and scholar Osborn Bergin (ó hAimheirgin)(1872–1950).
A 1938 film, The Londonderry Air, features the song.
A. P. Herbert's poem "Let Us Be Glad", written for the conclusion of the 1948 Summer Olympics, and sung at the end of the event, used the melody.
The 2007 computer game BioShock features the song "Danny Boy", in a 1950s recording by Mario Lanza.
An arrangement of the song has also been used in the anime short Cross Road by Akifumi Tada with lyrics in Japanese by Makoto Shinkai and Nagi Yanagi as the singer.
Belgian singer Helmut Lotti featured the song on his 1998 album Helmut Lotti goes classic, Final Edition under the title "Air from County Derry" to his own lyrics.
The song was arranged by a Japanese composer Satoshi Takebe with lyrics in Japanese by a Japanese female singer Minami Kizuki in 2009. The title of the arrnged song is "紅(Kurenai)" and sung by Minami Kizuki. Minami Kizuki is attracted by music of Ireland. She wrote a university graduation thesis on the similarities between music of Ireland and Amami Islands.Amami Islands is located in the southwestpart of Japan, where she was born and raised.
The melody was arranged for the Chinese war film The Eight Hundred in 2020, with new lyrics written and titled "Remembering(苏州河, Suzhou River)," sung by Andrea Bocelli and Na Ying.
Instrumental settings
Frank Bridge used the melody as basis for his An Irish Melody, H.86 for string quartet (1908) or string orchestra (1938).
American composer Frank Duarte used the air in the trio of his march, The Valiant Green Company for military band.
Australian composer Percy Grainger wrote numerous settings, which he called "Irish Tune from County Derry", in his British Folk-Music Settings.
Charles Villiers Stanford included the melody in his Irish Rhapsody No. 1 for orchestra.
Lionel Tertis arranged the tune for viola or violin and piano as Londonderry Air "Farewell to Cucullain".
Ernest Walker arranged the tune for violin and piano (Op. 59) in 1935.
Ben Johnston (composer) used the melody in the 4th movement ("Sprightly, not too fast") of his String Quartet No. 10
Don Byas recorded an arrangement of the tune, retitled "London-Donnie", originally featured on the album 'Free And Easy' (Savoy Records MG 6044)
See also
O'Cahan
Radio 4 UK Theme
References
External links
The Londonderry Air: facts and fiction – by Brian Audley
The melody as a MIDI file
Audio clips
Arrangement with comical lyrics for orchestra and solo baritone, performed by Kieran of the Potato Hermits, 2010
1855 songs
County Londonderry
Hymn tunes
Music in Northern Ireland
Anthems of non-sovereign states
National symbols of Northern Ireland | [
-0.014062004163861275,
0.03943025693297386,
-0.13930729031562805,
-0.6403120160102844,
-0.12864720821380615,
-0.161113902926445,
0.024271748960018158,
0.6015526056289673,
0.3244962990283966,
-0.41494831442832947,
-0.7250198721885681,
-0.28656435012817383,
-0.3353140652179718,
0.5060998797416687,
-0.19556958973407745,
-0.019348621368408203,
0.29679930210113525,
0.37542662024497986,
0.7191085815429688,
-0.3905470669269562,
-0.21375788748264313,
-0.2651095390319824,
-0.044628482311964035,
0.11688894778490067,
0.8132662773132324,
-0.5407623052597046,
0.4342900812625885,
0.46001672744750977,
-0.010662580840289593,
-0.11267551779747009,
-0.20566564798355103,
0.6265573501586914,
-0.12717191874980927,
-0.6271660327911377,
0.23835250735282898,
-0.05563897639513016,
-0.1178581640124321,
-0.3280287981033325,
-0.746131181716919,
-0.24994111061096191,
-0.736438512802124,
-0.017563529312610626,
0.8268179297447205,
-0.17098075151443481,
0.0652032122015953,
-0.2390906810760498,
-1.72959566116333,
0.5513308048248291,
-0.21938322484493256,
0.3172166645526886,
-0.5744879841804504,
0.2816616892814636,
-0.043817389756441116,
0.3894646167755127,
0.37513718008995056,
0.2841073274612427,
-0.6345329284667969,
0.10639689862728119,
0.3361177146434784,
-0.27366209030151367,
0.39819130301475525,
0.7939000725746155,
-0.23440225422382355,
-0.06369191408157349,
0.10119978338479996,
0.26655346155166626,
0.301180362701416,
0.02243853732943535,
0.06621221452951431,
0.0010654765646904707,
0.21626323461532593,
-0.05442959815263748,
0.0990080013871193,
0.12036304175853729,
-0.32123225927352905,
-0.2387821525335312,
0.2609157860279083,
-0.14745691418647766,
-0.2178409993648529,
0.45236048102378845,
0.2794852554798126,
0.18238553404808044,
0.6138442754745483,
0.6519412398338318,
0.6010080575942993,
0.5448867082595825,
-1.2636245489120483,
-0.15130330622196198,
-0.6406416893005371,
0.45583397150039673,
-0.18648481369018555,
-0.27218782901763916,
0.48122578859329224,
-0.24537453055381775,
-0.5267149209976196,
-0.051896896213293076,
0.39522305130958557,
0.44329822063446045,
-0.0073521072044968605,
0.34743255376815796,
-0.5677914619445801,
0.0038899590726941824,
0.27819952368736267,
-0.26974135637283325,
-0.5212021470069885,
-0.1711447536945343,
-0.6023997664451599,
-0.09009615331888199,
0.14371392130851746,
0.36243128776550293,
-0.29959243535995483,
-0.49831122159957886,
0.3248656392097473,
0.1904509961605072,
0.4650651216506958,
0.6468958854675293,
0.3904992938041687,
-0.0008721714257262647,
-0.04828501492738724,
0.34075650572776794,
0.24362103641033173,
0.9236703515052795,
-0.5510813593864441,
0.09211844950914383,
-0.5685861110687256,
-0.07281062006950378,
0.5913594365119934,
0.4798853099346161,
-0.4976271688938141,
0.3644135594367981,
-0.10898778587579727,
1.0888214111328125,
-0.6780919432640076,
-0.38757434487342834,
-0.1886473000049591,
-0.11970105767250061,
0.3922889530658722,
0.04269609600305557,
0.6769713163375854,
0.15870070457458496,
-0.7947152256965637,
-0.3870176076889038,
-0.5488391518592834,
-0.19854949414730072,
0.47055140137672424,
0.21134717762470245,
-0.1874627321958542,
-0.4824669659137726,
0.050461314618587494,
-0.6608075499534607,
0.458938866853714,
0.2888239920139313,
-0.2994844615459442,
0.703288733959198,
-0.3407452404499054,
0.3247942626476288,
0.0024273176677525043,
-0.10603182762861252,
0.5261740684509277,
0.2948649823665619,
-0.11529871076345444,
0.06859689950942993,
0.30205634236335754,
0.06298957765102386,
-0.1289360225200653,
0.35757097601890564,
-0.08212355524301529,
0.12426267564296722,
0.21332931518554688,
-0.3133634328842163,
-0.11375455558300018,
-0.18594785034656525,
0.8181465268135071,
-0.885191023349762,
-0.016888683661818504,
0.6385068297386169,
0.8740341067314148,
-0.0209285169839859,
-0.09347501397132874,
0.04977111518383026,
-0.46551424264907837,
0.5754137635231018,
0.052898187190294266,
0.09322546422481537,
0.6726593375205994,
0.0858912467956543,
0.5021123886108398,
-0.2966083288192749,
0.13182704150676727,
-0.2620064318180084,
-0.15855635702610016,
-0.2592208981513977,
0.6136452555656433,
-0.8133137226104736,
0.18404598534107208,
0.19654200971126556,
0.031841617077589035,
0.7565525770187378,
-0.10711493343114853,
1.140503168106079,
0.3067951500415802,
0.3387170732021332,
0.5742676258087158,
-0.263283371925354,
-0.23249457776546478,
0.5123322010040283,
0.18242034316062927,
0.31215405464172363,
0.8821281790733337,
0.31193432211875916,
0.4757513999938965,
-0.17988136410713196,
0.4676673412322998,
-0.08123208582401276,
0.26291555166244507,
-0.4574544429779053,
-0.1085471659898758,
-0.37273895740509033,
0.18211710453033447,
-0.6901691555976868,
0.5220485925674438,
0.5664723515510559,
-0.0802849754691124,
0.18530778586864471,
0.3015141189098358,
0.5199550986289978,
0.19188018143177032,
-0.42982354760169983,
0.31787580251693726,
-0.3972712457180023,
-0.16319726407527924,
-0.334509015083313,
-0.588471531867981,
-0.7990353107452393,
0.24120119214057922,
-0.38062626123428345,
0.3996104598045349,
-0.2929353415966034,
0.458680123090744,
-0.15182769298553467,
0.5247082114219666,
-0.07420073449611664,
-0.47323697805404663,
-0.01555270329117775,
-0.20399782061576843,
0.4678210914134979,
-0.016444796696305275,
0.3147774636745453,
0.05780121684074402,
-0.22824504971504211,
1.0134432315826416,
0.3882408142089844,
-0.051114581525325775,
0.0647011548280716,
0.11218307167291641,
0.027122410014271736,
-0.1808193027973175,
0.14269649982452393,
0.08969508111476898,
0.06210072711110115,
-0.5449914932250977,
0.060021575540304184,
0.30235904455184937,
0.5993891358375549,
-0.11669009178876877,
-0.442812979221344,
-0.7137616872787476,
-0.36674824357032776,
0.4678798019886017,
0.024146005511283875,
0.48005211353302,
-0.286006897687912,
-0.10353223979473114,
-0.2227470874786377,
-0.4222955107688904,
0.4277800917625427,
-0.37062761187553406,
0.3344883918762207,
-0.38080814480781555,
-0.32565680146217346,
-0.1027451604604721,
0.5150039196014404,
0.13413716852664948,
-0.8608793020248413,
0.10157960653305054,
0.2090386599302292,
0.16430403292179108,
0.0679636225104332,
-0.47545501589775085,
0.23389460146427155,
0.2902451455593109,
-0.8755308985710144,
-0.15891480445861816,
0.5480454564094543,
0.08250778913497925,
-0.41086772084236145,
0.3745078444480896,
0.23485058546066284,
-0.20224204659461975,
-0.5016394257545471,
-0.1788264662027359,
0.5443835854530334,
-0.38846904039382935,
-0.3071080446243286,
0.1553553342819214,
0.043305326253175735,
-0.9094066023826599,
-0.38380327820777893,
-5.6493940353393555,
0.2802343964576721,
0.1492544561624527,
-0.04462919384241104,
0.043279100209474564,
-0.3144870400428772,
0.08377732336521149,
-0.5811777114868164,
-0.23433010280132294,
-0.28425073623657227,
0.5210501551628113,
-0.21675972640514374,
0.1355833262205124,
-0.1328238844871521,
0.3011038899421692,
0.34146085381507874,
0.02380107156932354,
-0.42107731103897095,
0.2725036144256592,
0.0724082961678505,
-0.1895637959241867,
-0.12765716016292572,
-0.052140600979328156,
0.08623716235160828,
0.1196424663066864,
-0.033090196549892426,
-0.4861881136894226,
-0.2389955222606659,
-0.8722330927848816,
0.18225350975990295,
0.2730879783630371,
-0.084910549223423,
0.3828837275505066,
-0.0080616045743227,
-0.06832149624824524,
-0.6350146532058716,
0.6943315267562866,
0.10194855183362961,
0.5087988972663879,
-0.473940372467041,
-0.01314317062497139,
0.08991873264312744,
-0.2359759509563446,
-0.06295431405305862,
-0.14358839392662048,
-0.5058769583702087,
-0.4612177312374115,
-0.06328140199184418,
-0.14788371324539185,
0.7800446152687073,
0.4710719585418701,
0.33007386326789856,
0.5591365098953247,
0.11569232493638992,
0.14102232456207275,
-0.221211776137352,
0.4536464214324951,
-0.7512096166610718,
-0.08027248829603195,
0.21130408346652985,
0.5670214295387268,
-0.07766566425561905,
-0.2443995624780655,
-0.14730630815029144,
-0.1645301878452301,
-0.2894895076751709,
-0.28481319546699524,
-0.0032734526321291924,
0.37298351526260376,
-0.16006211936473846,
0.29024213552474976,
-0.09910477697849274,
0.11507575213909149,
-0.8836063742637634,
-0.032503243535757065,
-0.546869158744812,
0.0916677936911583,
0.061027031391859055,
0.561290979385376,
-0.19541791081428528,
0.5210131406784058,
-0.12804970145225525,
-0.5826454758644104,
0.061512917280197144,
-0.23318517208099365,
-0.5416349172592163,
-0.4579017162322998,
0.5145494341850281,
-0.3509392738342285,
-0.5407582521438599,
0.8153095245361328,
-0.4596789479255676,
-0.04422339051961899,
0.5647415518760681,
0.047192126512527466,
0.3465019762516022,
-0.13007770478725433,
-0.21768464148044586,
0.38799944519996643,
-0.27589887380599976,
0.4528486728668213,
-0.18177899718284607,
-0.6760364174842834,
-0.32108399271965027,
-0.10760730504989624,
-0.29205605387687683,
-0.24730703234672546,
-0.1426052302122116,
1.0114177465438843,
-0.6617008447647095,
0.13725562393665314,
0.007917349226772785,
-0.42018043994903564,
-0.2525649964809418,
0.16205017268657684,
-0.2885549068450928,
-0.41952264308929443,
0.08254586905241013,
0.4638541638851166,
0.041233163326978683,
0.5668056011199951,
0.5127120614051819,
0.23111677169799805,
0.3739388585090637,
-0.7271466851234436,
0.31264883279800415,
0.13416659832000732,
0.7257393598556519,
-0.0338297002017498,
-0.11701283603906631,
-0.027886977419257164,
-0.16347980499267578,
-0.13773992657661438,
0.36853665113449097,
-0.5700334906578064,
0.222549170255661,
-0.8380173444747925,
-0.623110294342041,
0.5242537260055542,
-0.14023393392562866,
0.3619398772716522,
-0.23845918476581573,
0.3312506079673767,
-0.09226808696985245,
0.8828738331794739,
1.120652437210083,
-0.39991533756256104,
-0.4854641556739807,
-0.5239195227622986,
0.20225663483142853,
0.6222114562988281,
-0.2710272967815399,
-0.0722840204834938,
-0.7207543253898621,
-0.9801201820373535,
-0.4761229455471039,
-0.032687440514564514,
0.06755377352237701,
-0.016249526292085648,
-0.35110658407211304,
0.9916423559188843,
-0.3528846800327301,
-0.5480053424835205,
-0.1311650425195694,
0.097138911485672,
-0.37457650899887085,
0.4620531499385834,
-0.39804792404174805,
-0.5382848381996155,
0.49270468950271606,
-0.11203213036060333,
-0.3776504695415497,
-0.5926346778869629,
-0.19460316002368927,
0.17315495014190674,
0.4149981737136841,
-0.6693809628486633,
0.24551180005073547,
-0.15598967671394348,
-0.05019351467490196,
-0.17688561975955963,
0.037009887397289276,
-0.4512421190738678,
0.37410545349121094,
0.40410715341567993,
-0.9299948215484619,
0.12464722990989685,
-0.21689170598983765,
-0.21951036155223846,
0.1649455428123474,
0.027884801849722862,
0.5230655074119568,
0.21238602697849274,
0.21017728745937347,
-0.8862663507461548,
-0.9596313834190369,
-0.10851868242025375,
0.37509453296661377,
-0.45760273933410645,
-0.4910447597503662,
0.4774280786514282,
0.13657189905643463,
-0.7586132287979126,
0.05692008510231972,
0.10993436723947525,
-0.649934709072113,
0.31428638100624084,
-0.018752533942461014,
-0.6817722916603088,
0.23558484017848969,
0.2434486597776413,
-0.9638654589653015,
-0.06364323943853378,
0.2627406716346741,
-0.7406116127967834,
0.10049574077129364,
-0.38103458285331726,
-0.04402043670415878,
-0.18777506053447723,
-0.4400552213191986,
0.11712876707315445,
-0.578145444393158,
-0.2631126046180725,
-0.07337213307619095,
-0.7911927103996277,
0.7115504145622253,
0.08289115130901337,
-0.3581070899963379,
0.4654696583747864,
-0.516227662563324,
-0.4732303023338318,
0.4648536145687103,
0.7027190923690796,
-0.0014424723340198398,
-0.27427929639816284,
0.30741703510284424,
-0.27211663126945496,
-0.2915404736995697,
-0.48449844121932983,
1.027187705039978,
0.6826122999191284,
1.1291344165802002,
0.07868444919586182,
-0.9603666663169861,
-0.33744528889656067,
0.10574698448181152,
0.38182923197746277,
-0.2154620736837387,
-0.573331892490387,
-0.12072592973709106,
0.06492778658866882,
0.03417993709445,
-0.1658840924501419,
0.42865869402885437,
0.8061975240707397,
-0.45446959137916565,
0.19365623593330383,
0.6116169095039368,
0.10666206479072571,
-0.22046957910060883,
0.3491116464138031,
0.4147694706916809,
0.031567808240652084,
0.6545895338058472,
0.5836669206619263,
-0.24250178039073944,
-0.5484862923622131,
-0.2776148319244385,
-0.18167006969451904,
-0.39886271953582764,
0.33292293548583984,
0.09529495984315872,
0.759666919708252,
0.3692640960216522,
0.6320193409919739,
0.13911019265651703,
0.040708281099796295,
-0.5123780965805054,
0.7100469470024109,
-0.01020786352455616,
-0.2653368413448334,
-0.3172242045402527,
0.04956457391381264,
-0.3159278631210327,
0.29192396998405457,
-0.48849090933799744,
0.22295847535133362,
-0.1250361055135727,
-0.16812336444854736,
-0.02392432652413845,
0.3247295618057251,
-0.01183388289064169,
-0.4770331382751465,
0.6753387451171875,
-0.22588993608951569,
-0.10969756543636322,
-0.348135769367218,
0.4860663115978241,
0.5518348813056946,
-0.19632215797901154,
-0.7821934819221497,
0.021116243675351143,
-0.23347599804401398,
-0.18470841646194458,
-0.0536811500787735,
0.12972606718540192,
0.0681995153427124,
-0.341839075088501,
-0.03458550199866295,
-0.7392507791519165,
0.3662165105342865,
-0.25488990545272827,
-0.43251723051071167,
0.7363278865814209,
-0.2485225945711136,
0.25343215465545654,
0.4083541929721832,
-0.5414074063301086,
0.24718284606933594,
0.6991521716117859,
0.21799121797084808,
-0.3608028292655945,
0.13142628967761993,
0.2962906062602997,
-0.2952342629432678,
0.9232129454612732,
-0.9023732542991638,
-0.30984726548194885,
0.059528037905693054,
0.15528464317321777,
0.6022502779960632,
0.02686295658349991,
-1.1337370872497559,
0.7684417963027954,
-0.19481809437274933,
-0.22632548213005066,
0.1668677181005478,
-0.6946241855621338,
-0.6113136410713196,
-0.10069891810417175,
0.42082953453063965,
0.23012259602546692,
0.17804254591464996,
-0.13628247380256653,
0.10410762578248978,
-0.08227891474962234,
0.3020874857902527,
0.18589265644550323,
0.08525453507900238,
-0.15833984315395355,
-0.013593249954283237,
0.05433635786175728,
0.731423556804657,
-0.1149929091334343,
0.08815384656190872,
0.4706631600856781,
-0.044517237693071365,
-0.28003978729248047,
-0.2549556493759155,
0.03419828787446022,
-0.36460450291633606,
-0.024447403848171234,
0.09803996235132217,
-0.3667104244232178,
-0.560265064239502,
0.05878591537475586,
0.2648243010044098,
-0.8226220011711121,
-0.08112459629774094,
0.5001754760742188,
-0.2832867503166199,
0.1302666962146759,
-0.36500075459480286,
-0.21876883506774902,
0.14154408872127533,
0.5544134378433228,
0.009448200464248657,
0.2772772014141083,
0.36317336559295654,
0.07984624058008194,
-0.19658155739307404,
0.5436457395553589,
-0.24979904294013977,
-0.27206262946128845,
0.30435749888420105,
-0.2262401133775711,
-0.5861843824386597,
0.21438059210777283,
-0.7888444066047668,
-0.11466566473245621,
-0.35505056381225586,
-0.3538306951522827,
-0.5534415245056152,
0.2318882942199707,
0.054733265191316605,
-0.30654293298721313,
-0.5023931264877319,
0.3299776315689087,
0.17991216480731964,
-0.14027579128742218,
0.09890519827604294,
0.3492274582386017,
-0.007759519387036562,
-0.14372530579566956,
-0.1467370241880417,
0.9405340552330017,
-0.3475200831890106,
0.07359092682600021,
-0.21162280440330505,
1.2825912237167358,
0.06357415020465851,
0.29672926664352417,
-0.04103431850671768,
0.10400792211294174,
-0.11491965502500534,
0.4079115688800812,
0.7889328598976135,
-0.09662935137748718,
-0.2111036777496338,
-0.6572741270065308,
0.2873319685459137,
0.15331490337848663,
-0.10488758236169815,
-0.395255446434021,
0.23345749080181122,
-0.3954341411590576,
-0.04159168154001236,
0.4313729703426361,
0.07169076055288315,
0.8130305409431458,
0.011954241432249546,
-0.07899551093578339,
-0.4834921061992645,
0.34620338678359985,
-0.38517293334007263,
0.3440376818180084,
-0.25184789299964905,
0.2519397437572479,
-0.2725791931152344,
0.15582866966724396,
0.402466744184494,
-0.12161649763584137,
0.3784010708332062,
0.27084410190582275,
-0.24411924183368683,
-0.22009044885635376,
0.29441094398498535,
-0.45313161611557007,
-0.6749406456947327,
0.3666768968105316,
0.4031349718570709,
-0.6836334466934204,
0.3658415377140045,
-0.17356547713279724,
0.6341933012008667,
-0.034321725368499756,
-0.10135862231254578,
-0.5838343501091003,
-0.11308592557907104,
0.22548839449882507
] |
Subsets and Splits
No saved queries yet
Save your SQL queries to embed, download, and access them later. Queries will appear here once saved.